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diff --git a/old/50710.txt b/old/50710.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 6c319e1..0000000 --- a/old/50710.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,40699 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook, Cassell's History of England, Vol. II (of 8), -by Anonymous - - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - - -Title: Cassell's History of England, Vol. II (of 8) - From the Wars of the Roses to the Great Rebellion - - -Author: Anonymous - - - -Release Date: December 17, 2015 [eBook #50710] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII) - - -***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CASSELL'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND, VOL. -II (OF 8)*** - - -E-text prepared by Chris Curnow, Jane Robins, and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made -available by Internet Archive (https://archive.org) - - - -Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this - file which includes the numerous original illustrations. - See 50710-h.htm or 50710-h.zip: - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/50710/50710-h/50710-h.htm) - or - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/50710/50710-h.zip) - - - Images of the original pages are available through - Internet Archive. See - https://archive.org/details/cassellshistoryo02londuoft - - -Transcriber's note: - - Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). - - - - - -CASSELL'S ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF ENGLAND - - -CASSELL'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND - -From the Wars of the Roses to the Great Rebellion - -With Numerous Illustrations, Including Coloured and Rembrandt Plates - -VOL. II - -The King's Edition - - - - - - - -Cassell and Company, Limited -London, New York, Toronto and Melbourne -MCMIX - -All Rights Reserved - - - - -CONTENTS - - - CHAPTER I. - - WARS OF THE ROSES. PAGE - - Cade's Rebellion--York comes over from Ireland--His Claims - and the Unpopularity of the Reigning Line--His First - Appearance in Arms--Birth of the Prince of Wales--York made - Protector--Recovery of the King--Battle of St. Albans--York's - second Protectorate--Brief Reconciliation of Parties--Battle of - Blore Heath--Flight of the Yorkists--Battle of Northampton--York - Claims the Crown--The Lords Attempt a Compromise--Death of York - at Wakefield--Second Battle of St. Albans--The Young Duke of York - Marches on London--His Triumphant Entry 1 - - - CHAPTER II. - - REIGN OF EDWARD IV. - - The Battle of Towton--Edward's Coronation--Henry escapes to - Scotland--The Queen seeks aid in France--Battle of Hexham--Henry - made Prisoner--Confined in the Tower--Edward marries Lady - Elizabeth Grey--Advancement of her Relations--Attacks on the - Family of the Nevilles--Warwick negotiates with France--Marriage - of Margaret, the King's Sister, to the Duke of Burgundy--Marriage - of the Duke of Clarence with a Daughter of Warwick--Battle of - Banbury--Rupture between the King and his Brother--Rebellion of - Clarence and Warwick--Clarence and Warwick flee to France--Warwick - proposes to restore Henry VI.--Marries Edward, Prince of Wales, - to his Daughter, Lady Ann Neville--Edward IV.'s reckless - Dissipation--Warwick and Clarence invade England--Edward - expelled--His return to England--Battle of Barnet--Battle - of Tewkesbury, and ruin of the Lancastrian Cause--Rivalry - of Clarence and Gloucester--Edward's Futile Intervention in - Foreign Politics--Becomes a Pensioner of France--Death of - Clarence--Expedition to Scotland--Death and Character of the King - 17 - - - CHAPTER III. - - EDWARD V. AND RICHARD III. - - Edward V. proclaimed--The Two Parties of the Queen and of - Gloucester--Struggle in the Council--Gloucester's Plans--The Earl - Rivers and his Friends imprisoned--Gloucester secures the King and - conducts him to London--Indignities to the young King--Execution - of Lord Hastings--A Base Sermon at St. Paul's Cross--Gloucester - pronounces the two young Princes illegitimate--The Farce at - the Guildhall--Gloucester seizes the Crown--Richard crowned - in London and again at York--Buckingham revolts against - him--Murder of the two Princes--Henry of Richmond--Failure - of Buckingham's Rising--Buckingham beheaded--Richards title - confirmed by Parliament--Queen Dowager and her Daughters quit the - Sanctuary--Death of Richard's Son and Heir--Proposes to Marry his - Niece, Elizabeth of York--Richmond lands at Milford Haven--His - Progress--The Troubles of Richard--The Battle of Bosworth--The - Fallen Tyrant--End of the Wars of the Roses 46 - - - CHAPTER IV. - - PROGRESS OF THE NATION IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. - - The Study of Latin and Greek--Invention of Printing--Caxton--New - Schools and Colleges--Architecture, Military, Ecclesiastical, - and Domestic--Sculpture, Painting, and Gilding--The Art of - War--Commerce and Shipping--Coinage 64 - - - CHAPTER V. - - REIGN OF HENRY VII. - - Henry's Defective Title--Imprisonment of the Earl of Warwick--The - King's Title to the Throne--His Marriage--Love Rising--Lambert - Simnel--Henry's prompt Action--Failure of the Rebellion--The - Queen's Coronation--The Act of Maintenance--Henry's Ingratitude - to the Duke of Brittany--Discontent in England--Expedition to - France and its Results--Henry's Second Invasion--Treaty of - Etaples--Perkin Warbeck--His Adventures in Ireland, France, - and Burgundy--Henry's Measures--Descent on Kent--Warbeck in - Scotland--Invasion of England--The Cornish Rising--Warbeck - quits Scotland--He lands in Cornwall--Failure of the - Rebellion--Imprisonment of Warbeck and his subsequent - Execution--European Affairs--Marriages of Henry's Daughter and - Son--Betrothal of Catherine and Prince Henry--Henry's Matrimonial - Schemes--Royal Exactions--A Lucky Capture--Henry proposes for - Joanna--His Death 76 - - - CHAPTER VI. - - REIGN OF HENRY VIII. - - The King's Accession--State of Europe--Henry and Julius - II.--Treaty between England and Spain--Henry is duped by - Ferdinand--New Combinations--Execution of Suffolk--Invasion of - France--Battle of Spurs--Invasion of England by the Scots--Flodden - Field--Death of James of Scotland--Louis breaks up the Holy - League--Peace with France--Marriage and Death of Louis XII.--Rise - of Wolsey--Affairs in Scotland--Francis I. in Italy--Death of - Maximilian--Henry a Candidate for the Empire--Election of - Charles--Field of the Cloth of Gold--Wolsey's Diplomacy--Failure - of his Candidature for the Papacy--The Emperor in London 102 - - - CHAPTER VII. - - REIGN OF HENRY VIII. (_continued_). - - The War with France--The Earl of Surrey Invades that Country--Sir - Thomas More elected Speaker--Henry and Parliament--Revolt - of the Duke of Bourbon--Pope Adrian VI. dies--Clement VII. - elected--Francis I. taken Prisoner at the Battle of Pavia--Growing - Unpopularity of Wolsey--Change of Feeling at the English - Court--Treaty with France--Francis I. regains his liberty--Italian - League, including France and England, established against the - Emperor--Fall of the Duke of Bourbon at the Siege of Rome--Sacking - of Rome, and Capture of the Pope--Appearance of Luther--Henry - writes against the German Reformer--Henry receives from the - Pope the style and Designation of "Defender of the Faith"--Anne - Boleyn--Henry applies to the Pope for a Divorce from the - Queen--The Pope's Dilemma--War declared against Spain--Cardinal - Campeggio arrives in England to decide the Legality of Henry's - Marriage with Catherine--Trial of the Queen--Henry's Discontent - with Wolsey--Fall of Wolsey--His Banishment from Court and - Death--Cranmer's advice regarding the Divorce--Cromwell cuts the - Gordian Knot--Dismay of the Clergy--The King declared Head of the - Church in England--The King's Marriage with Anne Boleyn--Cranmer - made Archbishop--The Pope Reverses the Divorce--Separation of - England from Rome 130 - - - CHAPTER VIII. - - REIGN OF HENRY VIII. (_continued_). - - The Maid of Kent and Her Accomplices--Act of Supremacy and - Consequent Persecutions--The "Bloody Statute"--Deaths of Fisher - and More--Suppression of the Smaller Monasteries--Trial and Death - of Anne Boleyn--Henry Marries Jane Seymour--Divisions in the - Church--The Pilgrimage of Grace--Birth of Prince Edward--Death - of Queen Jane--Suppression of the Larger Monasteries--The - Six Articles--Judicial Murders--Persecution of Cardinal - Pole--Cromwell's Marriage Scheme--Its Failure and his Fall 158 - - - CHAPTER IX. - - REIGN OF HENRY VIII. (_concluded_). - - Divorce of Anne of Cleves--Catherine Howard's Marriage and - Death--Fresh Persecutions--Welsh Affairs--The Irish Insurrection - and its Suppression--Scottish Affairs--Catholic Opposition - to Henry--Outbreak of War--Battle of Solway Moss--French and - English Parties in Scotland--Escape of Beaton--Triumph of the - French Party--Treaty between England and Germany--Henry's Sixth - Marriage--Campaign in France--Expedition against Scotland--Capture - of Edinburgh--Fresh Attempt on England--Cardinal Beaton and - Wishart--Death of the Cardinal--Struggle between the two Parties - in England--Death of Henry 183 - - - CHAPTER X. - - REIGN OF EDWARD VI. - - Accession of Edward VI.--Hertford's Intrigues--He becomes Duke - of Somerset and Lord Protector--War with Scotland--Battle of - Pinkie--Reversal of Henry's Policy--Religious Reforms--Ambition - of Lord Seymour of Sudeley--He marries Catherine Parr--His - Arrest and Death--Popular Discontents--Rebellion in - Devonshire and Cornwall--Ket's Rebellion in Norfolk--Warwick - Suppresses it--Opposition to Somerset--His Rapacity--Fall - of Somerset--Disgraceful Peace with France--Persecution of - Romanists--Somerset's Efforts to regain Power--His Trial and - Execution--New Treason Law--Northumberland's Schemes for Changing - the Succession--Death of Edward 204 - - - CHAPTER XI. - - REIGN OF MARY. - - Proclamation of Lady Jane Grey--Mary's - Resistance--Northumberland's Failure--Mary is Proclaimed--The - Advice of Charles V.--Execution of Northumberland--Restoration - of the Roman Church--Proposed Marriage with Philip of - Spain--Consequent Risings throughout England--Wyatt's - Rebellion--Execution of Lady Jane Grey--Imprisonment of - Elizabeth--Marriage of Philip and Mary--England Accepts the Papal - Absolution--Persecuting Statutes Re-enacted--Martyrdom of Rogers, - Hooper, and Taylor--Di Castro's Sermon--Sickness of Mary--Trials - of Ridley, Latimer, and Cranmer--Martyrdom of Ridley and - Latimer--Confession and Death of Cranmer--Departure of Philip--The - Dudley Conspiracy--Return of Philip--War with France--Battle of - St. Quentin--Loss of Calais--Death of Mary 221 - - - CHAPTER XII. - - REIGN OF ELIZABETH. - - Accession of Elizabeth--Sir William Cecil--The Coronation--Opening - of Parliament--Ecclesiastical Legislation--Consecration of - Parker--Elizabeth and Philip--Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis--Affairs - in Scotland--The First Covenant--Attitude of Mary of Guise--Riot - at Perth--Outbreak of Hostilities--The Lords of the Congregation - apply to England--Elizabeth hesitates--Siege of Leith--Treaty - of Edinburgh--Return of Mary to Scotland--Murray's Influence - over her--Beginning of the Religious Wars in France--Elizabeth - sends Help to the Huguenots--Peace of Amboise--English Disaster - at Havre--Peace with France--The Earl of Leicester--Project of - his Marriage with Mary--Lord Darnley--Murder of Rizzio--Birth - of Mary's Son--Murder of Darnley--Mary and Bothwell--Carberry - Hill--Mary in Lochleven--Abdicates in favour of her Infant - Son--Mary's Escape from Lochleven--Defeated at Langside--Her - Escape into England 246 - - - CHAPTER XIII. - - REIGN OF ELIZABETH (_continued_). - - Elizabeth Determines to Imprison Mary--The Conference at - York--It is Moved to London--The Casket Letters--Mary is sent - Southwards--Remonstrances of the European Sovereigns--Affairs - in the Netherlands--Alva is sent Thither--Elizabeth Aids the - Insurgents--Proposed Marriage between Mary and Norfolk--The - Plot is Discovered--Rising in the North--Its Suppression--Death - of the Regent Murray--Its Consequences in Scotland--Religious - Persecutions--Execution of Norfolk--Massacre of St. - Bartholomew--Siege of Edinburgh Castle--War in France--Splendid - Defence of La Rochelle--Death of Charles IX.--Religious War in the - Netherlands--Rule of Don John--The Anjou Marriage--Deaths of Anjou - and of William the Silent 274 - - - CHAPTER XIV. - - REIGN OF ELIZABETH (_continued_). - - Affairs of Ireland: Shane O'Neil's Rebellion--Plantation of - Ulster--Spanish Descent on Ireland--Desmond's Rebellion--Religious - Conformity--Campian and Parsons--The Anabaptists--Affairs - of Scotland--Death of Morton--Success of the Catholics in - Scotland--The Raid of Ruthven--Elizabeth's Position--Throgmorton's - Plot--Association to Protect Elizabeth--Mary removed - to Tutbury--Support of the Protestant Cause on the - Continent--Leicester in the Netherlands--Babington's Plot--Trial - of Mary--Her Condemnation--Hesitation of Elizabeth--Execution of - Mary 295 - - - CHAPTER XV. - - REIGN OF ELIZABETH (_concluded_). - - State of Europe on the Death of Mary--Preparations of Philip - of Spain--Exploits of English Sailors--Drake Singes the King - of Spain's Beard--Preparations against the Armada--Loyalty of - the Roman Catholics--Arrival of the Armada in the Channel--Its - Disastrous Course and Complete Destruction--Elizabeth at - Tilbury--Death of Leicester--Persecution of the Puritans and - Catholics--Renewed Expeditions against Spain--Accession of Henry - of Navarre to the French Throne--He is helped by Elizabeth--Essex - takes Cadiz--His Quarrels with the Cecils--His Second Expedition - and Rupture with the Queen--Troubles in Ireland--Essex appointed - Lord-Deputy--His Failure--The Essex Rising--Execution of - Essex--Mountjoy in Ireland--The Debate on Monopolies--Victory of - Mountjoy--Weakness of Elizabeth--Her last Illness and Death 313 - - - CHAPTER XVI. - - THE PROGRESS OF THE NATION IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. - - The Tudors and the Nation--The Church--Population and - Wealth--Royal Prerogative--Legislation of Henry VIII.--The Star - Chamber--Beneficial Legislation--Treason Laws--Legislation - of Edward and Mary--Elizabeth's Policy--Religion and - the Church--Sketch of Ecclesiastical History under the - Tudors--Literature, Science, and Art--Greatness of the - Period--Foundation of Colleges and Schools--Revival of - Learning--Its Temporary Decay--Prose Writers of the Period--The - Poets--Scottish Bards--Music--Architecture--Painting and - Sculpture--Furniture and Decorations--Arms and Armour--Costumes, - Coins, and Coinage--Ships, Commerce, Colonies, and - Manufactures--Manners and Customs--Condition of the People 342 - - - CHAPTER XVII. - - REIGN OF JAMES I. - - The Stuart Dynasty--Hopes and Fears caused by the Accession of - James--The King enters England--His Progress to London--Lavish - Creation of Peers and Knights--The Royal Entrance into the - Metropolis--The Coronation--Popularity of Queen Anne--Ravages - of the Plague--The King Receives Foreign Embassies--Rivalry - of the Diplomatists of France and Spain--Discontent of - Raleigh, Northumberland, and Cobham--Conspiracies against - James--"The Main" and "The Bye"--Trials of the Conspirators--The - Sentences--Conference with Puritans--Parliament of - 1604--Persecution of Catholics and Puritans--Gunpowder - Plot--Admission of Fresh Members--Delays and Devices--The - Letter to Lord Mounteagle--Discovery of the Plot--Flight of the - Conspirators--Their Capture and Execution--New Penal Code--James's - Correspondence with Bellarmine--Cecil's attempts to get - Money--Project of Union between England and Scotland--The King's - Collisions with Parliament--Insurrection of the Levellers--Royal - Extravagance and Impecuniosity--Fresh Disputes with Parliament and - Assertions of the Prerogative--Death of Cecil--Story of Arabella - Stuart--Death of Prince Henry 404 - - - CHAPTER XVIII. - - REIGN OF JAMES I (_concluded_). - - Reign of Favourites--Robert Carr--His Marriage--Death of - Overbury--Venality at Court--The Addled Parliament--George - Villiers--Fall of Somerset--Disgrace of Coke--Bacon becomes - Lord Chancellor--Position of England Abroad--The Scottish - Church--Introduction of Episcopacy--Andrew Melville--Visit - of James to Scotland--The Book of Sports--Persecution of the - Irish Catholics--Examination into Titles--Rebellion of the - Chiefs--Plantation of Ulster--Fresh Confiscations--Quarrel - between Bacon and Coke--Prosperity of Buckingham--Raleigh's - Last Voyage--His Execution--Beginning of the Thirty Years' - War--Indecision of James--Despatch of Troops to the - Palatinate--Parliament of 1621--Impeachment of Bacon--His - Fall--Floyd's Case--James's Proceedings during the - Recess--Dissolution of Parliament--Reasons for the Spanish - Match--Charles and Buckingham go to Spain--The Match is Broken - Off--Punishment of Bristol--Popularity of Buckingham--Change of - Foreign Policy--Marriage of Charles and Henrietta Maria--Death - of James 448 - - - CHAPTER XIX. - - REIGN OF CHARLES I. - - Accession of Charles--His Marriage--Meeting of Parliament--Loan - of Ships to Richelieu--Dissolution of Parliament--Failure of - the Spanish Expedition--Persecution of the Catholics--The - Second Parliament--It appoints three Committees--Impeachment - of Buckingham--Parliament dissolved to save him--Illegal - Government--High Church Doctrines--Rupture with France--Disastrous - Expedition to Rhe--The Third Parliament--The Petition of - Right--Resistance and Final Surrender of Charles--Parliament - Prorogued--Assassination of Buckingham--Fall of La - Rochelle--Parliament Reassembles and is Dissolved--Imprisonment - of Offending Members--Government without Parliament--Peace - with France and Spain--Gustavus Adolphus in Germany--Despotic - Proceedings of Charles and Laud 508 - - - CHAPTER XX. - - Reign of Charles I (_continued_). - - Visit of Charles to Scotland--Laud and the Papal See--His - Ecclesiastical Measures--Punishment of Prynne, Bastwick, and - Burton--Disgrace of Williams--Ship-money--Resistance of John - Hampden--Wentworth in the North--Recall of Falkland from - Ireland--Wentworth's Measures--Inquiry into Titles--Prelacy - Riots in Edinburgh--Jenny Geddes's Stool--The Tables--Renewal - of the Covenant--Charles makes Concessions--The General - Assembly--Preparations for War--Charles at York--Leslie at - Dunse Hill--A Conference held--Treaty of Berwick--Arrest of - Loudon--Insult from the Dutch--Wentworth in England--The Short - Parliament--Riots in London--Preparations of the Scots--Mutiny in - the English Army--Invasion of England--Treaty of Ripon--Meeting of - the Long Parliament--Impeachment of Strafford--His Trial--He is - abandoned by Charles--His Execution--The King's Visit to - Scotland 550 - -[Illustration: DANDY OF THE TIME OF CHARLES I. - -(_From a Broadside, dated 1646._)] - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - - PAGE - - Dandy of the Time of Charles I. IX - - Eltham Palace, from the North-east 1 - - The Duke of York Challenged to Mortal Combat 5 - - View in Luebeck: The Church of St. Aegidius 9 - - Clifford's Tower: York Castle 12 - - Rutland beseeching Clifford to spare his Life 13 - - The Quarrel in the Temple Gardens 17 - - Edward IV. 20 - - Dunstanburgh Castle 21 - - Great Seal of Edward IV. 25 - - Gold Rose Noble of Edward IV. 28 - - Preaching at St. Paul's Cross 29 - - Battle of Barnet: Death of the King-maker 33 - - Burial of King Henry 37 - - Louis XI. and the Herald 41 - - St. Andrews, from the Pier 45 - - Great Seal of Edward V. 48 - - Edward V. 49 - - The Tower of London: Bloody and Wakefield Towers 52 - - Great Seal of Richard III. 53 - - The Princes in the Tower 56 - - Richard III. 57 - - Richard III. at the Battle of Bosworth 61 - - Facsimile of Caxton's Printing in the "Dictes and Sayings - of Philosophers," (1477) 65 - - Earl Rivers Presenting Caxton to Edward IV. 65 - - The Quadrangle, Eton College 68 - - Interior of King's College Chapel, Cambridge 69 - - Street in London in the Fifteenth Century 73 - - Cannon of the End of the Fifteenth Century 75 - - Great Seal of Henry VII. 77 - - Henry VII. 80 - - The Last Stand of Schwarz and his Germans 81 - - Penny of Henry VII. Angel of Henry VII. Noble of Henry VII. - Sovereign of Henry VII. 85 - - Stirling Castle 89 - - St. Michael's Mount, Cornwall 92 - - Lady Catherine Gordon before Henry VII. 93 - - The Byward Tower, Tower of London 97 - - King Henry's Departure from Henningham Castle 100 - - Henry VII.'s Chapel, Westminster Abbey 101 - - Great Seal of Henry VIII. 105 - - Meeting of Henry and the Emperor Maximilian 108 - - Henry and the captured French Officers 109 - - Edinburgh after Flodden 113 - - Archbishop Warham 117 - - Hampton Court Palace 121 - - Henry VIII. 125 - - Great Ship of Henry VIII. 129 - - Stirling, from the Abbey Craig 132 - - Cardinal Wolsey 133 - - Silver Groat of Henry VIII. Gold Crown of Henry VIII. - George Noble of Henry VIII. 136 - - Pound Sovereign of Henry VIII. Double Sovereign of - Henry VIII. 137 - - Surrender of Francis on the Battle-field of Pavia 141 - - Martin Luther 145 - - The Trial of Queen Catherine 149 - - The Dismissal of Wolsey 153 - - The Tower of London: Sketch in the Gardens 157 - - Sir Thomas More 160 - - The Parting of Sir Thomas More and his Daughter 161 - - Anne Boleyn 165 - - Anne Boleyn's Last Farewell of her Ladies 168 - - St. Peter's Chapel, Tower Green, London, where Anne - Boleyn was Buried 169 - - The Pilgrimage of Grace 173 - - Gateway of Kirkham Priory 176 - - Beauchamp Tower, and Place of Execution within the - Tower of London 177 - - Thomas Cromwell, Earl of Essex 181 - - Catherine Howard being conveyed to the Tower 185 - - Capture of the Fitzgeralds 188 - - The First Levee of Mary Queen of Scots 192 - - View in St. Andrews: North Street 193 - - Francis I. 197 - - The Assassination of Cardinal Beaton 201 - - Edward VI. 205 - - Great Seal of Edward VI. 209 - - The Royal Herald in Ket's Camp 212 - - Old Somerset House, London 213 - - The Duke of Somerset 217 - - Silver Crown of Edward VI. 219 - - Sixpence of Edward VI. Shilling of Edward VI. Pound - Sovereign of Edward VI. Triple Sovereign of Edward VI. 220 - - Queen Mary and the State Prisoners in the Tower 221 - - Great Seal of Philip and Mary 224 - - View from the Constable's Garden, Tower of London 225 - - Old London Bridge, with Nonsuch Palace 229 - - Lady Jane Grey on her way to the Scaffold 233 - - Archbishop Cranmer 237 - - The Place of Martyrdom, Old Smithfield 240 - - Mary I. 241 - - The Hotel de Ville and Old Lighthouse, Calais 244 - - Shilling of Philip and Mary. Real of Mary I. 245 - - Elizabeth's Public Entry into London 249 - - Elizabeth 252 - - Autograph of Elizabeth 253 - - Mar's Work, Stirling 257 - - Great Seal of Elizabeth 260 - - Mary, Queen of Scots 261 - - The Murder of Rizzio 265 - - Holyrood Palace, Edinburgh 269 - - Mary Signing the Deed of Abdication in Lochleven Castle 273 - - Lord Burleigh 276 - - Farthing of Elizabeth. Halfpenny of Elizabeth. Penny - of Elizabeth. Twopence of Elizabeth. Half-crown - of Elizabeth. Half-sovereign of Elizabeth 277 - - The Duke of Norfolk's Interview with Elizabeth 281 - - The Regent Murray 284 - - High Street, Linlithgow 285 - - Kenilworth Castle 289 - - The House of the English Ambassador during the Massacre - of St. Bartholomew 293 - - Murder of the Earl of Desmond 297 - - The Earl of Arran accusing Morton of the Murder of Darnley 300 - - Dumbarton Rock, with view of Castle 301 - - The Earl of Leicester 305 - - Trial of Mary Queen of Scots in Fotheringay Castle 309 - - Mary Queen of Scots receiving Intimation of her Doom 312 - - Sir Francis Drake 317 - - The Hoe, Plymouth 320 - - The Armada in Sight 321 - - Philip II. 325 - - Beauchamp Tower, Warders' Houses, and Yeoman Gaolers' - Lodgings: Tower of London 329 - - The Quarrel between Elizabeth and the Earl of Essex 332 - - The Earl of Essex 333 - - Lord Grey and his Followers Attacking the Earl of - Southampton 337 - - Elizabeth's Promenade on Richmond Green 340 - - Richmond Palace 341 - - Town and Country Folk of Elizabeth's Reign 345 - - State Trial in Westminster Hall in the Time of Elizabeth 349 - - John Knox 353 - - Reduced Facsimile of the Title-page of the Great Bible, - also called Cromwell's Bible 357 - - Christ's Hospital, London 361 - - Latimer Preaching before Edward VI. 364 - - Roger Ascham's Visit to Lady Jane Grey 365 - - Edmund Spenser 369 - - The House at Stratford-on-Avon in which Shakespeare was Born 373 - - Shakespeare 376 - - The Acting of one of Shakespeare's Plays in the Time of - Queen Elizabeth 377 - - Queen Elizabeth's Cither and Music-book 379 - - Holland House, Kensington 380 - - The Great Court of Kirby Hall, Northamptonshire 381 - - Entrance from the Courtyard of Burleigh House, Stamford 383 - - Elizabeth's Drawing-room, Penshurst Place 384 - - Soldiers of the Tudor Period 385 - - The Wedding of Jack of Newbury: The Bride's Procession 389 - - Ships of Elizabeth's Time 393 - - The First Royal Exchange, London (Founded by Sir Thomas - Gresham) 396 - - Sir Thomas Gresham 397 - - The Frolic of My Lord of Misrule 401 - - Punishment of the Stocks 403 - - James I. 405 - - St. Thomas's Tower and Traitor's Gate, Tower of London 409 - - Sir Walter Raleigh 412 - - The Dissenting Divines Presenting their Petition to James 413 - - The Old Palace, Westminster, in the time of Charles I. 417 - - Great Seal of James I. 420 - - Guy Fawkes's Cellar under Parliament House 421 - - Lord Monteagle and the Warning Letter about the Gunpowder - Plot 425 - - Arrest of Guy Fawkes 428 - - Pound Sovereign of James I. Unit or Laurel of James I. - (Gold). Spur Rial of James I. (Gold). - Thistle Crown of James I. (Gold) 432 - - Sir Robert Cecil, afterwards Earl of Salisbury 433 - - Shilling of James I. Crown of James I. 436 - - James and his Courtiers setting out for the Hunt 437 - - The Star Chamber 441 - - Flight of the Lady Arabella Stuart 444 - - Notre Dame, Caudebec 445 - - Sir Francis Bacon (Viscount St. Albans) 449 - - The Banqueting House, Whitehall 452 - - Greenwich Palace in the time of James I. 456 - - Sir Edward Coke 457 - - Andrew Melville before the Scottish Privy Council 461 - - Keeping Sunday, according to King James's Book of Sports 465 - - Parliament House, Dublin, in the Seventeenth Century 469 - - Sir Francis Bacon waiting an Audience of Buckingham 472 - - Arrest of Sir Walter Raleigh 476 - - Sir Walter Raleigh before the Judges 477 - - The Franzensring, Vienna 481 - - Interview between Bacon and the Deputation from the Lords 484 - - George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham 485 - - The Fleet Prison 489 - - Public Reception of Prince Charles in Madrid 493 - - Prince Charles's Farewell of the Infanta 497 - - The Royal Palace, Madrid 500 - - The Ladies of the French Court and the Portrait of - Prince Charles 504 - - Henrietta Maria 505 - - Great Seal of Charles I. 509 - - Charles welcoming his Queen to England 512 - - Charles I. 513 - - Reception of Viscount Wimbledon at Plymouth 516 - - York House (The Duke of Buckingham's Mansion) 517 - - Trial of Buckingham 521 - - Interior of the Banqueting House, Whitehall 525 - - Sir John Eliot 529 - - Assassination of the Duke of Buckingham 533 - - Tyburn in the time of Charles I. 537 - - Three Pound Piece of Charles I. Broad of Charles I. - Briot Shilling of Charles I. 540 - - John Selden 541 - - Scene in the House of Commons: The Speaker Coerced 545 - - Interior of Old St. Paul's 549 - - Dunblane 552 - - Archbishop Laud 553 - - John Lilburne on the Pillory 557 - - The Birmingham Tower, Dublin Castle 561 - - Sir Thomas Wentworth (Earl of Strafford) 564 - - The People Signing the Covenant in St. Giles's Church, - Edinburgh 568 - - St. Giles's Church, Edinburgh, in the 17th Century 569 - - The Old College, Glasgow, in the 17th Century 573 - - Charles and the Scottish Commissioners 577 - - John Hampden 581 - - Guildhall, London, in the time of Charles I. 585 - - Advance of the Covenanters across the Border into England 589 - - John Pym 592 - - Arrest of the Earl of Strafford 593 - - Westminster Hall and Palace Yard in the time of Charles I. 597 - - Charles Signing the Commission of Assent to Strafford's - Attainder 601 - - The Old Parliament House, Edinburgh 604 - - The Marquis of Montrose 605 - - - - -LIST OF PLATES - - - DEPARTURE OF ENGLISH AND FRENCH FROM GENOA IN 1390 TO - CHASTISE THE BARBARY CORSAIRS. - (_From the Froissart MS. in the British Museum_) _Frontispiece_ - - THE CROWN OF ENGLAND BEING OFFERED TO RICHARD, DUKE OF - GLOUCESTER, AT BAYNARD'S CASTLE, IN 1483. - (_By Sigismund Goetze_) _To face p._ 50 - - CAXTON SHOWING THE FIRST SPECIMEN OF HIS PRINTING TO KING - EDWARD IV., AT THE ALMONRY, WESTMINSTER. - (_By Daniel Maclise, R.A._) " 64 - - THE GRAND ASSAULT UPON THE TOWN OF AFRICA BY THE ENGLISH - AND FRENCH. (_From the Froissart MS. - in the British Museum_) " 72 - - FROISSART PRESENTING HIS BOOK OF LOVE POEMS TO RICHARD II., - IN 1395.--THE LANDING OF THE LADY DE COUCY AT BOULOGNE. - (_From the Froissart MS. in the British Museum_) " 74 - - CARDINAL WOLSEY GOING IN PROCESSION TO WESTMINSTER HALL. - (_By Sir John Gilbert, R.A., P.R.W.S._) " 118 - - CARDINAL WOLSEY AT LEICESTER ABBEY. (_By Sir John Gilbert, - R.A., P.R.W.S._) " 154 - - SWEETHEARTS AND WIVES. (MOSS-TROOPERS RETURNING FROM A - FORAY.) (_By S. E. Waller_) " 190 - - LADY JANE GREY'S RELUCTANCE TO ACCEPT THE CROWN OF ENGLAND. - (_By C. R. Leslie, R.A._) " 222 - - CRANMER AT TRAITORS' GATE. (_By F. Goodall, R.A._) " 226 - - QUEEN ELIZABETH. (_By F. Zucchero_) " 246 - - THE PREACHING OF JOHN KNOX BEFORE THE LORDS OF THE - CONGREGATION, 10TH JUNE, 1559. (_By Sir David Wilkie, - R.A._) " 256 - - THE INVINCIBLE ARMADA. (_By Albert Goodwin, R.W.S._) " 312 - - "THE SURRENDER": AN INCIDENT OF THE SPANISH ARMADA. - (_By Seymour Lucas, R.A._) " 322 - - A STORY OF THE SPANISH MAIN. (_By Seymour Lucas, R.A._) " 338 - - WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE. (_From the Painting known as the - Chandos Portrait, and attributed to Richard Burbage, - in the National Portrait Gallery_) " 374 - - MAP OF THE WORLD AT THE END OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY, - SHOWING THE DISCOVERIES OF BRITISH AND OTHER EXPLORERS " 394 - - THE DEPARTURE OF THE "MAYFLOWER." (_By A. W. Bayes_) " 474 - - ILLUMINATED PAGE, WITH BORDERING. (_From the Froissart MS. - in the British Museum_) " 512 - - VISIT OF CHARLES I. TO THE GUILDHALL. - (_By Solomon J. Solomon, R.A._) " 582 - - STRAFFORD GOING TO EXECUTION. (_By Paul Delaroche_) " 604 - -[Illustration: - - _From the Froissart MS. in the British Museum._ - - _Reproduced by Andre & Sleigh, Ld., Buskey, Herts._ - -DEPARTURE OF ENGLISH AND FRENCH FROM GENOA IN 1390 TO CHASTISE THE -BARBARY CORSAIRS. - -THE PERSONAGE IN THE PLACE OF HONOUR IN THE ROWING-BOAT IS BELIEVED TO -BE THE DUKE OF BOURBON. THE VESSEL IN THE CENTRE CONTAINS SEVERAL FRENCH -KNIGHTS: IN THAT ON THE LEFT IS HENRY DE BEAUFORT (A NATURAL SON OF THE -DUKE OF LANCASTER), WITH ENGLISH KNIGHTS AND SQUIRES.] - - - - -[Illustration: ELTHAM PALACE, FROM THE NORTH-EAST. (_After an Engraving -published in 1735._)] - -CASSELL'S - -ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF ENGLAND. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -THE WARS OF THE ROSES. - - Cade's Rebellion--York comes over from Ireland--His Claims - and the Unpopularity of the Reigning Line--His First - Appearance in Arms--Birth of the Prince of Wales--York made - Protector--Recovery of the King--Battle of St. Albans--York's - second Protectorate--Brief Reconciliation of Parties--Battle of - Blore Heath--Flight of the Yorkists--Battle of Northampton--York - Claims the Crown--The Lords Attempt a Compromise--Death of York - at Wakefield--Second Battle of St. Albans--The Young Duke of York - Marches on London--His Triumphant Entry. - - -Henry the Sixth and his queen were plunged into grief and consternation -at the extraordinary death of Suffolk in 1450. They saw that a powerful -party was engaged in thus defeating their attempt to rescue Suffolk -from his enemies by a slight term of exile; and they strongly suspected -that the Duke of York, though absent in his government of Ireland, was -at the bottom of it. It was more than conjectured that he entertained -serious designs of profiting by the unpopularity of the Government to -assert his claims to the crown. This ought to have made the king and -queen especially circumspect, but, so far from this being the case, -Henry announced his resolve to punish the people of Kent for the murder -of Suffolk, which had been perpetrated on their coast. The queen was -furious in her vows of vengeance. These unwise demonstrations incurred -the anger of the people, and especially irritated the inhabitants of -Kent. To add to the popular discontent, Somerset, who had lost by his -imbecility the French territories, was made minister in the place of -Suffolk, and invested with all the favour of the court. The people in -several counties threatened to rise and reform the Government; and the -opportunity was seized by a bold adventurer of the name of John Cade, -an Irishman, to attempt a revolution. He selected Kent as the quarter -more pre-eminently in a state of excitement against the prevailing -misrule, and declaring that he belonged to the royal line of Mortimer, -and was cousin to the Duke of York, he gave himself out to be the son of -Sir John Mortimer, who, on a charge of high treason, had been executed -in the beginning of this reign, without trial or evidence. The lenity -which Henry V. had always shown to the Mortimers--their title being -superior to his own, their position near the throne was of course an -element of danger--had not been imitated by Bedford and Gloucester, the -infant king's uncles, and their neglect of the forms of a regular trial -had only strengthened the opinions of the people as to the Mortimer -rights. No sooner, therefore, did Jack Cade assume this popular name, -than the people, burning with the anger of the hour against the unlucky -dynasty, flocked, to the number of 20,000, to his standard, and advanced -to Blackheath. Emissaries were sent into London to stir up the people -there, and induce them to open their gates and join the movement. As the -Government, taken by surprise, was destitute of the necessary troops on -the spot to repel so formidable a body of insurgents, it put on the same -air of moderation which Richard II. had done in Tyler's rebellion, and -many messages passed between the king and the pretended Mortimer, or, as -he also called himself, John Amend-all. - -In reply to the king's inquiry as to the cause of this assembly, Cade -sent in "The Complaints of the Commons of Kent, and the Causes of the -Assembly on Blackheath." These documents were ably and artfully drawn. -They professed the most affectionate attachment to the king, and demanded -the redress of what were universally known to be real and enormous -grievances. The wrongs were those under which the kingdom had long been -smarting--the loss of the territories in France, and the loss of the -national honour with them, through the treason and mal-administration of -the ministers; the usurpation of the Crown lands by the greedy courtiers, -and the consequent shifting of the royal expenditure to the shoulders of -the people, with the scandals, offences, and robberies of purveyance. -The "Complaints" asserted that the people of Kent had been especially -victimised and ill-used by the sheriffs and tax-gatherers, and that the -free elections of their knights of the shire had been prevented. They -declared, moreover, that corrupt men were employed at court, and the -princes of the blood and honest men kept out of power. - -Government undertook to examine into these causes of complaint, and -promised an answer; but the people soon were aware that this was only -a pretence to gain time, and that the answer would be presented at the -point of the sword. Jack Cade, therefore, sent out what he called "The -Requests of the Captain of the Great Assembly in Kent." These "Requests" -were based directly on the previous complaints, and were that the king -should renew the grants of the Crown, and so enable himself to live on -his own income, without fleecing the people; that he should dismiss all -corrupt councillors, and all the progeny of the Duke of Suffolk, and -take into his service his right trusty cousins and noble peers, the -Duke of York, now banished to Ireland, the Dukes of Exeter, Buckingham, -and Norfolk. This looked assuredly as if those who drew up those papers -for Cade were in the interest of the York party, and the more so as the -document went on to denounce the traitors who had compassed the death of -that excellent prince the Duke of Gloucester, and of their holy father -the cardinal, and who had so shamefully caused the loss of Maine, Anjou, -Normandy, and our other lands in France. The assumed murder of the -cardinal, who had died almost in public, and surrounded by the ceremonies -of the Church, was too ridiculous, and was probably thrown in to hide the -actual party at work. The "Requests" then demanded summary execution on -the detested collectors and extortioners, Crowmer, Lisle, Este, and Sleg. - -The court had now a force ready equal to that of the insurgents, and -sent it under Sir Humphrey Stafford to answer the "Requests" by cannon -and matchlock. Cade retreated to Sevenoaks, where, taking advantage of -Stafford's too hasty pursuit, with only part of his forces, he fell upon -his troops, put them to flight, killed Stafford, and, arraying himself -in the slain man's armour, advanced again to his former position on -Blackheath. - -This unexpected success threw the court into a panic. The soldiers -who had gone to Sevenoaks had gone unwillingly; and those left on -Blackheath now declared that they knew not why they should fight their -fellow-countrymen for only asking redress of undoubted grievances. -The nobles, who were at heart adverse to the present ministers, found -this quite reasonable, and the court was obliged to assume an air of -concession. The Lord Say, who had been one of Suffolk's most obsequious -instruments, and was regarded by the people as a prime agent in the -making over of Maine and Anjou, was sent to the Tower with some inferior -officers. The king was advised to disband his army, and retire to -Kenilworth; and Lord Scales, with a thousand men, undertook to defend the -Tower. Cade advanced from Blackheath, took possession of Southwark, and -demanded entrance into the city of London. - -The lord mayor summoned a council, in which the proposal was debated; -and it was concluded to offer no resistance. On the 3rd of July Cade -marched over the bridge, and took up his quarters in the heart of the -capital. He took the precaution to cut the ropes of the drawbridge with -his sword as he passed, to prevent his being caught, as in a trap; and, -maintaining strict discipline amongst his followers, he led them back -into the Borough in the evening. The next day he reappeared in the same -circumspect and orderly manner; and, compelling the lord mayor and -the judges to sit in Guildhall, he brought Lord Say before them, and -arraigned him on a charge of high treason. Say demanded to be tried by -his peers; but he was hurried away to the standard in Cheapside, and -beheaded. His son-in-law, Crowmer, sheriff of Kent, was served in the -same manner. The Duchess of Suffolk, the Bishop of Salisbury, Thomas -Daniel, and others, were accused of the like high crimes, but, luckily, -were not to be found. The bishop had already fallen at the hands of his -own tenants at Edington, in Wiltshire. - -On the third day Cade's followers plundered some of the houses of the -citizens; and the Londoners, calling in Lord Scales with his 1,000 men to -aid them, resolved that Cade should be prevented from again entering the -city. Cade received notice of this from some of his partisans, and rushed -to the bridge in the night to secure it. He found it already in the -possession of the citizens. There was a bloody battle, which lasted for -six hours, when the insurgents drew off, and left the Londoners masters -of the bridge. - -On receiving this news, the Archbishops of Canterbury and York, who were -in the Tower, determined to try the ruse which had succeeded with the -followers of Wat Tyler. They therefore sent the Bishop of Winchester to -promise redress of grievances, and a full pardon under the great seal, -for every one who should at once return to their homes. After some demur, -the terms were gratefully accepted; Cade himself embraced the offered -grace, according to the subsequent proclamation against him, dated the -10th of July; but quickly repenting of his credulity, he once more -unfurled his banner, and found a number of men ready to rejoin it. This -mere remnant of the insurgent host, however, was utterly incapable of -effecting anything against the city; they retired to Deptford, and thence -to Rochester, hoping to gather a fresh army. But the people had now -cooled; the rioters began to divide their plunder and to quarrel over it; -and Cade, seeing all was lost, and fearing that he should be seized for -the reward of 1,000 marks offered for his head, fled on horseback towards -Lewes. Disguising himself, he lurked about in secret places, till, being -discovered in a garden at Heathfield, in Kent, by Alexander Iden, the -new sheriff; he was, after a short battle, killed by Iden, and his body -carried to London. - -That the party of the Duke of York had some concern in Cade's rebellion, -the Government not only suspected, but several of Cade's followers when -brought to execution, are said to have confessed as much. But stronger -evidence of the fact is, that there was an immediate rumour that the duke -himself was preparing to cross over to England. The court at once issued -orders in the king's name, to forbid his coming, and to oppose any armed -attempt on his part. The duke defeated this scheme by appearing without -any retinue whatever, trusting to the good-will of the people. His -confidence in thus coming at once to the very court put the Government, -which had shown such suspicion of him, completely in the wrong in the eye -of the public. - -We are now on the eve of that contest for the possession of the crown, -which figures so eminently in history as the Wars of the Roses. The -accession of Henry IV., productive of very bloody consequences at the -time, had nearly been forgotten through the brilliant successes of his -son, Henry V.; but still the heirs of the true line, according to the -doctrine of lineal descent, were in existence. The Mortimers, Earls of -March, had been spared by the usurping family; and Richard, Duke of -York, was now the representative of that line. To understand clearly -how the Mortimers, and from them Richard, Duke of York, took precedence -of Henry VI., according to lineal descent, we must recollect that Henry -IV. was the son of John of Gaunt, who was the fourth son of Edward III. -On the deposition of Richard II., who was the son of the Black Prince, -the eldest son of Edward III., there was living the Earl of March, the -grandson of Lionel, the _third_ son of Edward III., who had clearly the -right to precede Henry. This right had been, moreover, recognised by -Parliament. But Henry of Lancaster, disregarding this claim, seized on -the crown by force, yet took no care to destroy the true claimant. Now, -the Duke of York, who was paternally descended from Edmund of Langley, -the fifth son of Edward III., was also maternally the lineal descendant -of Lionel, the third son through the daughter and heiress of Mortimer, -the Earl of March. By this descent he preceded the descendants of Henry -IV., and was by right of heirship the undoubted claimant of the English -crown. - -The Marches had shown no disposition whatever to assert that right, and -this had proved their safety. They had been for several generations a -particularly modest and unambitious race; and so long as the descendants -of Henry IV. had proved able or popular monarchs, their claim would -have lain in abeyance. But they were never forgotten; and now that the -imbecility and long minority of Henry VI. had created strong factions, -and disgusted the people, this claim was zealously revived. Henry IV. had -but one real and indefeasible claim to the throne--namely, that of the -election of the people, had he chosen to accept it; but this he proudly -rejected, and took his stand on his lineal descent from Edward III., -where the heirs of his uncle Lionel had entirely the advantage of him. - -The people who had favoured, and would have adopted Henry IV., had now -become alienated from the house of Lancaster, through the incapacity -of the present king, by which they had lost the whole of their ancient -possessions, as well as their conquests in France. Nothing remained but -heavy taxation and national exhaustion, as the net result of all the -wars in that kingdom. In this respect the very glory of Henry V. became -the ruin of his son. While the people complained of their poverty and -oppression in consequence of those wars, they were doubly harassed by the -factious quarrels of the king's relatives. They had attached themselves -to the Duke of Gloucester, and he had been murdered by these cliques, -and, as was generally believed, at the instigation of the queen. Queen -Margaret, indeed, completed the alienation of the people from the house -of Lancaster. She was not only French--a nation now in the worst odour -with the people of England--but through her they had lost Maine and Anjou. - -These circumstances now drew the hearts of the people as strongly -towards the Duke of York, as they had formerly been attracted to the -house of Lancaster. They began to regard him with interest, as a person -whose rights to the throne had been unjustly overlooked. He was a man -who seemed to possess much of the modest and amiable character of the -Marches. He had been recalled from France, where he was ably conducting -himself, by the influence of the queen, as was believed, and sent as -governor into Ireland, as a sort of honourable banishment. But though -treated in a manner calculated to provoke him, he had retained the -unassuming moderation of his demeanour. He had yet made no public -pretensions to the crown, and though circumstances seemed to invite him, -showed no haste to seize it. There were many circumstances, indeed, -which tended to make all parties hesitate to proceed to extremities. -True, the queen was highly unpopular, but Henry, though weak, was so -amiable, pious, and just, that the people, although groaning under the -consequences of his weakness, yet retained much affection for him. There -were also numbers of nobles of great influence who had benefited by the -long minority of the king, and who, much as they disliked the queen's -party, were afraid of being called on, in case another dynasty was -established, to yield up the valuable grants which they had obtained. - -Thus the kingdom was divided into three parties: those who took part with -Somerset and the queen, those who inclined to the Duke of York, and those -who, having benefited by the long reign of corruption, were afraid of any -change, and endeavoured to hold the balance betwixt the extreme parties. -Almost all the nobles of the North of England were zealous supporters of -the house of Lancaster, and with them went the Earl of Westmoreland, the -head of the house of Neville, though the Earls of Salisbury and Warwick, -the most influential members of the family, were the chief champions of -the cause of York. With the Duke of Somerset also followed, in support of -the crown, Henry Holland, Duke of Exeter, Stafford, Duke of Buckingham, -the Earl of Shrewsbury, and the Lords Clifford, Dudley, Scales, Audley, -and other noblemen. With the Duke of York, besides the Earls of Salisbury -and Warwick, went many of the southern houses. - -[Illustration: THE DUKE OF YORK CHALLENGED TO MORTAL COMBAT. (_See p._ -6.)] - -Such was the state of public feeling and the position of parties when -the insurrection of Cade occurred. The Duke of York had made himself -additionally popular by his conduct in Ireland. He had shown great -prudence and ability in suppressing the insurrections of the natives; -and thus made fast friends of all the English who had connections in -that island. No doubt the members of his own party used every argument -to incite the duke to assert his right to the throne, and so to free the -country from the dominance of the queen and her favourites. That it was -the general opinion that the Cade conspiracy was a direct feeler on the -part of the Yorkists, is clear from Shakespeare, who wrote so much nearer -to that day. But when York appeared upon the scene, Cade had already paid -the penalty of his outbreak. On his way to town, York, passing through -Northamptonshire, sent for William Tresham, the late Speaker of the House -of Commons, who had taken an active part in the prosecution of Suffolk. -But, on his way to the duke, Tresham was fallen upon by the men of Lord -Grey de Ruthin, and murdered. York proceeded to London, as related, and -appeared before the king, where he demanded of him to summon a Parliament -for the settlement of the disturbed affairs of the realm. Henry promised, -and York meanwhile retired to his castle at Fotheringay. - -Scarcely had York retired when Somerset arrived from France, and the -queen and Henry hailed him as a champion sent in the moment of need -to sustain the court party against the power and designs of York. But -Somerset came from the loss of France, and, therefore, loaded with an -awful weight of public odium; and with her vindictive disregard of -appearances, Queen Margaret immediately transferred to him all her old -predilection for Suffolk. When the Parliament met, the temper of the -public mind was very soon apparent. Out of doors the life of Somerset -was threatened by the mob, and his house was pillaged. In the Commons, -Young, one of the representatives of Bristol, moved that, as Henry had -no children, York should be declared his successor. This proposal seemed -to take the house by surprise, and Young was committed to the Tower. But -a bill was carried to attaint the memory of the Duke of Suffolk, and -another to remove from about the king the Duchess of Suffolk, the Duke -of Somerset, and almost all the party in power. Henry refused to accede -to these measures, any further than promising to withdraw a number of -inferior persons from the court for twelve months, during which time -their conduct might be inquired into. On this the Duchess of Suffolk -and the other persons indicted of high treason during the insurrection, -demanded to be heard in their defence, and were acquitted. - -The spirit of the opposite factions ran very high; the party of Somerset -accusing that of York of treasonable designs, and that of York declaring -that the court was plotting to destroy the duke as they had destroyed -Gloucester. York retired to his castle of Ludlow, in Shropshire, where -he was in the very centre of the Mortimer interest, and under plea -of securing himself against Somerset, he actively employed himself -in raising forces, at the same time issuing a proclamation of the -most devoted loyalty, and offering to swear fealty to the king on the -sacrament before the Bishop of Hereford and the Earl of Shrewsbury. The -court paid no attention to his professions, but an army was led by the -king against him. York, instead of awaiting the blow, took another road, -and endeavoured to reach and obtain possession of London in the king's -absence. On approaching the capital, he received a message that its gates -would be shut against him, and he then turned aside to Dartford, probably -hoping for support from the same population which had followed Cade. -The king pursued him, and encamping on Blackheath, sent the Bishops of -Ely and Winchester to demand why he was in arms. York replied that he -was in arms from no disloyal design, but merely to protect himself from -his enemies. The king told him his movements had been watched since the -murder of the Bishop of Chichester by men supposed to be in his interest, -and still more since his partisans had openly boasted of his right to -the crown; but for his own part, he himself believed him to be a loyal -subject, and his own well-beloved cousin. - -York demanded that all persons "noised or indicted of treason" should be -apprehended, committed to the Tower, and brought to trial. All this the -king, or his advisers, promised, and as Somerset was one of the persons -chiefly aimed at by York, the king gave an instant order for the arrest -and committal of Somerset, and assured York that a new council should -be summoned, in which he himself should be included, and all matters -decided by a majority. At these frank promises York expressed himself -entirely satisfied, disbanded his army, and came bareheaded to the king's -tent. What occurred, however, was by no means in accordance with the -honourable character of the king, and savoured more of the councils of -the queen. No sooner did York present himself before Henry, and begin to -enter upon the causes of complaint, than Somerset stepped from behind a -curtain, denied the assertions of York, and defied him to mortal combat. -So flagrant a breach of faith showed York that he had been betrayed. He -turned to depart in indignant resentment, but he was informed that he was -a prisoner. Somerset was urgent for his trial and execution, as the only -means of securing the permanent peace of the realm. Henry had a horror -of spilling blood; but in this instance York is said to have owed his -safety rather to the fears of the ministers than any act of grace of the -king, who was probably in no condition of mind to be capable of thinking -upon the subject. There was already a report that York's son, the Earl -of March, was on the way towards London with a strong army of Welshmen, -to liberate his father. This so alarmed the queen and council that they -agreed to set free the duke, on condition that he swore to be faithful to -the king, which he did at St. Paul's, Henry and his chief nobility being -present. York then retired to his castle of Wigmore. - -In the autumn of 1453 the queen was delivered of a son, who was called -Edward. There was a cry in the country that this was no son of the -king--a cry zealously promoted by the partisans of York--but it did not -prevent the young prince from being recognised as the heir-apparent, and -created Prince of Wales, Earl of Cornwall and Chester. But the king had -now fallen into such a state of imbecility, with periods of absolute -insanity, that those who had denied the legitimacy of his mother, Queen -Catherine, might well change their opinion; for Henry's malady seemed -to be precisely that of his reputed grandfather, Charles VI. of France. -Such was his condition, that Parliament would no longer consent to leave -him in the hands of the queen and Somerset. In the autumn the influence -of Parliament compelled the recall of York to the council; and this, as -might have been expected, was immediately followed by the committal of -Somerset to the Tower. In February Parliament recommenced its sittings, -and York appeared as lieutenant or commissioner for the king, who was -incapable of opening it in person. It had been the policy of the queen to -keep concealed the real condition of the king, but with York at the head -of affairs, this was no longer possible. The House of Lords appointed a -deputation to wait on Henry at Windsor. The Archbishop of Canterbury, -who was also Lord Chancellor, was dead; and the Lords seized upon the -occasion as the plea for a personal interview, according to ancient -custom, with the king. Twelve peers accordingly proceeded to Windsor, -and would not return without seeing the monarch. They found him in such -a state of mental alienation that, though they saw him three times, -they could perceive no mark of attention from him. They reported him -utterly incapable of transacting any business; and the Duke of York was -thereupon appointed protector, with a yearly salary of 2,000 marks. The -Lancastrian party, however, took care to define the duties and the powers -of this office, so as to maintain the rights of the king. The title of -protector was to give no authority, but merely precedence in the council, -and the command of the army in time of rebellion or invasion. It was -to be revocable at the will of the king, should he at any time recover -soundness of mind; and, in case that he remained so long incapacitated -for Government, the protectorate was to pass to the prince Edward on his -coming of age. The command at sea was entrusted to five noblemen, chosen -from the two parties; and the Government of Calais, a most important -post, was taken from Somerset, and given to York. - -With all this change, the session of Parliament appears to have been -stormy. The Duke of York had instituted an action for trespass against -Thorpe, the Speaker of the Commons, and one of the Barons of the -Exchequer, and obtained a verdict with damages to the amount of L1,000, -and Thorpe was committed to prison till he gave security for that sum, -and an equal fine to the Crown. In vain did the Commons petition for the -release of the Speaker. The Lords refused; and they were compelled to -elect a new one. Many of the Lords, not feeling themselves safe, absented -themselves from the House, and were compelled to attend only by heavy -fines. The Duke of Exeter was taken into custody, and bound to keep -the peace; and the Earl of Devonshire, a Yorkist, was accused of high -treason and tried, but acquitted. So strong was the opposition of the -court party, that even York himself was compelled to stand up and defend -himself. - -These angry commotions were but the prelude to a more decisive act. -The king was found something better, and the fact was instantly seized -on by the queen and her party to hurl York from power, and reinstate -Somerset. About Christmas the king demanded from York the resignation -of the protectorate, and immediately liberated Somerset. This was not -done without Somerset being at first held to bail for his appearance -at Westminster to answer the charges against him. But he appealed to -the council, on the ground that he had been committed without any -lawful cause; and the court party being now in the ascendant, he was -at once freed from his recognisances. The king himself seemed anxious -to reconcile the two dukes, a circumstance more convincing of his good -nature than of his sound sense--for it was an impossibility. He would not -restore the government of Calais to the Duke of Somerset, but he took it -from York and retained it in his own hands. York perceived that he had -been regularly defeated by the queen, and he retired again to his castle -of Ludlow to plan more serious measures. - -The Duke of Norfolk, the Earl of Salisbury and his son, the celebrated -Earl of Warwick, destined to acquire the name of the "King-maker," -hastened there at his summons, and it was resolved to attempt the -suppression of the court party by force of arms. They were quickly at the -head of a large force, with which they hoped to surprise the royalists. -But no sooner did the news of this approaching force reach the court, -than the king was carried forth at the head of a body of troops equal -to those of York, and a march was commenced against him. The royal army -had reached St. Albans, and on the morning of the 22nd of May, 1455, as -it was about to resume its progress, the hills bordering on the high -road were covered with the troops of York. This army marching under -the banners of the house of York, now for the first time displayed in -resistance to the sovereign, halted in a field near the town, and sent -forward a herald announcing that the three noblemen were come in all -loyalty and attachment to the king; but with a determination to remove -the Duke of Somerset from his councils, and demanding that he and his -pernicious associates should be at once delivered up to them. The -Yorkists declared that they felt this to be so absolutely necessary, that -they were resolved to destroy those enemies to the peace of the country, -or to perish themselves. An answer was returned by or for the king, "that -he would not abandon any of the lords who were faithful to him, but -rather would do battle upon it, at the peril of life and crown." - -It would have appeared that the royal army had a most decided advantage -by being in possession of the town, which was well fortified, and where -a stout resistance might have been made in the narrow streets; but, -spite of this, the superior spirit of the commanders on the side of -York triumphed over the royalists. York himself made a desperate attack -on the barriers at the entrance of the town, while Warwick, searching -the outskirts of the place, found, or was directed by some favouring -persons to a weak spot. He made his way across some gardens, burst into -the city, and came upon the royal forces where he was little expected. -Aided by this diversion, York redoubled his attack on the barriers, -and, notwithstanding their resolute defence by Lord Clifford forced an -entrance. Between the cries of "A York! a York!" "A Warwick! a Warwick!" -confusion spread amongst the king's forces, they gave way, and fled out -of the town in utter rout. The slaughter among the leaders of the royal -army was terrible. The Duke of Somerset, the Earl of Northumberland, and -Lord Clifford were slain; the king himself was wounded in the neck, the -Duke of Buckingham and Lord Dudley in the face, and the Earl of Stafford -in the arm. All these were arrow wounds, and it was plain that here again -the archers had won the day. The fall or wounds of the leaders, indeed, -settled the business, and saved the common soldiers; for though Hall -reports that 8,000, Stowe that 5,000 men fell, yet Crane, in a letter to -his cousin, John Paston, written at the time, declares that there were -only six-score, and Sir William Stonor states that only forty-eight were -buried in St. Albans. - -The king was found concealed in the house of a tanner; and there York -visited him, on his knees renewed his vows of loyal affection, and -congratulated Henry on the fall of the traitor Somerset. He then led the -king to the shrine of St. Albans, and afterwards to his apartment in the -abbey. It might have been supposed that the fallen king, being now in the -hands of York and his party, the claims of York to the crown would have -been asserted. But at this time York either had not really determined -on seizing the throne, or did not deem the public fully prepared for so -great a change. On the meeting of Parliament it was reported that York -and his friends sought only to free the king from the unpopular ministers -who surrounded him, and to redress the grievances of the nation. That -party complained--with what truth does not appear--that, on the very -morning of the battle, they had sought to explain these views and -intentions in letters, which the Duke of Somerset and Thorpe, the late -Speaker of the Commons, had withheld from his grace. The king acquitted -York, Salisbury, and Warwick of all evil intention, pronounced them good -and loyal subjects, granting them a full pardon. The peers renewed their -fealty, and Parliament was prorogued till the 12th of November. Thus -the first blood in these civil wars had been drawn at the battle of St. -Albans and all appeared restored to peace. But it was a deceitful calm; -rivers of blood were yet to flow. - -Scarcely had Parliament reassembled when it was announced that the king -had relapsed into his former condition. Both Lords and Commons refused -to proceed with business till this matter was ascertained and settled. -The Lords then requested York once more to resume the protectorate for -the good of the nation; but this time he was not to be caught in his -former snare. He professed his insufficiency for the onerous office, and -begged of them to lay its responsibilities on some more able person. He -was quite safe in this course, for he had now acquired a majority in the -council, and the office of chancellor and the Governorship of Calais -were in the hands of his two stout friends, Salisbury and Warwick. Of -course, the reply was that no one was so capable or suitable as he; and -then he expressed his willingness to accept the protectorate, but only -on condition that its revocation should not lie in the mere will of -the king, but in the king with the consent of the Lords spiritual and -temporal in Parliament assembled. The protectorate was to devolve, as -before, on the Prince of Wales, in case the malady of the king continued -so long. - -York might think that he was now secure from the machinations of the -queen, but he was deceived. This never-resting lady was at that very -moment actively preparing for his defeat; and no sooner did Parliament -meet after the Christmas recess than Henry again presented himself -in person, announcing his restoration to health, and dissolved the -protectorate. The Duke of York resigned his authority with apparent -good-will. Calais and the chancellorship passed from Salisbury and -Warwick to the friends of the queen; the whole Government was again on -its old footing. Two years passed on in apparent peace to the nation, but -in the most bitter party warfare at court. The queen and her associates -could never rest while the Duke of York and his friends were permitted to -escape punishment for the late outbreak. The relatives of Somerset and -the Earl of Northumberland, and of the other nobles slain at St. Albans, -were encouraged to demand with eagerness vengeance on the Yorkists. -Both parties surrounded themselves more and more with armed retainers, -and everything portended fresh acts of bloodshed and discord. The king -endeavoured to avert this by summoning a great council at Coventry in -1457. There the Duke of Buckingham made a formal rehearsal of all the -offences committed by York and his party; at the conclusion of which the -peers fell on their knees and entreated the king to make a declaration -that he would never more show grace to the Duke of York, or any other -person who should oppose the power of the crown or endanger the peace -of the kingdom. To this the king consented; and then the Duke of York, -Salisbury, and Warwick renewed their oaths of fealty, and all the lords -bound themselves never for the future to seek redress by arms, but only -from the justice of the sovereign. - -[Illustration: VIEW IN LUeBECK: THE CHURCH OF ST. AEGIDIUS.] - -At the close of this council, the Duke of York retired to Wigmore, -Salisbury to Middleham, and Warwick to Calais. It was soon found that, -notwithstanding all these oaths and these royal endeavours, the same -animosity was alive in the two hostile parties, and the king tried still -further the hopeless experiment of reconciliation. He prevailed on the -leaders to meet him in London. On the 26th of January, 1458, the leaders -of the York and Lancaster factions appeared in the metropolis, but they -came attended by armed retainers--the Duke of York with 140 horse, the -now Duke of Somerset with 200, and Salisbury with 400, besides fourscore -knights and esquires. York and his friends were admitted into the city, -probably as being more under the control of the authorities; for the lord -mayor, at the head of 5,000 armed citizens, undertook to maintain the -peace. The Lancastrian lords were lodged in the suburbs. Every day the -Yorkists met at the Blackfriars and the Lancastrians at the Whitefriars, -and after communicating with each other, the result was sent to the king, -who lay at Berkhampstead with several of the judges. The result of their -deliberations was this:--The king, as umpire, awarded that the Duke of -York, and the Earls of Salisbury and Warwick, should, within two years, -found a chantry for the good of the souls of the three lords slain in -battle at St. Albans, that both those who slew, and those who were slain -at that battle should be reputed faithful subjects; that the Duke of York -should pay to the dowager Duchess of Somerset and her children the sum -of 5,000, and the Earl of Warwick to the Lord Clifford 1,000 marks; and -that the Earl of Salisbury should release to Percy Lord Egremont all the -damages he had obtained against him for an assault, on condition that the -said Lord Egremont should bind himself to keep the peace for ten years. - -The next day, March 25th, the king came to town, and went to St. Paul's -in procession, followed by the whole court, the queen conducted by the -Duke of York, and the lords of each party walking arm-in-arm before -them, in token of perfect reconciliation. But real reconciliation was as -distant as ever. The causes of contention lay too deep for the efforts -of the simple and well-intentioned king, or even for the subtlest acts -of diplomacy. It was the settled strife for a crown; and swords, not -oaths, could alone decide it. The whole show was a mocking pageant. -The slightest spark might any day light up a flame which would rage -through the whole kingdom; and in a little more than a month such a -spark fell into the combustible mass. News arrived that a large fleet of -merchantmen from Luebeck had been attacked by Warwick as it passed down -the Channel, and five sail of them captured after a severe contest, and -carried into Calais. As Luebeck was a town of the Hanseatic League, that -powerful association--which was in amity with England--speedily sent -commissioners to London demanding redress. Warwick was summoned to appear -before the council; and, whilst in attendance, a quarrel arose betwixt -his followers and those of the court. Warwick believed, or feigned--to -escape out of the scrape into which he had fallen--that there was a -design upon his life. He fled to his father, Salisbury, and York, and -they resolved that their only safety lay in arms. There was a story -circulated, and thoroughly believed in by the Yorkist party, that the -queen, who never forgot or forgave an enemy, kept a register, written in -blood, of all the Yorkist chiefs, and had vowed never to rest till they -were exterminated. In fact, both parties were arrived at that pitch of -rancour which nothing could appease but the blood of their opponents. The -feud was no longer confined to the nobles and their immediate retainers; -the leaven of discord had pervaded the whole mass of the nation. The -conflicting claims had been discussed till they had penetrated into every -village, every family, into the convents of the monks, and the cottages -of the poor. One party asserted that the Duke of York was an injured -prince, driven from his hereditary right by a usurping family, and now -marked to be destroyed by them. The other contended that, though Henry -IV. had deposed Richard II., he had been the choice of the nation; that -his son had made the name of England glorious; that more than sixty -years' possession of the crown was itself sufficient warrant for its -retention; that the Duke of York had, over and over again, sworn eternal -fealty to Henry VI., which was in itself a renunciation of any claim he -might previously possess; and that, in seeking now to deprive the king of -his throne, he was a perjured and worthless man. One party argued that -York owed his life to the clemency of the king; and the other replied -that the king equally owed his to that of York, who had him in his power -at St. Albans. - -While the nation was thus heating its blood in these disputes, the heads -of the different factions were busy preparing to meet each other in the -field. The three lords spent the winter in arousing their partisans. -Warwick called around him at Calais the veterans who had fought in -Normandy and Guienne. On the other hand, the court distributed in -profusion collars of white swans, the badge of the young prince; and the -friends of the king were invited by letters, under the privy seal, to -meet him in arms at Leicester. The spring and summer had come and gone, -however, before the rival parties proceeded to actual extremities. The -finances of the court impeded its proceedings; and the Yorkist party -still averred that it had no object but its own defence and the rescue of -the Government from traitors. - -At length, on the 23rd of September, 1459, the Earl of Salisbury marched -forth from his castle of Middleham, in Yorkshire, to form a junction with -York on the borders of Wales. Lord Audley, with a force of 10,000 men, -far exceeding that of Salisbury, sought to intercept his progress at -Blore Heath in Staffordshire; but the veteran Salisbury was too subtle -for his antagonist. He pretended to fly at the sight of such unequal -numbers; and having thus seduced Audley to pass a deep glen and torrent, -he fell upon his troops when part only were over, and, throwing them into -confusion, made a dreadful slaughter of them. Some writers contend that -Salisbury had only 500 men with him; but this appears incredible, for -they left Lord Audley with 2,000 of his men dead on the field, and took -prisoner Lord Dudley, with many knights and esquires. The earl pursued -his way unmolested to Ludlow, where York lay, and where they were joined -in a few days by Warwick with his large reinforcement of veterans under -Sir John Blount and Sir Andrew Trollop. - -The king, queen, and lords of their party had assembled an army of 60,000 -men. With these they advanced to within half a mile of Ludiford, the -camp of York, near Ludlow, on the 10th of October; and Henry, after all -his experience, had the goodness, or the weakness, once more to renew -his offers of pardon and reconciliation on condition that his opponents -should submit within six days. York and his colleagues replied that they -had no reliance on his promises because those about him did not observe -them, and that the Earl of Warwick, trusting to them last year, nearly -lost his life. Yet they still protested that nothing but their own -security caused them to arm, and that they had determined not to draw -the sword against their sovereign unless they were compelled. It was -concluded by the royal party to give battle on the 13th, but they found -York posted with consummate military skill. His camp was defended by -several batteries of cannon, which played effectively on the royal ranks -as they attempted to advance. The royalists, therefore, deferred the -engagement till the next morning, and were relieved from that necessity -by Sir Andrew Trollop, who was marshal of the Yorkist army, going over -in the night with all his Calais auxiliaries to the king. Trollop had -hitherto believed the assurances of the Yorkist leaders that they sought -only Government redress, and not subversion of the throne; but something -had now opened his eyes, and, as he was a staunch royalist, he acted -accordingly. This event struck terror and confusion through the Yorkist -army. Every man was doubtful of his fellow; the confederate lords made a -hasty retreat into Wales, whence York and one of his sons passed over to -Ireland, and the rest followed Warwick, who hastened to Devonshire, and -thence escaped again to Calais. - -Nothing shows so strikingly the feeble councils of the royal camp as that -these formidable foes should have been permitted to decamp without any -pursuit. A vigorous blow at the now panic-struck enemy might for ever -have rid the king of his mortal antagonists. But Henry, always averse -from shedding blood, was, no doubt, glad of this unexpected escape from -it, and his generals were weak enough to acquiesce. The court returned -to London, and satisfied themselves with passing an act of attainder -against the Duke and Duchess of York, and their sons, the Earls of March -and Rutland, against the Earl and Countess of Salisbury, and their son -the Earl of Warwick, the Lord Clinton, and various knights and esquires. -Even this was painful to the morbidly tender mind of Henry. He reserved -to himself the right to reverse the attainder, if he thought proper, and -refused to permit the confiscation of the property of Lord Powis, and two -others who had thrown themselves on his clemency. - -Meanwhile the insurgent chiefs, though dispersed, were not crushed. York -had great popularity in Ireland; Warwick had a strong retreat in Calais. -To deprive him of this, the Duke of Somerset was appointed governor, and, -encouraged by the conduct of the Calais veterans at Ludiford, set out to -drive Warwick from that city. But he met with a very different reception -to that which he had calculated upon. He was assailed by a severe fire -from the batteries, and compelled to stand out. On making an attempt to -reach Calais from Guisnes, he found himself deserted by his sailors, who -carried his fleet into Calais, and surrendered it to their favourite -commander. Warwick stationed a sufficient force to watch Somerset in -Guisnes, and, so little did he care for him, set out with his fleet, -and dispersed two successive armaments sent to the relief of Somerset -from the ports of Kent. When this had been done, he sailed to Dublin, to -concert measures with York, and returned in safety to Calais, having met -the high-admiral, the Duke of Exeter, who at sight of him escaped into -Dartmouth. - -In the spring of 1460 the Yorkists, who had fled so rapidly from the -royal army at Ludiford, and had seemed to vanish as a mist, were again -on foot, and in a threatening attitude. They had sedulously scattered -proclamations throughout the country, still protesting that they had no -designs on the crown; that the king was so well assured of it that he -refused to ratify the act of attainder, but that he was in the hands -of the enemies of the nation. These documents concluded by saying that -the maligned lords were resolved now to prove their loyalty in the -presence of the sovereign. Following up this, Warwick landed in June, in -Kent--next to the marches of Wales the great stronghold of the house of -York. He had brought only 1,500 men with him, but he was accompanied by -Coppini, the Pope's legate, who had been sent indeed to Henry, but was -gained over by Warwick. In Kent they were joined by the Lord Cobham with -400 men; by the Archbishop of Canterbury, who had received his preferment -from York during his protectorate; and by a large number of knights and -gentlemen of the county. As he advanced towards the capital, people -flocked to him from all sides till his army amounted to 30,000, some say -40,000, men. He entered London on the 2nd of July, and, proceeding to the -convocation, prevailed on no less than five bishops to accompany him to -an interview with the king, who was lying at Coventry. The legate issued -a letter to the clergy, informing them that he had laid it before the -king; that the Yorkists demanded nothing but personal security, peaceable -enjoyment of their property, and the removal of evil counsellors. All -this was calculated to turn the credulous, or to prevent them from -swelling the forces of the court. - -[Illustration: CLIFFORD'S TOWER: YORK CASTLE. - -(_From a photograph by Frith and Co., Reigate._)] - -Henry advanced to Northampton, where he entrenched himself in a strong -camp. On arriving before it, Warwick made three successive attempts -to obtain an interview with the king, but finding it unavailing, the -legate excommunicated the royal party, and set up the papal banner in -the Yorkist camp. For this he was afterwards recalled by the Pope, -imprisoned, and degraded; but for the time it had its effect. Warwick -gave the king notice that, as he would not listen to any overtures, he -must prepare for battle at two in the afternoon on the 10th of July, -1460. The royal party made themselves certain of victory, but were this -time confounded by Lord Grey of Ruthin going over to the enemy, as Sir -Andrew Trollop had deserted the other party at Ludlow. Grey introduced -the Yorkists into the very heart of Henry's camp, and the contest was -speedily decided. Warwick ordered his followers to spare the common -soldiers, and direct their attacks against the leaders; and accordingly -of these there were slain 300 knights and gentlemen, including the -Duke of Buckingham, the Earl of Shrewsbury, and the Lords Beaumont and -Egremont. A second time Henry fell into the hands of his rebellious -subjects, but they treated him with all respect. The queen and her son -escaped into Wales, and thence into Scotland, after having been plundered -on the way by their own servants. - -[Illustration: RUTLAND BESEECHING CLIFFORD TO SPARE HIS LIFE. (_See p._ -15.)] - -The victors then marched back to London, carrying the king along with -them a captive, but with studied appearance of being still at the head of -his loving subjects. He entered the city, as in triumph, Warwick riding -bareheaded before him, carrying the sword. Writs were issued in his name, -applauding the loyalty of the very man who had made war on and seized -his person, and a Parliament was summoned for the redress of grievances, -the chief of these being the acts issued last year in the Parliament -at Coventry, attainting the Yorkist leaders, which, of course, were -abolished. This had scarcely been effected when the Duke of York arrived -from Ireland, at the head of 500 horse. He rode into Westminster, entered -the House of Lords, and advancing to the throne laid his hand on the gold -cloth, and seemed to wait as in expectance that he should be invited to -seat himself there. But no such invitation was given. To do so would -have been to act in opposition, on the part of the peers, to all the -assurances that from first to last had been made by York and his friends, -that he sought no such thing. It was now, however, the intention of York -to throw off the mask, and openly lay claim to the crown. The manner -in which the public, both aristocracy and people, had flocked to the -standard of Warwick, led him to believe that it was now safe to declare -himself; but he had himself defeated, in a great measure, his own object. -His constant assertions that he sought only reform, not the subversion -of the royal authority, his repeated oaths of fealty, had convinced all -parties, except that of his own private friends, that he was sincere in -his declarations, and they esteemed him for his honourable conduct to -the gentle and inoffensive king. When, therefore, he did declare his -intention of seizing the crown, the astonishment and disapprobation were -proportionate. - -As all remained silent when he laid his hand on the throne, he turned and -looked, as if for help, towards the assembled nobles. The Archbishop of -Canterbury, to put an end to the embarrassing dilemma, asked him if he -would not pay his respects to the king, who was in the queen's apartment. -York replied that he knew no one to whom he owed that title; that he was -subject to no man in that realm, but, under God, was himself entitled to -the sovereignty. The peers preserved a profound and discouraging silence; -and York, not finding that response which he had hoped, left the house. -It was, however, only to take possession of the palace as his hereditary -right. Thence he sent to the peers a written demand of the crown, tracing -his descent, showing its priority to that of the line of Lancaster, and -that, by every plea of right, law, and custom, the possession of the -throne centred in him. To this he requested an immediate answer. This -demand was carried by the lords to the king, who, on hearing it, said, -"My father was king: his father also was king. I have worn the crown -forty years from my cradle; you have all sworn fealty to me as your -sovereign; and your fathers have done the same to my fathers; how, then, -can my right be disputed?" - -The Lords resolved to take the matter into consideration, as if it -were a thing to be decided by evidence, without any heat or violence. -They called upon the judges to defend, to the best of their ability, -the claims of the king. But the judges objected that they were judges, -not advocates; that it was their business not to produce arguments, -but merely to decide on such as were advanced. They declared this to -be a case above the law, and only to be decided by the high court -of Parliament. The Lords then called upon the king's serjeants and -attorneys, who also endeavoured to escape from the dangerous task, but -were not permitted, their office being, in reality, to give advice to the -Crown. - -The Peers then proceeded to the discussion of this great question. They -objected to York's claims, that he had really renounced any right given -him by descent, by repeatedly swearing fealty to Henry; that the many -Acts of Parliament passed to sanction the right of the house of Lancaster -themselves were sufficient, and had authority to defeat any measure of -title; that the duke bore the arms of Edmund, the fifth son of Edward -III., and not those of Lionel, the third son, from whom he claimed, -showing that he himself held that to be his true descent. York replied -to all these arguments, but especially to that wherein he knew the main -force to lie, the effect of his own oaths. This he declared nugatory, -inasmuch as those oaths were of necessity and constraint, and, therefore, -acknowledged by all men in all ages to be utterly void. - -The result was that the Lords came to the conclusion which the power -of outward circumstances rather than their real convictions, dictated. -They attempted a compromise, which, had Henry had no issue, might have -succeeded, but which, as it went to disinherit the son of Henry, and much -more the son of Margaret, was certain to produce fresh conflicts. The -queen, whose resolute spirit would have been worthy of all admiration had -it been accompanied by a spirit of liberality and conciliation, was sure -never to acquiesce in the rejection of her own son while she could move a -limb, or raise a soldier. The verdict of the Lords was that York's claim -was just, but should not take effect during the lifetime of the present -king. The decision of the Peers was accepted by York and his two sons, -March and Rutland, who swore not to molest the king, but to maintain him -on his throne; and, on the other hand, Henry gave his assent to the Bill, -declared any attempt on the duke high treason, and settled estates on him -and his sons as the succeeding royal line. - -But Margaret of Anjou never for a moment conceded this repudiation of the -rights of her son. She upbraided Henry for his unnatural conduct, and -quitting her retreat in Scotland, appeared in the midst of her northern -friends, calling on them by every argument of loyalty to the throne, and -security to themselves, to take the field against the traitor York. The -Earl of Northumberland, the Lords Dacre, Clifford, and Neville were soon -in arms. They assembled at York; and Margaret, roused to the highest -state of indignation by the disinheriting of her son, put forth all -her powers to attach adherents to her standard. She assumed the most -fascinating affability, and lavished her caresses and her promises on all -whom she came near. She excited the jealousy of the northern barons by -depicting the bold assumption of the southern nobles, who had presumed to -give away the crown as if it were their own; and she promised to every -one unlimited plunder of the estates and property of the people south of -the Trent. These arts and allurements speedily brought 30,000 men to her -standard, which was now joined by the Earls of Somerset and Devon. - -York and Salisbury set out in haste from London to oppose this growing -force. They seem not to have been duly informed of its real strength, for -they pushed forward with only 5,000 men. They received a rude admonitory -attack at Worksop, in Nottinghamshire, on the 21st of December; but, -still advancing, York threw himself, before Christmas, into the strong -castle of Sandall. Here it was the evident policy of York to await the -arrival of his son, the Earl of March, who was collecting forces in the -marches of Wales; but either he was straitened for provisions, or was -weak enough to be influenced by the taunts of the queen, who sent him -word that it did not become the future king of England to coop himself -up in a fortress, but to dare to meet those whom he dared to depose. He -issued into the open country, in defiance of the warnings of Salisbury -and Sir David Hall, and gave battle, on the 30th of December, to the -queen's troops near Wakefield. The Duke of Somerset commanded the queen's -army. He led the main body himself, and gave the command of one wing to -the Earl of Wiltshire, and the other to Lord Clifford, ordering them to -keep concealed till the action had commenced, and then to close in upon -York. This was done with such success that York, who fell with great fury -on Somerset, found himself instantly surrounded. Two thousand of his men -were speedily slain, and the greater part of the remainder compelled -to surrender. He himself, with most of his commanders, was left dead -upon the field; the veteran Salisbury was taken, conveyed to Pontefract -Castle, with several knights and gentlemen, and there beheaded. - -When the body of York was found, his head was cut off and carried to -Queen Margaret, who rejoiced excessively at the sight, uttered most -unfeminine reproaches upon it, and ordered it to be crowned with a paper -crown in mockery, and placed upon the walls of York. Whethamstede, a -cotemporary, says that the duke was taken alive, and beheaded on the -field. At all events, Lord Clifford brought the head to the queen, stuck -upon a spear; and this ferocious nobleman, whose father was killed at the -battle of St. Albans, not satisfied with this revenge, perpetrated the -murder of York's son, Rutland, with a fell barbarity which has covered -his name with infamy. This youth, who was but about seventeen years of -age, handsome and amiable, was met by Clifford as he was endeavouring -to escape across the bridge of Wakefield in the care of his tutor, Sir -Robert Aspall. The poor boy, seeing the bloody Clifford, fell on his -knees, and entreated for mercy. The savage demanded who he was; and -Aspall, thinking to save him by the avowal, said it was the younger -son of York. Then swore Clifford--"As thy father slew mine, so will I -slay thee, and all thy kin;" and plunging the dagger into his heart, -ruthlessly bade the tutor go and tell his mother what he had done. - -The spirit of the "she-wolf of France" seemed to animate all her army -on this occasion. There was nothing but butchery, and exultation in it. -Margaret thought she had now removed the danger in destroying York. -"At this deadly blood-supping," says Hall, "there was much joy and -great rejoicing: but many laughed then that sore lamented after--as the -queen herself and her son; and many were glad of other men's deaths, -not knowing that their own were near at hand, as the Lord Clifford and -others." - -The revenge soon came. The Earl of March, York's eldest son, was -advancing to prove that York was still alive in the new possessor of -the title. Yet, before his blow of vengeance fell, Margaret had one -more triumph. She had pursued her march on London after the battle of -Wakefield, and had reached St. Albans. But there she came in contact -with the army of Warwick. Flushed with victory, her forces fell upon the -enemy. Warwick had posted himself on the low hills to the south-east of -the town. The royalists penetrated to the very town cross, where they -were repulsed by a strong body of archers. But they soon made their way -by another street through the town, and the battle raged on the heaths -lying betwixt St. Albans and Barnet. The last troops which made a stand -were a body of Kentish men, who, maintaining the conflict till night, -enabled the Yorkists to retreat from the victorious van, and disperse. -The king was found in his tent, under the care of Lord Montague, his -chamberlain, where he was visited by Margaret and his son, whom he -received with the liveliest joy. The Yorkists in this second battle of -St. Albans, fought February 17th, 1461, lost about 2,000 men. Edward, -called "the late Earl of March," was proclaimed a traitor, and rewards -offered for his apprehension. But the success of this action was defeated -by the insubordination of the troops. They were chiefly borderers, who -had been led on by hopes of plunder, and had been freely promised it by -Margaret and her allies. Nothing could induce them to advance farther. -They were only bent on ravaging the neighbourhood, and the citizens of -London closed their gates against them and held out for York. - -Edward was rapidly marching to the capital. He was at Gloucester when the -news of the fall of his father and the atrocious murder of his brother -reached him; and the intelligence arousing the Welsh borderers, they -flocked to his standard, breathing vengeance. His march was harassed -by a party of royalists--consisting chiefly of Welsh and Irish--under -Jasper Tudor, Earl of Pembroke, the king's half-brother. To free himself -of them, Edward turned upon them, on the 2nd of February, at Mortimer's -Cross, near Hereford. A dreadful battle ensued, in which Edward gained -a complete victory, slaying nearly 4,000 of the royalists. Jasper Tudor -escaped; but his father Owen Tudor, the second husband of Catherine of -Valois, and ancestor of the Tudor line of sovereigns, was taken prisoner, -and with Throgmorton and seven other captains, was beheaded at Hereford, -in retaliation for those who had been similarly put to death after the -battle of Wakefield. The news of this butchery reaching Margaret before -the battle of St. Albans, instigated her to reply with the execution -of Lord Bonville and Sir Thomas Kyriel, who had so much distinguished -himself in France. The spirit of deadly malice was now raging betwixt the -contending parties, and one deed of cruelty provoked another. - -Edward found no further obstacle on his march towards London. The -terrible chastisement of the royalists made a deep impression. His force -grew as he advanced. He soon joined Warwick, and collected his dispersed -troops. Once united, they were more than a match for the royalists. When -Edward approached London, he was welcomed as a deliverer. The lawless -army of the queen had carried terror, wherever they came. The queen -was as impolitic as her soldiers. She sent from Barnet into the city -demanding supplies; and though the lord mayor was inclined to comply, the -people stoutly refused to let any provisions pass. A party of 400 horse -were sent to enforce the demand; they plundered the northern suburbs, -and would have continued their depredations in London itself, but the -people fell upon them, and drove them out. Such was the situation of -affairs when Edward and Warwick appeared. The gates were joyfully thrown -open, and Edward rode in triumph into the city. He was still but in his -nineteenth year, of a remarkably handsome person, of a gay and affable -disposition, and reputed to be highly accomplished. The fate of his -father and brother, and the recent conduct of the queen, added greatly -to the interest which he excited. While Lord Falconbridge reviewed a -body of troops in the fields of Clerkenwell, Neville, the Bishop of -Exeter, seized the opportunity to harangue the crowded spectators. He -drew a miserable picture of the imbecility of the king, of the haughty -and bloody spirit of the queen, and of the calamities which had resulted -from both; and maintained that Henry, by joining the queen's forces, had -forfeited the crown. He then demanded whether they would still have him -for king. They shouted--"No, no!" He then asked whether they would have -Edward for king, and they cried--"Yes, yes! long live King Edward!" - -The popular feeling being thus ascertained, a great council was convoked -by the Yorkists, on the 3rd of March, 1461, which confirmed the verdict -of the public, declared Henry to have justly forfeited the crown by -breaking his oath and joining in proceedings against the Duke of York, -who had thus been slain; and on the 4th Edward rode in procession to -Westminster Hall, where he mounted the throne, and made a speech to the -thronging thousands, detailing the just claims of his family, according -to hereditary succession. He then adjourned to the abbey church, where he -repeated the same harangue to the same consenting audience, and was duly -proclaimed by the style and title of King Edward IV. - -[Illustration: THE QUARREL IN THE TEMPLE GARDENS. (_See p._ 18.)] - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -REIGN OF EDWARD IV. - - The Battle of Towton--Edward's Coronation--Henry escapes to - Scotland--The Queen seeks aid in France--Battle of Hexham--Henry - made Prisoner--Confined in the Tower--Edward marries Lady - Elizabeth Grey--Advancement of her Relations--Attacks on the - Family of the Nevilles--Warwick negotiates with France--Marriage - of Margaret, the King's Sister, to the Duke of Burgundy--Marriage - of the Duke of Clarence with a Daughter of Warwick--Battle of - Banbury--Rupture between the King and his Brother--Rebellion of - Clarence and Warwick--Clarence and Warwick flee to France--Warwick - proposes to restore Henry VI.--Marries Edward, Prince of Wales, - to his Daughter, Lady Ann Neville--Edward IV.'s reckless - Dissipation--Warwick and Clarence invade England--Edward - expelled--His return to England--Battle of Barnet--Battle - of Tewkesbury, and ruin of the Lancastrian Cause--Rivalry - of Clarence and Gloucester--Edward's Futile Intervention in - Foreign Politics--Becomes a Pensioner of France--Death of - Clarence--Expedition to Scotland--Death and Character of the King. - - -Edward IV., at this period of his great success, and his acknowledgment -by the people of London and the council as king, was only in his -twentieth year. Handsome of person and of popular manners, he was not -restrained by any such conscientious scruples as guided his father, but -was bold and impetuous. He was fond of pleasure, addicted to gallantry, -and at the same time as ready to shed blood as he was to make love -and revel in courtly pageants. The reluctant approaches to sanguinary -measures which had marked the earlier proceedings of his father, had -long since vanished in the heated progress of the strife, and Edward -might be regarded as the representative of the leaders now on both sides, -with the exception of the gentle and forgiving Henry. But on this side -Queen Margaret was as energetic as she was ambitious, and as resolute as -her husband was the contrary. The circumstances into which she had been -thrown had roused in her the spirit of a tigress fighting for its young. - -Margaret, on the warm reception of Edward by the Londoners, had retired -northward with her marauding soldiers, who had so fatally damaged her -cause by their outrages. Three days after his reception in London, Edward -despatched Warwick, the chief bulwark of his cause, in pursuit of her, -and on the 12th of March, only five days afterwards, he followed himself. -On reaching the Earl of Warwick, their combined troops amounted to -40,000. The queen was exerting all her activity and eloquence amongst her -northern friends, and lay at York with 60,000 men. Everything denoted the -eve of a bloody conflict. - -This civil war was now known all over the world as the War of the Roses, -a name said to be derived from a circumstance which took place in a -dispute in the Temple Gardens betwixt Warwick and Somerset, at an early -period of the rival factions. Somerset, in order to collect the suffrages -of those on the side of Lancaster, is said to have plucked a red rose -from a bush, and called upon every man who held with him to do the like. -Warwick, for York, plucked a white rose, and thus the partisans were -distinguishable by these differing badges. - -The vanguard of the two armies met at Ferrybridge, the passage of the -river Aire. The Duke of Somerset was commander-in-chief of the royal -army. The king, queen, and prince remained at York. Lord Clifford led -the vanguard, and was opposed by Lord Fitzwalter on the part of the -Yorkists. The battle at the bridge was furious; Fitzwalter was killed. -Lord Falconbridge was instantly sent forward to replace him, and instead -of opposing Clifford in front in his strong position, allowing the troops -there to hold him in play, he himself crossed the Aire, some miles above -Ferrybridge, and falling unexpectedly on the rear of Clifford, routed his -force, and revenged the death of Fitzwalter by that of Clifford himself. -The Yorkists poured over the bridge, took possession of the town, and -advanced towards Towton. Meantime, Warwick, excited by the temporary -repulse at the bridge under Fitzwalter, had called for his horse, stabbed -him in sight of the whole army, and kissing the hilt of his bloody -sword, swore that he would fight on foot, and share every fatigue and -disadvantage with the common soldiers. - -With minds inflamed to the utmost pitch of animosity, the two armies met -on the morning of Palm Sunday, March 29th, in the fields betwixt the -villages of Saxton and Towton, about ten miles south of York. Edward -issued orders that no quarter should be given, no prisoners taken. The -action began at nine o'clock in the morning, under circumstances most -unfortunate for the Lancastrians. A snowstorm was blowing full in their -faces; and Lord Falconbridge seized at once on this circumstance by an -adroit stratagem. He ordered the archers to advance, discharge their -arrows, and again retire out of the reach of those of the enemy. The -Lancastrians, believing themselves within bow-shot of the enemy, whose -arrows did great execution amongst them, returned the compliment without -being able to see where their arrows reached for the snowflakes. The -Yorkist archers were now out of their range, and they fell useless. Again -the Yorkists advanced, and poured in a fresh flight with such effect that -the Lancastrians, probably doubting of the success of their own arrows, -rushed forward and came hand to hand with their opponents. It was now one -terrible clash of swords, battle-axes, and spears, amid the thick-falling -and blinding storm; and thus the two infuriated armies continued fighting -desperately for nearly five hours. Towards evening the Lancastrians, -disheartened by the fall of their principal commanders, broke and fled. -They were pursued as far as Tadcaster with the fiercest impetuosity, and -fearful slaughter. It was one of the bloodiest battles ever fought in -Britain. According to a contemporary historian, those who were employed -to number and bury the dead, declared them to be 38,000. - -After celebrating the feast of Easter at York, Edward marched to -Newcastle, and, leaving Warwick there to keep the north in order, -returned to London on the 26th of June. - -On reaching Scotland, Margaret placed Henry in a secure retreat at -Kirkcudbright, and then hastened to Edinburgh, to try what could be -done towards renewing the contest, which no dispersion of her friends -and forces could ever teach her to relinquish. There she found a -boy sovereign, a divided court, and a country which had suffered by -factions almost as deadly as her own. James I., who had seemed to -return to his kingdom after his long captivity under such auspicious -circumstances--full of intelligence and plans for the improvement of his -country, married to the woman of his affections, and courted by both -England and France,--was soon murdered by the rude and lawless nobles -whom he endeavoured to reduce to some degree of order and subordination. -His son, James II., when arrived at years of maturity, endeavoured to -recover from distracted England some of the places it had reft from -Scotland formerly, but in besieging Roxburgh in 1460, he was killed by -the bursting of a cannon. His son was at this time a child of only eight -years old, and the kingdom was governed by a council of regency; but the -care of the king's person was committed to the queen-mother, Mary of -Guelders, who was ambitious of engrossing not only that duty, but the -actual powers of the government. In this she was opposed by the powerful -family of Douglas. - -Margaret had no willing listeners amongst parties who were occupied with -their own schemes and feuds. She had the difficult task of appealing to -their various interests; and she found no one thing capable of fixing -their attention till she hit on the idea of proposing the surrender of -Berwick as the price of Scotland's assistance. That key of the northern -frontiers of England, for the possession of which so much blood had been -spilled from age to age, was an object the proposed recovery of which at -once gave her the command of the ears of the whole court. In addition to -this, she offered a marriage betwixt her son, Edward, Prince of Wales, -and the eldest sister of the young King of Scotland. These treaties were -carried into effect, and Berwick was put into the hands of the Scots on -the 25th of April, 1461. - -Edward, on his return to London, was crowned on the 29th of June. He then -summoned a Parliament to meet at Westminster on the 6th of July, but -an invasion appearing not improbable, he prorogued it till the 4th of -November. The sword and the scaffold had already so thinned the nobility -that only one duke, four earls, one viscount, and twenty-nine barons -were summoned to this Parliament. The great battle of Towton, which had -laid so many of them low, had rendered the rest very submissive. There -was no longer any hesitating betwixt the two families, or seeking of -those compromises which, in the end, only produced more discord. Whatever -Edward dictated was accepted as law and constitution. Of course Henry -IV. was declared to have been an arrant usurper; and his posterity were -held incapable, not only of wearing the crown, but of enjoying any estate -or dignity in any portion of the British dominions for ever. Henry VI., -Margaret, Edward, called Prince of Wales, the Dukes of Somerset and -Exeter, the Earls of Northumberland, Devonshire, and Pembroke, and a -vast number of lords, knights, and gentlemen, were attainted. Edward IV. -was proclaimed to be the only rightful king; and all those of the York -party who had been declared traitors by the Lancaster party when it was -uppermost, and expelled from honours and estates, were restored. - -Meanwhile, nothing daunted, Margaret was exerting her ingenuity to -rouse a party in Scotland. She pleaded to deaf ears. Her surrender of -Berwick brought her no real assistance; and she now sent over Somerset -to endeavour to obtain succour from France. All these efforts were -equally vain. Charles VII. died in 1461, and his successor, Louis -XI., was immovable. Somerset, her ambassador, returned completely -unsuccessful. He and his attendants had, indeed, been arrested by Louis -when they attempted to escape in the guise of merchants, for fear of -the despicable king giving them up to Edward to propitiate his favour. -It was only through the earnest intercession of the Count of Charolais, -the son of the Duke of Burgundy, that they were liberated. Louis XI. was -cousin-german to both Margaret and Henry VI.; but such relationships -weigh nothing with selfish men, in comparison to their own immediate -interests. While this unwelcome news was arriving, Margaret was rendered -the more uneasy and unsafe by the appearance of Warwick at the court -of Scotland, proposing a marriage betwixt the Scottish queen and the -victorious Edward of England. Under these circumstances, neither Margaret -nor Henry was safe. She resolved, therefore, to make one more effort -with Louis of France, and a personal one. By means of a French merchant, -who owed her some kindness for past benefit, she managed to get over to -France, where she threw herself at the feet of Louis, who was at Chinon -in Normandy. She was only able to reach his court by the assistance of -the Duke of Brittany, who gave her 12,000 crowns. - -Margaret agreed to surrender the rights of the crown in Calais, and -that Henry should do the same. And what was to be the price of this -sacrifice--this sacrifice of this proud stronghold of England, this -sacrifice of her own honour, and this last remaining fragment of her -good fame in Britain? The paltry sum of 20,000 livres! That was all she -could squeeze from the miserable French king for this intensely desired -object. True, he had it still to win, for it was not in the possession -of Margaret or her husband; but the acknowledged purchase from the -Lancastrian king would give him great weight in any attempts to compel -the surrender, and if Henry did again recover his throne, Calais must be -made over to him at once. - -[Illustration: EDWARD IV.] - -With her 20,000 livres Margaret was enabled to engage the services -of Pierre de Breze, the seneschal of Normandy. He had been an old -admirer of Margaret's, and now offered to follow her with 2,000 men. -With this force, after an absence of five months, she set sail for -England, and attempted to land at Tynemouth, in October, 1462, but was -repelled by the garrison. The fleet was now attacked by a terrible -storm; the very elements seemed to fight against her. Many of her -ships ran ashore near Bamborough. Yet, spite of all her difficulties, -Margaret effected a landing, and gained possession of the castles of -Bamborough, Dunstanburgh, and Alnwick. She sent for Henry from his safe -hiding-place at Harlech Castle in Merionethshire, where she had left him -while she went to France, and was gathering some considerable forces -of Scots and French when Warwick drew near with 20,000 men, and news -was received that Edward was approaching with an equal number. Edward -halted at Newcastle, but Warwick advancing, divided his forces into three -bodies, and simultaneously invested the three strongholds. Somerset -surrendered Bamborough on condition that himself and Sir Ralph Percy, -and others, should be allowed to take the oath of fealty to Edward, and -be restored to all their honours and estates; and that the rest of the -two garrisons, with the Earl of Pembroke, and some others, whose lands -had been conferred on Edward's friends, and could not, therefore, be -now restored, should be conveyed in safety to Scotland. This defection -of her chief supporters was a dreadful blow to the queen, and, to add -to her misfortunes, 500 of her French followers, who had established -themselves in Holy Island were attacked and cut to pieces by Sir Robert -Ogle. Alnwick Castle still held out in the hands of the brave De Breze -and Lord Hungerford; but the Earl of Angus coming up with a party of -relief, the besieged took the opportunity to make a sally and escape from -the castle to their friends. Bamborough and Dunstanburgh were restored by -the king to Lord Percy; but Alnwick he gave to Sir John Ashley, to the -great offence of Sir Ralph Grey, who had formerly won it for Edward, and -now expected to have had it. - -[Illustration: DUNSTANBURGH CASTLE.] - -It might have been supposed that all hope of ever restoring the -Lancastrian cause was now at an end. But in the soul of Margaret hope -never seemed to die. With an admirable and indomitable resolution, she -again turned her efforts to reconstruct a fresh army. She traversed -Scotland, drew together her scattered friends, joined them to her French -auxiliaries, whom she again mustered on the Continent: and by the spring -of 1464 was in a condition once more to march into England. For some time -her affairs wore a promising aspect. She retook the castles of Alnwick, -Bamborough, and Dunstanburgh. Somerset, Sir Ralph Percy, and the rest who -had made their peace with Edward, hearing of her successes, again flew to -her standard. Sir Ralph Grey, who resented the preference given to Sir -John Ashley by Edward in the disposal of Alnwick, came over to her, and -was made commander of Bamborough. - -Edward, on the news of these reverses, dispatched the Lord Montague, -the brother of Warwick, into the north to raise his forces there, and -make head against the never-resting queen. He met with Sir Ralph Percy -on Hedgeley Moor, near Wooler, on the 25th of April, defeated his -forces, and killed Sir Ralph. Having received fresh reinforcements from -the south, he advanced towards Margaret's main army, and encamped on a -plain, called the Levels, near Hexham. There, on the 15th of May, the two -armies came to a general action, and after a long and bloody conflict the -Lancastrians were again completely routed. Poor King Henry fled for his -life, and this time managed not to be left in the hands of his enemies. - -Margaret and her son, with a few attendants, were meanwhile flying -wildly through the neighbouring forests from the tender mercies of -this sanguinary young king. She was endeavouring to reach the Scottish -borders, when they were met by a party of marauders, with whom the Border -country abounded. The queen on her knees implored mercy, and avowed who -she was; but the villains who had hold of her, seeing their associates -busy dividing the rich booty, turned to them, and she seized the -opportunity, while they were quarrelling over it, to fly with her son. -The fugitives rushed onward, not knowing whither they were going, till -night overtook them. Nearly fainting with terror, fatigue, and hunger, -as the moon broke through the clouds they beheld a huge man, armed, and -with threatening gestures hastening towards them. Imagining it was one -of the band that had robbed them who had now overtaken her, she expected -nothing but death; but, mustering her characteristic resolution, she bade -the man see that if he hoped for booty it was useless, for she and her -child had been stripped even of their upper garments for their value. -The man appeared to be one of the numerous outlaws harboured in that -locality, and many of whom had seen better days. He was touched by her -appeal, and Margaret, perceiving it, said, "Here, my friend, save the -son of your king! I charge thee to preserve from violence that innocent -royal blood. Take him, and conceal him from those who seek his life. Give -him a refuge in thine obscure hiding-place, and he will one day give -thee free access to his royal chamber, and make thee one of his barons." -The man, struck by the majestic presence of the queen, the pleading -innocence of the prince, and the words of Margaret, knelt, and vowed he -would rather die a thousand deaths than injure or betray them. He carried -the young prince in his arms to his cave, on the south bank of a little -stream which runs at the foot of Blockhill, and, from this circumstance, -still called "Queen Margaret's cave." There the man's wife made them -right welcome, and, after two days' concealment, the outlaw succeeded in -meeting with De Breze, and his followers soon afterwards discovered the -Duke of Exeter and Edward Beaufort--from the execution of his brother now -Duke of Somerset; and with them Margaret escaped to Scotland, and, after -many adventures, reached France. There Margaret received the melancholy -news of the capture and imprisonment of her husband. For about twelve -months the unfortunate monarch had contrived to elude the eager quest -of his enemies. He went from place to place amongst the friends of the -house of Lancaster in Westmoreland, Lancashire, and Yorkshire. At the -various halls and castles where he sojourned, tradition has to this day -retained the memory of his presence. He was at length betrayed by a monk -of Abingdon, and he was taken by the servants of Sir John Harrington, -as he sat at dinner at Waddington Hall. He was treated with the utmost -indignity on his way to London. He was mounted on a miserable hack, his -legs being tied to his stirrups, and an insulting placard fixed on his -back. At Islington Warwick met the fallen king, and disgraced himself by -commanding the thronging spectators to show no respect to him. To enforce -his command by his own example, he led the unhappy man three times round -the pillory, as if he had been a common felon, crying, "Treason! treason! -Behold the traitor!" - -Edward, now freed from his enemies, considered himself as established -on the throne beyond all doubt. He created Lord Montacute Earl of -Northumberland for his services at Hexham, and Lord Herbert Earl of -Pembroke. He issued a long list of attainders to exhaust the resources -of his opponents and increase those of his adherents. He then passed an -Act for the resumption of the Crown lands to supply a royal income; but -this was clogged by so many exceptions that it proved fruitless. He then -gave himself up to mirth and jollity, and in the pursuit of his pleasures -made himself so affable and agreeable, especially with the Londoners, -that, in spite of his free gallantries, he was very popular. So strongly -did he now seem to be grounded in the affections of his subjects, that he -ventured to make known a private marriage, which he had contracted some -time before, though he knew that it would give deep offence in several -quarters. - -It is a curious circumstance that in the early part of the reign of Henry -VI., two ladies of royal lineage, and one of them of royal rank, had -condescended to marry private gentlemen, to the great scandal of their -high-born connections. One of these was Catherine of Valois, the widow of -Henry V., and mother of Henry VI., who married Owen Tudor. The other was -Jacquetta of Luxembourg, the widow of the great Duke of Bedford, Regent -of France, who married Sir Richard Woodville. Both Tudor and Woodville -were men of remarkable beauty; and both were imprisoned and persecuted -for the offence of marrying, without permission of the Crown, princesses -who chose to fall in love with them. Woodville regained his liberty by -the payment of a fine of 1,000 crowns. Tudor's persecutions were more -severe and prolonged. Yet, from these two scandalous _mesalliances_, as -they were regarded by the Court and high nobility, sprang a line of the -most remarkable princes that ever sat upon the English throne. The blood -of both these ladies mingled in the burly body of Henry VIII. and his -descendants. We have seen how Tudor became the grandfather of Henry VII.; -we have now to observe how Woodville became the grandfather of Henry's -wife, Elizabeth of York. - -Jacquetta had several children by Sir Richard Woodville, one of whom, -Elizabeth, was a woman of much beauty and great accomplishments. She had -been married to Sir John Grey of Groby, a Lancastrian, who fell at the -second battle of St. Albans. His estate was consequently confiscated; -his widow, with seven children, returned to her father, and was living -at his seat at Grafton, in Northamptonshire. Edward being out on a -hunting party in the neighbourhood, took the opportunity to call on the -Duchess of Bedford. There he saw and was greatly struck with the beauty -of the Lady Grey. She, on her part, seized the occasion to endeavour to -secure some restitution of their property for her children. The whole -of her subsequent life showed that she was not a woman to neglect such -opportunities. She threw herself at the feet of the gay monarch, and -with many tears besought him to restore to her innocent children their -father's patrimony. - -Lady Grey made more impression than she probably intended. Edward was -perfectly fascinated by her beauty and spirit. He raised her from her -suppliant posture, and promised her his favour. He soon communicated to -her the terms on which he would grant the restitution of her property; -but he found in Elizabeth Woodville, or Grey, a very different person to -those he had been accustomed to meet. She firmly refused every concession -inconsistent with her honour, and the king, piqued by the resistance he -encountered, became more and more enamoured. - -On the 1st of May, 1464, he married her at Grafton, in the presence -only of the priest, the clerk, the Duchess of Bedford, and two female -attendants. Within a few days after the marriage he set out to meet the -Lancastrians in the north; but the battles of Hedgeley Moor and Hexham -were fought before his arrival; and on his return he became anxious to -open the matter to his council, and to obtain its sanction. Accordingly, -at Michaelmas, he summoned a general council of the peers at the abbey -of Reading, where he announced this important event. Amongst the Peers -present were Edward's brother the Duke of Clarence, and the great -king-maker, Warwick. To neither of these individuals was the transaction -agreeable. To Clarence it appeared too inferior a choice for the King of -England, though Elizabeth Grey, by her mother's side, was of princely -blood. But to Warwick there was offence in it, personal and deep. He had -been commissioned by Edward to solicit for him the hand of Bona of Savoy, -the sister of the Queen of France. The proposal had been accepted; the -King of France had given his consent; the treaty of marriage was actually -drawn; and there lacked nothing but the ratification of the terms agreed -upon, and the bringing over of the princess to England. At this moment -came the order to pause in the proceedings, and the mystery was soon -cleared up by the confident rumour of this sudden matrimonial caprice of -the king. Warwick returned in high dudgeon; from Edward he did not try -to conceal it; but the time for revenge of his injured honour was not -yet come; and therefore, after the royal announcement in the council, -Clarence and Warwick took Elizabeth by the hand, and introduced her to -the rest of the peers. A second council was held at Westminster, in -December, and the income of the new queen was settled at 4,000 marks a -year. - -It was not to be expected that this sudden elevation of a simple knight's -daughter to the throne would pass without murmuring and discontent, -which was probably the more fully expressed as it was shared by the -all-powerful Warwick and the king's brothers. There were busy rumours -that the politic old duchess, Jacquetta, and her daughter, had practised -magical arts upon the king, and administered philtres; and that, -recovering from their effect, he had grievously repented, and endeavoured -to free himself. But Edward's whole conduct towards the queen showed the -falsity of this jealous gossip; and to make it obvious that she was of no -mean parentage, he invited to the coronation her mother's brother, John -of Luxembourg, with a retinue of a hundred knights and gentlemen. - -But if the king had made apparent her noble birth and his continued -affection for her, it became speedily as apparent that the marriage of a -subject was to be followed by all its inconveniences. Elizabeth, though -raised to the throne, might still be said to be on her knees, imploring -the favour of the king. There was nothing which she thought too much for -her numerous relations, and the king displayed a marvellous facility in -complying with her requests. Her father was created Earl Rivers, and soon -after the Lord Mountjoy, a partisan of the Nevilles, was removed to make -way for him as Treasurer of England; and again, on the resignation of -the Earl of Worcester, the office of Lord High Constable was conferred -on him. That was very well for a beginning, but it was nothing to what -followed; every branch of the queen's family must be aggrandised without -delay. She had five sisters, and each of them was married to one of the -highest noblemen in the realm: one to the Duke of Buckingham; one to the -heir of the Earl of Essex; a third to the Earl of Arundel; a fourth to -Lord Grey de Ruthin, who was made Earl of Kent; and the fifth to Lord -William Herbert, created Earl of Huntingdon. Her brother Anthony was -married to the heiress of the late Lord Scales, and endowed with her -estate and title. Her younger brother John, in his twentieth year, was -married to the wealthy old dowager Duchess of Norfolk, in her eightieth -year; such was the shameless greed of this family. The queen's son, -Thomas Grey, was married to the king's niece, the daughter and heiress -of the Duke of Exeter. The Nevilles looked on all these extraordinary -proceedings with ominous gloom. - -Fresh cause of disunion arose between the king and Warwick. A marriage -had for some time been in agitation between Margaret, the king's sister, -and the Count of Charolais, son and heir of the Duke of Burgundy. The -count was sprung from the house of Lancaster, and even when his father -showed the most settled coolness towards Henry VI. and Margaret, had -displayed a warm sympathy for them. It was a good stroke of policy, -therefore, to win him over by this marriage to the reigning dynasty. -But Warwick, who in his former intercourse with Burgundy in France had -conceived a deep dislike to him, opposed this match, and represented -one with a son of Louis XI. as far more advantageous. To Warwick's -arguments was opposed the evident policy of maintaining our commercial -intercourse with the Netherlands, and of possessing so efficient an -ally on the borders of France against the deep and selfish schemes of -Louis. But in the end Warwick prevailed. He was sent over to France to -negotiate the affair with Louis. Warwick went attended with a princely -train, and with all the magnificence which distinguished him at home, -more like that of a great sovereign than of a subject. Louis, who never -lost an opportunity of sowing jealousies amongst his enemies, even while -he appeared to be honouring them, met Warwick at Rouen, attended by the -queen and princesses. The inhabitants, obeying royal orders, went out and -escorted Warwick into the city with banners and processions of priests, -who conducted the earl to the cathedral, and then to the lodgings -prepared for him at the Jacobins. There also Louis and the court took up -their quarters, and for twelve days, during which the conference lasted, -Louis used to visit the earl in private, passing through a side door into -his apartments. With all this secret and familiar intercourse, no pains -were taken to conceal its existence; and the consequence was such as the -astute and mischievous Louis intended. Reports were forwarded to Edward -from those whom he had placed in Warwick's train, which roused his ever -uncalculating anger. He hastened to the house of Warwick's brother--the -Archbishop of York and Chancellor of the kingdom--demanded the instant -surrender of the seals; and, enforcing the act of resumption of Crown -lands lately passed, deprived the archbishop of two manors formerly -belonging to the Crown. - -Warwick returned, as may be supposed, in no very good humour, but still -with every prospect of success in his mission. The court of France was -agreeable to the match. And on the heels of the earl came the Archbishop -of Narbonne and the Bastard of Bourbon to complete the arrangements. They -were prepared to offer an annual pension to Edward from Louis, and to -pledge the king to submit to the Pope Edward's demand for the restoration -of Normandy and Aquitaine, which should be decided within four years. -But the importance of these propositions, and the evident prudence of at -least appearing to listen to the terms of a monarch like that of France, -had no weight with Edward, who was far more distinguished for petulance -and rashness than for policy. He treated the French ambassadors with the -most insulting coldness; and unceremoniously quitted the capital, leaving -his ministers to deal with the ambassadors, and, in fact, to get rid of -them. His resentment against Warwick made him not only thus forget the -courtesy due to the envoys of a great foreign prince--conduct sure to -create its own punishment,--but he gave all the more favour to the suit -of the Count of Charolais from the same cause. - -The count had sent over his relative, the Bastard of Burgundy, ostensibly -to hold a tournament with Lord Scales, the queen's brother, but really to -press forward the match with the English princess. The Duke of Burgundy -dying at this juncture, all difficulties vanished. The princess was -affianced to the new Duke of Burgundy. - -This completed the resentment of Warwick. The open insult offered to the -court of France, and the rejection of the alliance which he had effected, -sunk deep into his proud mind. He retired to his castle of Middleham, in -Yorkshire; and occasion was taken of his absence from court to accuse -him, on the evidence of one of Queen Margaret's emissaries taken in -Wales, of being a secret partisan of the Lancastrian faction. The charge -failed; but Edward, resolved to mortify and humiliate the man to whom -he owed his throne, affected still to believe him a secret ally of the -Lancastrians, and that his own safety was threatened by him. He therefore -summoned a body-guard of 200 archers, without whose attendance he never -stirred abroad. He expelled the Nevilles from court, and took every means -to express his dislike and suspicion of that house. On the other hand, -the Nevilles repaid the hatred of the upstart family of Woodville with -interest; and from this moment, whatever might be the outward seeming, -the feud betwixt these rival families was settled, deadly, and never -terminated till it had completed the ruin of all parties. - -[Illustration: GREAT SEAL OF EDWARD IV.] - -At present the Archbishop of York, though suffering under the immediate -severity of the king, was too wise to give way to his resentment. He -justly feared the influence of the Woodvilles with the king, and that it -might prove most injurious to his own family. He therefore stood forth as -a peacemaker. He volunteered a visit to Earl Rivers, the queen's father; -met him at Nottingham, and agreed on terms of reconciliation between -the families. The king, queen, and court were keeping the Christmas of -1467 at Coventry. The archbishop hastened to his brother at Middleham, -and prevailed upon him to accompany him to Coventry, where he was -graciously received by Edward; all subjects of offence betwixt him and -the relatives of the queen--especially her brothers-in-law, the Lords -Herbert, Stafford, and Audley--were arranged; and the king expressed -himself so much pleased with the conduct of the archbishop, that he -restored to him his two manors. This pacific state of things lasted for -little more than a year. On the 18th of June, 1468, the king's sister set -out on her journey to meet her husband in Flanders. The king accompanied -her to the coast; and, as a proof that Warwick at this moment held his -old position of honour at court, the princess rode behind him through -the streets of London. A conspiracy having been discovered, or supposed, -of several gentlemen with Queen Margaret, Warwick and his brother, the -Earl of Northumberland, were joined with the king's brothers, Clarence -and Gloucester, in a commission to try them; and the two Nevilles -certainly executed their part of the trust with a zeal which looked like -anything but disaffection. Very arbitrary measures were used towards the -prisoners, several of whom were condemned and executed. - -This calm was soon broken. The Duke of Clarence had from the first -shown as deep a dislike to the ascendency of the Woodvilles as the -Nevilles themselves. This drew him into closer intimacy with Warwick. -He frequently withdrew for long periods from court, and was generally -to be found at one of the residences of Warwick. It soon came out that -there was a cause still more influential than his dislike of the queen's -relations; it was his admiration of the Earl's eldest daughter, Isabella, -who was co-heiress of his vast estates. Warwick was delighted with the -prospect of this alliance, for as yet the king, having no male heir, and -his only daughter being but four years old, Clarence stood as the next -male heir to his brother. Edward, on the contrary, beheld this proposed -connection with the utmost alarm. The Nevilles were already too powerful; -and should Warwick succeed, through Clarence, in placing his descendants -so near the throne, it might produce the most dangerous consequences -to his own line. He therefore did all in his power to frustrate the -marriage, but in vain. Clarence and Warwick retired to Calais, of which -Warwick remained the governor; and there the marriage was celebrated, in -the Church of St. Nicholas, on the 11th of July, 1469. - -With the exception of this annoying event, at this moment Edward appeared -so firmly seated on his throne, and so well secured by foreign treaties -with almost all the European powers, and especially with the Dukes of -Burgundy and Brittany, the latter of whom had recently become his ally, -that he actually contemplated the enterprise of recovering by his arms -the territories which his weak predecessor had lost in France. His hatred -of the cold-blooded Louis XI., who in political cunning was infinitely -Edward's superior, probably urged him to this idea. To draw off the -attention of the different factions at home, and find some common medium -of uniting them in action abroad, might be another. The most remarkable -circumstance of all was, that Parliament, after its experience of the -drain which these French wars had been to the blood and resources of the -nation, received the king's proposal with cordial approbation. - -But these dreams of martial glory were very quickly swept from the brain -of the king by domestic troubles. At first these troubles appeared to -originate in private and local causes, but there was such food for -combustion existing throughout the kingdom, that the farther they went, -the wider they opened, and at every step onwards assumed more and more -the aspect of a Warwick and Clarence conspiracy. Nothing could be farther -removed from such an appearance than the opening occurrence. - -The hospital of St. Leonard, near York, had possessed, from the reign of -King Athelstan, a right of levying a thrave of corn (twenty-four sheaves) -from every ploughland in the county. There had long been complaints that -this grant was grossly abused, and instead of benefiting the poor, as -it was intended, was converted to the emolument of the managers. During -the last reign many had refused in consequence to yield the stipulated -thrave, and Parliament had passed an act to compel the delivery. Now -again the refusal to pay the demand was become general. The vassals -had their goods distrained, and were themselves thrown into prison. -This raised the peasantry, who were all of the old Lancastrian party, -and regarded the present dynasty as usurpers and oppressors. They flew -to arms, under the leadership of one Robert Hilyard, called by the -insurgents Robin of Redesdale, and vowed that they would march south and -reform the Government. Lord Montague, Earl of Northumberland, brother -of Warwick, marched out against them, forming as they now did a body of -15,000 men, and menacing the city of York. He defeated them, seized their -leader Hilyard, and executed him on the field of battle. - -So far there appeared certainly no hand of the Nevilles in this movement. -Northumberland did his best to crush it, and Warwick and Clarence -were away at Calais, thinking, apparently, not of rebellion, but of -matrimonial festivities. But the very next move revealed a startling fact. - -The insurgents, though dispersed, were by no means subdued. They had lost -their peasant head, but they reappeared in still greater forces, with two -heads, and those no other than the Lords Fitzhugh and Latimer, the nephew -and the cousin-german of Warwick. Northumberland contented himself with -protecting the city of York. He made no attempt to pursue this still more -menacing body, who, dropping their cry of the hospital and the thrave of -corn, declared that their object was to meet the Earl of Warwick, and by -his aid and advice to remove from the councils of the king the swarm of -Woodvilles, whom they charged with being the authors of the oppressive -taxes, and of all the calamities of the nation. The young noblemen who -headed the insurrection were assisted by the military abilities of an old -and experienced officer, Sir William Conyers. At the name of Warwick, -his tenants came streaming from every quarter, and in a few days, the -insurgent army numbered 60,000 men. - -Edward, on the news of this formidable movement, called together what -troops he could, and fixed his headquarters at the castle of Fotheringay. -Towards this place the insurgent army marched, growing, as they -proceeded, in numbers and boldness. The whole outcry resolved itself into -a capital charge against the Woodvilles, and the movement being headed -by the Nevilles, there could not be much mystery about the matter. Yet -Edward, after advancing as far as Newark, and becoming intimidated by the -spirit of disaffection which everywhere prevailed, wrote imploringly to -Warwick and Clarence to hasten from Calais to his assistance. The result -was such as might have been expected. Warwick and Clarence, instead of -complying with the king's urgent entreaty, summoned their friends to meet -them at Canterbury, on the following Sunday, to proceed with them to the -king to lay before him the petitions of the Commons. - -In this alarming extremity, Edward looked with impatience for the arrival -of the Earls of Devonshire and Pembroke, who had been mustering forces -for his assistance. Devon was at the head of a strong body of archers, -and Pembroke of 10,000 Welshmen. They met at Banbury, where the demon of -discord divided them in their quest of quarters, and made them forget -the critical situation of their sovereign. Pembroke, leaving Devon in -possession, advanced to Edgecote. There he came in contact with the -insurgents, who, falling upon him, deprived as he was of the assistance -of Devon's archers, easily routed him. In this engagement 2,000 of his -soldiers are said to have perished, and Pembroke and his brother were -taken and put to death, with ten other gentlemen, on the field. Devon -made no attempt to restore the fortunes of his party. - -This fatal defeat completely annihilated the hopes of Edward. At the news -of it, all his troops stole away from their colours, and his favourites -fled for concealment. But the queen's father, Earl Rivers, was discovered -in the Forest of Dean, with his son, Sir John Woodville; and the Earl -of Devon, late Earl Stafford, the queen's brother-in-law, abandoned by -his soldiers, was taken at Bridgewater. The whole of them were executed, -Rivers and his son Woodville being conveyed to their own neighbourhood, -and beheaded at Northampton. - -Warwick, Clarence, and Northumberland, who had, no doubt, conducted all -these movements from a distance, now appeared as principals on the scene. -They marched forward from Canterbury at the head of a powerful force, and -overtook Edward at Olney, plunged in despair at the sudden ruin which had -surrounded him. They approached him with an air of sympathy and loyal -obeisance; and Edward, imposed upon by this, with his usual unguarded -anger, upbraided them with being the real authors of his troubles. He -very soon perceived his folly, for he found himself, not their commander, -but their captive. Warwick dismissed the insurgent army to their homes, -who retired laden with booty, and sensible that they had executed all -that was expected of them. Under protection of their Kentish troops, -they then conducted Edward to Warwick Castle, and thence, for greater -security, to Middleham. - -Thus England had at the same time two kings, and both of them captive; -Henry in the Tower of London, Edward at Middleham, in Yorkshire. Men now -expected nothing less than that Warwick would proclaim Clarence as king, -but probably the measures of Warwick and Clarence were deranged by a -fresh insurrection which broke out. This time it was the Lancastrians, -who seized the opportunity to raise again the banner of Henry. They -appeared in the marches of Scotland, under Sir Humphrey Neville, one of -the fugitives from the battle of Hexham. Warwick advanced against him in -the king's name, but he found that the soldiers refused to fight until -they were assured of the king's safety. Warwick was therefore compelled -to produce Edward to the army at York. After that they followed him -against the Lancastrians, whom they defeated, and taking their leader, -brought him to the king, who ordered his instant execution. - -Edward was now permitted to return to London, accompanied by several -leaders of the party. There a council of peers was summoned, and then -it appeared that though Warwick's faction had probably not accomplished -all they had intended, they bound the king to terms which, while they -neutralised the hopes of Clarence in some degree, still were calculated -to add to the greatness of the house of Neville. The king announced that -he had proposed to give his daughter, yet only four years old, to George, -the son of the Earl of Northumberland, and presumptive heir of all the -Nevilles. The council gave its unanimous approbation of the measure, -and the young nobleman, to raise his name to a level with his affianced -bride, was created Duke of Bedford. - -Outwardly everything was so harmonious, that not only was a general -pardon granted to all who had been in any way concerned in the late -disturbances, but the king and his reconciled friends were again -proposing to invade France in concert with the Duke of Burgundy. The -French court was so convinced of the reality of this invasion that it -commanded a general muster of troops for the 1st of May, 1470. - -But the designs of the Nevilles lay nearer home in reality. The -Archbishop of York invited the king to meet Clarence and Warwick at -his seat--the Moor--in Hertfordshire. As Edward was washing his hands -preparatory to supper, John Ratcliff, afterwards Lord Fitzwalter, -whispered in his ear that 100 armed men were on the watch to seize him -and convey him to prison. Edward, having been once before trepanned by -his loving friends, gave instant credence to the information, stole out, -mounted a horse, and rode off to Windsor. This open confession of his -opinion of the Nevilles produced a fresh scene of discord, which, with -some difficulty, was appeased by the king's mother, the Duchess of York, -and the parties were reconciled with just the same sincerity as before. - -[Illustration: GOLD ROSE NOBLE OF EDWARD IV.] - -The Nevilles were now in too critical a position to pause. They or the -king must fall. At any hour some stratagem might surprise them, and -give the advantage to their injured and deadly enemies, the Woodvilles. -Insurrection, therefore, was not long in showing itself again. This time -it broke out in Lincolnshire, and, as in the case of the hospital of St. -Leonard, appeared to have nothing whatever to do with Warwick or his -party. Its ostensible cause was the old grievance of purveyance, and Sir -Robert Burgh, one of the purveyors, was attacked, his house burnt down, -and himself chased out of the county. Had the cause been really local, -there the mischief would have ended; but now again stepped forward a -partisan of Warwick, Sir Robert Wells, who encouraged the rioters to keep -together, and proceed to redress, not the evils of one county, but of the -nation. He put himself at their head, and they soon amounted to 30,000 -men. The king required a number of nobles to raise troops with all speed, -and so well did Warwick and Clarence feign loyalty that they were amongst -this number. - -Edward summoned Lord Wells, the father of the insurgent chief, and Sir -Thomas Dymoke, the Champion, both Lincolnshire men, to the council, in -order to obtain information of the extent of the insurrection, and to -engage them to exert their influence to check it. Both these gentlemen, -as if conscious of guilt, fled to sanctuary, but, on a promise of pardon, -repaired to court. Edward insisted that Lord Wells should command his -son to lay down his arms, and disperse his followers, with which order -Lord Wells complied; but Sir Robert Wells received at the same time -letters from Warwick and Clarence, encouraging him to hold out, assuring -him that they were on the march to support him. When Edward reached -Stamford, bearing Lord Wells and Dymoke with him, he found Sir Robert -still in arms, and in his anger he wreaked his vengeance on his father, -Lord Wells, and on Dymoke, beheading them in direct violation of his -promise. He then sent a second order to Sir Robert to lay down his arms, -but he replied that he scorned to surrender to a man destitute of honour, -who had murdered his father. Edward then fell upon the insurgents at -Empingham, in Rutlandshire, and made a terrible slaughter of them. The -leaders, Wells and Sir Thomas Delalaunde, were taken and immediately -executed. The inferior prisoners, as dupes to the designs of others, were -dismissed. - -Warwick and Clarence made for Calais. But there Warwick's lieutenant, -Vauclerc, a Gascon knight, to whom he had entrusted the care of the city, -refused to admit them. When they attempted to enter, the batteries were -opened upon them; and when they remonstrated on this strange conduct, -Vauclerc sent secretly to inform Warwick that the garrison, aware of what -had taken place in England, were ill affected, and would certainly seize -him if he entered; that his only chance of preserving the place for him -was to appear at present hostile; and he prayed him to retire till a more -favourable opportunity. To Edward, however, Vauclerc sent word that he -would hold the town for him as his sovereign against all attempts--for -which Edward rewarded him with the government of the place, and the Duke -of Burgundy added a pension of a thousand crowns. Warwick and Clarence, -enraged at this unexpected repulse, sailed along the coast towards -Normandy, seizing every Flemish merchantman that fell in their way in -revenge against Burgundy, and entered Harfleur, where they were received -with all honour by the admiral of France. - -[Illustration: PREACHING AT ST. PAUL'S CROSS. (_See p._ 50.)] - -Low as were now the fortunes of Warwick and Clarence, decided as had -been the failure of their attempts against Edward IV., Louis of France -thought he had, in the possession of these great leaders, a means of -consolidating a formidable party against Edward, who had treated his -alliance with such contempt, and who entered into the closest relations -with his most formidable opponent, the Duke of Burgundy. He therefore -received them at Amboise, where he was holding his court, with the most -marked honours, and ordered them and their ladies to have the best -accommodations that could be procured in the neighbourhood. He proposed -to these two chiefs to coalesce with the Lancastrian party, by which -means they would be sure to gain the instant support of all that faction. -He sent for Queen Margaret, who was then at Angers, and assured her that -Providence had at length prepared the certain means of the restoration of -King Henry and his family. - -Warwick engaged, by the assistance of Louis and of the Lancastrians, to -replace Henry again upon the throne. By this means Warwick was to depose, -and if possible to destroy, Edward of York. But Warwick never forgot the -suggestions of his ambition. He must, if possible, sit on the throne -of England in the persons of his descendants. For this he had married -one daughter to Clarence. When the success of Edward had enfeebled his -chance, he had succeeded in affiancing his nephew to the daughter of -Edward, so that if not a Warwick at least a Neville might reign. He -now sacrificed both these hopes to that of placing another daughter on -the throne, as the queen of Margaret's son, the Prince of Wales. This -alliance was the price of Warwick's assistance, and, however bitter might -be the necessity, Margaret submitted to it, and the young Prince of -Wales was forthwith married to Anne, the daughter of Warwick. Warwick -then acknowledged Henry VI. as the rightful sovereign of England, and at -the same time entered into solemn engagements to exert all his power to -reinstate and maintain him on the throne. Margaret on her part swore on -the holy Gospels never to reproach Warwick with the past, but to esteem -him as a loyal and faithful subject. The French king, on the completion -of this reconciliation, engaged to furnish the means necessary for the -expedition. - -Edward, on hearing of the extraordinary meeting and negotiations of -Warwick and Margaret, of the active agency of the French king, and the -proposed marriage of Edward, Prince of Wales, and Anne of Warwick, sent -off a lady of pre-eminent art and address, who belonged to the train of -the Duchess of Clarence, but who had somehow been left behind. The clever -dame no sooner reached the court of Clarence than she expressed to him -and the duchess her amazement at their permitting such a coalition as -the present; that in every point of view it was destructive to their own -hopes, and even security; that the continued adhesion of Warwick and -Margaret was impossible. Their mutual antipathies were too deeply rooted -ever to be eradicated. - -Clarence was only one-and-twenty years of age. He was of a slender -capacity, easily guided or misguided, and he agreed, on the first -favourable opportunity, to abandon Warwick and go over to the king. - -On the other hand, Warwick was as actively and secretly engaged in -preparing the defection of partisans of the king in England. His -brother, Montague, though he had not deemed it prudent to join Warwick -and Clarence in their unfortunate attempt to raise the country against -Edward, had been suspected by him, and stripped of the earldom of -Northumberland. He was still an ostensible adherent of the king, but -he was watched. Warwick apprised him of the new and wonderful turn of -affairs, and engaged him to keep up a zealous show of loyalty that his -defection at an important moment might tell with the more disastrous -effect on the Yorkist cause. - -Edward, satisfied with having detached Clarence from Warwick's interests, -continued as careless as ever. The Duke of Burgundy, more sagacious -than his brother-in-law, the King of England, did all that he could to -arouse him to a sense of his danger, and to obstruct the progress of the -expedition. He sent ambassadors to Paris to complain of the reception -given to the enemies of his brother and ally. He menaced Louis with -instant war if he did not desist from aiding and protecting the English -traitors. He sent spies to watch the proceedings of Vauclerc, in Calais, -and dispatched a squadron to make reprisals on the French merchantmen for -the seizures made by Warwick, and to blockade the mouth of the Seine. -Edward laughed at the fears and precautions of Burgundy. He bade him take -no pains to guard the Channel, for that he should enjoy nothing better -than to see Warwick venture to set foot in England. - -He was not long without that pleasure. A tempest dispersed the Burgundian -fleet, and the fleet of Warwick and Clarence, seizing the opportunity, -put to sea, crossed the Channel, and landed on the 13th of September, -1470, without opposition, at Portsmouth and Dartmouth. Warwick had -prepared his own way very skilfully. Edward was deluded by a ruse on the -part of Lord Fitzwalter, the brother-in-law of Warwick, who appeared -in arms in Northumberland, as if meditating an insurrection; by which -means the unwary king was induced to march towards the north, leaving -the southern counties exposed to the invaders. This was the object of -Warwick, and, as soon as it was effected, Fitzwalter retreated into -Scotland. Meantime, the real danger was growing rapidly in the south. The -men of Kent rose in arms; London was thrown into a ferment by Dr. Goddard -preaching at St. Paul's Cross in favour of Henry VI.; and from every -quarter people hastened to the standard of Warwick with such eagerness -that he speedily found himself at the head of 60,000 men. - -As London and the southern counties appeared safe, Warwick proclaimed -Henry, and set out to encounter Edward without delay. He advanced towards -Nottingham. Edward, who had taken up his headquarters at Doncaster, had -issued his orders for all who could bear arms to join his banner. They -came in slowly; and Edward, who had ridiculed the idea of the return -of Warwick, saying Burgundy would take care that he did not cross the -sea, was now rudely aroused from his fancied security. He was compelled -with unequal forces to advance against Warwick. A great battle appeared -imminent in the neighbourhood of Nottingham; but the rapid defection -of Edward's adherents rendered that unnecessary. The speedy movements -of Warwick, and the general demonstration in favour of Henry, had not -permitted Clarence to carry into effect his intended transit from -Warwick to Edward, when a startling act of desertion occurred to the -king's side, which completed Edward's ruin. Before Edward could reach -Nottingham, and while lying near the river Welland, in Lincolnshire, -Montague, Warwick's brother, from whom Edward had taken the earldom of -Northumberland, now revenged himself by suddenly marching from York at -the head of 6,000 men, and in the night, and in full concert with his -officers, advancing upon Edward's quarters, his men wearing the red rose -instead of the white, and with loud cries of "God bless King Henry!" - -Edward commanded his troops to be put in array to meet the traitor; but -Lord Hastings told him that he had not a regiment that he could rely -upon; that nothing was to be thought of but his personal safety, and that -on the instant. Accordingly, he took horse with the Duke of Gloucester, -the Earl Rivers, seven or eight other noblemen, and a small troop of the -most reliable followers, with whom he rode away. A guard was posted on a -neighbouring bridge to prevent the crossing of Warwick, for he also was -within a day's march of him; and with all haste Edward and his little -band rode at full speed till he reached Lynn, in Norfolk. It is probable -that the royal party had made for this small port on the Wash, knowing -that some vessels which had brought provisions for the troops still lay -there. They found, indeed, a small English ship, and two Dutch vessels, -on board of which they hurried, and put to sea. Edward, on starting from -his quarters, had recommended his army to declare at once for Warwick, as -the best means of saving themselves, and of again rejoining his standard -when opportunity should offer. - -The fugitives made sail for the coast of Holland, but no sooner had the -king escaped from his enemies on land than he fell amongst fresh ones -at sea. These were the Easterlings, or mariners of Ostend, who were now -at war with both France and England. The Easterlings were at this time -as terrible at sea as the pirates of Algiers were afterwards. They had -committed great ravages on the English coast, while the nation was thus -engaged in suicidal intestine warfare, and no sooner did they perceive -this little fleet than they immediately gave chase. There were eight -vessels to Edward's three, and to escape the unequal contest, he ran his -vessels aground on the coast of Friesland, near Alkmaar. To ascertain -how Vauclerc, the Governor of Calais, was disposed, in case Warwick -resolved to attack the duke in his own territories, he sent an envoy -to him to sound him. The envoy found all the garrison wearing the red -rose. This discovery added to the alarm and chagrin of Burgundy, and, -while he conceded to Edward a place of refuge, he publicly declared -himself the ally, not of this power or that, but of England, and avowed -himself adverse to Edward's designs, who was to expect no aid from him in -endeavouring to recover his crown. - -On the other hand Louis of France was thrown into ecstasies of delight. -He sent for Queen Margaret and her son, the Prince of Wales, who had -been living for years totally neglected, and almost forgotten in their -poverty, and received her in Paris with the most splendid and expensive -pageants and rejoicings. He at the same time despatched a splendid -embassy to Henry at London, and immediately concluded with him a treaty -of peace and commerce for fifteen years. - -Warwick and Clarence made their triumphal entry into London on the 6th -of October, 1470. Warwick proceeded to the Tower, and brought forth -King Henry, who had lain there as a captive for five years. Henry was -proclaimed lawful king, and conducted with great pomp through the streets -of London to the bishop's palace, where he resided till the 13th, when -he walked in solemn procession, with the crown upon his head, attended -by his prelates, nobles, and great officers, to St. Paul's, where solemn -thanksgivings were offered up for his restoration. - -All this time Clarence was looking on, an immediate spectator of -proceedings which pushed him farther from the throne. To keep him quiet, -Warwick heaped every favour but the actual possession of the kingdom upon -him. He joined him with himself in the regency which was to continue -till the majority of the Prince of Wales; he made him Lord-Lieutenant of -Ireland, and conferred upon him all the estates of the house of York. -Warwick retained himself the offices of Chamberlain of England, Governor -of Calais, High Admiral of the seas; his brother, the archbishop, was -continued Chancellor; and his other brother, Montague, returned to the -Wardenship of the Marches. - -Warwick summoned a Parliament, which, surrounded by his troops and his -partisans, of course passed whatever acts he pleased. The crown was -settled on Edward, the Prince of Wales, and his issue; but that failing, -it was to devolve upon Clarence. - -Queen Margaret might have been expected, from her characteristic energy -and rapidity of action, to have been in London nearly as soon as Warwick; -but this was not the case. In the first place, she was in want of the -necessary funds. Louis, who was chary of his money, probably thought he -had done sufficient in enabling the victorious armament of Warwick to -reach England; and poor King Rene, Margaret's father, was in no condition -to assist her. In the meantime all the exiled Lancastrians flocked to -her; and all were destitute. In February, 1471, she set sail to cross -the Channel, but was driven back by tempests. Three times did she make -the daring attempt to cross, though warned against it by the seamen of -Harfleur; and every time she was driven back with such fury and damage, -that many declared it was the will of Heaven she should not pass over; -nor was she able to do so till the following month. Till that time -Warwick held England in the name of Henry, and appeared established, if -not exactly on the throne, in the seat of supreme and settled power. - -The mock restoration of Henry VI. was not destined to be of long -continuance. The ups and downs of royalty at this period were as rapid -and strange as the shifting scenes of a theatre. There is no part of -our history where we are left so much in the dark as to the real moving -causes. It is difficult to see how Warwick, with his vast popularity, -should, in the course of a single winter, become so unpopular as to -render his fall and the success of Edward so easy. It must be remembered, -however, that there was a secret schism in his party. Clarence was only -waiting to seize a good opportunity to overthrow his father-in-law, -Warwick, and climb the throne himself. Though he was by no means -high-principled, Clarence was not so weak as to build any hopes on -Warwick's having given him the succession in case of the issue of the -Prince of Wales failing. Warwick had married another of his daughters to -the prince, and it was his strongest interest to maintain that line on -the throne. - -All these causes undoubtedly co-operated to produce what soon followed. -Burgundy determined to assist Edward to regain his throne, and thus -destroy the ascendency of Warwick. While, therefore, issuing a -proclamation forbidding any of his subjects to follow Edward in his -expedition, he privately sent to him the cross of St. Andrew; and a gift -of 50,000 florins furnished him with four large ships, which were fitted -up and stored for him at Vere, in Walcheren. Besides these, he hired for -him fourteen ships from the merchants of the Hanse Towns, to transport -his troops from Flushing to England. These transactions could leave no -question in the minds of the subjects of Burgundy which way lay the real -feelings of their sovereign. But the number of troops embarking with -Edward was not such as to give to the enterprise a Burgundian appearance. -The soldiers furnished him were only 2,000. Edward undoubtedly relied on -information sent him from England as to the forces there ready to join -him. - -The fleet of Edward steered for the Suffolk coast. It was in the south -that the Yorkist influence lay, and Clarence was posted in that quarter -at the head of a considerable force. But Warwick's preparations were too -strong in that quarter; an active body of troops, under a brother of -the Earl of Oxford, deterred the invaders from any attempt at landing. -They proceeded northward, finding no opportunity of successfully -getting on shore till they reached the little port of Ravenspur, in -Yorkshire--singularly enough, the very place where Henry IV. landed when -he deposed Richard II. From this same port now issued the force which was -to terminate his line. - -At first, however, the undertaking wore anything but a promising -aspect. The north was the very stronghold of the Lancastrian faction, -and openly was displayed the hostility of the inhabitants towards the -returned Yorkist monarch. But Edward, with that ready dishonesty which -is considered defensible in the strife for crowns, solemnly declared -that he had abandoned for himself all claims on the throne; that he saw -and acknowledged the right of Henry VI. and his line, and for himself -only desired the happy security of a private station. His real and -most patriotic design, he gave out, was to put down the turbulent and -overbearing power of Warwick, and thus give permanent tranquillity to the -country, which never could exist so long as Warwick lived. He exhibited -a forged safe-conduct from the Earl of Northumberland; he declared that -he sought for himself nothing but the possessions of the Duke of York, -his father; he mounted in his bonnet an ostrich feather, the device of -the Prince of Wales, and ordered his followers to shout "Long live King -Henry!" in every place through which they passed. - -These exhibitions of his untruth were too barefaced to deceive any one. -The people still stood aloof, and, on reaching the gates of York, Edward -found them closed against him. But by the boldest use of the same lying -policy, Edward managed to prevail on the mayor and aldermen to admit -him. He swore the most solemn oath that he abjured the crown for ever, -and would do all in his power to maintain Henry and his issue upon it. -Not satisfied with this, the clergy demanded that he should repeat this -oath most emphatically before the high altar in the cathedral. Edward -assented with alacrity, and would undoubtedly have sworn anything and any -number of oaths to the same effect. He then marched in with that bold -precipitance which was the secret of his success, and which, as in the -case of the great Napoleon, always threw his enemies into consternation -and confusion. At Pontefract lay the Marquis of Montague, Warwick's -brother, with a force superior to that of Edward, and all the world -looked to see him throw himself across the path of the invader, and to -set battle against him. Nothing of the kind; Montague lay still in the -fortress, and Edward, marching within four miles of this commander, went -on his way without any check from him. - -[Illustration: BATTLE OF BARNET: DEATH OF THE KING-MAKER. (_See p._ 34.)] - -As Edward approached the midland counties, and especially when he had -crossed the Trent, the scene changed rapidly in his favour. He had -left the Lancastrian districts behind, and reached those where Yorkism -prevailed. People now flocked to his standard. At Nottingham the Lord -Stanley, Sir Thomas Parr, Sir James Harrington, Sir Thomas Montgomery, -and several other gentlemen, came in with reinforcements. Edward felt -himself strong enough to throw off the mask: he assumed the title of -king, and marched towards Coventry, where lay Warwick and Clarence with a -force sufficient to punish this odious perjury. But a fresh turn of the -royal kaleidoscope was here to astonish the public. Edward challenged -the united army of Warwick and Clarence on the 29th of March, 1471. In -the night, Richard, Duke of Gloucester, paid a visit to his brother -Clarence. The two brothers flew into each other's arms with a transport -which, if not that of genuine affection, was at least that of successful -conspiracy. The morning beheld the army of Clarence, amounting to 12,000 -men, arrayed, not on the part of Warwick, but of Edward, the soldiers -wearing, not the red, but the white rose over their gorgets. - -Here, then, was fully disclosed the secret which had induced Edward to -march on so confidently through hostile districts, and people standing -aloof from his banners. Clarence, whether in weak simplicity, or under -the influence of others, sent to Warwick to apologise for his breach of -his most solemn oaths, and offered to become mediator betwixt him, his -father-in-law, and Edward his brother. Warwick rejected the offer with -disdain, refusing all further intercourse with the perjured Clarence; -but he was now too weak to engage him and Edward, and the Yorkist king -then boldly advanced towards the capital. The gates of the city, like -those of York, he found closed against him, but he possessed sufficient -means to unlock the one as he had done the other. There were upwards -of 2,000 persons of rank and influence, including no less than 400 -knights and gentlemen, crowded into the various sanctuaries of London -and Westminster, who were ready not only to declare, but to act in his -favour. The ladies, who were charmed with the gay and gallant disposition -of Edward, were avowedly his zealous friends; and perhaps still more -persuasive was the fact that the jovial monarch owed large sums to the -merchants, who saw in his return their only chance of payment. Edward -even succeeded in securing the Archbishop of York, who was, in his -brother Warwick's absence, the custodian of the city and the person -of King Henry. All regard to oaths, and all fidelity to principle or -party, seemed to have disappeared at this epoch. By permission of the -archbishop, Edward was admitted on Thursday, April 2nd, by a postern into -the bishop's palace, where he found the poor and helpless King Henry, and -immediately sent him to the Tower. - -So confident now was Edward of victory, that he disdained to shelter -himself any longer within the walls of the city, but marched out against -the enemy. It was late on Easter eve when the two armies met on Barnet -Common. Both had made long marches, Edward having left London that day. -The Earl of Warwick, being first on the ground, had chosen his position. -Edward, who came later, had to make his arrangements in the dark, the -consequence of which was, that he committed a great error. His right -wing, instead of confronting the left wing of Warwick, was opposed to his -centre, and the left wing of Edward consequently had no opponents, but -stretched far away to the west. Daylight must have discovered this error, -and most probably fatally for Edward; but day--the 14th of April--came -accompanied by a dense fog, believed to have been raised by a celebrated -magician, Friar Bungy. The left wing of each army, advancing through the -obscurity of the fog, and finding no enemy, wheeled in the direction of -the main body. By this movement the left wing of Warwick trampled down -the right wing of Edward, and defeating it, pursued the flying Yorkists -through Barnet on the way to London. - -Meantime, the left wing of the Yorkists, instead of encountering the -right of the Lancastrians, came up so as to strengthen their own centre, -where Edward and Warwick were contending with all their might against -each other. Both chiefs were in the very front of the battle, which was -raging with the utmost fury. Warwick, contrary to his custom, had been -persuaded by his brother Montague to dismount, send away his horse, and -fight on foot. - -The battle commenced at four o'clock in the morning, and lasted till -ten. The rage of the combatants was terrible, and the slaughter was -proportionate, for Edward, exasperated at the commons, who had shown such -favour to Warwick on all occasions, had, contrary to his usual custom, -issued orders to spare none of them, and to kill all the leaders if -possible. The conflict was terminated by a singular mistake. The device -of the Earl of Oxford, who was fighting for Warwick, was a star with -rays, emblazoned both on the front and back of his soldiers' coats. The -device of Edward's own soldiers on this occasion was a sun with rays. -Oxford had beaten his opponents in the field, and was returning to assist -Warwick, when Warwick's troops, mistaking through the mist the stars of -Oxford for the sun of Edward, fell upon Oxford's followers, supposing -them to be Yorkists, and put them to flight. Oxford fled with 800 of -his soldiers, supposing himself the object of some fatal treachery, -while, on the other hand, Warwick, weakened by the apparent defection of -Oxford, and his troops thrown into confusion, rushed desperately into the -thickest of the enemy, trusting thus to revive the courage of his troops, -and was thus slain, fighting. - -No sooner was the body of Warwick, stripped of its armour and covered -with wounds, discovered on the field, than his forces gave way, and fled -amain. Thus fell the great "king-maker," who so long had kept alive the -spirit of contention, placing the crown first on one head and then on -another. With him perished the power of his faction and the prosperity of -his family. On the field with him lay all the chief lords who fought on -his side, except the Earl of Oxford and the Duke of Somerset, who escaped -into Wales, and joined Jasper Tudor, the Earl of Pembroke, who was in -arms for Henry. The Duke of Exeter was taken up for dead, but being found -to be alive, he was conveyed by his servants secretly to the sanctuary -at Westminster; but the holiness of the sanctuary does not appear to -have proved any defence against the lawless vengeance of Edward, for, -some months after, his dead body was found floating in the sea near -Dover. On the side of Edward fell the Lords Say and Cromwell, Sir John -Lisle, the son of Lord Berners, and many other squires and gentlemen. -The soldiers who fell on both sides have been variously stated at from -1,000 to 10,000; the number more commonly credited is about 1,500. The -dead were buried where they fell, and a chapel was erected near the spot -for the repose of their souls. The battle-field is now marked by a stone -obelisk. The bodies of Warwick and Montague were exposed for three days, -naked, on the floor of St. Paul's Church, as a striking warning against -subjects interfering with kings and crowns. They were then conveyed to -the burial-place of their family in the abbey of Bilsam, in Berkshire. - -In the fall of Warwick Edward might justly suppose that he saw the only -real obstacle to the permanency of his own power; but Margaret was still -alive. She was no longer, however, the elastic and indomitable Margaret -who had led her forces up to the battles of St. Albans, Northampton, -Wakefield, Towton, and Hexham. On the day that she landed at Weymouth, -imagining she had now nothing to do but to march in triumph to London, -and resume with her husband their vacant throne, the fatal battle of -Barnet was fought. The first news she received was of the total overthrow -of her party and the death of Warwick. The life of the great king-maker -might have caused her future trouble; his fall was her total ruin. -Confounded by the tidings, her once lofty spirit abandoned her, and she -sank on the ground in a swoon. - -It was the plan of her generals to hasten to Pembroke; and, having -effected a junction with him, to proceed to Cheshire, to render the army -effective by a good body of archers. But Edward, always rapid in his -movements, allowed them no time for so formidable a combination. He left -London on the 19th of April, and reached Tewkesbury on the 3rd of May. -Margaret and her company set out from Bath, and prepared to cross the -Severn at Gloucester, to join Pembroke and Jasper Tudor. But the people -of Gloucester had fortified the bridge, and neither threats nor bribes -could induce them to let her pass. She then marched on to Tewkesbury, -near which they found Edward already awaiting them. - -The troops being worn down by the fatigue of a long and fearful march, -Margaret was in the utmost anxiety to avoid an engagement, and to press -on to their friends in Wales. But Somerset represented that such a thing -was utterly impossible. For a night and a day the foot-soldiers had been -plunging along for six-and-thirty miles through a foul country--all -lanes, and stony ways, betwixt woods, and having no proper refreshment. -To move farther in the face of the enemy was out of the question. He must -pitch his camp in the park, and take such fortune as God should send. - -The queen, as well as the most experienced officers of the army, were -much averse from this, but the duke either could not or would not move, -and Edward presented himself in readiness for battle. Thus compelled to -give up the cheering hope of a junction with the Welsh army, Margaret and -her son did all in their power to inspire the soldiers with courage for -this most eventful conflict. The next morning, being the 4th of May, the -forces were drawn out in order. The Duke of Somerset took the charge of -the main body. The Prince of Wales commanded the second division under -the direction of Lord Wenlock and the Prior of St. John's. The Earl of -Devonshire brought up the rear. The Lancastrian army was entrenched -in a particularly strong position on the banks of the Severn; having, -both in front and on the flanks, a country so deeply intersected with -lanes, hedges, and ditches, that there was scarcely any approaching it. -This grand advantage, however, was completely lost by the folly and -impetuosity of the Duke of Somerset, who, not content to defend himself -against the superior forces and heavier artillery of Edward, rushed -out beyond the entrenchments, where he was speedily taken in flank by -a body of 200 spearsmen, and thrown into confusion. The Lancastrians -were utterly defeated, and the Prince of Wales fell on the field, or, -according to other accounts, was put to death immediately after the -battle. Somerset was condemned and beheaded. - -No fate can be conceived more consummately wretched than that of -Margaret now--her cause utterly ruined, her only son slain, her husband -and herself the captives of their haughty enemies. They who had thus -barbarously shed the blood of the prince might, with a little cunning, -shed that of her husband and herself. No such good fortune awaited -Margaret. She was doomed to hear of the death of her imprisoned consort, -and to be left to long years of grief over the utter wreck of crown, -husband, child, and friends--a great and distinguished band. - -Edward returned to London triumphant over all his enemies, and the next -morning Henry VI. was found dead in the Tower. It was given out that he -died of grief and melancholy, but nobody at that day doubted that he was -murdered, and it was generally attributed to Richard of Gloucester, but -probably without reason. The continuator of the chronicles of Croyland -prays that the doer of the deed, whoever he was, may have time for -repentance, and declares that it was done by "an agent of the tyrant" and -a subject of the murdered king. Who was this? The chronicler in Leland -points it out plainly. "That night," he says, "King Henry was put to -death in the Tower, the Duke of Gloucester and divers of his men being -there." Fabyan, also a contemporary, says, "Divers tales were told, but -the most common fame went that he was sticked with a dagger by the hands -of the Duke Gloucester." - -To satisfy the people the same means were resorted to as in the case of -Richard II. The body of the unfortunate king was conveyed on a bier, with -the face exposed, from the Tower through Cheapside to St. Paul's. Four -of the principal chroniclers of the day assert that the fresh blood from -his wounds "welled upon the pavement," giving certain evidence of the -manner of his death; and the same thing occurred when he was removed to -Blackfriars. To get rid of so unsatisfactory a proof of Henry's natural -death the body was the same day put into a barge with a guard of soldiers -from Calais, and thus, says the Croyland chronicler, "without singing or -saying, he was conveyed up the dark waters of the Thames at midnight, to -his silent interment at Chertsey Abbey, where it was long pretended that -miracles were performed at his tomb." - -Henry's reputation for holiness during his life, and his tragical death, -occasioned such a resort to his tomb, that Gloucester, on mounting -the throne as Richard III., caused the remains of the poor king to be -removed, it was said, to Windsor. Afterwards, when Henry VII. wished -to convey them to Westminster, they could not be found, having been -carefully concealed from public attention. - -Margaret, who was conveyed to the Tower the very night on which her -husband was murdered there, was at first rigorously treated. There -had been an attempt on the part of the Bastard of Falconberg, who was -vice-admiral under Warwick, to liberate Henry, during the absence -of Edward and Gloucester, at the battle of Tewkesbury. He landed at -Blackwall with a body of marines, and, calling on the people of Essex and -Kent to aid him, made two desperate attempts to penetrate to the Tower, -burning Bishopsgate, but was repulsed, and on the approach of Edward, -retreated. To prevent any similar attempt in favour of Margaret she was -successively removed to Windsor, and lastly to Wallingford. She remained -a prisoner for five years, when at the entreaty of King Rene, she was -ransomed by Louis of France, and retired to the castle of Recule, near -Angers. She died at the chateau of Dampierre, near Saumur, in 1482, in -the fifty-third year of her age. - -The two brothers, Clarence and Gloucester, came now, on the first return -of peace, to quarrel at the very foot of the throne for the vast property -of Warwick. Edward would fain have forgotten everything else in his -pleasures. The blood upon his own hands gave him no concern; he was only -anxious to devote his leisure hours to Jane Shore, the silversmith's -wife, whom he had, like numbers of other ladies, seduced from her duty. -But Clarence and Gloucester broke through his gaieties with their -wranglings and mutual menaces. - -The fact was, that Clarence having, as we have seen, married Isabella, -the eldest daughter, was determined, if possible, to monopolise all the -property of Warwick, as if the eldest daughter were sole heiress. But -Gloucester, who was always on the look out for his own aggrandisement, -now cast his eyes on Anne, the other daughter, who had been married to -the Prince of Wales. Clarence, aware that he should have a daring and a -lawless rival in Gloucester, in regard to the property, opposed the match -with all his might. On this point they rose to high words and much heat. -Clarence declared at length that Richard might marry Anne if he pleased, -but that he should have no share whatever in the property; but only let -Richard get the lady, and he would soon possess himself of the lands. -The question was debated by the two brothers with such fury before the -council, that civil war was anticipated. - -All this time the property was rightfully that of the widow of Warwick, -the mother of the two young ladies. Anne, the Countess of Warwick, -was the sole heiress of the vast estates of the Despensers and the -Beauchamps, Earls of Warwick. To all the great court party, who had -once been her friends--as the world calls friendship--and many of them -her humble flatterers and admirers, she applied from her sanctuary at -Beaulieu, in the most moving terms, for their kind aid in obtaining a -modicum of freedom and support out of her own lands, the most wealthy -in England. But it was not her that the two princes courted, it was her -property; and nobody dared or cared to move a finger in favour of the -once great Anne of Warwick. The daughter, Anne, so far from desiring to -marry Richard of Gloucester, detested him. Cooperating, therefore, with -the wishes and interests of Clarence, she, by his assistance, escaped -out of the sanctuary of Beaulieu, where she had been with the countess, -her mother, and disappeared. For some time no trace of her could be -discovered; but Gloucester had his spies and emissaries everywhere; and, -at length, the daughter of Warwick, and the future queen of England, was -found in the guise of a cookmaid in London. Gloucester removed her to the -sanctuary of St. Martin's-le-Grand. Afterwards she was allowed to visit -her uncle, the Archbishop of York, before his disgrace, and the Queen -Margaret in the Tower. All this was probably conceded by Gloucester in -order to win Anne's favour; but Anne still repelling with disgust his -addresses, he refused her these solaces, and procuring the removal of her -mother from Beaulieu, sent her, under the escort of Sir John Tyrrell, -into the north, where he is said to have kept her confined till his own -death, even while she was his mother-in-law. Anne was at length compelled -to marry the hated Gloucester; and her hatred appeared to increase from -nearer acquaintance, for she was soon after praying for a divorce. - -[Illustration: BURIAL OF KING HENRY. (_See p._ 36.)] - -The king was compelled to award to Gloucester a large share of Warwick's -property; and the servile Parliament passed an act in 1474, embodying the -disgraceful commands of these most unnatural and unprincipled princes. -The two daughters were to succeed to the Warwick property, as though -their mother, the possessor in her own right, were dead. If either of -them should die before her husband, he should continue to retain her -estates during his natural life. If a divorce should take place between -Richard and Anne, for which Anne was striving, Richard was still to -retain her property, provided he married or did his best to marry her to -some one else. Thus, by this most iniquitous arrangement, while Richard -kept his wife's property, they made it a motive with her to force her -into some other alliance, if not so hateful, perhaps more degrading. It -is impossible to conceive the tyranny of vice and selfishness carried -farther than in these odious transactions. But this was not all. There -was living a son of the Marquis of Montague, Warwick's brother; and to -prevent any claim from him as next heir male, all such lands as he might -become the claimant of were tied upon Clarence and Gloucester, and their -heirs, so long as there should remain any heirs male of the marquis. By -these means did these amiable brothers imagine that they had stepped into -the full and perpetual possession of the enormous wealth of the great -Warwick. Edward, having rather smoothed over than appeased the jealousies -of his brothers, now turned his ambition to foreign conquest. - -In all his contests at home, Edward had shown great military talents. -He had fought ten battles, and never lost one; for at the time of the -treason of Lord Montague in 1470, he had not fought at all, but, deserted -by his army, had fled to Flanders. He had always entertained a flattering -idea that he could emulate the martial glory of the Edwards and of Henry -V., and once more recover the lost territories of France, and the lost -prestige of the British arms on the Continent. His relations with France -and Burgundy were such as encouraged this roseate notion. Louis XI. had -supported the claims of Henry, and accomplishing the alliance of Margaret -and his most formidable enemy Warwick, had sent them to push him from his -throne. The time appeared to be arrived for inflicting full retribution. -Burgundy was his brother-in-law, and had aided him in recovering his -crown. True, the assistance of Burgundy had not been prompted by love to -him, but by enmity to Warwick and Louis; nor had his reception of him in -his distress been such as to merit much gratitude, but he did not care to -probe too deeply into the motives of the prince; the great matter was, -that Burgundy was the antagonist of Louis, and their interests were, -therefore, the same. - -The Duke of Burgundy, formerly Count of Charolais--called Charles le -Temeraire, or the Bold--was no match for the cold and politic Louis XI. -He and his ally, the Duke of Brittany, fancied themselves incapable of -standing their ground against Louis, and now made an offer of mutual -alliance to Edward, for the purpose of enforcing their common claims -in France. Nothing could accord more with the desires of Edward than -this proposition. He had employed 1473 in settling his disputes with -the Hanse Towns, in confirming the truce with Scotland, and renewing -his alliances with Portugal and Denmark. His Parliament had granted -him large supplies. They voted him a tenth of rents, or two shillings -in the pound, calculated to produce at that day L31,460, equal to more -than L300,000 of our present money. They then added to this a whole -fifteenth, and three-quarters of another. But when Edward entered into -the scheme of Burgundy and Brittany for the French conquest, they -granted him permission to raise any further moneys by what were called -_benevolences_, or free gifts--a kind of exaction perhaps more irksome -than any other, because it was vague, arbitrary, and put the advances of -the subjects on the basis of loyalty. Such a mode of fleecing the people -had been resorted to under Henry III. and Richard II. Now there was added -a clause to the Act of Parliament, providing that the proceeds of the -fifteenth should be deposited in religious houses, and, if the French -campaign should not take place, should be refunded to the people: as if -any one had ever heard of taxes, once obtained, ever being refunded to -the payers! - -All being in readiness, Edward passed over from Sandwich to Calais, where -he landed on the 22nd of June, 1475. He had with him 1,500 men-at-arms, -and 15,000 archers, an army with which the former Edwards would have -made Louis tremble on his throne. He dispatched Garter-king-at-arms with -a letter of defiance to Louis, demanding nothing less than the crown of -France. The position of Louis was to all appearance most critical. If -Burgundy, Brittany, and the Count of St. Pol, the Constable of France, -who had entered into the league against him, had acted wisely and -faithfully together, the war must have been as dreadful, and the losses -of France as severe, as in the past days. But probably Louis was well -satisfied of the crumbling character of the coalition. Comines, who was -at the time in the service of Louis, has left us ample accounts of these -transactions and, according to them, the conduct of the French king was -masterly in the extreme. Instead of firing with resentment at the proud -demands of the letter, he took the herald politely into his private -closet, and there, in the most courteous and familiar manner, told him -he was sorry for this misunderstanding with the King of England; that, -for his part, he had the highest respect for Edward, and desired to be -on amicable terms with him, but that he knew very well that all this was -stirred up by the Duke of Burgundy and the Constable St. Pol, who would -be the very first to abandon Edward, if any difficulty arose, or after -they had got their own turn served. He put it to the herald how much -better it would be for England and France to be on good terms, and gave -the greatest weight to his arguments by smilingly placing in Garter's -hand a purse of 300 crowns, assuring him that if he used his endeavours -effectually to preserve the peace between the two kingdoms, he would add -to it a thousand more. - -The herald was so completely captivated by the suavity, the sound -reasons, and the money of Louis, that he promised to do everything in his -power to promote a peace, and advised the king to open a correspondence -with the Lords Howard and Stanley, noblemen not only high in the favour -of Edward, but secretly adverse to this expedition. This being settled, -Louis committed Garter-king-at-arms to the care of Philip de Comines, -telling him to give the herald publicly a piece of crimson velvet thirty -ells in length, as though it were the only present, and to get him away -as soon as he could, with all courtesy, without allowing him to hold any -communication with the courtiers. This being done, Louis summoned his -great barons and the rest of the courtiers around him, and ordered the -letter of defiance to be read aloud, all the time sitting with a look of -the greatest tranquillity, for he was himself much assured by what he had -heard from the herald. - -The words of Louis came rapidly to pass as regarded Edward's allies. -Nothing could equal the folly of Burgundy and the treachery of the -others. Charles the Rash, instead of coming up punctually with his -promised forces, and in his usual wild way, led them to avenge some -affront from the Duke of Lorraine, and the princes of Germany, far away -from the really important scene of action. When the duke appeared in -Edward's camp, with only a small retinue instead of a large army, and -there was no prospect of his rendering any effective aid that summer, -Edward was highly chagrined. All his officers were eager for the -campaign, promising themselves a renewal of the fame and booty which -their fathers had won. But when Edward advanced from Peronne, where he -lay, to St. Quentin, on the assurances of Burgundy that St. Pol, who held -it, would open its gates to him, and when, instead of such surrender, St. -Pol fired on his troops from the walls, the king's wrath knew no bounds; -he upbraided the duke with his conduct in thus deceiving and making a -laughing-stock of him, and Burgundy retired in haste from the English -camp. To add to Edward's disgust, Burgundy and his subjects had from the -first landing of the English betrayed the utmost reluctance to admit the -British forces into any of their towns. Artois and Picardy were shut -against them, as if they came, not as allies, but as intending conquerors. - -Precisely at this juncture, the herald returned with his narrative of -his kind reception, and the amiable disposition of Louis. This was by -no means unwelcome in the present temper of Edward. It gave him the -most direct prospect of punishing his perfidious allies. On the heels -of Garter-king-at-arms arrived heralds from Louis, confirming all he -had stated, and offering every means of pacification. The king called a -council in the camp of Peronne, in which it was resolved to negotiate a -peace with France on three grounds--the approach of winter, the absence -of all supplies for the army, and the failure of assistance from the -allies. For two months, while the terms of this treaty were being -discussed, the agents and money of Louis were freely circulating amongst -the courtiers and ministers of Edward. - -The plenipotentiaries found all their labours wonderfully smoothed by the -desire of Louis to see the soil of France as soon as possible clear of -the English army. The French King agreed to almost everything proposed, -never intending to fulfil a tithe of his contracts. A truce for seven -years was concluded at Amiens. The King of France agreed to pay the -King of England 75,000 crowns within the next fifteen days; and 50,000 -crowns a year during their joint lives, to be paid in London. Apparently -prodigal of his money, it was at this time that Louis paid 50,000 crowns -for the ransom of Queen Margaret. To bind the alliance still more firmly, -Edward proposed that the dauphin should marry his eldest daughter, -Elizabeth, which was readily assented to. To testify his great joy in the -termination of this treaty, Louis sent 300 cart-loads of the best wines -of France into the English camp, and proposed, in order to increase the -feeling of friendship between the two monarchs, that they should have a -personal interview before Edward's departure. - -The treaty being signed, Gloucester and some others of the chief nobility -who were averse from the peace, and therefore would not attend the -meeting of the kings, now rode into Amiens to pay their court to him, and -Louis received them with that air of pleasure which he could so easily -put on, entertained them luxuriously, and presented them with rich gifts -of plate and horses. - -Thus was this singular treaty concluded, and each monarch thought most -advantageously to himself. Edward had paid off the Duke of Burgundy for -neglecting to fulfil his agreement as to the campaign, and he now sent -the duke word, patronisingly, that if he wished, he would get a similar -truce for him; to which Burgundy sent an indignant answer. Edward had, -moreover, got a good round sum of money to pay his army, and a yearly -income of 50,000 crowns for life. Like Charles II. afterwards, he did -not trouble himself about the disgrace and disadvantage of having made -himself a pensioner of France. Besides this, he had arranged to set his -eldest daughter on the French throne after Louis' decease. - -The people were very much of the French king's opinion, that their own -monarch had been sadly over-reached. The army, which on its return was -disbanded, promoted this feeling everywhere. The soldiers came back -disappointed of the plunder of France, and accordingly vented their -chagrin on the king and his courtiers, who for their private emolument -had sold, they said, the honour of the nation. As to the general terms of -the peace, the people had good cause to be satisfied. It was much better -for the nation to be left at liberty to pursue its profitable trade than -to be year after year drained of its substance to carry on a useless war. -But the real cause of discontent was the annual bribe, which bound the -king and his court to wink at any proceedings of France on the Continent -against our allies and commercial connections, and even to suffer -intrusions on our own trade, rather than incur the danger of losing the -pay of the French king. - -Edward endeavoured to silence these murmurs by severity. He sent amongst -the people spies who reported any obnoxious language, and he punished -offenders without mercy. At the same time, he extended an equally stern -hand towards all disturbers of the peace; the disbanded soldiers having -collected into hordes, and spread murder and rapine through several of -the counties. Seeing, however, that the general discontent was such -that, should some Wat Tyler or Jack Cade arise, the consequences might -be terrible, he determined to ease the burdens of the people at the -expense of the higher classes. He therefore ordered a rigorous exaction -of the customs; laid frequent tenths on the clergy; resumed many of the -estates of the Crown; and compelled the holders of estates to compound by -heavy fines for the omission of any of their duties as feudal tenants. -He moreover entered boldly into trade. Instead of permitting his ships -to lie rotting in port--since he had no occasion for them as transport -vessels,--he sent out in them wool, tin, cloth, and other merchandise, -and brought back from the ports of the Levant the produce of the East. -By these means Edward became the wealthiest monarch of Europe, and while -he soon grew popular with the people, who felt the weight of taxation -annually decreasing, he became equally formidable to those who had more -reason to complain. - -But however generally prosperous was the remainder of Edward's reign, -it was to himself filled with the deepest causes of grief and remorse. -The part which his brother Clarence had taken, his allying himself -to Warwick, with the design to depose Edward and secure the crown to -himself, could never be forgotten. He had been named the successor to -the Prince of Wales, the son of Henry VI., and, should anything happen -to Edward, might assert that claim to the prejudice of his own son. -Still further, Clarence had given mortal offence to the queen. Her -father and her brother had been put to death in Clarence's name. Her -brother Anthony, afterwards, had narrowly escaped the same fate from -the orders of Clarence. He had been forward in the charge of sorcery -against her mother, the Duchess Jacquetta. Scarcely less had he incensed -his brother Richard of Gloucester, the vindictive and never forgiving, -by his opposition to his marriage with Anne of Warwick, and to sharing -any of Warwick's property with him. Clarence was immensely rich, from -the possession of the bulk of Warwick's vast estates, and he seems to -have borne himself haughtily, as if he were another Warwick. He was at -the head of a large party of malcontents, those who hated and envied the -queen's family, and those who had been made to yield up their valuable -grants from the crown under Henry VI. Clarence himself was one of the -reluctant parties thus forced to disgorge some of his lands, under the -act of resumption, on Edward's return from France. While brooding over -this offence, his wife Isabella of Warwick died, on the 22nd of December, -1476, just after the birth of her third child. Clarence, who was so -extremely attached to her that he was almost beside himself at the loss, -accused, brought to trial, and procured the condemnation of one of her -attendants, on the charge of having poisoned her. - -Directly after this, January 5th, 1477, the Duke of Burgundy fell at -the battle of Nancy, in his vain struggle against the Duke of Lorraine, -backed by the valiant Swiss. His splendid domains fell to his only -daughter, Mary, who immediately became the object of the most eager -desire to numerous princes. Louis of France disdained to sue for her -hand for the Dauphin, but attacked her territories, and hoped to secure -both them and her by conquest. There had been some treaty for her by the -Archduke Maximilian, of Austria, for his son during the late duke's life; -but now Clarence aroused himself from his grief for the loss of his wife, -and made zealous court, on his own account, to this great heiress. Her -mother, Margaret, the sister of Clarence, favoured his suit warmly, but -the idea of such an alliance struck Edward with dismay. Clarence already -was far too powerful. Should he succeed in placing himself at the head -of one of the most powerful states on the Continent, and with his avowed -claims on the English crown, and his undisguised enmity to Edward's queen -and family, the mischief he might do was incalculable. - -[Illustration: LOUIS XI. AND THE HERALD. (_See p._ 38.)] - -Edward, therefore, lost no time in putting in his most decided -opposition. In this cause he was zealously seconded by Gloucester. But if -ever there was a choice of a rival most unfortunate, and even insulting, -it was that put forward by Edward against Clarence, in the person of -Lord Rivers, the queen's brother. This match was rejected by the court -of Burgundy with disdain, and only heightened the hatred of the queen in -England--an odium which fell heavily on her in after years. She was now -regarded as a woman who, not content with filling all the chief houses of -England with her kin, aimed at filling the highest Continental thrones -with them. The result was that Edward succeeded in defeating Clarence -without gaining his own, or rather his wife's, object. - -From this moment Clarence became at deadly feud with Edward and all his -family. The king, the queen, and Gloucester, united in a league against -him, which, where such men were concerned--men never scrupling to destroy -those who opposed them--boded him little good. The conduct of Clarence -was calculated to exasperate this enmity, and to expose him to its -attacks. He vented his wrath against all the parties who had thwarted -him, king, queen, and Gloucester, in the bitterest and most public -manner; and on the other side, occasions were found to stimulate him to -more disloyal conduct. They began with attacking his friends and members -of his household. John Stacey, a priest in his service, was charged with -having practised sorcery to procure the death of Lord Beauchamp, and -being put to the torture was brought to confess that Thomas Burdett, -a gentleman of Arrow, in Warwickshire, also a gentleman of the duke's -household, and greatly beloved by Clarence, was an accomplice. It was -well understood why this confession was wrung from the poor priest. -Thomas Burdett had a fine white stag in his park, on which he set great -value. Edward in hunting had shot this stag, and Burdett, in his anger at -the deed, had been reported to have said that he wished the horns of the -deer were in the stomach of the person who had advised the king to insult -him by killing it. This speech, real or imaginary, had been carefully -conveyed to the king, and he thus took his revenge. Thomas Burdett was -accused of high treason, tried, and, by the servile judges and jury, -condemned, and beheaded at Tyburn. - -Clarence had exerted himself to save the lives of both these persons -in vain. They both died protesting their innocence, and the next day -Clarence entered the council, bringing Dr. Goddard, a clergyman, who -appeared on various occasions in those times as a popular agitator. -Goddard attested the dying declarations of the sufferers; and Clarence, -with an honourable but imprudent zeal, warmly denounced the destruction -of his innocent friends. Edward and the court were at Windsor, and these -proceedings were duly carried thither by the enemies of Clarence. Soon -it was reported that, having for many days sat sullenly silent at the -council-board, with folded arms, he had started up and uttered the most -disloyal words, accusing the queen of sorcery, which she had learned of -her mother, and even implicating the king in the accusation. - -The fate of Clarence was sealed. The queen and Gloucester were vehement -against him. Edward hurried to Westminster; Clarence was arrested and -conducted by the king himself to the Tower. On the 16th of January a -Parliament was assembled, and Edward himself appeared as the accuser -of his brother at the bar of the Lords. He charged him with a design -to dethrone and destroy him and his family. He retorted upon him the -charge of sorcery, and of dealing with masters of the black art for -this treasonable purpose; that to raise a rebellion he had supplied his -servants with vast quantities of money, wine, venison, and provisions, to -feast the people, and to fill their minds at such feasts with the belief -that Burdett and Stacey had been wrongfully put to death; that Clarence -had engaged numbers of people to swear to stand by him and his heirs as -rightful claimants of the throne--asserting that Edward was, in truth, a -bastard, and had no right whatever to the crown; that to gain the throne, -and support himself upon it, he had had constant application to the arts -for which his queen and her mother were famous, and had not hesitated -to poison and destroy in secret. As for himself--Clarence--he pledged -himself to restore all the lands and honours of the Lancastrians, when he -gained his own royal rights. - -To these monstrous charges Clarence made a vehement reply, but posterity -has no means of judging of the truth or force of what he said, for the -whole of his defence was omitted in the rolls of Parliament. Not a soul -dared to say a word on his behalf. Edward brought forward witnesses to -swear to everything he alleged; the duke was condemned to death; and the -Commons being summoned to attend, confirmed the sentence. No attempt was -made to put the sentence into execution, but about ten days later it was -announced that Clarence had died in the Tower. The precise mode of his -death has never been clearly ascertained. The generally received account -is that of Fabyan, a cotemporary, who says that he was drowned in a butt -of Malmsey wine. - -Edward now again gave himself up to his pleasures, and would have been -glad, in the midst of his amorous intrigues, to have forgotten public -affairs altogether. But for this the times were too much out of joint. -It was not in England alone that the elements of faction had been in -agitation. Nearly the whole of Europe had witnessed the contentions of -overgrown nobles and vassal princes by which almost every crown had -been endangered, and the regal authority in many cases brought into -contempt. The changes consequent on the accession of Henry IV. we have -fully detailed; those storms which raged around the throne of France we -have partially seen; but similar dissensions betwixt the Electors of -Germany and the Emperor Sigismund prevailed; the Netherlands were divided -against each other; and Spain was equally disturbed by the conspiracies -of the nobles against the crown. Edward of England, as if sensible of the -weakness of his position, strove anxiously to strengthen it by foreign -alliances. Though his children were far too young to contract actual -marriages, he made treaties which should place his daughters on a number -of the chief thrones. Some of these contracts were entered into almost -as soon as those concerned in them were born. Elizabeth, the eldest, -was affianced to the Dauphin of France; Cecilia, the second, to the -eldest son and heir of the King of Scotland; Anne, to the infant son -of Maximilian, Archduke of Austria, and husband of Mary of Burgundy; -Catherine, to the heir of the King of Spain. His eldest son was engaged -to the eldest daughter of the Duke of Brittany. On the other hand, all -these royal negotiators appear to have been equally impressed with the -precarious character of Edward's power, and were ready at the first -moment to annul the contracts. - -That subtle monarch, Louis of France, never from the first moment -seriously meant to adhere to his engagement; and in a very few years all -these anxiously-planned marriages were blown away like summer clouds. -Edward was not long in suspecting the hollowness of the conduct of -Louis XI. Though repeatedly reminded that the time was come to fetch -the Princess of England, in order to complete her education in France, -preparatory to her occupying the station assigned to her there, Louis -took no measures for this purpose; and when Edward remonstrated on -the subject, threatened to withdraw the payment of the annual 50,000 -crowns. Edward boiled with indignation, and vowed, amongst his immediate -courtiers that he would hunt up the old fox in his own cover if he did -not mind. But that wily prince was not so easily dealt with. He saw -with chagrin the proposed alliances betwixt Edward and his dangerous -neighbours, the Duke of Brittany and Maximilian of Austria, now, through -his wife, the ruler of Burgundy. Edward, in his resentment at the threat -of Louis to withdraw his annual payment, made offers of closer union -with Maximilian and Mary of Burgundy, and engaged, on condition that they -should pay him the 50,000 crowns which he now had from Louis, to assist -them against that monarch. But Louis was not to be out-manoeuvred in -this manner; he was a profounder master in all the arts of diplomatic -stratagem than Edward. He, therefore, made secret and tempting advances -to Maximilian and Mary, one article of which devoted the Dauphin to their -infant daughter, despite of her engagement to the English heir. At the -same time he stirred up sufficient trouble in Scotland to occupy Edward -for some time. - -The circumstances of Scotland were at this time very favourable to the -mischievous interference of Louis. James III. was a monarch far beyond -his age. He was of a pacific and philosophic turn. Surrounded by a rude -and ignorant nobility, he conceived an infinite contempt for them, and -was not politic enough to conceal it. They were received at court with -coldness and neglect, while they saw men of science and letters admitted -to the king's most intimate conversation. To avenge their slighted -dignity, they stirred up the king's two brothers, the Duke of Albany, -and the Earl of Mar, to rebellion. James, however, showed that, though -pacifically disposed, he did not lack energy. He seized Mar and Albany, -and confined them--Mar in Craigmillar Castle, and Albany in that of -Edinburgh. Albany managed to escape, and made his way, by means of a -French vessel, to France. Mar, who was of a vehement temper, was seized -in his prison with fever and delirium. He was, therefore, removed from -Craigmillar to a house in the Canongate, at Edinburgh, where, having -been bled, he is said on a return of the paroxysm to have torn off his -bandages while in a warm bath, and died from loss of blood. The incident -was suspicious; but public opinion, for the most part, exonerated the -king from the charge of any criminal intention; and even when he was -afterwards deposed, no such charge was preferred against him by the -hostile faction. - -It was at this crisis that Edward--roused to indignation by the conduct -of the French king, who neglected to fetch the Princess of England, -and withdrew his annual payment of the 50,000 crowns, and still more -by tracing Louis' hand in Scottish affairs--invited over Albany from -Paris, promising to set him on the throne of Scotland. Albany, smarting -with his brother's treatment, was but too ready to accept the proposal. -Edward launched reproaches against the King of Scotland for his perfidy -in listening to Louis of France, whilst under the closest engagements -with himself. Three years' payments of the dowry of Edward's daughter, -Cecilia, had already been paid to the Scottish monarch, and yet he had -thrown constant obstacles in the way of a marriage agreed upon between -the sister of James and the Earl Rivers, the brother-in-law of Edward. In -reply to Edward's reproaches, James flung at him the epeithet of reiver, -or robber, alluding to his seizure of the English crown. - -Edward despatched an army to the borders of Scotland, under his brother -Gloucester and Albany. He engaged to place Albany on the throne of James, -and, in return, Albany, who was believed already to have two wives, was -to marry one of Edward's daughters. With upwards of 22,000 men Gloucester -and Albany reached Berwick, which speedily surrendered, though the castle -held out. - -James, to meet this formidable attack, summoned the whole force of his -kingdom to meet him on the Burghmuir, near Edinburgh, and at the head of -50,000 men advanced first to Soutra, and thence to Lauder. But sedition -was in his camp. Edward and Albany had opened communications with the -discontented nobles. Albany, at the treaty of Fotheringay, where the -Scottish scheme was made matter of compact, had assumed the title of -Alexander, King of Scotland, and the adhesion of the principal chiefs -of Scotland was confirmed by the impolicy of James, who had not only -given to his favourite Cochrane, the architect, the bulk of the estates, -along with the title of the Earl of Mar, but now placed him in command -of the artillery, and permitted him to excite the envy and indignation -of the great barons by the splendour of his appointments. Cochrane was, -therefore, put to death by a band of conspirators, headed by Archibald -Douglas, Earl of Angus, known, therefore, as Archibald "Bell-the-Cat." - -Albany and Gloucester quickly followed the conspirators to the Scottish -capital, and there appeared now every prospect of the crown being placed -on the head of Albany; but this was suddenly prevented by a new movement. -The whole body of the Scottish nobles had joined in the destruction of -the favourites, but there was a strong party of them who contemplated -nothing further. The loyalty of this section of the aristocracy being -well known to Angus and his friends, they had not ventured to communicate -to them their design of deposing James. The moment that this became -known to them, they quitted Edinburgh, collected an army, and planted -themselves near Haddington, determined to keep in check any proceedings -against the king. At the head of this loyal party were the Archbishop -of St. Andrews, the Bishop of Dunkeld, the Earl of Argyll, and Lord -Evandale. They called on all loyal Scots to gather to their standard, -and, being posted betwixt Edinburgh and the English border, threw -Gloucester and his adherents into considerable anxiety as to their -position. Albany, Gloucester, and the insurgent lords were glad to come -to an accommodation. It was agreed that James should retain the crown; -that Albany should receive a pardon and the restoration of his rank and -estates; that the money paid by Edward as part of the dowry of Cecilia -should be repaid by the citizens of Edinburgh, and that Berwick and its -castle should be ceded to England. Gloucester thereupon marched homeward, -and Albany laid siege to the castle of Edinburgh, where the Earls of -Atholl and Buchan still detained the king. He soon compelled them to -capitulate, and James being now in the hands of Albany, the two brothers, -in sign of perfect reconciliation, rode together on the same horse to the -palace of Holyrood, and slept together in the same bed. The treason of -Albany, however, only hid itself in his bosom for a season. - -The Scottish difficulty being settled, Edward now turned his attention -to Louis of France. Whilst the Scottish campaign had been proceeding, -an occurrence had taken place which raised Edward's wrath to its pitch. -Mary of Burgundy had one day gone out hawking in the neighbourhood of -Bruges, when her horse, in leaping a dyke, broke his girths, and threw -her violently against a tree. She died in consequence, leaving three -infant children, one of whom, Margaret, was a little girl two years -old. Mary herself was only twenty-five at the time of her death. No -sooner did Louis hear of this, than he immediately demanded the infant -Margaret for his son the Dauphin, totally regardless of the long-standing -engagement with Edward for the Princess Elizabeth. Maximilian of Austria, -the father of Margaret, was strongly opposed to the match, seeing too -well that Louis only wanted to make himself master of the territories of -the children. Louis, however, had intrigued with the people of Ghent, -and they would insist upon the alliance. Margaret was delivered to the -commissioners of Louis, who settled on her the provinces which he had -taken from her mother. The French, who regarded this event as bringing to -the kingdom some very fine territories, without the trouble and expense -of a conquest, received the infant princess with great rejoicings. - -[Illustration: ST. ANDREWS FROM THE PIER.] - -The rage of Edward knew no bounds. He had been so often warned, both -by his courtiers and by Parliament, that the crafty Louis would play -him false, that he now vowed to take the most consummate vengeance -upon him. The best means of inflicting the severest punishment on the -King of France engrossed his whole soul, and occupied him day and -night. This violent excitement, operating upon a constitution ruined -by sensual indulgence, brought on an illness, which, not attended to -at first, soon terminated his existence. He died on the 9th of April, -1483, in the twenty-third year of his reign and the forty-first of his -age. The approach of death awoke in him feelings of deep repentance. He -ordered full restitution to be made to all whom he had wronged, or from -whom he had extorted benevolences. But such orders were not likely to -receive much attention from Gloucester, who became the source of power. -Immediately after his death he was exposed on a board, naked from the -waist upwards, for ten hours, so that the lords spiritual and temporal, -and the Lord Mayor and aldermen of London, might see that he had received -no violence. He was then buried in Westminster Abbey, with great pomp and -ceremony. - -Edward IV. was a man calculated to make a great figure in rude and -martial times. He was handsome, lively of disposition, affable, and -brave. So long as circumstances demanded daring and exertion in the -field, he was triumphant and prosperous. Rapid in his resolves and in his -movements, undaunted in his attacks, he was uniformly victorious; but -peace at once unmanned him. With the last stroke of the sword and the -last sound of the trumpet he flung down his arms, and flew to riot and -debauchery. Ever the conqueror in the field, he was always defeated in -the city. He never could become conqueror over himself. By unrestrained -indulgence he destroyed his constitution, and hurried on to early death. -Whether in the battle-field or in the hour of peace, he was unrestrained -by principle, and sullied his most brilliant laurels with the blood of -the young, the innocent, and the victim incapable of resistance. He was -magnificent in his costume, luxurious at table, and most licentious in -his amours. As he advanced in years he grew corpulent and unhealthy. -He had the faculty of never forgetting the face of any one whom he had -once seen, or the name of any one who had done him an injury. There was -no person of any prominence of whom he did not know the whole history; -and he had a spy in almost every officer of his government, even to the -extremities of his kingdom. By this means he was early informed of the -slightest hostile movement, and by a rapid dash into the enemy's quarters -he soon extinguished opposition. Such a man might be a brilliant, but -could never be a good monarch. He attached no one to his fortunes; -therefore all his attempts to knit up alliances and his other projects -failed; and his sons, left young and unprotected, speedily perished. - -His children were Edward, his eldest son and successor, born in the -Sanctuary in 1470; Richard, Duke of York; Elizabeth, who was contracted -to the Dauphin, but who became the queen of Henry VII.; Cecilia, -contracted to James, afterwards IV. of Scotland, but married to John, -Viscount Wells; Anne, contracted to the son of Maximilian of Austria, but -married to Thomas Howard, Duke of Norfolk; Bridget, who became a nun at -Dartford; and Catherine, contracted to the Prince of Spain, but married -to William Courtney, Earl of Devonshire. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -EDWARD V. AND RICHARD III. - - Edward V. Proclaimed--The Two Parties of the Queen and of - Gloucester--Struggle in the Council--Gloucester's Plans--The Earl - Rivers and his Friends imprisoned--Gloucester secures the King and - conducts him to London--Indignities to the young King--Execution - of Lord Hastings--A Base Sermon at St. Paul's Cross--Gloucester - pronounces the two young Princes illegitimate--The Farce at - the Guildhall--Gloucester seizes the Crown--Richard crowned - in London and again at York--Buckingham revolts against - him--Murder of the Two Princes--Henry of Richmond--Failure - of Buckingham's Rising--Buckingham beheaded--Richard's Title - confirmed by Parliament--Queen Dowager and her Daughters quit the - Sanctuary--Death of Richard's Son and Heir--Proposes to marry his - Niece, Elizabeth of York--Richmond lands at Milford Haven--His - Progress--The Troubles of Richard--The Battle of Bosworth--The - Fallen Tyrant--End of the Wars of the Roses. - - -By the death of Edward IV. England was destined once more to witness all -the inconveniences which attend the minority of a king. Edward V. was a -boy of only thirteen. His mother and her family had made themselves many -enemies and few friends by their undisguised ambition and cupidity. The -Greys and Woodvilles had been lifted above the heads of the greatest -members of the aristocracy, enriched with the estates, and clothed with -the honours of ancient houses. They had been posted round the throne as -if to keep aloof all other candidates for favour and promotion. At the -time of the death of Edward IV., Richard of Gloucester was in the North, -attending to his duties as commander against the army in the Scottish -marches. He immediately commenced his proceedings with that consummate -and hypocritical art of which he was a first-rate master. He at once -put his retinue into deep mourning, and marched to York attended by 600 -knights and esquires. There he ordered the obsequies of the departed king -to be performed with all solemnity in the cathedral. He then summoned -the nobility and gentry of the country to take the oath of allegiance to -his nephew, Edward V., and he led the way by first taking it himself. -He wrote to the queen-mother to condole with her on her loss, and to -assure her of his zealous support of the rights of his beloved nephew. -He expressed his ardent desire for the close friendship of the queen, -of Earl Rivers, her brother, and of all her family. He announced his -intention of proceeding towards London to attend the coronation, and if -Elizabeth had not already known the man, she might have congratulated -herself on the enjoyment of so affectionate a brother-in-law, and so -brave and faithful a guardian of her son. - -But there is every reason to believe that the same messenger who carried -these letters of condolence and professed friendship to the queen, -carried others of a different tone to a hostile section of her council. -The Lords Howard, Hastings, and Stanley, though personal friends of -the late king, and Hastings, the chosen confidant and associate of his -pleasures, were at heart bitter enemies of the queen's family. It was -only the authority of Edward which had maintained peace between them, and -now they showed an undisguised hostility to them at the council-board. -The Earl Rivers, the queen's brother, and the Marquis of Dorset, her -son by her former marriage, occupied the chief seats at that board, and -Edward was no stranger to their real sentiments. This knowledge had led -him, on perceiving his health failing, to bring these rivals together, -and to state to them how much it concerned his son's peace and security -that they should forget all past causes of difference, and unite for -that loyal purpose. This they promised, but only with the tongue. No -sooner was the king dead, than all the old animosity and jealousy showed -themselves in aggravated form. - -Elizabeth now proposed that the young king should be brought up to town -in order to be crowned, and that he should be attended by a strong body -of soldiery for the safety of his person. At this, Hastings, who, in -common with three-fourths of the nobility, was jealous of the design of -the queen and her party to make themselves masters of the government -during the king's minority, no longer concealed his real feelings. Edward -had been kept on the borders of Wales, where the power of the Mortimers -and the Yorkists lay. It was believed that the object was to give a -preponderance to the royal family through the Welsh and the borderers; -and now to march up to London, attended by a Welsh army, appeared -a direct attempt to control the capital by these means. Hastings, -therefore, warmly demanded--"What need of an army? Who were the enemies -they had to dread? Was it the king's own uncle, Gloucester? Was it Lord -Stanley, or himself? Was this force meant by the Woodvilles to put an end -to all liberty in the council and the government, and thus to break the -very union the king, on his death-bed, had pledged them to?" Hastings -concluded his speech by hotly declaring that if the king was brought to -London by an army, he would quit the council and the kingdom. - -Deterred by this open opposition, Elizabeth yielded, and reduced the -proposed guard to 2,000 cavalry. But she did it with deep and too -well-founded anxiety. She had had too much opportunity of studying the -character of Gloucester to trust him, and the event very soon justified -her conviction. Secret messages had, during this interval, been passing -between Gloucester and Hastings and the Duke of Buckingham, a weak -man, descended from Thomas of Woodstock, the youngest son of Edward -III. No doubt he had instructed them to defeat any measures of the -Woodville family, which could leave the king in their hands. The moment -was accurately calculated; and, accordingly, when the Lords Rivers and -Grey, on their way to London with the young king, arrived at Stony -Stratford, they found Gloucester had already reached Northampton, only -ten miles from them. Gloucester had increased his forces on the way to -a formidable body, and he was there joined by the Duke of Buckingham -with 500 horse. The Lords Rivers and Grey, on learning the presence of -Gloucester at Northampton, immediately rode over to him to welcome him -in the king's name, and to consult with him on the plan of their united -entrance into London. Gloucester received them with all the marks of -that friendship which he had written to avow. They were invited to dine -and spend the night, the Dukes of Gloucester and Buckingham promising -to ride with them in the morning to pay their respects to the king. -Morning appeared, and Gloucester and Buckingham set out with them in the -best of humours. They rode in pleasant converse till, arriving at the -entrance of Stony Stratford, Gloucester suddenly accused Rivers and Grey -of having estranged the affections of the king from him. They denied the -charge with as much vehemence as astonishment; but they were immediately -arrested and conducted to the rear. Gloucester and Buckingham rode on -to the king, where the two dukes humbly on their knees professed their -loyalty and attachment. This they proceeded to make manifest by arresting -also the king's faithful servants, Sir Thomas Vaughan and Sir Richard -Hawse. In spite of the poor young king's entreaties, he led him away with -him to Northampton, his relatives and friends, Rivers, Grey, Vaughan, -and Hawse, following in the rear as prisoners. These prisoners of State -were sent off by Gloucester, under a strong guard, to his castle of -Pontefract--that blood-stained fortress, the very entrance to which, in -bondage, was equivalent to a death-warrant. - -At midnight following the very day of these transactions, being the 1st -of May, the appalling tidings reached the court that Gloucester, followed -by a large army, had seized the king, and sent prisoners the queen's -brother and son no one knew whither. Struck with consternation, and -deeply rueing her weakness in giving up her own plans of caution, the -queen, hastily seizing her younger son by the hand, and followed by her -daughters, rushed from the palace of Westminster to the Sanctuary, which -had protected her before; but not against a person so base and deadly -in his ruthless ambition as this her brother-in-law of Gloucester. She -knew the man, and she dreaded everything. Her eldest son, Dorset, who -was Keeper of the Tower, in his turn weakly abandoned that important -stronghold, and also fled to the Sanctuary. Rotherham, the Archbishop -of York and Chancellor of the realm, hastening thither, found the queen -seated on the rushes with which the floors at that time were strewn, an -image of abandonment and woe. - -[Illustration: GREAT SEAL OF EDWARD V.] - -Meanwhile, London was thrown into the utmost dismay and confusion. Many -of the nobles and citizens flew to arms, and some flocked to the queen at -Westminster, and others to Lord Hastings in London. Hastings continued to -assure them that there was no cause of alarm; that Gloucester was a true -man; and he was most likely the more ready to believe this himself from -his own dislike of the queen's family. - -On the 4th of May Gloucester conducted his royal captive into the -capital. At Hornsey Park, the lord mayor and corporation, in scarlet, met -the royal procession, followed by 400 citizens, all in violet. The Duke -of Gloucester, habited, like his followers, in mourning, rode into the -city before the king, with his cap in hand, bowing low to the people, and -pointing out to their notice the king, who rode in a mantle of purple -velvet. Edward V. was first conducted to Ely Place, to the bishop's -palace; but he was soon removed to the Tower, on the motion of the Duke -of Buckingham, on pretence that it was the proper place in which to await -his coronation. That ceremony Elizabeth and her council had ordered to -take place this very day, but the crafty Gloucester prevented that by not -arriving in time. He took up his quarters in Crosby Place, Bishopsgate, -where one part of the council constantly sat, while another, but lesser -portion of it, assembled with Lord Hastings and others in the Tower. -The day of the coronation was then fixed for the 22nd of June, leaving -an interval of nearly seven weeks in which the schemes of Gloucester -might be perfected. The first object of this man had been to impress the -queen and her party with his friendly disposition, till he had secured -their persons; this being, in a great measure, effected, the next was -to persuade the public of his loyalty to his nephew. For this purpose -he conducted him with such state into the capital, and so assiduously -pointed him out as their king to the people. To have openly proclaimed -his designs upon the crown would have united all parties against him. He -averted that by his calling on all men to swear fealty to his nephew, -and by first swearing it himself. Having now procured full possession -of the king's person, the next step was to secure that of his younger -brother, without which his plans would all be vain. He was surrendered by -the queen, and also placed in the Tower. - -[Illustration: EDWARD V.] - -The victims were secured. Gloucester had feigned himself a kind relation -till he had got them into prison; now he yearned to put forth his claws -and devour them. But for this it required that the public should be duly -prepared. His followers, and especially his imbecile tool, Buckingham, -busily spread through town and country reports of the most terrible -plots on the part of the queen and her friends to destroy Gloucester, -Buckingham, and other great lords, in order that she and her family might -have the king, and through him, the whole government, in their power. -They exhibited quantities of arms, which they declared the queen's party -had secreted in order to destroy Gloucester and the other patriotic -lords, as they pleased to represent them. This did not fail to produce -its effect on the people without, and it was promptly followed up by a -picture of treason in the very council. - -Lord Stanley, who was sincerely attached to Edward IV.'s family, had -often expressed his suspicions of what was going on at Crosby Hall; but -Hastings had replied, that he had a trusty agent there who informed him -of all that passed. But Hastings, who had been completely duped by -Gloucester, had been unconsciously playing into his hands, till his own -turn came. While he imagined that Richard was punishing the assumption -of the queen and her relations, the latter was preparing the bloody acts -of one of the most daring dramas of historic crime ever acted before the -world. Richard, no doubt, had thought Hastings ready to go the whole way -with him. At this crisis, however, he became aware that he was an honest -though misguided man, who would stand staunchly by his young sovereign, -and must therefore be removed. The tyrant was now beginning to feel -secure of his object, and prepared to seize it at whatever cost of crime -and infamy. Accordingly, on the 13th of June, says Sir Thomas More, he -came into the council about nine in the morning, "in a very merry humour. -After a little talking with them, he said to the Bishop of Ely, 'My lord, -you have very good strawberries in your garden in Holborn: I request -you let us have a mess of them.' 'Gladly, my lord,' quoth he; 'would to -God I had some better things as ready to your pleasure as that!' and -then, with all haste, he sent his servant for a mess of strawberries. -The protector set the lords fast in communing, and thereupon praying -them to spare him a little while, departed thence, and, soon after one -hour, between ten and eleven, he returned into the chamber amongst them -all, changed, with a wonderful sour, angry countenance, knitting his -brows, frowning and fretting, gnawing on his lips, and so sat him down -in his place. Soon after he asked, 'What those persons deserved who had -compassed and imagined his destruction.' Lord Hastings answered that they -deserved death, whoever they might be; and then Richard affirmed that -they were that sorceress, his brother's wife (meaning the queen), with -others with her; 'and,' said the protector, 'we shall see in what wise -that sorceress, and that other witch of her councils, Shore's wife, with -their affinity, have by their sorcery and witchcraft wasted my body.' -So saying, he plucked up his doublet sleeve to his elbow upon his left -arm, where the arm appeared to be withered and small, as it was never -other." He then included Hastings in the charge. The unfortunate man was -hurried out by the armed ruffians of the tyrant, and scarcely allowing -him time to confess to the first priest that came to hand, they made -use of a log which accidentally lay on the green at the door of the -chapel, and beheaded him at once. Lord Stanley, the Archbishop of York, -and the Bishop of Ely, were kept close prisoners in the Tower. Shortly -afterwards the queen's brother and son, Earl Rivers and Lord Grey, were -executed at Pontefract. - -The united troops of Gloucester and Buckingham, to the amount of 20,000, -now held the metropolis in subjection; the terror of the protector's -deeds enchained it still more. On the following Sunday, June 22nd, the -day which had been fixed for the coronation, instead of that ceremony -taking place, a priest was found base enough--tyrants never fail of such -tools--to ascend St. Paul's Cross, and preach from this text, from the -Book of Wisdom, "Bastard slips shall not strike deep root." - -This despicable man was one Dr. Shaw, brother of the Lord Mayor. He -drew a broad picture of the licentious life of Edward IV., and asserted -that his mode of destroying such ladies as he found unwilling to incur -dishonour was to promise them marriage, and occasionally to go through -a mock or real ceremony with them. He declared that Edward had thus, in -the commencement of his reign, really contracted a marriage with the -Lady Eleanor Butler, the widow of Lord Butler, of Sudeley, and daughter -of the Earl of Shrewsbury; that he afterwards contracted a private and -illegal marriage with Elizabeth Woodville, which, however it might be -real and legal in other respects, was altogether invalid and impossible, -from the fact that Edward was already married to Lady Butler. Hence he -contended that Elizabeth Woodville, though acknowledged by Parliament, -was, in reality, nothing more than a concubine; that she and the king had -been living in open and scandalous adultery; and that, of consequence, -the whole of their children were illegitimate, and the sons incapable of -wearing the crown. - -But the preacher went further. Determined to destroy the claims of -the young Edward V. to the crown, he boldly asserted not only his -illegitimacy, but that of his father, Edward IV. This could only be done -at the expense of the honour of the proud Cicely, Duchess of York, the -mother of Gloucester, as well as of Edward. But the man who was wading -his way to the throne through the blood of his own nephews, and of the -best men in the country, was not likely to be stopped by the honour of -his mother. The son of Clarence was living, and in case of the deaths of -Edward's sons had a prior right to Gloucester. That right was at present -in abeyance, through Clarence's attainder, but would revive on reversion -of the attainder, and the possibility of this must be destroyed. - -[Illustration: THE CROWN OF ENGLAND BEING OFFERED TO RICHARD, DUKE OF -GLOUCESTER, AT BAYNARD'S CASTLE, IN 1483. - -FROM THE WALL PAINTING BY SIGISMUND GOETZE, IN THE ROYAL EXCHANGE.] - -The preacher, therefore, stoutly maintained that both Edward IV. and -Clarence were the children of other men, not of the late Duke of York; -that it was notorious, and that their striking likeness to their reputed -fathers fully confirmed it. Gloucester, he contended, was alone the son -of the Duke of York; and this vile prostitutor of the pulpit exclaimed, -"Behold this excellent prince, the express image of his noble father--the -genuine descendant of the house of York; bearing no less in the virtues -of his mind than in the features of his countenance the character of the -gallant Richard!" At this moment Gloucester, by concert, was to have -passed, as if accidentally, through the audience to his place, and the -preacher exclaimed, "Behold the man entitled to your allegiance! He must -deliver you from the dominion of all intruders!--he alone can restore the -lost glory and honour of the nation!" - -Here it was expected that the people would cry out "Long live King -Richard!" but they stared at one another in amazement, and the more -so that Gloucester did not appear at the nick of time, but after the -preacher's apostrophe was concluded; so that, when Gloucester did appear, -he was obliged to repeat his lesson, which threw such an air of ridicule -upon the whole, that Gloucester could not conceal his chagrin, and the -preacher--perceiving that the odium of the attempt, as it had failed, -would fall upon him--stole away home, and, it is said, never again -recovered his standing. Gloucester, of course, would be the first to -fling him by as a worthless tool, and he received that reward of public -contempt which it would be better for the world if it always measured out -to such vile subserviency. - -But Gloucester was now fully prepared to complete his necessary amount -of crime for the attainment of the throne, and was not to be daunted by -one failure. The preacher, having broken the ice, he renewed his attempt -in another quarter--the council chamber of the city. The Lord Mayor--as -great a sycophant as his brother the preacher--lent himself, as he had -probably done before, to the scheme. On the next Tuesday, the 24th of -June, the Duke of Buckingham appeared upon the hustings at Guildhall, and -harangued the citizens. He called upon them to recollect the dissolute -life of the late king; his frequent violation of the sanctity of their -homes; the seduction of most respectable ladies; the extent of his -extortions of their money under the name of benevolences. In fact, he -repeated, in another form, the whole sermon of Shaw, and went through the -whole story of the marriage of Lady Butler, by the king, previous to that -with Lady Grey, of which he assured them Stillington, Bishop of Bath, was -a witness. Stillington, however, was never called to give such evidence. -He then asked whether they would have the illegitimate progeny of such -a man to rule over them. He assured them that he would never submit to -the rule of a bastard, and that both the aristocracy and the people of -the northern counties had sworn the same. But there, he observed, was -the Duke of Gloucester, a man calculated to rescue England from such a -stigma, and from all its losses--a man valiant, wise, patriotic, and -of true blood, the genuine descendant of the great Edward III. On this -the servants of Buckingham and Gloucester incited some of the meanest -apprentices to cry out, and there was a feeble voice raised of "God save -King Richard!" That was enough. Buckingham returned the people thanks -for their hearty assent, and invited them to attend him the next morning -to the duke's residence of Baynard's Castle, near Blackfriars Bridge, to -tender him the crown. After a show of refusal Gloucester accepted it. - -Thus ended this scene, which Hume calls a ridiculous farce, but which -was, in fact, a most diabolical one, to be followed by as revolting a -tragedy. The next day this monster in human form went to Westminster -in state. There he entered the great hall, and seated himself on the -marble seat, with Lord Howard, afterwards Duke of Norfolk, on his right -hand, and the Duke of Suffolk on his left. He stated to the persons -present that he chose to commence his reign in that place, because the -administration of justice was the first duty of a king. Every one who -heard this must have felt that if there were any justice in him he could -not be there. It is clear that the spirit of the nation was with the poor -boy Edward, but there was no man who dared to lift up his voice for him. -The axe of Gloucester had already lopped off heads enough to render the -others dumb, and London was invested by his myrmidons. He was already -a dictator, and could do for a while what he pleased. He proclaimed -an amnesty to all offenders against him up to that hour, and he then -proceeded to St. Paul's, to return thanks to God. Thus, on the 26th of -June, 1483, successful villainy sat enthroned in the heart of London. - -[Illustration: THE TOWER OF LONDON: BLOODY (A) AND WAKEFIELD (B) TOWERS.] - -On the 6th of July, not a fortnight after his acceptance of the crown at -Baynard's Castle Richard was crowned with all splendour. The terror of -the blood-stained despot was all-potent, and was evidenced in the fact -that few of the peers or peeresses ventured to absent themselves. With -consummate tact Richard, the Yorkist usurper, appointed the heads of the -Lancastrian line to bear the most prominent part in the ceremony, next to -royalty itself. Buckingham bore his train, and the Countess of Richmond -bore that of his queen. Both these persons were descendants of John of -Gaunt, and the countess was the wife of that Lord Stanley who had been -wounded at the very council board by Richard's ruffian guards, at the -time of the seizure of Hastings. There can be little doubt but that it -was the intention of Gloucester to have thus got rid, as by accident, -of that respectable and powerful nobleman, who had great influence in -the north; but having failed in that, he now made a merit of liberating -him and his fellows, the Archbishop of York and the Bishop of Ely, from -the Tower. On Stanley he conferred the stewardship of the household, and -soon after made him Constable of England. Probably, it not only entered -the mind of Richard that it would be politic to secure the favour of -a nobleman so much esteemed in Cheshire and Lancashire, but that, by -ingratiating himself with the Countess of Richmond, the wife of Stanley, -and the mother of the young Earl of Richmond, who, during the reign of -Edward IV., had been a cause of anxiety, as a probable aspirant to the -throne, he might succeed in beguiling Richmond into his hands; and this -is the more probable because he was, at the very time, negotiating some -private matters with the Duke of Brittany, at whose court Richmond was. - -[Illustration: GREAT SEAL OF RICHARD III.] - -Besides the promotion of Stanley, the Lord Howard was made Earl Marshal -and Duke of Norfolk, his son was created Earl of Surrey, Lord Lovel was -made a viscount, and many others of the nobility now received higher -rank. The vast wealth which Edward IV. had left he distributed lavishly -amongst those who had done his work, and those whom he sought to win -over. The troops who had come from the north, and were seen with wonder -and ridicule by the Londoners from their mean and dirty appearance, and -called a rascal rabble, but who were ready at a word to do desperate -things, he amply rewarded, and sent home again, as soon as the coronation -was over. - -This great display over, Richard called no Parliament, but merely -assembled the nobility before their returning to their respective -counties, and enjoined them to maintain the peace there, and to assist -his officers in putting down all offenders and disturbers. But he did -not satisfy himself with injunctions. He set out to make a wide circuit -through his kingdom, in order to awe all malcontents by his presence. -He proceeded by slow journeys to Oxford, Woodstock, Gloucester, and -Worcester. At Warwick he was joined by the queen; and as she was the -daughter of the late Earl of Warwick, she might be considered as -presiding in her ancestral home; and there, therefore, a considerable -court was held for the space of a week, the Spanish ambassadors and -members of the English nobility coming there. Thence the royal pair -advanced by Coventry, Leicester, Nottingham, and Pontefract to York. The -inhabitants of that stronghold of Lancastrian feeling had been warned to -receive the king "with every mark of joy;" and to conciliate the northern -population, Richard sent for the royal wardrobe from London, and once -more repeated the coronation in York, as if to intimate that he scarcely -felt himself sovereign till he had their sanction and homage. - -But after all the crimes perpetrated by Richard, the public had been -terrified into silence, not into approval. No sooner was the south -relieved from his presence than it at once recovered breath and language. -As if the oppression of a nightmare were withdrawn, people began to utter -their true feelings. Some were for marching in thousands upon the Tower, -and forcibly liberating the innocent victims; others suggested that it -were wise to enable the daughters of Edward to escape to the Continent, -so that Richard should never be free from the fear of legitimate -claimants to the crown. All the foreign potentates had shrunk from -entering into alliance with so blood-stained a character, and would be -ready to cherish these princesses as a means of annoying or controlling -him. - -But Richard had thought of all these things long before the public, and -had taken such measures to prevent them as would soon make the ears of -all England tingle at their discovery. On attempting to communicate with -Elizabeth and her daughters in the sanctuary, they found that asylum -invested by a strong body of soldiers under one John Nesfield, and that -there was no approaching the royal family. The only alternative was to -endeavour to liberate the young princes. - -For this purpose private meetings were held in nearly all the counties -of the south and west. The nobility and gentry bound themselves by -oath to take arms and unite for the restoration of Edward V. In the -midst of these movements the agitators were agreeably astonished to -find themselves in possession of a most unexpected and powerful ally. -This was no other than the Duke of Buckingham, the man who had so -unscrupulously taken the lead in putting down all who were formidable -obstacles to Richard's plans, and in bringing London to declare for him. -The circumstances which produced this marvellous change have rather been -guessed at than ever satisfactorily known. - -Buckingham was descended from Thomas, Duke of Gloucester, sixth son of -Edward III. His claims to the throne were far superior to those of the -Earl of Richmond, who was of an exactly parallel descent from John of -Gaunt, but with a flaw of illegitimacy through that prince's connection -with Catherine Swynford. Buckingham not only stood higher amongst the -princes of the Lancastrian blood than Richmond, but he was married to -the sister of Queen Elizabeth, and was thus closely connected with the -imprisoned prince. Yet he had at once supported the most unscrupulous of -the Yorkists, and helped more than any other man to dethrone his near -relative. If this were strange, his sudden conversion was stranger. -For his signal services to Richard he had received signal rewards. -The Earl of Gloucester, Buckingham's ancestor, had married one of the -daughters and co-heiresses of Humphrey Bohun, Earl of Hereford. Their -property, on the Yorkist family ascending the throne, had been seized by -it. Buckingham had probably made it his bargain for what he was to do -for Richard, that these estates should be restored to him. They were, -accordingly, restored, and beyond that he was made Constable of England, -Justiciary of Wales, and many other honours were heaped upon him. Why, -then, this sudden revolt? The real causes were most likely those which -have ever separated successful villains--distrust of each other, and the -desire of the principal to be rid of his too knowing and, therefore, -dangerous accessory. Buckingham was the confidant in many and terrible -State secrets. He knew why Hastings was suddenly hurried to his death, -and all the dark work by which the true prince had been thrust down to a -dungeon, and the false one set up. - -He resolved, therefore, to reinstate Edward V.; and circular letters -were addressed to all those chiefs who were likely to unite in the -enterprise. In Kent, Essex, Sussex, Berkshire, Hants, Wilts, and -Devonshire, preparations were made for the purpose; and Buckingham was -about to move forward to put himself at their head, when the confederates -were thunderstruck with the news that the king and his brother had been -already murdered in the Tower. - -The account which has been generally followed of this horrid event, is -that of Sir Thomas More. According to the learned chancellor, Richard, -while making his holiday progress through the country, was plotting the -death of the young princes in the Tower. From Gloucester he despatched -one of his pages to Sir Robert Brackenbury, the Governor of the Tower, -commanding him to get them quietly made away with. Sir Robert refused the -office of assassin. Richard, however, from Warwick sent Sir James Tyrell, -with orders to command the Tower for one night. This Tyrell had been -vice-Constable under Edward IV., and always employed by him to execute -illegal commissions, like Tristan, the tool of Louis XI. Tradition holds -that the Portcullis Tower was the one in which the young princes were -confined, and it is stated that they were under the constant surveillance -of four keepers, and waited on by a fellow called Black Will, or Will -Slaughter. - -The murderer Richard is said to have roused Tyrell from his bed at -midnight, and sent him off; and Brackenbury, though he would not stain -his own hands with innocent blood, had to give the keys by the king's -command to the man who would. "Then," says Sir Thomas More, "Sir James -Tyrell desired that the princes should be murdered in bed, to the -execution whereof he appropriated Miles Forest, one of their keepers, -a fellow flesh-bred in murder, and to him he joined one John Dighton, -his own horse-keeper, a big, broad, square knave. The young king had -certainly a clear apprehension of his fate, for he was heard sighingly to -say, 'I would mine uncle would let me have my life, though he taketh my -crown.' After which time the prince never tied his points nor anything -attended to himself, but with that young babe his brother, lingered in -thought and heaviness, till the traitorous deed delivered them from their -wretchedness. - -"All their other attendants being removed from them, and the harmless -children in bed, these men came into their chamber, and suddenly lapping -them in the clothes, smothered and stifled them till thoroughly dead. -Then laying out their bodies on the bed, they fetched Sir James to see -them, who caused the murderers to bury them at the stairfoot, deep in -the ground under a heap of stones. Then rode Sir James in great haste -to King Richard, and showed him the manner of the murder, who gave him -great thanks, but allowed not their bodies in so vile a corner, but would -have them buried in consecrated ground. Sir Robert Brackenbury's priest -then took them up, and where he buried them was never known, for he died -shortly afterwards. But when the news was brought to the unfortunate -mother, yet being in sanctuary, that her two sons were murdered, it -struck to her heart like the sharp dart of death; she was so suddenly -amazed that she swooned and fell to the ground, and there lay in great -agony, yet like to a dead corpse." - -This dismal news, however, probably did not reach the unhappy queen till -some time after the perpetration of the murder, for the tyrant kept the -deed close till it suited his purpose to disclose it. - -The whole of this circumstantial account has been called in question -by some modern historians, on the plea that the history of Richard -was written by men after his death, who invented half the crimes and -repulsive features of Richard to please the court of Henry VII. But -perhaps two more highly credible historians could not be found than -Sir Thomas More and the continuator of the Croyland Chronicle, the -latter of whom wrote immediately after the death of Richard; and every -circumstance known confirms their accounts. We shall see that the younger -of these princes was supposed to reappear in the reign of Henry VII. as -Perkin Warbeck. But, unfortunately for this story, the bodies of the -two murdered children were discovered buried in one coffin or box. This -occurred so late as 1674, when workmen were digging down the stairs which -led from the king's lodgings to the chapel in the Tower, where, about ten -feet deep, they came upon this chest containing the bones of two youths -"proportionable to the ages of the two brothers; namely, about thirteen -and eleven years." - -What is more, all those said to be concerned in this diabolical deed -were afterwards specially patronised by Richard. Greene, the messenger, -was made receiver of the lordships of the Isle of Wight and Porchester -Castle; Tyrell and Brackenbury received numerous grants of lucrative -offices, money, and lands, as may be seen in Strype's notes to Bucke's -history, in Kennet. Dighton, one of the murderers, was made bailiff -for life of the manor of Aiton, in Staffordshire; and Forest dying in -possession of a lucrative post in Bernard Castle, his widow and son -received an annuity of five marks. Still, further, Sir Thomas More says, -"Very truth it is, and well known, that at such times as Sir James Tyrell -was in the Tower for treason against King Henry VII., both Dighton and -him were examined, and confessed the murder in manner above written." -Henry, in consequence, sought for the bodies, but at that time they could -not be found, the chaplain, the depositary of the secret, being dead. - -When, in addition to this, it shall be seen that Richard was anxious -to marry Elizabeth of York, the sister of these young princes, and to -prevent Richmond from marrying her, nothing can be more conclusive of the -death of the boys as described--for, otherwise, the issue of Elizabeth -could not succeed rightfully to the throne. Moreover, Richard is himself -stated to have allowed the fact of the murder to come out, in order to -crush the rising of Buckingham and his confederates in their behalf. -Under all these circumstances, we conceive no event of history stands -more strongly authenticated. - -It is said to have been in the midst of the gaieties of the coronation -at York that Richard received the news of Buckingham's movement, and of -the confederation of the southern counties. The circumstances were so -alarming that, notwithstanding the execration which he was conscious such -an avowal would bring down upon him, he permitted the account of the -princes' death to be published. One universal burst of horror, both from -friend and foe, went through the kingdom; and from that hour, instead of -saving him, the knowledge of that cruel deed repelled all hearts from him. - -For the moment, the nobles, marching forward to rescue the young king, -were taken aback: the tyrant had anticipated them; the king they would -restore had perished. But the astute Bishop of Ely reminded them that -there was Henry of Richmond, descended from John of Gaunt, who might -marry Elizabeth of York, and thus, uniting the two rival houses, put -an end to the divisions of the nation. This uniting all parties would -annihilate the murderer. The idea was seized upon with avidity. Reginald -Bray, the steward to the Countess of Richmond, was instructed to open -the project to her, who immediately embraced it in favour of her son. -Dr. Lewis, a Welsh physician, who attended the queen-dowager in the -sanctuary, was made the bearer of the scheme to her. Elizabeth was well -prepared by the wrongs heaped upon her, the murder of her brother and -her three sons, and her own confinement and degradation, to forget her -opposition to the house of Lancaster. She fully agreed to the project, on -the condition of Richmond swearing to marry her daughter Elizabeth on his -arriving in England. She even borrowed a sum of money and sent it to him, -to aid his enterprise. A messenger was despatched to Henry in Brittany -to inform him of the agreement, and to hasten his arrival, the 18th of -October being fixed for the general rising in his favour. - -[Illustration: THE PRINCES IN THE TOWER. (_See p._ 54.) - -(_After the picture by Paul Delaroche._)] - -But it was not to be supposed that all these arrangements could -escape the suspicious vigilance of Richard. He proceeded from York to -Lincolnshire as if he were only attending to the ordinary affairs of the -kingdom. But on the 11th of October--a week before the day appointed for -the rising of the confederates--he summoned all his adherents to meet him -at Leicester. Four days afterwards he proclaimed Buckingham a traitor, -and set a reward of L1,000, or of L100 a year in land, on his head. For -those of the Marquis of Dorset and of the two bishops he offered 1,000 -marks, or 100 marks a year in land each; and for the head of any hostile -knight half that sum. He sent at the same time to London for the great -seal to authenticate these and similar acts. - -On the day fixed, the rising, notwithstanding, took place. The Marquis -of Dorset proclaimed Henry VII. at Exeter; the Bishop Of Salisbury -proclaimed him in that city; the men of Kent at Maidstone; those of -Berkshire at Newbury, and the Duke of Buckingham raised his standard -at Brecon. Few revolutions ever opened with more favourable auspices. -But untoward events made wholly abortive this well-planned popular -attempt. The Duke of Richmond set sail from St. Malo on the 12th of -October for England, with a fleet of forty sail, carrying 5,000 men; but -tempestuous weather prevented him from reaching the coast of Devonshire -till the dispersion of his unfortunate allies. He therefore put back. -In the meantime Richard had joined his army at Leicester, and issued a -proclamation which reads nowadays like the ravings of a madman. - -[Illustration: RICHARD III.] - -To draw off the followers of the confederates, while he offered rewards -for the heads of their leaders, he granted free pardons to all who -would abandon them. And the elements at this moment fought for Richard. -Buckingham set out on his march to unite his forces to those of the other -leaders, but there fell such heavy and continuous rains during the whole -of his march from Brecon through the Forest of Dean to the Severn, that -the bridges were carried away, and all the fords rendered impassable. -Such rains and floods had not been known in the memory of man; and the -inundation of the Severn was long after remembered as _Buckingham's -Flood_. - -The Welsh, struck with a superstitious dread from this circumstance, and -pressed by famine, dispersed, and Buckingham turned back to Weobly, the -seat of Lord Ferrers. The news of Buckingham's failure confounded all -the other confederates, and every man made the best of his way towards -a place of safety. Merton, Dorset, Courtenay the Bishop of Exeter, and -others, escaped to Flanders and Brittany. Weobly was closely watched, -on one side by Sir Humphrey Stafford, and on the other by the clan of -the Vaughans, who were promised the plunder of Brecon if they secured -the duke. Buckingham, in disguise, escaped from Weobly, and hid himself -near Shrewsbury, in the hut of a fellow of the name of Bannister, an old -servant of the duke's family. This wretch, to secure the reward, betrayed -his master to John Mitton, the sheriff of Shropshire, who conducted him -to Richard at Salisbury, who ordered his head to be instantly struck off -in the market-place. Amongst others who shared the same fate, Richard -had the satisfaction of thus silencing a witty rhymester, William -Collingbourne, who had dared to say that, - - "The rat, the cat, and Lovel the dog, - Ruled all England under the hog." - -That is, Ratcliffe, Catesby, and Lord Lovel; the hog being in allusion to -Richard's crest, the boar. - -Richard, thus relieved, marched into Devonshire, where he put to -death, amongst others, Sir Thomas St. Leger, a knight who had married -the Duchess of Exeter, his own sister. He then traversed the southern -counties in triumph, and, arriving in London, he ventured to do what -hitherto he had not dared, that is, call a Parliament. This assembly, -prostrate at the feet of the prosperous despot, did whatever he proposed. -They pronounced him "the undoubted king of England, as well by right -of consanguinity and inheritance, as by lawful election, consecration, -and coronation;" and they entailed the crown on his issue; the Lords, -spiritual and temporal, binding themselves to uphold the succession of -his son, the Prince of Wales. They attainted his enemies by wholesale, -and beyond all precedent. One duke, one marquis, three earls, three -bishops, with a whole host of knights and gentlemen, were thus deprived -of honour, title, and estate; and their lands, forfeited to the Crown, -were bestowed by Richard liberally on his northern adherents, who were -thus planted in the south to act as spies on the southern nobles and -gentry. The Countess of Richmond, though attainted, was permitted to hold -her estates for life, or rather, they were thus conceded for that term to -her husband, Lord Stanley, to bind him to the usurper. - -To avenge himself on the queen-dowager for her acceptance of the proposal -to bring over Henry of Richmond and unite him to her daughter, Richard -now deprived her and her daughters of all title, property, and honour. He -treated them, not as the legitimate wife and children of Edward IV., but -as what he had before proclaimed them. He had ordered the late murdered -king to be called officially "Edward the bastard, lately called Edward -V." The queen-dowager was styled "Elizabeth, late wife of Sir John Gray," -and her daughters were treated and addressed as simple gentlewomen. - -But the design of placing Henry of Richmond on the throne, Richard knew -well, though for the moment defeated, was not abandoned. At the last -festival of Christmas Henry had met the English exiles, to the number of -500, at Rhedon, in Brittany, and had there sworn to marry Elizabeth of -York as soon as he should subdue the usurper; and thereupon the exiles -had unanimously sworn to support him as their sovereign. Henry was, as -we have observed, descended on the father's side merely from Owen Tudor, -a yeoman of the royal guard, and Catherine, the widow of Henry V. On -the mother's side he was descended from Edward III. through John of -Gaunt, but from an illegitimate branch. The bar of illegitimacy, though -legally removed, would always have operated against his claim to the -crown; but, independent of this, there were still various princes and -princesses of Spain and Portugal, descendants of John of Gaunt, whose -titles to the English crown were much superior to his. Yet, from his very -infancy, there seems to have been a singular feeling that one day he -would mount the throne of this kingdom. Henry VI. is said to have laid -his hand on his head as a child, and declared that one day the crown -would sit there. Edward IV. had evinced a perpetual fear of him, and had -not only bargained for his secure detention at the court of Brittany, -but on one occasion he had bribed the Duke of Brittany to give him up on -the pretence of his intending to marry him to his eldest daughter--that -daughter, in fact, he was destined eventually to marry. The duke, -however, at the last moment, feeling a strong misgiving, had followed -Henry to St. Malo, and there stopped him from embarking. Richard, on -succeeding to the throne, had tried to purchase the surrender of Henry -from the Duke of Brittany. In short, Henry assured the historian, -Comines, that from the age of five years he had either been a captive or -a fugitive. With this long traditionary presentiment that he was to reign -in England attached to him, his marriage to Elizabeth of York would at -once obviate all scruples as to his complete title. He would come in on -the strength of her title, as William of Orange afterwards did on that of -his queen, Mary Stuart. - -As the prospect of this event became more imminent--as Richard felt more -deeply that the heart of the nation was not with him, but that all men -were looking to this alliance as the hope of better times, he set himself -to defeat it. Though he had so lately robbed, degraded, and insulted -Queen Elizabeth and her family--though he had murdered her children and -usurped their throne, he now suddenly turned round, and fawned on them. -He began to smile most kindly on Elizabeth, and wished her to quit the -sanctuary and come to court--a court dyed in the blood of her sons and -brothers. He made her the most flattering promises; and, when they failed -to draw her forth, he followed them by the most deadly threats. Elizabeth -Woodville had never been found insensible to prospects of advantage for -herself and family; but to put herself into the power of so lawless -a butcher, and to unite her daughter with the son of the murderer of -her children, was by no means reconcilable to her feelings. She stood -out stoutly; but fear of worse consequences at length compelled her to -succumb, and a private contract was concluded. Richard, in the presence -of a number of the nobles and prelates, as well as of the Lord Mayor and -aldermen, swore that the lives of Elizabeth and her daughters should be -safe; that the mother should receive an annuity of 700 marks for life, -and each of the daughters lands to the value of 200 marks on their -marriage, which should be to none but gentlemen. - -When this bitter draught was swallowed, she had to endure another not -the less sorrowful--that was, to appear at the court of the usurper, -and behold him sitting in the seat of her murdered son, and receiving -that homage which was his right. But this strange patron now smiled -sunnily upon her. She and her daughters were received with every mark of -distinction, and especially Elizabeth, the eldest, whom he was intending -to pluck from the hopes of Richmond, by wedding her to his own son. But -these views were suddenly destroyed by the death of this, Richard's only -legitimate, son. He died at Middleham, where Richard was often residing, -but was then with his queen absent at Nottingham. His death, which took -place about the 9th of April, had something so remarkable about it, that -Rous, the family chronicler, calls it "an unhappy death." Both Richard -and his queen were so overwhelmed by this unexpected blow, that the -continuator of the Croyland Chronicle says that they almost went mad. - -It was indeed a fatal stroke. The son on whom Richard had built the -hopes of his family's succession, and for whom he killed his nephews, -was now gone, and he was left without an heir, and without any prospect -of one. It might be supposed that this event would raise the confidence -of the Richmond party; and Richard, appearing to entertain the same -idea, conceived the design of securing Richmond, and, no doubt, dealing -with him as effectually as he had done with all others who stood in his -way. For this purpose he opened secret communications with Francis, Duke -of Brittany. That prince, who had been so long the generous protector -of Richmond, was now in a feeble and failing state of health, and his -minister, Peter Landois, administered his affairs pretty much at his -own will. The interest of Landois was purchased by heavy sums, and he -agreed to deliver Richmond into the hands of Richard. But the sagacious -Morton, Bishop of Ely, gave him timely warning, and Richmond fled for -his life. He reached France with only five attendants, and went at once -to the French court at Angers, where he was cordially received by the -sister of Charles VIII., then acting as regent. He accompanied the French -court to Paris, where he again repeated his oath to marry Elizabeth of -York, in case of deposing the tyrant, and he was immediately hailed by -the students of Paris as King of England. He was promised assistance -by the princess regent for his enterprise, and while these things were -proceeding, Francis of Brittany, who had recovered his health, and was -made acquainted with the villainy of Landois, sent a messenger to offer -him aid in his design. - -Thus Richard had driven his enemy into a more safe and formidable -position, instead of capturing him, and he taxed his subtle genius to -thwart this dangerous rival by other means. To prepare for any serious -attack from France, he put an end to a miserable state of plunder and -reprisal betwixt Scotland and his subjects. He concluded an armistice -with James of Scotland; and having since his son's death nominated John -Earl of Lincoln the son of his sister the Duchess of Suffolk heir to the -crown, he now contracted Anne de la Pole, the sister of the young earl, -to the eldest son of the King of Scotland. - -But Richard had designs more profound than this. He determined, as -he could not marry Elizabeth of York to his son, he would snatch her -from Richmond by wedding her himself. True, he had already a wife; -but monarchs have frequently shown how soon such an obstacle to a -fresh alliance can be removed. Richard now held a magnificent court at -Westminster. There was a constant succession of balls, feastings, and -gaieties. In the midst of these no one was so conspicuous as Elizabeth of -York; and what very soon excited the attention and the speculations of -the court, she always appeared in precisely the same dress as the queen. - -The poor queen, Anne of Warwick, who began with hating Richard most -cordially, and even disguised herself as a cookmaid to escape him, -since the death of her son, had never recovered from her melancholy -and depression. Probably, knowing the real character of her ruthless -Bluebeard, she foresaw what must take place, and was too weary of life to -care to retain it. Though she penetrated the designs of the king, these -never influenced her in her conduct to Elizabeth, to whom she was kind as -became an aunt. And now she fell ill, and Richard is said to have assured -Elizabeth that the queen would "die in February," and that she should -succeed her. - -Anne of Warwick, the last queen of the Plantagenet line, did not die in -February, but she did not survive through March. Yet that event did not -in any degree contribute to Richard's marriage with Elizabeth. Whether we -are to suppose with Sir Thomas More, and others, that Elizabeth herself -manifested a steady repugnance to so abhorrent a union, or whether -Richard deemed her in greater security there, he sent her under close -guard to the castle of Sheriff-Hutton, in Yorkshire, and no sooner did -he permit it to be whispered that such a marriage was probable, than -the rumour was received with universal horror. No persons were more -resolutely opposed to it than Ratcliffe and Catesby, Richard's great -confidants in his crimes. They naturally dreaded the idea of Elizabeth, -the sister of the murdered princes and the representative of a family on -which they had heaped such injuries, becoming queen, and in a position -to wreak her vengeance upon them. But they also saw, quite as clearly, -the ruin which the king would certainly bring down upon himself by such -a measure, in which they must also be inevitably involved. - -The instinct of self-preservation in these men led them to remind the -king that a marriage with his own niece would be regarded as incestuous, -would be reprobated by the clergy, and abhorred by the people; that -there was a general persuasion abroad that he had poisoned his wife, and -this union would convert that persuasion into absolute conviction; that -the men of the northern counties, on whom he chiefly depended, and who -adhered to him, more than for any other cause, through their attachment -to the late queen, as the daughter of the great Earl of Warwick, would be -totally lost, and nothing but ruin could await him. - -This strong and undisguised feeling, displayed thus both in public and -private, drove Richard from this design. Just before Easter, he called -a meeting of the city authorities in the great hall of St John's, -Clerkenwell, and there declared that he had no such intention as that of -marrying his niece, and that the report was "false and scandalous in a -high degree." He also sent a letter to the citizens of York, dated the -11th of April, contradicting such slanderous tales, and commanding them -to apprehend and punish all who should be found guilty of propagating -them. - -But the time was fast drawing near which must decide whether Richard or -Henry of Richmond should wear the crown. Richard was informed by his -agents on the Continent that Charles of France had permitted the Earl -of Richmond to raise an army in that country. They amounted to 3,000 -men, consisting of English refugees and Norman adventurers. Richard -pretended to be delighted at the news, as confident that now he should -speedily annihilate his enemy. He was, however, so impoverished by his -lavish gifts and grants to secure the faith of his adherents, that he -was unprovided with the means of maintaining an army; neither had he -a fleet to intercept that of Henry. He dared not call a Parliament to -ask for supplies, for he had expended those granted by the only one he -had called. In that Parliament, to cast odium upon the memory of his -brother Edward, he had called on his subjects to remember his tyranny in -extorting benevolences; yet now he resorted to the very same thing; and -the people, in ridicule of his pretended denunciation of benevolences, -called them _malevolences_. By these arbitrary exactions he destroyed -the last trace of adhesion to his Government. On all sides he felt -coldness--on all sides he saw defection. The brave old Earl of Oxford, -John De Vere, who had been a prisoner twelve years in the prison of -Ham, in Picardy, was set at liberty by Sir James Blount, the governor -of the castle, and they fled together to Henry. Sir John Fortescue, the -Porter of Calais, followed their example, and numbers of young English -gentlemen, students of the University of Paris, flocked to his standard. -The same process was going on in England. Several sheriffs of counties -abandoned their charge, and hastened over to France; and numerous parties -put off from time to time from the coast. But no nobleman occasioned, -however, so much anxiety as Lord Stanley. His connection with Richmond, -having married his mother, made Richard always suspicious. He had -lavished favours upon him to attach him, and had made him steward of -the household to retain him under his eye. Stanley had always appeared -sincere in his service, but it was a sincerity that Richard could not -comprehend. This nobleman now demanded permission to visit his estates -in Cheshire and Lancashire, to raise forces for the king; but Richard so -little trusted him that he detained his son, Lord Strange, as a hostage -for his fidelity. We have already seen that Stanley had long secretly -pledged himself to Elizabeth of York in her cause, and only waited the -proper occasion to go over. - -[Illustration: RICHARD III. AT THE BATTLE OF BOSWORTH. (_See p._ 63.)] - -On the 1st of August, 1485, Henry of Richmond set sail from Harfleur, -with the united fleet of France and Brittany, and an army of 3,000 men, -on that memorable expedition which was to terminate the fatal wars of -the Roses, and introduce into England a new dynasty, and a new era of -civilisation. On the seventh of that month he landed at Milford Haven. He -himself and his uncle, Jasper Tudor, Earl of Pembroke, went on shore at -a place called Dale, while his army was disembarking. The Welsh accosted -the old earl with this significant welcome on his setting foot on his -native shore, "Welcome! for thou hast taken good care of _thy_ nephew!" - -Having refreshed his forces, Henry marched on through Haverfordwest and -Pembroke to Cardigan. Everywhere he was received with manifest delight; -but his forces did not increase till he reached Cardigan, where Richard -Griffith and Richard Thomas, two Welsh gentlemen, joined his standard -with their friends. His old friend Sir Walter Herbert, who had been -expressly sent by Richard into that quarter with Rice ap Thomas to raise -the country in his behalf, though he did not join him, suffered him to -pass unmolested. Rice ap Thomas, on receiving a promise of the Government -of Wales, went over at once to Henry. When the army reached Newport Sir -Gilbert Talbot, with a decision of character in keeping with the account -of him by Brereton, came at the head of the tenantry of his nephew, the -Earl of Shrewsbury, 2,000 in number, and there, too, he was followed by -Sir John Savage. The invading force now amounted to more than 6,000 men. - -Henry crossed the Severn at Shrewsbury. Richard now advanced to -Leicester, whence he issued despatches to all his subjects to join him -on the instant, accompanied by the most deadly menaces against all -defaulters. The Duke of Norfolk was there with the levies of the eastern -counties; the Earl of Northumberland with those from the north; Lord -Lovel commanded those from London; and Brackenbury those from Hampshire. -Stanley alone held aloof, and sent word, in reply to Richard's summons, -that he was ill in bed with the sweating sickness. Richard received this -ominous message with the utmost rage; and, as he had vowed that, on the -first symptom of disaffection on his part, he would cut off the head of -Lord Strange, his son, Strange made an instant attempt at flight. He was -brought back, and frankly confessed that he and his uncle, Sir William -Stanley, chamberlain of North Wales, had agreed to join the invaders; -but protested that his father knew nothing of their intention, but was -loyal, and his forces were already on the way to the royal camp. Richard -compelled him to write to his father, bidding him come up at once, or -that his son was a dead man. - -On the 21st of August Richard rode forward from Leicester, and encamped -about two miles from Bosworth. He was mounted in the march on a -magnificent white courser, and clad in the same rich suit of burnished -steel which he wore at his victorious field of Tewkesbury. On his helmet -blazed a regal crown, which he had displayed there since he took up his -headquarters at Nottingham. His countenance is represented as stern and -frowning; his manner haughty, and as if putting on an air of bravado, -rather than of calm confidence; for, though his troops amounted to -30,000, and his cavalry was the finest in Europe, he well knew that there -was secret and wide-spread disaffection under all that martial show. -Were his followers true to him, the little army of Richmond would be -shivered in the first shock, and trodden under foot. But, perhaps, not -a man except the Duke of Norfolk was really stanch in his devotion; and -that night Norfolk's followers found pinned upon his tent this ominous -couplet:-- - - "Jocky of Norfolk, be not too bold, - For Dickon thy master is bought and sold." - -That night Henry, who had reached Tamworth, marched to Atherstone. His -army did not amount to half that of Richard: yet all were earnest in the -cause, and the number of men of rank and character in it gave it a very -imposing air in the eyes of the soldiers. On the contrary, Richard's -soldiers, if we are to believe "Twelve Strange Prophecies"--still in -the British Museum--had been discouraged, not only by the warning to -John, or--as he was familiarly called--Jocky of Norfolk, but by the -following singular incident. As the king rode out of Leicester by the -south gate, at the head of his cavalry, a blind old man, well known as -a superannuated wheelwright, sat begging at the foot of the bridge. In -reply to the remarks of the soldiers as to the weather, the old man cried -out just as the king was at hand--"If the moon change again to-day, which -has changed once in the course of nature, King Richard will lose life -and crown." This was supposed to allude to Lord Percy, whose crest was a -crescent, and of whose faith Richard was sorely in doubt. When Richard -passed, his foot struck against a low post placed to defend the corner -of the bridge, and the beggar said, "His head will strike there as he -returns at night." - -The night before the battle, Henry of Richmond had a secret meeting near -Atherstone with Lord Stanley, who assured him of his adherence, but -showed him how impossible it was that he could join him till Richard was -engaged in arraying the battle, or his son's life would immediately be -sacrificed. Stanley had 5,000 men, and engaged to appear for Richard till -the moment for battle, when his defection would do Henry the most signal -service. - -On the evening of the 21st of August, the two armies lay encamped -near the little town of Bosworth, opposite to each other. Richard -is represented by the chroniclers as passing that night in the most -agonising state of restlessness and uncertainty. The deeply-rooted -disaffection of his troops destroyed his confidence, though his 30,000 -were only opposed by Richmond's 6,000. He went through the camp examining -secretly the state of his outposts, and finding at one of them a sentinel -asleep, he stabbed him to the heart, saying, "I find him asleep, and I -leave him so." His own slumbers are said to have been broken, and the -chroniclers express his state by saying he "was most terribly pulled and -haled by devils." - -But other agents than those thus troubling the tyrant's mind were active -throughout the camp. Many of his soldiers stole away to Richmond, and -probably some of these left the warning to Jocky of Norfolk. These -desertions produced dismay in Richard's ranks, and confidence in those of -his rival. - -When morning broke, Richmond's little army was discovered already drawn -up. The van, consisting of archers, was led by the Earl of Oxford; the -right wing by Sir Gilbert Talbot; the left by Sir John Savage. In the -main body Henry posted himself, accompanied by the Earl of Pembroke. -Richard confronted the foe with his numerous lines, taking his place also -in the main body, opposite to Richmond, but giving the command of the van -to the Duke of Norfolk. Lord Stanley took his station on one wing, and -Sir William on the other, so that, thus disposed, they could flank either -their own side or the opposed one. The battle was begun by the archers -of both armies, and soon became furious. No sooner was this the case, -than the Stanleys, seizing the critical moment, wheeling round, joined -the enemy, and fell on Richard's flanks. This masterly manoeuvre struck -dismay through the lines of Richard; the men who stood their ground -appeared to fight without heart, and to be ready to fly. Richard, who saw -this, and beheld the Duke of Northumberland, sitting at the head of his -division, and never striking a single stroke, became transported with -fury. His only hope appeared to be to make a desperate assault on Henry's -van, and, if possible, to reach and kill him on the spot. With this -object he made three furious charges of cavalry; and, at the third, but -not before he had seen his chief companion, the Duke of Norfolk, slain, -he broke into the midst of Henry's main body, and, catching sight of -him, dashed forward, crying frantically, "Treason! treason! treason!" He -killed Sir William Brandon, Henry's standard-bearer, with his own hand; -struck Sir John Cheyney from his horse; and, springing forward on Henry, -aimed a desperate blow at him; but Sir William Stanley, breaking in at -that moment, surrounded Richard with his brave followers, who bore him to -the ground by their numbers, and slew him, as he continued to fight with -a bravery as heroic as his political career had been--in the words of -Hume--"dishonourable for his multiplied and detestable enormities." The -blood of Richard tinged a small brook which ran where he fell, and the -people are said to this day never to drink of its water. - -The body of the fallen tyrant was speedily stripped of his valuable -armour and ornaments, and the soldier who laid hands upon the crown hid -it in a hawthorn bush. But strict quest being made after it, it was -soon discovered and carried to Lord Stanley, who placed it upon the -head of Henry, and the victor was immediately saluted by the general -acclamations of the army with "Long live King Henry!" and they sang -_Te Deum_, in grand chorus, on the bloody heath of Bosworth. From the -poetical circumstance of the hawthorn bush, the Tudors assumed as their -device a crown in a bush of fruited hawthorn. Lord Strange, the son of -Lord Stanley, being deserted by his guards, as soon as the defeat was -known, made his way to the field, and joined his father and the king at -the close of the battle. - -King Henry VII. advanced from the decisive field of Bosworth, at the head -of his victorious troops, to Leicester, which he entered with the same -royal state that Richard had quitted it. The statements of the numbers -who fell on this field vary from 1,000 to 4,000, but of the leaders, the -Duke of Norfolk, and Lord Ferrars of Chartley, Sir Richard Ratcliffe, Sir -Robert Percy, and Sir Robert Brackenbury, fell with the king. On the side -of Henry fell no leaders of note. - -Henry used his victory mildly; he shed no blood of the vanquished, except -that of the notorious Catesby, and two persons of the name of Brecher, -who were probably men of like character and crimes. Thus, in one day, -the world was relieved of the presence of Richard and of his two base -commissioners of murder, Catesby and Ratcliffe. - -Richard's naked body, covered with mud and gore, was, according to the -local traditions of Leicester, flung carelessly across a horse, and thus -carried into that town; his head, say these historic memories, striking -against the very post which the blind beggar had said it should, and the -rude populace following it with shouts of mockery. The corpse was begged -by the nuns of the Grey Friars, to whom Richard had been a benefactor, -and was decently interred in their church. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -THE PROGRESS OF THE NATION IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. - - The Study of Latin and Greek--Invention of Printing--Caxton--New - Schools and Colleges--Architecture, Military, Ecclesiastical, - and Domestic--Sculpture, Painting, and Gilding--The Art of - War--Commerce and Shipping--Coinage. - - -It might be very reasonably supposed that during a century spent almost -entirely in war, and during the second half of it in the most rancorous -intestine strife, there could not be much national progress. There is no -doubt but that the population was greatly decreased. It was calculated -that at the beginning of the century the population of England and Wales -amounted to about 2,700,000. At the end of it, it is supposed that there -were not 2,500,000. - -In these depopulating wars, there can be no question that, besides -the actual destruction of so many men, there must have been terrible -sufferings inflicted, and an immense interruption of all those peaceful -transactions by which nations become wealthy and powerful. - -During this century, two events of the highest importance to art and -learning took place--the introduction of the knowledge of Greek and the -invention of printing. - -[Illustration: CAXTON SHOWING THE FIRST SPECIMEN OF HIS PRINTING TO KING -EDWARD IV., AT THE ALMONRY, WESTMINSTER. - -AFTER THE PAINTING BY DANIEL MACLISE, R.A.] - -If the knowledge of Greek had not entirely died out in western Europe, -it had nearly so till this century. The crusades, leading the Christians -of western Europe to the east, had opened up an acquaintance betwixt the -people of the Greek empire and those of the West. The destruction of that -empire in this century drove a number of learned men into Italy, where -they taught their language and literature. Amongst these were Theodore -Gaza, Cardinal Bessarion, George of Trebizond, Demetrius Chalcondyles, -John Argyropulus, and Johannes Lascaris. Before that time some knowledge -of the Greek philosophy had reached us through the Arabians, but till -the fourteenth century very little of the literature of Greece was known -in the western nations, not even the "Iliad" and "Odyssey" of Homer. -In Italy Petrarch and Boccaccio learned the language and studied the -writings of Greece, and an enthusiasm for Greek literature spread over -all Europe. Grocyn studied it in Italy in 1488, under Chalcondyles, and -came and taught it in England. - -[Illustration: FACSIMILE OF CAXTON'S PRINTING IN THE "DICTES AND SAYINGS -OF PHILOSOPHERS" (1477).] - -At the same moment that Greek began to be studied, Latin in Europe was -in the lowest and most degraded state. Though it still continued the -language of divines, lawyers, philosophers, historians, and even poets, -it had lost almost every trace of its original idiom and elegance. Latin -words were used, but in the English order, and where words were wanting, -they Anglicised them. - -[Illustration: EARL RIVERS PRESENTING CAXTON TO EDWARD IV. (_From MS. in -the Library of Lambeth Palace._)] - -But that wonderful art which was destined to chase this darkness like a -new sun was already on its way from Germany to this country. The Chinese -had printed from engraved wooden blocks for many centuries, when the same -idea suggested itself to a citizen of Haarlem, named Laurent Janszoon -Coster. Coster, who was keeper of the cathedral, first cut his letters in -wood, then made separate wooden letters, and employed them in printing -books by tying them together with strings. From wood he proceeded to cut -his letters in metal, and finally to cast them in the present fashion. -Coster concealed his secret with great care, and was anxious to transmit -it to his children; but in this he was disappointed, for at his death -one of his assistants, John Gensfleisch, the Gutenberger, went off to -Mayence, carrying with him movable types of Coster's casting. - -That is the Dutch story, but the Germans insist on Gutenberg being the -originator of printing. They contend that Coster's were only the wooden -blocks which had long been in use for the printing of playing cards, and -manuals of devotion. They even insinuate that all that the Dutch claim -had probably been brought from China by Marco Polo in the thirteenth -century, who had seen the paper-money thus printed there in letters of -vermilion, and that Holland had no share in the invention at all. But we -know that the Germans have a vast capacity for claiming. It is notorious -that all the earliest block-printing, the Bibliae Pauperum, the Bibles of -the Poor, the Speculum Humanae Salvationis, with its fifty pictures, and -other block works, were all done in the Low Countries in the century we -are reviewing. - -Taking a broad view, however, it is certain that Gutenberg, Fust, and -Schoeffer, were the men who first printed any known works in movable -types, and from Mayence, in 1445, diffused very soon the knowledge of -the present art of printing over the whole world. The first work which -they are supposed to have printed was the Bible, an edition of the Latin -Vulgate, known by the name of the Mazarin Bible, of which various copies -remain, though without date or printer's name. - -Printing was introduced into England in 1474, according to all the chief -authorities of or near that time, by William Caxton. Caxton was a native -of the weald of Kent. He served his apprenticeship to a mercer of London, -and left England in 1441 to transact business in the Low Countries. There -he was greatly regarded by Margaret, the Duchess of Burgundy, Edward -IV.'s sister, who retained him as long as she could at her court. Caxton -was now upwards of fifty years of age, but his inquisitive and active -temperament led him to learn, amongst other things, the whole art of -printing from one Colard Manson. He saw its immense importance, and he -translated Raoul le Feure's "Recueil des Histoires de Troye," and printed -it in folio. This great work he says himself that he began in Bruges, -and finished in Cologne in 1471. The first work which he printed in -England was the "Game and Playe of Chesse," which was published in 1475. -From this time till 1490, or till nearly the date of his death in 1491 -or 1492, a period of sixteen years, the list of the works which Caxton -passed through his press is quite wonderful. Thomas Milling, the Abbot -of Westminster, was his most zealous patron; and at Westminster, in the -Almonry, he commenced his business. Earl Rivers, brother to the queen of -Edward IV., another of his friends and patrons, translated the "Dictes -and Sayings of the Philosophers" for his nephew, the Prince of Wales, and -introduced Caxton, when it was printed, to present it to the king and -royal family. - -But while Caxton was thus busy he saw others around him also as hard at -work with their presses: Theodore Rood, John Lettow, William Machelina, -and Wynkyn de Worde, foreigners, and Thomas Hunt, an Englishman. A -schoolmaster of St. Albans set up a press there, and several books were -printed at Oxford in 1478, and to the end of the century. There is -no direct evidence of any work being printed in Scotland during this -century, though such may have been the case, and all traces of the fact -obliterated in the almost universal destruction of the cathedral and -conventual libraries at the Reformation. James III. was known to collect -the most superb specimens of typography, and Dr. Henry mentions seeing -a magnificent edition of "Speculum Moralitatis," which had been in that -king's possession, and contained his autograph. - -Not less meritorious benefactors of their country, next to the writers -and printers of books, were those who collected them into libraries, and -the most munificent patron and encourager of learning in this manner was -the unfortunate Duke Humphrey of Gloucester. He gave to the University -of Oxford a library of 600 volumes in 1440, valued at L1,000. Some of -these very volumes yet remain in different collections. Duke Humphrey -not only bought books, but he employed men of science and learning to -translate and transcribe. He kept celebrated writers from France and -Italy, as well as Englishmen, to translate from the Greek and other -languages; and is said to have written himself on astronomy, a scheme of -astronomical calculations under his name still remaining in the library -of Gresham College. The great Duke of Bedford, likewise, when master of -Paris, purchased and sent to this country the royal library, containing -853 volumes, valued at 2,223 livres. - -The schools and colleges founded during this century were the -following:--Lincoln College, Oxford, founded in 1427, by Richard Fleming, -Bishop of Lincoln, and completed by Thomas Scott, of Rotherham, Bishop of -Lincoln, in 1475. All Souls' College, Oxford, was founded by Chicheley, -Archbishop of Canterbury, in 1437. He expended upon its erection L4,545, -and procured considerable revenues for it out of lands of the alien -priories dissolved just before that time. Magdalene College, Oxford, was -founded by William of Waynflete, Bishop of Winchester, in 1458, and soon -became one of the richest colleges in Europe. King's College, Cambridge, -was founded by Henry VI. in 1441. Queens' College, Cambridge, was -founded by Margaret of Anjou, in 1448; and Catherine Hall, Cambridge, was -founded by Robert Woodlark, third provost of King's College, in 1473. - -Besides these, Henry VI. founded Eton College, and Thomas Hokenorton, -Abbot of Osney, founded the schools in Oxford, in 1439. Before that -time the professors of several sciences in both universities read -their lectures in private houses, at very inconvenient distances from -each other. To remedy this inconvenience, schools were erected in -both universities at this period. Hokenorton's schools comprehended -the teaching of divinity, metaphysics, natural and moral philosophy, -astronomy, geometry, arithmetic, music, logic, rhetoric, and grammar. -They required liberal aid from other benefactors, and they found these -in the noble Humphrey of Gloucester, and the two brothers Kemp, the one -Archbishop of York and the other Bishop of London. They were completed -in 1480, including Duke Humphrey's noble library, the nucleus of the -present Bodleian, which was refounded by Sir Thomas Bodley in 1597. The -quadrangle, containing the schools of Cambridge, was completed in 1475. - -Up to this period Scotland had possessed no university whatever, and -its youth had been obliged to travel to foreign universities for their -education. But now the University of St. Andrews was founded in 1410, -and obtained a charter in 1411 from Bishop Wardlaw, which was confirmed -by the Pope in 1412, and by James I. in 1431. The great need of such an -institution was soon evidenced by the university becoming famous. In 1456 -Kennedy, the successor of Wardlaw, founded the College of St. Salvator in -that city; and in 1450 William Turnbull, the Bishop of Glasgow, founded -the University of that city; and in the same year was founded the college -or faculty of arts in Glasgow, King James II. taking both college and -university under his especial patronage and protection. This college -received a handsome endowment from James, Lord Hamilton, and his lady, -Euphemia, Countess of Douglas, in 1459. - -The castles erected during this period are few. The wars of the -Roses brought the force of cannon and gunpowder against the massive -erections of the barons of past ages, and many a terrible stronghold -was demolished. But there was, from the beginning of these wars, little -leisure for repairing, or for building new castles. The proprietors, for -the most part, were killed or reduced to ruin, and the workmen shared -the same fate, so that labour became too scarce and dear for such great -undertakings. Scotland was affected by similar circumstances. - -The castles of this period bear unmistakable traces of the Perpendicular -style, which was prevalent in the ecclesiastical architecture of the -age. That portion of Windsor built by William of Wykeham, though much -altered, retains some marked and good features of this age. The exterior -of Tattershall Castle, in Lincolnshire, remains nearly unaltered. All the -castles of this time blend more or less of the domestic character, and -tended towards that style which prevailed in the next century under the -name of Tudor. Another great change in the castellated architecture of -this period was the use of brick in their construction. Bricks, though -introduced into Britain by the Romans, had gone almost out of use till -the reign of Richard II.; now they were in such favour that the castles -of Tattershall, Hurstmonceux, and Caistor were built chiefly of them, as -Thornbury Castle was in the next century. Hurstmonceux, in Sussex, was -erected in 1448 on the plan of Porchester Castle. It was a stupendous -building, of which the ruins now remain, forming a regular parallelogram -of 180 feet square, flanked by seventeen octagon towers, and with a fine -machicolated gateway forming the keep. Tattershall, in Lincolnshire, -built in 1455, is erected in the style of the ancient keep, a huge square -tower with polygonal turrets at the angles. Caistor, in Norfolk, erected -about 1450, was remarkable for two very large circular brick towers at -the northern angle, one of which remains. - -But the castles and the mansions of this period possessed frequently -so many features and qualities in common, that some of them are actual -hybrids, the uniting links of the two kinds of houses. They had alike -towers, battlements, and moats, and the chief apartments looked into the -interior quadrangle as the safest. Oxburgh Hall, in Norfolk, is one of -this mixed class. Though called a hall, it is moated, and has a massive -gateway of a remarkable altitude. Raglan Castle, built in the reign of -Edward IV., has more of the true castellated style; Warwick and Windsor, -more of the union of the two styles. At the same time such castles as -had their gateways battered down, and rebuilt at this period, present -in them all the older characteristics of castellated buildings. Such is -the gateway of Carisbrooke Castle, built in the reign of Edward IV., and -the west gate of Canterbury, built towards the close of the fourteenth -century, which retain the stem old circular towers, lighted only by mere -loopholes and _oeillets_. - -The style of ecclesiastical architecture prevailing through this century, -and to the middle of the next, is that called the Perpendicular. It -appears to have commenced about 1377, or at the commencement of the -reign of Richard II., just twenty years prior to this century, and -it terminated at the Reformation, in the reign of Henry VIII. The -Reformation was anything but a reformation in architecture. That great -convulsion broke up the period of a thousand years, during which, from -the first introduction of Christianity into this island, this peculiar -character of architecture, often called Gothic, but more properly -Christian, had been progressing and perfecting itself. The Western -princes and prelates, evidently copying the Grecian in their columns, -but adding curves and ornaments unknown to the Greeks, and introducing -principles of pliancy, and of long and lofty aisles, from the suggestions -of the forests, in which they were accustomed to wander, and the linden -groves which they planted, originated a new school of architecture, in -many particulars far exceeding that of the classic nations. No church -took up and perpetuated this noble Christian architecture more cordially -and more inspiredly than the Catholic. Over the whole of Europe, wherever -the Roman Church prevailed, it erected its churches and monasteries in -a spirit of unrivalled grandeur and beauty. In architecture, in music, -and in painting, it acquitted itself royally towards the public, however -it might fail in spirit, in doctrine, or in discipline. The remains -of painted windows, to say nothing of the productions of such men as -Raphael, Michael Angelo, Guido, and a host of others, who drew their -inspiration from the devotions of that church, are sufficient to excite -our highest admiration; and the sublime anthems which resounded through -their august and poetical temples, through what are called "the Dark -Ages," were well calculated to enchain the imagination of minds not -deeply reflective or profoundly informed. - -[Illustration: THE QUADRANGLE: ETON COLLEGE.] - -In every country we find, moreover, a different style in all these -arts--music, painting, and architecture; demonstrating the exuberance -of genius turned into these channels during long centuries, when all -others, except warfare, seemed closed. England had its distinctive style -in these matters, and in architecture this Perpendicular style was the -last. During its later period it considerably deteriorated, and with -the Reformation it went out. In England sufficient power and property -were left to the Anglican Church to enable it to preserve the majority -of its churches, and many of its conventual buildings: in Scotland the -destruction was more terrible. There public opinion took a great leap -from Catholicism to the simplicity and sternness of the school of John -Knox; and in consequence of his celebrated sermon at Perth, in which he -told his congregation that to effectually drive away the rooks they must -pull out their nests, almost every convent and cathedral, except that of -Glasgow, was reduced to a ruin. - -[Illustration: INTERIOR OF KING'S COLLEGE CHAPEL, CAMBRIDGE.] - -Of the Perpendicular style we have many churches throughout the country, -and still more into which it has been more or less introduced into -those of earlier date in repairs and restorations. Every county, and -almost every parish, can show us specimens of this style, if it be only -in a window, a porch, or a buttress. Rickman is of opinion that half -the windows in English edifices over the kingdom are of this style. -Whilst our neighbours on the Continent were indulging themselves in the -_flamboyant_ style, and loading their churches with the most exuberant -ornament, as in the splendid cathedrals of Normandy and Brittany, our -ancestors were enamoured of this new and more chaste style. There are -writers who regard the perpendicular lines of this style as an evidence -of a decline in the art. We cannot agree with that opinion. The straight, -continuous mullions of the Perpendicular are--combined with the rich and -abundant ornaments of other portions of the buildings, as the spandrils -enriched with shields, the finely-wrought and soaring canopies, and -crocketed finials, the canopied buttresses, the groined roofs and -fan-tracery of ceilings--a pleasure to the eye, when chastely and richly -designed. - -The windows of this style at once catch the observation of the spectator. -The mullions, running through from bottom to top, give you, instead of -the flowing tracery of the Decorated style, a simple and somewhat stiff -heading; but the stiffness is in most instances relieved by the heading -of each individual section being cuspated, and the upper portions of -the window presenting frequent variations, as in the grand western -window of Winchester Cathedral. Some of these windows, with their -cinquefoils and quatrefoils, approach even to the Decorative. Amongst -the finest windows of this kind are those of St. George's, Windsor, of -four lights; the clerestory windows of Henry the Seventh's Chapel, of -five. The east window of York Cathedral is of superb proportions. The -window of the Beauchamp Chapel, Warwick, is extremely rich and peculiar -in its character. Those of the Abbey Church of Bath have the mullions -alternating, by the perpendicular line being continued from the centre of -each arch beneath it. - -The mullions in this style are crossed at right angles by transoms, -converting the whole window into a series of panels; for panelling in the -Perpendicular style is one of its chief characteristics, being carried -out on walls, doors, and, in many cases, even roofs and ceilings. Take -away the arched head of a window, and you convert it at once into an -Elizabethan one. - -Every portion of a Perpendicular building has its essential -characteristics: its piers, its buttresses, its niches, its roofs, -porches, battlements, and ornaments, which we cannot enumerate here. -They must be studied for themselves. We can only point out one or two -prominent examples. - -Many of the buildings of this style are adorned with flying buttresses, -which are often pierced, and rich in tracery, as those of Henry VII.'s -Chapel. The projection of the buttresses in King's College Chapel, -Cambridge, is so great that chapels are built between them. Many of these -buttresses are very rich with statuary niches and wrought canopies. -Pinnacles are used profusely in this style; but in St. George's, -Windsor, and the Beauchamp Chapel, Warwick, the buttresses run up, and -finish square. - -Panelling, as we have said, is one of the most striking features of the -Perpendicular style. This is carried to such an extent in most of the -richly-ornamented buildings, that it covers walls, windows, roofs; for -the doors and windows are only pierced panels. St. George's, Windsor, is -a fine example of this; but still finer is Henry VII.'s Chapel, which, -within and without, is almost covered with panelling. King's College -Chapel, Cambridge, is another remarkable example, which is all panelled, -except the floor. The roof of this chapel is one of the richest specimens -of the fan-tracery in the kingdom. Amongst the most graceful ornaments of -this style are the angels introduced into cornices, and as supporters of -shields and corbels for roof-beams, rich foliated crockets, and flowers -exquisitely worked, conspicuous amongst them being the Tudor flower. - -Some of the finest steeples in the country belong to this style. First -and foremost stands the unrivalled open-work tower of St. Nicholas, -Newcastle-on-Tyne. This forms a splendid crown in the air, composed of -four flying buttresses, springing from the base of octagonal turrets, and -bearing at their intersection an elegant lantern, crowned with a spire. -From this have been copied that of St. Giles's, Edinburgh, that of the -church of Linlithgow, and the college tower of Aberdeen. Boston, Derby, -Taunton, Doncaster, Coventry, York, and Canterbury boast noble steeples -of this style. - -The arches of the Perpendicular are various; but none are so common -as the flat, four-centred arch. This in doors, and in windows also, -is generally enclosed by a square plane of decoration, appearing as a -frame, and this mostly surmounted by a dripstone; the spandrels formed -betwixt the arch and frame being generally filled by armorial shields, -or ornamental tracery. In some doorways there is an excess of ornament. -The Decorative style in this country, or the florid abroad, has nothing -richer. Every part is covered with canopy-work, flowers, heraldic -emblems, and emblazoned shields. Such is the doorway of King's College -Chapel, Cambridge; and such are the chapels of Henry V. and Henry VII. at -Westminster. - -The groined roofs of the Perpendicular style are noble, and often -profusely ornamented. The intersections of the ribs of these groined -roofs are often shields richly emblazoned in their proper colours. The -vaulted roof of the cloisters of Canterbury Cathedral is studded with -above 800 shields, of kings and other benefactors; and the whole presents -a perfect blaze of splendour. Some of these groined roofs are adorned -with a ramification of ribs, running out in a fan-shape, circumscribed by -a quarter or half-circle rib, the intervals filled up with ornament. The -cloisters of Gloucester Cathedral present, perhaps, the first specimen of -the fan-tracery roof; and after that King's College Chapel, Cambridge, -Henry VII.'s Chapel, and the Abbey Church at Bath. The Red Mount Chapel, -at Lynn, in Norfolk, is a unique and very beautiful specimen of the -Perpendicular, not only having a richly ornamental roof of this kind, -but though much injured by time, displaying in every part of it design -and workmanship equally exquisite. Henry VII.'s Chapel and the Divinity -School at Oxford have pendants which come down as low as the springing -line of the fans. - -A simpler roof, but quaint and impressive in its appearance, is the open -one--that is, open to the roof framing. Here, as all is bare to the eye, -the whole framework of beams and rafters has been constructed for effect. -The wood-work forms arches, pendants, and pierced panels of various form -and ornament. Such are the roofs of Westminster Hall, Crosby Hall (just -removed), Eltham Palace, the College of Christ Church, Oxford, and many -an old baronial hall and church throughout the country. - -Specimens of this style of architecture in whole or in part will meet -the reader in every part of England, Wales, and Scotland; and it should -be remembered that it is an especial and exclusively English style, no -other country possessing it. In Scotland Melrose Abbey and Roslin Chapel -present fine specimens of the Perpendicular, the latter one displaying -some singular variations, the work of foreign artists. - -When we descend from the military castle to more domestic architecture, -we find the large houses of the gentry, or nobility, though totally -incapable of resisting cannon, yet frequently battlemented, flanked -with turrets, and surrounded by the flooded moat. The large houses of -this period were generally built round one or two quadrangles. These -buildings often possessed much variety of exterior detail: a great -arched gateway with the armorial escutcheon above it; projections, -recesses, tall chimneys, flanking buttresses, handsome oriel windows, and -pointed gables, terminated by some animal belonging to the emblazonry -of the family. They were commonly adorned with fanes, in the form of -the military banner of the chief, duly emblazoned in proper colours. -Within, the great hall, with its open groined roof, the kitchen, and -the buttery, cut the principal figure. At the upper end of the hall was -the dais or raised part, on which stood the table of the lord and his -immediate family or particular guests; and below the great salt-cellar -sat the remainder of the establishment. At the lower end was commonly a -music gallery. The fire was still frequently in the centre of the hall, -and there was a hole in the roof to permit the smoke to escape, as at -Penshurst, where the front of the music gallery is true Perpendicular. In -other houses there were large open fireplaces, the mantelpieces of which -were frequently richly carved with the armorial shields of the family. - -The floors were still strewn with fresh rushes instead of a carpet, and -the walls were hung with arras, which clothed them, and at the same -time kept out cold draughts. Plaster ceilings were yet unknown. The -greater portion of these houses, however, was required for the sleeping -apartments of the numerous retainers. - -In the humbler halls, granges, and farmhouses, the same plan of building -round a quadrangle was mostly adhered to, and a large number of such -houses were of framed timber, with ornamental gables and porches, and -displaying much carving. Great Chatfield manor-house in Wiltshire, -Harlaxton in Lincolnshire, Helmingham Hall, Norfolk, Moreton Hall in -Cheshire, and probably some of the framed timber houses of Lancashire, as -the Hall-in-the-Wood, Smithell's, Speke Hall, &c., in whole or in part, -date from this period. Ockwells, in Berkshire, is another of the fine old -timber houses of this century. - -In the towns the houses were also chiefly of wood. The streets were -extremely narrow, and the upper storeys of the houses projected over -the lower ones, so that you might almost shake hands out of the third -or fourth storey windows. This was the cause of such frequent fires as -occurred in London. Many of the small houses in these narrow streets -were adorned with abundance of carving. The houses or inns of the great -barons, prelates, and abbots were extensive, and surrounded inner courts. -Here, during Parliament, and on other grand occasions, the owners came -with their vast retinues. We are told that the Duke of York lodged with -400 men in Baynard's Castle, in 1457. The Earl of Warwick had his house -in Warwick Lane, still called after it, where he could lodge 800 men. -At another house of his called the Herber, meaning an inn, the Earl of -Salisbury, his father, lodged with 500 men. Still more extensive must -have been the abodes of the Earls of Exeter and Northumberland, who -occasionally brought retinues of from 800 to 1,500 men. The sites of -these great houses are yet known, and bear the names of their ancient -owners, but the buildings themselves have long vanished. The great houses -of Scotland still kept up the show of feudal strength and capability of -defence. The peels, or Border towers, yet bear evidence of the necessity -of stout fortification in those times. We may form some idea of the -devastation made amongst private dwellings in the Wars of the Roses, -from the statement of John Rous, the Warwick antiquary, who says that -no fewer than sixty villages, some of them large and populous, with -churches and manor-houses, had been destroyed within twelve miles of that -town. From all that we can learn, the common people of this age were but -indifferently lodged, and the mansions of the great were more stately -than comfortable. - -Though such extensive destruction of the statuary which adorned both the -exterior and interior of our churches took place at the Reformation, -sufficient yet remains to warrant us in the belief that the fifteenth -surpassed every prior century in its sculpture. The very opposition -which the Wycliffites had raised to the worship and even existence of -images, seems to have stimulated the Church only the more to put forth -its strength in this direction. Sculptors, both foreign and English, -therefore received the highest encouragement, and were in the fullest -employ. The few statues which yet remain in niches, on the outside of our -cathedrals, especially those on the west end of the Cathedral of Wells, -though probably not the best work of the artists, are decided proofs -of their ability. The effigies of knights and ladies extended on their -altar tombs received grave damage, with the rest of the ecclesiastical -art, from the misguided zeal of the reformers, yet many such remain of -undoubted beauty, and the chantries, which were in this century erected -over the tombs of great prelates, are of the most exquisite design and -workmanship. Such are those in Winchester Cathedral of Bishops Wykeham, -Beaufort, and Waynflete. The shrine of Bishop Beaufort, in particular, -is a mass of Portland stone, carved like the finest ivory, and is a most -gorgeous specimen of a tomb of the Perpendicular period. Henry V.'s -chantry, in Westminster Abbey, is the only one erected in this period to -royalty, and it is a monument of high honour to the age. - -The names of some of the artists of this era are preserved. Thomas Colyn, -Thomas Holewell, and Thomas Poppehowe, executed, carried over, and -erected in Nantes, in 1408, the alabaster tomb of the Duke of Brittany. -Of the five artists who executed the celebrated tomb of Richard, Earl -of Warwick, in the Beauchamp Chapel, four were English, and the fifth -was a Dutch goldsmith. Besides the great image of the earl, there were -thirty-two images on this monument. These were all cast by William -Austin, a founder of London, clearly a great genius, on the finest latten -(brass), and gilded by Bartholomew Lambespring the Dutch goldsmith. The -monument and the superb chapel in which it stands cost L2,481 4s. 7d., -equivalent to L24,800 now. - -Most of the monumental brasses which abound in our churches were the -work of this period. There are some of much older date, but, during this -century they were multiplied everywhere, and afforded great scope for the -talents of founders, engravers, and enamellers. - -In painting, the age does not appear to have equally excelled. There -was, unquestionably, abundance of religious pictures on the walls of our -churches, and the images themselves were painted and gilt; but there -do not seem to have existed artists who had a true conception of the -sublimity of their pursuit. The painting of such works was undertaken by -the job, by painters and stainers. John Prudde, glazier in Westminster, -undertook to "import from beyond seas glass of the finest colours, blue, -yellow red, purple, sanguine, and violet," and with it glaze the windows -of the Beauchamp Chapel. Brentwood, a stainer of London, was to paint -the west wall of the chapel "with all manner of devices and imagery;" -and Christian Coliburne, painter, of London, was to "paint the images in -the finest oil colours." The great Earl of Warwick bargained with his -tailor to paint the scenes of his embassy to France, for which he was to -receive L1 8s. 6d. The "Dance of Death," so common on the Continent in -churches and churchyards, made also so famous by Holbein, was copied from -the cloister of the Innocents in Paris, and painted on the walls of the -cloister of St. Paul's. It was a specimen of the portrait painting of the -age, for it contained the portraits of actual persons, in different ranks -of life, in their proper dresses. The portraits of our kings, queens, and -celebrated characters, done at this time, are of inferior merit. - -[Illustration: _From the Froissart MS. in the British Museum._ - - _Reproduced by Andre & Sleigh, Ltd., Bushey, Herts._ - -THE GRAND ASSAULT UPON THE TOWN OF AFRICA BY THE ENGLISH AND FRENCH. - -THE TOWN OF AFRICA, SOME SEVENTY MILES FROM TUNIS, WAS THE OBJECTIVE OF -THE EXPEDITION THAT SAILED FROM GENOA IN 1390 TO CHASTISE THE BARBARY -CORSAIRS, AS DEPICTED IN ANOTHER OF THE FROISSART ILLUMINATIONS. THE VIEW -OF THE TOWN IS CLEARLY IMAGINARY, THE ARTIST BEING PROBABLY FAMILIAR WITH -NONE BUT FLEMISH OR FRENCH ARCHITECTURE.] - -Gilding was in great request, not only for ornamenting churches and their -monuments, but for domestic use, the precious metals being very scarce, -and therefore copper and brass articles were commonly silvered or gilt. -But it was in the illumination of manuscripts that the artistic genius -of the time was, more than almost in any other department, displayed. -The colours used are deemed inferior in splendour to those of the -fourteenth century, but the illuminations are superior in drawing and -power of expression. The terror depicted in the faces of the Earl of -Warwick's sailors in expectation of shipwreck, and the grief in those who -witnessed his death, are evidences of the hand of a master. Many of the -portraits of the leading characters of the age are to be found in these -illuminations; and they afford us the most lively views of the persons -and dresses of our ancestors of that day--their arms, ships, houses, -furniture, manners, and employments. But the art of printing was already -in existence, and before it the beautiful art of illumination fell and -died out. - -[Illustration: STREET IN LONDON IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.] - -The deadly arts of destruction were more practised during this century -than all others. First the English turned their arms against the French, -and then against each other, and though many of their armies were hastily -raised, and therefore ill-disciplined, they not only showed their -accustomed bravery, but many advances were made in the manner of raising, -forming, paying, and disciplining troops, as well as in the modes of -attacking fortifications and towns. Henry V. was a consummate master in -this, his favourite art, and was, perhaps, the first of our kings who -introduced a scheme of superior discipline, teaching his troops to march -in straight lines at proper distances, with a steady, measured pace; to -advance, attack, halt, or fall back without breaking, or getting into -confusion. This, combined with his mode of employing his archers, which -we have described in the account of his battles, gave him an invincible -superiority over his enemies. - -As the feudal system decayed, the kings of England no longer depended -on their barons appearing in the field with their vassals, but they -bargained with different leaders to furnish men at stated prices, -which, as we have shown, were high. It was only in cases of rebellion -and intestine struggle that they summoned all their military tenants -to raise the people in mass, and the same summonses were issued to the -archbishops, bishops, and all the principal clergy, to arm all their -followers, lay and clerical, and march to the royal standard. - -The pictures of battles and sieges at this period give us an odd medley -of bows and arrows, crossbows, spears, cannon, and hand-guns. The old -weapons were not left off, because the new ones were too imperfect and -too difficult of locomotion to supersede them. The cannons, though -often of immense bore and weight, throwing balls of from one to five -hundredweight, were, for the most part, without carriages, and therefore -difficult and tardy in their operations. The Scots were the first to -anticipate the modern gun-carriage, by what they called their "carts of -war," which carried two guns each, while many of the guns of the English -required fifty horses to drag them. They had, however, smaller guns; as -culverins, serpentines, basilisks, fowlers, scorpions, &c. The culverins -were a species of hand-gun in general, fired from a rest, or from the -shoulder. The Swiss had 10,000 culverins at the famous battle of Morat. -These hand-guns are said to have been first brought into England by -Edward IV. on his return from Flanders in 1471. Ships were also supplied -with small guns. - -The trade of England continued to flourish and extend itself through -this century, in spite of the obstacles and ruinous effects of almost -perpetual war. Our kings, however warlike they might be, were yet very -sensible of the advantages of commerce, and during this century made -numerous treaties in its favour. At the same time, it is curious that, -even when two countries were at war, such was the spirit of trade, that -the merchants went on trading whenever they could, just as if there -was no war at all. This was the case, especially between England and -Flanders. Our monarchs were already ambitious of reigning supreme masters -of the seas, and this doctrine was as jealously urged upon them by the -nation. In a rhyming pamphlet, written about 1433, and to be found in -Hakluyt (Vol. I., p. 167), the writer says, that "if the English keep the -seas, especially the main seas, they will compell all the world to be at -peace with them, and to court their friendship." - -Henry IV., though harassed by the difficulties of a usurped crown, -strenuously set himself to promote commerce, and to put an end to the -continual depredations committed upon each other by the English and the -merchants of the Hanse Towns, as well as those of Prussia and Livonia, -subject to the grand master of the Teutonic order of knights. - -Henry V. was as victorious at sea as on land; and by his fleet, under his -brother, the great Duke of Bedford, in 1416, and again in 1417, the Earl -of Huntingdon being his admiral, swept the seas of the united fleets of -France and Genoa, and made himself complete master of the ocean during -his time. This ascendency was lost under the disastrous reign of Henry -VI., but was regained by Edward IV., a monarch who, notwithstanding his -voluptuous character, was fully alive to the vast benefits accruing to -a nation from foreign trade, and thought it no dishonour to be, if not -a merchant-prince, a prince-merchant. He had ships of his own, and in -time of peace he did not suffer them to remain useless in harbour, but -freighted them with goods on his own account, and grew rich by traffic. - -Notwithstanding all this, the nation was not yet much more enlightened -as to the real principles of trade than it was in the previous century. -The same absurd restrictions were in force against foreign merchants. -Such foreign merchants were required to lay out all the money received -for goods imported in English merchandise. No gold or silver coin, plate -or bullion, was, on any account, to be carried out of the kingdom. Banks -were now established in most countries, and bills of exchange had been -in use since the thirteenth century--so that these remedied, to a large -extent, this evil; but it is clear that where the exports of a country -exceeded its imports, the balance must be remitted in cash; and the -commercial men were clever enough to evade all the laws of this kind. No -fact was so notorious as that the coinage of England abounded in all the -countries to which she traded. - -Besides the prohibition of carrying out any English coin or even bullion, -foreign merchants were to sell all the goods they brought within -three months, but they were not to sell any of them to other merchant -strangers, and when they arrived in any English town they were assigned -to particular hosts, and were to lodge nowhere else. Yet, under all these -obstacles, our commerce grew, and our merchants extended their voyages to -ports and countries which they had not hitherto frequented. In 1413 they -fitted out ships in the port of London for Morocco, having a cargo of -wool and other merchandise valued at L24,000, or L240,000 of our money. -This raised the ire of the Genoese, who seized these precious ships; but -Henry IV. soon made ample reprisals by granting to his subjects letters -of marque to seize the ships and goods of the Genoese wherever they could -be found. And so well did the English kings follow this up, that we find -them in Richard III.'s reign not only successfully competing with the -Genoese, but obtaining a footing in Italy itself, and establishing a -consul at Pisa. Consuls, or, as they were then called, governors, of the -English traders abroad, were also employed during this period in Germany, -Prussia, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Holland, and Flanders. - -[Illustration: _From the Froissart MS. in the British Museum._ - -FROISSART PRESENTING HIS BOOK OF LOVE POEMS TO RICHARD II. IN 1395. - -ON HIS RETURN TO ENGLAND IN 1395, AFTER AN ABSENCE OF TWENTY-SEVEN YEARS, -SIR JOHN FROISSART HAD AN INTERVIEW WITH THE KING, TO WHOM HE PRESENTED -HIS BOOK OF LOVE POEMS. "THE ROMANCE OF MELIADOR."] - -[Illustration: _From the Froissart MS. in the British Museum._ - -THE LANDING OF THE LADY DE COUCY AT BOULOGNE. - -THE LADY DE COUCY, WHO IS FOLLOWED BY HER WAITING MAID, HAD BEEN IN -ATTENDANCE UPON QUEEN ISABELLA, CONSORT OF RICHARD II AND SHE IS HERE -SEEN RETURNING SADLY TO FRANCE (IN 1399) BEARING TIDINGS OF THE KING'S -DOWNFALL.] - -Wool, woollens, tin, hides, and corn, were still our chief exports. -Slaves, says the historian, were no longer an article of commerce; but -the conveyance of pilgrims to foreign shrines was a source of great -emolument to merchants. A curious pamphlet of the middle of this century, -called "The Prologue of English Policy," gives us a complete view of -our imports:--The commodities of Spain were figs, raisins, wines, oils, -soap, dates, liquorice, wax, iron, wool, wadmote, goatfell, redfell, -saffron, and quicksilver--a valuable importation. Those of Portugal were -very much the same. Brittany sent wine, salt, crest-cloth or linen, and -canvas; Germany, Scandinavia, and Flanders, iron, steel, copper, osmond, -bowstaves, boards, wax, corn, pitch, tar, flax, hemp, felting, thread, -fustian, buckram, canvas, and wool-cards; Genoa, gold, cloth of gold, -silk, cotton, oil, black pepper, rockalum, and wood; Venice, Florence, -and other Italian states, all kinds of spices and grocery wares, sweet -wines, sugar, dates. - -The age abounded with great merchants. The Medici of Florence; Jacques -le Coeur, the greatest merchant that France ever produced, who had -more wealth and trade than all the other merchants of that country -together, and who supplied Charles VII. with money by which he recovered -his country from the English. In our own country John Norbury, John -Hende, and Richard Whittington, were the leading merchants of London, -the last of whom was so far from a poor boy making his fortune by a cat -that he was the son of Sir William Whittington, knight. In Bristol -also flourished at this time William Cannynge, who was five times mayor -of that city, and who had, for some cause not explained, 2,470 tons of -shipping taken from him at once by Edward IV., including one ship of 400 -tons, one of 500, and one of 900. The name of this Cannynge is familiar -to readers of Chatterton's ingenious Rowley poems. - -Of the ships and shipping of the age we need not say more than that, with -all the characteristics of the past age, there was an attempt to build -larger vessels in rivalry of the Genoese. John Taverner, of Hull, had a -royal licence granted him in 1449, conferring on him great privileges -and exemptions as a merchant, for building one as large as a Venetian -carrack, one of their first-class ships, or even larger. And Bishop -Kennedy, of St. Andrews, was as much celebrated for building a ship of -unusual size, called the _Bishop's Berge_, as for building and endowing -a college. - -In Scotland the state of the shipping interest was much the same as in -England. James I. displayed enlightened views of trade. He made various -laws to ascertain the rate of duty on all exports and imports, to secure -the effects of any traders dying abroad, and permitted his subjects to -trade in foreign ships when they had no vessels of their own. In both -countries great care was taken to protect and promote their fisheries. - -The coin of those times in England was chiefly of gold and silver. -The gold coin consisted of nobles, half-nobles, and quarter-nobles, -originally equivalent to guineas (the exact value of a noble in Henry -IV.'s reign was 21s. 1-1/2d.), half-guineas, and quarter-guineas, or -dollars of 5s. 3d. The silver coins were groats, half-groats, and -pennies. But it must be remembered that all these coins were of ten times -the intrinsic value of our present money; so that the labourer who in the -fifteenth century received 1-1/2d. per day, received as much as fifteen -pence of the present money. But the great historical fact regarding -the money of this age was its continual adulteration, and consequent -depreciation. - -[Illustration: CANNON OF THE END OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. (_From an -Engraving by I. van Mechlin._)] - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -THE REIGN OF HENRY VII. - - Henry's Defective Title--Imprisonment of the Earl of Warwick--The - King's Title to the Throne--His Marriage--Lovel's Rising--Lambert - Simnel--Henry's prompt Action--Failure of the Rebellion--The - Queen's Coronation--The Act of Maintenance--Henry's Ingratitude - to the Duke of Brittany--Discontent in England--Expedition to - France and its Results--Henry's Second Invasion--Treaty of - Etaples--Perkin Warbeck--His Adventures in Ireland, France, - and Burgundy--Henry's Measures--Descent on Kent--Warbeck in - Scotland--Invasion of England--The Cornish Rising--Warbeck - quits Scotland--He lands in Cornwall--Failure of the - Rebellion--Imprisonment of Warbeck and his subsequent - Execution--European Affairs--Marriages of Henry's Daughter and - Son--Betrothal of Catherine and Prince Henry--Henry's Matrimonial - Schemes--Royal Exactions--A Lucky Capture--Henry proposes for - Joanna--His Death. - - -Though Henry Tudor had conquered Richard III. on the field of Bosworth, -he had no title whatever to the crown of England, except such as the -people, by their own free choice, should give him. He was descended, it -is true, from Edward III., through John of Gaunt, but from the offspring -of not only an illicit, but an adulterous connection. When the natural -children of John of Gaunt, therefore, were legitimatised by Act of -Parliament, that Act expressly declared them incapable of inheriting the -crown. Still more, the true hereditary claim lay in the house of York; -and had that line been totally extinct, and had the bar against his line -not existed, the royal house of Portugal at least had a superior title in -point of descent from John of Gaunt. Further still, he stood attainted -as a traitor by Act of Parliament, and could not, therefore, assert a -Parliamentary right. Yet, as we have said, for years public expectation, -overlooking the claims of all others of both the contending lines, had -turned towards him, as the individual destined by Providence to put an -end to the sanguinary broils of York and Lancaster, and unite them in -peace. - -The only son of the late Duke of Clarence, who, next to the children -of Edward IV., was the heir apparent of the line of York, had been -confined by his uncle, Richard III., in the castle of Sheriff Hutton, -in Yorkshire. Richard had at first treated this poor boy with kindness; -he had created him Earl of Warwick, the title of his illustrious -grandfather, the king-maker. On the death of his own son, he had at first -proposed to nominate him his heir; but, fearing that he might be too -dangerous a competitor, he had omitted that favour, and conferred it on -the Earl of Lincoln, John de la Pole, the son of his sister the Duchess -of Suffolk, and therefore nephew both of himself and Edward IV. Henry, -the very first day after the battle of Bosworth, despatched Sir Robert -Willoughby to take the young earl from Sheriff Hutton, and convey him to -the Tower of London. Henry then put himself at the head of his victorious -troops, and commenced his march towards the capital. Everywhere he was -received, not as a conqueror, but a deliverer. - -He arrived safely at Kennington, and after dining with Thomas Bourchier, -Archbishop of Canterbury, he proceeded with a splendid attendance of -lords, both spiritual and temporal, towards the city. The nobles, -imitating the absurd custom of France, rode two together on one horse, -to show how completely the rival parties had amalgamated, and in this -ridiculous style they passed through the city to the Tower, where Henry -for the present took up his residence. On the 30th of October he was -crowned by the Archbishop of Canterbury, and he immediately appointed a -body-guard of fifty archers to attend upon him. This was an indication of -distrust in his subjects or of the state of a conqueror, which astonished -and dismayed the public; but Henry assured them that it was merely the -state which, on the Continent, was now deemed essential to a king. - -The Parliament assembled on the 7th of November, to settle the new order -of things. Before proceeding to business they found themselves in a great -dilemma. No less than 107 of the members were persons attainted during -the last two reigns, and were therefore disqualified for acting. They -were the most zealous partisans of the house of Lancaster, and immediate -application was made to the judges for their decision on this new and -singular case. They came to the conclusion that the attainted members -could not take their seats till their attainders were reversed, and a -bill was passed by the remaining members accordingly. - -When Henry met his duly qualified Parliament, he informed them that -"he had come to the throne by just title of inheritance, and by the -sure judgment of God, who had given him the victory over his enemies in -the field." In this declaration he was careful, while he asserted what -was not true, to avoid what would alarm the pride and the fears of the -nation. He had no just title of inheritance, as we have shown, and he -dared not use the words "right of conquest," for such right was held -to imply a lapse of all the lands in the nation to the Crown, since -they had been held of the prince who had been conquered. Lest he had, -even in speaking of victory, gone too far, he immediately added, that -"every man should continue to enjoy his rights and hereditaments, except -such persons as in the present Parliament should be punished for their -offences against his royal majesty." - -[Illustration: GREAT SEAL OF HENRY VII.] - -Another claim to the crown, which Henry was still more careful to ignore, -though it was one on which he secretly placed confidence, was the right -of Elizabeth of York, whom he had pledged himself to marry, and who was -the undoubted owner of the throne. But as Henry would not owe his throne -to his people, so he would not owe it to his wife. He therefore used -every means to establish his own title to the throne before he in any -way alluded to hers, or took any steps towards fulfilling his pledge -of marriage. He renewed that pledge, indeed, on arriving in London, to -satisfy the York party; but he proceeded to have his claims to the throne -acknowledged by Parliament without any reference to hers. If he had -mentioned the right of Elizabeth of York, his extreme caution suggested -that he would be held to possess the throne, not by his own claims, but -by hers, an idea which equally offended his pride, and alarmed him for -the security of the succession in his offspring. Should Elizabeth die -without children, in that case the right would die with her; and any -issue of his by another marriage might be accounted intruders in the -succession, and they might be removed for the next heirs of Edward IV. -If she should die childless, and even before him, even his own retention -of the throne might be disputed. All these points the mind of Henry saw -clearly; and in a moment, and as if no such person as Elizabeth existed, -and as if no pledge to marry her had helped him to his success, he -procured an Act of Parliament, which provided that "the inheritance of -the crown should be, rest, remain, and abide in the most royal person -of the then sovereign lord, King Henry VII., and the heirs of his body -lawfully coming, perpetually with the grace of God so to endure, and in -none other." - -But this excess of caution and this nicely balanced policy had not been -carried through without alarming all parties, and greatly disgusting -that of York. The whole country looked to the union of the houses by -the marriage of Henry and Elizabeth as the only means of putting an -end to the civil wars which had so long rent the nation. Still Henry, -though now securely seated on the throne, evinced no haste to fulfil -his pledge of placing Elizabeth of York upon it. It was not, therefore, -till the feeling of the public became strongly manifested at his neglect -of the princess, and till the Commons presented him a petition praying -him "to take to wife the Princess Elizabeth, which marriage they hoped -God would bless with a progeny of the race of kings;" and till the -Lords, spiritual and temporal, had testified their participation in this -wish, by rising simultaneously and bowing as it was uttered, that Henry -consented to the celebration of the marriage. - -The marriage took place on the 18th of January, 1486, and the rejoicings -in London, Westminster, and other cities were of the most lively kind. -They were heartfelt, for now all parties concluded that there was hope -of peace and comfort. They were far more ardent than at the king's -accession or coronation, and the mean-souled monarch saw it with sullen -displeasure, for it seemed to imply that though he had taken such pains -to place foremost his right to the throne, the people recognised, -spontaneously, the superior title of the house of York, and that of -his beautiful, and by him superciliously treated wife. Lord Bacon, -who is the great historian of this period, and who may be supposed to -be sufficiently informed, does not hesitate to add that the manifest -affection of the people for the queen produced in him towards her -additional coldness and dislike. - -Henry, before dismissing his Parliament, conferred favours and promotions -on many of his friends. The two persons, however, whose counsels and -administrative services he chiefly valued, were Bishops Morton and Fox, -the latter of whom he raised to the see of Exeter. They had shared in -all his adversities, and were now admitted to participate in his high -fortune. Morton was, on the death of Bourchier, made Primate of England; -and Fox was entrusted with the Privy Seal, and successively made Bishop -of Bath and Wells, Durham, and finally, Winchester. These two able -prelates were Henry's ministers and constant advisers. "He loved," says -the historian of the time, "to have a convenient number of right grave -and wise priests to be of his council; because," adds Bacon, "having rich -bishoprics to bestow, it was easy to reward their services." - -Having dismissed his Parliament, and left all in order, Henry set out -on a progress through the kingdom. The people of the northern counties -had been the most devoted to Richard, and he sought, by spending some -time amongst them, to remove their prejudices and attach them to his -interests. He had advanced as far as Lincoln, and was there keeping -his Easter, on the 2nd day of April, when he learned that Lord Lovel, -formerly chamberlain to Richard, with Humphrey and Thomas Stafford, -had left the sanctuary at Colchester, and were gone with dangerous -intentions, no man knew whither. The news did not seem to give him much -concern, and he proceeded towards York. At Nottingham, more pressing and -alarming intelligence reached him, that Lord Lovel was advancing towards -York with 4,000 men, and that the two Staffords were besieging Worcester -with another army. - -At Nottingham, Henry received an embassy from the King of the Scots; -and despatching his uncle, the Duke of Bedford, with about 3,000 men -in pursuit of Lord Lovel, on the 6th of April he quitted Northampton -in the same direction. At Pontefract he was met, on the 17th, by the -news that Lovel had passed him on the road, had raised a force in the -neighbourhood of Ripon and Middleham, and was preparing to surprise him -on his entrance into York. Henry's courage did not fail him; he was -now surrounded by most of the northern and southern nobility, who had -brought up considerable forces. But the man who always trusted more to -his shrewd knowledge of human nature than to arms, now hit on a means -of dispersing the insurgent army without a blow. He sent on his uncle, -Jasper of Bedford, to offer a free pardon to all who would desert Lovel's -standard, and the whole host dispersed as by magic. It was, in fact, the -magic of the right incentive applied at the right moment. Lovel, who was -as much affected by the proclamation of pardon as his followers--for it -instantly struck him with the fear of universal desertion--fled at once -to the house of his friend, Sir Thomas Broughton, in Lancashire; and, -after lying concealed there some days, contrived to escape to the court -of the Duchess of Burgundy, in Flanders. Some of his followers, as it -would seem, in defiance of the king's offer of pardon, were seized and -executed by the Earl of Northumberland. - -On the 30th of September the queen was prematurely delivered of a -son, who, however, was pronounced a strong and healthy child, and was -christened by the name of Arthur, after Prince Arthur of the ancient -Britons, from whom Henry pretended to derive his descent. But the birth -of an heir-apparent tried too severely the temper of the numerous -malcontents who still existed. Though Henry had put himself to much -trouble, and to some cost, to win over the people of the northern -counties, his conduct in general had not been such as to conciliate the -enemies of the Lancastrian line. - -However, the Yorkist party, though roused to disturb the quiet of the -king, prepared their measures of annoyance with a lack of acumen which -was more likely to irritate than overturn. Perhaps they did not want to -dethrone him, because that would overturn also the head, and most popular -representative of their own party--Elizabeth; especially as she was now -the mother of a legitimate prince, capable of uniting all interests. -Perhaps they wished rather to show the cold and unforgiving monarch -that he was more at their mercy than he supposed, and that they could -embitter, if they did not proceed to terminate, his reign. Such, in fact, -whether this was their purpose or not, were the character and tendency of -the plots and impostures which, for so many years, kept Henry in disquiet -and anxiety. - -The first attempt was to bring forward a youth as the Earl of Warwick, -the son of Clarence, whom Henry was keeping confined in the Tower. So -little depth was there in this plot, that at first it was evidently the -plan to bring the impostor forward as the Duke of York, the younger of -the two princes supposed to be murdered in the Tower. It was given out -that though his elder brother had been murdered, the younger had been -allowed to escape. Had this story been adhered to, and well acted, it -might have raised a most formidable rebellion; but, for some unknown -reason, it was as speedily abandoned as adopted, and the Earl of Warwick -pitched upon as the preferable impersonation. Nothing, however, could be -more absurd, for the true earl being really alive, Henry could at any -moment bring him forward. - -Towards the close of the year 1486, there appeared at the castle of -Dublin a priest of Oxford named Richard Simon, attended by a boy of -about fifteen years of age. The boy was of a peculiarly handsome and -interesting appearance; and Simon, who was a total stranger in Ireland, -presented him to the lord-deputy, the Earl of Kildare, as Edward -Plantagenet, Earl of Warwick, who, he represented, had fortunately -escaped from his dungeon in the Tower of London, and had come to throw -himself under the protection of the earl and his friends. Thomas -Fitzgerald, Earl of Kildare, was a zealous Yorkist; his brother was -chancellor, and almost all the bishops and officers in the Irish -Government had been appointed by Edward IV. or Richard. It is most likely -that the lord-deputy and the party were already cognisant of the whole -scheme of this agitation; for it is neither likely that Simon the priest -should have originated so daring and arduous an enterprise as that of -presenting a new claimant for the throne in opposition to the astute -and determined Henry Tudor, nor that he should have so particularly -singled out Ireland as the opening ground of his operations, and the -lord-deputy as his patron and coadjutor. What sufficiently proved this -was, that simultaneously the Earl of Lincoln, of whom we have lately made -mention, son to the eldest sister of the two late kings, had disappeared -from England and gone over to his aunt Margaret, Duchess-Dowager of -Burgundy, Henry's most inveterate enemy. This satisfied the king that -the plot which showed itself in Ireland was produced in England, and was -fomented by the Yorkist party at large. It was soon found that Simon had -been diligently instructing the young pretender, whose name was Lambert -Simnel, before he produced him in public, in all the arcana of the -character he had to support. - -The loyalty of the lord-deputy had been already questionable. Henry had -sent him a summons to attend in London, but he evaded that by a petition -from the spiritual and temporal peers of Ireland, stating strongly the -absolute necessity of his presence there. No sooner did Simon present -his _protege_ to Kildare, than that nobleman received him without any -apparent reluctance to put faith in his story. - -When Henry received this news, he hastened to do what he ought to have -done long before. He took the Earl of Warwick out of the Tower, conducted -him publicly to St. Paul's, so that all might see him, and all who -desired it were allowed to approach him, and converse with him. The -nobility and gentry were personally introduced to him, and the king then -took him with him to Sheen, where he held his court, and gave familiar -access to all those who had seen or known him before. By this politic -act he completely satisfied the people of England, who laughed at the -impostor in Ireland; but the Irish, on the contrary, declared that -Henry's Warwick was the impostor, and theirs the real one. To consult on -the best measures for defeating this plot, Henry called a great council -at Sheen; but at its breaking up, the public were thrown into still -greater surprise and perplexity by the king, who, instead of offering to -crown the queen, seized her mother, the queen-dowager, confiscated her -property, and consigned her to the custody of the monks of Bermondsey. -The reason assigned was, that the queen-dowager, in the last reign, -had promised her daughter to Henry, and then put her into the hands of -Richard. Such a reason, if really put forward, was a simple absurdity, -because since then Elizabeth Woodville had been living at court as -the queen-mother, in all public honour. The real cause was presumably -connected with the business in hand--the Simnel conspiracy. This is the -opinion of Lord Bacon, who, living a hundred years later, nevertheless -had access to sources of information not available to the modern student, -though his authority may easily be overrated. Speaking of Simon, he -says:--"It cannot be but that some great person, that knew particularly -and familiarly Edward Plantagenet, had a hand in the business, from whom -the priest might take his aim. That which is most probable out of the -preceding and subsequent acts is, that it was the queen-dowager from whom -this action had the principal source and motion; for certain it is that -she was a busy, negotiating woman, and in her withdrawing-chamber had -the fortunate conspiracy for the king against Richard III. been hatched, -which the king knew, and remembered, perhaps, but too well; and was at -this time extremely discontented with the king, thinking her daughter--as -the king handled the matter--not advanced but depressed; and none could -hold the book so well to prompt and instruct this stage play as she -could." - -[Illustration: HENRY VII.] - -But the most formidable and unwearied enemy of Henry VII. was Margaret, -the Dowager-Duchess of Burgundy. As the sister of Edward IV. and of -Richard, no circumstance could induce her to tolerate Henry Tudor, in her -eyes a low-born man, who had thrust the Yorkist line from the throne. To -her Lord Lovel had fled, and to her also fled the Earl of Lincoln. To her -the Irish party sent emissaries for aid; and she despatched 2,000 veteran -German troops, under a brave and experienced general, Martin Schwarz, -accompanied by the Earl of Lincoln. - -The moment that Henry Tudor learned the flight of the Earl of Lincoln, -he set out on a progress through the counties of Essex, Suffolk, -and Norfolk, in which the chief interest of the earl lay. He was at -Kenilworth when news was brought him that the Earl of Lincoln and Lord -Lovel had landed with the pretended Edward VI., supported by Martin -Schwarz and his German legion, at the pile of Foudray, an old keep in the -southern extremity of Furness. Henry advanced by Coventry and Leicester -to Nottingham; Lincoln had already approached Newark. The royal army -advancing to oppose the whole force lost its way between Nottingham and -Newark, and there was such confusion in consequence, and such rumours -of the enemy being upon them, that numbers deserted. But five guides -were procured from Ratcliff-on-Trent, and soon afterwards the vanguard -of Henry's army, led by the Earl of Oxford, encountered the forces of -Lincoln at Stoke, a village near Newark. The battle lasted for three -hours, and was obstinately contested. The veteran Germans, under Schwarz, -fought till they were exterminated almost to a man. The Irish displayed -not the less valour; but, being only armed with darts and skeans--for -the English settlers had adopted the arms of the natives--were no match -for the royal cavalry. The whole of the troops of the insurgents, -expecting no mercy if they were taken, seemed prepared to perish rather -than to yield. Four thousand of the insurgents and 2,000 of the king's -best troops are said to have fallen in this desperate engagement; but -nearly all the leaders of the rebel army, the Earl of Lincoln, Sir -Thomas Broughton, the brave Schwarz, and the Lords Thomas and Maurice -Fitzgerald, having fallen, the victory on Henry's part became complete. - -[Illustration: THE LAST STAND OF SCHWARZ AND HIS GERMANS] - -The pretender Lambert Simnel and the priest Simon were captured by Sir -Robert Bellingham, one of the king's esquires; but nothing was seen -of Lord Lovel. He was believed to have escaped, but no traces of him -were discoverable; many thought that he had perished in attempting to -swim his horse across the Trent. But nearly two centuries afterwards -a subterranean chamber was discovered accidentally by some workmen at -Minster Lovel, in Oxfordshire, the ancient seat of his family. In this -chamber was seated a skeleton in a chair, with its head resting on a -table; and this was supposed to be the remains of this same Lord Lovel, -who had reached his house, and secreted himself in this apartment, where -he had perished by some unknown cause. - -After the battle, Henry travelled northward to ascertain that all was -secure in the tract through which the insurgents had passed, and to -punish such as had aided the rebels, and those who just before the battle -had spread the rumour of his defeat. The royal punishments did not -consist in putting his enemies to death, but in fining them severely, for -Henry Tudor much preferred making a profit of a man to killing him. The -late insurrection had taught him that if he did not wish for a repetition -of it, he must concede something to the Yorkist party, and must pay -some respect to the queen. Accordingly, on the 25th of November, 1487, -Elizabeth was crowned with much state at Westminster. - -Having thus made this _amende_ to public opinion, Henry, instead of -giving Simnel consequence by putting him to death, or making a State -prisoner of him in the Tower, turned him into his kitchen as a scullion, -thus showing his contempt of him. "He would not take his life," says Lord -Bacon, "taking him but as an image of wax that others had tempered and -moulded;" and considering that if he was made a continual spectacle, he -would be "a kind of remedy against the like enchantments of people in -time to come." The priest Simon he shut up in a secret prison, saying -he was but a tool, and did not know the depths of the plot. He even -professed to regret the death of the Earl of Lincoln, who, had his life -been spared, he said, "might have revealed to him the bottom of his -danger." In his peculiar way he threw much mystery over the matter, for -mystery was one of his greatest pleasures. - -Having settled these matters, which he did on his own authority, Henry -summoned a Parliament to grant him supplies, and to increase those -supplies by bill of attainder against all those who had been engaged in -the late conspiracy. To prevent similar risings, he demanded that the law -should be rigorously put in force against the practice of maintenance. -This maintenance was the association of numbers of persons under a -particular chief or nobleman, whose badge or livery they wore, and to -whom they were bound by oath to support him in his private quarrels -against other noblemen. But the instrument was too convenient not to -be turned on occasion against the Crown, whenever rich chiefs took -up the opposite party, and by this means it was that such numbers of -troops could be brought at the shortest notice into the field against -the monarch. Various laws had been passed on this subject, and heavy -penalties decreed; but now it was ordained that, instead of calling -such offenders before the royal council, as had been the custom, a -particular Court should be established for the purpose. The chancellor, -the treasurer, the keeper of the privy seal, or two of them, one bishop, -one lay peer, and the judges of the King's Bench and Common Pleas, were -empowered to summon all such persons before them, and to punish the -guilty just as if they had been convicted by ordinary course of law. This -was the origin of what came to be called the Court of the Star Chamber, -from the walls or ceiling of the room where it met being decorated with -stars. - -The affairs on the Continent were now in a state which demanded the most -serious attention, but which were by no means likely to be settled to the -honour of the country by a monarch of the penurious character of Henry -VII. If ever a monarch was bound by gratitude to succour another prince, -it was Henry VII. He had been protected in Brittany from all the attempts -of the Yorkist monarch for years. The Duke Francis, who had been his -host and friend during his long exile, was now growing old. He appears -never to have been of a very vigorous mind, and now mind and body were -failing together. He had two daughters, and the hope of securing the -patrimony of the eldest, Anne, drew the attention of many suitors, the -chief of whom were Maximilian, King of the Romans; the Duke of Orleans, -the first prince of the blood in France; and the Count D'Albret, a -powerful chieftain, at the foot of the Pyrenees. But hostile alike to -all these wooers was Charles VIII. of France, who, though he was under -engagement to marry the daughter of Maximilian, and therefore apparently -debarred from the hand of Anne of Brittany, was resolved, if possible, to -secure her territory. In this dilemma, Francis sent repeated importunate -entreaties to Henry to come to his rescue. France, at the same time, sent -to him, praying him to be neutral, alleging that Charles was only seeking -to drive his revolted subjects out of Brittany. Henry was bound by honour -to give prompt succour to his old friend; he had received from Parliament -two-fifteenths for the purpose, and was urged by it to send efficient -aid to prevent France from seizing this important province. But Henry -could not find it in his heart to spend the money in active service; he -proposed to mediate between the parties. This suited the views of France -exactly, because while Henry was negotiating they could continue to press -on their victories. The poor Duke Francis was compelled to submit to a -treaty, in August, at Verger, by which he surrendered to the French all -the territory they had conquered, and was bound never again to call in -assistance from England or any other country, nor to marry either of -his daughters without the consent of the King of France. Having signed -this humiliating treaty, the duke died of a broken heart, on the 7th of -September, 1488, only three weeks afterwards. - -The people of England received these tidings with undisguised -indignation. Twice had they voted large sums to enable their ungrateful -and pusillanimous king to aid his old benefactor and the ally of -England; twice had he put the money in his coffers, and sold the -honour of the country and the fortunes of the unfortunate ally to the -French, wholly insensible to honour or shame. But whilst the public -were foaming in wrath over this despicable conduct, the indefatigable -French were pressing on. Anne, the young orphan duchess, was a mere -child of only twelve years of age. Around her were contending rivals and -their adherents. But all this time the French were seizing town after -town. The news of this awoke such a fermentation in England, and Henry -was upbraided in such vehement terms for thus, as the sovereign of a -great people, sacrificing the honour of the nation, and permitting the -helpless orphan of his benefactor to become the prey of France, that he -was compelled to rouse himself. He determined to send ambassadors to -Maximilian, to his son, the Archduke Philip, to the Kings of Spain and -Portugal, inviting them to act in concert with him for the repression of -French ambition. Having taken this magnanimous, and, if it had really -been intended to follow it up vigorously, most admirable step, Henry -called a Parliament, and demanded more money to carry on the war. - -The pretences of this huckstering king were now become too transparent -to deceive any one. All the money hitherto voted for a war that never -took place was still in Henry's coffers. The people thought that he ought -first to bring out that before he asked for more. Parliament, therefore, -made strong opposition, and finally reduced his demand of L100,000 to -L75,000. But, when they had voted, the indignant people refused to pay -it, considering that the selfish monarch had their cash already in hand. -Great disturbances arose in the endeavour to enforce the collection of -the tax. This manifested itself especially in the north, where Henry had -used such endeavours to soothe and win the inhabitants. - -The Earl of Northumberland directed the collection to be enforced, -accompanying the command with such menaces as he deemed necessary to -procure obedience. But these had a contrary effect. The people flew -to arms, and, turning their vengeance first against the earl, as the -rigorous instrument of an imperious monarch, they stormed his house and -put him to death. They then declared war against the tyrant, as they -termed Henry, himself. Their leader was a fiery fellow of the common -order, named John a Chambre, but, as they assumed a formidable aspect, -Sir John Egremont, one of the Yorkist faction, put himself at their head. -Henry lost no time in despatching Thomas Howard, Earl of Surrey, who -soon suppressed the insurrection, and hanged John a Chambre and some of -his accomplices. Sir John Egremont escaped to Flanders to the Duchess of -Burgundy. - -Henry now sent over to Brittany a body of 6,000 men under Lord Willoughby -de Broke; but he limited their service to six months, which was, in fact, -to render them nearly useless, especially when they had instructions not -to fight, and he would not even afford that aid until he had exacted from -the poor orphan girl, the young duchess, the surrender of her two best -sea-ports in security of payment. He moreover compelled the duchess to -bind herself by the like oath to him as she had taken to the French king, -not to marry without his consent. Before the end of the year Anne found -herself invested by the French army in Rennes; and rather than fall a -helpless and humiliated captive into the hands of Charles, she consented -to marry him, having not a single soul left to stand by her in her -resolute opposition. She was married to Charles on the 13th of December, -1491, at Rennes, was crowned in the abbey church of St. Denis, and made -her entrance into Paris amid the acclamations of a vast multitude, who -regarded this event as one of the most auspicious which had ever happened -to France. - -The rage of Maximilian may be imagined. He had lost Brittany, his -daughter had lost the throne of France, and he was duped and insulted in -the most egregious manner before all Europe. He made his complaints ring -far and wide, but they were only echoed by the laughter of his enemies, -and he proceeded to vow revenge by the assistance of Spain and England. - -Henry was now bent, according to all appearance, on war. He was too -clear-sighted not to perceive the immense advantage France had obtained -over him in securing Brittany, and how the political foresight and -sagacity on which he prided himself had suffered from the paltry -promptings of his avarice. He therefore put on a most belligerent -attitude. He summoned a Parliament at Westminster, and addressed it in -the most heroic strain. He commented on the insolence of France, elated -with the success of her late perfidy, and on--what he no doubt felt more -deeply than anything else--her refusal to pay what he called the tribute -agreed by Louis XI. to be paid to Edward IV., and hitherto continued -to himself. Two-fifteenths were at once granted him, and the nobility -were on fire with the anticipation of realising all the glories and the -plunder of the past ages. - -He availed himself of the paroxysm of the moment, not only to gather -in and garner the two-fifteenths newly granted, but the remains of the -benevolence voted last session. Whilst the fresh tax fell on the nation -generally, this fell on the monied and commercial capitalists. London -alone furnished L10,000 of it or L100,000 of our money. The wily old -archbishop, Morton, instructed the commissioners to employ this dilemma, -which was called "Morton's fork." They were to urge upon people who lived -in a modest and careful way, that they _must_ be rich in consequence of -their parsimony; on those who indulged in expensive abodes and styles of -living, that they _must_ be opulent, because they had so much to expend. -To afford ample time for harvesting these riches, Henry found perpetual -causes for delaying his expedition. The nobles were already crowding to -his standard with their vassals, and impatient to set out, but Henry -had always some plausible excuse for lingering. At one time it was the -unsafe state of Scotland, and four months were occupied in negotiating -an extension of the truce; then it was the necessity of contracting for -fresh levies of troops. These troops, however, were ready in June and -July, but still they were not allowed to move. "The truth was," says -Bacon, "that though the king showed great forwardness for a war, not -only to his Parliament and Court, but to his Privy Council, except the -two bishops (Fox and Morton), and a few more, yet, nevertheless, in his -secret intentions, he had no purpose to go through with any war upon -France. But the truth was, that he did but traffic with that war to make -money." - -At length, in the beginning of October, 1492, he landed at Calais, with -a fine army of 25,000 foot, and 1,600 horse, which he gave in command -to the Duke of Bedford and the Earl of Oxford. This was a force capable -of striking an alarming blow, but the whole affair was a sham. In fact, -Henry had entered into a treaty of peace before he had set out, and the -only difficulty now was how to get out of the war without incurring too -much resentment at home. To guard against this, the odium of the abortive -expedient must be carefully removed from himself to other parties. The -machinery for this was already prepared. His ambassadors appeared in the -camp at Boulogne, informing them that their visit to his previous ally -Maximilian had been useless; he was incapable of joining him. These were -followed by others from Spain, bringing the intelligence that Ferdinand -had concluded a peace with France, Roussillon and Cerdagne being ceded to -him by Charles. But with Henry's fine army, and the defenceless state of -France, the defection of these allies, from whom little or nothing had -been expected, would have scarcely cost him a thought had he been a Henry -V. As it was, after all his boasts, it was not even for him to propose -an abandonment of the enterprise, and therefore, the Marquis of Dorset -and twenty-three other persons of distinction were employed to present to -him a request that he would also make a peace with France. They urged, -as they were instructed for this purpose, the defection of these allies, -the approach of winter, the difficulty of obtaining supplies at Calais at -that season, and the obstinacy of the siege of Boulogne. All these were -circumstances that had been foreseen from the first, and treated with -indifference, as they deserved to be; but now Henry affected to listen -to the desires of his army, and sent off the Bishop of Exeter and the -Lord Daubeney to confer with the Marshal de Cordes, who had been sent as -plenipotentiary on the part of Charles to Etaples. They soon returned, -bringing the rough draft of a treaty, by which peace and amity were to -be maintained betwixt the two sovereigns during their lives, and a year -afterwards. Even this Henry affected to decline, and only consented to -give way at the earnest entreaty of his already-mentioned four-and-twenty -officers. - -After having thus assumed all this pretence to exonerate himself from -censure, Henry signed a peace on the following terms:--Charles was to -retain Brittany for ever, and he was to pay Henry 620,000 crowns in gold -for the money advanced by Henry on account of Brittany and his present -expenses, and 125,000 crowns in gold as arrears of the pension paid to -Edward IV. by Louis XI. He was also to continue this pension of 25,000 -crowns to Henry and his heirs. The whole amount which Henry sacked was -745,000 crowns, equal to L400,000 of our present money. The members of -his council, who openly acted the part of petitioners of this peace, are -said not only to have been instructed by Henry to perform this obnoxious -duty, but to have been gained by the bribes of the French king, who was -anxious to make short work of it, that he might proceed on an expedition -which he had set his mind upon against Naples. They went about declaring -that it was the most glorious peace that any king of England ever made -with France, and that if Henry's subjects presumed to censure it, they -were ready to take the blame upon themselves. - -[Illustration: PENNY OF HENRY VII.] - -[Illustration: ANGEL OF HENRY VII.] - -Having used these precautions to ward off the reproaches of his subjects, -Henry ratified the peace on the 6th of November, and led back his army -to England. There, though he had the money safely in his chests, the -disappointment and indignation of the people were extreme, and tended -to diminish his sordid satisfaction. The people protested that he had -been trading on the honour of the nation, and had sold its interests and -reputation for his own vile gain, and his enemies did not neglect to -avail themselves of his unpopularity. During the past year, a young man -had landed in Cork, of a singularly fascinating exterior and insinuating -address. He represented himself to be no other than the Duke of York, -the younger of the two princes who were supposed to have been murdered -in the Tower. He was a fine young man, apparently exactly of the age of -the Duke of York, and bearing a striking likeness to Edward IV. "Such -a mercurial," says Bacon, "as the like hath seldom been known; and he -had such a crafty and bewitching fashion, both to move pity and induce -belief, as was like a kind of fascination or enchantment." What would -appear to have been the real story of this remarkable pretender, so far -as we can gather from the records of the time, is this:-- - -Margaret, the Duchess-Dowager of Burgundy, having played off Lambert -Simnel, devised this scheme, or was supplied with it by the Yorkist -refugees at her Court, who had immediate and constant communion with -the heads of the York faction in England. A young man was industriously -sought after who should well represent the Duke of York, though she knew -him to be dead. Such a youth was found in the son, or reputed son, of -one John Osbeck, or Warbeck, a renegade Jew of Tournay. This Warbeck -had lived and carried on business in the time of Edward IV., and had -dealings with the king, who was so free with him that the Jew prevailed -on him to become godfather to his child, who was called Peter, and whose -name became converted into the diminutive Peterkin or Perkin. Others -assert that Warbeck's wife had been amongst the numerous favourites of -Edward, and that this Perkin was really his son--whence the striking -resemblance, the cleverness and liveliness of his character. Warbeck had -returned to Flanders, and there, in course of time, his son had attracted -the attention of the Yorkist conspirators as the very youth, in all -respects, for their purpose. He was introduced to the duchess, who found -him already familiar with the whole story of Edward's Court from the past -affairs and position there of his parents. - -[Illustration: NOBLE OF HENRY VII.] - -[Illustration: SOVEREIGN OF HENRY VII.] - -The scheme being now matured and the chief actor ready, they only waited -for the true moment for his appearance. That came in the prospect -of Henry being involved in war with France. As soon as this seemed -inevitable, the pretended Duke of York landed in Ireland. The York -faction was still strong in that country, and, despite the failure of -the former pretender, Simnel, the Irish were ready, to a certain extent, -to embrace another claimant of Henry's crown. He landed at Cork, where -the mayor and others of that city received him as the true Richard -Plantagenet, as, no doubt, they had previously agreed to do. Many of the -credulous people flocked after him, but the more prudent stood aloof. -He wrote to the Earls of Desmond and Kildare, inviting them to join his -standard, but those powerful noblemen kept a cautious distance. Kildare -had been disgraced by Henry for his reception of Simnel, and dreaded -his more deadly vengeance in case of a second failure. But Warbeck, -undismayed, spread everywhere the exciting story of his escape from the -cruelty of his uncle Richard, and was gradually making an impression on -the imaginative mind of Ireland, when a summons came to a new scene. - -Charles VIII. of France was now menaced by Henry with invasion. He knew -the man too well to doubt the real object of his menace, and the power of -money to avert it, but it was of consequence to reduce the bribe as much -as possible; and every instrument which promised to assist in effecting -that was most valuable. Such an instrument was this self-styled Duke -of York, who had suddenly appeared in Ireland. The watchful Duchess of -Burgundy is said to have adroitly turned Charles's attention to this -mysterious individual through the agency of one Frion, a man who had been -a Secretary of Henry, but who had been won over by his enemies. Charles -caught at the idea; an invitation was instantly despatched to Perkin -Warbeck to hasten to the French Court, where he was "to hear of something -to his advantage," and he was received by the king as the undoubted -Duke of York and true monarch of England. Perkin's person, talents, and -address, being worthy of a real prince, won him the admiration of all -who approached him; and not only the Court and capital, but the whole of -France, soon rang with praise of the accomplishments, the adventures, -and the unmerited misfortunes of this last of the Plantagenets. The king -settled upon him a princely income; a magnificent abode was assigned him, -and a body-guard befitting a royal personage was conferred upon him, of -which the Lord of Concressault was made captain. - -The news of this cordial reception of the reputed Duke of York by the -French Court flew to England, and Sir George Neville, Sir John Taylor, -and above a hundred gentlemen hastened to Paris, and offered to him -their devoted services. This decided and rapidly-growing demonstration -had the effect which Charles contemplated. Henry was greatly alarmed, -and hastened to close the negotiations for peace. These once signed, -the puppet had done its work in France. Henry made earnest demands to -have Warbeck handed over to him, but Charles, who, no doubt, was bound -by agreement with the Duchess of Burgundy to refuse any such surrender, -declared that to do so would be contrary to his honour; but he gave the -pretender a hint to quit the kingdom, and he retired to the Court of -Burgundy. - -The duchess now heaped on Perkin all the marks of affection and the -honours which she would have deemed due to her own nephew. She ordered -every one to give him the homage belonging to a real king; she appointed -him a guard of thirty halberdiers, and styled him the "White Rose of -England." On all occasions her conduct towards him was that of an -affectionate aunt, who regarded him as the head of her family, and the -heir of the brightest crown in Europe. - -It is not to be supposed that the tempest which was gathering around -Henry had escaped his attention. On the contrary, he was aware of all -that was passing, and with the caution and concealment of his character, -he was at work to counteract the operations of his enemies. The first -object with him was to convince the public that the real Duke of York -had perished at the same time as his brother, Edward V. Nothing, he -concluded, would be so effectual for this purpose as the evidence of -those who had always been held to be concerned in the death of the young -princes. Of five implicated, according to universal belief, two only -now survived, namely, Sir James Tyrell--who had taken the place of Sir -Robert Brackenbury, Lieutenant of the Tower, during the night of the -murder--and John Dighton, one of the actual assassins. These two were -secured and interrogated, and their evidence was precisely that which -we have stated when relating the murder of the princes. The bodies, -therefore, were sought for, but as the chaplain was dead who was supposed -to have witnessed their removal, according to the order of Richard III., -they could not then be found and produced. The testimony of Tyrell and -Dighton, however, was published and circulated as widely as possible, -and these two miscreants, after their full and frank avowal of the -perpetration of this diabolical murder, were, to the disgrace of the -king and of public justice, again allowed to go free. Everyone, however, -must perceive at once how important it was to Henry that the real -witnesses of that murder should exist, and be forthcoming to confound any -one pretending to be either of these princes. - -Henry next applied to the Archduke Philip, the son of Maximilian and -Mary of Burgundy, and now sovereign of the Netherlands in his own -right, to deliver up to him the impostor, Warbeck, who, he contended, -was entertained in his dominions contrary to the existing treaties, and -the amity betwixt the two sovereigns. But Margaret had the influence to -render his application abortive. Philip professed to have every desire -to oblige his great ally, Henry of England, but he pleaded that Margaret -was sole ruler in her own states, and, though he might advise her in -this matter, he could not control her. Henry resented the polite evasion -by stopping all commercial intercourse between England and the Low -Countries, by banishing all Flemings from his dominions, and recalling -his own subjects from Flanders; and Philip retaliated by issuing similar -edicts. - -In 1494, several Yorkist lords were arrested and executed, but there -remained a conspirator far higher than any who had yet been unveiled--a -conspirator where it was least expected, in the immediate vicinity of -the throne, and in the person who more than all others, perhaps, had -contributed to place Henry upon it. His name stood in the secret list of -traitors furnished by spies, but he had been left for a more striking -and dramatic discovery, for a denouement calculated to produce the most -startling and profound impression. - -After the festivities of Christmas the king took up his residence in the -Tower, where he held his council on the 7th of January, 1495. If there -was one man more distinguished than another by the royal favour in that -august circle, he was Stanley, Lord Chamberlain. Sir William Stanley -had burst upon Richard III. at Bosworth Field, at the critical moment, -slain his standard-bearer, and, by his followers, killed the tyrant. His -brother, Lord Stanley, had put the crown of the fallen monarch on Henry's -head. For this he had been created Earl of Derby, and had been allowed -to ally himself to the throne by the marriage of Henry's mother, the -Countess of Richmond. Sir William had been made Lord Chamberlain, and -both brothers had been glutted, as it were, with the wealth and estates -of proscribed families. There were no men--not even Fox and Morton--who -were supposed to stand so high, not merely in the favour, but in the -friendship of Henry. He was suddenly arrested at the council chamber and -executed, his vast wealth passing to the Crown. - -The fall of Stanley was a paralysing blow to the partisans of Warbeck. -They saw that even that great nobleman, while apparently living in the -very centre and blaze of royal favour, had been surrounded by spies -who watched all his actions, heard his most secret communications, and -carried them all to the king. No man who was in any degree implicated -felt himself safe. Henry's cautious and severe temper, while it made him -hated, made him proportionately feared. Assured by the success which had -attended all his measures, Henry every day displayed more and more the -grasping avarice of his disposition, and accusations and heavy fines fell -thickly around. He fined Sir William Capel, Alderman of London, for some -offence, L2,743; and, though he failed to secure the whole, he obtained -L1,615. Encouraged by this, he repeated the like attempts; and, while he -depressed the nobility, he especially countenanced unprincipled lawyers, -as the ready tools of his rapacity. Whilst this conduct, however, kept -alive the rancour of many influential people, it rendered the common -people passive; for they escaped the oppressions of many petty tyrants, -who were kept in check by the one great one. Warbeck's party, therefore, -was much disabled. It was now three years since he made his appearance, -but, with the exception of his brief visit to Ireland, he had attempted -nothing in Henry's dominions. But the Flemings, who were smarting under -the restrictions put upon their trade with England, began to murmur -loudly, and the Archduke Philip to remonstrate warmly with Margaret on -account of the countenance given to the English insurgents. - -Under these circumstances it was necessary for Warbeck and his adherents -to make an effort of some kind. Taking advantage, therefore, of the -absence of Henry on a visit to his mother at Latham House, in Lancashire, -Warbeck and a few hundred followers made a descent in July on the -coast of Kent, near Deal. It was hoped that Henry's severity would -have made numbers ready to join them. The people, indeed, assembled -under the guidance of some gentlemen of property, and, professing to -favour Warbeck, invited him to come on shore. But he, or those about -him, observing that the forces collected had nothing of that tumultuous -impetuosity about them which usually characterises insurgents in earnest, -kept aloof, and the men of Kent perceiving that they could not draw -Warbeck into the snare, fell on his followers already on land, and, -besides killing many of them, took 169 prisoners. The rest managed to -get on board again, and Warbeck, seeing what sort of a reception England -gave him, sailed back with all speed to Flanders. The prisoners were tied -together like teams of cattle, and driven to London, where they were all -condemned and executed to a man, in various places, some at London and -Wapping, some on the coasts of Kent, Sussex, Essex, and Norfolk, where -they were gibbeted, as a warning to any fresh adventurers who might -appear on those shores. - -Flanders was now become no durable place of sojourn for Perkin and his -party. The Flemings would no longer submit to the interruption of their -trade; and the archduke entered into a treaty with Henry, which contained -a stipulation that Philip should restrain the Duchess Margaret from -harbouring any of the king's enemies, and that the two princes should -expel from their territories all the enemies of each other. This treaty -was ratified on the 24th of February, 1496, and thereupon Warbeck betook -himself to Ireland. But there he found a sensible change had taken place -since his former visit. The king had sent over Sir Edward Poynings as -lord-deputy, who had taken such measures that the people were much -satisfied. On landing at Cork, therefore, the Irish refused to recognise -their late idol, and from Cork he sailed away to Scotland. There a new -and surprising turn of fortune awaited him. For a long time his interest -had been on the decline. In Flanders the public had grown weary of him; -in England they had endeavoured to entrap him; from Ireland they had -repulsed him. He is said to have presented letters of recommendation from -Charles VIII. of France, and from his great patroness the Duchess-Dowager -of Burgundy; and James IV. of Scotland received him with open arms. - -James IV. of Scotland was a brave, generous, and patriotic monarch. When -Henry offered him his daughter Margaret, he, therefore, unceremoniously -rejected the offer. The disposition which Henry was said to have shown -to encourage his subjects, during the truce, to molest the Scottish -merchantmen at the very mouth of the Forth, was highly resented by -James, who supported his admiral--Wood of Largo--in severely chastising -the pirates, and did not fail to warn Henry that such practices must -not be repeated. The dislike which James entertained for the insidious -character of Henry--who began that system of bribing the nobles around -the throne of Scotland which was never discontinued so long as a Tudor -reigned, and which ended in the destruction of Mary, Queen of Scots--was -violently aggravated by a base attempt of Henry in 1490. This was no -other than a scheme to seize and carry off James to England, which failed -ignominiously. - -In this temper of the Scottish King, nothing could come more opportunely -than such a person as Perkin Warbeck. James had, from the first moment -of mounting his throne, been careful to strengthen his alliances with -the whole European continent. With France, Spain, Portugal, Denmark, and -Flanders, his intercourse, both official and mercantile, was active and -constant. Of course, James was kept in full information of all that was -agitating England. With the Duchess of Burgundy, the inveterate enemy of -Henry, it is clearly provable that James was in secret correspondence -only five months after his accession. In 1488, even, there were busy -messengers and heralds passing to and fro betwixt Flanders, Ireland, and -Scotland. - -From these circumstances, which are attested by the "Treasurer's -Accounts," and other records of Scotland, it is manifest that James was -intimately informed of everything which could be known about Warbeck. -There could be no mistake made by James in his reception of that -personage, when, in November, 1495, he presented himself at the palace of -Stirling. Whatever James did he did with his eyes wide open and his mind -fully made up. Yet from the very first he received him apparently with -the most undoubting faith as to his being the true Plantagenet. - -Warbeck was welcomed into Scotland with much state and rejoicing as the -veritable Duke of York. James addressed him as "cousin," and celebrated -tournaments and other courtly gaieties in his honour. The reputed -prince, by his noble appearance, the simple dignity of his manners, and -the romance of his story and supposed misfortunes, everywhere excited -the highest admiration. James made a grand progress with him through -his dominions, and beheld him wherever he appeared produce the most -favourable impression. If James did not himself really believe Warbeck -to be the Duke of York before he came to Scotland, his conduct during -his abode there seems to have convinced him of it. At no time was he -known to express a doubt of it, and on all occasions he spoke and acted -as if morally certain of it. Nothing could be more convincing than his -giving him to wife one of the most beautiful and high-born women of -Scotland, Lady Catherine Gordon, daughter of the Earl of Huntly, and -grand-daughter of James I. James now mustered his forces for the grand -expedition which he hoped would drive Henry from the throne of England, -and establish there the son of Edward IV., in the person of Warbeck. - -[Illustration: STIRLING CASTLE. - -(_From a Photograph by G. W. Wilson & Co., Aberdeen._)] - -Meantime, Henry VII. was diligently at work at his favourite plans of -bribing and undermining. He had an active agent in Lord Bothwell, whom -James had weakly forgiven for his numerous conspiracies. By his means -Henry had won over the king's brothers, the Duke of Ross, the Earl of -Buchan, and the Bishop of Moray. These traitors engaged to do everything -in their power to defeat the expedition. The Duke of Ross promised to -put himself under the protection of the King of England the moment his -brother crossed the borders. Nor did the plot stop there. Again there was -a scheme to seize James at night in his tent, suggested by Henry, and -entered into by Bothwell, Buchan, and Wyat, an English emissary. This -disgraceful plot was defeated by the vigilance of the royal guard, but -not the less actively did the paid spies of Henry Tudor, including some -of the most powerful barons in Scotland, labour to defeat the success of -the enterprise. They accompanied the army only with the hope of betraying -it, while their efforts were essentially aided by the remonstrances of -more honest counsellors, who doubted the wisdom of the expedition, and -did all they could to dissuade James from it. - -Burning with resentment at the base and insidious attempts of Henry to -disturb the security of his government, and to seize upon his person, -and coveting the glory of restoring the last noble scion of a great -race to the throne of his ancestors, James was deaf alike to warnings -of secret treason or more public danger. He made his last muster of his -forces at Ellam Kirk, near the English border and, proclaiming war on -Henry, marched forward. Warbeck, as Richard Duke of York, at the same -time issued a proclamation calling upon all true Englishmen to assemble -beneath the banner of the true inheritor of the crown. He denounced Henry -Tudor as a usurper, and as the murderer of Sir William Stanley, Sir Simon -Montfort, and others of the ancient nobility; he charged him with having -invaded the liberties and the franchises of both Church and people; and -with having plundered the subjects by heavy and illegal impositions. He -pledged himself to remedy all these abuses; to restore and defend the -rights and privileges of the Church, the nobles, the corporations, and -the commerce and manufactures of the country. He related the dangers -through which he had passed since his escape from the Tower to this -moment, and he set a price of a thousand pounds in money, and land to the -value of a hundred marks per annum, for the capture or destruction of -Henry Tudor. - -But however judiciously the proclamation was drawn up, James was -confounded as he advanced to see that it produced not the slightest -effect. In vain had it been protested in the proclamation that James came -only as the friend of the rightful King of England; that he sought no -advantage to himself--though he had really bargained for the restoration -of Berwick, and was to be paid 1,000 marks for the expenses of the -war--and that he would retire the moment a sufficient English force -appeared in the field. No such force was likely to present itself. If -Warbeck had met with no success when supported by Englishmen, it was -not to be expected when followed by an army of the hereditary foes of -the kingdom--Scots and French, backed by Germans, Flemings, and other -foreigners. - -When James saw that, instead of being welcomed as deliverers, they were -avoided, and that the expedition was altogether hopeless, he gave way to -his wrath, and began to plunder the country, or to permit his troops to -do it. Warbeck remonstrated against the devastations committed on the -English with all the ardour of a true prince, declaring that he would -rather lose the throne than gain it by the sufferings of his people. But -James replied that his cousin of York was too considerate of the welfare -of a nation that hesitated to acknowledge him either as king or subject. -All this time the diligent Bothwell was duly informing Henry of the state -of the Scottish camp, and of everything said and done in it. He now -assured him that the Scottish army would soon beat a retreat, for that -the inhabitants, in expectation of the visit, had driven off all their -cattle, and removed their stores; so that the army was on the point of -starvation. This was soon verified. The Scots, finding no supporters, -about the end of the year retreated into their own country. - -The invasion from Scotland afforded Henry another pretext for raising -more money. He summoned a Parliament in the February of 1497, to which he -uttered bitter complaints of the inroad and devastations of the Scots; -of the troubles created by the impostor, and the manifold insults to the -crown and nation. All this was now apparently blown over; but Parliament -gratified the king by voting L120,000, together with two-fifteenths. -Happy in the prospect of such supplies, Henry recked little of Warbeck or -the Scots; but the tax roused the especial wrath of the Cornish people, -who, knowing that the king only wanted to add their money to his already -immense and useless hoards, wanted to know what they had to do with -inroads of the Scots, who were never likely to come near them, and who -had retired of themselves without so much as waiting for the sight of -an army. This excitement of the brave and industrious, but hard-living -Cornish men was fanned into a flame by Michael Joseph, a farrier of -Bodmin, and one Thomas Flammock, an attorney, who assured the people that -the tax was totally illegal, though voted by Parliament; for that the -northern counties were bound by the tenures of their estates to defend -that frontier; and that if they submitted to the avarice of Henry and his -ministers there would be no end to it. - -Flammock told them that they must deliver the king a petition, seconded -by such numbers as to give it authority; but at the same time he assured -them that to procure the concurrence of the rest of the kingdom they -must conduct themselves with all order, and refrain from committing any -injuries to person or property, demonstrating that they had only the -public good in view. Armed with bills, bows, axes, and other country -weapons that they could command, they marched into Devonshire 16,000 -strong, and called on the people to accompany them, and demand the heads -of Archbishop Morton and Sir Reginald Bray, who were declared to be the -advisers of the obnoxious impost. At Taunton they made an example of an -insolent and overbearing commissioner of the tax of the name of Perin. At -Wells they were joined by Lord Audley, a man of an ancient family, but -said to be of a vain and ambitious character. - -Proud of having a nobleman at their head, they marched through Salisbury -and Winchester into Surrey, and thence to Kent, the people of which, -Flammock told them, had in all ages been noted for their independence -and patriotism, and were sure to join them. They pitched their camp on -Blackheath, near Eltham, but not a man joined them. The people of Kent -had their causes of complaint; but they had lately shown what was their -spirit by repelling Perkin Warbeck, and they were too enlightened to join -in the expedition. - -Henry had now received the new levies raised to oppose any further motion -of the Scots, and he sent them forward to attack and disperse the rebels. -He always regarded Saturday as his fortunate day; therefore, on Saturday, -the 22nd of June, 1497, he gave the order for the attack. He divided -his forces into three divisions. The first, under Lord Daubeney, pushed -forward to attack the insurgents in front; the second, under the Earl -of Oxford, was to take a compass, and assail them in the rear; and the -king himself took post with the third division in St. George's Fields, -to secure the city. To throw the insurgents off their guard, he had -given out that he should not take the field for some days; and to give -probability to this notion, he did not send out his advanced forces till -the latter part of the day. Lord Daubeney beat an advanced guard of the -rebels from Deptford Bridge, and before the main body was prepared to -receive him, he charged them with fury. Though they were brave men, and -16,000 strong, thus taken at advantage, and naturally ill-disciplined, -ill-armed, and destitute of cavalry and artillery, they were soon broken -and compelled to fly. Two thousand of them were slain, and 1,500 made -prisoners. The prisoners Henry gave up to the captors, who allowed them -to ransom themselves for a few shillings each. - -Lord Audley, Flammock, and Joseph only were executed. The peer was -beheaded, the commoners were hanged; and Joseph seemed to glory in the -distinction, saying he should figure in history. Henry on this occasion -displayed great clemency, which some have ascribed to his desire to -make a good impression on the Cornish people; others for joy that Lord -Daubeney had escaped, for at one time he was surrounded by the enemy -but was soon rescued. But the most probable reason was that assigned by -Lord Bacon:--"That the harmless behaviour of this people that came from -the west of England to the east, without mischief almost, or spoil of -the country, did somewhat mollify him, and move him to compassion; or, -lastly, that he made a great difference between people that did rebel -upon wantonness, and them that did rebel upon want." - -James of Scotland seized on the opportunity created by the Cornish -insurrection to make a fresh inroad into England. He laid siege to the -castle of Norham, and plundered the country round. Henry despatched the -Earl of Surrey, with an army of 20,000 men, to drive back the Scots, -and punish them by carrying the war of devastation into their country. -As Surrey advanced, James retired, and Surrey, following him across -the Tweed, took and demolished the little castle of Ayton, ravaged the -borders, and returned to Berwick. These useless and worse than useless -raids, with no hope of permanent advantage on either side, but only of -mischief to the unoffending inhabitants on both, were worthy only of the -most savage and unenlightened times. The spies of Henry, however, soon -informed him that James was really sick of the war, and he repeated the -offer made before of the hand of his daughter Margaret. This he made -through the Spanish ambassador, Don Pedro d'Ayala, who came forward -as a friendly mediator, thus sparing both kings the humiliation of -making the first move. D'Ayala found James quite disposed for peace, -but in a somewhat cavalier humour as to the terms. By the advice of -D'Ayala, commissioners were appointed to meet at Ayton, where, under the -management of Fox, Bishop of Durham, on the part of England, a truce was -agreed upon to last for the lives of the two kings, and a year after the -death of the longer liver. Though agreed upon, this important truce was -not ratified for some years afterwards. - -Meantime, James privately admonished Warbeck to quit the kingdom, as he -could no longer assist him, and his presence would only tend to endanger -the truce. Warbeck is said to have received this intimation with much -true dignity and good feeling. He thanked the king for the great effort -he had made on his account, for all the honours and favours that he had -conferred upon him, and for which he declared he should ever remain -deeply grateful. A vessel was prepared for his departure at Ayr, and -every comfort was provided for his accommodation which James could have -offered to the true prince. His beautiful and accomplished wife would not -be left behind--a proof that she was really attached to him, whatever -she might think of his pretensions. She quitted rank, fortune, a high -position in the Scottish Court, to embrace with him a homeless life and a -dark prospect. Flanders was closed to Perkin by the fresh league betwixt -that country and England. Ireland was a more than dubious resort, yet -thither he turned his prow, and landed at Cork on the 30th of July, 1497, -with about 100 followers. The attempt to rouse again the enthusiasm of -Ireland was vain; but at this juncture the last gleam of Warbeck's waning -fortune seemed to fall upon him. - -The Cornish rebels, let off so easily by Henry, had returned to their -own county, proclaiming by the way that the king had not dared to put -them to death because the whole of his subjects were in the same state -of discontent. The people of Cornwall and Devon, reassured by this, -again took up arms against the commissioners, who were still collecting -the tax with great severity, and, it is said, despatched a message to -Warbeck to come over and head them. On the 7th of September, 1497, he -accordingly landed at Whitsand Bay, with four or five small barques, and -his 100 fighting men. Being joined by 3,000 of the insurgents at Bodmin, -he issued a proclamation similar to his former one. Bodmin was the native -place of Michael Joseph, their great orator and leader, and the people -there were burning to revenge his death. Warbeck set out on his march -towards Devonshire, and thousands of those who had lost friends and -relations in the bloody battle of Blackheath joined him on the way. He -sent his wife to Mount St. Michael for security, and directing his course -towards Exeter, he invested that city on the 17th of September with a -rude, wild force of about 10,000 men. He announced himself as Richard IV. -of England, and called on the inhabitants to surrender; but, having sent -notification of his approach to King Henry, they determined to defend -themselves, if needful, till succour arrived. - -[Illustration: ST. MICHAEL'S MOUNT, CORNWALL.] - -Warbeck had no artillery or engines of any kind to carry on a siege, he -therefore attempted to break down the gates. At the one he was repulsed -with considerable loss, the other he managed to burn down, but the -citizens availed themselves of the fire, feeding it as it failed, till -they had dug a deep trench behind the flames. When, the next morning, -Warbeck returned to force a passage by that gate, the citizens received -him with such spirit that they slew 200 of his men, and daunted the rest. -Assistance was now also flowing in from the country to the city, and -Warbeck was in danger of being attacked both in front and rear. Seeing -this, he demanded a suspension of hostilities, and, depressed by this -failure, his Devonshire followers began rapidly to fall away, and steal -home as quickly as they could. His Cornish adherents, however, more -intrepid, encouraged him to persevere, and vowed that they would perish -in his cause. In this state of desperation the pretender marched on -towards Taunton, where he arrived on the 20th of September. The country -people on their way, smarting under the infliction of the hated tax, -wished them success, but did not attempt to help them. - -[Illustration: LADY CATHERINE GORDON BEFORE HENRY VII. (_See p._ 94.)] - -At Taunton, instead of any encouragement, they met the vanguard of the -royal army, under the command of Lord Daubeney, the lord chamberlain, and -Lord Broke, the steward of the household. The Duke of Buckingham was just -behind with a second division, and Henry was declared to be following -with a still larger force. The brave Cornish men, scarcely clothed, and -still worse armed, shrank not a moment from the hopeless combat. They -vowed to perish to a man in behalf of their newly-adopted king, and -Warbeck, with an air as if he would lead them into battle in the morning, -rode along their lines encouraging them, and made all ready for the -attack. - -But Warbeck, who had never shown any want of courage, perceived the -utter madness of contending with his undisciplined followers against -such overwhelming odds, and in the night he mounted a fleet steed and -rode off. In the morning the Cornish men, seeing themselves without a -leader, submitted to the king, and, with the exception of a few of the -ringleaders, they were dismissed and returned homewards as best they -might. Meanwhile, Lord Daubeney despatched 500 horsemen in pursuit of -Warbeck, to prevent, if possible, his entrance into sanctuary; but the -fugitive succeeded in reaching the monastery of Beaulieu, in the New -Forest. - -Henry sent a number of horsemen, in all haste, to St. Michael's Mount, in -Cornwall, to obtain possession of the Lady Catherine Gordon, the wife of -Warbeck. This they easily accomplished, and brought her to the king, on -entering whose presence she blushed and burst into tears. Henry received -her kindly--touched, for once in his life, with tenderness, by beauty -in distress; or, probably, bearing in mind that the lady was the near -kinswoman of the King of Scots, with whom he was desirous to stand well. -He sent her to the queen, by whom she was most cordially received, and in -whose court she remained attached to her service. She was still called -the White Rose of Scotland, on account of her beauty. Lady Gordon was -afterwards, it appears, three times married, but lies buried by the side -of her second husband, Sir Matthew Cradock, in Swansea church. - -Henry proceeded to Exeter, where he had the ringleaders of the Cornish -insurrection brought in procession before him, with halters round their -necks. Some of them he hanged, the rest he pardoned; but he, at the -same time, appointed commissioners to proceed into the country through -which Perkin had passed, and to fine all such people of property as -had furnished him with aid or refreshment. They did not confine their -scrutiny to those who had assisted Perkin in his march, but extended it -to all who had relieved the famishing fugitives; "so that," says Bacon, -"their severity did much obscure the king's mercy in sparing of blood, -with the bleeding of so much treasure." They extorted altogether L10,000. - -The next business was to get Warbeck out of his sanctuary and into the -hands of the king. Beaulieu was surrounded by an armed force, and all -attempts at escape made impossible. Some of Henry's council urged him to -omit all ceremony, and take the pretender from the sanctuary by force; -but this he declined, preferring to lure him thence by fair promises. -After hesitating for some time, Warbeck at length threw himself upon the -king's mercy. Henry then set out to London with his captive in his train. -Warbeck rode in the king's suite through the city, along Cheapside, -Cornhill, and to the Tower, and thence to Westminster. As the king had -promised him his life, he kept his word. He was repeatedly examined by -the Privy Council, but it seems as if something had transpired there -which Henry deemed better concealed, for a profound silence was preserved -on the subject of these disclosures. So far from even being degraded, -like Lambert Simnel, to some menial occupation, Warbeck was suffered to -enjoy a certain degree of liberty, and was treated as a gentleman. The -probability is, that the king satisfied himself that this mysterious -personage was in reality a son of Edward IV., by the handsome Jewess, -Catherine de Faro, his birth being in Flanders, and agreeing exactly with -the time of Edward's exile there. This might account for his admirable -support of the character of a prince, for his confidence in his assertion -of it for so many years, and the power he had of winning the strong -attachment of persons of the highest rank and education. If this were -true, he was, moreover, the queen's brother, though an illegitimate one, -and might win the interest of herself and sisters by his resemblance in -person, and in spirit and ambition, to her father. - -But however this might be, he was too dangerous a person to be allowed -to get loose again. He lived at Court under a strict surveillance, and -he grew so weary of it, that he contrived to make his escape on the -8th of June, 1498. The alarm was instantly given; numbers of persons -were out in pursuit of him; every road by which he might escape to sea -was vigilantly beset, and the unhappy man, finding himself pressed on -all sides, surrendered himself to the Prior of Sheen, near Richmond. -The prior exercised the right of sanctuary possessed by the house, and -refused to give him up to the king, except under pledge that his life -should be spared. Henry agreed, but he confirmed the public opinion, -which, excited by the mystery of the Court, fully believed Warbeck a son -of Edward's, by now endeavouring to degrade him, and to fix upon him the -old story. For this purpose he compelled him to sit in the stocks two -whole days, on the 14th of June at Westminster Hall, and on the 15th -in Cheapside, and there to read aloud to the people a confession made -up of the account of him published in Henry's former proclamation, but -with some very contradictory additions. This confession was then printed -and circulated amongst the people, but failed entirely to satisfy any -one. When this bitter purgatory had been passed through, the bitterest -conceivable to a man of Warbeck's character, pretensions, and superior -mind, he was committed to the Tower. - -Warbeck had not been long in the Tower when there was an attempt to -liberate the Earl of Warwick, who was still in confinement there; and -it failed only through the conspirators not having properly informed -themselves of the real quarter in which he was kept. Soon after that -a fresh plot was set on foot for the same object. In this the King of -France was said to be concerned. It was said that he had declared his -regret for ever having countenanced the usurpation of Henry Tudor, and -that he offered money, ships, and even troops, to the friends of Warwick -to enable them to release him, and place him on the throne. The Yorkist -malcontents were once more active. They wrote to the retainers of the -late Duke of Clarence, the father of Warwick, and to Lady Warwick, -to come forward and see justice done to the oppressed prince; and an -invitation was sent from the Court of France to a distinguished leader -of the house of York to go over to that country and assume the command -of the expedition. This also failing, a report was then spread of the -death of the Earl of Warwick: then it was said that he had escaped, and a -person of the name of Ralph Wulford, or Wilford, the son of a shoemaker -in Sussex, was taught by one Patrick, an Augustinian friar, to personate -the earl. - -Whether the Yorkists were determined to give Henry no repose, but to -haunt and harass him with a perpetual succession of impostors, or -whether Henry himself planned this latter improbable scheme as a pretext -for getting rid of the Earl of Warwick altogether, seems never to have -been satisfactorily cleared up. All that is known is, that Wulford and -the friar were speedily arrested, whereupon Wulford was put to death, and -the friar consigned to prison for life. - -Scarcely had this blown over, when it was reported that Warbeck and -Warwick had endeavoured to escape from the Tower together. Warbeck must -have been allowed to have free access to Warwick after he was sent to the -Tower--a circumstance not likely to have been permitted by the cautious -and vigilant Henry VII. had he not had some ulterior purpose in it. Once -together, however, Warbeck won the favour of the simple and inexperienced -Warwick, who was as ignorant of the world as a child, having passed -nearly all his life in prison. Warbeck, however, exercised the same -fascination over the highest and most intelligent persons whenever he had -access to them. To the Tower he carried his active spirit of intrigue -and adventure, and we soon find him in the enjoyment, for so dangerous -a character, of extraordinary liberty and range in that State prison. -He had not only completely won over the Earl of Warwick, but their -keepers, Strangways, Astwood, Long Roger, and Blewet. These men engaged -to murder their master, Sir John Digby, the Governor of the Tower, to get -possession of the keys, and to conduct Warbeck and Warwick to the Yorkist -partisans, by whom Warbeck was to be proclaimed King Richard IV., and -Warwick to be restored to his titles and estates. - -This plot, it is said, was discovered in time; and this was another -circumstance which caused the public to suspect that the whole thing had -been of the contriving, or, at least, of the permission of Henry, to rid -him of these troublesome aspirants. The two offenders were immediately -confined in separate cells. The servants of the Governor were brought -to trial, and Blewet and Astwood were condemned and hanged. On the 16th -of November, Warbeck was arraigned in Westminster Hall for sundry acts -of high treason, since as a foreigner he had come into these kingdoms. -They were, in fact, the attempts on the crown which we have related. He -was condemned and hanged at Tyburn on the 23rd of November, 1499. On the -scaffold his confession was read, and he declared it, on the word of a -dying man, to be wholly true. Such was the end of this extraordinary -adventurer. Bacon describes his enterprise as "one of the largest -plays of the kind that hath been in memory; and might, perhaps, have -had another end if he had not met with a king both wise, stout, and -fortunate." - -On the 21st of November, the Earl of Warwick was brought to trial before -the peers, though he had been attainted from his birth, and had never -taken his oath and seat as a peer of the realm. The charge against -him was his conspiracy with Warbeck to dethrone the king. The poor -youth pleaded guilty, either as weary of a life which had been but one -long injury and wrong, in consequence of his birth, or because he was -destitute, from his perpetual confinement, of the activity of mind to -comprehend his situation. Probably he imagined that if he confessed -himself guilty, he would be pardoned, and sent back to his cell. But -Henry had no such intention. The Earl of Oxford, as Lord Steward, -pronounced judgment, and three days afterwards he was beheaded on Tower -Hill. Thus perished the last legitimate descendant of the Plantagenets -who could alarm the fears of Henry Tudor. - -A few months after these tragic events, a plague broke out in London, -which the people considered as a direct judgment from Heaven for such -wicked bloodshed. Henry got out of town, but not feeling himself safe, -after several changes of residence, he went over to Calais, and whilst -there he had an interview with the Archduke Philip of Burgundy. Henry -invited the archduke to take up his quarters in Calais, but it is a proof -of the distrust which even his own allies entertained of the politic -Henry, that the archduke declined putting himself into his power, and -agreed to meet him at St. Pierre, near that city. What the archduke was -particularly anxious to see Henry for, was to excite his jealousy of -France, and secure his co-operation in counteracting its ambition. - -Charles VIII. of France, an ambitious youth, had made a grand expedition -into Italy to seize on the two Sicilies, having contrived to make out a -claim upon them, which, though empty in itself, was good enough for an -excuse for conquest. He had passed over the Alps with an army of upwards -of 30,000 men. At first all gave way before him, but an extensive league -was soon formed against the French encroachment, including Ferdinand of -Spain, Maximilian, the King of the Romans, the father of Philip, the Duke -of Milan, and the Doge of Venice. Charles, who had led a most dissipated -life, died suddenly in 1498 at the castle of Amboise, and the Duke of -Orleans succeeded as Louis XII. Louis was as fully bent as Charles had -been on prosecuting the conquest of Naples and Sicily, and in 1499 -marched with a fresh army into the south of Italy. - -It was to secure Henry's assistance in the league against the aggression -of France, which alarmed all Europe, that Philip used his most eloquent -persuasives, but the only persuasives with Henry were moneys, and these -Louis had already extended. He renewed the peace of Etaples, paid up -the arrears of Henry's pension, and secured the interest of the Pope, -with whom Henry was desirous to stand well, by paying him 20,000 ducats -for a dispensation enabling him to divorce his wife, and marry Anne of -Brittany, the widow of Charles VIII., and an old flame of his. He had -also made over the Valentinois, in Dauphine, with a pension of 20,000 -livres, to the Pope's son, the vile Caesar Borgia. The Pope, moreover, -was coquetting with Henry, inviting him, by an express nuncio, to join a -league for an imaginary crusade to the Holy Land, which Henry was ready -to do for the cession of some real ports in Italy as places for the -retreat and security of his fleet in those seas. - -It was not likely that Philip of Burgundy would make much progress with -Henry, except so far as he could serve him by keeping certain matters, -well known at the Courts of Burgundy and Flanders, concerning the real -history of Perkin Warbeck, secret; and his anxiety on this head more and -more convinced people that Warbeck had been something more than the son -of a Jew. - -Henry VII. having succeeded in ridding himself of all the pretenders to -his crown, now set himself to complete the marriages of his children, -and to make money with redoubled ardour. Negotiations had been going -on with James of Scotland for the marriage of Henry's eldest daughter, -Margaret. In 1496 James, who had previously declined the match, now in -communication with Fox, Bishop of Durham, offered to enter into that -contract. Henry gladly assented, and, when some of his council suggested -that in case of the failure of the male line in England, a Scottish -prince, born of this marriage, would become the heir, and England a mere -appendage of Scotland, "No," replied Henry, "Scotland will become an -appendage of England, for the smaller must follow the larger kingdom." -And, no doubt, this idea had from the first actuated the calculating mind -of the Tudor. On the 29th of January, 1502, the parties were solemnly -affianced in the queen's chamber, the Earl of Bothwell having come to -London as proxy for James. Margaret, at the time of this affiancing, was -but just turned twelve years of age, and it was agreed that she should -remain twenty months longer under the roof of her parents. Accordingly, -it was not till the 8th of July, 1503, that she set out on her journey to -Scotland. - -[Illustration: THE BYWARD TOWER: TOWER OF LONDON.] - -Simultaneously had been proceeding the negotiations with the Spanish -Court for the marriage between Henry's eldest son, Arthur, and Catherine, -the daughter of Ferdinand, King of Aragon. The negotiations for this -marriage had commenced so early as 1489, when the young prince was not -yet three years old, and Catherine but four. In 1496 a further step was -taken; and Ferdinand then promised to give the princess a portion of -200,000 crowns, and Henry engaged that his son should endow her with -one-third of his present income, and the same of the income of the Crown, -if he should live to be king. It was stipulated that so soon as Prince -Arthur reached his twelfth year, a dispensation should be obtained to -empower him to make the contract; and, accordingly, the marriage was -performed by proxy, the Spanish ambassador assuming this part, in the -chapel of the prince's manor of Bewdley. These two children, who were -at this period, the one ten, and the other eleven years of age, were -educated in the highest possible degree by their respective parents; and -at the time of their actual marriage, in 1501, when Arthur was fifteen, -and Catherine nearly sixteen, they were perhaps the two most learned -persons of their years in the two kingdoms of Spain and England. The -festivities over, Arthur retired to his castle of Ludlow with his bride, -and there kept a Court modelled on that of the king. Great hopes and -auguries were drawn from this marriage, and wonderful futures to them -and their descendants were promised them by the astrologers. But little -more than five months sufficed to falsify all the earthly predictions; -for the young prince fell suddenly ill and died. Various reasons for his -death are assigned by different authorities. Some assert that he died of -consumption; others declare that he was perfectly sound and robust, and -that he died of some epidemic--the sweating sickness, or, as the Spanish -historian says, the plague. Great sickness of some kind was prevailing -in the neighbourhood, so that at Worcester the funeral, according to the -Spanish herald, was but thinly attended. Prince Arthur died on the 2nd -of April, 1502. He was a prince of great promise, and the beauty of his -person, the sweetness of his manner, and his brilliant accomplishments, -won him universal favour, which was equally shared by his young bride. - -The death of Arthur was a shock to the political arrangements, as well -as to the affections of the royal parties on both sides. Ferdinand was -anxious to retain a close alliance with England, as a counterpoise to -the ascendency of France. He therefore proposed to Henry that Catherine -should be affianced to Henry Duke of York, Prince Arthur's younger -brother. This was a very legitimate project according to the Jewish -law, but not so much in accordance with the practice of the Christian -world. Henry VII. appeared to hesitate--it may safely be surmised with -no intention of allowing the young princess, and her dowry of 200,000 -crowns, to escape him; but rather, it may be supposed, with a design -to exact something more. To hasten his decision, however, the Spanish -monarch announced as the alternative that Catherine must be at once -restored to her parents, with half of the marriage portion already paid. -This had immediate effect on the deliberations of Henry. He showed -himself ready to assent, if there were an additional incentive in the -shape of another sum. Ferdinand and Isabella were firm. They declared -themselves ready to pay the remaining 100,000 crowns on the contract of -the marriage, which should take effect two months after the receipt of -a dispensation from the Pope. Henry tried every art to extort a larger -sum, and it was not till June, 1503, that this proposition was finally -accepted. The solemnisation of the marriage was to take place on the -young Prince Henry completing his fourteenth year. But the difficulties -were not yet over. The two monarchs continued, like two skilful players, -to try every move which might delay the payment of the money, or compel -it with an augmentation. In this state the matter remained till 1504, -when Henry and Catherine, on the 25th of June, were betrothed, but still -not married, at the house of the Bishop of Salisbury, in Fleet Street. - -Scarcely had the eyes of Elizabeth of York closed (she died in 1503), at -the early age of thirty-seven, than Henry was on the look-out for another -wife, for it was another opportunity of making a profit. His eyes glanced -over the courts and courtly dames of Europe; and the lady who struck him -as the most attractive in the world was the widow of the late King of -Naples--for the deceased monarch had bequeathed her an immense property. -Her ducats were charms that told on the gold-loving heart of Henry most -ravishingly. He posted off three private gentlemen, well skilled in such -delicate inquiries, to Naples, to learn from real sources whether all -was safe as to this grand dowry. Poor Catherine was even made to play a -part in this notable scheme of courtship, by furnishing the emissaries -with a letter to her relative, the queen-dowager. The gentlemen reported -in the most glowing terms the charms of the queen-dowager's person, the -sweetness of her disposition, and the brilliant endowments of her mind, -but they were obliged to add that, though the lady's fortune was in -justice as large as fame reported it, the present king refused to carry -out the will by which it was conferred. This one unlucky fact at once -blotted out all the rest, and Henry, giving not another thought to the -dowager-queen of Naples, turned his attention to the dowager-duchess of -Savoy, who was also reported to be rich. - -While Henry, however, was traversing Europe with the design of adding to -his ever-growing hoards, he was equally diligent at home in prosecuting -every art by which he could add another mark to his heap. He sought -out and kept in his pay clever and unprincipled lawyers to search the -old statute-books for laws grown obsolete, but which had never been -formally repealed; and he had another set of spies in correspondence -with them, who went to and fro throughout the whole kingdom to mark out -all such persons of property as had transgressed these slumbering laws. -Such a state of things could never have been tolerated in any former -reign; but the wars of the Roses had cut off all the chief nobility, -and the House of Commons, terrified by the summary proceedings against -offenders, had become utterly cowed, and trembled at the mere word of -this imperious monarch. Never, therefore, was the English people at any -time so completely prostrated beneath the talons of a royal vampire as at -this period. The rich merchants of London found themselves accused of -malpractices in the discharge of their civic offices, and were subjected -to the same process of squeezing in Henry's universal press. - -To drain the coffers of the landed aristocracy, Henry's agents brought -up against them all the old obsolete feudal charges of wardships, aids, -liveries, premier seizins, and scutages. Their estates had long been -held under a different tenure, obtained from former monarchs. No matter: -all those marked out for legal bleeding were brought into the private -inquisition of the king's commissioners, and compelled to pay whatever -was demanded, or to suffer worse inconveniences. Even his own friends -were not exempted from the ever-watchful eyes and schemes of this -money-making king. The law which he had enacted against the practice of -"maintenance" was a prolific source of emolument. A striking example of -this species of royal sharp practice was given in the case of John de -Vere, Earl of Oxford. This nobleman having entertained the king on one -occasion for several days magnificently at his castle of Henningham, to -do the utmost honour to him at his departure, summoned all his friends -and retainers, arrayed in all their livery coats and cognisances, and -ranged them in two rows leading from the reception rooms to the royal -carriage. Henry's eye was instantly struck with this prodigious display -of wealth and of men, and his mind as suddenly leapt to a felicitous -conclusion. There was money to be made out of it. The king said: "By my -faith, my lord, I thank you for your good cheer, but I may not endure to -have my laws thus broken in my sight: my attorney must speak to you." The -earl was prosecuted for thus seeking to flatter the vanity of his master, -and compelled to gratify Henry's avarice by a fine of 15,000 marks. - -Whilst the king himself set so notable an example of extortion, we may -be sure that his commissioners, spies, and tools of all sorts were not -slack in this abominable business of ferreting out and putting through -the cruel torture of their secret courts, the unhappy subjects of -every corner of the kingdom who had any substance to prey upon. "The -king," says Bacon, "had gotten for his purpose, or beyond his purpose, -two instruments, Empson and Dudley, whom the people esteemed as his -horse-leeches and shearers: bold men, and careless of fame, and that took -toll of their master's grist. Dudley was of a good family, eloquent, -and one that could put hateful business into good language. But Empson, -that was the son of a sieve-maker, triumphed always upon the deed done, -putting off all other respects whatsoever." - -The tempestuous weather of January, 1506, which brought to others the -disastrous news of vessels wrecked and lives lost, brought to Henry VII. -tidings of a most exciting and elating kind. It was no other than that -amongst the foreign vessels driven into the port of Weymouth, were some -containing the Archduke Philip of Flanders and his wife Joanna, the -elder sister of Catherine of Aragon, his daughter-in-law, and daughter -of his friend and ally Ferdinand of Spain. The Archduke Philip knew his -man; and at their meeting near Calais, in 1500, though he attempted to -hold Henry's stirrup, and heaped upon him the titles of his father and -protector, he took good care to keep out of his clutches; nothing would -induce him to enter the city. But now circumstances were greatly changed; -and the archduke and his wife Joanna would be a much more valuable prize. -The mother of Joanna, the Queen Isabella of Spain, was dead, and Joanna -was, in her own right, Queen of Castile, and Philip, by hers, king. There -was a number of things, any one of which Henry would have been only too -happy to extort from Philip. - -The prince soon found himself received with much magnificence at the -castle of Windsor; but he was not suffered to remain long without feeling -that he was in the hands of a man who would have his full advantage -out of him. The insatiable old miser went to work and propounded his -demands, and there was nothing for it but for Philip to comply, if he -ever meant to see Spain. First, Henry informed him that he was intending -to marry, and that Philip's sister, the dowager-duchess of Savoy, was -the woman of his choice. He demanded with her the sum of 300,000 crowns, -of which 100,000 should be paid in August--it was already the 10th of -March--and the remainder in six years by equal instalments. Besides -this, Margaret, the duchess, was in the annual receipt of two dowries; -one as the widow of John, Prince of Spain, and the other as widow of -Philibert, Duke of Savoy, for she had been twice married already. This -income Henry stipulated should be settled upon himself, and the princess -was to receive instead an income as queen of England. That meant that -Henry would have an income certain, and give her one most uncertain, for -at this very time Catherine, the widow of his son Arthur, and betrothed -bride of his son Henry, was kept by him in a condition of the most -shameful destitution. - -Philip consented--for what could he do?--and that point settled, Henry -informed Philip that he had also a son, whom he, Henry, proposed to -marry to his youngest daughter, Mary. This must have been a still more -bitter draught for the poor Spanish monarch than the former. Henry had -already made this very proposal, and it had been at once rejected. This -son of Philip, the future celebrated Emperor Charles V., was now a child -of six years of age, and the little Princess Mary was just three! Philip, -however much he might inwardly rebel, and however differently he had -planned the destiny of his son, was in the miser's vice, and the thing -was done. - -[Illustration: KING HENRY'S DEPARTURE FROM HENNINGHAM CASTLE. (_See p._ -99.)] - -Soon there came about fresh complications. Philip of Flanders, or, as -he was oftener called, Philip the Fair of Austria, was but an invalid -when he set out on his unlucky voyage to Spain. His detention in England -during the three most trying months of its trying climate, January, -February, and March, added to the vexation of the engagement forced -upon him by the relentless Henry, is said to have completely broken -his constitution; he sank and died in about six months. No sooner did -King Henry hear this news, than, throwing aside all further thoughts of -the Duchess of Savoy, he applied for the hand of Joanna, the widow of -Philip. With Joanna, Queen of Castile, married to himself, and Charles, -her son, the heir of all Spain, the Netherlands, and Austria, married -to his daughter Mary, what visions of greatness and empire must have -swum before the keen eyes of Henry, and excited his intense passion of -acquisitiveness! Ferdinand returned for answer, that the proposal would -have been well pleasing to him, but that Queen Joanna, from violent grief -for the loss of her husband, was become permanently insane. This answer, -which would have been all-sufficient for most men, was treated as a mere -trifle by Henry, who replied that he knew the queen, having seen her in -England; that her derangement of mind was not the effect of grief, but of -the harsh treatment of Philip; that she would soon be all right, and that -he was quite ready to marry her. Ferdinand reiterated the certainty of -the lady's fixed madness, and Henry rejoined that if he was not allowed -to marry her, the king's other daughter, Catherine, should never marry -his son. - -There is no doubt that, could Henry have secured the hand of -Joanna--"the Mad Queen," as she came to be called--he would have broken -off the contract between Henry, his son, and Catherine, and kept her and -her dower in England nevertheless. But the marriage of Henry VII. with -Joanna being an impossibility, Ferdinand promised to send the remaining -half of Catherine's dower by instalments, and Henry consented that the -marriage of the two young people should take place as soon as the money -was paid. Catherine, whose letters to her father had, for the most part, -been intercepted and detained by Henry, at length gave up her opposition -also to the wedding, declaring, in one of these letters, that it was -better for her to marry the prince than remain in the woful condition -of destitution and dependence in which her father-in-law kept her. The -remainder of the dower, however, was never paid up during Henry's time, -and therefore the marriage did not take place till after his death. - -[Illustration: HENRY VII.'S CHAPEL, WESTMINSTER ABBEY.] - -In the midst of his grasping, his hoarding, and his scheming, the king's -end was drawing on, though he was far from an old man. The gout had -long visited him with its periodical attacks. He was liable, during the -cold and variable weather of spring, to complaints of the chest, which -assumed the appearance of consumption, and occasionally reduced him very -low. When the sickness was strong upon him he ordered Empson and Dudley -to cease their villainies; as he got worse he commanded them even to -make restitution to those whom they had pillaged and imprisoned; but as -he grew better again, he instructed them that it was only necessary to -recompense such as had not been dealt with according to the regular forms -of law--so that as these vultures generally tore their victims in a legal -fashion, and as they themselves were made the judges of the necessary -restitution, very little was done. Henry VII. died at his palace of -Richmond on the 21st of April, 1509, in the fifty-fourth year of his age -and the twenty-fourth of his reign. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -REIGN OF HENRY VIII. - - The King's Accession--State of Europe--Henry and Julius - II.--Treaty between England and Spain--Henry is duped by - Ferdinand--New Combinations--Execution of Suffolk--Invasion of - France--Battle of Spurs--Invasion of England by the Scots--Flodden - Field--Death of James of Scotland--Louis breaks up the Holy - League--Peace with France--Marriage and Death of Louis XII.--Rise - of Wolsey--Affairs in Scotland--Francis I. in Italy--Death - of Maximilian--Henry a Candidate for the Empire--Election of - Charles--Field of the Cloth of Gold--Wolsey's Diplomacy--Failure - of his Candidature for the Papacy--The Emperor in London. - - -No prince ever ascended a throne under more auspicious circumstances -than Henry VIII. While his father had strengthened the throne, he had -made himself extremely unpopular. The longer he lived, the more the -selfish meanness and the avarice of his character had become conspicuous, -and excited the disgust of his subjects. Henry was young, handsome, -accomplished, and gay. He was in many respects the very opposite of -his father, and the people always give to a young prince every virtue -under the sun. Accordingly, Henry, who was only eighteen, was regarded -as a fine, buxom young fellow; frank, affable, generous, capable of -everything, and disposed to the best. - -Fox was grown old, and under Henry VII. had grown habitually -parsimonious. He, therefore, attempted to keep a tight reign on the young -monarch, and discouraged all mere schemes of pleasure which necessarily -brought expense. But the old proverb that a miser is sure to be succeeded -by a spendthrift, was not likely to be falsified in Henry. He was full -of health, youth, vigour, and affluence. He was disposed to enjoy all -the gaieties and enjoyments which a brilliant Court and the resources of -a great kingdom spread around him, and in this tendency he found in the -Earl of Surrey a far more facile counsellor than in Fox. - -All this made deep inroads into his parental treasures, but it augmented -his popularity, which he vastly extended by bringing to justice the -two hated extortioners of Henry VII.'s reign. To prepare for this, he -appointed commissioners to hear the complaints of those who had suffered -from the grievous exactions of the late reign; but these complaints -were so loud and so universal that he was soon convinced that it would -be impossible to make full restitution; and he therefore resolved to -appease the injured in some degree by punishing the injurers. A number of -the most notorious informers were therefore seized, set on horses, and -paraded through the streets of London, on the 6th of June, with their -faces to the horses' tails. This done, they were set in the pillory, and -left to the vengeance of the people, who so maltreated them that they all -died soon after in prison. The fate of Dudley and Empson--the two main -instruments of popular oppression--was suspended by the coronation, which -took place on the 24th of the same month. After it was over they were -tried and beheaded. - -Henry had been married to Catherine of Aragon on the 3rd of the month at -Greenwich. Whatever pretences Henry made in after years of his scruples -about this marriage--Catherine having been the wife of his elder brother -Prince Arthur--he seems to have felt or expressed none now. Archbishop -Warham had protested against it on that ground in Henry VII.'s time; but -though the princess was six years older than himself, there is every -reason to believe that Henry was now anxious for the match. Catherine -was at this time very agreeable in person, and was distinguished for the -excellence of her disposition and the spotless purity and modesty of her -life. She was the daughter of one of the most powerful sovereigns of -Europe; and the alliance of Spain was held to be essentially desirable -to counteract the power of France. Besides this, the princess had a -large dower, which must be restored if she were allowed to return home. -The majority of his council, therefore, zealously concurred with him in -his wish to complete this marriage; and his grandmother, the sagacious -Countess of Richmond, was one of its warmest advocates. "There were -few women," says Lord Herbert, "who could compete with Queen Catherine -when in her prime;" and Henry himself, writing to her father a short -time after the marriage, sufficiently expresses his satisfaction at the -union:--"As regards that sincere love which we have to the most serene -queen, our consort, her eminent virtues daily more shine forth, blossom, -and increase so much, that if we were still free, her would we yet -choose for our wife before all others." The conduct of Henry for many -years bore out this profession. - -To make the general satisfaction complete, Henry summoned a Parliament, -in which the chief topic was the prevention in future of the abominable -exactions of the past; and the obsolete penal statutes on which the -extortioners had acted were formally repealed. The whole number -of temporal peers who were summoned to this Parliament was only -thirty-six--one duke, one marquis, eight earls, and twenty-six barons. - -Henry was now at peace with all the world. At home and abroad, so far as -he was concerned, everything was tranquil. No English monarch had ever -been more popular, powerful, and prosperous. Nothing could show more the -advance which England had made of late in strength and importance than -the deference paid to Henry by the greatest princes on the Continent, and -their anxiety to cultivate his alliance. The balance of power in Europe -appeared more widely established than at any former period. England had -freed herself of her intestine divisions, and stood compact and vigorous -from united political power and the active spirit of commerce. The people -were thriving; the Crown, owing to the care of Henry VII., was rich. -Spain had joined its several provinces into one potent state, which was -ruled by the crafty but able Ferdinand. France had begun the same work of -consolidation under Louis XII., by his marriage with Anne of Brittany, -and the union of Brittany with the Crown. Maximilian, the Emperor of -Germany, with his hereditary dominions of Austria, possessed the weight -given him by his Imperial office over all Germany; and his grandson -Charles, heir at once of Austria, Spain, and the Netherlands, was at this -time the ruler of Burgundy and the Netherlands, under the guardianship -of his aunt Margaret of Savoy, a princess of high character for sense -and virtue. Henry had taken the earliest opportunity of renewing the -treaties made by his father with all these princes, and with Scotland, -and declared that he was resolved to maintain peace with them, and to -cultivate the interests of his subjects at home. But this promise he -speedily broke. - -The first means of exciting him to mingle in the distraction of the -Continent were found in the fact that Louis XII. of France was reluctant -to continue the annual payment of L80,000 which he made to his father. -Henry had made a considerable vacuum in the paternal treasury chests, and -was not willing to forego this convenient subsidy. There were those on -the watch ready to stimulate him to hostile action. Pope Julius II. and -Ferdinand of Spain had their own reasons for fomenting ill-will between -Louis of France and Henry. Louis had added Milan and part of the north -of Italy to the French crown. Ferdinand had become possessed of Naples -and Sicily, first, by aiding the French in conquering them, and then by -driving out the French. Julius II. was equally averse from the presence -of the French and Spaniards in Italy, but he was, at the same time, -jealous of the spreading power of Venice, and therefore concealed his -ultimate designs against France and Spain, so that he might engage Louis -and Ferdinand to aid him in humbling Venice. For this purpose he engaged -Louis, Ferdinand, and Maximilian of Austria to enter into a league at -Cambray, as early as December, 1508, by which they engaged to assist him -in regaining the dominions of the church from the Venetians. Henry, who -had no interest in the matter, was induced, in course of time, to add his -name to this League, as a faithful son of the Church. - -No sooner had Julius driven back the Venetians and reduced them to seek -for peace, than he found occasion to quarrel with the French, and a new -league was formed to protect the Pope from what he termed the ambitious -designs of the French, into which Ferdinand, Maximilian, and Henry -entered. Louis XII., seeing this powerful alliance arrayed against him, -determined to carry a war of another nature into the camp of the militant -Pope Julius. He induced a number of the cardinals to declare against the -violence and aggressive spirit of the pontiff, as totally unbecoming his -sacred character. But Julius, who, though now old, had all the resolution -and the ambition of youth, set this schismatic conclave at defiance. -He declared Pisa, where the opposing cardinals had summoned a council, -and every other place to which they transferred themselves, under an -interdict. He excommunicated all cardinals and prelates who should attend -any such council, and not only they, but any temporal prince or chief who -should receive, shelter, or countenance them. - -At the same time that Julius launched his thunders thus liberally at -his disobedient cardinals, he made every court in Europe ring with his -outcries against the perfidy and lawless ambition of Louis, who, not -content with seizing on Milan, he now asserted, was striving to make -himself master of the domains of the holy Mother Church. Henry was -prompt in responding to this appeal. He regarded the claims of the -Church as sacred and binding on all Christian princes; he had his own -demands on Louis, and he was naturally disposed to co-operate with his -father-in-law, Ferdinand. But beyond this, he was greatly flattered by -the politic Pope declaring him "the head of the Italian league;" and -assuring him that Louis by his hostility to the Church, having forfeited -the title of the "Most Christian King," he would transfer it to him. - -Henry was perfectly intoxicated by these skilful addresses to his vanity, -and condescended to a piece of deception which, though often practised -by potentates and statesmen, is at all times unworthy of any Englishman; -he joined the Kings of Scotland and Spain, in recommending Louis to make -peace with the Pope, on condition that Bologna should be restored to the -Church, the council of cardinals at Pisa dissolved, and the cause of -Alphonso, the Duke of Ferrara--whose territories Julius, the fighting -Pope, had invaded--referred to impartial judges. These propositions -on the part of Henry were made by Young, the English ambassador; but -Louis, on his part, was perfectly aware at this very time that Henry was -not only in alliance with the Pope and Spain, but had engaged to join -Ferdinand in an invasion of France in the spring. He therefore treated -the hollow overture with just contempt. - -Henry was at this time in profound peace with Louis. He had but a few -months before renewed his treaty with him, yet he was at the very time -that he sent his hypocritical proposal of arbitration, diligently, though -secretly, preparing for war with him. He sent a commission to gentlemen -in each county on June 20th, 1511, to array and exercise all the -men-at-arms and archers in their county, and to make a return of their -names, and the quality of their arms, before the 1st of August. - -On opening his plans to his council, he there met with strong dissuasion -from war against France, and on very rational grounds. It was contended -that "the natural situation of islands seems not to consort with -conquests on the Continent. If we will enlarge ourselves, let it be in -the way for which Providence hath fitted us, which is by sea." Never -was sounder or more enlightened counsel given to an English king. But -such language was in vain addressed to the ears of Henry, which had been -assiduously tickled by the emissaries of Pope Julius and Ferdinand the -Catholic, who assured him that nothing would be more easy, while they -attacked France in other quarters, than to recover all the provinces -once possessed there. He hastened to form a separate treaty with his -cunning father-in-law, who had his own scheme in it, and this treaty was -signed on the 10th of November, 1511. The preamble of this treaty was a -fine specimen of the solemn pretences with which men attempt to varnish -over their unprincipled designs. It represented Louis as an enemy to God -and religion, a cruel and unrelenting persecutor of the Church, one who -despised all admonition, and had rejected the generous offer of the Pope -to pardon his sins. - -And what was this pious scheme, so greatly to the glory of God and of -heaven? It was professedly to seize on the French province of Guienne, in -which Ferdinand promised to help Henry, but in reality to seize Navarre, -in which Ferdinand meant Henry to help him, but took care not to say so. -The old man, long practised in every art of royal treachery, was far too -knowing for the vainglorious young man, his son-in-law. - -Things being put into this train, Henry sent a herald to Louis, to -command him not to make war upon the Pope, whom he styled "the father -of all Christians." Louis, who was well acquainted with what was going -on, knew that Pope Julius was as much a soldier and a politician as a -Pope. He was the most busy, scheming, restless, and ambitious old man -of his time. He not only made war on his neighbours, but attended the -field in person, watched the progress of sieges, saw his attendants -fall by his very side, and inspected his outposts with the watchful -diligence of a prudent general. Louis knew that he was at the bottom of -all these leagues against him, and he only smiled at Henry's message. -This herald was therefore speedily followed by another demanding the -surrender of Anjou, Maine, Normandy, and Guienne, as Henry's lawful -inheritance. This, of course, was tantamount to a declaration of war, and -the formal declaration only awaited the sanction of Henry by Parliament. -Parliament was therefore summoned by him on the 4th of February, 1512, -and was opened by Warham, Archbishop of Canterbury, with a sermon, the -extraordinary text of which was--"Righteousness and peace have kissed -each other" (Psalm lxxxv. 10). Two-tenths and two-fifteenths were -cheerfully granted Henry for prosecuting the war, and the clergy in -convocation voted a subsidy of L23,000. - -Thus zealously supported and encouraged, Henry despatched a declaration -of war, and sent an army of 10,000 men, chiefly archers, with a train of -artillery, under command of the Marquis of Dorset, to co-operate with -the Spaniards for the reduction of Guienne. These troops embarked at -Southampton, May 16th, 1512, and soon landed safely at Guipuscoa, whilst -the fleet under the Lord Admiral, Sir Edward Howard, cruised during the -summer off the coast. But Ferdinand's real object was a very different -one; his intention, as we have seen, was not to secure Guienne for his -duped son-in-law, but Navarre for himself. - -[Illustration: GREAT SEAL OF HENRY VIII.] - -Navarre was a separate kingdom in possession of John d'Albret, who had -married its heiress, the Infanta Catherine; and, justly suspicious of -the covetous intentions of the King of Spain, he had sought to fortify -himself by a secret treaty with the King of France. While, therefore, the -Marquis of Dorset, the English general, and his army were impatiently -waiting for the Spanish reinforcements, they received from Ferdinand a -message that it would not be safe for them to quit the Spanish frontiers -until they had secured the neutrality of the King of Navarre, who was -also Lord of Bearn, on the French side of the Pyrenees. The English had -thus to wait while Ferdinand demanded of D'Albret a pledge of strict -neutrality during the present war. D'Albret readily assented to this; -but Ferdinand then demanded security for his keeping this neutrality. To -this also John of Navarre freely acceded; which was again followed by a -demand from Ferdinand that this security should consist of the surrender -of six of the most considerable places in his dominions into the hands -of the Spaniards, and of his son as a hostage. The King of Navarre -was compelled to refuse so unreasonable a requisition, and therefore -Ferdinand, professing to believe that D'Albret meant to cut off the -communication of the Spanish army with Spain if it ventured into France, -and showing that he had obtained a copy of the secret treaty of D'Albret -with Louis, immediately ordered the Duke of Alva to invade Navarre. The -Duke soon made himself master of the smaller towns and the open country, -and then summoned, to their profound astonishment, the English to march -into Navarre, and assist him in reducing Pampeluna. - -Dorset now perceived the real game that was being played. Having no -orders, however, to do anything but attack Guienne, he refused to move a -foot for the reduction of Navarre, and demanded afresh the supplies of -artillery and horse which had been guaranteed for the former enterprise. -But Ferdinand replied that it was quite out of the question to furnish -him with any till Navarre was made secure; that was the first necessary -step, and that effected, he should be prepared to march with him to -Bayonne, Bordeaux, and to the conquest of all Guienne. - -These representations only increased the disgust of Dorset and his army: -but they could do nothing but await the event, and saw themselves thus -most adroitly posted by Ferdinand, as the necessary guard of his position -against the French, whilst he accomplished his long-desired acquisition -of Navarre. So Alva went on leisurely reducing Pampeluna, Ferdinand -still calling on Dorset to accelerate the business by marching to Alva's -support. - -Henry did not yet perceive how grossly he had been deluded by his loving -father-in-law, who had only used him to secure a kingdom for himself -most essential to the compactness and power of Spain; and he would have -been led by him to assist in his still contemplated aggressions. In the -meantime Louis, more cognisant of the game, marched his troops into -Bearn, and left them, professedly for his ally, whilst the remnant of -the English army reached home, shorn of its anticipated honours, reduced -in numbers, in rags, and more than half-famished. Henry was disposed to -charge upon Dorset the disasters and disappointments of the expedition, -but the officers succeeded in convincing him that they could not have -done differently, consistent with their orders; but the time was yet far -off when the vainglorious young king was to have his eyes opened to the -selfish deceptions which his Machiavelian father-in-law was practising -upon him. - -At sea, the fleet under Sir Edward Howard had not been more successful -than the forces on land. Sir Edward harassed the coasts of Brittany -during the spring and summer, and on the 10th of August fell in with -a fleet of thirty-nine sail. Sir Charles Brandon, afterwards the Duke -of Suffolk, bore down upon the _Cordelier_, of Brest, a vessel of huge -bulk, and carrying 900 men. Brandon's vessel was soon dismasted, and fell -astern, giving place to the _Regent_, the largest vessel in the English -navy, a ship of 1,000 tons. The _Regent_ was commanded by Sir Thomas -Knevet, a young officer of a daring character. He continued the contest -for more than an hour, when another ship coming to his aid, the French -commander set fire to the _Cordelier_, the flames of which soon catching -the _Regent_, which lay alongside of her in full action, both vessels -were wrapt in fire, amid which the crews continued their desperate fight -till the French admiral's ship blew up, destroying with it the _Regent_; -and all the crews went down with the commanders, amid the horror of the -spectators. The rest of the French fleet then escaped into Brest; and Sir -Edward Howard made a vow to God that he would never see the king's face -again till he had avenged the death of the valiant Knevet. - -But though Henry had been duped by the wily Ferdinand, and had suffered -at sea, his efforts had inflicted serious evil on the King of France. The -menace of Louis' dominions in the south, and the English fleet hovering -upon his coasts, had prevented him from sending into Italy the necessary -force to ensure lasting advantage there. Before Christmas Julius had -fulfilled his boast that he would drive the barbarians beyond the Alps. -He had done it, says Muratori, without stopping a moment to ask himself -whether this was the precise function of the chief pastor of the Church. - -Louis, convinced that the Holy League, as it was called, was proving -too strong for him, employed the ensuing winter in devising means to -break it up, or to corrupt some of its members. Julius, the soul of the -League, died--a grand advantage to Louis--in February, 1513, and the new -pontiff, Leo X., who was Cardinal John de Medici, though he prosecuted -the same object of clearing Italy of the foreigner, did not possess the -same belligerent temperament as his predecessor. Leo laboured to keep -the League together, but at the same time he was engaged in schemes for -the aggrandisement of his own family, and especially of securing to it -the sovereignty of Florence. In pursuing this object, Venice felt itself -neglected in its claims of support against the emperor, and went over -to the alliance with France. Yet the plan of a renewed league between -the Pope, the emperor, the kings of Spain and England, against Louis, -which had long been secretly concocting at Mechlin, was signed by the -plenipotentiaries on the 5th of April, 1513. By this league Leo engaged -to invade France in Provence or Dauphine, and to launch the thunders of -the Church at Louis. He had managed to detach the emperor from the French -king, and engaged him to attack France from his own side, but not in -Italy. To enable him to take the field, Henry of England was to advance -him 100,000 crowns of gold. Ferdinand engaged to invade Bearn, for which -he particularly yearned, or Languedoc; Henry to attack Normandy, Picardy, -or Guienne. The invading armies were to be strong and well appointed, and -none of the confederates were to make a peace without the consent of all -the rest. - -Henry, in his self-confident ardour, blinded by his vanity, little read -as yet in the wiles and selfish cunning of men, was delighted with this -accomplished league. To him it appeared that Louis of France, encompassed -on every side, was certain of utter defeat, and thus as certain to -be compelled to restore all the rich provinces which his fathers had -wrested from England. But little did he dream that at the very moment -he was empowering his plenipotentiary to sign this league, his Spanish -father-in-law was signing another with Louis himself, in conjunction -with James of Scotland and the Duke of Gueldres. By this Ferdinand -engaged to be quiet, and do Louis no harm. In fact, none of the parties -in that league meant to fight at all. Their only object was to obtain -Henry's money, or to derive some other advantage from him, and they would -enjoy the pleasure of seeing him expending his wealth and his energies -in the war on France, and thus reducing his too formidable ascendency in -Europe. Ferdinand's intention was to spend the summer in strengthening -his position in the newly acquired kingdom of Navarre, and Maximilian, -the emperor, having got the subsidy from Henry, would be ready to reap -further benefits whilst he idly amused the young king with his pretences -of service. Henry alone was all on fire to wipe away the disgrace of -his troops and the disasters of his navy; to win martial renown, and to -restore the ancient Continental possessions of the Crown. - -The war commenced first at sea. Sir Edward Howard, burning to discharge -his vow by taking vengeance for the death of Admiral Knevet, blockaded -the harbour of Brest. On the 23rd of April he attempted to cut away a -squadron of six galleys, moored in the bay of Conquet, a few leagues -from Brest, and commanded by Admiral Prejeant. With two galleys, one -of which he gave into the command of Lord Ferrers, and four boats, he -rowed up to the admiral's galley, leaped upon its deck, and was followed -by one Carroz, a Spanish cavalier, and sixteen Englishmen. But the -cable which bound the vessel to that of Prejeant being cut, his ship, -instead of lying alongside, fell astern, and left him unsupported. He -was forced overboard, with all his gallant followers, by the pikes of -an overwhelming weight of the enemy, and perished. Sir Thomas Cheney, -Sir John Wallop, and Sir William Sidney, seeing the danger of Sir Edward -Howard, pressed forward to his rescue, but in vain, and the English -fleet, discouraged by the loss of their gallant commander, put back -to port. Prejeant sailed out of harbour after it, and gave chase, but -failing in overtaking it, he made a descent on the coast of Sussex, where -he was repulsed, and lost an eye, being struck by an arrow. Henry, on -hearing the unfortunate affair of Brest, appointed Lord Thomas Howard to -his brother's post, and bade him go out and avenge his death; whereupon -the French fleet again made sail for Brest, and left the English masters -of the Channel. - -In June, Henry deemed himself fully prepared to cross with his army to -Calais. Lord Howard was ordered to bring his fleet into the Channel, to -cover the passage, and on the 6th of June, 1513, the vanguard of the army -passed over, under the command of the Earl of Shrewsbury, accompanied by -the Earl of Derby, the Lords Fitzwalter, Hastings, Cobham, and Sir Rice -ap Thomas. A second division followed on the 16th, under Lord Herbert, -the Chamberlain, accompanied by the Earls of Northumberland and Kent; the -Lords Audley and Delawar, with Carew, Curson, and many other gentlemen. -Henry himself followed on the 30th, with the main body and the rear of -the army. The whole force consisted of 25,000 men, the majority of which -was composed of the old victorious arm of archers. - -Before leaving Dover, to which place the queen attended him, Henry -appointed her regent during his absence, and constituted Archbishop -Warham and Sir Thomas Lovel her chief counsellors and ministers. On -the plea of leaving no cause of disturbance behind him to trouble her -Majesty, he cut off the head of the Earl of Suffolk. Henry VII. had -inveigled this nobleman into his hands at the time of the visit of the -Archduke Philip, on the assurance that he would not take his life; but -he seems to have repented of this show of clemency, for on his death-bed -the king left an order that his son should put him to death. The earl -had remained till now prisoner in the Tower, and Henry had been fatally -reminded of him and of his father's dying injunction by the imprudence of -Richard de la Pole, the brother of Suffolk, who had not only attempted to -revive the York faction, but had taken a high command in the French army. - -Henry himself, instead of crossing direct to Calais, ran down the coast -as far as Boulogne, firing continually his artillery to terrify the -French, and then returning, entered Calais amid a tremendous uproar of -cannon from ships and batteries, announcing rather prematurely that -another English monarch was come to conquer France. In order to effect -this conquest, however, he found none of his allies fulfilling their -agreements, except the Swiss, who, always alive at the touch of money, -and having fingered that of Henry, were in full descent on the south of -France, elated, moreover, with their victory over the French in the last -Italian campaign. Maximilian, who had received 120,000 crowns, was not -yet visible. But Henry's own officers had shown no remissness. Before -his arrival, Lord Herbert and the Earl of Shrewsbury had laid siege to -Terouenne, a town situate on the borders of Picardy, where they found a -stout resistance from the two commanders, Teligni and Crequi. The siege -had been continued a month, and Henry, engaged in a round of pleasures -and gaieties in Calais amongst his courtiers, seemed to have forgotten -the great business before him, of rivalling the Edwards and the fifth of -his own name. But news from the scene of action at length roused him. The -besieged people of Terouenne, on the point of starvation, contrived to -send word of their situation to Louis, who despatched Fontrailles with -800 Albanian horses, each soldier carrying behind him a sack of gunpowder -and two quarters of bacon. Coming unawares upon the English camp, they -made a sudden dash through it, up to the town fosse, where, flinging -down their load, which was as quickly snatched up by the famishing -inhabitants, they returned at full gallop, and so great was the surprise -of the English that they again cut their way out and got clear off. - -[Illustration: MEETING OF HENRY AND THE EMPEROR MAXIMILIAN. (_See p._ -108.)] - -On arriving before Terouenne, on the 4th of August, Henry was soon -joined by Maximilian, the emperor. This strange ally, who had received -120,000 crowns to raise and bring with him an army, appeared with only -a miserable complement of 4,000 horse. Henry had taken up his quarters -in a magnificent tent, blazing in silks, blue damask, and cloth of gold, -but the bad weather had driven him out of it into a wooden house. To -do honour to his German ally--who, by rank, was the first prince in -Christendom--Henry arrayed himself and his nobles in all their bravery of -attire. They and their horses were loaded with gold and silver tissue; -the camp glittered with the display of golden ornaments and utensils; -and, in this royal splendour, he rode at the head of his Court and -commanders to meet and escort his guest. They encountered the emperor and -his attendants clad in simple black, mourning for the recent death of -the empress. But there was little opportunity for comparisons--for the -weather was terrible; and they exchanged their greetings amid tempests -of wind and deluges of rain. Maximilian, to prevent any too-well founded -complaints as to the smallness of his force compared with the greatness -of his position, his promises in the alliance, and his princely pay, -declared himself only the king's volunteer, ready to serve under him as -his own soldier, for the payment of 100 crowns a day. He adopted Henry's -badge of the red rose, was adorned with the cross of St. George, and, by -flattering Henry's vanity, made him forget all his deficiencies. - -The pleasure of receiving his great ally was somewhat dashed with bitter -by the arrival of the Scottish Lion king-at-arms with the declaration of -war from James IV., accompanied by the information that his master was -already in the field, and had sent a fleet to the succour of the French -king. Henry proudly replied that he left the Earl of Surrey to entertain -James, who would know very well how to do it. - -[Illustration: HENRY AND THE CAPTURED FRENCH OFFICERS. (_See p._ 110.)] - -The French still continued to throw succours into Terouenne, in spite of -the vigilance of the English. In this service no one was more active than -the Duke of Angouleme, the heir-apparent to the crown, and afterwards -Francis I. When the siege had lasted about six weeks, and the whole -energy of the British army was roused to cut off these supplies of -provisions and ammunition, the French advanced in great force to effect -a diversion in favour of the place. A formidable display of cavalry -issued from Blangy, and marched along the opposite bank of the Lis. -As they approached Terouenne they divided into two bodies, one under -Longueville, the other under the Duke of Alencon. Henry wisely followed -the advice of Maximilian, who knew the country well, and had before this -won two victories over the French in that very quarter. The troops were -drawn out, and Maximilian crossed the river with his German horse and -the English archers, also mounted on horseback. Henry followed with the -infantry. - -The French cavalry, who had won a high reputation for bravery and address -in the Italian campaigns, charged the united army brilliantly; but -speedily gave way and rode off. The English archers and German horse gave -chase; the French fled faster and faster, till in hot pursuit they were -driven upon the lines of the main body, and threw them into confusion. -This was, no doubt, more than was intended; for the probable solution -of the mystery is, that the retreat of the advanced body of cavalry was -a feint, to enable the Duke of Alencon to seize the opportunity of the -pursuit by the English to throw the necessary supplies into the town. -This he attempted. Dashing across the river, he made for the gates of the -town, whence simultaneously was made an impetuous sally. But Lord Herbert -met and beat back Alencon; and the Earl of Shrewsbury chased back the -sallying party. In the meantime the feigned retreat of the decoy cavalry, -by the brisk pursuit of the German and English horse, had become a real -one. After galloping almost four miles before their enemies, they rushed -upon their own main body with such fiery haste that they communicated -a panic. All wheeled about to fly; the English came on with vehement -shouts of "St. George!" "St. George!" The French commanders called in -vain to their terror-stricken men to halt, and face the enemy; every -man dashed his spurs into the flanks of his steed, and the huge army, -in irretrievable confusion, galloped away, without striking a single -blow. The officers, while using every endeavour to bring the terrified -soldiers to a stand, soon found themselves abandoned and in the hands of -the enemy. The Duke de Longueville, the famous Chevalier Bayard, Bussy -d'Amboise, the Marquis of Rotelin, Clermont, and La Fayette, men of the -highest reputation in the French army, were instantly surrounded and -taken, with many other distinguished officers. La Palice and Imbrecourt -were also taken, but effected their escape. - -When these commanders, confounded by the unaccountable flight of their -whole army, were presented to Henry and Maximilian, who had witnessed -the sudden rout with equal amazement, Henry, laughing, complimented them -ironically on the speed of their men, when the light-hearted Frenchmen, -entering into the monarch's humour, declared that it was only a battle -of spurs, for they were the only weapons that had been used. The Battle -of Spurs has ever since been the name of this singular action, though it -is sometimes called the Battle of Guinegate, from the place where the -officers were met with. This event took place on the 16th of August. - -The garrison of Terouenne, seeing that all hope of relief was now over, -surrendered; but, instead of leaving a sufficient force in the place to -hold it, Henry, at the artful suggestion of the emperor, who was anxious -to destroy such a stronghold on the frontiers of his grandson Charles, -Duke of Burgundy, first wasted his time in demolishing the fortifications -of the town, and then, under the same mischievous counsel, perpetrated a -still grosser error. Instead of marching on Paris, he sat down before -Tournay, which Maximilian wished to secure for his grandson Charles. It -fell after eight days' siege. - -Here ended this extraordinary campaign, where so much had been -prognosticated, and what was done should have only been the -stepping-stones to infinitely greater advantages. But Henry entered -the city of Tournay with as much pomp as if he had really entered into -Paris instead. Wolsey received the promised wealthy bishopric, and -Henry gratified his overweening vanity by his favourite tournaments and -revelries. Charles, the young Duke of Burgundy, accompanied by his aunt -Margaret, the Duchess-Dowager of Savoy, and Regent of the Netherlands, -hastened to pay his respects to the English monarch, who had been so -successfully fighting for his advantage. - -During the reign of Henry VII., Charles had been affianced to Mary, the -daughter of Henry, and sister of the present King of England. As he was -then only four years of age, oaths had been plighted, and bonds to a -heavy amount entered into by Henry and Maximilian for the preservation -of the contract. The marriage was to take place on Charles reaching his -fourteenth year. That time was now approaching; and, therefore, a new -treaty was now subscribed, by which Maximilian, Margaret, and Charles -were bound to meet Henry, Catherine, and Mary in the following spring to -complete this union. - -Meantime, the Swiss, discovering what sort of an ally they had got, -entered into a negotiation with Tremouille, the Governor of Burgundy, -who paid them handsomely in money, promised them much more, and saw -them march off again to their mountains. Relieved from those dangerous -visitants, Louis once more breathed freely. He concentrated his forces -in the north, watched the movements of Henry VIII. with increasing -satisfaction, and at length saw him embark for England with a secret -resolve to accumulate a serious amount of difficulties in the way of his -return. France had escaped from one of the most imminent perils of its -history by the folly of the vainglorious English king. Yet he returned -with all the assumption of a great conqueror, and utterly unconscious -that he had been a laughing-stock and a dupe. - -We have seen that James IV. of Scotland sent his declaration of war to -Henry whilst he was engaged at the siege of Terouenne. Among the causes -of complaint which James deemed he had against Henry was the refusal to -deliver up the jewels left by Henry's father to the Queen Margaret of -Scotland--a truly dishonest act on the part of the English monarch, who, -with all the wasteful prodigality peculiar to himself, inherited the -avaricious disposition of his father. No sooner, therefore, did Henry -set out for France, than James despatched a fleet with a body of 3,000 -men to the aid of Louis, and by his herald at Terouenne, after detailing -the catalogue of his own grievances, demanded that Henry should evacuate -France. This haughty message received as haughty a reply, but James did -not live to receive it. - -In August, whilst Henry still lay before Terouenne, on the very same -day that the Scottish herald left that place with his answer, the peace -between England and Scotland was broken by Lord Home, chamberlain to -King James, who crossed the Border, and made a devastating raid on the -defenceless inhabitants. His band of marauders, on their return, loaded -with plunder, was met by Sir William Bulmer, who slew 500 of them upon -the spot, and took 400 prisoners. Called to action by this disaster, -James collected on the Burghmuir, to the south of Edinburgh, such an army -as, say the writers of the time, never gathered round a king of Scotland. -Some state it at 100,000 men; the lowest calculation is 80,000. - -James passed the Tweed on the 22nd of August, and on that and the -following day encamped at Twizel-haugh. On the 24th, with the consent -of his nobles, he issued a declaration that the heirs of all who were -killed or who died in that expedition, should be exempt from all charges -for wardship, relief, or marriage, without regard to their age. He -then advanced up the right bank of the Tweed, and attacked the Border -castle of Norham. This strong fortress was expected to detain the army -some time, but the governor, rashly improvident of his ammunition, was -compelled to surrender on the fifth day, August 29th. Wark, Etall, -Heaton, and Ford Castles, places of no great consequence, soon followed -the example of Norham. That accomplished, James fixed his camp on Flodden -Hill, the east spur of the Cheviot Mountains, with the deep river Till -flowing at his feet to join the neighbouring Tweed. In that strong -position he awaited the approach of the English army. - -The Earl of Surrey, commissioned by Henry on his departure expressly to -arm the northern counties and defend the frontiers from an irruption -of the Scots, no sooner heard of the muster of James on the Burghmuir, -than he despatched messages to all the noblemen and gentlemen of those -counties to assemble their forces, and meet him on the 1st of September -at Newcastle-on-Tyne. He marched out of York on the 27th of August, -and, though the weather was wet and stormy, and the roads consequently -very bad, he marched day and night till he reached Durham. There he -received the news that the Scots had taken Norham, which the commander -had bragged he would hold against all comers till Henry returned from -France. Receiving the banner of St. Cuthbert from the Prior of Durham, -Surrey marched to Newcastle, where a council of war was held, and the -troops from all parts were appointed to assemble on the 4th of September -at Bolton, in Glendale, about twenty miles from Ford, where the Scots -were said to be lying. - -On the 4th of September, before Surrey had left Alnwick, which he had -reached the evening before, he was joined, to his great encouragement, -by his gallant son, Lord Thomas Howard, the Admiral of England, with a -choice body of 5,000 men, whom Henry had despatched from France. From -Alnwick the earl sent a herald to the Scottish king to reproach him with -his breach of faith to his brother, the King of England, and to offer him -battle on Friday, the 9th, if he dared to wait so long for his arrival. - -On the 6th of September, the Earl of Surrey had reached Wooler-haugh, -within three miles of the Scottish camp. - -When Surrey came in sight, he was greatly struck with the formidable -nature of James's position, and sent a messenger to him charging him -with having shifted his ground after having accepted the challenge, and -calling upon him to come down into the spacious plain of Millfield, -where both armies could contend on more equal terms, the army of Surrey -amounting to only 25,000 men. James, resenting this accusation, refused -to admit the herald to his presence, but sent him word that he had sought -no undue advantage, should seek none, and that it did not become an earl -to send such a message to a king. - -This endeavour to induce James by his high and often imprudent sense -of honour to weaken his position not succeeding, on the 8th Surrey at -the suggestion of his son the Lord Admiral adopted a fresh stratagem. -He marched northward, sweeping round the hill of Flodden, crossed the -Till near Twizel Castle, and thus placed the whole of his army between -James and Scotland. From that point they directed their march as if -intending to cross the Tweed, and enter Scotland. On the morning of -Friday, the 9th, leaving their night halt at Barmoor Wood, they continued -this course, till the Scots were greatly alarmed lest the English -should plunder the fertile country of the Merse, and they implored the -king to descend and fight in defence of his country. Moved by these -representations, and this being the day on which Surrey had promised to -fight him, he ordered his army to set fire to their tents with all the -litter and refuse of the camp, so as to make a great smoke, under which -they might descend, unnoticed, on the English. But no sooner did the -English perceive this, than also availing themselves of the obscurity -of the smoke, they wheeled about, and made once more for the Till. As -the reek blew aside, they were observed in the very act of crossing the -narrow bridge of Twizel, and Robert Borthwick, the commander of James's -artillery, fell on his knees and implored his sovereign to allow him -to turn the fire of his cannon on the bridge, which he would destroy, -and prevent the passage of Surrey's host. But James, with that romantic -spirit of chivalry which seems to have possessed him to a degree of -insanity, is said to have replied, "Fire one shot on the bridge, and I -will command you to be hanged, drawn, and quartered. I will have all my -enemies before me, and fight them fairly." - -Thus the English host defiled over the bridge at leisure, and drew up in -a long double line, consisting of a centre and two wings, with a strong -body of cavalry, under Lord Dacre, in the rear. They beheld the Scots, -in like form, descending the hill in solemn silence. The two conflicting -armies came into action about four o'clock in the afternoon by the mutual -discharge of their artillery. The thunder and concussion were terrific, -but it was soon seen that the guns of the Scots being placed too high, -their balls passed over the heads of their opponents, whilst those of -the English, sweeping up the hill, did hideous execution, and made the -Scots impatient to come to closer fight. The master gunner of Scotland -was soon slain, his men were driven from their guns, whilst the shot of -the English continued to strike into the heart of the battle. The left -wing of the Scots, under the Earl of Huntly and Lord Home, came first -into contact with the right wing of the English, and fighting on foot -with long spears, they charged the enemy with such impetuosity, that Sir -Edmund Howard, the commander of that wing, was borne down, his banner -flung to the earth, and his lines broken into utter confusion. But at -this moment Sir Edmund and his division were suddenly succoured by the -Bastard Heron. This movement was supported by the advance of the second -division of the English right wing, under the Lord Admiral, who attacked -Home and Huntly, and these again were followed by the cavalry of Lord -Dacre's reserve. - -The Highlanders, under Home and Huntly, when they overthrew Sir Edmund -Howard, imagined that they had won the victory, and fell eagerly to -stripping and plundering the slain; but they soon found enough to do to -defend themselves, and the battle then raged with desperate energy. At -length the Scottish left gave way, and the Lord Admiral and the cavalry -of Dacre next fell on the division under the Earls of Crawford and -Montrose, both of whom were slain. - -On the extreme right wing of the Scottish army fought the clans of the -Macleans, the Mackenzies, the Campbells, and Macleods, under the Earls -of Lennox and Argyle. These encountered the stout bowmen of Lancashire -and Cheshire, under Sir Edward Stanley, who galled the half-naked -Highlanders so intolerably with their arrows, that they flung down their -targets, and dashed forward with claymore and axe pell-mell amongst the -enemy. The French commissioner, De la Motte, who was present, astounded -at this display of wild passion and savage insubordination, assisted -by other French officers, shouted, stormed, and gesticulated to check -the disorderly rabble, and restrain them in their ranks. In vain! The -English, for a moment surprised by this sudden furious onslaught, yet -kept their ranks unbroken, and, advancing like a solid wall, flung back -their disintegrated assailants, swept them before them, and despatched -them piece-meal. The Earls of Argyle and Lennox perished in the midst of -their unmanageable men. - -The two main bodies of the armies only were now left where James and -Surrey were contending at the head of their troops, but with this -difference, that the Scottish right and left were now unprotected, and -those of James's centre were attacked on each side by the victorious -right and left wings of the English. On one side Sir Edward Stanley -charged with archers and pikemen, on the other Lord Howard, Sir Edmund -Howard, and Lord Dacre were threatening with both horse and foot. - -[Illustration: EDINBURGH AFTER FLODDEN. (_See p._ 114.)] - -James and all his nobility about him in the main body were fighting on -foot, and being clad in splendid armour, they suffered less from the -English archers, who were opposed to them in the ranks of Surrey. On -James's right hand fought his natural son, the accomplished Archbishop of -St. Andrews. Soon the combatants became engaged hand to hand in deadly -struggle with their swords, spears, pikes, and other instruments of -death. Whilst hewing and cutting each other down in furious strife, face -to face, life for life, showers of English arrows fell amid the Scottish -ranks, and dealt terrible destruction to the less stoutly protected. When -the Earls of Bothwell and Huntly rushed to the support of the main body -on the one side, and Stanley, the Howards, and Dacre came to the aid of -Surrey on the other, the strife became terrible beyond description, and -the slaughter awful on every side of the environed Scots. Before the -arrival of the reserves the Scots appeared at one time to have the best -of it, and to be on the very edge of victory; and even after that James -and the gallant band around him seemed to make a stupendous effort, as if -they thought their sole hope was to force their way to Surrey and cut him -down. James is said to have reached within a spear's length of him, when, -after being twice wounded with arrows, he was despatched by a bill. This -decided the day; the Scots, after suffering fearful losses, retreated -next morning from the field, after holding Flodden Hill during the night. - -When the news of the Scottish overthrow reached Edinburgh, it plunged -the inhabitants into terrible grief and dismay. Women, weeping and -seeking for tidings of their friends, thronged the streets. But the -civic authorities kept their heads in the crisis. They ordered all the -inhabitants capable of bearing arms to assemble for the defence at the -tolling of a bell. Women and strangers were required to remain at their -work and not to frequent the streets "clamorand and cryand;" while women -of higher station were to repair to church, to offer up prayers "for our -Sovereign Lord and his army, and the townsmen who are with the army." The -crisis soon passed. No invasion was ever likely in view of the serious -losses which the English themselves had suffered, and the city in due -course regained its wonted aspect. - -James IV., who fell at Flodden in the forty-first year of his age, -and the twenty-fifth of his reign, was a prince of quick, generous, -and chivalric character. Like his father, he had a taste for the -arts, particularly those of civil and naval architecture; he built -the great ship _St. Michael_, and several churches, and maintained a -Court far superior in its elegance and refinement to that of any of his -predecessors. On such a nature, Henry, by kind and even just treatment, -might have operated so as to excite the most devoted friendship. As it -was, a neighbouring nation, instead of a firm ally, had been made a -more embittered enemy; its prince had been slain, and his kingdom left -exposed, in the peculiar weakness of a long minority, to the ambitious -cupidity of his royal uncle, whose overbearing designs only tended to -defeat that union of the crowns which he was most anxious to ensure, -and to perpetuate crimes, heartburnings, and troubles between the two -governments, for two eventful generations yet to come. Henry, however, -overlooking all these things, on returning home elate with his own -useless campaign, and this brilliant but cruel victory, rewarded Surrey -by restoring to him the title of Duke of Norfolk, forfeited by his father -for his adherence to Richard III., and Lord Thomas Howard, his son, -succeeded, for his part, to the title of Earl of Surrey, which had been -his father's. Lord Herbert was made Earl of Somerset; and Sir Edward -Stanley, Lord Monteagle. At the same time, his favourite, Sir Charles -Brandon, Lord Lisle, the king elevated to the dignity of Duke of Suffolk. -Wolsey, his growing clerical favourite, he made Bishop of Lincoln, in -addition to his French bishopric of Tournay. - -Henry VIII. had returned from the Continent as much inflated with the -idea of his military greatness as if he had been Henry V.; his allies, in -the meantime, were laughing in their sleeves at the success with which -they had duped him. It was true that he had seriously distressed Louis, -but it was for the benefit of those allies, who had all reaped singular -advantages from Henry's campaign and heavy outlay. The Pope had got Italy -freed from the French; Ferdinand of Spain had got Navarre, and leisure -to fortify and make it safe; and Maximilian had got Terouenne, Tournay, -and command of the French frontiers on the side of Flanders, with a fine -pension from England. It was now time to see what acknowledgment those -allies were likely to make him for his expensive services, and they did -not permit him to wait long. While he had been so essentially obliging -to the Pope, his Holiness had sent four bulls into his kingdom, by every -one of which he had violated the statutes of the realm, especially that -of Provisors, taking upon himself to nominate bishops and to command the -persecution of heretics. The pontiff now went farther, and made a secret -treaty with Louis of France, by which he removed the excommunication from -Louis, and the interdict from his kingdom, on condition that Louis should -withdraw his countenance from the schismatic council of cardinals; but -knowing Henry's vain character, the Pope, to prevent him from expressing -any anger, sent him a consecrated sword and banner, with many fulsome -compliments on his valour and royal greatness. - -Henry's father-in-law, Ferdinand, was growing old, and having obtained -all that he wanted--Navarre--was most ready to listen to Louis' proposals -for peace. Louis tempted him by offering to marry his second daughter, -Renee, to his grandson Charles, and to give her as her portion his claim -on the duchy of Milan. Ferdinand not only accepted with alacrity these -terms, without troubling himself about what Henry might think of such -treachery, but engaged to bring over Maximilian, Henry's ally and paid -agent, but still the grandfather of Charles. When the news of these -transactions, on the part of his trusty confederates, reached Henry, -he was for a while incredulous, and then broke into a fury of rage. He -complained that his father-in-law had been the first to involve him with -France by his great promises and professions, not one of which he had -kept, and now, without a moment's warning, had not only sacrificed his -interests for his own selfish purposes, but had drawn over the Emperor -of Germany, who lay under such signal obligations to him. He vowed the -most determined revenge. Here was Maximilian, for whom he had conquered -Terouenne and Tournay, whom he had subsidised to the amount of 200,000 -crowns, and whose grandson Charles was affianced to his sister Mary, who -had in a moment forgotten all these benefits and his engagement. As the -time was come for the marriage of Charles and the Princess Mary, Henry -sent a demand for its completion; Maximilian, who had already agreed to -Louis' offer of his daughter Renee, sent an evasive answer, and Henry's -wrath knew no bounds. It was impossible for even his egregious vanity to -blind him any longer to the extent to which he had been duped all round. - -Louis, having thus destroyed Henry's confederacy of broken reeds, next -took measures to secure a peace with him. The Duke of Longueville, who -was one of the prisoners taken at the Battle of Spurs, was in London, and -instructed by Louis, kept his ears open to Henry's angry denunciations -of his perfidious allies. He represented to him that Anne, the Queen of -France, being dead, there was a noble opportunity of avenging himself on -these ungrateful princes, and of forming an alliance with Louis which -would make them all tremble. Mary, the Princess of England, might become -Queen of France, and thus a league be established between England and -France which would decide the fate of Europe. - -Henry's resentment and wounded honour would of themselves have made him -close eagerly with this proposal; but he saw in it the most substantial -advantages, and in a moment made up his mind. He had the policy, however, -to appear to demur, and said his people would never consent for him to -renounce his hereditary claims on France, which must be the case if such -an alliance took place. They would ask themselves what equivalent they -should obtain for so great a surrender. The shrewd Frenchman understood -the suggestion; he communicated what passed to his Government, and -proposals were quickly sent to meet Henry's views. Louis agreed to pay -Henry a million crowns in discharge of all arrears due to Henry VII. -from Charles VIII., &c.; and Henry engaged to give his sister a dower -of 200,000 crowns, to pay the expenses of her journey, and to supply -her with jewels--probably those of which he had defrauded the Scottish -queen. The two kings agreed to assist each other, in case of any attack, -by a force of 14,000 men, or, in case of any attack by either of them on -another power, by half that number. This treaty was to continue for the -lives of the two kings, and a year longer. - -Thus was the Holy League, as it had been called, for the defence of the -Pope and the Church against the King of France entirely done away with; -and this great pretence was not so much as mentioned in any one of these -treaties which put an end to it. The King of France strove hard to obtain -Tournay again; but, though it was evidently Henry's interest to restore -it, his favourite Wolsey, apprehensive of losing the profits of the -bishopric, successfully opposed its restoration. Wolsey and Fox of Durham -were Henry's plenipotentiaries for the management of the treaty, which -was signed on the 7th of August, 1514. - -By this treaty, Mary Tudor, Princess Royal of England, a remarkably -beautiful young woman of sixteen, and passionately attached to Charles -Brandon, Duke of Suffolk, the handsomest and most accomplished man of -Henry's Court, was handed over to the worn-out Louis of France, who was -fifty-three in years, and much older in constitution. - -But this unnatural political _mesalliance_ was not destined to be of long -duration. Louis wrote in the course of December to Henry, expressing his -happiness in possessing so excellent and amiable a wife, and on the -1st of January he expired. The dissipation at Court, consequent on his -marriage, is stated in the "Life of Bayard" to have precipitated his end. -"For the good king, on account of his wife, had changed the whole manner -of his life. He had been accustomed to dine at eight o'clock, now he had -to dine at noon; he had been accustomed to retire to rest at six in the -evening, and now he had often to sit up till midnight." Louis was greatly -beloved by his subjects, who regarded him as a brave, upright, and wise -prince, and gave him the honourable title of "the Father of his People." -Mary promptly married her old lover, Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk. -Henry was angry at first, but the storm soon lulled. Wolsey is said -to have been in the secret from the first, and such was his influence -now, that a much more difficult matter would have given way before it. -The young couple were received into favour, and ordered by Henry to be -re-married before him at Greenwich--an event which took place on the 13th -of May, 1515. So far was the part which Francis I. had taken in this -matter from being resented, that he and Henry renewed all the engagements -which existed between Louis and Henry, and so satisfactorily that they -boasted that they had made a peace which would last for ever. - -We have had frequent occasion already to introduce the name of Wolsey; -we shall have still more frequent and more surprising occasion to repeat -that name: and it is therefore necessary to take a complete view of the -man who was now rapidly rising into a prominence before Europe and the -world, such as has few examples in history, in one whose origin was as -mean as his ascent was dazzling, and his fall sudden and irrevocable. - -In the reign of Henry VII. we find first the name of Thomas Wolsey coming -to public view as the private secretary of the king at the time of the -forced visit of the Archduke Philip to the English Court. This originally -obscure clergyman was born in 1471 at Ipswich, where his father was -a wealthy butcher, and, therefore, could afford to give his son an -education at the university. Probably the worthy butcher was induced to -this step by a perception of the lad's uncommon cleverness, for at Oxford -he displayed so much talent that he was soon distinguished by the title -of the "Boy Bachelor." He became teacher of the grammar-school adjoining -Magdalen College, and among his pupils were the sons of the Marquis of -Dorset, on whom he so far won that he gave him the somewhat valuable -living of Lymington, in Somersetshire. This might seem substantial -promotion for the butcher's son, but an eagle, though hatched in the nest -of a barn-door fowl, is sure to soar up towards the sun. Thomas Wolsey -was not destined to the obscurity of a country parish. The same abilities -and address which won him the favour of the marquis were capable of -attracting far higher patrons. - -Leaving his country parish, he seems to have been introduced to Fox, the -Bishop of Winchester, and minister to Henry VII., who introduced him to -the king, who was so much satisfied with him that he made him one of the -royal chaplains. In this position the extraordinary talents and Court -aptitude of Wolsey soon became apparent to the cautious old king. He -employed him in sundry matters requiring secrecy and address. He was soon -advanced to the deanery of Lincoln, and office of the king's almoner. -Wolsey was Henry VII.'s envoy to the Duchess of Savoy when that amorous -monarch had fallen in love with her fortune. - -On the accession of Henry VIII., Wolsey rose still higher in the favour -of the youthful monarch. Henry was but nineteen. Wolsey was forty; yet -not a young gallant about the Court could so completely adapt himself -to the fancy of the young pleasure-loving and power-loving king. In -a very few months he was Henry's bosom friend--the associate in all -his gaieties, the repository of all his secrets, the dispenser of all -his favours, and, in reality, his only confidential minister. Henry -seemed wrapped in admiration at the union of intellect and courtly -accomplishment in the wonderful man. He gave him a grant of all -deodands and forfeitures of felony, and went on continually adding to -these other offices, benefices, and grants. In November, 1510, he was -admitted a member of the Privy Council, and from that time he was really -Prime Minister. Henry could move nowhere without his great friend and -counsellor. He took him with him on his expedition to France in 1513, -there conferred on him the wealthy bishopric of Tournay, and on his -return made him Bishop of Lincoln, and gave him the opulent Abbey of St. -Albans _in commendam_. - -The ascent of Wolsey was now rapid. From the very commencement of his -career at Court no man had been able to stand before him. Bishop Fox -had first recommended his introduction into the Privy Council because, -growing old himself, he perceived that the Earl of Surrey, afterwards -conqueror of Flodden, and Duke of Norfolk, was winning higher favour -with the king than the ancient bishop; because his martial tastes and -more courtly character were more attractive to Henry. Wolsey soon showed -himself so successful that he not only cast Surrey, but his own patron, -into the shade. In everything Wolsey could participate in the monarch's -pursuits and amusements. Henry had already an ambition of literary and -polemic distinction. He had studied the school divinity, and was an -ardent admirer of Thomas Aquinas. Here Wolsey was quite at home; for he -was a widely read man, and would, as a matter of course, soon refresh -himself on any learned topic which was his master's hobby. While he -flattered the young king's vanity, he was ready to contribute to his -whims and his pleasures. - -[Illustration: ARCHBISHOP WARHAM. (_From the Portrait by Holbein._)] - -On the 14th of July, 1514, Leo X. addressed a letter to Henry, informing -him that his ambassador, Cardinal Bambridge, the Archbishop of York, -had died that day; and that, at the request of the deceased, he had -promised not to appoint a successor till he had learnt the pleasure of -his Majesty. This pleasure, there can be no doubt, was already known; -and that the Pope, like every one now, perceiving the power of the -favourite, was ready to conciliate him. The king at once named Wolsey -to his Holiness, and showed that he was quite satisfied that that -nomination would be confirmed by at once placing the archbishopric and -all its revenues in the custody of the favourite. Thus was this great -son of fortune at once possessed of the Archbishopric of York, the -Bishoprics of Tournay and Lincoln, the administration of the Bishoprics -of Worcester, Hereford, and Bath, the possessors of which were Italians, -who resided abroad, and were glad to secure a portion of their revenues -by resigning to the native prelate the rest. Henry even allowed Wolsey, -with the See of York, to unite that of Durham, as he afterwards did that -of Winchester. The Pope, seeing more and more the marvellous influence -of the man, before this year was out made him a cardinal. "For," says -Hall, "when he was once archbishop, he studied day and night how to be -a cardinal, and caused the king and the French king to write to Rome -for him." Leo found a strong opposition amongst the cardinals to this -promotion; but, desirous to oblige both Henry and Francis, he declared -him a cardinal in full consistory, on September 11th. - -My Lord Cardinal Wolsey almost immediately received a fresh favour -from the Pope, who appointed him legate in England. This commission -was originally limited to two years, but Wolsey never relinquished the -office. He obtained from succeeding Popes a continuation of the post, -asking from time to time even fresh powers, till he at length exercised -within the realm almost all the prerogatives of the Pontiff. The only -step above him now was the Papacy itself, and on that dignity he had -already fixed his ambitious eye. - -From the moment that Wolsey saw himself a cardinal and Papal legate, -as well as chief favourite of the king, his ambition displayed itself -without restraint, and we shall have to paint, in his career, one of the -most amazing instances of the pride, power, and grandeur of a subject. -When his cardinal's hat was brought to England, he sent a splendid -deputation to meet the bearer of it at Blackheath, and to conduct him -through London, as if he had been the Pope himself. He gave a reception -of the hat in Westminster Hall, which more resembled a coronation than -the official investiture of a subject and a clergyman. His arrogance and -ostentation disgusted the king's old ministers and courtiers. The Duke of -Norfolk, with all his military glory, found himself completely eclipsed, -and absented himself from Court as much as possible, though he still held -the office of Treasurer. Fox, the venerable Bishop of Winchester, who -had been the means of introducing Wolsey, found himself superseded by -him, and, resigning his office of Keeper of the Privy Seal, retired to -his diocese. On taking his leave, the aged minister was bold enough to -caution Henry not to make any of his subjects greater than himself, to -which the bluff king replied that he knew how to keep his subjects in -order. The resignation of Fox was followed by that of Archbishop Warham, -who delivered the Great Seal on the 22nd of December, 1515, resigning his -office of Chancellor. Henry immediately handed over the seal to Wolsey, -who now stood on the pinnacle of power, almost alone. He was like a great -tree which withered up every other tree which came within its shade, and -even the kingly power itself seemed centred in his hands. For the next -ten years he may be said to have reigned in England, and Henry himself -to have been the nominal, and Wolsey the real king. Well might he, in -addressing a foreign power, say, "_Ego et rex meus_:" "I and my king." - -Whilst the great looked on all this grandeur in obsequious but resentful -silence, the people settled it in their own minds that the wonderful -power of the priest over the fiery nature of the monarch was the effect -of sorcery. But Wolsey was no mean or ordinary man. His talents and his -consummate address were what influenced the king, who was proud of the -magnificence which was at once his creation and his representative; and -Wolsey had a grasp, an expanse, and an elevation in his ambition, which -had something sublime in them. Though he was in the receipt of enormous -revenues, he had no paltry desire to hoard them. He employed them in this -august state and mode of living, which he regarded as reflecting honour -on the monarch whose chief minister he was, and on the Church in which -he held all but the highest rank. He devoted his funds liberally to the -promoting of literature. He sent learned men to foreign courts to copy -valuable manuscripts, which were made accessible by his vast influence. -He built Hampton Court Palace, a residence fit only for a monarch, and -presented it to Henry as a gift worthy such a subject to such a king. He -built a college at Ipswich, his native place, and was in the course of -erecting Christ Church at Oxford when his career was so abruptly closed. -Besides that, he endowed seven lectureships in Oxford. - -The peace which Henry had made with the young monarch of France was not -destined to be of long continuance. Francis I. soon had the misfortune to -offend both Henry and Wolsey, and in their separate interests. James IV. -of Scotland had left by his will the regency of his kingdom to his widow. -The Convention of the States confirmed this arrangement, but on condition -that the queen remained unmarried. James V., her son, of whom she was -to retain the guardianship, was on his father's death an infant of only -a year-and-a-half old. In less than seven months after the death of her -husband, Margaret was delivered of a second son, Alexander, Duke of Ross; -and in less than three months after that she married, in defiance of the -Convention of the States, Douglas, Earl of Angus, a young man of handsome -person, but of an ambitious and headstrong character. This marriage gave -great offence to a large number of the nobility, especially those who had -a leaning to France. They asserted that Henry of England, the queen's -brother, notwithstanding that he had deprived her of her husband, and -notwithstanding her difficult position as the widowed mother of an infant -king, so far from supporting her, took every opportunity to attack her -borders. They therefore recommended that they should recall from France -John, Duke of Albany, the son of Alexander, who had been banished by his -brother James III., and place the regency in his hands. Albany, though of -Scottish origin, was a Frenchman by birth, education, and taste. He had -not a foot of land in Scotland, but in France he had extensive demesnes, -and stood high in favour of the monarch. - -[Illustration: _By permission, from the Painting in the City of London -Corporation Art Gallery._ - -CARDINAL WOLSEY GOING IN PROCESSION TO WESTMINSTER HALL - -_By Sir John Gilbert_, R.A., P.R.W.S.] - -At the head of the party in opposition to the queen was Lord Home, on -whose conduct at Flodden aspersions had been cast. By him and his party -it was that Albany was invited to Scotland. Henry was greatly alarmed at -this proposition, and for some time the fear of a breach induced Francis -I. to restrain Albany from accepting the offer. Yet in May, 1515, Albany -made his appearance in Scotland. He found that kingdom in a condition -which required a firm and determined hand to govern it. The nobility, -always turbulent, and kept in order with difficulty by the strongest -monarchs, were now divided into two factions, for and against the queen -and her party. Lord Home, by whom Albany had chiefly been invited, had -the ill-fortune to be represented to Albany, immediately on his arrival, -as, so far from a friend, one of the most dangerous enemies of legitimate -authority in the kingdom. Home, apprised of this representation, and of -its having taken full effect on the mind of Albany, threw himself into -the party of the queen, and urged her to avoid the danger of allowing -the young princes to fall into the hands of Albany, who was the next -heir to the crown after them, and was, according to his statement, a -most dangerous and ambitious man. Moved by these statements, Margaret -determined to escape to England with her sons, and put them under the -powerful protection of their uncle Henry. - -Henry had himself made similar representations to her, for nothing would -suit his views on the crown of Scotland so well as to have possession -of the infant heirs. But Albany was quickly informed of the queen's -intentions; he besieged the castle of Stirling, where she resided with -the infant princes, compelled her to surrender, and obtaining possession -of the princes, placed them in the keeping of three lords appointed by -Parliament. Margaret herself, accompanied by her husband Angus, and Lord -Home, succeeded in escaping to England, where she was delivered of a -daughter. - -The part which Francis I. evidently had in permitting the passage of -Albany to Scotland, and in supporting his party there, had given great -offence to Henry. He sent strong remonstrances through his ambassador -to Francis, complaining that Albany had been permitted to leave France -and usurp the government of Scotland, contrary to the treaty; and that -by this means the Queen of Scotland, the sister of the King of England, -had been driven from the regency of the kingdom and the guardianship of -her children. Francis I. endeavoured to pacify Henry by assurances that -Albany's conduct had received no countenance from him, but that he had -stolen away at the urgent solicitation of a strong body of nobles in -Scotland. Henry was not convinced, but there was nothing to be obtained -by further remonstrances, for Francis was at this moment at the head of a -powerful army, while Henry, having spent his father's hoards, was not in -a condition for a fresh war without the sanction of Parliament. - -Francis was bent on prosecuting the vain scheme of the conquest of -Milan, which had already cost his predecessors and France so much. He -had entered into alliance with Venice and Genoa, and trusted to be able -easily to overcome Maximilian Sforza the native Prince; Sforza, on his -part, depended upon the support of the Pope and the Swiss. Francis -professed, in the first place, that his design was to chastise the -hostile Swiss. These hardy people had fortified those passes in the Alps -by which they calculated that the French would attempt to pass towards -Milan, but Francis made his way with 60,000 troops over the mountains -in another direction, a large part of his army taking the way to the -left of Mount Genevre, a route never essayed by any army before. The -Swiss mercenaries in the service of Sforza, thus taken by surprise, were -rapidly defeated by the French, and were on the point of capitulation, -when their countrymen, who had been watching to intercept Francis and his -army, seeing that he had stolen a march upon them, descended from their -mountains, 20,000 strong, and came to the relief of their countrymen -under the walls of Milan. At Marignano, Francis won a great victory over -them on September 13th, 1515. - -The effect at the English Court of this brilliant success was to heighten -extremely that discontent with Francis which Henry had shown at the very -moment that the chivalric young French king had set out for Italy. Henry, -who was ambitious of military renown, was stung to the quick by it, and -his envious mood was artfully aggravated by the suggestions of Wolsey. - -On the 12th of November, 1515, Parliament was summoned to meet. Henry -had caught a very discouraging glimpse of the iron at the bottom of his -father's money-chests, and was, therefore, obliged to ask supplies from -his subjects. His application does not appear to have been successful, -and Parliament was therefore dissolved on the 22nd of December, and was -never called again till the 31st of July, 1523, an interval of eight -years. A Parliament which would not grant money was not likely to be a -very favourite instrument with Henry, and this still less so, because it -had involved him in a contention with the Convocation. The Convocation -had dared to claim exemption for the clergy from the jurisdiction of -the secular courts. The clergy in Henry's interest resisted this claim; -it was brought before Parliament, and both the Lords and Commons, as -well as the judges, decided against the Convocation. Henry, who was at -once as fond of power and as bigoted as the Church, found himself in -a most embarrassing dilemma, but declared that he would maintain the -prerogatives of the Crown, and was glad to get rid of the dispute by the -dismissal of Parliament. - -On the 8th of February, 1516, Queen Catherine gave birth to a daughter, -who was named Mary, and who survived to wear the crown of England. In -the previous month died the queen's father, Ferdinand of Spain, one of -the most cunning, grasping, and unprincipled monarchs that ever lived, -but who had by his Machiavelian schemes united Spain into one great -and compact kingdom, and whose sceptre Providence had extended, by the -discovery of Columbus, over new and wonderful worlds. His grandson -Charles, already in possession of the territories of the house of -Burgundy, and heir to those of Austria, succeeded him, as Charles V. -Henry had just entered into a commercial treaty with Charles, as regarded -the Netherlands, and perceiving the vast power and greatness which must -centre in Charles--for on the death of Maximilian, who was now old, he -would also become Emperor of Germany--he was anxious to unite himself -with him in close bonds of interest and intimacy. To this end, he gave -a commission to Wolsey, assisted by the Duke of Norfolk and the Bishop -of Durham, to cement and conclude a league with the Emperor Maximilian -and Charles, the avowed object of which was to combine for the defence -of the Church, and to restrain the unbridled ambition of certain -princes--meaning Francis. - -The sordid Emperor Maximilian, who had so often and so successfully made -his profit out of the vanity of Henry, seeing him so urgent to cultivate -the favour of his grandson Charles, thought it a good opportunity to -draw fresh sums from him. Maximilian was now tottering towards his -grave, but he was not the less desirous to pave his way to it with gold. -In a confidential conversation, therefore, with Sir Robert Wingfield, -the English ambassador at his Court, he delicately dropped a hint -that he was grown weary of the toils and cares attending the Imperial -office. Pursuing the theme, he pretended great admiration for the King -of England; he declared that amongst all the princes of Christendom, -he could see none who was so fitted to succeed him in his high office, -and at the same time become the champion and protector of Holy Church -against its enemies. He therefore proposed to adopt Henry as his son, -for a proper consideration. According to his plan, Henry was to cross -the Channel with an army. From Tournay he was to march to Treves, where -Maximilian was to meet him, and resign the empire to him, with all the -necessary formalities. Then the united army of English and Germans was to -invade France, and, whilst they thus sufficiently occupied the attention -of Francis, Henry and Maximilian, with another division, were to march -upon Italy, crossing the Alps at Coire, to take Milan, and, having -secured that city, make an easy journey to Rome, where Henry was to be -crowned emperor by the Pope. - -In this wild-goose scheme--which equally ignored the fact that Charles -V. was the grandson of Maximilian, heir of his kingdom, and therefore -neither by the natural affection of the emperor, nor by the will of -his subjects, likely to be set aside for a King of England; and the -difficulty, the impossibility almost, of the accomplishment of the -enterprise by two such monarchs as Maximilian and Henry--only one thing -was palpable, that Maximilian would give his blessing to the stipulated -son for these impossible honours, and then would as quickly find a reason -for abandoning the extravagant scheme as he had already done that of -taking Milan. Yet it is certain that, for the moment, it seized on the -imagination of Henry, and he despatched the Earl of Worcester and Dr. -Tunstall, afterwards Bishop of Durham, to the Imperial Court, to settle -the conditions of this notable scheme. Tunstall, who was not only an -accomplished scholar, but a solid and shrewd thinker, no sooner reached -the Court of Maximilian than he saw at a glance the hollowness of the -plot and of the Imperial plotter. He, as well as Dr. Richard Pace, the -ambassador at Maximilian's Court, quickly and honestly informed Henry -that it was a mere scheme to get money. - -[Illustration: HAMPTON COURT PALACE.] - -These honest and patriotic statements perfectly unmasked the wily old -Maximilian, and Henry escaped the snare. Francis I., having also now -secured the duchy of Milan, set himself to conciliate two persons whose -amity was necessary to his future peace and security. These were the -Pope and Henry of England. The balance of power on the Continent, it was -clear, would lie between Francis and Charles V., the King of Spain. On -the death of Maximilian, Charles would be ruler of Austria, and, in all -probability, Emperor of Germany. It would be quite enough for Francis -to contend with the interests of Charles, whose dominions would then -stretch from Austria, with the Imperial power of Germany, through the -Netherlands to France, and reappear on the other boundary of France, in -Spain, without having that gigantic dominion backed by the co-operation -of England. Francis had seen with alarm the cultivation of friendship -recently between these two formidable neighbours. To counteract these -influences, the French king whilst in Italy had an interview with the -Pope at Bologna, where he so won upon his regard that the Pontiff agreed -to drop all opposition to the possession of Milan by the French. - -Having secured himself in this quarter, Francis returned to France, and -knowing well that the only way to the good graces of Henry was through -the all-powerful Cardinal Wolsey, he caused his ambassador in England -to endeavour to win the favour of the great minister. This was not to -be done otherwise than by substantial contributions to his avarice, and -promises of service in that greatest project of Wolsey's ambition, the -succession to the Popedom. Wolsey was at this time in the possession of -the most extraordinary power in England. His word was law with both king -and subject. To him all men bowed down, and while he conferred favours -with regal hand, he did not forget those who had offended him in the days -of his littleness. Not only English subjects, but foreign monarchs sought -his favour with equal anxiety. The young King of Spain, to secure him to -his views, and knowing his grudge against the King of France, conferred -on him a pension of 3,000 livres a year, styling him, in the written -grant, "his most dear and especial friend." - -Thus were the kings of Spain and France paying humble homage to this -proud churchman and absolute minister of England at the same moment. -But Francis felt that he must outbid the King of Spain, and he resolved -to do it. He commenced, then, by reminding him how sincerely he had -rejoiced at his elevation to the cardinalate, and how greatly he -desired the continuance and increase of their friendship, and promised -him whatever it was in his power to do for him. These were mighty and -significant words for the man who could signally aid him in his designs -on the Popedom, and who could settle all difficulties and doubts about -the bishopric of Tournay, hitherto such a stumbling-block between them. -The letters of Francis were spread with the most skilful, if not the -most delicate flatteries; he called him his lord, his father, and his -guardian, told him he regarded his counsels as oracles; and whilst they -increased the vanity of the cardinal most profusely, he accompanied his -flatteries by presents of many extremely valuable and curious things. - -Being assured by Villeroi, his resident ambassador at London, that the -cardinal lent a willing ear to all these things, Francis instructed the -ambassador to enter at once into private negotiation with Wolsey for the -restoration of Tournay, and an alliance between the two crowns. This -alliance was to be cemented by the affiancing of Henry's daughter, Mary, -then about a year-and-a-half old, to the infant dauphin of France, but -recently born! The price which Wolsey was to receive for these services -being satisfactorily settled between himself and Francis, the great -minister broke the matter to his master in a manner which marks the -genius of the man, and his profound knowledge of Henry's character. He -presented some of the superb articles which Francis had sent him to the -king, saying, "With these things hath the King of France attempted to -corrupt me. Many servants would have concealed this from their masters, -but I am resolved to deal openly with your grace on all occasions. This -attempt, however," added he, "to corrupt a servant is a certain proof -of his sincere desire for the friendship of the master." Oh! faithful -servant! Oh! open and incorruptible man! Henry's vanity was so flattered -that he took in every word, and looked on himself as so much the greater -prince to have a minister thus admired and courted by the most powerful -monarchs. - -The way to negotiation was now entirely open. Francis appointed William -Gouffier, Lord of Bonivet, Admiral of France; Stephen Ponchier, Bishop -of Paris; Sir Francis de Rupecavarde and Sir Nicholas de Neuville his -plenipotentiaries. They set out with a splendid train of the greatest -lords and ladies of France, attended by a retinue of 1,200 officers -and servants. Francis knew that the way to ensure Henry's favourable -attention was to compliment him by the pomp and splendour of his embassy. -The French plenipotentiaries were introduced to Henry at Greenwich, -on the 22nd of September, 1518, and Wolsey was appointed to conduct -the business on the part of the King of England. When they went to -business the ambassadors of Francis prepared the way for the greater -matters by producing a grant, already prepared, and, therefore, clearly -agreed upon beforehand, which they presented to Wolsey, securing him a -pension of 12,000 livres a year, in compensation for the cession of the -bishopric of Tournay. This was a direct and palpable bribe; but there -was no troublesome and meddlesome Opposition in the House of Commons in -those days to demand the production of papers, and the impeachment of -corrupt ministers. With such a beginning the terms of treaty were soon -settled. They embraced four articles:--A general contract of peace and -amity betwixt the two kings and their successors, _for ever_; a treaty -of marriage betwixt the two little babies, the Dauphin and Mary Tudor; -the restitution of Tournay to France for 600,000 crowns; and, lastly, an -agreement for a personal interview between the two monarchs, which was to -take place on neutral ground between Calais and Ardres, before the last -day of July, 1519. - -But while Wolsey was deeply occupied in his plans and preparations for -the royal meeting, an event occurred which for a time arrested the -attention of Europe. This was the death of the Emperor Maximilian, and -the vacancy in the Imperial office. Francis I. and Charles of Spain -were the two candidates for its occupation, and the rivalry of these two -monarchs seems to have again awakened in Henry the same wish, though -the plain statements of Bishop Tunstall had for a time suppressed it. -He despatched a man of great learning, Dr. Richard Pace, to Germany, to -see whether there were in reality any chance for him. The reports of -Pace soon extinguished all hope of such event, and Henry, with a strange -duplicity, then sent off his "sincere longings for success" to both of -the rival candidates, Francis and Charles! - -Francis declared to Henry's ambassador, Sir Thomas Boleyn, that he would -spend three millions of gold, but he would win the Imperial crown; but -though the German electors were notoriously corrupt, and ready to hold -out plausible pretences to secure as much of any one's money as they -could, from the outset there could be no question as to who would prove -the successful candidate. The first and indispensable requisite for -election was, that the candidate must be a native of Germany, and subject -of the Empire, neither of which Francis was, and both of which Charles -was. Charles was not only grandson of Maximilian, and his successor to -the throne of Austria, and therefore of a German royal house, but he was -sovereign of the Netherlands, which were included in the universal German -empire. - -Even where Francis placed his great strength--the power of bribing the -corrupt German electors, the petty princes of Germany, for the _people_ -had no voice in the matter--Charles was infinitely beyond him in the -power of bribery. He was now monarch of Spain, of the Netherlands, -of Naples and Sicily, of the Indies, and of the gold regions of the -newly-discovered America. Nor was Francis at all a match for Charles in -the other power which usually determines so much in these contests--that -of intrigue. Francis was open, generous, and ardent; Charles cool, -cautious, and, though young, surrounded by ministers educated in the -school of the crafty Ferdinand and the able Ximenes to every artifice -of diplomatic cunning. Still more, the vulpine Maximilian, at the very -time that he was attempting to wheedle Henry of England out of his money, -on pretence of securing the Imperial dignity for him, had paved the way -for his own grandson, by assiduous exertions and promises amongst the -electors--promises which Charles was amply able to fulfil. Accordingly, -after a lavish distribution of both French and Spanish gold amongst the -elector-princes of Germany, Charles was declared emperor on the 28th of -June, 1519. Francis, though he professed to carry off his disappointment -with all the gaiety of a Frenchman, was deeply and lastingly chagrined by -the event; and though he and Charles must, under any circumstances, have -been rivals for the place of supremacy on the Continent of Europe, there -is no doubt that this circumstance struck much deeper the feeling which -led to that gigantic struggle between them, which, during their lives, -kept Europe in a constant state of warfare and agitation. - -Both Charles and Francis were intensely anxious to secure the preference -of Henry, because his weight thrown into either balance must give it a -dangerous preponderance. Both, therefore, paid assiduous court to him, -and still more, though covertly, to his all-powerful minister, Wolsey. -Francis, aware of the impulsive temperament of Henry, prayed for an early -fulfilment of the visit agreed upon of Henry to France. It was decided -that the interview should take place in May. The news of this immediately -excited the jealousy of Charles, and his ambassadors in London expressed -great dissatisfaction at the proposal. Wolsey found he had a difficult -part to play, for he had great expectations from both monarchs, and he -took care to make such representations to each prince in private, as to -persuade him that the real affection of England lay towards him, the -public favour shown to the rival monarch being only a matter of political -expedience. When the Spanish ambassadors found they could not put off -the intended interview, they proposed a visit of their master to the -King of England previously, on his way from Spain to Germany. This was -secretly arranged with the cardinal, but was to be made to appear quite -an unpremeditated occurrence. - -Accordingly, before the king set out for Calais, Charles, according to -the secret treaty with Wolsey, sent that minister a grant under his privy -seal, from the revenue of the two bishoprics of Badajoz and Placentia, -of 7,000 ducats. Henry set forward from London to Canterbury, on his -way towards Dover and Calais, attended by his queen and court, with a -surprising degree of splendour. Whilst lying there, he was surprised, as -it was made to appear, by the news that the emperor had been induced by -his regard for the king to turn aside on his voyage towards his German -dominions, and had anchored in the port of Hythe, on the 26th of May, -1520. As soon as this news reached Henry, he despatched Wolsey to receive -the emperor and conduct him to the castle of Dover, and Henry himself -set out and rode by torchlight to Dover, where he arrived in the middle -of the night. It must have been a hospitably inconvenient visit at that -hour, for Charles, fatigued by his voyage, had gone to bed, and was awoke -from a sound sleep by the noise and bustle of the king's arrival. He -arose, however, and met Henry at the top of the stairs, where the two -monarchs embraced, and Henry bade his august relative welcome. The next -day, being Whitsunday, they went together to Canterbury, the king riding -with the emperor on his right hand, the Earl of Derby carrying before -them the sword of State. - -From the cathedral the emperor was conducted by his royal host to the -palace of the archbishop, where he was for the time quartered. For three -days the archiepiscopal palace was a scene of the gayest festivities; -nothing was omitted by Henry to do honour to his august relative; and -nothing on the part of Charles to win upon Henry, and detach him from the -interests of France. Nor the less assiduously did the politic emperor -exert himself to secure the services of Wolsey. He saw that ambition was -the great passion of the cardinal, and he adroitly infused into his mind -the hope of reaching the Popedom through his influence and assistance. -Nothing could bind Wolsey like this fascinating anticipation. Leo X. -was a much younger man than himself; but this did not seem to occur to -the sanguine spirit of the cardinal, for "all men think all men mortal -but themselves;" whilst to Charles the circumstance made his promise -peculiarly easy, as he could scarcely expect to be called upon to fulfil -it. - -On the fourth day Charles embarked at Sandwich for the Netherlands, -less anxious regarding the approaching interview of Henry and Francis, -for he had made an ardent impression on the king, and had put a strong -hook into the nose of his great leviathan--the hope of the triple crown. -Simultaneously with the departure of Charles, Henry, his queen and court, -embarked at Dover for Calais; and on the 4th of June, 1520, Henry, with -his queen, the Queen Dowager of France, and all his court, rode on to -Guines, where 2,000 workmen, most of them clever artificers from Holland -and Flanders, had been busily engaged for several months in erecting a -palace of wood for their reception. - -The meeting-place was called, from the splendour of the retinues of the -two monarchs, the "Field of the Cloth of Gold," but it did little to -cement the alliance between England and France. - -On the 25th of June the English Court returned to Calais; half the -followers of the nobles were sent home, and then preparations were made -for visiting the emperor at Gravelines, and receiving a visit from him -at Calais. By the 10th of July all was ready, and Henry set out with a -splendid retinue. He was met on the way, and conducted into Gravelines by -Charles, with every circumstance of honour and display. Charles, whose -object was avowedly to efface any impression which Francis and the French -might have made on the mind of Henry at the late interview, had given -orders to receive the English with every demonstration of friendship and -hospitality, and his orders were so well executed that the English were -enchanted with their visit. - -On the departure of Charles, Henry and his court embarked for Dover, -returning proud of his sham prowess and mock battles, and of all his -finery, but both himself and his followers loaded with a fearful amount -of debt for this useless and hypocritical display. When the nobles -and gentlemen got home, and began to reflect coolly on the heavy -responsibilities they had incurred for their late showy but worthless -follies, they could not help grumbling amongst themselves, and even -blaming Wolsey, as loudly as they dared, as being at the bottom of the -whole affair. One amongst them was neither nice nor cautious in his -expressions of chagrin at the ruinous and foolish expense incurred, and -denounced the proud cardinal's ambition as the cause of it all. This was -the Duke of Buckingham. He was executed in 1521 on the absurd charge of -having intercourse with astrologers. - -The various causes of antipathy between Francis I. and Charles V., which -had been long fomenting, now reached that degree of activity when they -must burst all restraint. War was inevitable. The first breach was made -by Francis. At this crisis Charles appealed to Henry to act as mediator, -according to the provisions of the treaty of 1518. Henry at once accepted -the office, and entered upon it with high professions of impartiality and -of his sincere desire to promote justice and amity, but really with about -the same amount of sincerity as was displayed by each of the contending -parties. Francis had certainly been the aggressor, and Charles, having -intercepted some of his letters, had already convinced Henry, to whom he -had shown them, that the invasion of both Spain and Flanders was planned -in the French cabinet. Henry's mind, therefore, was already made up -before he assumed the duty of deciding; and Charles, from being aware of -this, proposed his arbitration. Henry, moreover, was anxious to invade -France on his own account, spite of treaties and the dallyings of the -Field of the Cloth of Gold, but he had not yet the funds necessary. With -these feelings and secrets in his own heart, Henry opened his proposal -of arbitration to Francis by declarations of the extraordinary affection -which he had contracted for him at the late interview. - -[Illustration: HENRY VIII. (_After the Portrait by Holbein._)] - -There was no alternative for the French king but to acquiesce in the -proposal; the place of negotiations was appointed to be Calais, and, -of course, Wolsey was named as the only man able and fitting to decide -between two such great monarchs--Wolsey, who was bound hand and foot to -the emperor by the hope of the Popedom. It was a clear case that Francis -must be victimised, or the negotiation must prove abortive. Wolsey set -out with something more than regal state to decide between the kings. -In addition to his dignity of Papal legate _a latere_, he received the -extraordinary powers of creating fifty counts-palatine, fifty knights, -fifty chaplains, and fifty notaries; of legitimising bastards, and -conferring the degree of doctor in medicine, law, and divinity. By -another bull, he was empowered to grant licences to such as he thought -proper to read the heretical works of Martin Luther, in order that some -able man, having read them, might refute them. This was to pave the -way for a royal champion of the Catholic Church against Luther and the -devil, and that such a champion was already at work we shall shortly have -occasion to show. Such were the pomp and splendour of the cardinal, that -when he continued his journey into the Netherlands, with his troops of -gentlemen attending him, clad in scarlet coats, with borders of velvet -of a full hand's breadth, and with massive gold chains: when they saw -him served on the knee by these attendants, and expending money with -the most marvellous profusion, Christian, King of Denmark, and other -princes then at the Court of the Emperor at Bruges, were overwhelmed with -astonishment, for such slavish homage was not known in Germany. - -Wolsey landed at Calais on the 2nd of July, 1521, and was received -with great reverence. The ambassadors of the emperor had taken care to -be there first, that they might secretly settle with Wolsey all the -points to be insisted on. The French embassy arrived the next day, and -the discussions were at once entered upon with all that air of solemn -impartiality and careful weighing of propositions which such conferences -assume, when the real points at issue have been determined upon privately -beforehand by the parties who mean to carry out their own views. The -French plenipotentiaries alleged that the emperor had broken the treaty -of Noyon of 1516, by retaining possession of Navarre, and by neglecting -to do homage for Flanders and Artois, fiefs of the French crown. On -the other hand, the Imperial representatives retorted on the French -the breach of the treaty of Noyon, and denounced in strong terms the -late invasion of Spain and the clandestine support given to the Duke of -Bouillon. The cardinal laboured to bring the fiery litigants to terms, -but the demands of the emperor were purposely pitched so high that it was -impossible. The differences became only the more inflamed; and on the -Imperial chancellor, Gattinara, declaring that he could not concede a -single demand made by his master, and that he came there to obtain them -through the aid of the King of England, who was bound to afford it by the -late treaty, Wolsey said that there, of necessity, his endeavours must -end, unless the emperor could be induced to modify his expectations; and -that, as his ambassador had no power to grant such modification, rather -than all hope of accommodation should fail, he would himself take the -trouble to make a journey to the Imperial Court, and endeavour to procure -better terms. Nothing could appear more disinterested on the part of -the cardinal, but the French ambassadors were struck with consternation -at the proposal. They were too well aware of the cardinal's leaning -towards Charles; they did not forget the coquetting of the English and -the emperor both before and after the meeting at the Field of the Cloth -of Gold; and they opposed this proposal of Wolsey with all their power. -But their opposition was useless. There can be no doubt that the prime -object of Wolsey in his embassy was to make this visit to Charles for his -own purpose, and that it had been agreed upon between himself and Charles -before he left London. In vain the French protested that such a visit, -made by the umpire in the midst of the conference to one of the parties -concerned, was contrary to all ideas of the impartiality essential to a -mediator; and they declared that, if the thing was persisted in, they -would break off the negotiation and retire. But Wolsey told them that if -they did not remain at Calais till his return, he would pronounce them in -the wrong, as the real aggressors in the war, and the enemies to peace -and to the King of England. There was nothing for it but to submit. - -The cardinal set out on his progress to Bruges on the 12th of August, -attended by the Imperial ambassadors and a splendid retinue of prelates, -nobles, knights, and gentlemen, amounting altogether to 400 horsemen. -The emperor met him a mile out of Bruges, and conducted him into the -city in a kind of triumph. Thirteen days--a greater number than had been -occupied at Calais--were spent in the pretended conferences for reducing -the emperor's demands on France, but in reality in strengthening Wolsey's -interest with Charles for the Popedom, and in settling the actual -terms of a treaty between Charles, the Pope, and the King of England -for a war against France. So deep was the hypocrisy of these parties, -that before Wolsey had quitted the shores of England he had received a -commission from Henry investing him with full authority to make a treaty -of confederacy with the Pope, the emperor, the King of France, or any -other potentate, offensive or defensive, which the king bound himself -to ratify; the words "King of France, or other king, prince, or state," -being clearly inserted to cover with an air of generality the particular -design. The proposed marriage between the Dauphin and the Princess Mary -was secretly determined to be set aside, and a marriage between Charles -and that princess was agreed upon; and, moreover, it was settled that -Charles should pay another visit to England on his voyage to Spain. -Writing from Bruges to Henry, Wolsey told him all this, and added that -it was to be kept a profound secret till Charles came to England, so -that, adds Wolsey, "convenient time may be had to put yourself in good -readiness for war." - -After all this scandalous treachery--called in State language -diplomacy--Wolsey returned to Calais, and resumed the conferences, as -if he were the most honest man in the world, and was serving two kings -about as honest as himself. He proposed to the plenipotentiaries a plan -of a pacification, the conditions of which he knew the French would never -accept. All this time hostilities were going on between Francis and the -emperor. The emperor had taken Mouzon and laid siege to Mezieres, and -Francis, advancing, raised the siege, but was checked in his further -pursuit of the enemy by the Count of Nassau. At this crisis Wolsey -interposed, insisting that the belligerents should lay down their arms, -and abide the award of King Henry; but this proposal was by no means -likely to be met with favour on the part of the French, after what had -been going on at Bruges, and therefore Wolsey pronounced that Francis was -the aggressor, and that Henry was bound by the treaty to aid the emperor. - -This was but a very thin varnish for the proceedings which immediately -took place at Calais, and revealed the result of the interview at Bruges, -in an avowed treaty between the Pope, the emperor, and Henry, by which -they arranged--in order to promote an intended demonstration against the -Turks, and to restrain the ambition of Francis--that the three combined -powers should, in the spring of 1523, invade France simultaneously from -as many different quarters; that, if Francis would not conclude a peace -with the emperor on the arrival of Charles in England, Henry should -declare war against France, and should break off the proposed marriage -between the Dauphin and the Princess Mary. - -In the meantime, the united forces of the Pope and Charles had prevailed -in Italy, and expelled the French from Milan; the emperor had made -himself master of Tournay, for which Francis had lately paid so heavy -a price, and all the advantages that the French could boast of in -the campaign to balance these losses were the capture of the little -fortresses of Hesdin and Bouchain. Wolsey landed at Dover on the 27th -of November, after the discharge of these important functions, having -laid the foundation of much trouble to Europe, by destroying the balance -of power between France, the Empire, and Spain, which it was the real -interest of Henry to have maintained; and having equally inconvenienced -the Government at home by carrying the Great Seal with him, so that those -who had any business with it were obliged to go over to Calais, and so -that there could be no nomination of sheriffs that year. But his power -at this period was unlimited, and nothing could open Henry's eyes to his -mischievous and inflated pride--not even his placing himself wholly on -a par with the king in the treaty just signed, when he made himself a -joint-guarantee, as if he had been a crowned head. - -Wolsey had laboured assiduously and unscrupulously for Charles V. in -furtherance of his own ambitious views. What convulsions disorganised -Europe, what nations suffered or triumphed, troubled him not, so long -as he could pave the way to the Papal chair. The time which was to test -the gratitude of Charles came much sooner than any one had anticipated. -Leo X., who was in the prime of life, elated with the expulsion of the -French from Italy, was occupied in celebrating the triumph with every -kind of public rejoicing. The moment he heard of the fall of Milan he -ordered a _Te Deum_, and set off from his villa of Magliana to Rome, -which he entered in triumph; but that very night he was seized with a -sudden illness, and on the 1st of December, but a few days afterwards, -it was announced that he was dead, at the age of only forty-six. Strong -suspicions of poison were entertained, and it was believed that it had -been administered by his favourite valet, Bernabo Malaspina, who was -supposed to have been bribed to it by the French party. - -The news of Leo's death travelled with speed to England, and Wolsey, who, -amid all his secret exertions to attain the Papal tiara, had declared -with mock humility that he was too unworthy for so great and sacred a -station, now threw off his garb of indifference, and despatched Dr. Pace -to Rome, with the utmost celerity, to promote his election; and he sent -to put the emperor in mind of his promises. On the 27th of December the -conclave commenced its sittings. Another of the Medici family, Cardinal -Giulio, appeared to have the majority of votes, but for twenty-three days -the election remained undecided. The French cardinals opposed Giulio with -all the persevering virulence of enemies smarting under national defeat. -Numbers of others were opposed to electing a second member of the same -family, and Giulio, growing impatient of the stormy and interminable -debates which kept him from attending to pressing affairs out of doors, -suddenly nominated Cardinal Adrian, a Belgian. This extraordinary stroke -was supposed to be intended merely to prolong the time, till Giulio -could throw more force into his own party; but Cardinal Cajetan, a -man of great art and eloquence, who knew and admired the writings of -Adrian, and had probably suggested his name to Giulio, advocated his -election with such persuasive power, that Adrian, though a foreigner, -and personally unknown, was carried almost by acclamation. And thus, as -Lingard observes, within nine years from the time when Julius drove the -barbarians out of Italy, a barbarian was seated as his successor on the -Papal throne. - -The cardinals had no sooner elected the new Pope than they appeared to -wake from a dream, and wondered at their own work. The act appeared to be -one of those sudden impulses which seize bodies of people in a condition -of great and prolonged excitement, and they declared that it must have -been the inspiration of the Holy Ghost. As for Wolsey, it does not appear -that his sincere friend the emperor, who had protested that he would have -him elected if it were at the head of his army, moved a finger in his -behalf. The proud cardinal, however, was obliged to swallow his chagrin, -and wait for the next change, Adrian being already an old man; and Dr. -Pace remained at Rome to congratulate the new Pontiff on his arrival, and -solicit a renewal of his legatine authority. - -Francis at this crisis made strenuous efforts to regain the friendship of -Henry. Probably he thought that the disappointment of Wolsey might cool -his friendship for the emperor, or, which was the same thing, diminish -his confidence in his promises; whilst Charles was very well aware that -Wolsey was much more serviceable to him as minister of England than he -could be or would be as Pope. Francis attacked Henry on his weakest -side--his vanity. He heaped compliments upon him, and entreated that if -he could not be his fast and avowed friend, he would, at least, abstain -from being his enemy. To give force to his flatteries, he held out hopes -of increasing his annual payments to England; and when that did not -produce the due effect, he stopped the disbursements of that which he had -been wont to remit. Finding that even this did not influence Henry, who -was kept steady by Wolsey, he laid an embargo on the English shipping in -his ports, and seized the property of the English merchants. - -At this act of decided hostility Henry was transported with one of those -fits of rage which became habitual in after years. As if he had not long -been plotting against Francis, and preparing to make war upon him--as -if he had not coolly and even insolently repulsed all his advances and -offers of advantage and alliance--he regarded Francis as an aggressor -without any cause, ordered the French ambassador to be confined to his -house, all Frenchmen in London to be arrested, and despatched an envoy to -Paris with a mortal defiance. What particularly exasperated Henry was the -news that a whole fleet, loaded with wine, had been seized at Bordeaux, -and the merchants and seamen thrown into prison. The English were ordered -to make reprisals, and this was the actual state of things when Sir -Thomas Cheney, his ambassador, announced by dispatch that the envoy had -declared war on the 21st of May at Lyons; to which the king had replied, -"_I_ looked for this a great while ago; for, since the cardinal was at -Bruges, I looked for nothing else." The wily manoeuvres of Wolsey had -deceived nobody. - -On the 26th of May, only five days after the declaration of war with -France, the Emperor Charles V. landed at Dover. The passion of Henry had -precipitated the outbreak of hostilities, for it was not intended that -war should be declared till Charles was on the eve of departure from -England, so that he might continue his voyage in safety to Spain. The -king, however, received his illustrious guest with as much gaiety and -splendour as if nothing but peace were in prospect. Wolsey waited on -Charles at the landing-place, and, after embracing him, led him by the -arm to the castle, where Henry soon welcomed him with great cordiality. -Charles calculated much, in the approaching war, on the fleet of Henry; -and, to show him its extent and equipment, Henry conducted him to the -Downs, and led him over all his ships, especially his great ship, _Henri, -Grace a Dieu_, which was considered one of the wonders of the world. He -then conducted his Imperial guest by easy journeys to Greenwich, where -the Court was then residing, and introduced him to his aunt, the queen, -and her infant daughter, whom it was arranged that he should marry. - -[Illustration: GREAT SHIP OF HENRY VIII. (_From the Drawing by Holbein._)] - -On the 6th of June Henry conducted the emperor with great state into -London, where the inhabitants received him with a variety of shows and -pageants. Sir Thomas More spoke the emperor's welcome in a learned -oration, and there was a profusion of Latin verses in honour of the -occasion. The two monarchs feasted, hunted, and rode at tournaments, -whilst their ministers were busily employed in carrying out the terms -agreed upon at Bruges into a treaty, which was signed on the 19th at -Windsor. The subject of this treaty was the marriage of Charles with -the infant Princess Mary, which the two monarchs bound themselves to -see completed, under a penalty, in case of breach of engagement, of -400,000 crowns. Charles also engaged to indemnify Henry for the sums of -money due to him from Francis; and, what was most extraordinary, both -monarchs bound themselves to appear before Cardinal Wolsey in case of -any dispute, and submit absolutely to his decision, thus making a subject -the arbiter of monarchs. - -The emperor also engaged to indemnify the cardinal for _his_ losses -in breaking with Francis, by a grant of 9,000 crowns annually; thus -paying this proud priest for being the author of the war. Yet, after -all his courting and flattering of Wolsey, after again assuring him of -his determination to set him in the Papal chair, it is certain that he -hated the man, and used him only as a tool. His aunt, Queen Catherine, -had deeply resented the cardinal's pursuit of the Duke of Buckingham to -death, for whom she entertained a high regard; and Wolsey was aware of -it, and never forgave her. It was, probably, in reply to Catherine's -relation of this tragic event that Charles, whilst on this visit, was -overheard to say, "Then the butcher's dog has pulled down the fairest -buck in Christendom"--a witticism which flew all over the Court, and was -not forgotten by the vindictive Wolsey. - -Having agreed that each was to bring 40,000 men into the field, that -France was to be attacked simultaneously on the north and the south, and -that Charles was to co-operate with the English for the re-conquest of -Guienne, the emperor embarked on the 6th of July, and pursued his voyage -to Spain. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -THE REIGN OF HENRY VIII. (_continued_). - - The War with France--The Earl of Surrey Invades that Country--More - elected Speaker--Henry and Parliament--Revolt of the Duke of - Bourbon--Pope Adrian VI. dies--Clement VII. elected--Francis - I. taken Prisoner at the Battle of Pavia--Wolsey grows - unpopular--Change of Feeling at the English Court--Treaty with - France--Francis I. regains his Liberty--Italian League, including - France and England, against the Emperor--Fall of the Duke of - Bourbon at the Siege of Rome--Sacking of Rome, and Capture of the - Pope--Appearance of Luther--Henry writes against him--Is styled - by the Pope "Defender of the Faith"--Anne Boleyn--Henry applies - to the Pope for a Divorce from the Queen--The Pope's Dilemma--War - declared against Spain--Cardinal Campeggio arrives in England to - decide the Legality of Henry's Marriage with Catherine--Trial of - the Queen--Henry's Discontent with Wolsey--Fall of Wolsey--His - Banishment from Court, and Death--Cranmer's Advice regarding the - Divorce--Cromwell cuts the Gordian Knot--Dismay of the Clergy--The - King declared Head of the Church of England--The King's Marriage - with Anne Boleyn--Cranmer made Archbishop--The Pope Reverses the - Divorce--Separation of England from Rome. - - -On the departure of the emperor, Henry commanded the Earl of Surrey to -scour the Channel before him; and Charles, out of compliment to Henry, -named Surrey, who was Lord Admiral of England, also admiral of his own -fleet of one hundred and eighty sail. Surrey, having seen Charles safely -landed in Spain, returned along the coast of France, ravaging it on all -accessible points. He landed at Cherbourg, in Normandy, burnt the town -of Morlaix, in Brittany, and many other maritime villages, houses of -the people, and castles of the aristocracy. This was preparatory to the -great invasion which Henry contemplated. For this purpose he had recalled -Surrey from Ireland, where he had conducted himself with much ability, -repressed the disorders of the natives, and won the esteem of the chief -population. Henry now gave him the command of the army destined to invade -France. That army, Henry boasted, should consist of forty thousand men; -but the question was, whence the money was to come for its assembly and -payment. The Field of the Cloth of Gold, and the entertainment of the -emperor, following on many other extravagances, had entirely dissipated -the treasures which his father had left him; and, as he was now -endeavouring to rule without a parliament, he was compelled to resort to -those unconstitutional measures of forced loans, which had always covered -with odium the monarchs who used them. - -In this unpopular attempt Wolsey was his instrument, and the work he -had now to do ensured him a plentiful growth of dislike. In the first -place, he exacted a loan of L20,000 from the merchants of London, and -scarcely had he obtained possession of it, when he summoned the leading -citizens before him, and demanded fresh advances. On the 20th of August, -1522, the lord mayor, aldermen, and the most substantial merchants -of London appeared before him, to whom he announced that the king had -sent commissioners into the whole realm, to inquire into the actual -rents of the lands in each township, what were the names of the owners -and occupiers, and what was the value of each man's movable property. -According to his account, a new Domesday Book was in preparation; and -he, moreover, informed them that his Majesty had ordered a muster in the -maritime counties of all the men betwixt the ages of sixteen and sixty, -to enrol their names, and the names of the lords of whom they held their -lands. - -The deputation returned to the city in deep dejection, and made out their -lists of such as were merchants and dealers and reputed men of substance. -These men, then, themselves waited on the cardinal, and besought him not -to put them to their oath as to their real amount of property, for that -it was difficult for themselves to make a correct estimate of it, and -that, in fact, many an honest man's credit was more than his substance. -Wolsey replied that he "dare swear that the substance of London was -no less than two millions of gold." From this it was obvious that the -cardinal expected from them at least L200,000. But the citizens replied, -"Would to God the city were so rich, but it is sore afflicted by the -occupying of strangers!" The cardinal promised to see that that should be -rectified, and that their loans should be repaid them out of the first -subsidy voted by Parliament, which it was intended to call. But the -victims did not appear much cheered by these assurances: they knew that -Henry was not fond of calling parliaments. If he meant it, why borrow -money when it could be voted? And they went away, saying that for the -last loan some lent a fifth, and now to ask a tenth again was too much. - -By these means, however, money enough was raised to put an army in -motion. About the middle of August the Earl of Surrey landed at Calais -with 12,000 men, paid by the king, and 3,000 volunteers. There he was -joined by a body of German, Flemish, and Spanish horse, making a total -force of 16,000. At the head of these he advanced through Picardy and -Artois, desolating the country as he went, burning the defenceless towns, -the castles of the nobles, and the huts of the peasants, and destroying -whatever they could not carry off as spoil. They left the fortified -cities, making no attempt except against Hesdin, which they soon quitted, -finding their artillery not of weight enough. The French, under the -Duke de Vendome, avoided a general engagement, but they harassed the -outskirts of the army, cut off the supplies, and occasionally a number -of stragglers. The weather was the great ally of the French, for it was -extremely rainy and cold, and occasioned dysentery to break out in the -camp. On the appearance of this fatal foe, the foreign troops hastily -retired into Bethune, and Surrey soon after led back his main body to -Calais, having done the French much mischief, but obtained no single -advantage except the seizure of a quantity of booty. - -Francis, meantime, had not only kept his army hovering in front of the -invaders, but he had sent active emissaries to rouse the Irish and Scots, -and thus to distract the attention of the English. In Ireland he turned -his attention to the Earl of Desmond, who still maintained in a great -measure his independence of the English Crown. Francis offered him an -annual pension, on condition that he should take up arms in Ireland -against the English power, and the earl, moreover, seduced by the promise -that a French army would be sent over, engaged to join it, and never -to lay down his arms till he had won for himself a strong dominion in -the island, and the remainder for Richard de la Pole, the heir of the -house of York. But Francis, having obtained his object by the very alarm -created by this negotiation, never sent any troops, never paid the Earl -of Desmond any annuity, and the unfortunate chieftain was left to pay the -penalty of his rash credulity in the vengeance of the English Government. - -In Scotland affairs assumed a more formidable aspect. After the return of -Margaret, the queen-mother, from England, she quarrelled with her weak -but headstrong husband, the Earl of Angus, and in 1521 sent and invited -her old antagonist, the Duke of Albany, to return to Scotland from -France, promising to support him at the head of the Government. Nothing -could suit the views of France better than this, for it was already -menaced by Henry of England. Albany landed at Gairloch on the 19th of -November, and thence hastened to the queen at Stirling. This strange, -bold, and dissimulating woman, who had all the imperiousness and the -sensuality of a Tudor, received him with open arms, and entered at once -on such terms of familiarity with him as scandalised all Scotland. - -Her husband and his relatives, the Douglases, being summoned by the -regent before Parliament, fled towards the Borders, and took refuge in -the kirk of Steyle. By means of the celebrated Gawin Douglas, the Bishop -of Dunkeld, and one of Scotland's finest poets, who was the uncle of -Angus, the fugitives opened a communication with Henry of England. The -bishop represented the conduct of Margaret as of the most flagitious -kind, attributing to her the design of marrying Albany, and setting aside -her own son. It was even asserted, and Lord Dacre, warden of the Western -Marches, joined in the assertion, that the life of the young king was -in danger, and as much from his own mother as from Albany. There is no -question that the conduct of Margaret was most disgraceful; and though -Albany was anxious to establish quietness and order in Scotland, and to -obtain peace with England, the emissaries of Henry took care to foment -strife between the nobles and the Government. Lord Dacre was--according -to the system introduced by Henry VII., and continued so long as there -was a Tudor on the throne of England--plentifully supplied with money -to bribe the most powerful nobles, especially the Homes, to harass the -Government by their factions. - -[Illustration: STIRLING FROM THE ABBEY CRAIG. - -(_From a 'photograph by G. W. Wilson and Co., Aberdeen._)] - -It was in vain, therefore, that Queen Margaret wrote to her brother, the -King of England, protesting that the accusations against her were base -and abominable calumnies, that the Duke of Albany ruled by the choice -and advice of Parliament, and that without him there would be no peace -in Scotland, nor safety for the king or herself. Henry only replied by -upbraiding her with living in shameful adultery, and insisting that -Albany should quit Scotland, or that he would make war upon it. He did -not stop there--he made the same demand of Parliament, and hearing that -Margaret was applying to the Pope for a divorce from Angus, in order to -marry Albany, he exerted all his influence with the Church to prevent it. -The Scottish Parliament, notwithstanding it contained many traitors, made -such by Henry's gold, yet rejected his proposition for the dismissal of -Albany; whereupon Henry ordered all Scottish subjects found in England -to be driven with insult over the Borders, having a white cross marked -upon their backs. And at the same time that he sent Surrey to France, -in the spring of 1522, he also bade the Earl of Shrewsbury march across -the Tweed to punish the Scots. Shrewsbury obeyed the order with great -celerity, and speedily laid waste the fine pastoral country round Kelso, -but was met by a superior force and driven back, not however before he -had aroused great indignation among the people at the wantonness of his -attack and the outrages upon innocent folk and their property with which -it was accompanied. - -[Illustration: CARDINAL WOLSEY. (_From the Portrait by Holbein_).] - -Instead, therefore, of an invasion of Scotland by the English, Henry was -threatened with a descent of the Scots on his own kingdom, whilst the -gallant Surrey was absent in France. The Duke of Albany, incensed at the -reproaches of Henry regarding his connection with Queen Margaret, at the -demands for his extradition, and at the ferocious inroad of the Earl of -Shrewsbury, declared war against England, with the consent of Parliament. -He called for the muster of all the feudal force of the kingdom, and the -call was answered with such promptness that he beheld himself at the head -of 80,000 men. With such a force, nothing would have been easier to all -appearance than to have overrun the north of England, left almost wholly -destitute of defence. But though the Scottish people were in earnest, -there was treason not only in the camp, but in the very tent of Albany. -The money of Dacre was in the pockets of the most powerful nobles, who -silently but actively spread disunion through his host; and worst of -all, Margaret, who, like her brother, was continually roving in her -affections from one person to another, was already weary of Albany, and -was in covert communication with Lord Dacre, and betraying the secrets -and plans of Albany to him. It is said that Henry, through Lord Dacre, -had completely corrupted the queen, probably by assisting her with money, -but still more by offering to receive her again to his favour, and to -secure her interests by marrying Mary, the Princess of England, to her -son, the young King of Scots. Influenced by these hopes, the unprincipled -queen exerted herself to weaken the measures of Albany, and to diminish -the influence of France in the country as much as possible. - -Albany, therefore, though he advanced to the banks of the Tweed, and even -reached within a few miles of Carlisle, found the spirit of his host -continually on the decline. On the other hand, Lord Dacre had expended -his money in extensive bribery, and was almost destitute of soldiers; yet -he pretended that a great army was on the march to him, which would show -the Scots another Flodden Field, and so imposed on Albany that he was -willing to treat instead of being ready to fight. He engaged to disband -his forces if Dacre would engage to keep back the imaginary advancing -troops of England. Wolsey, who was watching in the northern counties with -deep anxiety the result of this contest between military multitudes and -political cunning, could not sufficiently express his astonishment, as -he saw the stupendous armament of Scotland melt away before the empty -bugbears of Lord Dacre's creation. "By the great wisdom and policy of my -Lord Dacre, and by means of the safe-conduct lately sent at the desire -and contemplation of the Queen of Scots, the said Duke of Albany hath, -our Lord be praised, not only forborne his invasion, but also dissolved -his army; which, being dispersed, neither shall nor can, for this year, -be gathered or assembled again." And the cardinal proceeds to give us a -specimen of the easy nature of his political morality, in saying, "And -yet the said abstinence [armistice] concluded by my Lord Dacre, _he_ not -having your authority for the same, _nothing bindeth your grace_; but, -at your liberty, ye may pursue your wars against the said Scots, if it -shall be thought to your highness convenable." On the 11th of September, -1522, the treaty between Albany and Dacre was concluded, and Albany went -over to France for fresh supplies of men and money, leaving the Earls of -Huntly, Arran, and Argyle to administer affairs during his absence. Thus, -about the same time, Henry saw his French and his Scottish campaign for -that year terminated. - -His great and difficult business was now to raise the necessary funds for -prosecuting his further designs against France. For eight years he had -forborne to call a Parliament, but to postpone longer a summons of this -engine of supply was not possible. He had pushed to the extreme point -all the modes, legal and illegal, of extracting funds from his subjects; -and the reluctance with which his last forced loan had been conceded, -and the solemn promises which he had made to call a Parliament, left -him no alternative. No king who ever reigned had a higher notion of the -royal prerogative, and the hearty commendation he afterwards bestowed on -Charles V. for destroying the last vestiges of free institutions in Spain -showed plainly what he would fain have carried out in England. But sturdy -as was his Tudor soul, he found that the English people had an equally -stubborn will, and on the 15th of April, 1523, he summoned a Parliament -at Blackfriars, London, where Wolsey sat at his feet as Chancellor. - -The Commons chose, as was supposed through the influence of the Court, -Sir Thomas More as Speaker. Sir Thomas was not only a man of profound -learning, but a felicitous genius, and extremely witty. His conversation -was greatly relished by the queen, who had introduced him to the private -suppers with the king, who became as much fascinated by his society. Sir -Thomas was evidently well aware of the difficult part which he would -have to sustain in such a post, for he hung back from it, declaring -how unfit he was for it. But Wolsey, who calculated greatly on his -genius, protested that he was qualified for it by his great abilities -and judgment more than almost any man. After a few days' session of -Parliament, Wolsey went down to the House, contrary to all custom and -privilege, and presented a royal message, to the effect that Francis, -by his conduct, had made a war absolutely necessary, that the honour of -the country was deeply concerned, and that it was a fine opportunity for -England to recover all that it had lost in that country. He concluded his -address by recommending them to vote immediately a property-tax of twenty -per cent., which would raise the sum of L800,000. - -Such a sum had never before been asked by any English king in his wildest -dreams of foreign conquest. The House sat as if thunderstruck, and in -profound silence. Wolsey had imagined that his presence, surrounded by -all the symbols of his grandeur, would completely overawe the House; and -that with a Court favourite of such distinction as Sir Thomas More, he -should carry the monstrous demand by surprise. He had, therefore, come -environed by his pompous retinue of prelates and nobles, and with his -silver pillars and crosses, his maces, his poleaxes, his hat and Great -Seal borne before him. But not all his magnificence moved the Commons -where its privileges had been thus grossly invaded, and its money was -thus boldly demanded. The whole House sat as silent as the senate of -Rome when Brennus and his savage Gauls burst in upon it. Wolsey gazed -upon them in amazement, looking from one to another. The proud cardinal -then addressed a member by name. The member arose, bowed, and sat down -again without uttering a word. Still more surprised at this dumb show, -Wolsey called upon another member for an explanation, but obtained none. -Growing wrathful, for he was not accustomed to such treatment, he broke -out:--"Masters, as I am sent here by the king, it is not unreasonable to -expect an answer. Yet, unless it be the manner of your House, as very -likely it may, by your Speaker only in such cases to express your mind, -here is, without doubt, a most marvellous silence." - -Whilst he said this, he looked fixedly and angrily at Sir Thomas More, -unquestionably expecting different conduct from him. But Sir Thomas, -dropping on his knee, said that the House felt abashed in the presence of -so great a personage--which, he added, was enough to amaze the wisest and -most learned men of the realm; that the House, according to its ancient -privileges, was not bound to return any answer; and as for himself, -unless all the members present could put their several thoughts into his -head, he was unable to give his grace an answer on so weighty a matter. -The cardinal then retired, much displeased with the House, and still more -with the Speaker. - -After the great minister had retired, the House went into a warm debate. -Some of the members affirmed that there was not above L800,000 of cash -in the kingdom; and if the money were gathered into the king's hands, -no trade could be carried on except by barter. The courtiers urged all -the ingenious arguments that they could invent, or with which they were -supplied, to show the necessity of the grant; and the king was in such -a rage that he is said to have even threatened some of the members with -death. It was, in fact, a stout resistance to oppression of the people, -and one of the most determined stands for privilege of Parliament ever -made in this country. - -The contest grew to such a pitch that the cardinal, fearful of the -result, determined to go to the House a second time, notwithstanding the -clear intimation given him that his presence was considered a breach of -privilege. He made them a speech, going over all the arguments which had -been advanced by the opposition, and then begged them to tell him what -they had to object; but they only returned him the answer, through the -Speaker, that they would hear his grace with humility, but could only -reason amongst themselves; and he was obliged to go away as he came. - -When he had departed, they resumed the debate; and at length, at the -earnest entreaty of the Speaker, they voted two shillings in the pound -on all who enjoyed twenty pounds a year or upwards; one shilling on all -who possessed from two pounds to twenty; and on all subjects with incomes -below that scale, a groat a head. This was not a moiety of what the king -had demanded, and the payment was spread over four years, so that it did -not really amount to above sixpence in the pound. The lesson which Henry -here received did not incline him to call another Parliament speedily. -He had summoned none for eight years before; and there is no doubt that -he asked for this extravagant sum that he might dispense with Parliament -for another term as long. He did not, as it was, call another for seven -years. - -The king, in his anger at the Commons, boasted to the mayor and aldermen -of London that he should find a very different spirit amongst the -clergy; but even these he tried beyond their patience. He demanded no -less than fifty per cent. of the incomes of their benefices, to make up -the deficiency from the laity. But the clergy were not disposed to be -mulcted of half their incomes at a blow; they made as stout a resistance -as the House of Commons. Wolsey, to make sure of them, summoned the -convocations of the two provinces, which had met in their usual manner, -by his legatine authority, to assemble in a national synod in Westminster -Abbey. But there the proctors declared that they had only power to grant -money in regular convocation, not in synod; and he was obliged to permit -them to depart, and vote in their ordinary way. The convocation of the -cardinal's own province of York waited to see what Canterbury would -first do, which was more independent of Wolsey's power. In the Lower -House the resistance was resolute, and was kept alive by the eloquence -of a preacher of the name of Philips, till he was won over to the Court -by substantial promotion. In the Upper House, the Bishops of Winchester -and Rochester animated the prelates to such opposition, that the grant -was not carried for four months, and then, being spread over five years, -amounted, not to fifty, but only to ten per cent. - -[Illustration: SILVER GROAT OF HENRY VIII.] - -The money obtained at all this cost of difficulty in Parliament, and -of unpopularity with the people, was lavishly expended in repelling -the attempts of the Scots, in furnishing aid to the allies in Italy, -and in preparing for another expedition into France. It was of the -first importance, before sending the army across the Channel, to obtain -security on the side of Scotland. To this end Henry made fresh overtures -to his sister, Queen Margaret, offering to place her at the head of -the Government, and to enable her to put down the party of Albany, who -was now absent in France collecting fresh means for maintaining the -war. He sent the Earl of Surrey, son of the victor of Flodden Field, to -co-operate with her, to win over as many as possible of the nobles with -money, and to lay waste the Borders, so that they should be incapable of -furnishing supplies to an invading army. - -[Illustration: GOLD CROWN OF HENRY VIII.] - -Margaret now had every opportunity which a woman of spirit and reputation -could wish. She was strongly supported by the power of England, and her -great opponent was for ever defeated. She proclaimed her son, and assumed -the regency; but her worst enemy was herself. She fell into her old -habits; and her scandalous attachment to Henry Stuart, the son of Lord -Evandale, soon ruined her prospects. Henry once more abandoned her, and -raised her husband, the Earl of Angus, to the chief power. It was in -vain that Margaret applied for assistance to Francis I., and humiliated -herself so far as to solicit the return of Albany. From this moment there -was more tranquillity in Scotland. The French faction, seeing support -from France hopeless, were compelled to remain quiet. Truce after truce -was established with England; and for eighteen years the Borders rested -from hostilities. - -[Illustration: GEORGE NOBLE OF HENRY VIII.] - -The position of the King of France was, at this crisis, becoming more -and more critical. His kingdom was environed with perils, and menaced -with ruin, which could only be averted by singular courage and address. -Against him was arrayed a most formidable confederacy of the Pope, the -emperor, the King of England, and the various states of Italy. He had -not a single ally, except the King of Scotland, a minor, and without -authority. The internal condition of France was extremely discouraging. -The wars of Francis in Italy and at home, his gay life and expensive -pleasures, with his extravagant grants to his favourites, had exhausted -his treasury, and involved him in grave embarrassment. The troops were -ill-paid, and, as is usual in such cases, became disorderly and infested -the highways, plundered the peasantry, and filled the whole kingdom with -alarm and discontent. The Court partook of the licence and distraction -of the nation; it was rent by faction, and the most dangerous secret -conspiracy was at work in it. This was the doing of the Duke of Bourbon, -Constable of France, who had been wronged in a lawsuit with the king. - -Charles V. and Henry of England thereupon entered into a secret treaty -with the disaffected prince to betray his sovereign and his native -country. The transaction was a disgraceful one to all parties concerned. -In Bourbon, notwithstanding his grievous wrongs, it was a base as well as -an impolitic deed; in Henry and Charles, it was one destructive of the -security of the throne, and of every principle of honour which should -guide the counsels of kings. Henry felt the vileness of the proceeding, -but endeavoured to justify it as a fair retaliation, for that Francis had -tampered with his Irish subject, the Earl of Desmond. - -[Illustration: DOUBLE SOVEREIGN OF HENRY VIII.] - -The Lord of Beaurain had been employed as the secret agent of the -emperor; and Sir John Russell--this being one of the first public notices -of the Russells in history--as that of Henry. A private treaty was -concluded, of which the substance was as follows:--The emperor and the -King of England were to invade France simultaneously, the one in the -north, the other in the south, while Bourbon himself was to excite a -rebellion in the heart of the kingdom, supported by all the connections -of his family, whom he calculated at 200 knights and gentlemen, with -their retainers. The attempt was to be made the moment Francis had -crossed the Alps; and when the conquest of France was complete, Bourbon, -in addition to his appanage of the Bourbonnais and Auvergne, was to -receive Provence and Dauphine, which together were to constitute a -kingdom for him. He was, moreover, to receive the hand of the emperor's -sister, Eleanor, Queen-Dowager of Portugal. The emperor was to have, as -his share of the spoil, Languedoc, Burgundy, Champagne, and Picardy, and -Henry VIII. the rest of France. - -Such was the traitorous scheme which was now opened up to the astonished -gaze of Francis. Had he crossed the Alps before he received the -intelligence, it might have been fatal. He had received some dark hints -of mischief to be apprehended from Bourbon previously; and on his way -south, he had suddenly presented himself at the duke's castle, and called -upon him to accompany the expedition to Italy; but the duke made it -appear that the state of his health rendered that impossible. Francis, -not by any means satisfied, set a strict but secret guard upon his -castle, and proceeded to Lyons; but there the news reached him that the -pretended sick man had managed to escape in disguise, and was on his way, -through the intricacies of the mountains of Auvergne and Dauphine, to -join the emperor's army in Italy. - -[Illustration: POUND SOVEREIGN OF HENRY VIII.] - -The Powers of England and the Netherlands appeared, in pursuance of the -secret treaty with Bourbon, on the soil of France about the same time. -The Duke of Suffolk, Charles Brandon, the commander of the English army, -landed at Calais on the 24th of August, and, joining to his troops those -collected from the garrisons of Calais, Ham, and Guines, found himself -at the head of 13,000 men. He marched on the 19th of September, and the -next day fell in with the Imperial troops from the Netherlands, under -Van Buren. The allies now amounted to 20,000; but instead of marching -to join the Imperial forces coming from Germany, they remained under -the walls of St. Omer, debating whether they should do this or invest -Boulogne. After having wasted a precious month, they decided to leave -Boulogne, and endeavour to form a junction with the Germans. But they -had now allowed Francis ample time to thwart all their objects. He had -sent a strong detachment, under the Duke of Guise, to throw themselves -in the way of the Germans; whilst the Dukes of Vendome and Tremouille -kept a sharp watch over the movements of the allied army. Suffolk and Van -Buren traversed Artois and Picardy, crossed the Somme and the Oise, and -alarmed Paris by pitching their tents near Laon, within twenty miles of -the capital. They had stopped by the way to invest Bray, Montdidier, and -some other small places, and now confidently expected the arrival of the -German army. - -But the Germans by this time were in full flight before the Duke of -Guise, and Vendome and Tremouille manoeuvred more menacingly on the -front and flank of the Allies. Tremouille, in particular, grew more and -more audacious, beat up their quarters with his cavalry, harassed them by -frequent skirmishes, and intercepted their convoys. The position of the -allied troops became every day more critical. They were threatened with -a growing force in their rear, drawn from the garrisons of Picardy, and -there was danger of their supplies, which were all derived from Calais, -being cut off. The troops were become sickly, and discontented with their -situation. It was high time to retrace their steps, and they commenced -their march by way of Valenciennes. But the weather was very rainy, the -roads were almost impassable, cold and frost succeeded, and the sickness -and murmurs of the troops augmented every day. Numbers perished on the -march; all were eager to reach their homes; and, as the Flemings drew -near their frontiers, they deserted in shoals. The armies then separated, -and Suffolk reached Calais in December, with his forces greatly reduced, -and all in miserable condition. - -On the 14th of September, whilst the Duke of Suffolk was advancing on -Paris, an event occurred which arrested the attention of Cardinal Wolsey -even more than the engrossing moves on the great chess-board of war. This -was the death of the Pope Adrian. He had occupied the papal chair only -about twenty months; and so impatient were the Italians of the Flemish -pope and his strict economy, that they styled the doctor who attended him -in his last sickness the "saviour of his country." Wolsey lost no time in -putting in his claim; and wrote to Dr. Clark, the English ambassador at -Rome, telling him to spare neither money nor promises, for that it was -by command of the king, who would undoubtedly see all his engagements -performed. This time Wolsey was put in nomination, and obtained a -considerable number of votes; but there was no real chance for him, for -the Italians were clamorous to have no more ultramontane, or, as they -styled them, barbarian popes. Charles V., despite his promises to Wolsey, -not only did not move a finger in his favour, but threw all his influence -into the scale to carry the election of Julius de Medici; whilst the -French cardinals, to a man, were opposed to Wolsey as the most dangerous -enemy to their sovereign. The conclave met in October, and the discussion -was continued through six stormy weeks. The election at length was seen -to lie between Jacovaccio Romano and Julius de Medici. Cardinal Pompeo -Colonna, who held the most decisive influence in the conclave, threw his -weight into the scale for Romano, and the balance hung undecided; but all -at once it gave way. Colonna, although he hated the Medici, gave up his -opposition, and Julius was unanimously elected. - -Wolsey, to all appearance, bore this second disappointment with the -equanimity of a philosopher; yet we may justly imagine that it produced -a deep change in his feelings towards the emperor, and led to a hostile -policy against his interests and those of Queen Catherine, his aunt, -in England. But Wolsey had prepared for either event, his election -or rejection; and the moment the latter became certain, the whole of -the influence of the English Government was employed in favour of the -election of Julius de Medici. On the strength of this, the English -ambassadors congratulated Julius on his elevation, and solicited the -continuance of the legatine commission to Wolsey. The Pope, who assumed -the name of Clement VII., not only renewed the commission, but granted -it for life, with augmented powers; and added to it a commission to -reform or suppress certain religious houses in England. This was a -dangerous power, and as Wolsey, in 1525--only two years afterwards--by -this authority suppressed a number of monasteries, it is by no means -improbable that it led Henry to think of those more sweeping changes of -the same kind which he afterwards effected. The money thus procured was -devoted, notwithstanding the necessities of the State, to the erection of -colleges, where both Wolsey and his master declared they were anxious to -educate able men in order to oppose effectually the fast-growing heresies -of Martin Luther. - -The campaign in Italy opened in the spring of 1524, with wonderfully -increased difficulties for the French. Charles V. had appointed the -renegade Duke of Bourbon his generalissimo in that country against his -own sovereign and compatriots. Henry of England engaged to furnish -100,000 crowns for the first month's pay of the duke's army, and to make -a diversion by invading Picardy in July. The emperor promised to defray -the cost of the Italian army for the remainder of the campaign, and to -invade Languedoc at the same time. Thus supported, Bourbon took the field -early in the spring; and by the end of May the duke had completely freed -Italy of his countrymen, and driven them across the Alps. The losses -of the French in this retreat were dreadful, and perhaps the greatest -calamity was the death of the famous Chevalier Bayard, the knight "sans -peur et sans reproche," who was killed as he was protecting the rear of -the army, on the banks of the Sesia (April 30, 1524.) - -Bourbon, ardent and impatient to secure the kingdom which had been -promised him in France, as well as thirsting with desire to take the -utmost vengeance on Francis I., entreated the emperor to allow him -to quit Italy and enter France with his victorious army. The emperor -consented, and the Imperial forces soon found themselves descending -from the Alps. Unfortunately, Charles had divided the command of this -expedition between Bourbon and the Marquis of Pescara, and the certain -result was divided councils. Bourbon urged to push forward to Lyons, -calculating on his friends and dependants in France flocking to him -there; but Pescara had probably different instructions, and accordingly -advised that they should descend on Provence, and lay siege to -Marseilles. This was palpably the suggestion of the emperor, for he was -ambitious of securing Marseilles, and holding it as a key to the south of -France, as Calais was to the north, in the hands of the English. Thither, -therefore, they marched, entered Provence on the 2nd of July, and on the -19th of August they sat down before Marseilles with an army of 16,000 men. - -But the situation of the Imperial troops soon became extremely hazardous -there. The place was strongly fortified; it contained a garrison of 3,200 -men, and these were zealously supported by 9,000 of the inhabitants, -who, detesting the Spaniards, took up arms and fought most gallantly. -Bourbon and Pescara spent forty days in mining and bombarding the place, -when they became aware of a tempest gathering which boded their utter -destruction. This was Francis marching from Avignon at the head of 40,000 -men. Neither Henry nor the emperor had made those diversions in Languedoc -and Picardy which they had promised, and thus the whole weight of the -army of France was at liberty to descend upon them. Bourbon and Pescara -precipitately abandoned the siege, made for the Alps, and regained Italy. - -At this moment Francis committed a military error, which probably -deprived him of the triumph of thoroughly routing his enemies. To -have continued the pursuit was almost certain to have destroyed the -Imperialist force, for it was worn down by its severe marches, and the -road to Lodi by which Pescara retreated was actually strewn with his -exhausted horses. The army of Pescara was the sole Imperial force now -in Italy, and its defeat would have been the immediate recovery of the -Milanese territory. But Francis was beguiled into the delay of besieging -Pavia, in which Pescara had left a strong garrison, under Antonio da -Leyva. Pavia was a well-fortified city, situated on the deep and rapid -Ticino, in a peculiarly strong position, and had repeatedly defied -armies for a long time together, particularly those of the Lombards -and of Charlemagne. The moment Pescara heard of Francis sitting down -before it, he exclaimed that he was saved! Every exertion was made by -the Imperialists to profit by the time thus given them. The Duke of -Bourbon hastened over the Alps to Germany to raise 12,000 men, for which -purpose he had pawned his jewels. Lannoy, the viceroy of Naples, pledged -the regular revenues of that kingdom for ready cash for the hiring of -troops, and great activity was displayed in raising an army and posting -it betwixt the Adda and the Ticino. - -For three months Francis continued lying before Pavia, and committed the -further error of weakening his forces, by detaching 6,000 of them, under -Albany, the late regent of Scotland, to menace the kingdom of Naples. - -In the beginning of February, 1525, the Imperialist generals thought -themselves strong enough to attack the French in their entrenchments. -These entrenchments were very formidable. The rear-guard was posted in -the beautiful castle of Mirabello, in the midst of an extensive park, -enclosed by high and solid walls. But Leyva, who commanded the garrison, -found means to communicate with the Imperial generals outside, and -he sent them word that they must either relieve him or that he must -attempt to cut his way out, for famine was urgent amongst his troops. -The generals themselves were suffering from want of provisions and pay -for their troops. In the French camp the wisest commanders counselled -Francis to raise the siege and retire to Milan, confident that the enemy -must soon disband from want of pay. But Bonivet treated this counsel as -mean and dastardly; and, unfortunately, this was the tone most likely to -captivate the chivalrous mind of the French king. He resolved to stand -his ground. - -On the 24th of February, Bourbon, Pescara, and Lannoy, having distracted -the attention of the French for several days previously by false -attacks, at midnight led out their troops silently to the park. A body -of pioneers commenced operations on the wall, and before daylight they -had effected a breach of a hundred paces in length, and at dawn they -carried the castle by surprise. Francis drew his troops out of their -entrenchments and made a push across the Ticino, but he found the bridge -demolished, and a strong body of the Spaniards closely drawn up on the -banks. Attacked fiercely by the garrison in the rear, and hemmed in by -the Imperial army in front, the battle became desperate. Francis had -his horse killed under him; the Swiss, contrary to their wont, turned -and fled at the first charge; and the Germans, who fought with singular -valour, were annihilated to a man. The Spanish musketeers then broke the -French ranks; and the king, being already wounded twice in the face, and -once in the hand, refused to surrender to the Spaniards who environed -him. Fortunately, Pomperant, a French gentleman in the service of the -Duke of Bourbon, recognised him, and called Lannoy, to whom the king -resigned his sword. Lannoy, kneeling, kissed the king's hand, took the -sword, and gave him his own in return, saying it did not become a monarch -to appear unarmed in the presence of a subject. The king was relieved of -his helmet by James D'Avila; and the Spanish soldiers, who admired his -valour, came crowding around him, and snatched the feathers from it, and, -when they were all gone, even cut pieces from his clothes, to keep as -memorials that they had fought hand to hand with him. Francis was soon -left standing in his jerkin and hose, and, despite his misfortune, could -not help laughing at his situation, and at the eagerness of the soldiers -for something belonging to him. - -The amazement and consternation which fell on France at the news of this -terrible disaster are scarcely to be imagined. Nothing, indeed, could be -more melancholy than the situation of that kingdom. Her king was captive, -her most distinguished generals and the flower of the army were taken or -slain; powerful and triumphant enemies on all sides were ready to seize -her as a spoil, and she was equally destitute of allies, of money, of -troops, or wise counsel. Scarcely less was the terror of the princes and -the states of Italy, for their only safety--the balance of power--was -destroyed, and there appeared no defence against the predominant power of -the emperor. - -Charles himself assumed an air of singular composure and moderation on -the receipt of this brilliant news. He had been daily expecting to hear -of the defeat of his army, when, on the 10th of March, came the tidings -of this great victory. We may imagine, therefore, his real joy. But -such was his command of his feelings that nothing of this appeared in -his manner. He perused the dispatches with the most perfect composure, -affected even to commiserate the fall of his rival, and moralised -sagely on the uncertainty of human greatness. A little time, however, -was sufficient to show that this was dissimulation, and his conduct to -Francis was ample proof that he had neither pity nor generosity. - -Henry of England, on the contrary, gave freedom to his expressions of -joy. Though he was actually on his way to coalesce with Francis against -Charles, he saw at once the immense advantages this defeat and capture -offered for aggressions on his kingdom, and he therefore ordered the most -public rejoicings in London and other cities, and rode himself in state -to St. Paul's, where Wolsey performed mass, assisted by eleven bishops, -in presence of the Court and all the foreign ambassadors; and afterwards -_Te Deum_ was sung. Henry then posted off Tunstall, Bishop of London, and -Sir Richard Wingfield, Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, into Spain -to congratulate the emperor on his splendid triumph, and modestly to -propose that they should divide France between them. - -To induce Charles to consent to this improbable arrangement, Henry -proposed at once to put the Princess Mary, who was betrothed to Charles, -into his hands--in fact, to make the exchange of her person for that of -Francis. Henry was the more buoyed up in these wild notions by the fact -that the ambassador of Charles had just been applying for the delivery of -the princess. - -[Illustration: SURRENDER OF FRANCIS ON THE BATTLE-FIELD OF PAVIA. (_See -p._ 140.)] - -So confident was Henry of the cession of his claims by the emperor, -that he instantly took measures to raise the money necessary for the -invasion of France. As he had resolved to rule without the interference -of parliaments, he sent out commissioners to every part of the country to -levy the sixth part of the goods of the laity and a fourth of those of -the clergy. The scheme was entirely unconstitutional, the commissioners -performed their part in a harsh and overbearing manner, trusting thus to -intimidate the people into compliance, and the consequence was universal -resentment and resistance. Clergy and laity, rich and poor, all alike -denounced the arbitrary and illegal impost. "How the great men took it," -says Hall, "was a marvel: the poor cursed, the rich repugned, the lighter -sort railed, and, in conclusion, all men execrated the cardinal as the -subverter of the laws and liberties of England. For, said they, if men -should give their goods by a commission, then were it worse than the -taxes of France, and so England would be bond, and not free." This was -the more just because the cardinal in person acted as commissioner in -London, and lent all the weight of his office and position to sanction -the oppression. He used all his arts to prevail on the citizens to -comply, but neither threats nor blandishments moved them. The resistance -was obstinate and universal. - -In London the excitement became excessive; the people placarded the walls -with their complaints, and the clergy preached against the arbitrary -tax, and declared that for themselves they would pay no money which -was not voted in Convocation. From London the fire spread through the -other towns, the people began to take up arms, the clergy to encourage -them, and Henry, who was soon terrified, with all his bluster, took the -alarm, and declared that he wanted nothing from his loving subjects but -as a benevolence. But the very word benevolence awoke a host of hateful -recollections. The tumult was only increased by it; and a lawyer in -the city published the passage from the Act of Richard III., by which -benevolences were abolished for ever. This seemed to arouse the lion -spirit in Henry. The prospect of the crown of France was too fascinating -to be lightly surrendered; he therefore called together the judges, -and demanded their opinion on his power to tax his subjects without -Parliament. The venal judges reminded the king that Richard III. was a -usurper, and that his Parliament was a factious Parliament, the acts -of which were illegal and void, and could in no wise bind a legitimate -and _absolute_ king, who, like him, held the Crown by hereditary right. -This bold and base doctrine was loudly echoed by the Privy Council, but -vain were such authorities with the people. On hearing this decision, -they again flew to arms. In Kent they speedily drove the commissioners -and tax-gatherers out of the county; in Suffolk they marched in an armed -body of 4,000 or 5,000 men, and even threatened the duke of the county, -Brandon, the king's brother-in-law, who was the chief commissioner there, -with death. Surrey, who stood high in the estimation of the people, -interfered to calm them, and to prevent mischief; and Henry saw that the -contest was hopeless, and by proclamation retracted his demand. Wolsey, -who had been extremely prominent in endeavouring to enforce the detested -tax, now caused a report to be industriously circulated, that he had, in -truth, never been favourable to it, but the people only replied when they -heard it, "God save the king! we know the cardinal well enough." - -But Henry might have spared himself this tumult and unpopularity. The -emperor was never less likely than now to concede such favours and -advantages to him. He was a deep and subtle prince; no man could see more -intuitively and instantly the wonderful change in his power and position -which the battle of Pavia created. Charles had calculated upon Henry -for large subsidies during the war, but instead of receiving these, he -had found Henry as much straitened for money as he was himself. It was -now discovered that the emperor had already made a truce of six months -with France, and he coolly advised the ambassadors to seek from their -sovereign power, not negotiations for the invasion of France, but the -terms on which the French king should be liberated. To crown all, and -leave no question of the feeling which Henry's late conduct had produced -in Charles's Court, he wrote to Henry, no longer styling himself his -loving uncle and penning the grossest flatteries with his own hand, but -he simply and curtly signed himself Charles to official communications -duly and officially prepared. - -This was a rebuff not to be received complacently by a man of Henry's -vain and volcanic spirit. He read the astounding dispatches with an -amazement which burst into a tempest of rage. At once a tide of impetuous -revulsion flowed over his whole soul. He abandoned in a moment all ideas -of conquests, invasions, and the crown of France, and determined to do -everything in his power to procure the liberation of Francis, and to -unite with him against the perfidious and insulting Spaniard. He had -dismissed the French envoys, who were residing privately in London, on -the news of the capture of Francis, but he now let it be understood -that their presence would be heartily welcome. Louise, the mother of -Francis, accepted the hint, and John Brenon, president of the council -of Normandy, and her favourite envoy, Giovanni Joacchino, were again -despatched to London. A truce for four months was immediately concluded, -and Wolsey, who fanned the new flame in Henry's bosom for objects and -resentments of his own, soon arranged the terms of a treaty with them. -These terms were extremely acceptable to Henry, as they furnished him -with a prospect of a considerable addition to his income, without the -disagreeable necessity of having to go to Parliament for it. The treaty -consisted of six articles. By the first, the contracting parties engaged -to guarantee the integrity of each other's territories against all -the princes in the world. The object of this was to prevent Francis -from bartering any of his provinces with Charles for his liberty. By -the second, Francis and his heirs were made to guarantee to Henry the -payment of 2,000,000 crowns, by half-yearly instalments, and 100,000 -crowns for life, after the payment of that amount. Nine of the chief -noblemen of France, and nine of the richest cities also, gave up their -bonds for the security of these payments. By the third article, the -King of France engaged to pay up all the arrears of the dowry of Mary, -the Queen-Dowager of France. The rest of the articles were for the -prevention of depredations at sea, for comprehending the King of Scots in -the treaty, and for the prevention of the return of the Duke of Albany -to Scotland during the minority of James V. This treaty was signed at -the king's house in Hertfordshire, on the 30th of August. The cardinal, -who never forgot himself on these occasions, was well rewarded for his -trouble in promoting and arranging this alliance. He received a grant of -100,000 crowns for his good offices in the affair, and the arrears of his -pension in lieu of his surrender of the bishopric of Tournay, the whole -to be paid in equal instalments in the course of seven years and a half. - -But whilst the French regent, Louise, made these liberal concessions -for the friendship of Henry, and showed every apparent disposition to -guarantee the conditions, Louise swearing to them, and Francis ratifying -them, care was taken to leave a loophole of escape at any future period. -The attorney and solicitor-general entered a secret protest against the -whole treaty, so that Francis might, if occasion required, plead the -illegality of the whole transaction. - -But it was not so easy to procure the liberation of the captive King -of France. Moderate as Charles had professed to be, and sympathetic -regarding the misfortunes of Francis, he soon showed that he was -determined to extort every possible advantage from having the royal -captive in his hands. He had been detained in the strong castle of -Pizzighettone, near Cremona; but, thinking that he should be able to -influence the emperor by his presence, he petitioned to be removed to the -Alcazar of Madrid. At length, however, on the 14th of January, 1526, was -signed the famous treaty called the Concord of Madrid, one of the most -grasping and impudent pieces of extortion which one prince ever forced -from another in his necessity. By this treaty Francis gave up all that he -had offered before--namely, all claims of superiority over Flanders and -Artois, and the possession of Naples, Milan, Genoa, and the other Italian -territories, for which France had spent so much blood and treasure. But -besides this, Francis was to deliver to the emperor his two sons, the -Dauphin and the Duke of Orleans, as hostages, and also bind himself, if -he did not, or could not, fulfil his engagements within four months, -to return and yield himself once more prisoner. He was to marry Queen -Eleanora of Portugal, the sister of Charles, and the Dauphin was to marry -the Princess Maria, the daughter of Eleanora. But these were but a small -part of the demands. Francis was bound to persuade the King of Navarre -to surrender his rights in that kingdom to Charles, and the Duke of -Gueldres to appoint Charles the heir to his dominions; and if he failed -to persuade them, he was to give them no aid when the emperor invaded -their states. Next, Francis was to lend his whole navy, 500 men-at-arms, -and 6,000 foot-soldiers, to put down the princes of Italy, who were -uniting to effect his own freedom! Then, Francis was to pay to the King -of England all those sums which the emperor himself had engaged to pay. -Still more, he was to restore Bourbon and the rest of the rebels to their -estates and honours. The whole of the conditions were so monstrous, -that they cannot be read without astonishment at the rapacity of this -triumphant prince. But to gain his liberty Francis signed the Treaty. - -Henry VIII. was one of the first amongst princes to send ambassadors to -congratulate Francis on his restoration to freedom, and to urge him to -break every article of the infamous terms which had been forced upon him. -Sir Thomas Cheney was sent from England to meet Dr. Taylor, the English -ambassador at Paris; and together they proceeded to Bayonne, and were -introduced to Francis, who told them he greatly felt the friendship of -Henry, who had, indeed, remonstrated with Charles on his behalf, though -Charles had not paid much respect to the intercession. There was no need -of any arguments from the two English casuists to induce Francis to break -the engagements he had entered into. He had never meant to keep them. -Before signing the document, he had protested, before two notaries and a -few confidential friends, that he had acted under restraint, and that he -should hold himself bound to observe none of the conditions which were -not just and reasonable. - -Two ambassadors had attended him from Spain to take his signature of -the Treaty, when he was free and on his own soil, as a ratification of -it, which he had engaged to give; but when the ambassadors presented -themselves for this purpose, Francis declined, affirming that he could -not enter into any such engagements without the advice of his council and -the approbation of his subjects. He assured them, however, that he would -immediately summon an assembly of the notables at Cognac, and requested -them to attend him thither, to learn the decision of the assembly. This -body met at that place in June, and declared, with one voice, that the -king had no right or power to sever Burgundy from the kingdom without -their consent, and such consent they would never give. The Spanish -ambassadors were present when this decision was pronounced, and they said -that the king, not being able to fulfil his contract, was bound to return -to his captivity, and they called upon him to obey. Instead of a direct -answer to this demand, a treaty betwixt the King of France, the Pope, -the Venetians, and the Duke of Milan, which had been secretly concluded -a few days before, was produced, and published in their hearing. As this -was tantamount to a declaration of war, the ambassadors demanded their -passports, and returned to Spain. The Pope, on entering into this league, -absolved Francis from all the forced oaths that he had sworn. - -This confederacy of Francis and the Italian princes and states against -the emperor, bound the Allies to raise and pay an army of 30,000 foot -and 3,000 horse, with a certain number of ships and galleys. The King of -France was to be put in possession of the county of Asti and the lordship -of Genoa; and Francesco Sforza, Duke of Milan, engaged to pay him 50,000 -crowns annually. Naples was to be wrested from Charles, and its crown -placed at the disposal of the Pope; but the king whom he appointed was to -pay an annuity of 75,000 crowns to the King of France. Henry of England, -though he declined to take any active part in the league, but consented -merely to be nominated its protector, was to have a principality in -Naples, with 36,000 ducats a year; and the cardinal, who always came in -for his share of spoil, was to have a lordship worth 10,000 ducats. - -So closed the year 1526; and the new year opened with preparations -for still more terrors for devoted Italy. The Emperor Charles had no -money to maintain the troops necessary for the extensive domination -that he aimed at, and he therefore allowed the mercenary troops in his -employment, rather than in his pay, to indemnify themselves by the -plunder of the wretched inhabitants of the countries where they were -collected. These troops consisted of a mob of vagabonds, outlaws, and -marauders, from every country in Europe, who, by their long course of -licentious freedom, were become utterly callous to the sufferings which -they inflicted. Freundsberg, a German soldier of fortune, was at the head -of 15,000 of these adventurers, consisting of Germans, Spaniards, and -Swiss; and Bourbon, at the head of 10,000 more half-starved and half-clad -mercenaries, was in possession of the whole duchy of Milan, but with -no means of supporting his position. These two ferocious hordes having -formed a junction under his banner, clamoured for their pay; Bourbon told -them he had no money, and that Milan had been so repeatedly overrun and -ravaged, that it was destitute of all means of supporting them; but that -he would lead them into the enemy's country--into the richest cities -of Italy--where they might amply indemnify themselves for all their -past sufferings. Animated by these assurances, they swore to follow him -whithersoever he might lead them. They marched on Rome, and sacked it, -losing, however, their leader, who fell in the attack. - -The news of the sacking of Rome, and the imprisonment of the Pope, -excited the most lively sensations of horror and indignation throughout -the Christian, and especially the Catholic, world. None appeared more -affected than the emperor, by whose troops the sacrilegious deed had been -perpetrated. He put himself and his Court into the deepest mourning, -forbade rejoicing for the birth of his son, and commanded prayers to -be offered in the churches throughout Spain for the liberation of His -Holiness. No one could play off a piece of solemn hypocrisy more solemnly -than Charles V. Francis and Henry, who were making a fresh treaty of -alliance, were at once affected with real or pretended horror. They -agreed immediately to invade Italy with 30,000 foot, and 1,000 horse, to -join the confederate army there, and drive out the troops of Spain, and -liberate the Pope from the Castle of St. Angelo. - -[Illustration: MARTIN LUTHER. - -(_After the Portrait by Lucas Cranach, at Florence._)] - -But the time was now approaching which was to interrupt the friendship -of Henry with the head of the Church of Rome. The Reformation in Germany -had made an immense progress, and produced the most astonishing events. -The whole mind and intellect of that country had been convulsed by the -preaching of the doctrines of Luther. State had been set against state, -prince against prince; and the bold monk of Wittenberg had only escaped -the vengeance of the Church of Rome by the undaunted championship of the -Elector of Saxony. Henry, fond of school divinity from his youth, and a -great reader and admirer of Thomas Aquinas, had looked across to Germany -with a grim and truculent glance, which seemed to rest on the blunt and -unconventional Reformer with an expression of one who longed to strike -down the daring heretic, and rid the world of him. As this was out of -his power, he determined to annihilate him by his pen; and for this -purpose he had written a book against him, with the title of "A Treatise -on the Seven Sacraments, against Martin Luther, the Heresiarch, by the -Illustrious Prince Henry VIII." This he had caused to be presented to the -Pope by the English ambassador, beautifully written and magnificently -bound, and Leo X. received it with the most extravagant laudations, and -conferred on Henry in 1521 the title of "Defender of the Faith," in a -bull signed by himself and twenty-seven cardinals. Henry really believed -that he had crushed Luther and all his sect; but the free-mouthed -Reformer, who paid no flatteries to king or Pope, soon convinced the -literary monarch that he was as much alive as ever. He wrote a reply to -Henry, in which, giving him commendation for writing in elegant language, -he abused him and his work as broadly as he would have done that of the -obscurest mortal. Henry, in his estimation, was "fool," "liar," "ass," -"blasphemer." The correspondence which ensued was acrimonious. - -The great defender of the faith, at the time at which we are now arrived, -was growing dissatisfied with his wife, and was about to seek a divorce -from her, which must necessarily involve the Pope in difficulties with -the queen's nephew, the Emperor. Henry was married to Catherine when she -was in her twenty-fifth year. So long as the disparity of their ages did -not appear, for he was six years younger, and so long as she was pleasing -in her person, he seemed not only satisfied with, but really attached to -her. But she was now forty-two years of age, had undergone much anxiety -in her earlier years in England, had borne the king five children, three -sons and two daughters, all of whom died in their infancy, except the -Princess Mary, who lived to mount the throne. Catherine, of late years, -had suffered much in her health, and we may judge from the best-known -portrait of her that she had now lost her good looks, and had a -bowed-down and sorrow-stricken air. - -Anne Boleyn had been living in France, at first as attendant on Mary, -King Henry's sister, the queen of Louis XII., and afterwards in the -family of the Duke of Alencon. She returned to England on the breaking -out of the war with Francis I., in 1522; and seems, by her beauty, wit, -and accomplishments, to have created a great sensation in the English -Court, where she was soon attached to the service of Queen Catherine. -Henry is said to have first met her by accident, in her father's garden, -at Hever Castle, in Kent; and was so charmed with her that he told Wolsey -that he had been "discoursing with a young lady who had the wit of an -angel, and was worthy of a crown." She is supposed at that time to have -been about one-and-twenty, a brunette of tall and most graceful figure, -and extremely accomplished. - -The understanding between Henry and Anne Boleyn soon became obvious -to the whole Court. The queen saw it as clearly as any one else, and -upbraided Henry with it, but does not seem to have used any harshness -to Anne on that account, though she occasionally gave her some sharp -rubs. For instance, once when the queen was playing at cards with Anne -Boleyn she thus addressed her, "My Lady Anne, you have the good hap ever -to stop at a king; but you are like others, you will have all or none." -Cavendish, Wolsey's secretary, says the queen at this trying crisis -"behaved like a very patient Grissel." - -Henry now having resolved to marry Anne Boleyn, as he found he could -obtain her on no other terms, felt himself suddenly afflicted with -lamentable scruples of conscience for being married to his brother's -widow, and entertaining equally afflicting doubts of the power of the -Pope to grant a dispensation for such a marriage. For eighteen years -these scruples had rested in his bosom without disturbing a moment of his -repose. It is true that these doubts had been started before the marriage -by Archbishop Warham, but they had no weight with Henry or his father. -Henry had gone into the marriage at the age of eighteen with his eyes -open, having some time before, by his father's order, made a protest -against it for State purposes, and had been ever since, till he saw Anne -Boleyn, not only contented but jovial. Now, however, he soon ceased to -be merely scrupulous--he became positive that his marriage was unlawful, -and set to work to write a book to prove it. The king communicated to -Wolsey fully his views regarding the divorce, and Wolsey, who had now -his decided quarrel with Charles for deceiving him in the matter of the -Papacy, and who was equally the enemy of Catherine, she having openly -expressed her resentment of his procuring the destruction of the Duke -of Buckingham, readily fell into the scheme. Wolsey was undoubtedly as -well aware as any one of the love affair going on between Henry and -Anne Boleyn; nothing that was moving at Court could escape him; but he -supposed this affair was only of the same kind as the rest of Henry's -gallantries, and his notion was that some foreign princess would be -selected for Henry's second queen. - -But during the discussions on the marriage between the English princess -and the French prince, a circumstance had taken place which showed that -Henry was resolved to let slip no opportunity of carrying his divorce -at all costs. The Bishop of Tarbes suddenly asked the question whether -the legitimacy of the Princess Mary was beyond every legal and canonical -doubt, considering the nature of the king's marriage with her mother, the -queen. Henry and Wolsey affected to be much astonished and agitated at -the question; and the King afterwards made it an argument that the idea -of the illegality of his marriage, though it had originated with himself, -had been greatly strengthened by the question of the bishop, as it showed -how apparent the fact was to strangers and even foreigners. Yet the -suggestion had undoubtedly been made to the bishop by Wolsey on Henry's -behalf. The meaning of the question was quite obvious--it was to serve -the cause of the divorce, which was an object highly pleasing to Francis -I., in his resentment of the treatment of himself by the Emperor; but it -was not believed for a moment to indicate real doubt even on the part of -the French king, or he would not have proceeded to confirm the choice of -an illegitimate maiden for the Queen of France, or the wife of his son. - -At the close of this treaty, Wolsey was sent over to France, rather to -show to Europe, and particularly to the King of Spain, the intimate -footing between France and England, than for any real use. It was -believed that Anne Boleyn and her friends were at the bottom of Wolsey's -being sent abroad for a time, that the affairs regarding "the king's -secret" might proceed without his cognisance; and, indeed, before his -return, it had ceased to be a secret to any one. Anne had become openly -acknowledged as the king's favourite, and had assumed an air and style -of magnificence and consequence on account of it. Meantime, Wolsey, -misled by his idea that the king meant to marry a foreign princess, had -committed himself deeply, and supplied fresh and serious materials for -his own destruction. He had given hints of the divorce of Henry, and of -his probable marriage with a princess of the Court of France. He told -Louise, the French king's mother, that "if she lived another year, she -should see as great union on one side, and disunion on the other, as she -would ask or wish for. These," he added, "were not idle words. Let her -treasure them up in her memory; time would explain them." - -The cardinal had, in fact, been looking round him at the French Court for -a wife for Henry, and had selected the Princess Renee, sister of the late -Queen Claude, while Henry himself had settled his choice nearer home. On -the return of Wolsey, all being now prepared, Henry communicated to the -astonished man the secret of his intended marriage with Anne. Confounded -at the disclosure, the proud cardinal dropped on his knees, and, it is -said, remained there for some hours pleading with the king against this -infatuation, as he deemed it, and which he saw compromised himself with -the Court of France, and menaced him darkly in the future, from the -deep enmity of her who would thus become his queen. His pleadings and -arguments were vain. His fair enemy had made her ground wholly secure in -his absence, and Wolsey withdrew with gloomy forebodings. - -The communication of the king's secret to Wolsey was immediately followed -by more active measures, in which Wolsey, however averse, was obliged to -co-operate. The king's treatise was now submitted to Sir Thomas More, -who at once saw the peril of acting as a judge in so delicate a matter, -declared that he was no theologian, and therefore unqualified to decide. -It was next laid before the Bishop of Rochester, who decided against it. -Henry then directed Sir Thomas to apply to some other of the bishops; -but as he was hostile to the treatise himself, he was not likely to be -a very persuasive pleader for it with others. None of the bishops would -commit themselves, and Sir Thomas advised Henry to see what St. Jerome, -St. Augustine, and the other fathers of the Church said upon it. Henry -then employed the more unscrupulous agency of Wolsey with the prelates, -who plied them with all his eloquence; but the most that he could -obtain from them was that the arguments of the king's book furnished a -reasonable ground for a scruple, and that he had better apply to the Holy -See, and abide by its decision. - -With the nation at large, the proposal of the amorous king was still -less popular than with the bishops. They had a great veneration for the -insulted Catherine, who had maintained for so many years the most fair -and estimable character on the throne, and against whose virtue not a -word had ever been breathed. They attributed this scheme to the acts -of the cardinal, who was the enemy of the Emperor and the warm ally of -France; and they dreaded that the divorce might lead to war and the -suppression of the profitable trade with the Netherlands. - -Unable to obtain much sanction at home, Henry at length referred the -cause to the Pope; and Stephen Gardiner--then known by the humble name -of Mr. Stephen--and Bishop Fox went in 1528 to Italy with the Royal -instructions. The grand difficulty was to effect the divorce in so -legal and complete a manner that no plea might be able to be brought -against the legitimacy of the proposed marriage. For three months fresh -instructions were issued and revoked, and issued in amended form again, -which were laid before Dr. Knight, the king's agent at the Papal Court, -and the three brothers Casali, Wolsey's agents, and before Staphilaeo, -Dean of the Rota, who had been gained over whilst lately in London. - -But the Emperor had not been idle. The Pope, as we have seen, had been -shut up by the Imperial troops in the Castle of St. Angelo; and, in -negotiation for his liberation, Charles had made it one of the principal -stipulations of his release that he should not consent to act preparatory -to a divorce without the previous knowledge of Charles himself. Scarcely -had the Pope made his escape to Orvieto, when the English emissaries -appeared before him. Poor Clement was thrown into a terrible dilemma. -The Imperialists were still in possession of Rome, and if he consented -to the request of Henry, he had nothing to expect but vengeance from the -Emperor. To make the matter worse, a French army, under the command -of Lautrec, and accompanied by Sir Robert Jerningham as the English -commissary, which had been sent over the Alps to his assistance, and to -enable him to recover his capital, loitered at Piacenza, and delayed the -chance of the restoration and defence of Rome. - -The English envoys presented to him two instruments, which had been -prepared by the learned agents above named, by the first of which he -was to empower Wolsey, or in case of any objection to him, Staphilaeo, -to hear and decide the case of the divorce; and by the second he was to -grant Henry a dispensation to marry, in the place of Catherine, any other -woman soever, even if she were already promised to another, or related -to him in the first degree of affinity. This was a most extraordinary -proceeding, an acknowledgment by Henry of the very power in the Pope -which he affected to doubt and deny. The objection to the marriage of -Henry with Catherine was that she was within the proscribed degree of -affinity, having been his brother's wife. Moreover, as Henry was accused, -and this instrument appeared to admit the charge, of having established -the same degree of relationship, though illicitly, with Mary Boleyn, the -_sister_ of Anne, as had existed between Catherine and his _brother_ -legally, this document was to prevent any objections to the marriage with -Anne. - -The Pope signed both instruments, but recommended that Henry should keep -them secret till the French army, under Lautrec, should arrive, and free -him from fears, even for his life, of the vengeance of the Emperor. When -this should have taken place, he promised to issue a second commission of -the same import, which might at once be publicly proceeded with. - -Scarcely, however, had Dr. Knight left Orvieto, when Gregorio da Casali -brought a request from the English Court that a legate from Rome might be -joined in the commission with Wolsey. To this Clement observed that the -King of England was pursuing a very circuitous course. If the king was -really convinced in his conscience that his present marriage was null, he -had better marry again, and then he himself or a legate could decide the -question at once. But if a legate were to sit in jurisdiction, there must -be appeals to himself in Rome, exceptions, and adjournments, which would -make it an affair of years. But, after saying this, the Pope signed the -requisition. - -At the instigation of Wolsey, who was anxious that the treaty which -he had signed with France should be carried into effect, war was now -declared formally against the Emperor. The news of the war was received -in England with the utmost disgust and discontent. The people denounced -the cardinal as the troubler of the kingdom and the interrupter of its -commerce. The merchants refused to frequent the new marts in France, -which were appointed instead of their accustomed ones in the Netherlands. -The wool-combers, spinners, and clothiers were stopped in their sales -by this resolve on the part of the merchants; their people were all -thrown out of work; and the spirit of commotion grew so strong that there -were serious fears of open outbreaks. In the council, the cardinal had -as little support in his policy as he did elsewhere. There was not a -member, except himself, who was an advocate of the French alliance; but -all his colleagues at the council-table were eagerly watching for some -chance which should hasten his downfall. Even the king himself was averse -from the war with his nephew; and especially as he was aware that the -fear of Charles's resentment deterred Clement from cordially proceeding -with the divorce; and Henry hinted that if peace were restored, Charles -might be induced to withdraw his opposition. Fortunately, the Flemings -were as much incommoded by the breach of commercial relations as the -English; and the Archduchess Margaret, the Governess of the Netherlands, -had the prudence to make a proposition that peace should be restored. -Negotiations commenced, and were carried on for some time for a general -pacification; but this being proved unattainable, a peace was concluded -with the Netherlands, and the state of war was allowed to remain between -England and Spain. - -But the fact was, the war, so far as regarded these two countries, -was merely nominal; it raged only in Italy, between the French and -the Imperialists. Henry had no money for war, and, besides, his whole -thoughts and energies were occupied in carrying through the divorce, -which he now found a most formidable affair, fresh difficulties starting -up at every step. Had Catherine been only an English subject, instead -of the aunt of the great monarch of Germany, Flanders, and Spain, Henry -would have made short work of his conscience and of the poor woman who -was in the way. He would have charged her with some heinous and revolting -crime, and severed her head from her shoulders at a blow, and all his -difficulties with it. But he had not only royal blood to deal with, but -all the ancient prejudices that surrounded it, and which would have -made him execrated over the whole world had he spilled it. He knew that -Charles was watching intently to catch him at a disadvantage, and he -never felt himself safe in his proceedings. - -[Illustration: THE TRIAL OF QUEEN CATHERINE. (_See p._ 151.) - -(_After the Picture by Laslett J. Pott._)] - -It now occurred to him that, though the Pope had granted permission for -Wolsey and the legate to decide this momentous question, yet he might be -induced, by the influence of Charles, to revise and reverse the sentence -pronounced by his delegates: and this might involve him in inextricable -dilemmas, especially should he have acted on the sentence of divorce, and -married again. - -Clement was placed in a very trying situation. He was anxious to oblige -Henry, but to grant the bull confirming the sentence to be pronounced -by Wolsey and the Legate, was to annihilate the dogma of Papal -infallibility, for Julius II. had granted the Church's dispensation, -notwithstanding the fact of Catherine's union with Henry's brother. -Clement had been also informed that Henry's object was only to gratify -the wish of a woman who was already living in adultery with him. But -this was rebutted by a letter already received from Wolsey, assuring -the Pope that Anne Boleyn was a lady of unimpeachable character. Driven -from this point, Clement still demurred as to the formidable bull; and -only consented, after consultation with a convocation of cardinals and -theologians, to issue an order for a commission to inquire into the -validity of the dispensation granted by Pope Julius, and to revoke it, if -it was found to have been by any means surreptitiously obtained. - -Campeggio, who had most reluctantly undertaken the appointment of -commissioner in this case, was all this time slowly, very slowly, -progressing towards England. He was an eminent professor of the canon -law, and an experienced statesman. He had been a married man, and had a -family; but, on the death of his wife, in 1509, he had taken orders, was -made cardinal in 1517, and had been employed by Leo and his successors in -various arduous cases to their highest satisfaction. Campeggio arrived in -London at last, on the 7th of October, 1528, but in such exhaustion, from -violent and long attacks of the gout, that he was carried in a litter to -his lodgings, and remained for some time confined to his bed. Henry, with -his characteristic hypocrisy, on the approach of the legate, again sent -away his mistress, and recalled his obliging wife, with whom he appeared -to be living on the most affectionate terms. They had the same bed and -board, and went regularly through the same devotions. The arrival of -the legate raised the courage of the people, who were unanimous in the -favour of the queen, and, though Wolsey made every exertion to silence -and restrain them, they loudly declared that, let the king marry whom he -pleased, they would acknowledge no successor in prejudice to Mary. - -It was a fortnight before the legate was ready to see the king. On the -22nd of October he made his visit, and was, of course, most graciously -received by Henry and the cardinal, but they could extract from him no -opinion as to the probable result of the inquiry which was at hand. -Henry and Wolsey exerted all their arts to win over the great man. The -king paid him constant visits; and to mollify and draw him out heaped -all sorts of flatteries upon him, and made him the most brilliant -promises. He had already made him Bishop of Salisbury, and presented -him with a splendid palace in Rome; and he now offered to confer on him -the rich bishopric of Durham, and knighted his son Ridolfo, by whom -he was accompanied. But nothing moved the impenetrable ecclesiastic; -for if favours were heaped on him here, terrors awaited him at Rome -if he betrayed the trust of his master, the Pope. He replied to all -solicitations that he had every disposition to serve the king, so far -as his conscience would permit him. To produce a favourable bias in the -opinions of the inexorable man, the judgments of eminent divines and -doctors of the canon law on the king's case were laid before him. These -he read, but still kept his own ideas locked in his breast. - -Henry next endeavoured to obtain from Campeggio the publication of -the decretal bull, or, at least, that it should be shown to the Privy -Council, but the legate remained firm to his instructions. The king's -agents at the same time plied Clement with persuasives to the same end, -but with the same result. So far from giving way, the agents informed -Henry that the Emperor had given back to the Pope Civita Vecchia and -all the fortresses which he had taken from the Holy See, and that it -was to be feared that there was a secret understanding between the Pope -and Charles. At this news Henry despatched Sir Francis Bryan, Master of -the Henchmen, and Peter Vannes, his secretary of the Latin tongue, to -Francis I., upbraiding him with his neglect in permitting this to go -on; and they then proceeded to Italy, and requested the Pope to cite all -Christian princes to meet in Avignon and settle their differences. In -the meantime these agents were to consult the most celebrated canonists -at Rome on the following extraordinary points:--"1. Whether, if a wife -were to make a vow of chastity, and enter a convent, the Pope could not, -in the plenitude of his power, authorise the husband to marry again. 2. -Whether, if the husband were to enter into a religious order, that he -might induce the wife to do the same, he might not afterwards be released -from his vow, and have liberty to marry. 3. Whether, for reasons of -State, the Pope could not license a prince to have, like the ancient -patriarchs, two wives, of whom one only should be publicly acknowledged, -and enjoy the honours of royalty." - -On the 6th of February, 1529, the intelligence arrived that Clement -was dying, and by that time was probably dead. Now was the time to -place Wolsey in the Papal chair, and thus end all difficulties. Francis -promised cordially to aid in the attempt; but, to their dismay, Clement -revived, and dashed their hopes to the ground. Made desperate by these -chances, Henry now gave the invalid Pope no rest from his solicitations. -His agents forced themselves into his very sick chamber, and demanded -that the fatal mandate of dispensation granted by Julius II.--a copy -of which Catherine had obtained from Spain--should be revoked, or that -Charles should be compelled to exhibit the original. But the Pope -remained firm. He declared that he could not depart from the course -already prescribed, that Catherine had even entered a protest in his -Court against the persons of her judges, and he recommended Henry to lose -no time, but to try to determine the matter in his own realm. - -The Court which was to try the cause met in the Parliament chamber in -the Blackfriars, and summoned the king and queen to appear before it on -the 18th of June. Henry appeared by proxy; Catherine obeyed the summons -in person, but only to protest against the judges as the subjects of -Henry, her accuser, and to appeal to the Pope. This appeal was overruled, -and the Court adjourned to the 21st of June. On this day both Henry and -Catherine appeared, the king sitting in state on the right hand of the -cardinal and legate, and Catherine sat on their left, attended by four -friendly bishops. On their names being called, Henry answered "Here!" but -Catherine was unable to reply. On being again cited, however, she rose -and repeated her protest on three grounds,--first, as being a stranger; -secondly, because the judges were subjects, and held benefices, the -gift of her adversary; and last, because from such a Court she could -not expect impartiality. This protest being held inadmissible, she rose -again, crossed herself, and, leaning on her maids, approached the king, -threw herself at his feet, and addressed him in a pathetic speech. - -On the 25th of June Catherine was summoned before the Court again, but -she refused to appear, sending in, however, and causing to be read, -her appeal to the Pope. On this she was declared contumacious; and the -king's counsellors asserted that the following points had been clearly -proved:--That her marriage with Prince Arthur had been consummated, and, -therefore, her marriage with Henry was unlawful; that the dispensation -of Julius II. had been obtained under false pretences and a concealment -of facts; and that the Papal brief which had been sent from Spain was -a forgery. They therefore called on the judges to pronounce for the -divorce. But even had all this been proved, which it had not, Campeggio -was not intending to do anything of the kind. The peace which had been -rumoured between the Pope and the Emperor had been signed on the 29th -of June, and Clement was now much at his ease. On the 23rd of July, no -progress being made, Henry summoned the Court, and demanded judgment in -imperious terms. But Campeggio replied with unmoved dignity:--"I have -not come so far to please any man for fear, meed, or favour, be he king -or any other potentate. I am an old man, sick, decayed, looking daily -for death; what should it then avail me to put my soul in the danger of -God's displeasure, to my utter damnation, for the favour of any prince -or high estate in this world? Forasmuch, then, that I perceive that the -truth in this case is very difficult to be known; that the defendant -will make no answer thereunto, but hath appealed from our judgment; -therefore, to avoid all injustice and obscure doubts, I intend to proceed -no further in this matter until I have the opinion of the Pope and such -others of his council as have more experience and learning. I, for this -purpose, adjourn this Court till the commencement of the next term, in -the beginning of October." - -It would be difficult to conceive the state of agitation into which the -Court of Henry was now thrown. Instead of receiving a decision, it was -put off till October; and this was not the worst, for in a few days -news arrived that the commission of the cardinals had been revoked by -the Pope on the 15th of July, or eight days previous to the adjournment, -and that the Papal Court had entertained the appeal of Queen Catherine, -and recalled Campeggio. Thus, not even in October was there any chance -of a decision, and had such been arrived at now it would have been null, -the commission having previously expired. Still worse, while Henry was -in the highest state of irritation, there came an instrument from Rome, -forbidding him to pursue his cause by the legates, but citing him to -appear by attorney in the Papal Court, under a penalty of 10,000 ducats. -Campeggio departed from England at the commencement of Michaelmas term. -At the interview in which he took his leave of the king, Henry behaved -with much politeness to the Italian legate, but treated Wolsey with -marked coldness. Showing a disposition to relent later on in the same -day, Henry was at once so worked upon by the Boleyn faction that he -undertook never more to see the cardinal, whose fall was now certain. - -Indeed, on account of his failure to obtain the divorce, Wolsey was -doomed to destruction. On the 9th of October, the same month as he opened -the Court of Chancery, he perceived a deadly coldness as of winter frost -around him. No one did him honour--the sun of Royal favour had set to -him for ever. On the same day Hales, the attorney-general, filed two -bills against him in the King's Bench, charging him with having incurred -the penalty of Praemunire by acting in the kingdom as the Pope's legate. -This was a most barefaced accusation, for he had accepted the legatine -authority by Henry's express permission; had exercised it for many years -with his full knowledge and approbation, and, in the affairs of the -divorce, at the earnest request of the king. But Henry VIII. had no law -but his own will, and never wanted reasons for punishing those who had -offended him. - -Of Wolsey, as he appeared at this moment, scathed and stunned by the -thunderbolt of the royal wrath, we have a striking picture. The Bishop -of Bayonne, the French ambassador, says in a letter:--"I have been -to visit the cardinal in his distress, and I have witnessed the most -striking change of fortune. He explained to me his hard case in the worst -rhetoric that was ever heard. Both his tongue and his heart failed him. -He recommended himself to the pity of the king and madame [Francis I. and -his mother] with sighs and tears; and at last left me, without having -said anything near so moving as his appearance. His face is dwindled to -one-half its natural size. In truth, his misery is such that his enemies, -Englishmen as they are, cannot help pitying him. Still, they will carry -things to extremities. As for his legation, the seals, his authority, -etc., he thinks no more of them. He is willing to give up everything, -even the shirt from his back, and live in a hermitage, if the king would -but desist from his displeasure." - -On the 17th of October Henry sent the Dukes of Norfolk and Suffolk to -demand the Great Seal; and they are said to have done that duty with -some ungenerous triumph. But Wolsey delivered up his authority without -complaint, and only sent in an offer surrendering all his personal estate -to his gracious master, on condition that he might retire to his diocese -on his church property. But the property of Wolsey had long been riveting -the greedy eye of Henry, and, next to Anne Boleyn, that was, probably, -the "weight which pulled him down." A message was soon brought him by -the same noblemen that the king expected an entire and unconditional -submission, whereupon he granted to the king the yearly profits of his -benefices, and threw himself on his mercy. It was then intimated that His -Majesty meant to reside at York Place (Whitehall) during the Parliament, -and that Wolsey might retire to Esher Place, in Surrey, a house belonging -to his bishopric of Winchester. - -On the 3rd of November, after the long intermission of seven years, -a Parliament was called together. The main object of this unusual -occurrence was to complete the ruin of Wolsey, and place it beyond the -power of the king to restore him to favour--a circumstance of which the -courtiers were in constant dread. The committee of the House of Lords -presented to the king a string of no less than forty-four articles -against the fallen minister, enumerating and exaggerating all his -offences, and calling upon the monarch to take such order with him "that -he should never have any power, jurisdiction, or authority hereafter, -to trouble, vex, and impoverish the commonwealth of this your realm, as -he hath done heretofore, to the great hurt and damage of almost every -man, high or low." This address was carried to the Commons for their -concurrence; but there Thomas Cromwell, who by the favour of Wolsey had -risen from the very lowest condition to be his friend and steward, and -was now advanced to the king's service by the particular recommendation -of the cardinal, attacked the articles manfully, and caused the Commons -to reject them, as the members were persuaded that Cromwell was acting -by suggestion of the king; which is very probable, for so far from Henry -showing Cromwell any dislike for this proceeding, he continued to promote -him, till he became his prime minister, and was created Earl of Essex. - -[Illustration: THE DISMISSAL OF WOLSEY. (_See p._ 152.)] - -Henry, having now seized upon all the cardinal's property, the incomes -of his bishoprics, abbeys, and other benefices, his colleges at Ipswich -and Oxford, with all their furniture and revenues, his pensions, clothes, -and even his very tomb, seemed contented to leave him his life. He, -therefore, on the 12th of February, 1530, granted him a full pardon for -all his real and pretended crimes. He allowed him, moreover, to retain -the revenues of York. He gave him also a pension of 1,000 marks a year -out of the bishopric of Winchester, and soon after sent him a present of -L3,000 in money; and in plate, furniture, &c., the value of L3,374 3s. -7d., and gave him leave to reside at Richmond. - -This new flow of royal favour wonderfully revived the cardinal's hopes, -and as vividly excited the fears of the Boleyn party. To have this -formidable man residing so near them as Richmond was too perilous to be -thought of. Some fine morning the king might suddenly ride over there, -and all be undone. Henry was, therefore, besieged with entreaties to -remove him farther from the Court, and to such a distance as should -prevent the possibility of an interview. They prevailed, and Wolsey -received an order through his friend Cromwell to go and reside in his -archbishopric of York. To the cardinal, who felt a strong persuasion -that if he could but obtain an interview with the king all would be set -right, this was next to a death-warrant. He entreated Cromwell to obtain -leave for him to reside at Winchester, but this was refused, and the Duke -of Norfolk, Anne's uncle, sent Wolsey word that if he did not get away -immediately into the North he would come and tear him in pieces with his -teeth. "Then," said Wolsey, "it is time for me to be gone." - -Delighted with their metropolitan, the clergy of York waited upon him in -a body, and begged that he would allow himself to be installed in his -cathedral, according to the custom of his predecessors. Wolsey, after -taking time to consider of it, consented, on condition that it should be -done with as little splendour as possible. No sooner, however, was this -news divulged than the noblemen, gentlemen, and clergy of the county -sent into York great quantities of provisions, and made preparations -for a most magnificent feast. But this was suddenly prevented by a -very unexpected event. On the 4th of November, only three days before -the grand installation was to come off, the Earl of Northumberland, -accompanied by Sir William Walsh and a number of horsemen, arrived at -Cawood. Wolsey, believing in good news, went out to receive the Earl with -a cheerful countenance; and, observing his numerous retinue, he said, -"Ah! my lord, I perceive that you observe the precepts and instructions -which I gave you, when you were abiding with me in your youth, to cherish -your father's old servants." He then took the earl affectionately by the -hand, and led him into a bed-chamber. There he no doubt expected to hear -good tidings; but the earl, though greatly affected and embarrassed, laid -his hand on the old man's shoulder, and said, "My lord, I arrest you of -high treason." Wolsey was struck dumb, and stood motionless as a statue. -He then bowed to the order, and prepared for his journey. On his way to -London he was seized with dysentery at Sheffield Park, the mansion of -the Earl of Shrewsbury. The attack left him so weak that he was glad to -accept the hospitality of Leicester Abbey, where the abbot, at the head -of a procession of the monks, with lighted torches, received him. He was -completely worn out, and being lifted from his mule, said, "I am come, -my brethren, to lay my bones amongst you." The monks carried him to his -bed, where he swooned repeatedly; and the second morning his servants, -who had watched him with anxious affection, saw that he was dying. He -called to his bedside Sir William Kingston, and amongst others, addressed -to him these remarkable words:--"Had I but served God as diligently as I -have served the king, he would not have given me over in my grey hairs. -But this is the just reward that I must receive for my diligent pains -and study, not regarding my service to God, but only to my prince. Let -me advise you to take care what you put in the king's head, for you can -never put it out again. I have often kneeled before him, sometimes three -hours together, to persuade him from his will and appetite, but could not -prevail. He is a prince of most royal courage, and hath a princely heart; -for, rather than miss or want any part of his will, he will endanger one -half of his kingdom." On the 29th of November, 1530, thus died Thomas, -Lord Cardinal Wolsey, one of the most extraordinary characters that was -ever raised up and again overthrown by the mere will of a king, and who -unconsciously contributed to one of the most extensive revolutions of -human mind and government which the world has known. - -In following the story of Wolsey to its close, we have a little -overstepped the progress of affairs. As soon as the great man was -out of the way, a ministry was formed of the leading persons of the -Boleyn party. The Duke of Norfolk, Anne's uncle, was made President of -the Council, Brandon, Duke of Suffolk, Lord Marshal, and the Earl of -Wiltshire, the father of Anne Boleyn, had a principal place. Sir Thomas -More, unfortunately for him as it proved, was made Lord Chancellor -instead of Wolsey, a promotion which he reluctantly accepted. Amongst -the king's servants, Stephen Gardiner, who had been introduced and -much employed by Wolsey, still remained high in the king's favour, and -occupied the post of his secretary. Gardiner, a bigoted Catholic, and -afterwards one of the most bloody persecutors of the Reformers, now, -however, in trying to promote the wishes of the king for the divorce, -unconsciously promoted the Reformation. - -[Illustration: CARDINAL WOLSEY AT LEICESTER ABBEY. - -FROM THE PAINTING BY SIR JOHN GILBERT, R.A., P.R.W.S. AT THE VICTORIA AND -ALBERT MUSEUM, SOUTH KENSINGTON.] - -The king, returning from the progress which he had made to Moore Park, -and to Grafton, remained one night at Waltham. Gardiner and Fox were -lodged in the house of a Mr. Cressy, a gentleman of good family. After -supper the conversation turned on the grand topic of the day--the king's -divorce, and Gardiner and Fox detailed the difficulties that surrounded -it, and the apparent impossibility of getting the Pope to move in it. A -grave clergyman, the tutor of the family, of the name of Thomas Cranmer, -after listening to the discourse, was asked by Fox and Gardiner what -he thought of the matter. At first he declined to give his opinion on -so high a matter, but being pressed, he said, he thought they were -wrong altogether in the way they were seeking the divorce. As the Pope -evidently would not commit himself upon the subject, his opinion was -that they should not waste any more time in fruitless solicitations at -Rome, but submit this plain question to the most learned men and chief -universities of Europe: "Do the laws of God permit a man to marry his -brother's widow?" If, as he imagined, the answers were in the negative, -the Pope would not dare to pronounce a sentence in opposition to the -opinions of all these learned men and learned bodies. - -On the return of the Court to Greenwich, Fox and Gardiner related this -conversation to the king, who instantly swore that "the man had got -the right sow by the ear," and ordered him instantly to be sent for to -Court. Cranmer, on his arrival, maintained his opinion in a manner which -wonderfully delighted Henry, and raised his hope of having at length hit -on the true mode of solving the difficulty. - -Agents were despatched to obtain the required opinion from the different -universities, both in England and on the Continent, well provided with -that most persuasive of rhetoricians--money. At his own universities, -however, Henry found no little opposition. On the Continent, where -Henry's menaces had no weight, his purse was freely opened; and the -universities of Bologna, Padua, and Ferrara, as well as many learned -men, were prevailed on to take the view that Henry wished. In Germany -his agents were far less successful. Both Protestants and Catholics -in general condemned his proposed divorce; and Luther and Melanchthon -said he had much better follow the example of the patriarchs, and take -a second wife, than put away the first without any crime on her part. -From France and its fourteen universities Henry expected much more -compliance, but he was disappointed. From Orleans, Toulouse, and Bourges, -and from the civilians of Angers, doubtful decisions were procured, but -the theologians of the last city maintained the validity of the existing -marriage. The answers from other universities were either not received or -were suppressed. - -The scheme of Cranmer had not worked particularly well; the opinions of -the universities were for the most part either adverse, or were forced, -and those of learned men more opposed than coinciding. There needed a -more determined spirit than that of Cranmer to break the way through the -wood of embarrassments in which they were involved, and the right man -now stepped forward in Thomas Cromwell, the former secretary of Wolsey. -He sought an interview with Henry, and determined, according to his own -phrase, "to make or mar," thus addressed him:--"It was not," he observed, -"for him to affect to give advice where so many wise and abler men had -failed, but when he saw the anxiety of his sovereign, he could no longer -be silent, whatever might be the result. There was a clear and obvious -course to pursue. Let the king do just what the princes of Germany -had done, throw off the yoke of Rome; and let him, by the authority, -declare himself, as he should be, the head of the Church within his own -dominions. At present England was a monster with two heads. But let the -king assume the authority now usurped by a foreign pontiff, an authority -from which so many evils and confusions to this realm had flowed, and -the monstrosity would be at an end; all would be simple, harmonious, and -devoid of difficulty. The clergy, sensible that their lives and fortunes -were in the hands of their own monarch--hands which could be no longer -paralysed by alien interference--from haughty antagonists would instantly -become the obsequious ministers of his will." - -Henry listened to this new doctrine with equal wonder and delight, and -he thanked Cromwell heartily, and had him instantly sworn of his privy -council. - -No time was lost in trying the efficacy of Cromwell's daring scheme. -To sever that ancient union, which had existed so many ages, and was -hallowed in the eyes of the world by so many proud recollections was a -task at which the stoutest heart and most iron resolution might have -trembled; but Cromwell had taken a profound survey of the region he was -about to invade, and had learned its weakest places. He relied on the -unscrupulous impetuosity of the king's passion to bear him through; -he relied far more on the finesse of his own genius. With the calmest -resolution, he laid his finger on one single page of the statute-book, -and knew that he was master of the Church. The law which rendered any -one who received favours direct from the Pope guilty of a breach of the -Statute of Praemunire, permitted the monarch to suspend the action of -this Statute at his discretion. This he had done in the case of Wolsey. -When he accepted the legatine authority, the cardinal took care to obtain -a patent under the Great Seal, authorising the exercise of this foreign -power. But Wolsey, when he was called in question for the administration -of an office thus especially sanctioned by the Crown, neglected to -produce this deed of indemnity, hoping still to be restored to the royal -favour, and unwilling to irritate the king by any show of self-defence. -There lay the concealed weapon which the shrewd eye of Cromwell had -detected, and by which he could overturn the ecclesiastical fabric of -ages. He declared, to the consternation of the whole hierarchy, that not -only had Wolsey involved himself in all the penalties of Praemunire, but -the whole of the clergy with him. They had admitted his exercise of the -Papal authority, and thereby were become, in the language of the Statute, -his "fautors and abettors." - -Dire was the dismay which at this charge seized on the whole body of the -clergy. The council ordered the Attorney-General to file an information -against the entire ecclesiastical body. Convocation assembled in haste, -and offered, as the price of a full pardon, L100,000. But still greater -were the amazement and dismay of the clergy, when they found that this -magnificent sum was rejected unless Convocation consented to declare, -in the preamble to the grant, that the king was "the protector and -only supreme head of the Church of England." By the king's permission, -however, the venerable Archbishop Warham introduced and carried an -amendment in Convocation, by which the grant was voted with this clause -in the preamble:--"Of which church and clergy we acknowledge His Majesty -to be the chief protector, the only and supreme lord, and, _as far as -the law of God will allow_, the supreme head." The wedge was introduced; -the severance was certain: the perfect accomplishment of it only awaited -another opportunity for an easier issue. The northern convocation adopted -the same language, and voted a grant of L18,840. - -Henry, under the guidance of Cromwell, now procured an act to be passed -by Parliament, abolishing the annates, or first-fruits, which furnished -a considerable annual income to the Pope, and another abrogating the -authority of the clergy in Convocation, and attaching that authority to -the Crown. Feeling that in this struggle he should need the friendship -of Francis, he proposed a new treaty with France, which was signed in -London on the 23rd of June, 1532; and the more to strengthen the alliance -the two monarchs met between Calais and Boulogne. Great preparations -were made on both sides, and Henry begged Francis to bring his favourite -mistress with him. This was as an excuse for Henry to bring Anne Boleyn, -who was now created the Marchioness of Pembroke, and without whom he -could go nowhere. It is said that Francis, during the interview, had -urged Henry to wait no longer for the permission of the Pope, but to -marry the Marchioness of Pembroke without further delay; but it is quite -certain that another counsellor was more urgent, and that was--Time. -It was high time, indeed, that the marriage should take place if they -meant to legitimatise her offspring, for Anne Boleyn was with child. -Accordingly, the marriage took place on the 25th of January, 1533. The -ceremony, however, was strictly private. In fact the marriage was kept -so secret that it was not even communicated to Cranmer, who had just -returned from Germany, and taken up his abode in the family of Anne -Boleyn. Cranmer, whilst in Germany, had married, Catholic priest as he -was, the niece of Osiander, the Protestant minister of Nuremberg. This -lady he had brought secretly to England, and was now living a married -priest, in direct violation of the Church that he belonged to. - -Archbishop Warham was now dead, and Henry nominated Cranmer to the vacant -primacy. He was consecrated Archbishop of Canterbury on the 30th of -March, 1533, and he was immediately ordered to proceed with the divorces. -The new primate, therefore, wrote on the 11th of April, a formal letter -to the king, soliciting the issue of a commission to try that cause, and -pronounce a definite sentence. This was immediately done; and Cranmer, -as the head of this commission, accompanied by Gardiner, now Bishop of -Winchester, the Bishops of London, Lincoln, Bath, and Wells, with many -other divines and canonists, opened their court at Dunstable, in the -monastery of St. Peter, six miles from Ampthill, where the queen resided. -On the 12th of May Cranmer pronounced Catherine contumacious, and on the -23rd, he declared her marriage was null and invalid from the beginning. -On the 28th, in a court held at Lambeth, the archbishop pronounced the -king's marriage with Anne Boleyn to be good and valid. On the 1st of -June, being Whit Sunday, Anne was crowned with every possible degree of -pomp and display. - -Henry, notwithstanding his separation from Rome, was anxious to obtain -the sanction of his marriage by the Pope; but, instead of that, Clement -fulminated his denunciations against him over Europe. He annulled -Cranmer's sentence on Henry's first marriage, and published a bull -excommunicating Henry and Anne, unless they separated before the next -September, when the new queen expected her confinement. Henry despatched -ambassadors to the different foreign courts to announce his marriage, and -the reasons which had led him to it; but from no quarter did he receive -much congratulation. - -[Illustration: THE TOWER OF LONDON: SKETCH IN THE GARDENS.] - -However sincere and earnest the two principals in this contest, the Pope -and Henry, might be, there were at work in the Court of England and the -Court of Rome parties really more powerful than their principals, who -were resolved that the two desiderata to this pacification never should -be yielded. Cromwell and his party commenced an active campaign in -Parliament for breaking beyond remedy the tie with Rome, and establishing -an independent church in this country. This able man, who for his past -services was now made Chancellor of the Exchequer for life, framed a -series of bills, and introduced them to Parliament, soon after the -Christmas holidays. These included an act establishing the title of the -king as supreme head of the English Church, and vesting in him the right -to appoint to all bishoprics, and to decide all ecclesiastical causes. -Payments or appeals to Rome were strictly forbidden by the confirmation -of the Annates Act, the Act against "Peter Pence," and that "in -Restraint of appeals" whereby the whole Roman jurisdiction in England was -decisively repudiated. - -By a further bill, the marriage of Catherine--strangely enough at the -very moment that Henry had conceded its final decision at Rome--was -declared unlawful, and that of Anne Boleyn confirmed. The issue by -the first marriage was declared illegitimate, and excluded from the -succession, and the issue of the marriage of Anne was made inheritable -of the crown, and that only, and any one casting any slander on this -marriage, or endeavouring to prejudice the succession of its issue, was -declared guilty of high treason, if by writing, printing, or deed, and -misprision of treason if by word. Thus was a new power established by -the Crown; every person of full age, or on hereafter coming to full age, -was to be sworn to obey this act. Not only new powers were thus created, -but a new crime was invented; and though this statute was swept away in -the course of a few years, yet it is a remarkable one, for it became the -precedent for many a succeeding and despotic government. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -REIGN OF HENRY VIII. (_continued_). - - The Maid of Kent and Her Accomplices--Act of Supremacy and - Consequent Persecutions--The "Bloody Statute"--Deaths of Fisher - and More--Suppression of the Smaller Monasteries--Trial and Death - of Anne Boleyn--Henry Marries Jane Seymour--Divisions in the - Church--The Pilgrimage of Grace--Birth of Prince Edward--Death - of Queen Jane--Suppression of the Larger Monasteries--The - Six Articles--Judicial Murders--Persecution of Cardinal - Pole--Cromwell's Marriage Scheme--Its Failure and his Fall. - - -The discontent aroused in the country amongst those attached to the -church of Rome, by the separation, and by the seizure of church property, -with the fear of still greater spoliation, excited many murmurings. -The king, aware that his proceedings were regarded with disapprobation -by a vast body of people both at home and abroad, grew suspicious of -every rumour, jealous, and vindictive. Amongst the singular conspiracies -against the royal transactions, one of the earliest arose out of the -visions of a young woman of Addington, in Surrey, of the name of -Elizabeth Barton, who was of a nervous temperament, and whose mind -was greatly excited by the sufferings of Queen Catherine. The rector -of the parish, struck by many of the words which fell from her in her -trances, regarded her as a religiously inspired person, and recommended -her to quit the village, and enter the convent of St. Sepulchre at -Canterbury. There her ecstacies and revelations, probably strengthened -by the atmosphere of the place, became more frequent and strong. The -nuns regarded her declarations as prophecies, and the fame of her soon -spread round the country, where she acquired the name of the "Holy Maid -of Kent." It was observed that her visions had all a tendency to exalt -the power of the Pope and the clergy, and to denounce the vengeance of -Heaven on all who disobeyed or attempted to injure them. At length Henry -considered that the words of the maid, which were sedulously taken down -and circulated through the press, were a powerful means of stirring up -the popular feeling against him, and he therefore ordered the arrest of -herself and the chief of her accomplices. - -In November they were brought into the Star Chamber and carefully -examined by Cranmer, the archbishop, Cromwell, and Hugh Latimer, who -soon after was made Bishop of Worcester. This tribunal appears to have -intimidated both the maid and her abettors into a confession of the -imposture, and they were condemned to stand during the sermon on Sunday -at St. Paul's Cross, and there acknowledge the fraud. After that they -were remanded to prison, and it was thought that, having disarmed these -people by this exposure, he would be satisfied with the punishment they -had received. But Henry was now become every day more and more addicted -to blood, and ready to shed it for any infringement of those almost -Divine rights which the supremacy of the Church had conferred on him. On -the 21st of February, 1534, therefore, a bill of attainder was brought -into the House of Lords against the maid and her abettors, on the plea -that their conspiracy tended to bring into peril the king's life and -crown. The bill, notwithstanding that it was regarded with horror by the -public as a strange and cruel stretch of authority, was passed by the -slavish Parliament; and on the 21st of April, 1534, the seven accused -were drawn to Tyburn and hanged. Besides the persons who suffered -immediately with her, there were also accused of corresponding with her, -Edward Thwaites, gentleman, Thomas Lawrence, registrar to the Archdeacon -of Canterbury, the venerable Fisher, Bishop of Rochester, and Sir Thomas -More. - -Fisher, who was in his seventy-sixth year, confessed that he had seen -and conversed with Elizabeth Barton; that he had heard her utter her -prophecies concerning the king; and that he had not mentioned them to the -sovereign, because her declarations did not refer to any violence against -him, but merely to a visitation of Providence; and because, also, he knew -that the king had received the communication of the prophecies from the -maid herself, who had had for that purpose a private audience with Henry. -He was, therefore, he said, guiltless of any conspiracy, and as he would -answer it before the throne of Christ, knew not of any malice or evil -that was intended by her or by any other earthly creature unto the king's -highness. - -The name of Sir Thomas More was erased from this bill, though he could -not be more innocent than Fisher, but not more than a fortnight passed -before the bloodthirsty tyrant had contrived a more deadly snare for -them both. He had them summoned, and commanded to take the new oath of -allegiance. They were both of them ready to swear to the king's full -temporal authority, and to the succession of his children, but they could -not conscientiously take the oath which declared Henry the supreme head -of the English Church, and the marriage with Anne Boleyn lawful. Cranmer, -who on this occasion showed more mildness and liberality than he had -shown honest principles in his elevation, would fain have admitted these -illustrious men to take the oath so far as it applied to temporal, and to -dispense with it as regarded spiritual matters. But he pleaded in vain, -and they were both committed to the Tower. - -Henry, having got the Acts of Parliament for the Supremacy and the -Succession, was not of a temper to let them become a dead letter. -Whether it was owing to the carelessness of Parliament or the -carefulness of the Crown, the oath of the Succession had not been -verbally defined, and Henry now availed himself of this emission to -alter and add to it so as to please himself. From the clergy he took -care to obtain an oath including the full recognition of his supremacy -in the Church, omitting the qualifying clause in the former one; and an -assertion that the Bishop of Rome had no more authority within the realm -than any other bishop. He spent the summer in administering this oath to -the monks, friars, and nuns, also to all clergymen and clerical bodies -whatever, and in obtaining decisions against the papal authority from -the two convocations and the universities. The oath to the laity was -administered to men and women alike. Remembering the mental reservation -of Cranmer when he swore obedience to the Pope, he now demanded from -every prelate an oath of renunciation of every protest previously or -secretly made contrary to the oath of supremacy. He ordered that the very -word Pope should be obliterated carefully out of all books used in public -worship. - -If Henry had been a zealous Reformer, a disciple of the new creed, we -might have attributed his proceedings to an arbitrary and uncharitable -earnestness for what he deemed the truth; but he was just as bigoted -in the old faith as ever. His Bloody Statute, as it was called, the -Statute of Six Articles, maintained that the actual presence was in -the sacramental bread and wine; that priests were forbidden to marry; -that vows of chastity were to be observed; and that mass and auricular -confession were indispensable. Those who opposed any of these dogmas -were to suffer death; no doctrine was to be believed contrary to the Six -Articles; no persons were to sing or rhyme contrary to them; no book was -to be possessed by any one against the Holy Sacrament; no annotations or -preambles were to exist in Bibles or Testaments in English; and nothing -was to be taught contrary to the king's command. In fact, the country had -only got rid of an Italian Pope and got an English one in his stead--Pope -Henry VIII. - -The first-fruits of this awful concession to a vain and selfish -man of the usurpation of God's own dominion in the soul, were an -indiscriminating mass of Lollards, Lutherans, Anabaptists, and Roman -Catholics committed to the flames. On the 22nd of July, during the -prorogation of Parliament, Firth, a young man of singular learning, -who had written a book against purgatory, transubstantiation, and -consubstantiation, was burnt in Smithfield; and a poor tailor, Andrew -Hewett, who simply affirmed that he thought Firth was right, was burnt -with him. Several Anabaptists underwent the same fate. - -[Illustration: SIR THOMAS MORE. (_After the Portrait by Holbein._)] - -As that year closed in blood, so the next opened. The priors of the -then Charterhouses of London, Axholm, and Belleval, waited on Cromwell -to explain their conscientious scruples; but Cromwell, who was become -the harsh and unhesitating instrument of Henry's despotism, instead -of listening to them, committed them to the Tower on a charge of high -treason, for refusing the king "the dignity, style, and name of his -Royal estate." When he brought them to trial the jury shrank from giving -such a verdict against men of their acknowledged virtue and character. -Cromwell hastened to the court in person, and threatened to hang them -instead of the prisoners, if they did not without further delay pronounce -them guilty. Five days later these three dignitaries were executed at -Tyburn, with Richard Reynolds, a doctor of divinity and monk of Sion, and -John Hailes, Vicar of Thistleworth. They were all treated with savage -barbarity, being hanged, cut down alive, embowelled, and dismembered. On -the 18th of June, nearly a fortnight afterwards, Exmew, Middlemore, and -Newdigate, three Carthusian monks from the Charterhouse, were executed, -with the same atrocities. - -[Illustration: THE PARTING OF SIR THOMAS MORE AND HIS DAUGHTER. (_See p._ -162.)] - -Whilst these horrors struck with consternation all at home, Henry -proceeded to a deed which extended the feeling of abhorrence all over -Europe. He shed the blood of Fisher and More. We have stated that -Parliament had not enacted the precise oath for the refusal of which -Fisher and More were arraigned. But this made no difference: the king -willed it, and the submissive legislature passed a bill of attainder for -misprision of treason against them both. On this they and their families -were stripped of everything they had. The poor old bishop was left in -a complete state of destitution, and had not even clothes to cover his -nakedness. Sir Thomas More was dependent wholly for the support of his -life on his married daughter, Margaret Roper. They were repeatedly -called up after their attainder, and treacherously examined as to any -act or word that they might have done or uttered contrary to the king's -supremacy, as if to aggravate their crime and justify a more rigorous -sentence. The Pope Clement was dead, and was succeeded by Paul III., -who, hearing of the sad condition of the venerable Fisher, sent him a -cardinal's hat, thinking it might make Henry less willing to proceed -to extremities with him. But the effect on the tyrant was quite the -contrary. On hearing of the Pope's intention, he exclaimed, "Ha! Paul may -send him a hat, but I will take care that he have never a head to wear it -on." - -Accordingly, the aged prelate was brought out of the Tower on the 22nd of -June, 1535, and beheaded. His head was stuck upon London Bridge, with his -face turned towards the Kentish hills, amid which he had spent so many -pleasant years. The body of the old bishop was stripped, and left naked -on the spot till evening, when it was carried away by the guards, and -buried in Allhallows churchyard at Barking. Such was the manner in which -this supreme head of the Church treated his former tutor, and one of the -most accomplished and pious men in Christendom. - -More, the scholar, the wit, the genius, raised reluctantly to the -chancellorship, had there so far deteriorated from the noble mood in -which he had written his "Utopia" as to have become, contrary to all its -doctrines and spirit, a persecutor. On the 14th of June he was visited in -the Tower by Doctors Aldridge, Layton, Curwen, and Mr. Bedle, and there -strictly interrogated in the presence of Pelstede, Whalley, and Rice, as -to whether he had held any correspondence since he came into the Tower -with Bishop Fisher, or others, and what had become of the letters he -had received. He replied that George, the lieutenant's servant, had put -them into the fire, against his wish, saying there was no better keeper -than the fire. He was then asked whether he would not acknowledge the -lawfulness of the king's marriage, and his headship of the Church. He -declined to give an answer. - -At length, on the 1st of July, he was brought out of the Tower, and -was conducted on foot through the streets of London to Westminster. He -was wrapped only in a coarse woollen garment, his hair had grown grey, -his face was pale and emaciated, for he had been nearly a year a close -prisoner. This was thought well calculated to teach a lesson of obedience -to the people; when they saw how the king handled even ex-chancellors and -cardinals. When he arrived, bowed with suffering, and supporting himself -on a staff, in that hall where he had presided with so much dignity, all -who saw him were struck with astonishment. In order to confound him, and -prevent the dreaded effect of his eloquence, his enemies had caused the -indictment against him to be drawn out an immense length, and the charges -to be grossly exaggerated and enveloped in clouds of words. Sentence -of death was pronounced upon him, and he rose to address the Court. In -the rudest manner they attempted to silence him, and twice, by their -clamour, they succeeded; but the firmness of the noble victim at length -triumphed, and he told them that he could now openly avow what he had -before concealed from every human being, that the oath of supremacy was -contrary to English law. He declared that he had no enmity against his -judges. There would, he observed, have always been a scene of contention, -and he prayed that as Paul had consented to the death of Stephen, and -yet was afterwards called to tread in the same path, and ascend to the -same heaven, so might he and they yet meet there. "And so," he added, in -conclusion, "may God preserve you all, and especially my lord the king, -and send him good counsel." - -As he turned from the bar, his son rushed through the hall, fell upon -his knees, and implored his blessing; and, on approaching the Tower -Wharf, his daughter, Margaret Roper, forced her way through the guard -which surrounded him, and, clasping him round the neck, wept and sobbed -aloud. The noble man, now clothed with all the calm dignity of the -Christian philosopher, summoned fortitude enough to take a loving and a -final farewell of her; but as he was moved on, the distracted daughter -turned back, and, flying once more through the crowd, hung on his neck -in the abandonment of grief. This was too much for his stoicism; he shed -tears, whilst with deep emotion he repeated his blessing, and uttered -words of Christian consolation. The people and the guards were so deeply -affected, that they too burst into tears, and it was some time before the -officers could summon resolution to part the father and his child. - -On the 6th of July he was summoned to execution, and informed that the -king, as an especial favour, had commuted his punishment from hanging, -drawing, and quartering, to decapitation. On this Sir Thomas, who had now -taken his leave of the world, and met death with the cheerful humour of a -man who is well assured that he is on the threshold of a better, replied -with his wonted promptitude of wit, "God preserve all my friends from -such favour." As he was about to ascend the scaffold, some one expressed -a fear lest it should break down, for it appeared weak. "Mr. Lieutenant," -said More, smiling, "see me safe up, and for my coming down let me shift -for myself." The executioner then approached, and asked his forgiveness. -More embraced him, and said, "Friend, thou wilt render me the greatest -service in the power of any mortal; but," putting an angel into his hand, -"my neck is so short, that I fear thou wilt gain little credit in the way -of thy profession." The same fear of the eloquence of the illustrious -victim which had attempted to stop his mouth on the trial, now forbade -him to address the multitude; he therefore contented himself with -saying that he died a faithful subject to the king, and a true Catholic -before God. He then prayed, and, laying his head upon the block, bade -the executioner stay his hand a moment while he put back his beard. For -"that," said he, "has never committed any treason." His head was severed -at a single blow, and was, like Fisher's, fixed on London Bridge. - -But it was not merely in lopping off the heads of honest statesmen and -prelates that Henry VIII. now displayed the powers of supreme head -over the Church. There was a more tempting prey which allured his -avaricious soul, and promised to recruit his exhausted treasury. These -were the monasteries, convents, and abbeys. These institutions had grown -excessively corrupt through time. Without depending on the reports of -Henry's commissioners, whose business it was to make out a case for him -against them, there is abundant evidence in contemporary writings that -the monks, nuns, and friars were grown extremely sensual and corrupt. -Rage and cupidity alike urged Henry to imitate the Reformers of Germany, -and seize the spoils of this wealthy body. Cromwell--whom he had -appointed Vicar-General, a strange office for a layman--went the whole -length with him in those views; nay, he was the man who first turned his -eyes on this great attractive mass of wealth, and hallooed him to the -spoil. He had told him that, if once he was established by Parliament as -head of the Church, all that opulence was his. There can be no doubt that -it was to carry out this seizure that Cromwell was put into that very -office of Vicar-General, as the only man to do the business, and he went -to work upon it with right good will. - -The first thing was to appoint a commission, and to obtain such a -report as should induce Parliament to pass an act of suppression of the -religious houses, and the forfeiture of all their property to the Crown. -The Archbishop of Paris, years before, had confidently affirmed, that -whenever Wolsey should fall, the spoliation of the Church would quickly -follow. To expedite this matter as much as possible, the whole kingdom -was divided into districts, and to each district was appointed a couple -of commissioners, who were armed with eighty-six questions to propound to -the monastic orders. As acknowledgment of the supremacy of the king and -approbation of his marriage were made requisites of compliance, there was -little chance of escape for any monastery, be its morals what they might. - -The visitors had secret instructions to seek, in the first place, the -lesser houses, and to exhort the inmates voluntarily to surrender them -to the king, and, where they did not succeed, to collect such a body of -evidence as should warrant the suppression of those houses; but after -zealously labouring at this object through the winter, they could only -prevail on seven small houses to surrender. A report was then prepared, -which considerably surprised the public by stating that the lesser houses -were abandoned to the most shameful sloth and immorality, but that the -large and more opulent ones, contrary to all human experience, were more -orderly. The secret of this representation was, that the abbots and -priors of the great houses were lords of Parliament, and were, therefore, -present to expose any false statement. - -On the 4th of March, 1536, a bill was passed hastily through both Houses, -transferring to the king and his heirs all monastic establishments the -clear value of which did not exceed L200 per annum. It was calculated -that this bill--which, however, did not pass the Commons till Henry had -sent for them, and told them that he would apply his favourite remedy -for stiff necks--would dissolve no less than 380 communities, and add -L32,000 to the annual income of the Crown, besides the presents received -of L100,000 in money, plate, and jewels. The cause of these presents -was a clause in the Act of Parliament, which left it to the discretion -of the king to found any of these houses anew; a clause which was -actively worked by Cromwell and his commissioners, and, by the hopes -they inspired, drew large sums from the menaced brethren, part of which -lodged in the pockets of the minister and his agents, and part reached -the Crown. Cromwell amassed a large fortune from such sources. - -The Parliament, which had now sat seven years, and which was one of the -most slavish and base bodies that ever were brought together--having -yielded every popular right and privilege which the imperious monarch -demanded, and augmented the Royal prerogative to a pitch of actual -absolutism; having altered the succession, changed the system of -ecclesiastical government, abolished a great number of the ancient -religious houses without thereby much benefiting the Crown--was now -dismissed, having done that for this worthless king which should cost -some of his successors their thrones or their heads, and a braver and -more honourable generation the blood of its best men to undo again. - -Anne Boleyn, on hearing of Catherine's death, which occurred in January, -1536, was so rejoiced that she could not help crying out, "Now I am -indeed a queen!" And yet, in truth, never had she less cause for triumph. -Already the lecherous eye of her worthless husband had fallen on one of -_her_ maids, as it had formerly fallen on one of Catherine's in her own -person. This was Jane Seymour, a daughter of a knight of Wiltshire, who -was not only of great beauty, but was distinguished for a gentle and -sportive manner, equally removed from the Spanish gravity of Catherine -and the French levity of Anne Boleyn. Before the death of Catherine, -this fresh amour of Henry's was well known in the palace to all but -the reigning queen; and, according to Wyatt, Anne only became aware -of it by entering a room one day, and beholding Jane Seymour seated -on Henry's knee, in a manner the most familiar, and as if accustomed -to that indulgence. She saw at once that not only was Henry ready to -bestow his regards on another, but that other was still more willing to -step into her place than she had been to usurp that of Catherine. Anne -was far advanced in pregnancy, and was in great hopes of riveting the -king's affections to her by the birth of a prince; but the shock which -she now received threw her into such agitation that she was prematurely -delivered--of a boy, indeed, but dead. Henry, the moment that he heard of -this unlucky accident, rushed into the queen's chamber, and upbraided her -savagely "with the loss of his boy." Anne, stung by this cruelty, replied -that he had to thank himself and "that wench Jane Seymour" for it. The -fell tyrant retired, muttering his vengeance, and the die was now cast -irrevocably for Anne Boleyn, if it were not before. - -It was a great misfortune for Anne that she had never been able to lay -aside that levity of manner which she had acquired by spending her -juvenile years at the French Court. After her elevation to the throne, -she was too apt to forget, with those about her, the sober dignity which -belonged to the queen, and to converse with the officers about her more -in the familiar manner of the maid-of-honour which she had once been. -This freedom and gaiety had been caught at by the Court gossips, and now -scandals were whispered abroad, and, as soon as the way was open by the -anger and fresh love affair of the king, carried to him. Such accusations -were precisely what he wanted, as a means to rid himself of her. A plot -was speedily concocted, in which she was to be charged with criminal -conduct towards not only three officers of the Royal household--Brereton, -Weston, and Norris--but also with Mark Smeaton, the king's musician, -and, still more horrible, with her own brother, the Viscount Rochford. A -court of inquiry was at once appointed, in which presided Cromwell, the -Lord Chancellor, and the Dukes of Norfolk and Suffolk, Anne's determined -enemies. On the 28th of April they began with Brereton, and committed -him to the Tower. On Sunday, the 31st, they examined Smeaton, and sent -him also to the same prison. The following day, being the 1st of May, -the court was suspended to celebrate the gaieties usual on that day; and -these were used for the purpose of obtaining a public cause of accusation -against Sir Henry Norris. There was to be held a tournament at Greenwich -that day, in which the Viscount Rochford was to be opposed by Norris as -the principal defendant. - -In the midst of the tournament, Henry, who, no doubt, was watching for -some opportunity to entrap his victims, suddenly found one. The queen, -leaning over the balcony, witnessing the tournament, accidentally -let fall her handkerchief. Norris took it up, and, it was said, -presumptuously wiped his face with it, and then handed it to the queen on -his spear. The thing is wholly improbable, the true version most likely -being that the courtly Norris kissed the handkerchief on taking it up--an -ordinary knightly usage--and that this was seized upon as a pretended -charge against him. Henry, however, suddenly frowned, rose abruptly from -his seat, and, black as a thunder-cloud, marched out of the gallery, -followed by his six attendants. Every one was amazed; the queen appeared -terror-stricken, and immediately retired. Sir Henry Norris, and not only -Norris but Lord Rochford, who had had nothing whatever to do with the -handkerchief (showing, therefore, that the matter was preconcerted), was -arrested at the barriers on a charge of high treason. The queen herself -was taken to her lodgings in the Tower. - -[Illustration: ANNE BOLEYN. (_After the Portrait by Holbein._)] - -Left alone in her prison, Anne's affliction seemed to actually disturb -her intellect. She would sit for hours plunged in a stupor of melancholy, -shedding torrents of tears, and then she would abruptly burst into wild -laughter. To her attendants she would say that she should be a saint in -heaven; that no rain would fall on the earth till she was delivered from -prison; and that the most grievous calamities would oppress the nation in -punishment for her death. At other times she became calm and devotional, -and requested that a consecrated host might be placed in her closet. - -But the unhappy queen was not suffered to enjoy much retirement. It -was necessary for Henry to establish a charge against her sufficiently -strong to turn the feeling of the nation against her, and from him; and -for this purpose no means were neglected which tyranny and harshness -of the intensest kind could suggest. Whilst the accused gentlemen were -interrogated, threatened, cajoled, and even put to the torture in their -cells, to force a confession of guilt from them, two women were set over -Anne to watch her every word, look, and act, to draw from her in her -unguarded conversation everything they could to implicate her, and, no -doubt, to invent and colour where the facts did not sufficiently answer -the purpose required. These were Lady Boleyn, the wife of Anne's uncle, -Sir Edward Boleyn, a determined enemy of hers, and Mrs. Cosyns, the -wife of Anne's master of the horse, a creature of the most unprincipled -character. - -Mrs. Cosyns asked her why Norris had told his almoner on the preceding -Saturday "that he could swear the queen was a good woman?" "Marry," -replied Anne, "I bade him do so, for I asked him why he did not go on -with his marriage, and he made answer that he would tarry awhile. 'Then,' -said I, 'you look for dead men's shoes. If aught but good should come to -the king [who was then afflicted with a dangerous ulcer], you would look -to have me.' He denied it, and I told him I could undo him if I would." -Again, the queen expressed some apprehension of what Weston might say -in his examination, for he had told her on Whit Monday last that Norris -came into her chamber more for her sake than for Madge, one of her maids -of honour. She had told him he did love her kinswoman, Mrs. Skelton, -and that he loved not his wife; and he answered again that he loved one -in his house better than them both. She asked him who, and he said, -"Yourself," on which she defied him. Such was the stuff which Kingston -gathered at the hands of these wretched spies, to be used against the -queen, who was to be got rid of. - -Anne exhorted Kingston to convey a letter from her to Cromwell, but he -declined such a responsibility; she contrived, however, by some means, on -the fourth day of her imprisonment, to forward a letter, which conveys a -very different impression from the conversation reported by the female -spies, through Cromwell to the king. - -"Never," she wrote, "did I at any time so far forget myself in my -exaltation or received queenship, but that I always looked for such -alteration as I now find; for the ground of my preferment being on no -surer foundation than your grace's fancy, the least alteration was fit -and sufficient (I knew) to draw that fancy to some other object. - -"Try me, good king, but let me have a lawful trial, and let not my sworn -enemies sit as my accusers and as my judges; yea, let me receive an open -trial, for my truth shall fear no open shame. Then shall you see either -mine innocency cleared, your suspicions and conscience satisfied, the -ignominy and slander of the world stopped, or my guilt openly declared." - -This letter, a copy of which was found amongst the papers of Cromwell, -when his turn came to pay the penalty of serving that remorseless tyrant, -is the letter of an innocent woman, and forms a strange contrast to the -dubious language put into her mouth by those who reported her speech on -the scaffold. - -On the 10th of May an indictment for high treason was found by the grand -jury of Westminster against Anne and the five gentlemen accused; and on -the same day the four commoners were put upon their trial in Westminster -Hall, for the alleged offences against the honour and life of their -sovereign lord. A true bill was also found against them by the grand -juries of Kent and Middlesex, some of the offences being laid in those -counties, at Greenwich, Hampton Court, &c. Smeaton, the musician, was the -only one who could be brought to confess his guilt; and it is declared by -Constantyne, who was in attendance on the trials, and wrote an account -of the proceedings, that he "had been grievously racked" to bring him to -that confession. According to Grafton's chronicle, he was beguiled into -signing the deposition which criminated the queen as well as himself, -by an offer of pardon like that so repeatedly made to Norris. The weak -man fell into the snare; the rest of the accused stood firmly by their -innocence, and neither threats nor promises could move them from it. -Norris was a great favourite with the king, who still appeared anxious -to save his life, and sent to him, offering him again full pardon if he -would confess his guilt. But Norris nobly declared that he believed in -his conscience that the queen was wholly innocent of the crimes charged -upon her; but whether she were so or not, he could not accuse her of -anything, and that he would rather die a thousand deaths than falsely -accuse the innocent. On this being told to Henry, he exclaimed, "Let him -hang then! hang him up then!" All the four were condemned to death. - -On the 16th of May Queen Anne and her brother, Lord Rochford, were -brought to trial in the great hall in the Tower, a temporary court -being erected within it for the purpose. The Duke of Norfolk, a known -and notorious enemy of the accused, was created Lord High Steward for -the occasion, and presided--a sufficient proof, if any were needed, -that no justice was intended. His son, the Earl of Surrey, sat as -Deputy Earl-Marshal beneath him. Twenty-six peers, as "lords-triers," -constituted the court, and amongst these appeared the Duke of Suffolk, a -nobleman still more inveterate in his hatred of the queen than the chief -judge himself. The Earl of Northumberland, Anne's old lover, was one -of the lords-triers; but he was seized with such a disorder, no doubt -resulting from his memory of the past, that he was obliged to quit the -court before the arraignment of Lord Rochford, and did not live many -months. Henry, by his tyranny, had forcibly rent asunder his engagement -with Anne; had embittered his life; and tired of the treasure which would -have made Northumberland happy, he now called upon that injured man to -assist in destroying one whom he had already lost. - -Lord Rochford defended himself with such courage and ability that even -in that packed court there were many who, by their sense of justice, -were led to brave the vengeance of the terrible king, and voted for his -acquittal. The chief witness against him was his own wife, who had hated -Anne Boleyn from the moment that she became the king's favourite; and -now with a most monstrous violation of all nature and decency, strove to -destroy her queen and her own husband together. Spite of the impression -which the young viscount made on some of his judges, he was condemned, -for Henry willed it, and that was enough. - -When he was removed Anne, Queen of England, was summoned into court, and -appeared attended by her ladies and Lady Kingston, and was conducted to -the bar by the Constable and Lieutenant of the Tower. She stood alone, -without counsel or adviser; yet in that trying moment she displayed a -dignified composure worthy of her station and of the character of an -innocent woman. Crispin, Lord of Milherve, who was present, says that -"she presented herself at the bar with the true dignity of a queen, and -curtsied to her judges, looking round upon them all without any signs of -fear." When the indictment against her, charging her with adultery and -incest, had been read, she held up her hand and pleaded not guilty. - -Anne seems to have shown great ability and address on the occasion. She -is said to have spoken with extraordinary force, wit, and eloquence, -and so completely scattered all the vile tissue of lies that was brought -against her, that the spectators imagined that there was nothing for it -but to acquit her. "It was reported without doors," says Wyatt, "that -she had cleared herself in a most wise and noble speech." But, alas! it -was neither wisdom, wit, truth, innocence, eloquence, nor all the powers -and virtues which could be assembled in one soul, which could draw an -acquittal from that assembly of slaves bound by selfish terror to the -yoke of the remorseless despot who now disgraced the throne. "Had the -peers given their verdict, according to the expectation of the assembly," -says Bishop Godwin, "she had been acquitted." But they knew they must -give it according to the expectation of their implacable master, and she -was condemned. - -Henry lost no time in getting rid of the woman, to obtain whom he had -moved heaven and earth for years--threatening the peace of kingdoms, and -rending the ancient bonds of the Church. The very day on which she was -condemned, he signed her death-warrant, and sent Cranmer to confess her. -There is something rather hinted at than proved in this part of these -strange proceedings. Anne, when she was conveyed from Greenwich to the -Tower, told her enemies proudly that nothing could prevent her dying -their queen; and now, when she had seen Cranmer, she was in high spirits, -and said to her attendants that she believed she should be spared after -all, and that she understood that she was to be sent to Antwerp. The -meaning of this the event of next day sufficiently explained. In the -morning, on a summons from Archbishop Cranmer, she was conveyed privately -from the Tower to Lambeth, where she voluntarily submitted to a judgment -that her marriage with the king had been invalid, and was, therefore, -from the first null and void. Thus she consented to dethrone herself, -to unwife herself, and to bastardise her only child. Why? Undoubtedly -from the promise of life, and from fear of the horrid death by fire. As -she had received the confident idea of escape with life from the visit -of Cranmer, there can be no rational doubt that he had been employed by -the king to tamper with her fears of death and the stake, and draw this -concession from her. Does any one think this impossible or improbable in -Cranmer--the great Reformer of the Church? Let him weigh his very next -proceeding. - -Cranmer had formerly examined the marriage of Henry and Anne carefully -by the canon law, and had pronounced it good and valid. He now -proceeded to contradict every one of his former arguments and decisions, -and pronounced the same marriage null and void. A solemn mockery of -everything true, serious, and Divine was now gone through. Henry -appointed Dr. Sampson his proctor in the case; Anne had assigned her -the Drs. Wotton and Barbour. The objections to the marriage were read -over to them in the presence of the queen. The king's proctor could -not dispute them; the queen's were, with pretended reluctance, obliged -to admit them, and both united in demanding a judgment. Then the great -Archbishop and Reformer, "having previously invoked the name of Christ, -and having God alone before his eyes," pronounced definitively that the -marriage formally contracted, solemnised, and consummated between Henry -and Anne was from the first illegal, and, therefore, no marriage at all; -and the poor woman, who had been induced to submit to this deed of shame -and of infamous deception, was sent back, not to life, not to exile at -Antwerp--but to the block! - -[Illustration: ANNE BOLEYN'S LAST FAREWELL OF HER LADIES. (_See p._ 168.)] - -Friday, the 19th of May, was the day fixed for her execution, and on -that morning she rose at two o'clock and resumed her devotions with -her almoner. She sent for Sir William Kingston to be witness to her -last solemn protest of her innocence before taking the sacrament. A few -minutes before twelve o'clock she was led forth by the Lieutenant of the -Tower to the scaffold. "Never," said a foreign gentleman present, "had -the queen looked so beautiful before." Her composure was equal to her -beauty. She removed her hat and collar herself, and put a small linen cap -upon her head, saying, "Alas! poor head, in a very brief space thou wilt -roll in the dust on the scaffold; and as in life thou didst not merit to -wear a crown, so in death thou deserved not better doom than this." She -then took a very affectionate farewell of her ladies. Having given to -Mary Wyatt, the sister of Sir Thomas Wyatt, who attended her through all -her trouble, the little book of devotions which she held in her hand, and -whispered to her some parting words, she laid her head on the block. One -of the ladies then covered her eyes with a bandage, and as the poor queen -was saying, "O Lord, have mercy on my soul," the executioner, who had -been sent for from Calais, severed her head from her body at one stroke -of the sword. Her body was thrust into a chest used for keeping arrows -in, and buried in the same grave with that of her brother, Lord Rochford, -no coffin being provided. - -[Illustration: ST. PETER'S CHAPEL, TOWER GREEN, LONDON, WHERE ANNE BOLEYN -WAS BURIED.] - -Henry now repealed the late act of settlement, and passed a new one -through the compliant Parliament, entailing the crown on the issue by -Jane Seymour, whom he married on the morning after Anne's execution. -He obtained, moreover, a power to bequeath the succession by letters -patent, or by his last will, in case of having no fresh issue of his own, -on any person whom he thought proper. In life and in death he demanded -absolute power over every principle of the Constitution, and this -Parliament, which would have granted him anything, conceded it. It was -well understood that he meant to cut off his daughters, and to confer the -crown on his illegitimate son, the Duke of Richmond. But as if Providence -would punish him in the very act, this son died before he could give his -Royal assent to the bill. - -But if Henry had found a very submissive body in the Parliament, there -was much discontent amongst the people, who were encouraged in their -murmurs by the monks who had been dispossessed of their monasteries -or who feared the approach of their fall, and by the clergy, who were -equally alarmed at the progress of the opinions of the Reformers in the -nation. There were two great factions in the Church and the Government, -the opposed members of which were denominated the men of the Old and -the New learning. At the head of the Old or Romanist faction were Lee, -Archbishop of York; Stokesley, Bishop of London; Tunstal, Bishop of -Durham; Gardiner, of Winchester; Sherbourne, of Chichester; Nix, of -Norwich; and Kite, of Carlisle. These received the countenance and -support of the Duke of Norfolk and of Wriothesley, the premier secretary. -The leaders of the Reforming faction were Cranmer, the Primate; Latimer, -Bishop of Worcester; Shaxton, of Salisbury; Hilsey, of Rochester; Fox, of -Hereford; and Barlow, of St. David's. These were especially patronised by -Cromwell, whose power as Vicar-General was great, and who was now made -Lord Cromwell by the king. - -Each of these parties, supported by a large body in the nation, -endeavoured to make their way by flattering the vanity or the love of -power of the capricious king. The Papist party swayed him to their side -by his love of the old doctrines and rites; the Reformers, by his pride -in opposing the Pope, and the gratification of his love of power as the -independent head of the Church. In this transition state of things, the -doctrines of the English Church, as settled by Convocation, exhibited -a singular medley, and were liable at any moment to be disturbed by -the momentary bias of the king, whose word was the only law of both -Church and State. The Reformers succeeded in having the standard of -faith recognised as existing in the Scriptures and the three creeds--the -Apostolic, Nicene, and Athanasian; but then the Romanists had secured the -retention of auricular confession and penance. As to marriage, extreme -unction, confirmation, or holy orders, it was found that there could -be no agreement in the belief in them as sacraments, and, therefore, -they remained unmentioned, every one following his own fancy. The -Real Presence was admitted in the sacrament of the Supper. The Roman -Catholics asserted the warrant of Scripture for the use of images; but -the Protestants denied this, and warned the people against idolatry in -praying to them. The use of holy water, the ceremonies practised on Ash -Wednesday, Palm Sunday, Good Friday, and other Festivals, were still -maintained, but Convocation, yielding to the Reformers, admitted that -they had no power to remit sin. - -The Church being in this divided state, each party pushed its own -opinions and practice where it could, with the certain consequence -that there was much feud and heart-burning, and the people were pulled -hither and thither. In those places where the Reformers prevailed, they -saw the images thrown down or removed, the ancient rites neglected or -despised; and they felt themselves aggrieved, but more especially with -the ordinances of Cromwell as Vicar-General, who retrenched many of their -ancient holidays. He also incensed the clergy, by prohibiting the resort -to places of pilgrimage, and the exhibition of relics. These greatly -reduced the emoluments of the clergy, whom he on the other hand compelled -to lay aside a considerable portion of their revenues for the repairs of -the churches, and the assistance of the poor. This caused them to foment -the discontents of the people, and the thousands of monks now wandering -over the country, without home or subsistence, found ready listeners -in the vast population which had been accustomed to draw their main -support from the daily alms of the convents and monasteries. The people, -seeing all these ancient sources of a lazy support suddenly cut off by -Government, grew furious; and their disaffection was strengthened by -observing that many of the nobility and gentry were equally malcontent, -whose ancestry had founded monasteries, and who, therefore, looked upon -them with feelings of family pride, and, moreover, regarded them as a -certain provision for some of their younger children. There were many -of all classes who thought with horror of the souls of their ancestors -and friends, who, they believed, would now remain for ages in all the -torments of purgatory, for want of masses to relieve them. - -All these causes operating together produced formidable insurrections, -both in the north and south. The first rising was in Lincolnshire. It -was headed by Dr. Mackrel, the Prior of Barlings, who was disguised like -a mechanic, and by another man in disguise, calling himself Captain -Cobbler. The first attack was occasioned by the demand of a subsidy for -the king, but the public mind was already in a state of high excitement, -and this was only the spark that produced the explosion. Twenty thousand -men quickly rose in arms, and forced several lords and gentlemen to -be their leaders. Such as refused, they either threw into prison or -killed on the spot. Amongst the latter was the Chancellor of Longland, -an ecclesiastic by no means popular. The king sent a force against them -under the Duke of Suffolk, attended by the Earls of Shrewsbury, Kent, -Rutland, and Huntingdon. - -Suffolk found the insurgents in such force that he thought it best to -temporise, and demanded of them what they had to complain of. Thereupon -the men of Lincolnshire drew up and presented to him a list of six -articles of grievance. These consisted, first and foremost, of the -suppression of the monasteries, by which they said great numbers of -persons were put from their livings, and the poor of the realm were -left unrelieved. Another complaint was of the fifteenth voted by -Parliament, and of having to pay fourpence for a beast, and twelvepence -for every twenty sheep. They affirmed that the king had taken into his -councils personages of low birth and small reputation, who had got the -forfeited lands into their hands, "most especial for their singular -lucre and advantage." This was aimed by name, and with only too much -justice, at Cromwell and Lord Rich, who had grown wealthy on the spoils -of the abbeys. To these men they added the names of the Archbishop of -Canterbury, the Bishops of Rochester, Salisbury, St. David's, and Dublin, -whom they accused of having perverted the faith of the realm; and they -especially attributed the severe exactions on the people to the Bishop of -Lincoln and the officers of Cromwell, of whom it was rumoured that they -meant to take the plate, jewels, and ornaments of the parish churches, as -they had taken those of the religious houses. - -The king answered by flatly refusing their petition, bidding them -meddle no more in the affairs of their undoubted prince, but deliver up -their ringleaders, and leave governing to him and his counsellors and -noblemen. This bluster appears to have frightened the simple clodhoppers -of the Fens; for we have, a few days later, another letter from the same -swelling hand, telling them that he has heard from the Earl of Shrewsbury -that they have shown a fitting repentance and sorrow for their folly -and their heinous crimes; and assuring them that in any other Christian -country they, their wives and children, would have been exterminated with -fire and sword. He orders them to pile their arms in the market-place of -Lincoln, and get away to their proper habitations and business, or, if -they remain a day longer in arms, he will execute on them, their wives -and children, the most terrible judgments that the world had ever known. - -On the 30th of October, this frightened rabble, which seems to have been -led on and then deserted by the clergy and gentry, dispersed, having -first delivered up to the king's general fifteen of their ringleaders, -amongst whom were Dr. Mackrel, the Prior of Barlings, and Captain -Cobbler, said to have been a man of the name of Melton. These prisoners -were afterwards executed as traitors, with all the barbarities of the -age. - -Scarcely, however, was the disturbance in Lincolnshire suppressed, when -a far more formidable one broke out in the north. The people there were -much more accustomed to arms, and their vicinity to the Scots created -alarm at Court, lest the latter should take advantage of the rising to -make an inroad into the country. The insurrection quickly spread over -Northumberland, Durham, Yorkshire, Westmoreland, and Lancashire. The Lord -Darcy was conspicuous in it on the Borders, and there were calculated -to be not less than 40,000 men in arms. Henry was this time seriously -aroused, and sent Cromwell to the Jewel-house in the Tower to take as -much plate as he thought could possibly be spared, and have it coined to -pay troops, for he had no money in his coffers, notwithstanding all the -monasteries which he had seized. Wriothesley, the Secretary of State, -wrote from Windsor to Cromwell to expedite this business, superscribing -his letter, "_In haste--haste for thy life_;" and telling him that the -king appeared to fear much this matter, especially if he should want -money, "for on the Lord Darcy his Grace had no great trust." - -As soon as money could be coined, a good sum was sent to the Duke -of Suffolk, who was posted at Newark, and who made free use of it -in buying over some of the ringleaders, and in sowing dissensions -among the insurgents. Meanwhile the Earl of Shrewsbury was made the -king's Lord-Lieutenant north of the Trent, and the Duke of Norfolk was -despatched into Yorkshire, to command there with 5,000 men. Robert Aske, -a gentleman of ability, was at the head of the rebel forces, and he had -given a religious character to the movement by styling it "The Pilgrimage -of Grace." Priests marched in the van, in the habits of their various -orders, carrying crosses and banners, on which were emblazoned the figure -of Christ on the cross, the sacred chalice, and the five wounds of the -Saviour. On their sleeves, too, were embroidered the five wounds, and -the name of Christ on their centre. They had all sworn an oath that they -had entered into the pilgrimage from no other motive than the love of -God, the care of the king's person and issue, the desire of purifying the -nobility, of driving base persons from the king, of restoring the Church, -and suppressing heresy. - -Wherever they came, they compelled the people to join their ranks, -as they would answer it at the day of judgment, as they would bear -the pulling down of their houses, and the loss of their goods and of -their lives. They restored the monks and nuns to their houses as -they went along. The cities of York, Hull, and Pontefract had opened -their gates, and taken the prescribed oaths. The Archbishop of York, -the Lords Darcy, Lumley, Latimer, and Neville, with a vast number of -knights and gentlemen, gathered to their standard, either by free will -or compulsion, and the army presented a formidable aspect. But there -was already disunion in the host. The money of the Duke of Suffolk was -doing its work, and Wriothesley soon wrote that the insurgents were -falling to talking amongst themselves, and, if that went on, a pair of -light heels would soon be worth five pairs of hands to them. The Earl -of Cumberland repulsed them from his castle of Skipton; Sir Ralph Evers -defended Scarborough against them; Courtenay, Marquis of Exeter, the -Earls of Huntingdon, Derby, and Rutland, took the field against them; and -they only managed to take Pomfret Castle, because the Lord Darcy and the -Archbishop of York, lying there, were supposed to be secretly in league -with them, and only made a show of force, which they might plead in case -of failure. - -The insurgents, quite aware that the Government, which was attempting -to sow dissension among them by pretended negotiations, was but waiting -to seize and crush the leaders, again took the field in the very midst -of winter. On the 23rd of January, 1537, bills were stuck on the church -doors by night, calling on the commoners to come forth and to be true -to one another, for the gentlemen had deceived them, yet they should -not want for captains. There was great distrust lest the gentlemen had -been won over by the pardon and by money. The rebels, however, marched -out under two leaders of the name of Musgrave and Tilby, and, 8,000 -strong, they laid siege to Carlisle, where they were repulsed; and, being -encountered in their retreat by Norfolk, they were defeated and put to -flight. All their officers, except Musgrave, were taken and put to death, -to the number of seventy. Sir Francis Bigot and one Hallam attempted to -surprise Hull, but failed; and other risings in the north proving equally -abortive, the king now bade Norfolk spread his banner, march through the -northern counties with martial law, and, regardless of the pardon he had -issued, punish the rebels without mercy. - -As the monks had obviously been at the bottom of this commotion, Henry -let loose his vengeance especially upon them. He ordered Norfolk to go -to Sawley, Hexham, Newminster, Lanercost, St. Agatha, and all other -places that had made resistance, and there seize certain priors and -canons and send them up to him, and immediately to hang up "all monks and -canons that be in any wise faulty, without further delay or ceremony." -He ordered the Earl of Surrey and other officers in the north to charge -the monks there with grievous offences, to try their minds, and see -whether they would not submit themselves gladly to his will. Under these -sanguinary orders the whole of England north of the Trent became a scene -of horror and butchery, and ghastly heads and mangled bodies, or corpses -swinging from the trees. Nor did this admirable reformer of religion -neglect to look after the property of his victims. Their lands and goods -were all to be forfeited and taken possession of; "for we are informed," -he says, "that there were amongst them divers freeholders and rich men, -whose lands and goods, well looked unto, will reward others that with -their truth have deserved the same." - -Besides Aske, Sir Thomas Constable, Sir John Bulmer, Sir Thomas Percy, -Sir Stephen Hamilton, Nicholas Tempest, William Lumley, and others, -though they had taken the benefit of the pardon, were found guilty, -and most of them were executed. Lord Hussey was found guilty of being -an accomplice in the Lincolnshire rising, and was executed at Lincoln. -Lord Darcy, though he pleaded compulsion, and a long life spent in the -service of the Crown, was executed on Tower Hill. Lady Bulmer, the wife -of Sir John Bulmer, was burnt in Smithfield; and Robert Aske was hung in -chains on one of the towers of York. Having thus satiated his vengeance, -and struck a profound terror into all the disaffected, Henry once more -published a general pardon, to which he adhered; and even complied with -one of the demands which the insurgents had made, that of erecting by -patent a court of justice at York, for deciding lawsuits in the northern -counties. - -On the 12th of October, 1537, Jane Seymour gave birth to the long-desired -prince, so well known afterwards as King Edward VI. This event took -place at the palace of Hampton Court, and the infant was immediately -proclaimed Prince of Wales, Duke of Cornwall, and Earl of Chester. The -joy on so greatly desired an occurrence may be imagined, though it -was somewhat dashed by the death of the queen, which took place only -twelve days afterwards. During the confinement there was some question -whether the life of the mother or of the child should be sacrificed, -and on the question being put to the king, which should be spared, he -characteristically replied, "The child by all means, for other wives -can be easily found." The queen's death, however, was occasioned by -the absurd exposure which the pompous christening necessitated. Henry -appeared to be grieved when her death really took place, and put on -mourning, which he had never done for his wives before, and never did -again. He wore it three months. - -[Illustration: THE PILGRIMAGE OF GRACE. (_See p._ 171.)] - -By the accession of Queen Jane a new family, greedy and insatiable of -advancement, was brought forward, whom we shall soon find figuring on -the scene. The queen's brothers, sisters, uncles, and cousins presently -filled every great and lucrative office at Court; closely imitating the -unpopular precedent of the relations of Elizabeth Woodville. Her eldest -brother, Edward Seymour, was immediately made Lord Beauchamp and Earl of -Hertford; and, in the joy of having an heir, Henry created Sir William -Paulet Lord St. John and Sir John Russell Lord Russell. Sir William -Fitzwilliam was made Earl of Southampton, and High-Admiral. Russell and -Paulet were sworn of the Privy Council; and John Russell, now in high -favour with the king, attended the wedding, flattered the bride, and -became, in the next reign, Earl of Bedford. Queen Jane received all -the rites of the Roman Catholic Church on her death-bed; thus clearly -denoting that neither she nor her husband was of the Protestant faith. - -Any grief which might have affected Henry for his wife's death did -not prevent him from prosecuting his favourite design of seizing rich -monasteries and destroying heretics. The great amount of property -which Henry had obtained from the dissolution of monastic houses -only stimulated him and his courtiers to invade the remainder. The -insurrections laid the inmates of these houses open to a general charge -that they had everywhere fomented, and in many places taken public part -in, these attempts to resist Government. Prosecutions for high treason -and menaces of martial law induced many of the more timid abbots and -priors to resign their trusts into the hands of the king and his heirs -for ever. Others--like the prior of Henton, in Somersetshire--resisted, -declaring that it did not become them "to be light and hasty in giving up -those things which were not theirs to give, being dedicated to Almighty -God, for service to be done unto His honour continually, with many other -good deeds of charity which be daily done in their houses to their -Christian brethren." - -To grapple the more effectually with these sturdy remonstrants, a new -visitation was appointed of all the monasteries in England; and, as a -pretence only was wanted for their suppression, it was not difficult to -find one where so many great men were eager to share in the spoils. But, -while the destruction of the monasteries found many advocates, there -were not wanting some who recommended the retention of those convents -for women which had maintained order and a good reputation. But the king -would hear of nothing but that all should be swept away together; and -the better to prepare the public mind for so complete a revolution in -social life, every means was employed to represent these establishments -as abodes of infamy, and to expose the relics preserved in their shrines -to ridicule, as impostures which deluded the ignorant people. - -The work of suppressing the monasteries and convents went on briskly, -for, says Bishop Godwin, "the king continued much prone to reformation, -especially if anything might be gotten by it." The Earl of Sussex and -a body of Commissioners were despatched to the north, to inquire into -the conduct of the religious houses there, and great stress was laid on -the participation of the monks in the insurrection of the Pilgrimage of -Grace. The abbeys of Furness and Whalley were particularly rich; and -though little concern with the rebellion could be traced to the inmates, -yet the Commissioners never rested till, by persuasion and intimidation, -they had induced the abbots to surrender these houses into their hands. -The success of the Earl of Sussex and his associates led to similar -Commissions in the south, and for four years the process was going on -without an Act of Parliament. - -The system generally adopted was this:--First, tempting offers of -pensions were held out to the superiors and the monks or nuns, and -in proportion to the obstinacy in complying was the smallness of the -pension. The pensions to superiors varied, according to the wealth and -rank of their houses, from L266 to L6 per annum. The priors of cells -received generally L13. A few, whose services merited the distinction, -L20. The monks received from L2 to L6 per annum, with a small sum in hand -for immediate need. Nuns got about L4. That was the first and persuasive -process; but, if this failed, intimidation was resorted to. The superior -and his monks, tenants, servants, and neighbours, were subjected to a -rigorous and vexatious examination. The accounts of the house were called -for, and were scrutinised minutely, and all moneys, plate, and jewels -ordered to be produced. There was a severe inquiry into the morals of -the members, and one was encouraged to accuse another. Obstinate and -refractory members were thrown into prison, and many died there--amongst -them, the monks of the Charterhouse, London. - -In 1539 a bill was brought into Parliament, vesting in the Crown all the -property, movable and immovable, of the monastic establishments which -were already, or which should be hereafter, suppressed, abolished, or -surrendered, and, by 1540, the whole of this branch of the ecclesiastical -property was in the hands of the king, or of the courtiers and parasites -who surrounded him, like vultures, gorging themselves with the fallen -carcase. The total number of such establishments suppressed from first -to last by Henry was 655 monasteries--of which 28 had abbots enjoying a -seat in Parliament--90 colleges, 2,374 chantries and free chapels, and -110 hospitals. The whole of the revenue of this property, as paid to -superiors of these houses, was L161,000. The whole income of the kingdom -at that period was rated at L4,000,000, so that the monastic property was -apparently one twenty-fifth of the national estate; but as the monastic -lands were let on long leases, and at very low rents, in the hands of the -new proprietors it would prove of vastly higher value. - -Henry distributed the property among his greedy courtiers as fast as it -came, and never was so magnificent a property so speedily dissipated. -What did not go amongst the Seymours, the Essexes, the Howards, the -Russells, and the like, went in the most lavish manner on the king's -pleasures and follies. He is said to have given a woman who introduced a -pudding to his liking the revenue of a whole convent. Pauperism, instead -of being extinguished, was increased to a degree which astonished every -one. Such crowds had been supported by the monks and nuns as the public -had no adequate idea of, till they were thrown destitute and desperate -into the streets and the highways, and at length became such a national -burden and nuisance as in the reigns of Edward VI. and Elizabeth to -cause the introduction of the poor-law system. The aristocracy, in fact, -usurped the fund for the support of the poor, and threw them on the -nation at large. - -Education received an equal shock. The schools supported by the -monasteries fell with them. The new race of noblemen who got the funds -did nothing to continue them. Religion suffered also, for the wealth -which might have founded efficient incomes for good preachers was gone -into private hands, and such miserable stipends were paid to the working -clergy, that none but poor and unlettered men would accept them. - -It is only justice to Cranmer to say that he saw this waste of public -property with concern, and would have had it appropriated to the -purposes of education and religion, and the relief of the poor; but -he was too timid to lay the matter before the Royal prodigal. Yet the -murmurs of the people induced Henry to think of establishing a number -of bishoprics, deaneries, and colleges, with a portion of the lands of -the suppressed monasteries. He had an act passed through Parliament -for the establishment of eighteen bishoprics, but it was found that -the property intended for these was cleverly grasped by some of his -courtiers, and only six out of the eighteen could be erected, namely, -Westminster, Oxford, Peterborough, Bristol, Chester, and Gloucester; and -some of these were so meagrely endowed that the new prelates had much -ado for a considerable time to live. At the same time Henry converted -fourteen abbeys and priories into cathedral and collegiate churches, -attaching to each a deanery and a certain number of prebendaries. These -were Canterbury, Rochester, Westminster, Winchester, Bristol, Gloucester, -Worcester, Chester, Burton-upon-Trent, Carlisle, Durham, Thornton, -Peterborough, and Ely. But he retained a good slice of the property -belonging to them, and, at the same time, imposed on the chapters the -obligations of paying a considerable sum to the repair of the highways, -and another sum to the maintenance of the poor. - -At the same time that Henry had been squandering the monastic property, -and had falsified his promises of making the Crown independent of -taxation, by coming to Parliament within twelve months for a subsidy -of two-tenths and two-fifteenths, he had all along been riveting the -doctrines of the Church of Rome faster on the nation, and persecuting -those who questioned them. The Lower House of Convocation drew up a list -of fifty-nine propositions, which it denounced as heresies, extracted -from the publications of different Reformers, and presented it to the -Upper House. On this, Henry, who believed himself a greater theologian -than any in either house of Convocation, drew up, with the aid of some -of the prelates, a book of "Articles" which was presented by Cromwell -to Convocation, and there subscribed. This was then carried through -Parliament, and became termed too justly the "Bloody Statute," for a more -terrible engine of persecution never existed. - -No sooner had the statute of the Six Articles passed, than Latimer and -Shaxton, the Bishops of Worcester and Salisbury, resigned their sees; and -Cranmer, who had been living openly with his wife and children, seeing -the king's determination to enforce the celibacy of the clergy, sent off -his family to Germany, and made himself outwardly conformable to the -law. At the end of the year 1539, the king put to death, in Smithfield, -three victims of his intolerance. The first two were a man and a woman -who were Anabaptists. The third was John Lambert, formerly a priest, who -had become a schoolmaster in London. He was a Reformer, and denied the -doctrine which Henry was now enforcing under the penalty of death, that -the Real Presence existed in the bread and wine. - -During the whole of the years 1538 and 1539 Henry was, nevertheless, not -only grown suspicious of his subjects, but greatly alarmed at the rumours -of a combination between the Pope, the Emperor, and the King of France -against him. It was rumoured that Cardinal Pole, his relative, who had -rigorously opposed the divorce, was assisting in this scheme, and as -Henry could not reach him, on account of Pole's flight to the Continent, -he determined to take vengeance on his relatives and friends in England. -A truce for ten years was concluded under the Papal mediation, between -Charles and Francis, at Nice, in June, 1538. The two monarchs urged Paul -to publish his bull of excommunication against Henry, which had been -reserved so long, and Henry, whose spies soon conveyed to him these -tidings, immediately ordered his fleet to be put in a state of activity, -his harbours of defence strengthened, and the whole population to be -called under arms, in expectation of a combined attack. - -But at this conference Cardinal Pole had been present, and Henry directly -attributed the scheme of invasion to him. At once, therefore, he let -loose his fury on his relatives and friends in England. Becket, the -usher, and Wrothe, server of the Royal chamber, were despatched into -Cornwall to collect some colour of accusation against Henry Courtenay, -the Marquis of Exeter, and his adherents and dependents. The marquis and -marchioness were soon arrested, as well as Sir Geoffrey Pole and Lord -Montagu, brothers of the cardinal, and Sir Edward Neville, a brother of -Lord Abergavenny. Two priests, Croft and Collins, and Holland, a mariner, -were also arrested, and lodged in the Tower. On the last day of 1538 the -marquis and Lord Montagu were tried before some of the peers, but not -before their peers in Parliament, for Parliament was not sitting. The -commoners were brought to trial before juries; and all on a charge of -having conspired to place Reginald Pole, late Dean of Exeter, the king's -enemy, on the throne. The king's ministers declared that the charge was -well proved, but no such proofs were ever published, which, we may be -sure, would have been had they existed. - -[Illustration: GATEWAY OF KIRKHAM PRIORY.] - -The fact was, those noblemen were descended directly from the old -Royal line of England: Courtenay was grandson to Edward IV., through -his daughter Catherine, and the Poles were grandsons to George, Duke -of Clarence, the brother of Edward. All had a better title to the -throne than Henry, and this, combined with their connection with the -cardinal, was the cause of the tyrant's enmity. If these prisoners -had been inclined to treason, they had had the fairest opportunity of -showing it during the northern insurrection, but they had taken no part -in it whatever. But Henry had determined to wreak his vengeance, which -could not reach the cardinal, on them; and the servile peers and courts -condemned them. It was said that Sir Geoffrey Pole, to save his own life, -consented to give evidence against the rest--secretly it must have been, -for it was never produced. His life, therefore, was spared, but the -rest were executed. Lord Montagu, the Marquis of Exeter, and Sir Edward -Neville were beheaded on Tower Hill on the 9th of January, 1539, and Sir -Nicholas Carew, master of the king's horse, was also beheaded on the 3rd -of March, on a charge of being privy to the conspiracy. The two priests -and the mariner were hanged and quartered at Tyburn. A commission was -then sent down into Cornwall, which arraigned, condemned, and put to -death two gentlemen of the names of Kendall and Quintrell, for having -said, some years before, that Exeter was the heir apparent, and should be -king, if Henry married Anne Boleyn, or it should cost a thousand lives. - -[Illustration: BEAUCHAMP TOWER, AND PLACE OF EXECUTION WITHIN THE TOWER -OF LONDON.] - -But the sanguinary fury of Henry was not yet sated. The cardinal was sent -by the Pope to the Spanish and French courts to concert the carrying out -of the scheme of policy against England. Henry defeated this by means -of his agents, and neither Charles nor Francis would move: but not the -less did Henry determine further to punish the hostile cardinal. Judgment -of treason was pronounced against him; the Continental sovereigns were -called upon to deliver him up; and he was constantly surrounded by spies, -and, as he believed, ruffians hired to assassinate him. Meanwhile it was -said that a French vessel had been driven by stress of weather into South -Shields, and in it had been taken three emissaries--an English priest of -the name of Moore, and two Irishmen, a monk and a friar, who were said to -be carrying treasonable letters to the Pope and to Pole. The Irish monks -were sent up to London, and tortured in the Tower--a very unnecessary -measure, if they really possessed the treasonable letters alleged. On -the 28th of April Parliament was called upon to pass bills of attainder -against Margaret, Countess of Salisbury, the mother of Cardinal Pole; -Gertrude, the widow of the Marquis of Exeter; the son of Lord Montagu, -a boy of tender years; Sir Adam Fortescue, and Sir Thomas Dingley. This -was a device of Cromwell's, who demanded of the judges whether persons -accused of treason might not be attainted and condemned by Parliament -without any trial! The judges--who, like every one else under this -monster of a king, had lost all sense of honour and justice in fears for -their own safety--replied that it was a nice question, and one that no -inferior tribunal could entertain, but that Parliament was supreme, and -that an attainder by Parliament would be good in law! Such a bill was -accordingly passed through the servile Parliament, condemning the whole -to death without any form of trial whatever. - -The two knights were beheaded on the 10th of July; the Marchioness of -Exeter was kept in prison for six months, and then dismissed; the son of -Lord Montagu, the grandson of the countess, was probably, too, allowed to -escape, for no record of his death appears; but the venerable old lady -herself, the near relative of the king, and the last direct descendant -of the Plantagenets, after having been kept in prison for nearly two -years, was brought out, and on the 27th of May, 1541, was condemned to -the scaffold. There she still showed the determination of her character. -Unlike many who had fallen there before her, so far from making any -ambiguous speech, or giving any hypocritical professions of reverence for -the king, she refused to do anything which appeared consenting to her -own death. When told to lay her head on the block, she replied, "No, my -head never committed treason; if you will have it, you must take it as -you can." The executioner tried to seize her, but she moved swiftly round -the scaffold, tossing her head from side to side. At last, covered with -blood, for the guards struck her with their weapons, she was seized, and -forcibly held down, and whilst exclaiming, "Blessed are they who suffer -persecution for righteousness' sake," the axe descended, and her head -fell. - -But, the time of Cromwell himself was coming. The block was the pretty -certain goal of Henry's ministers. The more he caressed and favoured -them, the more certain was that result. Reflecting anxiously on the -critical nature of his position, the deep and unprincipled minister came -to the conclusion that the only mode of regaining his influence with the -king was to promote a Protestant marriage. For a time at least Henry -allowed himself to be governed by a new wife, and that time gained might -prove everything to Cromwell. Circumstances seemed to favour him at this -moment. The king was in constant alarm at the combination between France -and Spain; and a new alliance with the Protestant princes of Germany, -if accomplished, would equally serve the purposes of the king and of -Cromwell. Now was the time for Cromwell, while Henry was chagrined by -these difficulties. He informed him that Anne, daughter of John III., -Duke of Cleves, Count of Mark, and Lord of Ravenstein, was greatly -extolled for her beauty and good sense; that her sister Sybilla, the wife -of Frederick, Duke of Saxony, the head of the Protestant confederation -of Germany, called the Schmalkaldic League, was famed for her beauty, -talents, and virtues, and universally regarded as one of the most -distinguished ladies of the time. He pointed out to Henry the advantages -of thus, by this alliance, acquiring the firm friendship of the princes -of Germany, in counterpoise to the designs of France and Spain; and he -assured him that he heard that the sisters of the Electress of Saxony, -educated under the same wise mother, were equally attractive in person -and in mind, and waited only a higher position to give them greater -lustre, especially the Princess Anne. - -The Duke of Cleves died on the 6th of February, 1539, and Henry -despatched Hans Holbein to take the lady's portrait. Being delighted -with the portrait--which agreed so well with the many praises written -of the lady by his agents--he acceded to the match; and in the month -of September the count palatine and ambassadors from Cleves arrived in -London, where Cromwell received them with real delight, and the king bade -them right welcome. The treaty was soon concluded; and Henry, impatient -for the arrival of his wife, despatched the Lord Admiral Fitzwilliam, -Earl of Southampton, to receive her at Calais, and conduct her to England. - -On the 27th of December, 1539, Anne landed at Deal, having been escorted -across the Channel by a fleet of fifty ships. She was a thorough -Protestant, going into the midst of as thoroughly Papist a faction, and -to consort with a monarch the most fickle and dogmatic in the world. She -could speak no language but German, and of that Henry did not understand -a word. It would have required a world of charms to have reconciled all -this to Henry, even for a time, and of these poor Anne of Cleves was -destitute. That she was not ugly, many contemporaries testify; but she -was at least plain in person, and still plainer in manners. Both she and -her maidens, of whom she brought a great train, are said to have been -as homely and as awkward a bevy as ever came to England in the cause of -royal matrimony. - -The impatient though unwieldy lover, accompanied by eight gentlemen of -his privy chamber, rode to Rochester to meet the bride. They were all -clad alike, in coats "of marble colour;" for Henry, with a spice of his -old romance, was going incognito, to get a peep at his queen without -her being aware which was he. He told Cromwell that "he intended to -visit her privily, to nourish love." On his arrival, he sent Sir Anthony -Browne, his master of the horse, to inform Anne that he had brought -her a new year's gift, if she would please to accept it. Sir Anthony, -on being introduced to the lady who was to occupy the place of the two -most celebrated beauties of the day, the Boleyn and the Seymour, was, -he afterwards confessed, "never so much dismayed in his life," but of -course said nothing. So now the enamoured king, whose eyes were dazzled -with the recollection of what his queens had been, and what Holbein and -his ambassadors had promised him should again be, entered the presence of -Anne of Cleves, and was thunderstruck at the first sight of the reality. -Lord John Russell, who was present, declared "that he had never seen his -highness so marvellously astonished and abashed as on that occasion." - -Instead of presenting himself the new year's gift which he had brought--a -muff and tippet of rich sables--he sent them to her with a very cold -message, and rode back to Greenwich in high dudgeon. There, the moment -that he saw Cromwell, he burst out upon him for being the means of -bringing him, not a wife, but "a great Flanders mare." Cromwell excused -himself by not having seen her, and threw the blame on Fitzwilliam, the -lord admiral, who, he said, when he found the princess at Calais so -different from the pictures and reports, should have detained her there -till he knew the king's pleasure; but the admiral replied brusquely -that he had not had the choosing of her, but had simply executed his -commission; and if he had in his dispatches spoken of her beauty, it was -because she was reckoned beautiful, and it was not for him to judge of -his queen. - -No way out of the marriage being found, orders were given for the lady to -proceed from Dartford, and at Greenwich she was received outwardly with -all the pomp and rejoicings the most welcome beauty could have elicited. -But still the mind of the mortified king revolted at the completion of -the wedding, and once more he summoned his council, and declared himself -unsatisfied about the contract, and required that Anne should make a -solemn protestation that she was free from all pre-contracts. Probably -Henry hoped that, seeing that she was far from pleasing him, she might be -willing to give him up; but though her just pride as a woman must have -been wounded by his treatment, and her fears excited by the recollection -of the fates of Catherine and Anne Boleyn, the princess could be no free -agent in the matter. The ambassadors would urge the impossibility of her -going back, thus insulting all Protestant Germany, and her own pride -would second their arguments on that side too. The ignominy of being sent -back, rejected as unattractive and unwelcome, was not to be thought of. -She made a most clear and positive declaration of her freedom from all -pre-contracts. On hearing this, the surly monarch fell into such a humour -that Cromwell got away from his presence as quickly as he could. Seeing -no way out of it, the marriage was celebrated on the 6th of January, -1540, but nothing could reconcile Henry to his German queen. He loathed -her person, he could not even talk with her without an interpreter; and -he soon fell in love with Catherine Howard, niece to the Duke of Norfolk, -a young lady who was much handsomer than Anne, but not well educated, and -greatly wanting in principle. From the moment that Henry cast his eyes -on this new favourite, the little remains of outward courtesy towards -the queen vanished. He ceased to appear with her in public. He began to -express scruples about having a Lutheran wife. He did not hesitate to -propagate the most shameful calumnies against her, declaring that she had -not been virtuous before her marriage. - -Anne, in need of counsel, could find none in those who ought to have -stood by her. Cranmer, the Reformer, and Cromwell, the advocate of -Protestantism, and who had, in fact, brought about the marriage, kept -aloof from her. She sent expressly to Cromwell, and repeatedly, but in -vain; he refused to see her, for he knew that he stood on the edge of a -precipice already; that he had deeply offended the choleric monarch by -promoting this match; and that he was surrounded by spies and enemies, -who were watching for occasion for his ruin. There is no doubt whatever -that his ruin was already determined, but Cromwell was an unhesitating -tool of the quality which Henry needed; for it was just at this time -that Henry executed the relatives of Cardinal Pole, and probably it was -an object of his to load that minister with as much of the odium of -that measure as he could before he cast him down. Cromwell still, then, -apparently retained the full favour of the king, notwithstanding this -unfortunate marriage, but the conduct of his friends precipitated his -fate. - -Bishop Gardiner, a bigoted Papist, and one who saw the signs of the -times as quickly as any man living, did not hear Henry's scruples about -a Lutheran wife with unheeding ears. On the 14th of February, 1540, he -preached a sermon at St. Paul's Cross, in which he unsparingly denounced -as a damnable doctrine the Lutheran tenet of justification by faith -without works. Dr. Barnes, a dependent of Cromwell's, but clearly a most -imprudent one, on the 28th of February, just a fortnight afterwards, -mounted the same pulpit, and made a violent attack on Gardiner and his -creed. Barnes could never have intimated to Cromwell his intention to -make this assault on a creed which was as much the king's as Gardiner's, -or he would have shown him the fatality of it. But Barnes, like a rash -and unreflecting zealot, not only attacked Gardiner's sermon, but got -quite excited, and declared that he himself was a fighting-cock, and -Gardiner was another fighting-cock, but that the _garden_-cock lacked -good spurs. As was inevitable, Henry, who never let slip an opportunity -to champion his own religious views, summoned Barnes forthwith before a -commission of divines, compelled him to recant his opinion, and ordered -him to preach another sermon, in the same place, on the first Sunday -after Easter, and there to read his recantation, and beg pardon of -Gardiner. Barnes obeyed. He read his recantation, publicly asked pardon -of Gardiner, and then, getting warm in his sermon, reiterated in stronger -terms than ever the very doctrine he had recanted. - -The man must have made up his mind to punishment for his religious faith, -for no such daring conduct was ever tolerated for a moment by Henry. He -threw the offender into the Tower, together with Garret and Jerome, two -preachers of the same belief, who followed his example. - -The enemies of Cromwell rejoiced in this event, believing that his -connection with Barnes would not fail to influence the king. So -confidently did they entertain this notion, that they already talked -of the transfer of his two chief offices, those of Vicar-General and -Keeper of the Privy Seal, to Tunstal, Bishop of Durham, and Clarke, -Bishop of Bath. But the king had not yet come to his own point of -action. Cromwell's opponents were, therefore, astonished to see him open -Parliament on the 12th of April, as usual, when he announced the king's -sorrow and displeasure at the religious dissensions which appeared in the -nation, his subjects branding each other with the opprobrious epithets -of Papists and heretics, and abusing the indulgence which the king -had granted them of reading the Scriptures in their native tongue. To -remedy these evils his Majesty had appointed two committees of prelates -and doctors--one to set forth a system of pure doctrine, and the other -to decide what ceremonies and rites should be retained in the Church or -abandoned; and, in the meantime, he called on both houses to assist him -in enacting penalties against all who treated with irreverence, or rashly -and presumptuously explained, the Holy Scriptures. - -Never did Cromwell appear so fully to possess the favour of his -sovereign. He had obtained a grant of thirty manors belonging to -suppressed monasteries; the title of Earl of Essex was revived in his -favour, and the office of Lord-Chamberlain was added to his other -appointments. He was the performer of all the great acts of the State. He -brought in two bills, vesting the property of the Knights Hospitallers -in the king, and settling an adequate jointure on the queen. He obtained -from the laity the enormous subsidy of four-tenths and fifteenths, -besides ten per cent. of their income from lands, and five per cent. on -their goods; and from the clergy two-tenths, and twenty per cent. of -their incomes for two years. So little did there appear any prospect of -the fall of Cromwell, that his own conduct augured that he never felt -himself stronger in his monarch's esteem. He dealt about his blows on all -who had offended himself or the king, however high. He committed to the -Tower the Bishop of Chichester and Dr. Wilson, for relieving prisoners -confined for refusing to take the oath of supremacy; and menaced with -the royal displeasure his chief opponents, the Duke of Norfolk, and the -Bishops of Durham, Winchester, and Bath. - -Yet all this time Henry had determined, and was preparing for his fall. -He appointed Wriothesley and Ralph Sadler Secretaries of State, and -divided the business between them. The king had met Catherine Howard, it -is said, at dinner at Gardiner's, who was Bishop of Winchester. As she -was a strict Papist, and niece to Norfolk, it was believed that this had -been concerted by the Catholic party; and they were not mistaken. She at -once caught the fancy of Henry. Every opportunity was afforded the king -of meeting her at Gardiner's; and no sooner did that worldly prelate -perceive the impression she had made, than he informed Henry that Barnes, -whom neither Gardiner nor Henry could forget, had been Cromwell's agent -in bringing about the marriage of Anne of Cleves; that Cromwell and -Barnes had done this, without regard to the feelings of the king, merely -to bring in a queen pledged to German Protestantism; and that, instead of -submitting to the king's religious views, they were bent on establishing -in the country the detestable heresies of Luther. - -[Illustration: THOMAS CROMWELL, EARL OF ESSEX. (_After the Portrait by -Holbein._)] - -Henry, whose jealousy was now excited, recollected that when he proposed -to send Anne of Cleves back, Cromwell had strongly dissuaded him, and as -Anne had now changed her insubordinate behaviour to him, he immediately -suspected that it was at the suggestion of Cromwell. No sooner had this -idea taken full possession, than down came the thunderbolt on the head -of the great minister. The time was come, all was prepared, and, without -a single note of warning--without the change of look or manner in the -king--Cromwell was arrested at the council-board on a charge of high -treason. In the morning he was in his place in the House of Lords, with -every evidence of power about him; in the evening he was in the Tower. - -In his career, from the shop of the fuller to the supreme power in the -State, next to the king, Cromwell had totally forgotten the wise counsel -of Wolsey. He had not avoided, but courted, ambition. He had leaned to -the Reformed doctrines secretly, but he had taken care to enrich himself -with the spoils of the suppressed monasteries, and many suspected that -these spoils were the true incentives to his system of reformation. The -wealth he had accumulated was, no doubt, a strong temptation to Henry, -as it was in all such cases, and thus Cromwell's avarice brought its own -punishment. In his treatment of the unfortunate Romanists whom he had to -eject from their ancient houses and lands, his conduct had been harsh -and unsparing; and by that party, now in power, he was consequently hated -with an intense hatred; and this was a second means of self-punishment. -But above all, in the days of his power, he had been perfectly reckless -of the liberties and securities of the subject. He had broken down the -bulwarks of the Constitution, and advised the king to make his own -will the sole law, carrying for him through Parliament the monstrous -doctrine embodied in the enactment that the royal proclamation superseded -Parliamentary decrees, and that the Crown could put men to death without -any form of trial. Under the monstrous despotism which he had thus -erected, he now fell himself, and had no right whatever to complain. -Yet he did complain most lamentably. The men who never feel for others, -concentrate all their commiseration on themselves; and Cromwell, so -ruthless and immovable to the pleadings of his own victims, now sent the -most abject and imploring letters to Henry, crying, "Mercy, mercy!" - -His experience might have assured him that, when once Henry seized his -victim, he never relented; and there was no one except Cranmer who -dared to raise a voice in his favour, and Cranmer's interference was so -much in his own timid style, that it availed nothing. His papers were -seized, his servants interrogated, and out of their statements, whatever -they were--for they were never produced in any court--the accusations -were framed against him. These consisted in the charges of his having, -as minister, received bribes, and encroached on the royal authority -by issuing commissions, discharging prisoners, pardoning convicts, -and granting licences for the exportation of prohibited merchandise. -As Vicar-General, he was charged with having not only held heretical -opinions himself, but also with protecting heretical preachers, and -promoting the circulation of heretical books. Lastly, there was added -one of those absurd, gratuitous assertions, which Henry always threw -in to make the charge amount to high treason, namely, that Cromwell had -expressed his resolve to fight against the king himself, if necessary, in -support of his religious opinions; and Mount was instructed to inform the -German princes that Cromwell had threatened to strike a dagger into the -heart of the man who should oppose the Reformation, which, he said, meant -the king. He demanded a public trial, but was refused, being only allowed -to face his accusers before the Commissioners. Government then proceeded -against him by bill of attainder, and thus, on the principle that he had -himself established, he was condemned without trial, even Cranmer voting -in favour of the attainder. His fate was delayed for more than a month, -during which time he continued to protest his innocence, with a violence -which stood in strong contrast to his callousness to the protestations of -others, wishing that God might confound him, that the vengeance of God -might light upon him, that all the devils in hell might confront him, -if he were guilty. He drew the most lamentable picture of his forlorn -and miserable condition, and offered to make any disclosures demanded of -him; but though nothing would have saved him, unluckily for him, Henry -discovered among his papers his secret correspondence with the princes -of Germany. He gave the royal assent to the bill of attainder, and in -five days--namely, on the 28th of July--Cromwell was led to the scaffold, -where he confessed that he had been in error, but had now returned to -the truth, and died a good Catholic. He fell detested by every man of -his own party, exulted over by the Papist section of the community, and -unregretted by the people, who were just then smarting under the enormous -subsidy he had imposed. As if to render his execution the more degrading, -Lord Hungerford, a nobleman charged with revolting crimes, was beheaded -with him. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -REIGN OF HENRY VIII. (_concluded_). - - Divorce of Anne of Cleves--Catherine Howard's Marriage and - Death--Fresh Persecutions--Welsh Affairs--The Irish Insurrection - and its Suppression--Scottish Affairs--Catholic Opposition - to Henry--Outbreak of War--Battle of Solway Moss--French and - English Parties in Scotland--Escape of Beaton--Triumph of the - French Party--Treaty between England and Germany--Henry's Sixth - Marriage--Campaign in France--Expedition against Scotland--Capture - of Edinburgh--Fresh Attempt on England--Cardinal Beaton and - Wishart--Death of the Cardinal--Struggle between the Two Parties - in England--Death of Henry. - - -The death of Cromwell was quickly followed by the divorce of Anne of -Cleves. The queen was ordered to retire to Richmond, on pretence that the -plague was in London. Marillac, the French ambassador, writing to Francis -I., said that the reason assigned was not the true one, for if there had -been the slightest rumour of the plague, nothing would have induced Henry -to remain; "for the king is the most timid person in the world in such -cases." It was the preliminary step to the divorce, and as soon as she -was gone, Henry put in motion all his established machinery for getting -rid of wives. The Lord Chancellor, the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Duke -of Norfolk, and others of the king's ministers, procured a petition to be -got up and presented to his Majesty, stating that the House had doubts -of the validity of the king's marriage, and consequently were uneasy -as to the succession, and prayed the king to submit the question to -Convocation. Of course, Henry could refuse nothing to his faithful peers, -and Convocation, accordingly, took the matter into consideration. The -marriage was declared--like his two former ones with Catherine and Anne -Boleyn--to be null and void; and the same judgment of high treason was -pronounced on any one who should say or write to the contrary. The queen -being a stranger to the English laws and customs, was not called upon to -appear personally, or even by her advocates, before Convocation. - -All this being settled, the Duke of Suffolk, the Earl of Southampton, and -Wriothesley proceeded to Richmond, to announce the decision to the queen. -On the sight of these ministers, and on hearing their communication, that -the marriage was annulled by Parliament, the poor woman, supposing that -she was going to be treated like Anne Boleyn, fainted, and fell on the -floor. On her return to consciousness, the messengers hastened to assure -her that there was no cause of alarm; that the king had the kindest and -best intentions towards her; that, if she would consent to resign the -title of queen, he proposed to give her the title of his sister; to grant -her precedence of every lady except the future queen and his daughters, -and to endow her with estates to the value of L3,000 per annum. - -Anne received some of the spoils of the fallen Cromwell in different -estates which were made over to her for life, including Denham Hall, in -Essex. She resided principally at her palace of Richmond, and at Ham -House; but we find her living at different times at Bletchingley, Hever -Castle, Penshurst, and Dartford. Though she was queen only about six -months, she continued to live in England for seventeen years--seeing two -queens after her, and Edward VI. and Queen Mary on the throne--greatly -honoured by all who knew her, and much beloved by both the princesses -Mary and Elizabeth. Not in seventeen years, but in sixteen months, she -saw the fall and tragedy of the queen who supplanted her; so that one -of her maids of honour, Elizabeth Bassett, could not help exclaiming -at the news, "What a man the king is! how many wives _will_ he have?" -For which very natural expression the poor girl was very near getting -into trouble. As for Anne herself, she appeared quite a new woman when -she had got clear of her terrible and coarse-minded tyrant, so that the -French ambassador, Marillac, wrote to his master that "Madame of Cleves -has a more joyous countenance than ever. She wears a great variety of -dresses, and passes all her time in sports and recreations." No sooner -was she divorced than Henry paid her a visit, and was so delighted by -her pleasant and respectful reception of him, that he supped with her -merrily, and not only went often again to see her, but invited her to -Hampton, whither she went, not at all troubling herself that another was -acting the queen. - -Anne's marriage was annulled by Parliament on the 9th of July, and on the -8th of August Catherine Howard appeared at Court as the acknowledged -queen. For twelve months all went on well, and the king repeatedly -declared that he had never been happy in love or matrimony till now; -that the queen was the most perfect of women, and the most affectionate -of wives. To gratify his new queen, and to accomplish some objects of -importance, Henry this summer made a progress into the north, and took -Catherine with him. One object was to judge for himself of the state of -the northern counties, where the late insurrections in favour of the old -religion had broken out. He promised himself that his presence would -intimidate the disaffected; that he should be able to punish those who -remained troublesome, and make all quiet; but still more was he anxious -for an interview with his nephew, James V. of Scotland. The principles -of the Reformation had been making rapid progress in that country, and -the fires of persecution had been lit up by the clergy. Patrick Hamilton, -a young man of noble family, who had imbibed the new doctrines abroad, -and Friar Forrest, a zealous preacher of the same, had suffered at the -stake. But far more dangerous to the stability of the Catholic Church, -was the fact that the Scottish nobility, poor and ambitious, had learnt -a significant lesson from what had been going on in England. The seizure -of the monastic estates there by the king, and their liberal distribution -amongst the nobility, excited their cupidity, and they strongly urged -James to follow the example of his royal uncle. In this counsel they -found a staunch coadjutor in Henry, who never ceased exciting James to -follow his example, and, to make sure of his doing so, invited him to an -interview at York, to which he consented. - -Notwithstanding great preparations had been made, the King of Scots -excused his coming. The very first announcement of such a project had -struck the clergy of Scotland with consternation. They hastened to -point out to James the dangers of innovation--the certain mischief of -aggrandising the nobility, already too powerful, with the spoils of the -Church--the jeopardy of putting himself into the hands of Henry and the -English, and the loss of the friendship of all foreign powers, if he was -induced by Henry to attack the Church, which would render him almost -wholly dependent on England. They added force to these arguments by -presenting him with a gratuity of L50,000; promised him a continuance -of their liberality, and pointed out to him a certain source of income -of at least L100,000 per annum in the confiscations of heretics. These -representations and gifts had the desired effect. James sent an excuse -to Henry for not being able to meet him at York; and the disappointed -king turned homeward in great disgust. The fascinations of the young -queen, however, soon restored his good humour, and they arrived at -Windsor, on the 26th of October, in high spirits. - -Little did the uxorious monarch dream that he was at this moment standing -on a mine that would blow all his imagined happiness into the air and -send his idolised wife to the block. But at the very time that he and -Catherine had been showing themselves as so beautifully conjugal a couple -to the good people of the north, the mine had been preparing. It was the -misfortune of all the queens of Henry VIII. that they had not only to -deal with one of the most vindictive and capricious tyrants that ever -existed, but that they were invariably, and necessarily, the objects of -the hatred of a powerful and merciless party, which was ready to destroy -its antagonist, and, as the first and telling stroke in that progress, to -pull down the queen. Catherine Howard was now the hope of the Romanists. -She was the niece of the Duke of Norfolk, the most resolute lay-Papist in -the kingdom, and the political head of that party. The public evidences -of the growing influence of Catherine with the king in the northern -progress, had been marked by the Catholics with exultation, and by the -Protestants with proportionate alarm. Both Rapin and Burnet assert that -Cranmer felt convinced, from what he saw passing, that unless some means -were found to lessen the influence of the queen, and thus dash the hopes -of the Catholics, he must soon follow Cromwell to the block. A most -ominous circumstance which reached him was, that the royal party took up -their quarters for a night at the house of Sir John Gorstwick, who, but -in the preceding spring, had denounced Cranmer in open Parliament, as -"the root of all heresies," and that at Gorstwick's there had been held a -select meeting of the Privy Council, at which Gardiner, the unhesitating -leader of the Romanists, presided. It was the signal for the Protestants -to bring means of counter-action into play, and such means, unfortunately -for the queen, were already stored up and at hand. - -It was discovered that the queen had been guilty of numerous -improprieties before marriage, chiefly with a man called Derham, and it -was now alleged that an intrigue had been going on between Catherine -and her cousin, Thomas Culpepper, in the northern progress, at Lincoln -and York, and that one night Culpepper was in the same room with the -queen and Lady Rochford for three hours. But when it was attempted to -establish this fact on the evidence of women in attendance, Catherine -Tylney and Margaret Morton, this evidence dwindled to mere surmise. -Tylney deposed that on two nights at Lincoln, the queen went to the -room of Lady Rochford, and stayed late, but affirmed "on her peril that -she never saw who came unto the queen and my Lady Rochford, nor heard -what was said between them." Morton's evidence amounted only to this, -that, at Pontefract, Lady Rochford conveyed letters between the queen -and Culpepper, _as was supposed_; and one night when the king went to -the queen's chamber, the door was bolted, and it was some time before -he could be admitted. This circumstance must have been satisfactorily -accounted for to Henry at the time, jealous person as he was, yet on such -paltry grounds was it necessary to build the charge of criminal conduct -in the queen. - -[Illustration: CATHERINE HOWARD BEING CONVEYED TO THE TOWER. (_See p._ -185.)] - -On the 21st of January, 1542, a bill of attainder of Catherine Howard, -late Queen of England, and of Jane, Lady Rochford, for high treason; of -Agnes, Duchess of Norfolk, Lord William Howard, the Lady Bridgewater, -and four men and five women, including Derham and Culpepper, already -executed, was read in the Lords. On the 28th, the Lord Chancellor, -impressed with a laudable sense of justice, proposed that a deputation of -Lords and Commons should be allowed to wait on the queen to hear what she -had to say for herself. He said it was but just that a queen, who was no -mean or private person, but a public and illustrious one, should be tried -by equal laws like themselves and thought it would be acceptable to the -king himself if his consort could thus clear herself. But that did not -suit Henry: he was resolved to be rid of his lately beloved model queen; -and as there was no evidence whatever of any crime on her part against -him, he did not mean that she should have any opportunity of being heard -in her defence. The bill was, therefore, passed through Parliament, -passing the Lords in three and the Commons in two days. On the 10th of -February the queen was conveyed by water to the Tower, and the next -day Henry gave his assent to the bill of attainder. The persons sent -to receive the queen's confession were Suffolk, Cranmer, Southampton, -Audley, and Thirlby. "How much she confessed to them," Burnet says, "is -not very clear, neither by the journal nor the Act of Parliament, which -only say she confessed." If she had confessed the crime alleged after -marriage, that would have been made fully and officially known. Two days -afterwards, February 12th, she was brought to the block. - -Thus fell Catherine Howard in the bloom of her youth and beauty, being -declared by an eye-witness to be the handsomest woman of her time, paying -for youthful indiscretions the forfeit of her life to the king, though -some think she had not sinned against him. So conscious was Henry of -this, that he made it high treason, in the Act of Attainder, for any one -to conceal any such previous misconduct in a woman whom the sovereign was -about to marry. With Catherine fell the odious Lady Rochford, who had -long deserved her fate, for her false and murderous evidence against her -own husband and Anne Boleyn. - -Having thus destroyed his fifth wife, Henry now turned his attention -to the regulation of religious affairs and opinions. In 1539 he had -attempted to set up a standard of orthodoxy by the publication of "The -Institution of a Christian Man," or "The Bishops' Book," as it was -called, because compiled by the bishops under his direction. After that -he published his "Necessary Doctrine and Erudition for any Christian -Man," which was called "The King's Book." In this it was observable that, -instead of approaching nearer to the Protestant creed, he was going fast -back into the strictest principles of Romanism. He had allowed the people -to read the Bible, but he now declared that, though the reading of it was -necessary to the teachers of religion, it was not so necessary for the -learners; and he decreed, by Act of Parliament, that the Bible should -not be read in public, or be seen in any private families but such as -were of noble or gentle birth. It was not to be read privately by any but -householders and women who were well-born. If any woman of the ordinary -class, any artificer, apprentice, journeyman, servant, or labourer dared -to read the Bible, he or she was to be imprisoned for one month. - -Gardiner and the Papist party were more and more in the ascendant, -and the timid Cranmer and the more liberal bishops were compelled not -only to wink at these bigoted rules, but to order "The King's Book," -containing all the dogmas which they held to be false and pernicious, to -be published in every diocese, and to be the guide of every preacher. -By this means it was hoped to quash the numerous new sects which were -springing from the reading of the Bible, and the earnest discussions -consequent upon it. Such a flood of new light had poured suddenly into -the human mind, that it was completely dazzled by it. Opinion becoming -in some degree free, ran into strange forms. There were Anabaptists, -who held that every man ought to be guided by the direct inspiration -of the Holy Ghost, and that, consequently, there was no need of king, -judge, magistrate, or civil law, or war, or capital punishment. There -were Antinomians, who contended that all things were free and allowable -to the saints without sin. There were Fifth-Monarchy men; members of -the Family of Love, or Davidians, from one David George, their leader; -Arians, Unitarians, Predestinarians, Libertines, and other denominations, -whom we shall find abundant in the time of the Commonwealth. What was -strangest of all was to see King Henry, who would allow no man's opinion -to be right but his own, and who burnt men for daring to differ from -him, lecturing these contending sects on their animosities in his speech -in Parliament, and bidding them "behold what love and charity there -was amongst them, when one called another heretic and Anabaptist, and -he called him again Papist, hypocrite, and pharisee;" and the royal -peacemaker threatened to put an end to their quarrellings by punishing -them all. During the four remaining years of his reign, he burnt or -hanged twenty-four persons for religion--that is, six annually--fourteen -of them being Protestants. During these years "The King's Book" was the -only authorised standard of English orthodoxy. - -It is now necessary to take a brief glance at the proceedings of -Henry's government in Ireland and Wales, and towards Scotland. In the -Principality of Wales the measures of the king were marked by a far -wiser spirit than those which predominated in religion. Being descended -from the natives of that country, it was natural that it should claim -his particular attention. Wales at that time might be divided into two -parts, one of which had been subjected by the English monarchs, and -divided into shires, the other which had been conquered by different -knights and barons, thence called the lords-marchers. The shires were -under the royal will, but the hundred and forty-one small districts or -lordships which had been granted to the petty conquerors, excluded the -officers and writs of the king altogether. The lords, like so many counts -palatine, exercised all sovereign rights within their own districts, had -their own courts, appointed their own judges, and punished or pardoned -offenders at pleasure. This opened up a source of the grossest confusion -and impunity from justice; for criminals perpetrating offences in one -district had only to move into another, and set the law at defiance. -Henry, by enacting, in 1536, that the whole of Wales should thenceforth -be incorporated with England, should obey the same laws and enjoy the -same rights and privileges, did a great work. The Welsh shires, with one -borough in each, were empowered to send members to Parliament, the judges -were appointed solely by the Crown, and no lord was any longer allowed to -pardon any treason, murder, or felony in his lordship, or to protect the -perpetrators of such crimes. The same regulations were extended to the -county palatine of Chester. - -The proceedings of Henry in Ireland were equally energetic, if they were -not always as just; and in the end they produced an equally improved -condition of things there. Quiet and law came to prevail, though they -prevailed with severity. On the accession of Henry to the throne, the -portion of the island over which the English authority really extended -was very limited indeed. It included merely the chief sea-ports, with -the five counties of Louth, Westmeath, Dublin, Kildare, and Wexford. -The rest of the country was almost independent of England, being in the -hands of no less than ninety chieftains--thirty of English origin, and -the rest native--who exercised a wild and lawless kind of sway, and -made war on each other at will. Wolsey, in the height of his power, -determined to reduce this Irish chaos to order. He saw that the main -causes of the decay of the English authority lay in the perpetual feuds -and jealousies of the families of Fitzgerald and Butler, at the head -of which were the Earls of Kildare and of Ormond. The young Earl of -Kildare, the chief of the Fitzgeralds, who succeeded his father in 1520, -was replaced by the Earl of Surrey, afterwards the Duke of Norfolk, whom -we have seen so disgracefully figuring in the affairs of Anne Boleyn -and Catherine Howard, his nieces. During the two years that he held -the Irish government, he did himself great credit by the vigour of his -administration, repressing the turbulence of the chiefs, and winning the -esteem of the people by his hospitality and munificence. - -Unfortunately for Ireland, Surrey had acquired great renown by his -conduct under his father at Flodden, and when Henry, in 1522, declared -war against France, he was deemed the only man fitted to take command of -the army. The government of Ireland, on his departure, was placed in the -hands of Butler, Earl of Ormond. In the course of ten years it passed -successively from Ormond again to Kildare, from Kildare to Sir William -Skeffington, and back for the third time to Kildare. - -Kildare, relieved from the fear of Wolsey, who had now fallen, gave -way to the exercise of such acts of extravagance, that his own friends -attributed them to insanity. At the earnest recommendations, therefore, -of his hereditary rivals, the Butlers, he was called to London in -1534, and sent to the Tower. Still, he had left his Irish government -in the hands of his son, Lord Thomas Fitzgerald--a young man of only -one-and-twenty, brave, generous, but with all the impetuosity of Irish -blood. Hearing a false report that his father was beheaded in the Tower, -young Fitzgerald flew to arms. He appeared at the head of 140 followers -before the council, resigned the sword of State, and demanded war against -Henry of England. - -Cromer, the Archbishop of Armagh, earnestly entreated him not to plunge -himself into a quarrel so hopeless as that with England; but in vain. -The strains of an Irish minstrel, uttered in his native tongue, had more -influence with him, for they called on him to revenge his father, to free -Ireland; and the incensed youth flew to arms. For a time success attended -him. He overran the rich district of Fingal; the natives flocked to his -standard; the Irish minstrels, in wild songs, stirred the people to -frenzy; and surprising Allen, the Archbishop of Dublin, on the very point -of escaping to England, and supposed to be one of the accusers of the -Earl of Kildare, they murdered him in presence of the young chief and his -brothers. He then sent a deputation to Rome, offering, on condition that -the Pope should give him the support of his sanction, to defend Ireland -against an apostate prince, and to pay a handsome annual tribute to the -Holy See. He sent ambassadors also to the Emperor, demanding assistance -against the prince who had so grossly insulted him by divorcing his aunt, -Queen Catherine. Five of his uncles joined him, but he was repulsed -from the walls of Dublin. The strong castle of Maynooth was carried by -assault by the new deputy, Sir William Skeffington; and in the month of -October Lord Leonard Gray, the son of the Marquis of Dorset, arriving -from England at the head of fresh forces, chased him into the fastnesses -of Munster and Connaught. On hearing of this ill-advised rebellion, the -poor Earl of Kildare, already stricken with palsy, sickened and died in -the Tower. - -Lord Gray did not trust simply to his arms in the difficult country into -which the Fitzgeralds had retired; he employed money freely to bribe -the natives, who led him through the defiles of the mountains, and the -passable tracks of the morasses, into the retreats of the enemy. He -found the county of Kildare almost entirely desolated. Six out of the -eight baronies were burnt; and where this was not the case, the people -had fled, leaving the corn in the fields. Meath also was ravaged; and -the towns throughout the south of Ireland, besides the horrors of civil -war, found fever and pestilence prevailing, Dublin itself being more -frightfully decimated than the provincial towns. The English Government -sent very little money to the troops, and left them to subsist by -plunder; and they first seized all the cattle, corn, and provisions, -and then laid waste the country by fire. By March, 1535, Lord Thomas -Fitzgerald was reduced to such extremity that he wrote to Lord Gray, -begging him to become intercessor between the king and himself. Lord -Gray, there can be little doubt, promised Fitzgerald a full pardon, on -which he surrendered. But Skeffington wrote to the king that, finding -that O'Connor, his principal supporter, had come in and yielded, "the -young traitor, Thomas Fitzgerald, had done the same, without condition of -pardon of life, lands, and goods." - -[Illustration: CAPTURE OF THE FITZGERALDS. (_See p._ 189.)] - -But this assertion is clearly contradicted by the council in Dublin, who -wrote entreating the king to be merciful to the said Thomas, to whom they -had given comfortable promises. O'Connor had been too wise to put himself -into the power of Henry on the strength of any promises: he delivered -only certain hostages as security for his good behaviour; but Lord -Thomas was carried over to England by Lord Gray, where he was committed -to the Tower. Gray was immediately sent back to Ireland, with the full -command of the army there, and he was instructed above all things to -secure the persons of the five uncles of Lord Fitzgerald. Accordingly, -on the 14th of February, 1536, the council of Ireland sent to Cromwell, -then minister, an exulting message, that Lord Gray, the chief justice, -and others, had captured the five brethren, which they pronounced to -be the "first deed that ever was done for the weal of the king's poor -subjects of that land." They added, "We assure your mastership that the -said lord justice, the treasurer of the king's wars, and such others as -his grace put in trust in this behalf, have highly deserved his most -gracious thanks for the politic and secret conveying of the matter." -But the truth was, that this politic and secret management was one of -the most disgraceful pieces of treachery which ever was transacted--the -Fitzgeralds being seized at a banquet to which both parties had proceeded -under the most solemn pledges of mutual faith. They were conveyed at once -to London, and in February, 1537, the young earl and his five uncles -were beheaded, after a long and cruel imprisonment in the Tower. Their -unprincipled betrayer, however, did not long enjoy the fruits of his -treachery. He was made Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland as a reward for his -dishonourable service, but was soon removed on charges of misconduct, -committed to one of the very cells which his victims had occupied, and -was beheaded on Tower Hill, as a traitor, on the 28th of June, 1541, -ending his life, according to Godwin, very quietly and godlily. Gray -certainly deserved better treatment from Henry; for, though his conduct -was infamous to the Fitzgeralds, it was most useful to the English king. -The rival factions of Fitzgeralds and Butlers continuing to resist the -English power, Gray contended against them till, by his brilliant victory -at Bellahoe, he broke the power of O'Neill, the northern chieftain, and -confirmed the power of England. Yet, being uncle, by his sister, to the -last surviving male heir of the Fitzgeralds--Gerald, the youngest brother -of the unfortunate Lord Thomas, a boy of only twelve years of age--he -was accused of favouring his escape, and all his services were forgotten -by his ungrateful sovereign. The young Gerald Fitzgerald escaped to the -Continent by the aid of a sea captain of St. Malo, and ultimately to -Italy, where he lived under the patronage and protection of his kinsman, -Cardinal Pole, till he eventually recovered the honours and estates of -his ancestors, in the reign of Queen Mary, at the suggestion of the -cardinal. - -After the recall of Lord Gray, O'Connor, O'Neill, M'Murdo, and the -O'Tooles excited fresh insurrections, but they were speedily put down, -and in 1541 Anthony St. Leger found both the Irish chiefs and the lords -of the pale eagerly outstripping each other in professions of loyalty. -In 1541 Henry raised Ireland from the rank of a lordship to that of a -kingdom, and granted letters patent to the Irish chiefs, by the advice -of Sir Thomas Cusake, though unwillingly. Thus, by securing them in -possession of their lands, and raising them to new honours, he gained -their devoted attachment. Henry gave them houses in Dublin, which they -were to inhabit when summoned as peers of the Irish Parliament. Ulick -Burke was made Earl of Clanricarde, Murroch O'Brien Earl of Thomond, -and the great O'Neill became henceforth known by his new title of -Earl of Tyrone. The Irish council was instructed to proceed with the -suppression of the monasteries, though cautiously, not urging the monks -too rigorously, lest they stirred up opposition, but desirably persuading -them that "the lands of the Church were his proper inheritance." These -matters were so well carried out, that the ascendency of England had -never appeared so firmly established since the first invasion of the -island by Henry II. - -In Scotland the French and Catholic party was all powerful. James V. -married a French wife, Mary of Guise, in 1538, and in 1539 David Beaton -succeeded his uncle, James Beaton, in the primacy, when the Pope, to -add additional honours to so devoted a servant, presented him with a -cardinal's hat. It was at this crisis that the Pope, acting in concert -with France and Spain, sent Cardinal Pole to co-operate with the Scots in -annoying Henry, and James being applied to by the Pontiff Paul, declared -himself willing to unite with Francis I. and the Emperor in the endeavour -to convert or punish the heretical English king. As if to show Henry -that there was no prospect of any co-operation of James with him, the -fires of persecution were kindled by Beaton and his coadjutors against -the Protestants in that kingdom, and this again drove the Reformers -to make common cause with the Earl of Angus and other Scottish exiles -in England. Henry, to encourage the Protestants, and to warn James if -possible, sent to him his rising diplomatist, Sir Ralph Sadler, who -represented to James that Henry was much nearer related to him than were -any of the Continental sovereigns, and who endeavoured to prevent there -the publication of the bill of excommunication. - -But it became necessarily a pitched battle between the Papist party in -Scotland and Henry. They beheld with natural alarm his destruction of -the Papal Church in England, an example of the most terrible kind to -all other national churches of the same creed; and Henry, on the other -hand, knew that so long as that faith was in the ascendant in Scotland, -there would be no assured quiet in his own kingdom. It was the one -proximate and exposed quarter through which the Pope and his abettors on -the Continent could perpetually assail him. From this moment, therefore, -Henry spared no money, no negotiation, no pains to break down the Roman -Catholic ascendency in Scotland. - -In the spring of 1541 Cardinal Beaton, and Panter, the Royal secretary, -were despatched to Rome with secret instructions. This alarmed Henry, and -yet afforded him a hope of making an impression on his nephew whilst the -cardinal was away. Once more, therefore, he invited James to meet him at -York. Lord William Howard, who was his envoy on the occasion, induced -James to promise to meet Henry there, and we have seen him on his way -accompanied by his bride, Catherine Howard, to the place of rendezvous. -But James came not; and Henry, enraged, vowed that he would compel James -by force to do that which he would not concede to persuasion. - -The Romanist party in Scotland were better pleased with a hostile than -a pacific position, for they greatly dreaded that Henry might at length -warp the king's mind towards his own views. The leaders on both sides -were, in fact, never at peace. On the one side, the exiled Douglases -were always on the watch to recover their estates by their swords, and -the fugitives in Scotland, on account of the Pilgrimage of Grace, were -equally ready to fight their way back to their homes and fortunes. In the -August of 1542, accordingly, there were sharp forays, first from one side -of the Border, and then from the other. Sir James Bowes, the warden of -the east marches, accompanied by Sir George Douglas, the Earl of Angus, -and other Scottish exiles, and 3,000 horsemen, rushed into Teviotdale, -when they were met at Haddenrig by the Earl of Huntly and Lord Home, who -defeated them, and took 600 prisoners. - -Henry, having issued a proclamation declaring the Scots the aggressors, -ordered a levy of 40,000 men, and appointed the Duke of Norfolk the -commander of this army. He was attended by the Earls of Shrewsbury, -Derby, Cumberland, Surrey, Hertford, Rutland, with many others of the -nobility. This imposing force was joined by the Earl of Angus and -the rest of the banished Douglases who had escaped the slaughter at -Haddenrig. After some delay at York the royal army, issuing a fresh -proclamation, in which Henry claimed the crown of Scotland, advanced -to Berwick, where it crossed into Scotland, and, advancing along the -northern bank of the Tweed as far as Kelso, burned two towns and twenty -villages. Norfolk did not venture to advance farther into the country, as -he heard that James had assembled a powerful force, whilst Huntly, Home, -and Seton were hovering on his flanks. He therefore contented himself -with ravaging the neighbourhood, and then crossed again at Kelso into -England. - -James, indignant at the invasion and the injuries inflicted on his -subjects, marched from the Burghmuir at Edinburgh, where he was encamped -at the head of 30,000 men, in pursuit of the English. But he soon found -that different causes paralysed his intended chastisement. Many of the -nobles were in favour of the Reformation, and held this martial movement -as a direct attempt to maintain the Papal power and the influence of -Beaton and his party. Others were in secret league with the banished -Douglases, who were on the English side; and there were not wanting those -who sincerely advised a merely defensive warfare, and pointed out the -evils which had always followed the pursuit of the English into their -own country. They urged the fact that Norfolk and his army, destitute of -provisions and suffering from the inclemency of the weather, were already -in full retreat homewards. But James would not listen to these arguments; -he burned to take vengeance on the English, and after halting on Fala -Muir, and reviewing his troops, he gave the order to march in pursuit of -Norfolk; but, to his consternation, he found that nearly every nobleman -refused to cross the Border. They pleaded the lateness of the season, -the want of provisions for the army, and the rashness of following the -English into the midst of their own country, where another Flodden Field -might await them. - -James was highly exasperated at this defection, and denounced the -leaders as traitors and cowards, pointing out to them their unpatriotic -conduct, when they saw all around them the towns and villages burnt, -the farms ravaged, and the people expelled or exterminated along the -line of Norfolk's march. It was in vain that he exhorted or reproved -them; they stole away from his standard, and the indignant king found -himself abandoned by the chief body of his army. For himself, however, -he disdained to give up the enterprise. He despatched Lord Maxwell with -a force of 10,000 men to burst into the western marches, ordering him -to remain in England laying waste the country as long as Norfolk had -remained in Scotland. James himself awaited the event at Caerlaverock -Castle; but, discontented with the movements of Lord Maxwell, whom he -suspected of being infected by the spirit of the other insubordinate -nobles, he sent his favourite, Oliver Sinclair, to supersede Lord Maxwell -in the command. - -[Illustration: SWEETHEARTS AND WIVES. - -Moss-troopers returning from a Foray. - -FROM THE PAINTING BY S. E. WALLER, IN THE NATIONAL GALLERY OF BRITISH -ART.] - -This was an imprudent step, calculated to excite fresh discontent, as -it very effectually did. The proud nobles who surrounded Maxwell threw -down their arms, swearing that they would not serve under any such royal -minion; the troops broke out into open mutiny; and in the midst of this -confusion, a body of 500 English horse riding up under the Lords Dacre -and Musgrave, the Scots believed it to be the vanguard of Norfolk's army, -and fled in precipitate confusion. The English, charging furiously at -this unexpected advantage, surrounded great numbers of the fugitives, and -took 1,000 of them prisoners. All these were sent to London, and given -into the custody of different English noblemen. Many of the prisoners -were believed to surrender willingly, as disaffected men who were ready -to sell their country to England; and others are said to have been seized -by border freebooters, and sold to the enemy. This was the battle of -Solway Moss. - -The king was so overwhelmed with grief and resentment at this disgraceful -defeat, through the disloyalty of his nobility, that he returned to -Edinburgh in deep dejection. From Edinburgh he proceeded to the palace of -Falkland, where he shut himself up, brooding on his misfortunes; and such -hold did this take upon him, that he began to sink rapidly in health. He -was in the prime of his life, being only in his thirty-first year; of a -constitution hitherto vigorous, having scarcely known any sickness; but -his agonised mind producing fever of body, he seemed hastening rapidly to -the grave. At this crisis his wife was confined. She had already borne -him two sons, who had died in their infancy, and an heir might now have -given a check to his melancholy; but it proved a daughter--the afterwards -celebrated and unfortunate Queen of Scots. On hearing that it was a -daughter, he turned himself in his bed, saying, "The crown came with a -woman, and it will go with one. Many miseries await this poor kingdom. -Henry will make it his own, either by force of arms or by marriage." On -the seventh day after the birth of Mary, he expired, December 14th, 1542. - -No sooner did Cardinal Beaton and his party learn that the king had -expired than, guessing all that Henry and his party in Scotland would -attempt, they took measures to secure the young queen and the sovereign -power. Beaton produced a will as that of James, appointing him regent -and guardian of the young queen, assisted by a council of the Earls of -Argyll, Huntly, and Murray. The Earl of Arran, James Hamilton, on the -other hand, declared this will to be a forgery, and being himself the -next heir to the throne, after the infant queen, he assumed the right to -make himself her guardian, and to order the kingdom for her. By means -of the Protestant nobles, as well as the vassals of his own house, and -the prevailing opinion that Beaton had forged the will, Arran succeeded -in establishing himself as regent on the 22nd of December, 1542, and -the Protestant influence was in the ascendant. It was now conceded that -Angus and the Douglases should be recalled from their exile, and they -quitted England in the following January, the Earl of Arran giving them -a safe-conduct. - -It was a deadly warfare between the Protestant and Papal parties. A list -of 360 of the nobles and gentry was produced by Arran, which was said to -have been found on the person of the king, all of whom were proscribed -as heretics, and doomed to confiscation of their estates and other -punishments. This list, which the Romanists in their turn denounced as -forged, was vehemently charged on Beaton, who was said to have drawn it -up when the heads of the army refused to march into England. The Earl -of Arran himself stood at the head of the list. The cardinal, who saw -the imminent danger of his cause and party, despatched trusty agents -to France to solicit instant aid in money and troops, to defend the -interests and guard the persons of the queen-dowager, Mary of Guise, -and the royal infant. To hasten the movements of the house of Guise, he -represented the certain dependence of Scotland on England if the king of -England succeeded in accomplishing the marriage of the infant queen with -his son. - -To silence the cardinal, he was seized and incarcerated in the castle of -Blackness, under the care of Lord Seton; and a negotiation was actively -carried on through Sir Ralph Sadler for the marriage of the infant -queen and the Prince of Wales. It was agreed that Mary should remain in -Scotland till she was ten years of age; that she should then be sent to -England to be educated; that six Scottish noblemen should be at once -delivered to Henry as hostages for the fulfilment of the contract; and -when the union of the two kingdoms should take place, Scotland should -retain all its own laws and privileges. - -But though Beaton was in prison, his spirit was abroad. The clergy had -the highest faith in the talents and influence of the cardinal. They -considered his liberation as necessary to avert the ruin of their party, -and they put in motion all their machinery for rousing the people. -They shut up the churches, and refused to administer the sacraments or -bury the dead; and the priests and monks were thus set at liberty from -all other duties to harangue and influence the passions of the people. -Everywhere it was declared that Arran, the regent, had formed a league -with Angus and the Douglases, who had been so long in England, to sell -the country and the queen to England under the pretence of a marriage; -that this was what the English monarchs had long been seeking; and that -not only the Douglases, but Arran himself, were pensioned by Henry for -the purpose. That this was but too true, the State Papers amply prove. -Henry and his successors spared no money for this end; and the traitorous -bargaining of a great number of the Scottish nobles with the English -monarchs stands too well evidenced under their own hands. - -[Illustration: THE FIRST LEVEE OF MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS. (_See p._ 191.) - -(_After the Picture by W. B. Hole, R.S.A._)] - -At this juncture Cardinal Beaton managed to escape from his prison, from -which he had never ceased to correspond with and inspirit his party. How -he came to escape has been considered a mystery; but perhaps that mystery -is not very deep when we reflect that Lord Seton, in whose custody he -was, was a man, though related to the Hamiltons, yet of a most loyal -temper, and a decided Romanist. Seton negotiated with Beaton to give up -his castle of St. Andrews; and, as if this could not be accomplished -without the cardinal's presence on the spot, Seton allowed him to -accompany him, but with so small a force, that the moment the cardinal -stood in his own castle he declared himself at liberty, and Seton had -no power to say nay had he wished it. As no punishment or even censure -befell Lord Seton on this account, it is most probable that Arran -himself was cognisant of the scheme. What makes this more likely is that -Hamilton, the abbot of Paisley, the natural brother of Arran, the Regent, -had returned just before from France; and that he was at the bottom of -the plot may not unreasonably be supposed, from the fact that he very -soon exercised a powerful influence over the weaker mind of the Regent. -Through the means of the abbot, Beaton even attempted to accommodate -matters with Henry. He declared that he was sincerely desirous of the -union of the young queen and the Prince of Wales, so that there should be -peace between the countries, yet a peace preserving the independence of -each. But this independence of Scotland was the very thing which Henry -was determined to annihilate, and he pressed his desires for it with such -violence that all hopes of an amicable arrangement vanished. - -[Illustration: VIEW IN ST. ANDREWS.] - -Arran, alienated from the English Government by the imperious demands -of Henry, and alarmed at the progress of the Papist faction, took care -to proclaim his resolute resolve to oppose the aims of Henry, even to -the extremity of war, and he dismissed his Protestant chaplains, friar -Williams and John Rough; and such was the spirit of the people that -Glencairn and Cassillis, the most devoted partisans of England, declared -that they would sooner die than agree to the surrender of the French -alliance. Such, in fact, was the popular exasperation that Sadler dared -not appear in the streets; and the peers in the interest of Henry were -equally the objects of the public resentment. - -To induce Henry to pause in his fatal career, Sir George Douglas -hastened to London, and prevailed on him to abate the extravagance of -his demands. The immediate delivery of the infant queen, the surrender -of the fortresses and of the Government into the hands of Henry, were -waived, and Douglas returned to Scotland, bearing proposals of marriage -of a more reasonable kind. Henry, however, did not abandon his schemes -in secret. In the Public Record office there is a memorandum in the hand -of Wriothesley, saying that "the articles be so reasonable, that if the -ambassadors of Scotland will not agree to them, then it shall be mete -the king's majesty follow out his purpose by force." Sir George Douglas -renewed the offer formerly made by Henry to Arran, of marrying the -Princess Elizabeth and his eldest son, and Sir George and Glencairn were -sent to London to assist the ambassadors in bringing the negotiation to -a close. - -But Arran was assailed as vehemently on the other side by the cardinal, -and the queen-dowager, who was the real head of the party. They sent -Lennox to endeavour to win him over to their side, so that all Scotland -might unite against Henry. Lennox delivered a very flattering message -from Francis I. to the Regent, offering him both men and money to -resist any attempt of invasion by the English; but this failing, the -queen-dowager and Beaton prosecuted the negotiation with France, and it -was agreed that 2,000 men, under Montgomerie, Sieur de Lorges, should -be sent to Scotland. The queen and cardinal called on their partisans -to assemble their followers and garrison their castles, whilst Grimani, -the Pope's legate, was entreated to hasten to Scotland with a formidable -store of anathemas and excommunications. The clergy assembled in -convention at St. Andrews, and so ardent were they in the cause which -they believed to be that of the very existence of the Church, that -they pledged themselves to raise the sum required for the war against -England, and, if necessary, not only to melt down the church plate, and -to sacrifice their private fortunes, but to fight in person. - -Whilst public opinion was in this state of fermentation, Henry VIII., -irritated at the conduct of the cardinal and a large body of the nobles, -committed one of those rash and foolish acts, into which the wild fury -of his temper often precipitated him. After the proclamation of peace, -a fleet of Scottish merchant vessels, driven by a storm, took refuge in -an English port, where, under the recent treaty, they deemed themselves -safe. But Henry had just proclaimed war on France and, making that a -pretence, he accused them of carrying provisions to his enemies, and -detained them. At this outrage the people of Edinburgh surrounded the -house of Sadler the English ambassador, and threatened to burn him in -it if the ships were not restored. Arran, the governor, came in for -his share of the odium as the staunch ally of Henry; and the common -friends of Arran and Henry, the traitorous faction of Angus, Cassillis, -Glencairn, and the other barons under secret bond to England, proposed -to call out their forces for immediate war. These base sons of a brave -country asserted that the time was come for Henry to send a great army -into Scotland, with which they would co-operate, "for the conquest of the -realm." - -Everything boded the immediate outbreak of a bloody war, when a -surprising revolution took place. On the 3rd of September, Arran declared -to Sir Ralph Sadler that he was devotedly attached to the interests of -Henry, and within a week afterwards he met the cardinal at Callender -House, the seat of Lord Livingston, and entered into a complete -reconciliation with him. A short time before Beaton had refused to hold -any intercourse with him for fear of his life, and now he was seen -riding amicably with him towards Stirling. This singular exhibition was -followed by Arran's renunciation of Protestantism; his return, with full -absolution, into communion with the Roman Church; his surrender of the -treaties with England, and the delivery of his son as a pledge of his -sincerity. So marvellous a conversion must have had powerful causes, and -they are only to be explained by the weakness of Arran's character, and -the artful and alarming representations of his more able brother, the -abbot of Paisley. This zealous partisan of both France and the cardinal -is said to have persuaded him that by renouncing the Papal supremacy, -and allying himself with the arch-enemy of Rome, Henry of England, he -was running imminent danger of the total loss of his titles, estates, -and claim to the Regency, which could only be maintained by the Pope -declaring valid the divorce of his father from his former wife. All -Scotland was now united in its enmity to England. - -The year 1544 found Henry bent on war both with Scotland and France. -Francis had deeply offended him by disapproving of his divorce and murder -of Anne Boleyn, and by his refusal to follow his advice in repudiating -his allegiance to the Pope. Francis had declared that he was Henry's -friend, but only as far as the altar. Charles V., aggravated as had been -the conduct of Henry towards him, by his divorce of his aunt Catherine, -and the stigma of illegitimacy which he had cast on her daughter the -Princess Mary, was yet by no means displeased to observe the growing -differences between Henry and his rival Francis. He, therefore, like -a genuine politician, dropped his resentment on account of Catherine, -and professed to believe that it was time to bury these remembrances -in oblivion. The only obstacle to peace between them was the declared -illegitimacy and exclusion from the succession of Mary. Henry lost no -time in getting over this point. He had no need to confess himself -wrong; he had a staunch Parliament who would do anything he required. -Parliament, therefore, passed an Act restoring both Mary and Elizabeth -to their political rights. Nothing was said of their illegitimacy, but -they were restored to their place in the succession. Thus the Parliament -had gone backward and forward at Henry's bidding to such an extent that -now it was treason to assert the legitimacy of the princesses, and it was -treason to deny it; for if they were illegitimate they could not claim -the throne. It was treason to be silent, according to the former Act on -this head, and it was now treason to refuse to take an oath on it when -required. To such infamy did honourable members of Parliament stoop under -this extraordinary despot. - -This sorry compromise having been accepted by the necessities rather than -the will of the Emperor, Henry and he now made a treaty on these terms: -1st, That they should jointly require the French king to renounce his -alliance with the Turks, and to make reparation to the Christians for -all the losses which they had sustained in consequence of that alliance; -2nd, That Francis should be compelled to pay up to the King of England -the arrears of his pension, and give security for a more punctual payment -in future; 3rd, That if Francis did not comply with these terms within -forty days, the Emperor should seize the duchy of Burgundy, Henry all -the territories of France which had belonged to his ancestors, and that -both monarchs should be ready to enforce their claims at the head of a -competent army. - -As Francis refused to listen to these terms, and would not even permit -the messengers of the newly allied sovereigns to cross his frontiers, the -Emperor, who was now desirous of recovering the towns which he had lost -in Flanders, obtained from Henry a reinforcement of 6,000 men under Sir -John Wallop, who laid siege to Landrecies; whilst Charles himself, with a -still greater force, overran the duchy of Cleves, and compelled the duke, -the devoted partisan of France, to acknowledge the Imperial allegiance. -Charles then marched to the siege of Landrecies, and Francis approached -at the head of a large army. A great battle now appeared inevitable; but -Francis, manoeuvring as for a fight, contrived to throw provisions into -the town and withdrew. Imperialists and English pursued the retiring -army; and the English, by too much impetuosity, suffered considerable -loss. Henry promised himself more decided advantage in the next campaign, -which he intended to conduct in person. This he had not been able to make -illustrious by his presence; for he had been busily engaged with his -approaching marriage to a sixth wife. - -The lady who had this time been elevated to this perilous eminence was -the Lady Catherine Latimer, the widow of Lord Latimer, already mentioned -for his concern in the Pilgrimage of Grace. She was born Catherine Parr, -a daughter of Sir Thomas Parr. She was fourth cousin to Henry himself, -and had been twice married previous to his wedding her. She was the -widow of Lord Borough, of Gainsborough, at fifteen, and was about thirty -when Henry married her, only a few months after the death of her second -husband, Lord Latimer. - -Catherine Parr, as she still continues to be called, was educated -under the care of her mother at Kendal Castle, and received a very -learned education for a woman of those times. She read and wrote Latin -fluently, had some knowledge of Greek, and was mistress of several modern -languages. She is said to have been handsome, but of very small and -delicate features. At all times she appears to have been of remarkable -thoughtfulness and prudence, extremely amiable, and became thoroughly -devoted to Protestantism; and she may, indeed, justly be styled the first -Protestant Queen of England, for Anne of Cleves, though educated in the -Protestant faith, became a decided Papist in this country. It was not -till after the death of Lord Latimer that her Protestant tendencies, -however, were known; yet then, she seems to have made no secret of them, -for her house became the resort of Coverdale, Latimer, Parkhurst, and -other eminent Reformers, and sermons were frequently preached in her -chamber of state, which it is surprising did not attract the attention -of the king. The marriage took place on the 12th of July, 1543, in the -queen's closet at Hampton Court. - -The spring of 1544 opened with active preparations for Henry's campaign -in France. During the winter, Gonzaga, the viceroy of Sicily, was -despatched to London by Charles, to arrange the plan of operations. An -admirable one was devised, had Henry been the man to assist in carrying -it out. The emperor was to enter France by Champagne, and Henry by -Picardy, and, instead of staying to besiege the towns on the route, they -were to dash on to Paris where, their forces uniting, they might consider -themselves masters of the French capital, or in a position to dictate -terms to Francis. In May the Imperialists were in the field, and Henry -landed at Calais in June, and by the middle of July he was within the -bounds of France, at the head of 20,000 English and 15,000 Imperialists. - -But neither of the invaders kept to the original plan. Charles stopped by -the way to reduce Luxembourg, Ligne, and St. Didier. Had Henry, however, -pushed on with his imposing army to Paris, Francis would have been at the -mercy of the allies. But Henry, ambitious to rival the military successes -of Charles, and take towns too, instead of making the capital his object, -turned aside to besiege Boulogne and Montreuil. The Imperial ambassador, -sensible of the fatality of this proceeding, urged Henry with all his -eloquence during eleven days to push on: and Charles, to take from him -any further excuse for delay, hastened forward along the right bank of -the Marne, avoiding all the fortified towns. But when once Henry had -undertaken an object, opposition only increased his resolution, and he -lost all consciousness of everything but the one idea of asserting his -mastery. In vain, therefore, did Charles send messengers imploring him to -advance; for more than two months he continued besieging Boulogne, and -the golden opportunity was lost. - -Francis seized on the delay to make terms with Charles. He sent to him -a Spanish monk of the name of Guzman, and a near relative of Charles's -confessor, proposing terms of accommodation. Charles readily listened -to them, and sent to Henry to learn his demands. These demands were -something enormous, and whilst Francis demurred, Charles continued his -march, and arrived at Chateau-Thierry, almost in the vicinity of Paris. -The circumstances of both Francis and Charles now mutually inclined them -to open separate negotiations. Francis saw a foreign army menacing his -capital, but Charles, on the other hand, saw the French army constantly -increasing between him and his strange ally, whom nothing could induce -to move from the walls of Boulogne. Under these circumstances Charles -consented to offer Francis the terms which he had demanded before the -war, and which he had refused; but now came the news that the English -had taken Boulogne, and the French king at once accepted them. The Treaty -of Crepy, as this was called, bound the two sovereigns to unite for the -defence of Christendom against the Turks, and to unite their families by -the marriage of the second son of Francis with a daughter of Charles. -Henry, on his part, having placed a strong garrison in Boulogne, raised -the siege of Montreuil, and returned to England, like a great conqueror, -as he always did, from his distant campaigns. - -By the end of April a scheme to assassinate Cardinal Beaton, of which -Henry was cognisant, having failed, he was prepared to pour on Scotland -the vial of his murderous wrath. A fleet of a hundred sail, under the -command of Lord Lisle, the High Admiral of England, appeared suddenly -in the Forth. The Scots seem to have by no means been dreaming of such -a visitant, and it threw the capital into the greatest consternation. -In four days, such was the absence of preparation, such the public -paralysis, that Hertford was permitted to land his troops and his -artillery without the sight of a single soldier. He had advanced from -Granton to Leith when Arran and the cardinal threw themselves in his way -with a miserable handful of followers, who were instantly dispersed and -Leith was given up to plunder. - -The citizens of Edinburgh, finding themselves deserted by the governor, -flew to arms, under the command of Otterburn of Redhall, the provost -of the city. Otterburn proceeded to the English camp and, obtaining an -interview with Lord Hertford, complained of this unlooked-for invasion, -and offered to accommodate all differences. But Hertford returned a -haughty answer that he was not come to negotiate, for which he had no -power, but to lay waste town and country with fire and sword unless the -young queen were delivered to him. The people of Edinburgh, on hearing -this insolent message, vowed to perish to a man rather than condescend -to such baseness. They set about to defend their walls and sustain the -attack of the enemy; but they found that Otterburn, who had tampered -secretly with the English before this, had stolen unobserved away. They -appointed a new provost, and manned their walls so stoutly that they -compelled Hertford to fetch up his battering ordnance from Leith. Seeing -very soon that it was impossible to defend their gates from this heavy -ordnance, they silently collected as much of their property as they could -carry, and abandoned the town. Hertford took possession of it; and then -sought to reduce the castle. But finding this useless, he set fire to -the city; and, reinforced by 4,000 horse, under Lord Eure, he employed -himself in devastating the surrounding country with a savage ferocity, -which no doubt had been commanded by the bitter malice of the English -king. - -[Illustration: FRANCIS I. - -(_From the Portrait in the Louvre, attributed to the Elder Clouet._)] - -On the 15th of May, Arran, having assembled a considerable force, and -liberated Angus and his brother, Sir George Douglas, in the hope of -winning them over by such clemency, marched rapidly towards Edinburgh. -The English, however, did not wait for his arrival. Lord Lisle embarked -a portion of the troops at Leith again, and Lord Hertford led away -the remainder by land. Both by land and water the English commanders -continued their buccaneering outrages, doing all the mischief and -inflicting all the misery they could. Lord Lisle seized the two largest -Scottish vessels in the harbour of Leith, and burnt the rest; he then -sailed along the coast, plundering and destroying all the villages and -country within reach. Lord Hertford, on his part, laid Port Seaton, -Haddington, Renton, and Dunbar in ashes, and returned into England, -leaving behind him a trail of desolation. Such was the insane and -ridiculous manner in which Henry VIII. wooed the little Queen of Scotland -for his son. A border war ensued, and Scotland was mercilessly ravaged. - -Francis I. could not rest satisfied so long as Boulogne was in the hands -of the English, and he resolved in 1545, to make a grand effort to -recover not only that town but Calais, which had been for centuries in -the possession of England. Large galleys were built at Rouen, and as many -vessels were collected as possible from Marseilles and other ports in the -Mediterranean for this enterprise. He hired soldiers from the Venetian -and other Italian States, and he determined to send a body of troops to -Scotland to assist in making a diversion in that country. But he was -not contented with endeavouring to regain his own towns; his coasts -had often been harassed by the English vessels, and he now ventured to -carry the war to Henry's own shores. Henry, aware of his intentions, -raised fortifications on the banks of the Thames, and along the shores -of Kent, Sussex, and Hampshire. The French fleet, consisting of 130 -ships, set sail on the 16th of July, and fell down the Channel. Francis -flattered himself that he could seize the Isle of Wight, and perhaps -maintain garrisons there, if he should not be able to get possession -of Portsmouth. Henry had himself proceeded to Portsmouth, where he had -sixty ships lying, under the command of Lord Lisle. The French fleet -sailed into the Solent, and anchored at St. Helen's. The sea being very -calm, the French admiral put out his flat-bottomed boats and galleys that -drew little water, and sailed into the very mouth of Portsmouth Harbour, -daring the English admiral to come out. But Henry commanded Lord Lisle to -lie still. The French admiral, firing into the port, sank the _Mary Rose_ -with her commander, Sir George Carew, and 700 men. On the turn of the -tide Lord Lisle bore down on the enemy, and sank a galley with its men, -and the French vessels then bore away to the main fleet. - -As the French could not provoke the English to come out of harbour, -though they burned the villages and farmhouses along the coast, they held -a council of war, and resolved to attempt the conquest of the Isle of -Wight. The invasion of the island was essayed in three places, but the -inhabitants repulsed with great spirit the soldiers as they landed; and, -after committing some ravages, the French thought it best to retire. They -then sailed along the coast of Sussex, making occasional descents, and -finally anchored before Boulogne, to prevent the entrance of supplies -for the army there. Another object was to hinder reinforcements of ships -from the Thames reaching Portsmouth, but in both these endeavours the -superior vigilance of the English prevailed; provisions were conveyed -into Boulogne, and a reinforcement of thirty ships arrived at Portsmouth. -At length Lord Lisle received orders from Henry to put to sea and attack -the enemy; he expressed himself highly delighted, but nothing came of it, -for the two fleets manoeuvred for some time in the face of each other, -exchanged a few shots, and then retired to their respective ports. And -thus ended the boastful enterprise of Francis. Henry, as we have seen, -had only succeeded in capturing Boulogne, and was accordingly glad to -make peace with Francis in 1546, on terms fairly advantageous to England. - -As Scotland was included in the peace with France, the French party -appeared to be entirely triumphant. But Beaton's end was near, and it was -hastened on by his religious persecutions. Notwithstanding the endeavours -of Cardinal Beaton, and the apostacy of Arran, the Reformation had now -made great progress in Scotland, and it was while the struggle was going -on between the party of Angus and the party of the cardinal, backed by -the money and the arms of England, that there came upon the scene the -remarkable preacher, George Wishart. Wishart is supposed to have been -the son of James Wishart of Pitarro, justice-clerk to James V., and he -was patronised by John Erskine, Provost of Montrose. In Montrose he -became master of a school, and was expelled for teaching Greek to his -boys, avowedly as the original tongue of the New Testament. He fled to -England, and in Bristol was condemned as a heretic for preaching against -the offering of prayers to the Virgin. He then recanted to avoid death, -but remained some years in England, returning to all and more than the -opinions he had renounced in sight of the fagot. He boldly preached -the insufficiency of outward ceremonies when the heart itself was not -touched. He admitted only the sacraments recorded in the Scriptures; -derided auricular confession; condemned the invocation of saints and the -doctrine of purgatory, though he approved of fasting, and maintained -that the Lord's Supper was a Divine and comfortable institution. The -doctrines, conduct, and corruptions of his opponents he denounced with -unsparing severity. - -These traits had made him a welcome agent of opposition to the cardinal -with the lords of the English party; and Beaton, at once hostile to his -religious views and to him personally, as the ally of those who were -seeking his life by the most abominable means, soon turned his resentment -upon him. Twice he is said to have escaped from the emissaries of the -cardinal lying in wait to seize him. How far he was aware of the plots -and mercenary villainy of those about him is uncertain; but living in the -very midst of the traitor lords, and often under the very roof of the -busy agent of Beaton's proposed murder, Brunston, he was so far cognisant -of the preparations for the invasion of Scotland and the destruction of -the cardinal's party, that he frequently announced in his sermons the -approach of the horrors which at length arrived, and thus acquired the -reputation of a prophet. Under the protection of the Angus party, he -preached in the towns of Montrose, Dundee, Perth, and Ayr, and produced -such a spirit of hostility to the old religion, that at Dundee the houses -of the Black and Grey Friars were destroyed, and similar attempts were -made in Edinburgh. - -While the friends of Wishart were seeking the life of Beaton, Beaton, -aware of this, was seeking the life of Wishart, and Wishart in his -addresses to the people repeatedly declared that he should perish a -martyr to the cause of truth. At length Cassillis and the gentlemen of -Kyle and Cunningham sent for him to meet them at Edinburgh, where they -proposed that he should have an opportunity for public disputation with -the bishop. Wishart proceeded to the capital where, Cassillis and the -confederates not having arrived, he soon began to preach to the people, -under the protection of the barons of Lothian. At Leith, Sir George -Douglas bore public testimony to the truth of his doctrine, and declared -his resolution to protect the preacher. There, too, he converted John -Knox, who was destined to establish the Reformation in Scotland. - -In the midst of these proceedings arrived the cardinal and the governor -in Edinburgh, and Beaton lost no time in endeavouring to secure the -person of the popular apostle. Brunston removed Wishart to West Lothian -to be out of the way till the arrival of Cassillis, who was the chief -conspirator against the cardinal; but Wishart was not a man to lie -concealed. He preached in the very face of danger, though a two-handed -sword was constantly borne before him on these occasions; and at length, -after a remarkable sermon at Haddington, where he prognosticated deep -miseries about to fall upon the country, he took leave affectionately -of his audience, and set out for the house of Ormiston, accompanied by -Brunston, Sandilands of Calder, and Ormiston. That night the house of -Ormiston was surrounded by a party of horse under the command of the Earl -of Bothwell. Wishart, Sandilands, and Cockburn were seized. Cockburn and -Sandilands were conducted to the castle of Edinburgh, Wishart to Hailes, -the house of Bothwell, who for some time refused to give him up to the -cardinal, but at length did so under promise of a great reward. Brunston -had managed to escape. - -Beaton was anxious to have Wishart tried and condemned on a civil charge; -but to this Arran would not consent, and the cardinal was therefore -obliged to forego his vengeance, or arraign him as a heretic. He was -sentenced to be burnt, and this sentence was carried out at St. Andrews, -on the 28th of March, 1546. In this execution the cardinal's malice -far outran his usually sound policy. Nothing could be more mischievous -to his own cause than the murder of Wishart. Till then, the people, -whatever their religious opinions, regarded the political views of Beaton -as patriotic, and they supported him as the great bulwark against the -power and designs of England. But now they regarded him as a horrible -persecutor, and they shrank from him and his power fell. The meekness -and patience with which Wishart, whom they now honoured with the name of -martyr, bore his horrible fate, made a lasting impression on the public -mind. - -While the people thus unequivocally condemned this barbarous deed, and -only the more eagerly inquired into the principles of the sufferer, the -immediate confederates against the cardinal found in this event a grand -warrant for carrying out their own murderous intentions. Cassillis, -Glencairn, and the rest of the nobles had delayed the desperate deed, -because they could not extract from Henry a distinct statement of the pay -they were to receive for it. But now Norman Leslie, the Earl of Rothes, -and John Leslie, his uncle, began to vow publicly that they would have -the blood of Beaton as an atonement for that of the martyred Wishart. -They opened anew an active correspondence with England, and associated -themselves with a number of others who were exasperated at the cardinal's -deed. - -On the other hand, the partisans of Beaton lauded him to the skies as the -saviour of the Church in Scotland, and strong in the alliance of France -and the late ill-success of the English party, the cardinal appeared -to enjoy a season of triumph; but it was a triumph quickly quenched in -blood. Elated with his temporary success, the cardinal made a progress -into Angus, and celebrated the marriage of one of his natural daughters, -Margaret Bethune, to David Lindsay, Master of Crawford, at Finhaven -Castle, bestowing upon her a dowry worthy of a princess. The cardinal was -disturbed in his festivities by the news that Henry VIII. was pushing -on his preparations for a new invasion, and he hastened to St. Andrews -to put his castle into a perfect state of defence. On his arrival he -summoned the barons of the neighbouring coast to consult on the best -means of fortifying it against any attack of the enemy. But while thus -busily engaged in warding off the assault of a foreign enemy, a domestic -foe was eagerly at work close at hand for his destruction. The Laird -of Brunston was stimulating Henry to give the necessary assurance to -those who were ready at a word to plunge the sword into the body of the -cardinal. A quarrel arising between Beaton and the Leslies brought the -matter to a crisis. Norman Leslie, the Master of Rothes, had given up to -Beaton the estate of Easter Wemyss and, at a meeting in St. Andrews, had -found the cardinal indisposed to make the promised equivalent for it. -High words arose, and Leslie hastened to his uncle John; and both of them -deeming that there was no longer any safety after the words Norman Leslie -in his rage had let fall, they immediately summoned their confederates, -and resolved to put the cardinal to death without delay. - -On the evening of the 28th of May, Norman Leslie, attended by five -followers, entered the city of St. Andrews, and rode, without exciting -any suspicion, in his usual manner to his inn. Kirkaldy of Grange was -awaiting him there, and after nightfall, John Leslie, whose enmity -to Beaton was most notorious, stole quietly in and joined them. At -daybreak the next morning, Norman Leslie and three of his attendants -entered the gates of the castle court, the porter having lowered the -drawbridge to admit the workmen who were employed on the cardinal's fresh -fortifications. Norman inquired if the cardinal were yet up, as if he had -business with him; and while he held the porter in conversation, Kirkaldy -of Grange, James Melville, and their followers entered unobserved; but -presently the porter, catching sight of John Leslie crossing the bridge, -instantly suspected treason, and attempted to raise the drawbridge; -but Leslie was too nimble for him; he leaped across the gap, and the -conspirators, closing round the porter, despatched him with their -daggers, seized the keys, and threw the body into the fosse, without any -noise or alarm. They then proceeded to dismiss the workmen as quietly -from the castle, and Kirkaldy, who was well acquainted with the castle, -stationed himself at the only postern through which an escape could be -made. The conspirators then went to the apartments of the different -gentlemen composing the household of the cardinal, awoke them, and, under -menace of instant death if they made any noise, conducted them silently -out of the castle and dismissed them. Thus were 150 workmen and fifty -household servants removed without any commotion by this little band of -sixteen determined men, and, the portcullis being dropped, they remained -masters of the castle. - -The cardinal, who had slept through the greater part of this time, at -length awoke at the unusual bustle, threw open his chamber window and -demanded the cause of it. The reply was that Norman Leslie had taken -the castle, on which the cardinal rushed to the postern to escape; but -finding it in possession of Kirkaldy, he returned as rapidly to his -chamber and, assisted by a page, pushed the heaviest furniture against -the door to defend the entrance till an alarm could be given. But the -conspirators did not allow him time for that. They called for fire to -burn down the door, and Beaton, finding resistance useless, threw open -the door, when John Leslie and Carmichael rushed upon him, as he cried -for mercy, and stabbed him in several places. Melville, however, with a -mockery of justice, bade them desist, saying that though the deed was -done in secret, it was an act of national justice not that of mercenary -assassins, and must be executed with all due decorum. Then, turning -the point of the sword towards the wretched cardinal, he said, with -formal gravity, "Repent thee, thou wicked cardinal, of all thy sins and -iniquities, especially of the murder of Wishart, that instrument of God -for the conversion of these lands. It is his death which now cries for -vengeance on thee. We are sent by God to inflict the deserved punishment. -For here, before the Almighty, I protest that it is neither hatred of thy -person, nor love of thy riches, nor fear of thy power, which moves me to -seek thy death; but only because thou hast been, and still remainest, -an obstinate enemy to Christ Jesus and His holy Gospel." With that he -plunged his sword repeatedly into the prelate's body, and laid him dead -at his feet. - -The death of Cardinal Beaton was at the same time the death-blow to the -Church in Scotland. Though he was a man of corrupt moral life and of a -persecuting disposition, he was one of the most able men of his time, and -resisted the designs of Henry for the subjugation of his native country, -with a vigour and perseverance which made Henry feel that whilst he lived -Scotland was independent. The death of Beaton, so ardently desired, and -so highly paid for by Henry, did not, however, bring him nearer to the -reduction of the country, or the accomplishment of his son's marriage -with the queen. On the contrary, so intense was the hatred of him and -of England, which his tyrannic and detestable conduct had created in -every rank and class of the Scottish people, that these objects were now -farther off than ever. Henry's own embarrassments were, in consequence -of his Scottish and French wars, become so intolerable, that he was -compelled, as we have already seen (p. 198), to make peace with France -in the month of June, by a treaty called the Treaty of Boulogne, and -to agree to deliver up Boulogne, on condition that Francis paid up the -arrears of his pension, and to submit a claim of 500,000 crowns upon him -to arbitration. Francis took care to have Scotland included in the peace, -and Henry bound himself not to interfere with it except on receiving some -fresh provocation. - -[Illustration: THE ASSASSINATION OF CARDINAL BEATON. (_See p._ 200.)] - -Henry was now drawing to a close of that life which might have been so -splendid, and which he had made so horrible. To the last moment he was -employed in base endeavours to elude the peace which he had submitted to -with Scotland; in the struggles between the two great religious factions, -and in still further shocking executions for treason and heresy. Henry -himself was become in mind and person a most loathsome object. A life -of vile pleasures, and furious and unrestrained passions, succeeded, as -other appetites decayed, by a brutal habit of gormandising, had swollen -him to an enormous size, and made his body one huge mass of corruption. -The ulcer in his leg had become revoltingly offensive; his weight and -helplessness were such that he could not pass through any ordinary door, -nor be removed from one part of the house to another, except by the -aid of machinery and by the help of numerous attendants. The constant -irritation of his festering legs made his terrible temper still more -terrible. - -Of those about him, his queen, Catherine Parr, had the most miraculous -escape. With wonderful patience, she had borne his whims, his rages, -and his offensive person. She had shown an affectionate regard for his -children, and had assisted with great wisdom in the progress of their -education, living all the time as with a sword suspended over her head -by a hair. She was devotedly attached to the Reformed principles, and -loved to converse with sincere Protestants. She had made Miles Coverdale -her almoner, and rendered him every assistance in his translation of the -Bible. She employed the learned Nicholas Udal, Master of Eton, to edit -the translations of Erasmus's "Paraphrases on the Four Gospels," which, -according to Strype, she published at her own cost. Stimulated by her -example, many ladies of rank pursued the study of the learned languages -and of Scriptural knowledge. - -Of this school, and one of Catherine's own pupils, was Lady Jane Grey; -and another lovely and noble victim, Anne Askew, whose turn it was to -fall under the destroying hand of Henry VIII. at this moment, was highly -esteemed and encouraged by her. She was tortured and then burnt (July 6, -1546) for denying the Real Presence, and it is said that the Chancellor -Wriothesley assisted in the application of the rack in the hope of -wringing a confession from her. - -An attempt to involve the Queen in similar charges was a complete -failure, and Henry never forgave Gardiner for this attempt to deprive him -of his true wife and unrivalled nurse. Catherine is said to have treated -these her deadly enemies with great magnanimity; but she seems to have -become quite aware that Gardiner's was the daring hand that was lifted -to ruin her with the king, and it was probably this clear understanding -between the king and queen which destroyed Gardiner's influence with -Henry for ever. Henry struck Gardiner's name out of the list of his -council, and on perceiving him one day on the terrace at Windsor amongst -the other courtiers, he turned fiercely on Wriothesley, and said, "Did -I not command you that _he_ should come no more amongst you?" "My Lord -of Winchester," replied the chancellor, "has come to wait upon your -highness with the offer of a benevolence from his clergy." That was a -deeply politic stroke of Gardiner's; he knew that if anything could -redeem the lost favour of Henry, it was a sacrifice to his avarice next -to his vanity. Henry took the money, but turned away from the bishop -without a word or a look, and immediately struck his name from amongst -his executors, as well as that of Thirlby, Bishop of Westminster, who, he -said, was schooled by Gardiner. A deadly feud had grown up between the -house of Seymour and the house of Howard. The house of Howard was old, -and proud, not only of its ancient lineage, but of its grand deeds. The -glory of Flodden lay like a great splendour on their name. Two queens had -been selected from this house during the present reign, and the Princess -Elizabeth was a partaker of its blood. The Seymours, on the other hand, -were of no great lineage; but the two heads of it, Sir Thomas Seymour -and Edward, who had been created Earl of Hertford, and whom we have seen -executing the king's sanguinary pleasure more than once in Scotland, -were the uncles to the heir-apparent, Prince Edward. They had been lifted -into greatness entirely through the marriage of their sister with Henry -and the birth of the prince; they had no natural connection, therefore, -amongst the old nobility, and were regarded by them with jealousy as -fortunate upstarts. But there was a circumstance which gave them power -besides the alliance with the Crown and the heir to it, and this was -the Protestant faith which they held, and which, therefore, bound the -Protestant party in England to their cause, and in hope, through their -nephew, the future king. The Howards, on the other hand, held by the -ancient faith, and were among its most positive assertors. Thus the feud -between these rival houses was not only the feud of the old and new -aristocracy, but that of the old and new faith; and the rival factions -looked up to them as their natural lords and leaders. - -The question, therefore, which of these families should become the -guardians and ministers of the new king was every day acquiring a more -intense interest. The Howards, from their old standing, and their great -employments under the Crown, naturally regarded themselves as entitled -to that distinction, and in this view they were, of course, supported by -the whole Papist party most anxiously. But the Seymours, as the uncles -of the prince, were equally bent on securing the preference. They had -little connection, as we have stated, amongst the aristocracy, but had -the whole Protestant party in their interest. They therefore regarded the -Howards with the deepest jealousy and alarm, and they lost no time or -opportunity in securing their ruin during the present king's life. There -were many things which they could so bring before Henry's mind as to -excite his most deadly fear. The Howards were the determined supporters -of the Roman faith. What chance, therefore, was there under them of the -preservation of the supremacy? What chance was there that they would -leave the young king to his own unbiassed choice in matters of religion -and of Church government? But still more, the Howards had not escaped -his secret dislike through the conduct of Catherine Howard, the queen. -A little thing could stimulate this dislike into something fearful. -Again, the Duke of Norfolk was rich, and never were the riches of a -subject overlooked or unlonged for by Henry Tudor. All these motives were -brought successfully into play. Bishop Gardiner was the man most to be -feared in the Howard interest, as it regarded the Church, and this had, -unquestionably, much to do with his disgrace and banishment from Court. - -A few days after that event, namely, on the 12th of December, the Duke -of Norfolk and his son the Earl of Surrey, were, unknown to each other, -arrested on a charge of high treason, and sent to the Tower, the one -by water and the other by land. Surrey had never forgiven the Earl of -Hertford for having superseded him in command of the army at Boulogne; he -had in his irritation spoken with biting contempt of the parvenu Seymour, -and declared that after the king's death he would take his revenge. But -Henry was soon persuaded that the designs of Surrey went further. His -fears, in his morbid and sinking state, were easily excited, and he was -made to believe that there was a conspiracy of the Howards to seize the -reins of government during his illness, and make themselves masters of -the person of the prince. Surrey, with all the rash and lofty spirit of -the poet, denied every charge of disloyalty or treason with the utmost -vehemence, and offered to fight his accuser in his shirt. - -The Duke of Norfolk wrote to the king from the Tower, expressing his -astonishment at the sudden arrest, and saying, "Sir, God doth know that -in all my life I never thought one untrue thought against you, or your -succession; nor can no more judge nor cast in my mind what should be -laid to my charge, than the child that was born this night." The only -thing which he thought his enemies might bring against him was for "being -quick against such as had been accused for sacramentaries," that is, -Protestants. He prayed earnestly to have a fair hearing before the king -or his council, face to face with his accusers. His gifted son, one of -the finest poets of the age, and whose fame still makes part of England's -glory, was brought to trial first, for he was young and full of talent, -and, therefore, more dreaded than his father. On the 13th of December -he was arraigned for treason in Guildhall, before the Lord Chancellor, -the Lord Mayor, and other Commissioners, and a jury of commoners, and -beheaded on the 19th of January. The Seymours pursued Norfolk with -relentless ferocity. The king was rapidly sinking, there was no time to -lose; a bill of attainder was passed through the Peers on the 26th of -January, 1547; on the 27th the Royal assent was given in due form, and an -order was despatched to the Tower to execute the Duke at an early hour -next morning. Before that morning the soul of the tyrant was called to -its dread account, and the life of the old nobleman was saved as by a -miracle. - -Henry VIII. was fifty-five years and seven months old at his death, and -had reigned thirty-seven years, nine months, and six days. His will -was dated December 30th, 1546. He was authorised by Act of Parliament -to settle the succession by his will, and he now named his son Prince -Edward, as his lawful successor, then, in default of heirs, the Princess -Mary and her heirs; these failing, the Princess Elizabeth, and her heirs. -After Elizabeth, was named the Lady Frances, the eldest daughter of -his sister, the Queen of France, and her heirs; and such failing, the -Lady Eleanor, the youngest daughter of the late Queen of France. On the -failure of all these, then the succession was to be to his heirs-at-law; -but no particular mention was made in the succession of his sister -Margaret, Queen of Scotland, and of her issue. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -THE REIGN OF EDWARD VI. - - Accession of Edward VI.--Hertford's Intrigues--He becomes Duke - of Somerset and Lord Protector--War with Scotland--Battle of - Pinkie--Reversal of Henry's Policy--Religious Reforms--Ambition - of Lord Seymour of Sudeley--He marries Catherine Parr--His - Arrest and Death--Popular Discontents--Rebellion in - Devonshire and Cornwall--Ket's Rebellion in Norfolk--Warwick - Suppresses it--Opposition to Somerset--His Rapacity--Fall - of Somerset--Disgraceful Peace with France--Persecution of - Romanists--Somerset's Efforts to regain Power--His Trial and - Execution--New Treason Law--Northumberland's Schemes for Changing - the Succession--Death of Edward. - - -The country was doomed once more to experience the inconveniences of -a regal minority, to witness the struggles and manifold mischiefs of -ambitious nobles, while the hand of the king was too feeble to keep -them in restraint. The execution of Surrey, and the imprisonment and -attainder of the great Duke of Norfolk, left the Seymours completely -in the ascendant; and having recently risen into note and power, they -very soon showed all the inflated ambition of such parvenus. The Earl of -Hertford, as uncle of the king, was in reality the man now in possession -of the chief power. The king was but a few months more than nine years -of age. Henry, his father, acting on the discretion given him by an -Act of Parliament of the twenty-eighth year of his reign, had by will -settled the crown on Edward, and had appointed sixteen individuals as his -executors, who should constitute also the Privy Council, and exercise -the authority of the Crown till the young monarch was eighteen years of -age. To enable these executors, or rather, to enable Hertford, to secure -the person of the king, and take other measures for the establishment -of their position, the death of Henry was kept secret for four days. -Parliament, which was virtually dissolved by his death, met on the 29th -of January, and proceeded to business as usual, so that any acts passed -under these circumstances would have clearly become null. On the 31st -Edward entered London amid the applause of the people. - -On the day after his arrival at the Tower, that is, on February 1st, -1547, the greater part of the nobility and the prelates were summoned, -and assembled there about three o'clock in the afternoon, in the -presence-chamber, where they all successively knelt and kissed his -majesty's hands, saying every one of them, "God save your grace!" Then -Wriothesley, the Chancellor, produced Henry's will, and announced from it -that sixteen persons were appointed to be his late majesty's executors, -and to hold the office of governors of the present king and of the -kingdom till he was eighteen years of age. To these were added twelve -others, who were to aid them in any case of difficulty by their advice. -Yet, although these formed a second council, it was totally destitute of -any real authority and could only tender advice when asked. - -The announcement of these names excited much animadversion and some -censure. It was remarked that the greater part of them were new men; and -the chief council consisted of those who had been about Henry in his -last illness. But what next was disclosed was more extraordinary. The -executors, when assembled in the Tower on the day of the young king's -proclamation, declared that "they were resolved not only to stand to and -maintain the last will and testament of their master, the late king, and -every part and parcel of the same, to the uttermost of their powers, -wits, and cunning, but also that every one of them present should -take a corporal oath upon a book, for the more assured and effectual -accomplishment of the same." And now it was announced that the Privy -Council, for the better despatch of business, had resolved to place -the Earl of Hertford at their head. This was so directly in opposition -to the will, which had invested every member of the council with equal -power, that it was received with no little wonder. The fact was that -Hertford--who, before the old king's death, had determined to seize the -supreme power during the minority of his nephew--had secured a majority -in the council, who, as we shall soon find, had their object to attain. -Wriothesley was the only one who stood out. He assured them that such -an act invalidated the whole will. But he argued in vain and, finding -it useless, he gave way; and thus Hertford was now proclaimed Protector -of the realm and guardian of the king's person, with the understood but -empty condition, that he should attempt nothing which had not the assent -of a majority of the council. His triumph was completed by the titles of -Duke of Somerset and Lord Protector of England. - -[Illustration: EDWARD VI.] - -Essex, that is Parr, brother of the late queen, became Marquis of -Northampton; Lisle, Earl of Warwick; Wriothesley, Earl of Southampton; -Sir Thomas Seymour, Baron Seymour of Sudeley, and Lord High Admiral; -Rich became Baron Rich; Willoughby, Baron Willoughby; Sheffield, Baron -Sheffield. Southampton was, however, soon compelled to resign office on -the charge of having illegally put the Great Seal in commission. - -Having thus seized and secured the actual sovereign power in England, -Somerset began to turn his attention to foreign affairs. Henry VIII. had -left it as a strict injunction to his council to secure the marriage of -the Queen of Scots with his son Edward. Somerset, therefore, addressed -a letter to the Scottish nobility, calling upon them to complete an -arrangement which he recommended as equally advantageous with that to -which they were bound by oaths, promises, and seals. The Scots took -little notice of this communication from the man who had carried the -commands of the late king through their land with fire and sword. The -castle of St. Andrews, which the murderers of Cardinal Beaton held out -against Arran, had in the course of this summer been surrendered to a -French force, and the conspirators were conveyed to France. Some of them -were confined in fortresses on the coast of Brittany, and others, amongst -whom was John Knox, were sent to work in the galleys, whence they were -not released till 1550. By the month of August, Somerset was once more -prepared to invade Scotland, and to force, if possible, the young queen -from the hands of Arran and the queen-mother. The forces were reviewed, -and on the 29th they commenced their march. On the 2nd of September they -were at Berwick, where they found Lord Clinton with the fleet, and from -that point the army marched along the shore, supported by the ships at -sea. Somerset took Douglas Castle, the property of Sir George Douglas, -without resistance. The castle being rifled, was then blown up with -gunpowder, as were also the peels of Thornton and Anderwick. Passing -by Dunbar and the castle of Tantallon, the army, on Friday, the 8th of -September, sat down near Prestonpans, the fleet being stationed opposite -the town of Musselburgh. - -To meet this invasion, Arran had sent the Fiery Cross from clan to clan -through the Highlands, and had ordered every Scot capable of bearing arms -to meet at Musselburgh. The two armies now lay at Pinkie, not much more -than a couple of miles from each other. On the 9th the Scottish horse -were seen parading themselves boldly on the height which lay between the -hosts, called Falside, or Fawside Brae. The two armies had the sea to -the north, while Falside rose facing the west, and having on its summit -a castellated keep and a few huts. - -Somerset and Warwick resolved to occupy the height on which stood St. -Michael's Church, and for this purpose, early on the morning of the 10th, -long called "Black Saturday" in Scotland, they advanced upon it about -eight o'clock. But the Scots had also concluded to advance, and on the -English approaching the first height, they were astonished to find that -the Scots had quitted their strong position beyond the river, and were -occupying the ground they had intended for themselves. It seems that the -Scots had somehow got the idea that the English meant to retreat and -escape them, and to prevent this they determined to surprise them in -their camp, and were on the way for this purpose. At the sight of the -English, the Scots pushed forward impetuously, hoping to get possession -of Fawside Brae, but they were checked by a sharp discharge of artillery -from the admiral's galley, which mowed down about thirty of them, as they -defiled over the bridge near the sea. Seeing the English posted on the -height with several pieces of artillery, the Scots halted in a fallow -field, having in their front a deep ditch. The English, however, reckless -of this obstacle, dashed on and, with Lord Grey at their head, made -their way up to them. Standing in an almost impenetrable mass, the Scots -kept crying, "Come here, loons! come here, tykes! come here, heretics!" -and the like, and the English charging upon them, seemed for a moment -to have disconcerted them, but soon were fain to turn and retreat. The -flight became general, and the Scots rushing on expected to reap an easy -victory. Lord Grey himself was severely wounded in the mouth, and the -Scottish soldiers pressing on seized the Royal standard, when a desperate -struggle ensued and, the staff of the standard being broken, part of it -remained in the hands of the enemy, but the standard itself was rescued. - -The fight now became general and fierce, and there was a hand-to-hand -contest in which many fell on both sides; but the English commanders were -men proved in many a great battle, and exerted themselves to restore -order amongst their troops. Warwick was seen everywhere encouraging, -ordering, and ranking his men afresh; while the artillery from the -height, directed over the heads of their own regiments, mowed down the -assailing Scots. The ardour of the soldiers restored, advantage was taken -of the position of a large body of the enemy who in their impetuosity had -rushed forward beyond the support of the main army. They were surrounded -and attacked on all sides. Confounded by this unexpected occurrence, the -Scots were thrown into confusion, and began to take to flight. Arran -himself soon put spurs to his horse; Angus followed, and the Highland -clans--who had never been engaged--fled _en masse_. The rout was general -and the slaughter terrible, some making for Leith, some direct for -Edinburgh, by fields or woods as they could, and others endeavoured to -cross the marsh and reach Dalkeith. - -Now was the time to push the object for which this expedition had been -undertaken--the securing the young queen for the king. Somerset had -attained a commanding position. He held the capital, as it were, under -his hand, and fresh forces brought up, and judiciously employed, must -have put the country so far into his power as to enable him to treat -on the most advantageous terms for the accomplishment of this great -national object; or if he could not obtain it by treaty, he might make -himself master of her person by arms. But all this demonstration, this -signal victory, this sanguinary butchery, which must add finally to the -antipathy of the Scottish people if no real gain followed it, was cast -aside with a strange recklessness which shewed that though Somerset -could conquer in the field, he was totally destitute of the qualities -of a statesman. Instead of making his success the platform of wise -negotiation, and of a great national union, he converted it into a -fresh aggravation of the ill-will of the Scots, by depriving it of all -rational result. Being, it is supposed, apprised of some machinations -of his brother, the admiral, in his absence, he commenced an instant -march homeward, like a man that was beaten rather than a victor. On the -17th of September, only a week from the battle of Pinkie, he took his -departure southwards. On entering England, he made the best of his way to -London, the whole term of his absence having been only some six weeks. -A Parliament was then summoned, and the Protector proceeded to carry -out the contemplated reform in the Church. Already an ecclesiastical -commission had been busily engaged in visitation of dioceses. For this -purpose, the kingdom was divided into six circuits, to each of which was -appointed a certain number of visitors, partly laymen partly clergymen, -who, the moment they arrived in a diocese, became the only ecclesiastical -authority there. They were empowered to call before them the bishop, -the clergy, and five, six, or eight of the principal inhabitants of -each parish, and put into their hands a body of royal injunctions, -seven-and-thirty in number. These injunctions regarded religious -doctrines and practice, and the visitors required an answer upon oath to -every question which they chose to put concerning them. The injunctions -were similar to those which had been framed and used by Cromwell, but the -present practice of joining the laity with the clergy was an innovation -of a more sweeping character. The commission promptly imprisoned Bonner -and Gardiner, the leaders of the Roman Catholic party. - -Parliament assembled on the 4th of November, and proceeded to mitigate -some of the severities of the last reign. It repealed those monstrous -acts of Henry VIII., which gave to Royal proclamations all the force of -Acts of Parliament; likewise all the penal statutes against the Lollards, -and all the new felonies created in the last reign, including the statute -of the Six Articles. It admitted the laity as well as the clergy to -receive the sacrament of the Lord's Supper in both kinds. It determined -that the old fiction of electing bishops by "conge d'elire" should cease, -and that all such appointments should proceed directly by nomination of -the Crown; that all processes in the episcopal courts should be carried -on in the king's name, and all documents issuing thence should be sealed, -not with the bishop's seal, but with that of the Crown. The claim of -spiritual supremacy was placed on the same level as the other rights of -the Crown, and it was made a capital offence to deny that the king was -supreme head of the Church; but with this distinction, that what was -printed of that nature was direct high treason--what was merely spoken -only became so by repetition. A bill for legalising the marriages of the -clergy was brought into the Commons, and carried by a large majority; -but, from some cause, was not carried to the Lords during the present -session. - -Parliament terminated its sitting on the 24th of December, and the -council, carrying forward its measures for the advancement of the -Reformation, issued an order prohibiting the burning of candles on -Candlemas-Day, and the use of ashes on Ash Wednesday, and of palms on -Palm Sunday. The order against images was repeated, and the clothes -covering them were directed to be given to the poor. The people, however, -who delighted in religious ceremonies, processions, and spectacles, -and thought the sermons very dull, were by no means pleased with these -innovations. There was to be no elevation of the Host, and the whole -service was to be in English. - -Cranmer employed himself in composing a catechism, which was published -"for the singular profit and instruction of children and young people;" -and a committee of bishops and divines sat to compile a new liturgy -for the use of the English Church. They took the Latin missals and -breviaries for the groundwork, omitting whatever they deemed superfluous -or superstitious, and adding fresh matter. Before Christmas they had -compiled a book of common prayer, differing in various particulars from -the one now in use, and all ministers were ordered to make use of that -book, under penalty, on refusal, of forfeiture of a year's income, and -six months' imprisonment for the first offence; for the second, loss of -all preferments, with twelve months' imprisonment; and for the third, -imprisonment for life. Any one taking upon him to preach, except in his -own house, without licence from the king's visitors, the Archbishop of -Canterbury, or the bishop of the diocese, was liable to imprisonment. -Latimer, who had resigned his bishopric in 1539, was now called forward -again, and appointed to preach at St. Paul's Cross, and also in the -king's privy garden, where Edward, attended by his court, used to listen -to his bold and quaint eloquence for an hour together. - -Towards the close of 1547, as we have seen, a bill passed the Commons -authorising the marriage of the clergy, but on the 9th of February, 1548, -a different bill for the same object was carried in the House of Lords, -and accepted by the Commons. - -While these events had been taking place in England, the war had been -steadily prosecuted against Scotland, and led to the result which -might naturally be expected, but which was least expected by the -Protector--that of the passing of the young queen of Scotland into the -hands of the French. Very soon after the battle of Pinkie, a council was -summoned at Stirling, where the queen-dowager proposed that, to put an -end to those barbarous inroads of the English on pretence of seeking the -hand of the queen, they should apply to France for its assistance; that -as a means of engaging it in effectual aid, they should offer the young -queen in marriage to the Dauphin; and that for her better security she -should be educated in the French court. There, in August, 1548, she was -solemnly contracted to the Dauphin, afterwards Francis II. - -But during the session of Parliament commencing on the 24th of November, -a question of most serious import was brought forward concerning the -Protector's brother. The lord high admiral, Thomas Seymour, had all -the ambition of his elder brother, the Protector, but from some cause -he had failed to acquire the same position at court. Henry VIII. had -not only employed Somerset in great commissions, but had given him such -marks of his confidence that, on his death, he easily engrossed all -the power of the State under his son. The admiral did not witness this -with indifference. The Protector, to satisfy him, got him created Baron -Seymour of Sudeley, and with this title he received in August, 1548, -the lordship of Sudeley in Gloucestershire, together with other lands -and tenements in no less than eighteen counties. He made him, moreover, -high admiral, a post which had been held by the Earl of Warwick, who -received instead of it that of lord great chamberlain. These honours -and estates might have well contented a man of even high ambition, but -the aspiring of the Seymours brooked no limits. As he did not seem to -succeed in his desire of rising to a station as lofty as that of his -brother the Protector, through the Council and political alliance, he -sought to achieve this by means of marriage. There were several ladies -on whom he cast his eyes for this purpose. The Princesses Mary and -Elizabeth were the next in succession, and he did not hesitate to aim at -securing the hand of one of them, which would have realised his soaring -wishes, or plunged him down at once to destruction. He seems then to have -weighed the chances which a union with Lady Jane Grey might give him; -but, as if not satisfied with the prospect, he suddenly determined on -the queen-dowager. He had, indeed, paid his addresses to Catherine Parr -before her marriage with Henry VIII., and Catherine was so much attached -to him that she at first listened with obvious reluctance to Henry's -proposal. No sooner was Henry dead than Seymour seems to have renewed -his addresses to Catherine, and, with all her piety and prudence, the -queen-dowager seems to have listened to him as promptly and readily. -Though Henry only died at the end of January, 1547, in a single month, -according to Leti, she had consented to a private contract of marriage, -and she and Seymour had exchanged rings of betrothal. According to King -Edward's journal, their marriage took place in May, but the courtship -had been going on long before, and was only revealed to him when it -was become dangerous to conceal it any longer, and they were privately -married long before that. The marriage was publicly announced in June--a -rapidity for such a transaction as strange as it was indecorous. -Catherine Parr gave birth to a daughter on the 30th of August, 1548, and -on the 7th of September, only eight days after, she died of puerperal -fever. Rumours that her husband had poisoned her to enable him to aspire -to the hand of the Princess Elizabeth, were spread by his enemies, but -there does not appear the slightest foundation for the horrible charge. - -[Illustration: GREAT SEAL OF EDWARD VI.] - -The lord admiral, who had found it difficult to keep out of danger -during the life of his wife, partly through his own rash ambition, and -partly through the malice of his near relatives, soon fell into it -after her death. In July of 1548, he had been called before the Council -on the charge of having endeavoured to prevail on the king to write a -letter, complaining of the arbitrary conduct of the Protector and of the -restraint in which he was kept by him. Seymour was seeking, in fact, to -supersede the Protector, and was threatened with imprisonment in the -Tower; but the matter for that time was made up, and the Protector added -L800 per annum to his income, by way of conciliating him. - -But with Catherine departed his good genius. He gave a free play to his -ambitious desires, and renewed his endeavours to compass a clandestine -marriage with the Princess Elizabeth, as he had done with Catherine. -Finding, however, that such a marriage would annul the claims of -Elizabeth to the throne, he next devised means to extort from the Council -a consent, which he was well aware it would never yield voluntarily. -For this purpose he is said to have courted the friendship of the -discontented section of the nobility, and made such a display of his -wealth and retainers as was calculated to alarm the Protector and his -party. The Protector now resolved to get rid of so dangerous an enemy, -though he was his own brother. Sharrington, master of the mint at -Bristol being accused of gross peculation by clipping the coin, issuing -testoons, or shilling pieces, of a false value, and making fraudulent -entries in his books, was boldly defended by the admiral, who owed him -L3,000. But Sharrington, to save his life, ungratefully betrayed that of -his advocate. He confessed that he had promised to coin money for the -admiral, who could reckon on the services of 10,000 men, with whose aid -he meant to carry off the king and change the government. This charge, -made, no doubt, solely to save his own life, was enough for Somerset. -Seymour was arrested on the 16th of January, 1549, on a charge of high -treason, and committed to the Tower. - -There was no lack of charges against him, true or false. It was stated -that he had resolved to seize the king's person, and carry him to his -castle of Holt, in Denbighshire, which had come to him in one of the -royal grants; that he had confederated for this purpose with various -noblemen and others, and had laid in large stores of provisions and a -mass of money at that castle. He was also charged with having abused his -authority as lord admiral, and encouraged piracy and smuggling, and with -having circulated reports against the Lord Protector and Council too vile -to be repeated. But the most remarkable were the charges against him of -endeavouring, both before and after his marriage with the queen-dowager, -to compass a marriage with the king's sister, the Lady Elizabeth, second -inheritor to the Crown, to the peril of the king's person and danger -to the throne. A Bill of Attainder was brought in against him; he was -condemned without a hearing and executed on the 27th of March. - -The Protector no sooner had put his brother out of his path into a bloody -grave, than he was called upon to contend with a whole host of enemies. -A variety of causes had reduced the common people to a condition of -deep distress and discontent. The depreciation of the coinage by Henry -VIII. had produced its certain consequence--the proportionate advance -of the price of all purchasable articles. But with the rise in price of -food and clothing, there had been no rise in the price of labour. The -dissolution of the monasteries had thrown a vast number of people on the -public without any resource. Besides the large number of monks and nuns -who, instead of affording alms, were now obliged to seek a subsistence of -some kind, the hundreds of thousands who had received daily assistance -at the doors of convents and monasteries were obliged to beg, work, or -starve. But the new proprietors who had obtained the abbey and chantry -lands, found wool so much in demand, that instead of cultivating the -land, and thus at once employing the people and growing corn for them, -they threw their fields out of tillage, and made great enclosures where -their profitable flocks could range without even the superintendence of -a shepherd. - -The people thus driven to starvation were still more exasperated by -the change in the religion of the country, by the destruction of their -images, and the desecration of the shrines of their saints. Their -whole public life had been changed by the change of their religion. -Their oldest and most sacred associations were broken. Their pageants, -their processions, their pilgrimages were all rudely swept away as -superstitious rubbish; their gay holidays had become a gloomy blank. What -their fathers and their pastors had taught them as peculiarly holy and -essential to their spiritual well-being, their rulers had now pronounced -to be damnable doctrines and the delusions of priest-craft; and whilst -smarting under this abrupt privation of their bodily and spiritual -support, they beheld the new lords of the ancient church lands greedily -cutting off not only the old streams of benevolence, but the means of -livelihood by labour, and showing not the slightest regard for their -sufferings. The priests, the monks, the remaining heads of the Papist -party did not fail to point assiduously at all these things, and to fan -the fires of the popular discontent. - -The timidity of the Protector forced the ferment to a climax by the -very means which he resorted to in order to mitigate it. He ordered -all the new enclosures to be thrown open by a certain day. The people -rejoiced at this, believing that now they had the Government on their -side. But they waited in vain to see the Protector's order obeyed. The -Royal proclamation fully bore out the complaints of the populace. It -declared that many villages, in which from one hundred to two hundred -people had lived, were entirely destroyed; that one shepherd now dwelt -where numerous industrious families dwelt before; and that the realm -was injured by turning arable land into pasture, and letting houses and -families decay and lie waste. Hales, the commissioner, stated that the -laws which forbade any one to keep more than 2,000 sheep, and which -commanded the owners of church lands to keep household on the same, -were disobeyed, the result being that numbers of the king's subjects -had diminished. But though the Government admitted all this, it took no -measures to make its proclamation effective; the landowners disregarded -it, and the people, believing that they were only seconding the law, -assembled in great numbers, chose their captains or leaders, broke down -the enclosures, killed the deer in the parks, and began to spoil and -waste, according to Holinshed, after the manner of an open rebellion. -The day approached when the use of the old liturgy was to cease, and -instead of the music, the spectacle, and all the imposing ceremonies of -high Mass, they would be called on to listen to a plain sermon. Goaded to -desperation by these grievances, the people rose in almost every part of -the country. - -In Wiltshire, Sir William Herbert raised a body of troops and dispersed -the insurgents, killing some, and executing others according to martial -law. The same was done in other quarters by the resident gentry. The -Protector, alarmed, sent out commissioners to hear and decide all causes -about enclosures, highways, and cottages. These commissioners were armed -with great powers, the exercise of which produced as much dissatisfaction -amongst the nobility and gentry as the enclosures had done amongst the -people. The spirit of remonstrance entered into the very Council, and -the Protector was checked in his proceedings; whereupon the people, not -finding the redress they expected, again rose in rebellion. - -In Devonshire the religious phase of the movement appeared first, and -rapidly assumed a very formidable air. The new liturgy was read for the -first time in the church of Sampford Courtenay, on Whit Sunday, and -the next day the people compelled the clergyman to perform the ancient -service. Having once resisted the law, the insurgents rapidly spread. -Humphrey Arundel, the governor of St. Michael's Mount, took the lead, -and a few days brought ten thousand men to his standard. As the other -risings had been easily dispersed, the Government were rather dilatory in -dealing with this; but finding that it steadily increased, Lord Russell -was despatched with a small force against the malcontents, accompanied by -three preachers, Gregory, Reynolds, and Coverdale, who were licensed to -preach in such public places as Lord Russell should appoint. - -The rebels had sat down before Exeter when Russell came up with them; -but conscious of the great inferiority of his force, and expecting no -miracles from the eloquence of his preachers, he adopted the plan of the -Duke of Norfolk in the late reign, and offered to negotiate. Upon this, -Arundel and his adherents drew up and presented fifteen articles, which -went, indeed, to restore everything of the old faith and ritual that -had been taken away. The Statute of the Six Articles was to be put in -force, the Mass to be in Latin, the Sacrament to be again hung up and -worshipped, all such as refused it homage were to be treated as heretics, -souls in purgatory should be prayed for, images again be set up, the -Bible be called in, and Cardinal Pole was to be of the king's Council. -Half of the Church lands were to be restored to two of the chief abbeys -in each county; in a word, Popery was to be restored and Protestantism -abolished. - -All this time Lord Russell lay at Honiton, not venturing to attack, the -Government sending him instead of troops only proclamations, by one of -which a free pardon was offered to all who would submit; by another, the -lands, goods, and chattels of the insurgents were given to any who chose -to take them; by a third, punishment of death by martial law was ordered -for all taken in arms; and by a fourth, the commissioners were commanded -to break down all illegal enclosures. None of these produced the least -effect. Lord Russell had sent Sir Peter Carew to urge the Protector and -Council to expedite reinforcements; but the Protector and Rich charged -Sir Peter with having been the original cause of the outbreak. The -bold baronet resented this imputation so stoutly, and charged home the -Protector in a style so unaccustomed in courts, with his own neglect, -that men and money were promised. Nothing, however, but the proclamations -just mentioned arrived, and at length the rebels despatched a force -to dislodge Russell from his position at Honiton. To prevent this, he -advanced to Feniton Bridge, where he encountered the rebel detachment and -defeated it. Soon after Lord Grey arrived with 300 German and Italian -infantry, with which assistance he marched on Exeter, and again defeated -the rebels. They rallied on Clifton Downs, and Lord Grey coming suddenly -upon them and fearing they might overpower him, he ordered his men to -despatch all the prisoners they had in their hands, and a sanguinary -slaughter took place. A third and last encounter at Bridgewater completed -the reduction of the Rising of the West. - -But the most formidable demonstration was made by the rebels in Norfolk. -It commenced at Aldborough, and appeared at first too insignificant for -notice. But the rumours of what had been done in Kent, where the new -enclosures had been broken down, gradually infected the people far and -wide. They did not trouble themselves about the religious questions, -but they expressed a particular rancour against gentlemen, for their -insatiable avarice and their grasping at all land, their extortionate -rents, and oppressions of the people. They declared that it was high time -that not only the enclosure mania should be put a stop to, but abundance -of other evils should be reformed. - -On the 6th of July, at Wymondham, a few miles from Norwich, on occasion -of a play which was annually performed there, the people, stimulated by -what was being done elsewhere, began to throw down the dykes, as they -were called, or fences round enclosures, and they found a leader in one -Robert Ket, a tanner. Under an oak tree, called the Tree of Reformation, -which stood on Mousehold Hill, near Norwich, Ket erected his throne, and -established courts of chancery, king's bench, and common pleas, as in -Westminster Hall; and, with a liberality which shamed the Government of -that and of most succeeding times, he allowed not only the orators of his -own but of the opposite party to harangue them from this tree. Ket, it is -clear, was a man far beyond his times, sincerely seeking the reform of -abuses, and not destruction of the constituted authority. The tree was -used as a rostrum, and all who had anything to say climbed into it. Into -the tree mounted frequently Master Aldrich, the mayor of Norwich, and -others, who used all possible persuasions to the insurgents to desist -from spoliation and disorderly courses. Clergymen of both persuasions -preached to them from the oak, and Matthew Parker, afterwards Archbishop -of Canterbury, one day ascended it, and addressed them in the plainest -possible terms on the unwisdom of their attempt, and the ruin it was -certain to bring upon them. - -[Illustration: THE ROYAL HERALD IN KET'S CAMP. (_See p._ 212.)] - -At length on the 31st of July, a Royal herald appeared in the camp, "and, -standing before the Tree of Reformation, apparelled in his coat-of-arms, -pronounced there, before all the multitude, with loud voice, a free -pardon to all that would depart to their houses and, laying aside their -armour, give over their traitorous enterprise." Some of the insurgents, -who were already weary of the affair, and only wanted a good excuse for -drawing off safely, took the offered pardon and disappeared; but Ket and -the chief part of the people held their ground, saying they wanted no -pardon, for they had done nothing but what was incumbent on true subjects. - -Expecting that now some attack would soon be made upon them, they marched -into Norwich to seize on all the artillery and ammunition they could, and -carry it to their camp. The herald made another proclamation to them in -the market-place, repeating the offer of pardon, but threatening death -to all who did not immediately accept it. They bade him begone, for -they wanted no such manner of mercy. From that day the number of Ket's -followers grew again rapidly, for he seemed above the Government; and -the herald returning to town, dissipated at Court any hope of the rebels -dispersing of themselves. A troop of 1,500 horse, under the Marquis of -Northampton, accompanied by a small force of mounted Italians, under -Malatesta, were, therefore, sent down to Norwich, of which they took -possession. But the next day Ket and his host descended from their hill, -found their way into the city, engaged, defeated, and drove out the -king's troops, killing Lord Sheffield and many gentlemen, and, their -blood being up, set fire to the town, and plundered it as it burnt. - -Northampton retreated ignominiously to town, where the Protector now saw -that the affair was of a character that demanded vigorous suppression. -An army of 8,000 men, 2,000 of whom were Germans, under the Earl of -Warwick, about to proceed against Scotland, was directed to march to -Norwich and disperse the rebels. Warwick arriving, made an entrance, -after some resistance, into the city. But there he was assailed on every -side with such impetuosity, that he found it all that he could do to -defend himself, being deficient in ammunition. On the 26th of August, -however, arrived a reinforcement of 1,400 lansquenets, with store of -powder and ball, and the next day he marched out, and the enemy having -imprudently left their strong position on the hill, he attacked them in -the valley of Dussingdale, and at the first charge broke their ranks. -They fled, their leader, Ket, galloping off before them. They were -pursued for three or four miles, and the troopers cut them down all the -way with such ruthless vengeance, that 3,500 of them were said to have -perished. The rest, however, managed to surround themselves by a line of -waggons, and, hastily forming a rampart of a trench and a bank fortified -with stakes, resolved to stand their ground. Warwick, perceiving the -strength of the place, and apprehensive of a great slaughter of his men, -offered them a pardon; but they replied that they did not trust to the -offer; they knew the fate that awaited them, and they preferred to die -with arms in their hands rather than on the gallows. Warwick renewed his -offer, and went himself to assure them of his sincerity, on which they -laid down their arms, or retired with them in their hands. Ket alone was -hanged on the walls of Norwich Castle, his brother on the steeple of -Wymondham Church, and nine of the ringleaders on the Oak of Reformation. - -[Illustration: OLD SOMERSET HOUSE, LONDON.] - -Circumstances were now fast environing the Protector with danger. The -feebleness of his government, his total want of success, both in Scotland -and France, with which country he had become involved in an undeclared -war, emboldened his enemies, who had become numerous and determined from -the arrogance of his manners and his endeavours to check the enclosures -of the aristocracy. Henry VIII. had never drawn any signal advantages -from his hostile expeditions; but the forces which he collected and -the determined character of the man impressed his foreign foes with a -dread of him. It was evident that the neighbouring nations had learned -Somerset's weakness, and therefore despised him. He had driven the Queen -of Scots into the hands of the French, and they had driven him out of -the country. He was on the very verge of losing Boulogne, which Henry -had prided himself so much on conquering. At home the whole country had -been thrown into a state of anarchy and insubordination by the reforms in -religion, of which he was the avowed patron, and in the meantime he had -allowed another to reap the honour of restoring order. - -It was intended that the Protector himself should have proceeded against -the rebels; but probably he thought that the man who had encouraged them -to pull down the enclosures would appear with a very bad grace to punish -them for doing it. Dudley, Earl of Warwick, was, therefore, selected -for this office--a man quite as ambitious, quite as unprincipled, and -far more daring than Somerset. He returned from Norfolk like a victor, -and his reputation rose remarkably from that moment. He was looked up -to as the able and successful man, and his ambitious views were warmly -seconded by the wily old ex-Chancellor, Wriothesley, Earl of Southampton, -who hated Somerset for having dismissed him from office, and for having -banished him from the Council. He now took up Warwick as a promising -instrument for his revenge. He flattered him with the idea that he was -the only man to restore the credit and peace of the nation. - -Nor was it Warwick only whom Southampton stimulated to enmity against -Somerset. He had arguments adapted to all; and where he found any -seemingly resolved to stand by the Protector, he would significantly ask -what friendship they hoped from a man who had murdered his own brother. -Little art was needed to influence the old nobility against Somerset, -and his hostility to the enclosures had raised up a host of enemies -amongst the new, who should have been his natural friends. The people -he had lost favour with, from his total want of success against the -enemies of the country, and if there were any whom all these causes had -not alienated, these were disgusted with his insolence and rapacity. -He had bargained for large slices from the manors of bishoprics and -cathedrals as the price of promotion to the clergy. He had obtained from -the puppet king in his hands, grants of extensive Church lands for his -services in Scotland, services which now were worse than null; and in -the patent which invested him with these lands, drawn up under his own -eye, he had himself styled "Duke of Somerset, _by the grace of God_," -as if he were a king. He was accused of having sold many of the chantry -lands to his friends at nominal prices, because he obtained a heavy -premium upon the transaction; but what more than all shocked the public -sense of religious decorum was that he had erected for himself a splendid -palace in the Strand, where the one called from him Somerset House now -stands, and had spared no outrage upon public rights and decencies in -its erection. Not only private houses, but public buildings, and those -of the most sacred character, had been displaced to make room for his -proud mansion. To clear the ground for its site and to procure materials -for its building, he pulled down three episcopal houses and two churches -on the spot, St. Mary's and a church of St. John of Jerusalem, also a -chapel, a cloister, and a charnel-house in St. Paul's Churchyard, and -he carted away the remains of the dead by whole loads, and threw them -into a pit in Bloomsbury. When he attempted to pull down St. Margaret's -Church in Westminster, for the stones, the parishioners rose in tumult -and drove his men away. Whatever profession of Reformed religion he might -make, such proceedings as these stamped it as a pretence, hollow and even -impious, in the minds of the public. - -The feeling (which originated out of doors) had now made its way into -the heart of the Council. Somerset's friends were silenced. His enemies -spoke out boldly. During September there were great contentions in the -Council; and by the beginning of October the two parties were ranged in -hostile attitudes under their chiefs. Warwick and his followers met at -Ely Place; the Protector was at Hampton Court, where he had the king. -On the 5th of October, Somerset, in the king's name, sent the Secretary -of the Council to know why the lords were assembling themselves in that -manner, and commanding them, if they had anything to lay before him, to -come before him peaceably and loyally. When this message was despatched, -Somerset, fearful of the spirit in which this summons might be complied -with, ordered the armour to be brought down out of the armoury at -Hampton Court, sufficient for 500 men, to arm his followers, and had the -doors barricaded, and people fetched in for the defence. But, instead -of coming, Warwick and his party ordered the Lieutenant of the Tower, -and the Lord Mayor and aldermen, to be summoned, who duly attended and -proffered their obedience. They then despatched letters to the nobility -and gentry in different parts of the kingdom, informing them of their -doings and the motives for them. Alarmed at the aspect of affairs, -Somerset conveyed the king to Windsor, under escort of 500 men; Cranmer -and Sir William Paget alone, of all the Council, accompanying them. -Finding himself rapidly deserted by his friends, Somerset judiciously -submitted and signed a confession of his guilt, his presumption, and -incapacity. Having signed this, he was promised his life, on condition -that he should forfeit all his appointments, his goods and chattels, -and so much of his estates as amounted to L2,000 a year. A bill to this -effect passed both Houses of Parliament in January, 1550. Somerset -remonstrated against the extent of this forfeiture, but the Council -replied to him with so much sternness that the abject-spirited man shrank -in terror, and on the 2nd of February signed a still more ignominious -submission, disclaiming all idea of justifying himself, and expressing -his gratitude to the king and Council for sparing his life and being -content with a fine. On the 6th of February he was discharged from the -Tower, and ten days after received a formal pardon. His officers and -servants, who had been imprisoned, also recovered their liberty, but were -heavily fined. - -Warwick had humbled Somerset, but he could not prevent the country from -being humbled with him. His party had blamed the Protector for proposing -to surrender Boulogne, but they were now compelled, by the exhausted and -disordered state of the nation, to accept even more disgraceful terms. -During the winter the French had cut off all communication between -Boulogne and Calais, and the Earl of Huntingdon found himself unable to -re-open it, though he led against the enemy all his bands of mercenaries -and 3,000 English veterans. His treasury and his storehouses were empty, -and the French calculated confidently on taking the place at spring. -Unable to send the necessary aid, a fresh proposal was made to the -Emperor to occupy it, and this not tempting him, the Council next offered -to cede it to him in full sovereignty, on condition that it should never -be surrendered to France. Charles declined, and as a last resource a -Florentine merchant, Antonio Guidotti, was employed to make the French -aware that England was not averse from a peace. The French embraced the -offer, but under such circumstances they were not likely to be very -modest in their terms of accommodation. - -The conference between the ambassadors was opened on the 21st of -January, and the English proposed that, as an equivalent for the -surrender of Boulogne, Mary of Scotland should be contracted to Edward. -To this the French bluntly replied that that was impossible, as Henry had -already agreed to marry her to the Dauphin. The next proposition was that -the arrears of money due from the Crown of France should be paid up, and -the payment of the fixed pension continued. To this the ambassadors of -Henry replied, in a very different tone to that which English monarchs -had been accustomed to hear from those of France, that their king would -never condescend to pay tribute to any foreign Crown; that Henry VIII. -had been enabled by the necessities of France to extort a pension -from Francis; and that they would now avail themselves of the present -difficulties of England to compel Edward to renounce it. The English -envoys appeared, on this bold declaration, highly indignant, and as if -they would break off the conference; but every day they receded more and -more from their pretensions, and they ended by subscribing, on the 24th -of March, to all the demands of their opponents. - -These conditions were that there should be peace and union between the -two countries, not merely for the lives of the present monarchs, but -to the end of time; that Boulogne should be surrendered to the King of -France with all its stores and ordnance; and that, in return for the -money expended on the fortifications, they should pay to Edward 200,000 -crowns on the delivery of the place, and 200,000 more in five months. But -the English were previously to surrender Douglas and Lauder to the Queen -of Scots, or, if they were already in the hands of the Scots, to raze -the fortresses of Eyemouth and Roxburgh to the ground. Scotland was to -be comprehended in the treaty if the queen desired it, and Edward bound -himself not to make war on Scotland unless some new provocation were -given. - -So disgraceful was this treaty, such a surrender was it of the nation's -dignity, that the people regarded it as an eternal opprobrium to the -country; and from that hour the boastful claims of England on the French -Crown were no more heard of, except in the ridiculous retention of the -title of King of France by our sovereigns. - -Freed from the embarrassments of foreign politics, the Council now -proceeded with the work of Church reform; and during 1550 and part of -1551 was busily engaged checking on the one hand the opposition of the -Romanist clergy, and on the other the latitudinarian tendencies of the -Protestants. Bonner and Gardiner were the most considerable of the -uncomplying prelates, and they were first brought under notice. Bonner -had been called before the Council in August of 1549, for not complying -with the requisitions of the Court in matters of religion; and in -April, 1550, he was deprived of his see of London, and remanded to the -Marshalsea, where he remained till the king's death. Ridley was appointed -to the bishopric of London. Gardiner and Heath, Bishop of Worcester, were -also imprisoned. - -From the bishops, the reforming Council proceeded to higher game. The -Princess Mary, the king's eldest sister, from the first had expressed -her firm resolution of not adopting the new faith or ritual. She had, -moreover, declared to Somerset, that during Edward's minority things -ought to remain as the king her father had left them. Somerset replied -that, on the contrary, he was only carrying out the plans which Henry -had already settled in his own mind, but had not had time to complete. -On the introduction of the new liturgy, she received in June, 1549, an -intimation that she must conform to the provisions of the statute. Mary -replied with spirit, that her conscience would not permit her to lay -aside the practice of the religion that she believed in, and reminded -the lords of the Council that they were bound by their oaths to maintain -the Church as left by her father; adding, that they could not, with -any decency, refuse liberty of worship to the daughter of the king who -had raised them to what they were. The appeal to the liberality, the -consciences, or the gratitude of these statesmen producing no effect, -she next applied to a more influential person, the Emperor, Charles V., -her great relative. He intervened on her behalf with such vigour that -war between England and Germany seemed at one time inevitable, and the -Council gave way. The persecutions were shortly afterwards renewed, but -Mary remained firm, and finally was completely victorious. - -The ungenerous conduct of the Warwick party towards Mary, and the -disgraceful conditions of the peace with France, naturally caused a -considerable revival of Somerset's influence at Court, and the remainder -of the summer was spent by him in intriguing for the increase of his -favour. He surrounded himself with a strong body of armed men; there -were secret debates among his friends on the possibility of raising -the City in his behalf, and he did not hesitate to drop hints that -assassination only could free him from his implacable enemies. But -whilst the irresolute Somerset plotted, Warwick acted. He secured for -himself the appointment of warden of the Scottish marches, thus cutting -off the danger which had lately appeared of Somerset's retreat thither. -Armed with the preponderating influence which that office conferred in -the northern districts, on the 27th of September or the 17th of October -he was announced as Duke of Northumberland, a title venerated by the -Border people, and which had been extinct since the attainder of Earl -Percy in 1527. In this formidable position of power and dignity he was -strengthened by his friends and partisans being at the same time elevated -in the peerage. The Marquis of Dorset was created Duke of Suffolk, the -Earl of Wiltshire, Marquis of Winchester, and Sir William Herbert, Baron -of Cardiff and Earl of Pembroke. Cecil, Cheke, Sidney, and Nevil received -the honour of knighthood. - -This movement in favour of Warwick was followed by consequences of still -more startling character to the Duke of Somerset. His enemies now felt -safe, and on the 16th of October, 1551, the news flew through London that -he was arrested on a charge of conspiracy and high treason, and committed -to the Tower. He had been apprised that depositions of a serious -character had been made against him by Sir Thomas Palmer, a partisan -of Warwick's, whereupon he sent for Palmer, and strictly interrogated -him, but on his positive denial, let him go. Not satisfied, however, he -wrote to Cecil, telling him that he suspected something was in agitation -against him. Cecil replied with his characteristic astuteness, that if -he were innocent he could have nothing to fear; if he were guilty, he -could only lament his misfortune. Piqued at this reply, he sent a letter -of defiance, but took no means for the security of his person. Palmer, -notwithstanding his denial, had, however, it seems, really lodged this -charge against him on the 7th of the month with Warwick:--That in a -conference with Somerset in April last, in his garden, the duke assured -him that at the time that the solemn declaration of Sir William Herbert -had prevented him from going northward, he had sent Lord Grey to raise -their friends there; that after that he had formed the design of inviting -Warwick, Northampton, and the chiefs of that party, and of assassinating -them, either there, or on their return home; that at this very moment he -was planning to raise an insurrection in London, to destroy his enemy, -and to seize the direction of Government; that Sir Miles Partridge was -to call out the apprentices of the City, kill the City guard, and get -possession of the Great Seal; and that Sir Thomas Arundel had secured -the Tower, and Sir Ralph Vane had a force of 2,000 men ready to support -them. - -[Illustration: THE DUKE OF SOMERSET. (_After the Portrait by Holbein._)] - -Probably this was a mixture of some truth with a much larger portion of -convenient falsehood. The duke was accordingly arrested, and the next -day the duchess, with her favourites, Mr. and Mrs. Crane, Sir Miles -Partridge, Sir Thomas Arundel, Sir Thomas Holcroft, Sir Michael Stanhope, -and others of the duke's friends, were also arrested, and committed -to the Tower. The king was already brought up from Hampton Court to -Westminster for greater security and convenience during the trials of the -conspirators. A message was sent in the king's name to the Lord Mayor and -Corporation, informing them that the conspirators had agreed to seize the -Tower, kill the guards of the City, seize the Great Seal, set fire to the -town, and depart for the Isle of Wight; and they were, therefore, ordered -to keep the gates well, and maintain a strong patrol in the streets. - -The trial of the duke, such as it was, took place on the 1st of December, -in Westminster Hall. Twenty-seven peers were summoned to sit as his -judges, the Marquis of Winchester being appointed Lord High Steward, -to preside. On that morning Somerset was brought from the Tower, with -the axe borne before him; whilst a great number of men carrying bills, -glaives, halberds, and poll-axes, guarded him. A new platform was raised -in the hall, on which the lords, his judges, sat; and above them was the -Lord High Steward, on a raised seat ascended by three steps, and over -it a canopy of State. The judges consisted almost wholly of the duke's -enemies, and conspicuous amongst them were Northumberland, Northampton, -and Pembroke. The witnesses against him were not produced, but merely -their depositions read. Somerset denied the whole of the charges -respecting his intention to raise the City of London, declaring that the -idea of killing the City guard was worthy only of a madman. As to the -accusation of proposing to assassinate the Duke of Northumberland and -others, he admitted that he had thought of it, and even talked of it, but -on mature consideration had abandoned it for ever. - -On this confession the judges declared him guilty of felony without -benefit of clergy. They were desirous to adjudge it treason, but this -Northumberland himself overruled. When this sentence was pronounced, -Somerset fell on his knees, and thanked the lords for the fair trial they -had given him, and implored pardon from Northumberland, Northampton, and -Pembroke, for his design against their lives, entreating them to pray -the king's mercy to him and his grace towards his wife, his children, -and his servants. On the sentence being pronounced only felony, the -axe of the Tower was withdrawn; and the people, seeing him returning -without that fatal instrument, imagined that he was acquitted, and -gave such shouts, that they were heard from Charing Cross to the hall. -According to Holinshed, the Duke of Somerset landed from the river "at -the crane of the Vine-tree, and so passed through London, where were both -acclamations--the one cried for joy that he was acquitted, the other -cried that he was condemned." - -Six weeks after his sentence, the warrant for his execution was signed. -The chronicler quaintly remarks that "Christmas being thus passed and -spent with much mirth and pastime, it was thought now good to proceed to -the execution of the judgment against the Duke of Somerset." The day of -execution was the 22nd of January, 1552. To prevent the vast concourse -which, from the popularity of his character among the common people, from -his opposition to enclosures during his Protectorship, was sure to take -place, the Council had issued a precept to the Lord Mayor, commanding him -to take all necessary measures for restraining the rush towards Tower -Hill. The constables in every ward had, therefore, strictly charged -every one not to leave their houses before ten o'clock that morning. -But, by the very dawn, Tower Hill was one mass of heads, assembled more -in expectation of the duke's reprieve than of his execution. At eight -o'clock he was delivered to the sheriffs of London, who led him out to -the scaffold on Tower Hill. He died calmly and nobly. - -Parliament met the day after the execution of Somerset; and as it had -been originally summoned by him, it appeared to act as inspired with a -spirit which resented his treatment and his death; and this spirit tended -greatly during this session to revive that ancient independence which -Henry VIII. had so completely quelled during his life. Most deserving -of notice was the enactment which ordered the churchwardens in every -parish to collect contributions for the support of the poor. This, though -it appeared at first sight a voluntary contribution under the sanction -of Government, was in reality a compulsory one, for the bishop of the -diocese had authority to proceed against such as refused to subscribe. -From this germ grew the English poor-law, with all its machinery and -consequences. - -The Crown attempted to re-enact some of the most arbitrary and oppressive -laws of Henry VIII., though they had been repealed in the first -Parliament of this reign. A bill was sent to the Lords, making it treason -to call the king, or any of his heirs, a heretic, schismatic, tyrant, or -usurper. The Lords passed it without hesitation, for it most probably -proceeded from Warwick, and the Lords were strongly devoted to him; but -the Commons drew the same line which had been drawn regarding the deniers -of the supremacy. They would admit the offence to be treason only when -it was done by "writing, printing, carving, or graving," which indicated -deliberate purpose; but what was spoken, as it might result from -indiscretion or sudden passion, they decreed to be only a minor offence, -punishable by fine or forfeiture, and only rendered treasonable by a -third repetition. The Commons also added a most invaluable clause, the -necessity of which had been constantly pressing on the public attention, -and had just been strikingly demonstrated by the trial of Somerset. -It was now enacted that no person should be arraigned, indicted, -convicted, or attainted of any manner of treason unless on the oath of -two lawful accusers, who should be brought before him at the time of his -arraignment, and there should openly maintain their charges against him. - -But in prosecuting the reforms of the Church, the Parliament proceeded -with a far more arbitrary spirit. The Common Prayer Book underwent much -revision, and an Act was passed by which the bishops were empowered to -compel attendance on the amended form of service by spiritual censures, -and the magistrates to punish corporally all who used any other. Any one -daring to attend any other form of worship was liable to six months' -imprisonment for the first offence, twelve months for the second, and -confinement for life for the third. So little did our Church reformers -of that day understand of the rights of conscience. In the same spirit -Cranmer proceeded to frame a collection of the articles of religion, and -a code of ecclesiastical constitutions. - -Parliament, proving too independent, was dissolved, and in preparing for -a new Parliament, Northumberland took such measures as showed that his -own power and aggrandisement were the first things in his thoughts, the -Constitution of the kingdom the last. Letters were sent in the king's -name to all the sheriffs, directing them, in the most straightforward -manner, to abuse their powers in order to return a Parliament completely -subservient to the Government. - -[Illustration: SILVER CROWN OF EDWARD VI.] - -The only object which the Duke of Northumberland had in view in calling -the new Parliament together was to procure liberal supplies. The -appropriation of the monastic and chartered lands had left the Crown -nearly as poor as it had found it. Such portions of these lands as -still remained in its possession were totally inadequate to meet the -annual demands of the Government. Northumberland, therefore, asked for -two-tenths and two-fifteenths; but even with his care to pack the Commons -he found it no easy task to obtain supplies, and the friends of Somerset -again assembled in considerable force in the House, resenting in strong -terms the pretence thrown out in the preamble to the bill that it was -owing to the extravagance and improvidence of the late Duke of Somerset, -to his involving the country in needless wars, debasing the coin, and -occasioning a terrible rebellion. - -But the king's health was fast failing, and it was high time for -Northumberland to make sure his position and fortune. The constitution -of Edward had long betrayed symptoms of frailty. In the early spring of -the past year he was successively attacked by measles and small-pox. -In the autumn, through incautious exposure to cold, he was attacked by -inflammation of the lungs, and so enfeebled was he become by the meeting -of Parliament on the 1st of March, 1553, that he was obliged to receive -the two Houses at his palace of Whitehall. He was greatly exhausted by -the exertion, being evidently far gone in a consumption, and harassed -with a troublesome cough. - -Northumberland, from the day on which he rose into the ascendant -at Court, had shown that he was the true son of the old licensed -extortioner. He had laboured assiduously not only to surround himself by -interested adherents, but to add estate to estate. He inherited a large -property, the accumulations of oppression and crimes of the blackest -dye. But during the three years in which he had enjoyed all but kingly -power, he had been diligently at work creating a kingly demesne. He was -become the Steward of the East Riding of Yorkshire, and likewise of all -the Royal manors in the five northern counties. He had obtained Tynemouth -and Alnwick in Northumberland, Barnard Castle in Durham, and immense -estates in Warwick, Worcester, and Somerset shires. The more he saw the -king fail, the more anxious he was to place his brother, his sons, his -relatives, and most devoted partisans in places of honour and profit -around him at Court. This done, he advanced to bolder measures, to which -these were only the stepping-stones. Lady Jane Grey was the daughter -of Frances, Duchess of Suffolk, whose mother was Mary, the sister of -Henry VIII. Mary first married Louis XII. of France, by whom she had no -children, and next, Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk, by whom she had two -daughters. The younger of these married Clifford, Earl of Cumberland, but -the elder, Frances, whose claim came first, had by the Marquis of Dorset -(afterwards Duke of Suffolk) three daughters, Jane, Catherine, and Mary. - -Northumberland, casting his eye over the descendants of Henry VIII., -saw the only son, King Edward, dying, and the two daughters, Mary -and Elizabeth, bastardised by Acts of Parliament still unrepealed. A -daring scheme seized his ambitious mind--a scheme to set aside these -two princesses, the elder of whom, and immediate heir to the throne, -was especially dangerous to the permanence of the newly-established -Protestantism. It was true that Margaret of Scotland, the sister of Henry -VIII., was older than his sister Mary, and her grand-daughter, Mary Queen -of Scots, would have taken precedence of the descendants of Mary, but -she and her issue had been entirely passed over in the will of Henry. -Leaving out, then, this line, and setting aside the Princesses Mary and -Elizabeth as legally illegitimate, Lady Jane Grey would become heir to -the throne. Northumberland resolved, therefore, to secure Lady Jane in -marriage for his son Lord Guilford Dudley; to obtain Lady Jane's sister, -Catherine, for Lord Herbert, son of the Earl of Pembroke, who owed title, -estates, and everything to the favour of Northumberland; and to marry his -own daughter Catherine to the eldest son of the Earl of Huntingdon. The -marriages were celebrated at Durham House, the Duke of Northumberland's -new residence in the Strand. - -[Illustration: SIXPENCE OF EDWARD VI.] - -[Illustration: SHILLING OF EDWARD VI.] - -Northumberland's next step was to induce the king to bequeath the crown -to Lady Jane. The dying prince listened with a mind which had long been -under the influence of the more powerful will of Dudley, and saw nothing -but the most patriotic objects in his recommendations. He no doubt -considered it a great kingly duty to decide the succession by will as his -father had done; and that the whole responsibility might rest on himself, -and not on Northumberland, who had so much at stake, he was easily -induced to sketch the form of his devise of the Crown with his own pen. -In this rough draft he entailed the succession on "the Lady Frances's -heirs masles," next on "Lady Jane's heirs masles," and then on the heirs -male of her sisters. This, however, did not accord with the plans of -Northumberland, for none of the ladies named had any heirs male; and, -therefore, on the death of Edward, the Crown would have passed over the -whole family, and would go to the next of kin. A slight alteration was -accordingly made. The letter "s" at the end of "Jane's" was scored out, -the words "and her" inserted, and thus the bequest stood "to the Lady -Jane and her heirs masles." Northumberland then compelled the judges to -draw out letters patent under the Great Seal confirming the disposition -of the Crown. - -[Illustration: POUND SOVEREIGN OF EDWARD VI.] - -[Illustration: TRIPLE SOVEREIGN OF EDWARD VI.] - -But Northumberland, not satisfied with the will of the king and the act -of the Crown lawyer, produced another document, to which he required the -signatures of the members of the Council and of the legal advisers of the -Crown, who pledged, to the number of four-and-twenty, their oaths and -honour to support this arrangement. The legal instrument, being prepared, -was engrossed on parchment, and was authenticated by the Great Seal. -Northumberland was preparing to secure his position by force of arms, -when the poor young king, whose mind had been overtaxed by his advisers, -died on the 6th of July, 1553. - -[Illustration: QUEEN MARY AND THE STATE PRISONERS IN THE TOWER. (_See p._ -223.)] - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -THE REIGN OF MARY. - - Proclamation of Lady Jane Grey--Mary's - Resistance--Northumberland's Failure--Mary is Proclaimed--The - Advice of Charles V.--Execution of Northumberland--Restoration - of the Roman Church--Proposed Marriage with Philip of - Spain--Consequent Risings throughout England--Wyatt's - Rebellion--Execution of Lady Jane Grey--Imprisonment of - Elizabeth--Marriage of Philip and Mary--England Accepts the Papal - Absolution--Persecuting Statutes Re-enacted--Martyrdom of Rogers, - Hooper, and Taylor--Di Castro's Sermon--Sickness of Mary--Trials - of Ridley, Latimer, and Cranmer--Martyrdom of Ridley and - Latimer--Confession and Death of Cranmer--Departure of Philip--The - Dudley Conspiracy--Return of Philip--War with France--Battle of - St. Quentin--Loss of Calais--Death of Mary. - - -As Mary fled from the emissaries of Northumberland on the 7th of July, -after learning the death of her brother, she arrived on the ensuing -evening at Sawston Hall, near Cambridge, the seat of Mr. Huddlestone, a -zealous Romanist, one of whose kinsmen was a gentleman of Mary's retinue. -There she passed the night, but was compelled to resume her journey early -in the morning, the Protestant party in Cambridge having heard of her -arrival, and being on the march to attack her. She and her followers were -obliged to make the best of their way thence in different disguises, -and turning on the Gogmagog Hills to take a look at the hall, she saw -it in flames: her night's sojourn had cost her entertainer the home of -his ancestors. On seeing this, she exclaimed, as quite certain of her -fortunes, "Well, let it burn, I will build him a better;" and she kept -her word. She passed through Bury St. Edmunds, and the next night reached -the seat of Kenninghall, in Norfolk. Thence without delay she despatched -a messenger to the Privy Council, commanding them to desist from the -treasonable scheme which she knew that they were attempting, and ordering -them to proclaim her their rightful sovereign, in which case all that was -past should be pardoned. The messenger arrived just in time to see the -rival queen proclaimed on the 10th, and to bring back a reply peculiarly -insulting for its gross language, asserting her illegitimacy, and calling -upon her to submit to her sovereign, Queen Jane. - -Mary on this occasion displayed the strong spirit of the Tudor. Though -Northumberland had all the powers of the Government, the military -strength, the influence of party, and the support of the nobility of the -nation apparently under his hand, and possessed the reputation of being -an able and most successful general, and though she had nobody with her -but Sir Thomas Warton, the steward of her household, Andrew Huddlestone, -and her ladies; though she had neither troops nor money, Mary did not -hesitate. Kenninghall was but a defenceless house in an open country; -she, therefore, rode forward to Framlingham Castle, not far from the -Suffolk coast, where, in a strong fortress, she could await the result -of an appeal to her subjects and, were she forced to fly, could easily -escape across to Holland, and put herself under the protection of her -Imperial kinsman. - -Once within the lofty walls of Framlingham, she commanded the standard -of England to be cast loose to the winds, and caused herself to be -proclaimed Queen-regnant of England and Ireland. The effect was soon -seen. Sir Henry Jerningham and Sir Henry Bedingfeld had joined her with -a few followers before she quitted Kenninghall, and had served her as -a guard in her ride of twenty miles to Framlingham. Sir John Sulyard -now arrived, and was appointed captain of her guard. He was speedily -followed by the tenants of Sir Henry Bedingfeld, to the number of 140. -By the influence of Sir Henry Jerningham, Yarmouth declared for her; -and soon after flocked in, with more or less of followers, Lord Thomas -Howard, a grandson of the old Duke of Norfolk; Sir William Drury; Sir -Thomas Cornwallis, High Sheriff of Suffolk; Sir John Skelton; and -Sir John Tyrrel. These were all zealous Papists; and the people of -Norfolk and Suffolk hurried to her standard, impelled by the memory of -Northumberland's sanguinary extinction of Ket's rebellion, the horrors -of which still kept alive a deep detestation of the unprincipled duke in -those counties. In a very short time Mary beheld herself surrounded by an -army of 13,000 men, all serving without pay, but confidently calculating -on the certain recompense which, as queen, she would soon be able to -award them. Lord Derby rose for her in Cheshire, and Carew proclaimed her -in Devonshire. - -Northumberland saw that no time was to be lost. It was necessary that -forces should be instantly despatched to check the growth of Mary's -army, and to disperse it altogether. But who should command it? There -was no one so proper as himself; but he suspected the fidelity of the -Council, and was unwilling to remove himself to a distance from them; he -therefore recommended the Duke of Suffolk, the father of Lady Jane, to -the command of the expedition. The Council, who were anxious to get rid -of Northumberland in order that they might themselves escape to Mary's -camp, represented privately that Suffolk was a general of no reputation, -that everything depended on decisive proceedings in the outset, and that -he alone was the man for the purpose. They, moreover, so excited the -fears of Lady Jane that she entreated in tears that her father might -remain with her. - -Northumberland consented, though with many misgivings. He equally -distrusted the Council and the citizens. On the 13th of July he set out, -urging on the Council at his departure fidelity to the trust reposed in -them, and receiving from them the most earnest protestations of zeal -and attachment. At every step some expectation was falsified, or some -disastrous news met him. The promised reinforcements did not arrive, but -he heard of them taking the way to the camp of Mary instead of to his -own. He heard of the defection of the fleet; and lastly, a prostrating -blow, of the Council having gone over to Queen Mary. Struck with dismay -at this accumulation of evil tidings, he retreated from Bury St. -Edmunds, which he had reached, to Cambridge, and there betrayed pitiable -indecision. - -Scarcely had he left London before the Council, whilst outwardly -professing much activity for the interests of Queen Jane, set to work -to terminate as soon as possible the perilous farce of her royalty. On -the evening of Sunday, the 16th, the Lord Treasurer left the Tower, -and made a visit to his own house, contrary to the positive order of -Northumberland, who had strictly enjoined Suffolk to keep the whole -Council within its walls. On the 19th the Lord Treasurer and Lord Privy -Seal, the Earls of Arundel, Shrewsbury, and Pembroke, Sir Thomas Cheney, -and Sir John Mason, left the Tower, on the plea that it was necessary to -levy forces, and to receive the French ambassador, and that Baynard's -Castle, the residence of the Earl of Pembroke, was a much more convenient -place for these purposes. As they professed to be actuated by zeal for -the cause of his daughter, Suffolk, a very weak person, was easily -duped. No sooner had they reached Baynard's Castle than they unanimously -declared for Queen Mary. - -[Illustration: LADY JANE GREY'S RELUCTANCE TO ACCEPT THE CROWN OF ENGLAND. - -FROM THE PAINTING BY C. R. LESLIE, R.A. IN THE POSSESSION OF THE DUKE OF -BEDFORD.] - -Immediately after proclaiming the new queen, the Council sent to summon -the Duke of Suffolk to surrender the Tower, which he did with all -alacrity, and, proceeding to Baynard's Castle, signed the proclamations -which the Council were issuing. Poor Lady Jane resigned her uneasy and -unblessed crown of nine days with unfeigned joy, and the next morning -returned to Sion House. This brief period of queenship, which had been -thrust upon her against her own wishes and better judgment, had been -embittered not only by her own sense of injustice towards her kinswoman, -the Princess Mary, and by apprehension of the consequences to herself and -all her friends, but still more by the harshness and insatiate ambition -of her husband and his mother. - -The Council despatched a letter to Northumberland by Richard Rose, the -herald, commanding him to disband his army, and return to his allegiance -to Queen Mary, under penalty of being declared a traitor. But before -this reached him he had submitted himself, and in a manner the least -heroic and dignified possible. On the Sunday he had induced Dr. Sandys, -the vice-chancellor of the university, to preach a sermon against the -title and religion of Mary. The very next day the news of the revolution -at London arrived, and Northumberland, proceeding to the market-place, -proclaimed the woman he had thus denounced, and flung up his cap as if -in joy at the event, whilst the tears of grief and chagrin streamed -down his face. Turning to Doctor Sandys, who was again with him, he -said, "Queen Mary was a merciful woman, and that, doubtless, all would -receive the benefit of her general pardon." But Sandys, who could not -help despising him, bade him "not flatter himself with that; for if the -queen were ever so inclined to pardon, those who ruled her would destroy -him, whoever else were spared." Immediately after, Sir John Gates, one -of his oldest and most obsequious instruments, arrested him, when he had -his boots half-drawn on, so that he could not help himself; and, on the -following morning, the Earl of Arundel, arriving with a body of troops, -took possession of Northumberland, his captor, Gates, and Dr. Sandys, and -sent them off to the Tower. - -Mary dismissed her army, which had never exceeded 15,000, and which had -had no occasion to draw a sword, before quitting Wanstead, except 3,000 -horsemen in uniforms of green and white, red and white, and blue and -white. These, too, she sent back before entering the City gate, thus -showing her perfect confidence in the attachment of her capital. From -that point her only guard was that of the City, which brought up the rear -with bows and javelins. As Mary and her sister Elizabeth rode through -the crowded streets, they were accompanied by a continuous roar of -acclamation; and on entering the court of the Tower they beheld, kneeling -on the green before St. Peter's Church, the State prisoners who had been -detained there during the reigns of Henry VIII. and Edward VI. These were -Courtenay, the son of the Marquis of Exeter, who was executed in 1538; -the old Duke of Norfolk, still under sentence of death; and the Bishops -of Durham and Winchester, Tunstall and Gardiner. Gardiner pronounced a -congratulation on behalf of the others; and Mary, bursting into tears at -the sight, called them to her, exclaiming, "Ye are all my prisoners!" -raised them one by one, kissed them, and set them at liberty. To extend -the joy of her safe establishment upon the throne of her ancestors, she -ordered eighteen pence to be distributed to every poor householder in the -City. - -It was Mary's misfortune that she had been educated to place so much -reliance on the wisdom and friendship of her great relative, the Emperor -Charles V. He had been her champion, as he had been that of her mother. -When pressed on the subject of her religion during the last reign, he -had menaced the country with war if the freedom of her conscience were -violated. It was natural, therefore, that she should now look to him for -counsel, seeing that almost all those whom she was obliged to employ -or to have around her had been her enemies during her brother's reign. -Charles communicated his opinions through Simon Renard, his ambassador, -who was to be the medium of their correspondence, and to advise her in -matters not of sufficient importance to require the Emperor's judgment, -or not allowing of sufficient time to obtain it. Renard was ordered to -act warily, and to show himself little at Court, so as to avoid suspicion. - -Charles advised her to make examples of the chief conspirators, and to -punish the subordinates more mildly, so as to obtain a character of -moderation. He insisted upon it as necessary, however, that Lady Jane -Grey should be included in the list for capital punishment, and to -this Mary would by no means consent. She replied that "she could not -find in her heart or conscience to put her unfortunate kinswoman to -death, who had not been an accomplice of Northumberland, but merely an -unresisting instrument in his hands. If there were any crime in being -his daughter-in-law, even of that her cousin Jane was not guilty, for she -had been legally contracted to another, and, therefore, her marriage with -Lord Guilford Dudley was not valid. As to the danger existing from her -pretensions, it was but imaginary, and every requisite precaution should -be taken before she was set at liberty." - -[Illustration: GREAT SEAL OF PHILIP AND MARY.] - -Mary's selection of prisoners was remarkably small considering the -number in her hands, and the character of their offence against her. She -contented herself with putting only seven of them on their trial--namely, -Northumberland, his son the Earl of Warwick, the Marquis of Northampton, -Sir John Gates, Sir Henry Gates, Sir Andrew Dudley, and Sir Thomas -Palmer--his chief councillors and his associates. Northumberland -submitted to the court whether a man could be guilty of treason who acted -on the authority of Council, and under warrant of the Great Seal; or -could they, who had been his chief advisers and accomplices during the -whole time, sit as his judges? The Duke of Norfolk, who presided at the -trial as High Steward, replied that the Council and Great Seal which he -spoke of were those of a usurper, and, therefore, so far from availing -him, only aggravated the offence, and that the lords in question could -sit as his judges, because they were under no attainder. - -Finding that his appeal had done him no service, Northumberland and his -fellow-prisoners pleaded guilty. The duke prayed that his sentence might -be commuted into decapitation, as became a peer of the realm, and he -prayed the queen that she would be merciful to his children on account -of their youth. He desired also that an able divine might be sent to -him for the settling of his conscience, thereby intimating that he was -at heart a Romanist, in hopes, no doubt, of winning upon the mind of -the queen, for he was very anxious to save his life. He professed, too, -that he was in possession of certain State secrets of vital importance -to her Majesty, and entreated that two members of the Council might be -sent to him to receive these matters from him. What his object was became -manifest from the result, for Gardiner and another member of the Council -being sent to him in consequence, he implored Gardiner passionately to -intercede for his life. Gardiner gave him little hope, but promised -to do what he could, and on returning to the queen so much moved her, -that she was inclined to grant the request; but others of the Council -wrote through Renard to the Emperor, who strenuously warned her, if -she valued her safety, or the peace of her reign, not to listen to the -arch-traitor. On Tuesday, the 22nd of August, Northumberland, Gates, -and Palmer were brought from the Tower for execution on Tower Hill. Of -the eleven condemned, only these three were executed--an instance of -clemency, in so gross a conspiracy to deprive a sovereign of a throne, -which is without parallel. When the Duke of Northumberland and Gates -met on the scaffold, they each accused the other of being the author -of the treason. Northumberland charged the whole design on Gates and -the Council; Gates laid it more truly on Northumberland and his high -authority. They protested, however, that they entirely forgave each -other, and Northumberland, stepping to the rail, made a speech, praying -for a long and happy reign to the queen, and calling on the people to -bear witness that he died in the true Catholic faith. Though he condemned -it, he said, in his heart, ambition had led him to conform to the new -faith, the adoption of which had filled both England and Germany with -constant dissensions, troubles, and civil wars. After repeating the -"Miserere," "De Profundis," and the "Paternoster," with some portion -of another psalm, concluding with the words, "Into thy hands, O Lord, -I commend my spirit," he laid his head on the block, saying that he -deserved a thousand deaths, and it was severed at a stroke. Gates and -Palmer died professing much penitence. - -[Illustration: VIEW FROM THE CONSTABLE'S GARDEN, TOWER OF LONDON.] - -The accession of Mary was a joyful event to the Papal Court. Julius III. -appointed Cardinal Pole his legate to the queen; but Pole was by no means -in haste, without obtaining further information, to fill this office in -a country where the people, whose sturdy character he well knew, had to -so great an extent imbibed the doctrines of the Reformation. Dandino, -the Papal legate at Brussels, therefore despatched a gentleman of his -suite to proceed to London and cautiously spy out the land. Before making -himself known, this emissary, Gianfrancesco Commendone, went about -London for some days gathering up all evidences of the public feeling on -the question of the Church. He then procured a private interview with -Mary, and was delighted to hear from her own lips that she was fully -resolved on reconciling her kingdom to the Papal See, and meant to obtain -the repeal of all laws restricting the doctrines or discipline of the -Roman Church; but that it required caution, and that no trace of any -correspondence with Rome must come to light. - -Mary was, however, inclined to go faster and farther than some of her -advisers, and Gardiner, though so staunch a Papist, was too much of an -Englishman to wish to see the supremacy restored to the Pontiff. But -others were not so patriotic. Throughout the kingdom the Protestant -preachers were silenced. The great bell at Christ Church, Oxford, was -just recast, and the first use of it was to call the people to Mass. -"That bell then rung," says Fuller, "the knell of Gospel truth in the -city of Oxford, afterwards filled with Protestant tears." - -Four days after her coronation, on October 1st, Mary opened her first -Parliament; and she opened it in a manner which showed plainly what -was to come. Both peers and commoners were called upon to attend her -majesty at a solemn Mass of the Holy Ghost. This was an immediate test -of what degree of compliance was to be expected in the attempt to return -to the ancient order of things; and the success of the experiment was -most encouraging. With the exception of Taylor Bishop of Lincoln, and -Harley Bishop of Hereford, the whole Parliament--peers, prelates, -and commoners--fell on their knees at the elevation of the Host, and -participated with an air of devotion in that which in the last reign -they had declared an abomination. But such was the zeal now for the -lately abhorred Mass, that the two noncomplying bishops were thrust out -of the queen's presence, and out of the abbey altogether. There were -those who insinuated that the Emperor furnished Mary with funds to bribe -her Parliament on this occasion; but, besides that Charles was not so -lavish of his money, events soon showed that the Parliament, though -so exceedingly pliant in the matter of religion, was stubborn enough -regarding the estates obtained from the Church, and also concerning -Mary's scheme of a Spanish marriage. - -The first act of legislation was to restore the securities to life and -property which had been granted in the twenty-fifth year of Edward III., -and which had been so completely prostrated by the acts of Henry VIII. -Such an Act had been passed at the commencement of the last reign, but -had been again violated in the cases of the two Seymours. The Parliament, -looking back on the sanguinary lawlessness of that monarch, did not -think the country sufficiently safe from charges of constructive treason -and felony without a fresh enactment. It next passed an Act annulling -the divorce of Queen Catherine of Aragon, by Cranmer, and declaring the -present queen legitimate. This Act indeed tacitly declared Elizabeth -illegitimate, but there was no getting altogether out of the difficulties -which the licentious proceedings of Henry VIII. had created, and it was -deemed best to pass that point over in silence, leaving the queen to -treat her sister as if born in genuine wedlock. - -The next Act went to restore the Papal Church in England, stopping short, -however, of the supremacy. This received no opposition in the House of -Lords, but occasioned a debate of two days in the Commons. It passed, -however, eventually without a division, and by it was swept away at once -the whole system of Protestantism established by Cranmer during the reign -of Edward VI. The Reformed liturgy, which the Parliament of that monarch -had declared was framed by the inspiration of the Holy Ghost, was now -pronounced to be "a new thing, imagined and devised by a few of singular -opinions." This abolished the marriages of priests and illegitimatised -their children. From the 20th day of November divine worship was to be -performed, and the sacraments were to be administered, as in the last -year of Henry VIII. Thus were the tyrannic Six Articles restored, and all -but the Papal supremacy. Even the discussion of the ritual and doctrines -of Edward VI. became so warm, that the queen prorogued Parliament -for three days. On calling the House of Commons together again, and -proceeding with the Bill, no mention was made of the restoration of the -Church property, though the queen was anxious to restore all that was in -the hands of the Crown; for the Lords, and gentlemen even of the House -of Commons, who were in possession of those lands, would have raised -a far different opposition to that which was manifested regarding the -State religion. No sooner were these Bills passed than the clergy met in -Convocation, and passed decrees for the speedy enforcement of all the new -regulations. - -[Illustration: _By permission, from the Painting in the Victoria and -Albert Museum, South Kensington._ - -CRANMER AT TRAITORS' GATE. 1553. - -By F. GOODALL, R.A.] - -The persecution of the Reformed clergy who had stood firm became -vehement. The married clergy were called upon to abandon their wives, and -there was a rush of the expelled priests again to fill their pulpits. In -the cities there was considerable opposition, for there the people had -read and reflected, but generally throughout the agricultural districts -the change took place with the ease and rapidity of the scene-shifting at -a theatre. Many of the married priests, however, would not abandon their -wives and children, and were turned adrift into the highways, or were -thrust into prison. Many fled abroad, hoping for more Christian treatment -from the Reformed churches there, but in vain, for their doctrines did -not accord with those of the foreign Reformers, who deemed them heretical. - -About half the English bishops conformed; the rest were ejected from -their sees, and several of them were imprisoned. Soon after Cranmer, -Latimer, and Ridley were sent to the Tower, Holgate, Archbishop of York, -was sent thither also. Poynet, who was Bishop of Winchester during -Gardiner's expulsion, was imprisoned for having married. Taylor of -Lincoln and Harley of Hereford, for refusing to kneel on the elevation -of the Host at the queen's coronation, and for other heresies, were -committed to prison. On the 13th of October Cranmer was brought to -trial in the Guildhall, on a charge of treason, with Lady Jane Grey, -her husband Lord Guilford Dudley, and Lord Ambrose Dudley, his brother. -They were all condemned to death as traitors, and a bill of attainder -was passed through Parliament against them. Lady Jane's sentence was to -be beheaded or burnt at the queen's pleasure, which was then the law -of England in all cases where women committed high treason, or petty -treason by the murder of their husbands. The fate of Lady Jane, who -pleaded guilty, and exhibited the most mild and amiable demeanour on -the occasion, excited deep sympathy, and crowds followed her as she was -reconducted to the Tower, weeping and lamenting her hard fate. It was -well understood, however, that the queen had no intention of carrying -the sentence into effect against any of the prisoners; but she deemed -it a means of keeping quiet her partisans to hold them in prison under -sentence of death. She gave orders that they should receive every -indulgence consistent with their security, and Lady Jane was permitted to -walk in the queen's garden at the Tower, and even on Tower Hill. - -The subject which created the greatest difficulty to this Parliament was -that of the queen's marriage. The wily Renard suggested to Mary as a -possible husband Philip the heir of Charles V., and she eagerly seized -on the idea though she knew that it would be very unpopular. The first -to remonstrate with Mary on the subject was Gardiner, her Chancellor, -who boldly pointed out to her the repugnance of the nation to a Spanish -marriage; that she would be the paramount authority if she married a -subject, but that it would be difficult to maintain that rank with a -Spanish king; that the arrogance of the Spanish had made them odious to -all nations, and that this quality had shown itself conspicuously in -Philip. He was greatly disliked by his own people, and it was not likely -that he would be tolerated by the English; moreover, alliance with Spain -meant perpetual war with France, which would never suffer the Netherlands -to be annexed to the crown of England. The rest of Mary's Council took -up the same strain, with the exception of the old Duke of Norfolk, and -the Lords Arundel and Paget. The Protestant party out of doors were -furious against the match, declaring that it would bring the Inquisition -into the country, to rivet Popery upon it, and to make England the slave -of taxation to the Spaniards. The Parliament took up the subject with -equal hostility, and the Commons sent their Speaker to her, attended -by a deputation of twenty members, praying her Majesty not to marry a -foreigner. - -Noailles, the French ambassador, was delighted with this movement, and -took much credit to himself for inciting influential parties to it; but -Mary believed it to originate with Gardiner, and the lion spirit of her -father coming over her, she vowed that she would prove a match for the -cunning of the Chancellor. That very night she sent for the Spanish -ambassador, and bidding him follow her into her private oratory, she -there knelt down before the altar, and after chanting the hymn, "Veni -Creator Spiritus," she made a vow to God that she would marry Philip -of Spain, and whilst she lived, no other man but him. Thus she put it -out of her power, if she kept her vow, to marry any other person should -she outlive Philip, showing the force of the paroxysm of determination -which was upon her. The effort would seem to have been very violent, for -immediately after she was taken ill, and continued so for some days. - -It was on the last day of October that this curious circumstance took -place, and on the 17th of November she sent for the House of Commons, -when the Speaker read the address giving her their advice regarding her -marriage. Instead of the Chancellor returning the answer, as was the -custom, Mary replied herself, thanking them for their care that she -should have a succession in her own children, but rebuking them for -presuming to dictate to her the choice of a husband. She declared that -the marriages of her predecessors had always been free, a privilege -which, she assured them, she was resolved to maintain. At the same time, -she added, she should be careful to make such a selection as should -contribute both to her own happiness and to that of her people. - -The plain declaration of the queen to her Parliament was not necessary -to inform those about her who were interested in the question; they had -speedy information of her having favoured the Spanish suit, and Noailles -was certainly mixed up in conspiracies to defeat it. It was proposed to -place Courtenay, the young Earl of Devon, who had long been a prisoner -in the Tower, at the head of the Reformed party, and if Mary would not -consent to marry him, to assassinate Arundel and Paget, the advocates -of the Spanish match; to marry Elizabeth to Courtenay, and raise the -standard of rebellion in Devonshire. It appears from the despatches of -Noailles that the Duke of Suffolk, the father of Lady Jane Grey, was in -this conspiracy. But the folly and the unstable character of their hero, -Courtenay, was fatal to their design, and of that Noailles very soon -became sensible. It was suggested by some of the parties that Courtenay -should steal away from Court, get across to France, and thence join the -conspirators in Devonshire; but Noailles opposed this plan, declaring -that the moment Courtenay quitted the coast of England his chance was -utterly lost; and he wrote to his own government, saying that the scheme -would fall to nothing; for although Courtenay and Elizabeth were fitting -persons to cause a rising, such was the want of decision of Courtenay, he -would let himself be taken before he would act--the thing which actually -came to pass. - -On the 2nd of January, 1554, a splendid embassy, sent by the Emperor, -headed by the Counts Egmont and Lalain, the Lord of Courrieres, and the -Sieur de Nigry, landed in Kent, to arrange the marriage between Mary and -Philip. The unpopularity of this measure was immediately manifested, -for the men of Kent, taking Egmont for Philip, rose in fury, and would -have torn him to pieces if they could have got hold of him. Having, -however, reached Westminster in safety, on the 14th of January, a -numerous assembly of nobles, prelates, and courtiers was summoned to the -queen's presence-chamber, where Gardiner, who had found it necessary to -relinquish his opposition, stated to them the proposed conditions of -the treaty. The greatest care was evidently taken to disarm the fears of -the English, and nothing could appear more moderate than the terms of -this alliance. Philip and Mary were to confer on each other the titles -of their respective kingdoms, but each kingdom was still to be governed -by its own laws and constitution. None but English subjects were to hold -office in this country, not even in the king's private service. If the -queen had an heir, it was to be her successor in her own dominions, and -also in all Philip's dominions of Burgundy, Holland, and Flanders, which -were for ever to become part and parcel of England. This certainly, on -the face of it, was a most advantageous condition for England, but had -it taken effect, it would undoubtedly have proved a most disastrous one, -involving us perpetually in the wars and struggles of the Continent, and -draining these islands to defend those foreign territories. - -Another condition of the treaty was that Mary was not to be carried -out of the kingdom except at her own request, nor any of her children, -except by the consent of the peers. The Commons were totally ignored in -the matter. Philip was not to entangle England in the Continental wars -of his father, nor to appropriate any of the naval or military resources -of this country, or the property or jewels of the Crown, to any foreign -purposes. If there was no issue of the marriage, all the conditions of -the treaty at once became void, and Philip ceased to be king even in -name. If he died first, which was not very probable, Mary was to enjoy a -dower of 60,000 ducats per annum, secured on lands in Spain and Flanders. -No mention was made of any payment to Philip if he happened to be the -survivor. But there was one little clause which stipulated that Philip -should _aid_ Mary in governing her kingdom--an ominous word, which might -be made of vast significance. - -Within five days came the startling news that three insurrections had -broken out in different quarters of the kingdom. One was a-foot in the -midland counties, where the Duke of Suffolk and the Grey family had -property and influence. There the cry was for the Lady Jane. Mary had -been completely deceived by the Duke of Suffolk, whom she had pardoned -and liberated from the Tower. In return for her leniency he affected so -hearty an approval of her marriage, that she instantly thought of him as -the man to put down the other rebellions, and sending for him, found -that he and his brothers, Lord Thomas and Lord John Grey, had ridden off -with a strong body of horse to Leicestershire, proclaiming Lady Jane in -every town through which they passed. They found no response to their -cry, a fact which any but the most rash speculators might have been -certain of. The Earl of Huntingdon, a relative of the queen's, took the -field against the Greys, who by their folly brought certain death to Lady -Jane, and defeated them near Coventry, upon which they fled for their -lives. - -[Illustration: OLD LONDON BRIDGE, WITH NONSUCH PALACE. - -(_From the View of London, made by Van der Wyngarde, for Philip II._)] - -The second insurrection was in the west, under Sir Peter Carew, whose -project was to place Elizabeth and Courtenay, Earl of Devon, on the -throne, and restore the Protestant religion. These parties, as well as -the third under Sir Thomas Wyatt, had consented to act together, and -thus paralyse the efforts of Mary, by the simultaneous outbreak in so -many quarters. But the miserable folly of their plans became evident at -once. They did not even unite in the choice of the same person as their -future monarch, and had they put down Mary, must then have come to blows -amongst themselves. Carew found Devonshire as indifferent to his call as -the Greys had found Leicestershire. Courtenay was to have put himself at -their head, but never went; and Carew, Gibbs, and Champernham called on -the people of Exeter to sign an address to the queen, stating that they -would have no Spanish despot. The people of Devon gave no support to the -movement. The Earl of Bedford appeared at the head of the queen's troops. -A number of the conspirators were seized, and Carew with others fled to -France. - -But the most formidable section of this tripartite rebellion was that -under Sir Thomas Wyatt. He fixed his headquarters at Rochester, having -a fleet of five sail, under his associate Winter, which brought him -ordnance and ammunition. Wyatt was only a youth of twenty-three, but -he was full of both courage and enthusiasm, and endeavoured to rouse -the people of Canterbury to follow him. There, however, he was not -successful, and this cast a damp upon his adherents. Sir Robert Southwell -defeated a party of the insurgents under Knevet, and the Lord Abergavenny -another party under Isley, and the spirits of Wyatt's troops began to -sink rapidly. Many of his supporters sent to the Council, offering to -surrender on promise of full pardon, and a little delay would probably -have witnessed the total dispersion of his force. - -But on the 29th of January, the Duke of Norfolk marched from London -with a detachment of the guards under Sir Henry Jerningham. On reaching -Rochester they found Wyatt encamped in the ruins of the old castle, -and the bridge bristling with cannon, and with well-armed Kentishmen. -Norfolk endeavoured to dissolve the hostile force by sending a herald -to proclaim a pardon to all that would lay down their arms, but Wyatt -would not permit him to read the paper. Norfolk then ordered his troops -to force the bridge; but this duty falling to a detachment of 500 of the -train-bands of the city under Captain Brett, the moment they reached the -bridge Brett turned round, and addressed his followers thus:--"Masters, -we go about to fight against our native countrymen of England, and our -friends, in a quarrel unrightful and wicked; for they, considering the -great miseries that are like to fall upon us, if we shall be under the -rule of the proud Spaniards, or strangers, are here assembled to make -resistance to their coming, for the avoiding the great mischiefs likely -to alight not only upon themselves, but upon every of us and the whole -realm; wherefore I think no English heart ought to say against them. I -and others will spend our blood in their quarrel." - -On hearing this, his men shouted, one and all, "A Wyatt! a Wyatt!" and -turned their guns not against the bridge, but against Norfolk's forces. -At this sight Norfolk and his officers, imagining a universal treason, -turned their horses and fled at full speed, leaving behind them their -cannon and ammunition. The train-bands crossed the bridge and joined -Wyatt's soldiers, followed by three-fourths of the queen's troops, -and some companies of the guard. Norfolk and his fugitive officers -galloping into London carried with them the direst consternation. In -City and Court alike the most terrible panic prevailed. The lawyers in -Westminster Hall pleaded in suits of armour hidden under their robes, and -Dr. Weston preached before the queen in Whitehall Chapel, on Candlemas -Day, in armour under his clerical vestments. Mary alone seemed calm and -self-possessed. She mounted her horse, and, attended by her ladies and -her Council, rode into the City, where, summoning Sir Thomas White, Lord -Mayor and tailor, and the aldermen to meet, who all came clad in armour -under their civic livery, she ascended a chair of State, and with her -sceptre in hand addressed them, declaring she would never marry except -with leave of Parliament. - -Her courage gained the day. From some cause the insurgents had not pushed -forward with the celerity which the flight of Norfolk appeared to make -easy. Instead of marching on the City and taking advantage of its panic, -Wyatt was three days in reaching Deptford and Greenwich, and he then lay -three more days there, though his success was said to have raised his -forces to 15,000 men. Meantime the City had recovered its courage by the -valiant bearing of the queen, and the news of the dispersion of the other -two divisions of the rebels. The golden opportunity was irrevocably lost. -On the 3rd of February Wyatt marched along the river side to Southwark. -Coming to the end of London Bridge, he found the drawbridge raised, the -gates closed, and the citizens, headed by the Lord Mayor and aldermen in -armour, in strong force ready to resist his entrance. He was surprised -to find the Londoners determined not to admit him, for he had been led -to believe that they were as hostile to the marriage as himself. He -planted two pieces of artillery at the foot of the bridge, but this was -evidently with the view of defending his own position, and not of forcing -the gates, for he cut a deep ditch between the bridge and the fort which -he occupied, and then protected his flanks from attack by other guns, -one pointing down Bermondsey Street, one by St. George's Church, and the -third towards the Bishop of Winchester's house. He must still have hoped -for a demonstration in the City in his favour, for he remained stationary -two whole days, without making an attack on the bridge. On the third -morning this inaction was broken by the garrison in the Tower opening a -brisk cannonade against him with all their heavy ordnance, doing immense -damage to the houses in the vicinity of the bridge fort, and to the -towers of St. Olave's and St. Mary Overy's. - -The people of Southwark, seeing the inaction of Wyatt and the mischief -done to their property, now cried out amain, and desired him to take -himself away, which he did. He told the people that he would not have -them hurt on his account, and forthwith commenced a march towards -Kingston, hoping to be able to cross the bridge there, which he supposed -would be unguarded, and that so he might fall on Westminster and London -on the side where they were but indifferently fortified. He reached -Kingston about four o'clock in the afternoon of the 6th of February, -where he found a part of the bridge broken down, and an armed force -ready to oppose his passage. His object being to cross here, and not, -as at London Bridge, to await a voluntary admission, he brought up his -artillery, swept the enemy from the opposite bank, and by the help of -some sailors, who brought up boats and barges, he had the bridge made -passable, and his troops crossed over. By this time it was eleven o'clock -at night; his troops were extremely fatigued by their march and their -labours here, but he now deemed it absolutely necessary to push on, and -allow the Government no more time than he could help to collect forces -into his path, and strengthen their position. He marched on, therefore, -through a miserable winter night, and staying most imprudently to -re-mount a heavy gun which had broken down, it was broad daylight when he -arrived at what is now Hyde Park, where the Earl of Pembroke was posted -with the royal forces to receive him. - -Lord Clinton headed the cavalry, and took his station with a battery of -cannon on the rising ground opposite to the palace of St. James's, at the -top of the present St. James's Street, and his cavalry extended from that -spot to the present Jermyn Street. All that quarter of dense building, -including Piccadilly, Pall Mall, and St. James's Square, was then open -and called St. James's Fields. About nine o'clock appeared the advance -guard of Wyatt's army. The morning was dismal, gloomy, and rainy, and his -troops, who had been wading through muddy roads all night, were in no -condition to face a fresh army. Many had deserted at Kingston, many more -had dropped off since, and seeing the strength of the force placed to -obstruct him, he divided his own into three parts. One of these, led by -Captain Cobham, took the way through St. James's Park at the back of the -palace, which was barricaded at all points, guards being stationed at the -windows, even those of the queen's bed-chamber and with drawing-rooms. -Cobham's division fired on the palace as it passed, whilst another -division under Captain Knevet, holding more to the right, assaulted the -palaces of Westminster and Whitehall. - -But Wyatt, at the head of the main division, charged Clinton's cavalry; -the cannon were brought up, and a general engagement took place between -the rebel army and the troops under Clinton and the infantry under -Pembroke. Wyatt's charge seemed to make the cavalry give way, but it was -only a stratagem on the part of Clinton, who opened his ranks to let -Wyatt and about four hundred of his followers pass, when he closed and -cut off the main body from their commander. In all Wyatt's proceedings he -displayed great bravery, but little military experience or caution. - -His main forces, now deprived of their leader, wavered and gave way, but -instead of breaking took another course to reach the City. Wyatt, as if -unconscious that he had left the bulk of his army behind him, and had now -the enemy between it and himself, rushed along past Charing Cross and -through the Strand to Ludgate, in the fond hope still that the citizens -would admit him and join him. In the passages of the Strand were posted -bodies of soldiers under the Earl of Worcester and the contemptible -Courtenay, who, on the sight of Wyatt, fled. - -On reaching Ludgate, Wyatt found the gates closed, and instead of the -citizens who had promised to receive him, Lord William Howard appeared -over the gate, crying sternly, "Avaunt, traitor! avaunt; you enter not -here!" Finding no access there, the unhappy man turned to rejoin and -assist his troops, but he was met by those of Pembroke, who had poured -after him like a flood. With the energy of despair he fought his way back -as far as the Temple, where he found only twenty-four of his followers -surviving. At Temple Bar he threw away his sword, which was broken, and -surrendered himself to Sir Maurice Berkeley, who immediately mounted him -behind him and carried him off to Court. - -Mary had displayed the most extraordinary clemency on the termination -of the former conspiracy, for which not only the Emperor but her -own Ministers had blamed her. Her Council now urged her to make a -more salutary example of these offenders, to prevent a repetition -of rebellion. On the previous occasion she had permitted only three -of the ringleaders to be put to death. On this occasion five of the -chief conspirators were condemned, and four of them were executed, -Croft being pardoned. Suffolk fell without any commiseration. It was -difficult to decide whether his folly or his ingratitude had been the -greater. He had twice been a traitor to the queen, the second time -after being most mercifully pardoned. He had twice put his amiable and -excellent daughter's life in jeopardy; the second time after seeing how -hopeless was the attempt to place her on the throne, and therefore, -to a certainty, by the second revolt, involving her death; and to add -to his infamy, he endeavoured to win escape for himself by betraying -others. He was beheaded on the 23rd of February. Wyatt was kept in the -Tower till the 11th of April, when he was executed. Unlike Suffolk, he -tried to exculpate others, declaring in his last moments that neither -the Princess Elizabeth nor Courtenay, who were suspected of being privy -to his designs, knew anything of them. Wyatt seems to have been a brave -and honest man, who believed himself acting the part of a patriot in -endeavouring to preserve the country from the Spanish yoke, and who, -in the sincerity of his own heart, had too confidently trusted to the -assurances of faithless men. Had he succeeded, and placed the Protestant -Princess Elizabeth on the throne, his name, instead of remaining that of -a traitor, would have stood side by side with that of Hampden. His body -was quartered and exposed in different places. His head was stuck on a -pole at Hay Hill, near Hyde Park, whence it was stolen by some of his -friends. - -Sir Nicholas Throgmorton was the sixth, who was tried at Guildhall on the -17th of April, the very day of Lord Grey's execution. His condemnation -and death were regarded as certain; but on being brought to the bar he -adroitly pleaded that the recent statute abolishing all treasons since -the reign of Edward III., covered anything which he could possibly have -done, and that his offence being only words, were by the same statute -declared to be no overt act at all. He stated this with so much skill and -eloquence, at the same time contending that there was not a particle of -evidence of his having been an active accomplice of the rebels, that the -jury acquitted him. - -The execution which caused and still causes the deepest interest, -and which always appears as a shadow on the character of Queen Mary, -was that of her cousin, Lady Jane Grey. Till this second unfortunate -insurrection, Mary steadily refused to listen to any persuasions to shed -the blood of Lady Jane. She had had her tried and condemned to death, -but she still permitted her to live, gave her a considerable degree of -liberty and unusual indulgences, and it was generally understood that -she meant eventually to pardon her. The ambassadors of Charles V. had -strenuously urged her to prevent future danger by executing her rival, -but she had replied that she could not find it in her conscience to -put her unfortunate kinswoman to death, who had not been an accomplice -of Northumberland, but merely an instrument in his hands; but now that -the very mischief had taken place which the Emperor and her own Council -had prognosticated; she was importuned on all sides to take what they -described as the only prudent course. Poynet, the Bishop of Winchester, -says that those lords of the Council who had been the most instrumental -at the death of Edward VI. in thrusting royalty on Lady Jane--namely, -Pembroke and Winchester--and who had been amongst the first to denounce -Mary as illegitimate, were now the most remorseless advocates for Lady -Jane's death. - -Accordingly, the day after the fall of Wyatt, Mary signed the warrant -for the execution of "Guilford Dudley and his wife," to take place -within three days. On the morning of the execution the queen sent Lady -Jane permission to have an interview with her husband, but she declined -the favour as too trying, saying she should meet him within a few hours -in heaven. She saw her husband go to execution from the window of the -lodging in Master Partridge's house, and beheld the headless trunk borne -back to be buried in the chapel. Lord Guilford Dudley was executed on -Tower Hill in sight of a vast concourse, but a scaffold was erected for -her on the Tower green. Immediately after his corpse had passed she was -led forth by the Lieutenant of the Tower, and appeared to go to her -fate without any discomposing fear, but in a serious frame, not a tear -dimming her eye, though her gentlewomen, Elizabeth Tilney and Mistress -Helen, were weeping greatly. She continued engaged in prayer, which she -read from a book, till she came to the scaffold; there she made a short -speech to the spectators, declaring that she deserved her punishment for -allowing herself to be made the instrument of the ambition of others. -"That device, however," she said, "was never of my seeking, but by the -counsel of those who appeared to have better understanding of such things -than I. As for the procurement or desire of such dignity by me, I wash -my hands thereof before God and all you Christian people this day." -She caused her gentlewomen to disrobe her, bandaged her own eyes with -a handkerchief, and laying her head on the block, at one stroke it was -severed from the body (February 12, 1554). - -But this conspiracy had approached the queen much more nearly than in -the person of Wyatt or the friends of Lady Jane Grey. It was discovered -by intercepted letters of Wyatt, of Noailles, the French ambassador, and -by one supposed to have been written by Elizabeth herself to the French -king; that she was deeply implicated, and that the design of marrying -her and Courtenay and placing them on the throne was well known, and -apparently quite agreeable to her. - -[Illustration: LADY JANE GREY ON HER WAY TO THE SCAFFOLD. (_See p._ -232.)] - -The refusal of Elizabeth to join her sister at the outbreak of the -insurrection, and the flight of Courtenay at the moment of Wyatt's entry -of London, excited suspicion, and this suspicion was soon converted into -something very like fact by the three despatches of Noailles, written in -cipher, and dated January 26th, 28th, and 30th. These despatches detailed -the steps taken in her favour. Besides these there were two notes sent -by Wyatt to Elizabeth, the first advising her to remove to Donington, -the next informing her of his successful entry into Southwark. Then came -what appeared clearly a letter of Elizabeth to the King of France. The -Duke of Suffolk's confession was again corroborative of these details, -namely, that the object of the insurrection was to depose Mary and place -Elizabeth on the throne. William Thomas supported this, adding that it -was intended to put the queen immediately to death. Croft confessed that -he had solicited Elizabeth to return to Donington; Lord Russell said -he had conveyed letters from Wyatt to Elizabeth, and another witness -deposed to his knowledge of a correspondence between Courtenay and Carew -respecting Courtenay's marriage with the princess. - -With all these startling facts in her possession, Mary wrote to Elizabeth -with an air of unsuspicious kindness, requesting her to come to her from -Ashridge, informing her that malicious and ill-disposed persons accused -her of favouring the late insurrection; but appearing not to believe -it, and giving as a reason for her wishing her to be nearer, that the -times were so unsettled that she would be in greater security with her. -Elizabeth pleaded illness for not complying; but the queen sent Hastings, -Southwell, and Cornwallis, members of Council, whom she received in -her bed, and complained of being afflicted with a severe and dangerous -malady. Mary, well acquainted with the deep dissimulation of her -sister's character, then sent three of her own physicians, accompanied -by Lord William Howard; and the physicians having given their opinion -that she was quite able to travel, she was obliged to accompany them by -short stages, borne in a litter. She appeared pale and bloated. It was -said that she had been poisoned; but in a week she was quite well, and -demanded an audience of the queen; but Mary had so much evidence in her -hands of Elizabeth's proceedings, that she sent her word that it was -necessary first to prove her innocence. - -Courtenay had been arrested on the 12th of February, at the house of the -Earl of Essex, and committed to the Tower. Mary was averse from sending -her sister there, and asked each of the lords of the Council in rotation -to admit Elizabeth to their houses, and take charge of her. All declined -the dangerous office; she was, therefore, compelled to sign the warrant -for her committal, and Elizabeth was conducted to the Tower by the -Earl of Sussex and another nobleman on the 18th of March. Even whilst -performing this duty, it appears that Elizabeth had influence enough with -these noblemen to make them dilatory in the execution of their office, to -the great anger of the queen, who upbraided them with their remissness, -telling them they dared not have done such a thing in her father's time, -and wishing that "he were alive for a month." Elizabeth on entering the -Tower was dreadfully afraid that she was doomed to leave it as so many -princes and nobles had done, without a head. She inquired whether Lady -Jane's scaffold were removed, and was greatly relieved to hear that it -was. But what alarmed Elizabeth still more, was that the Constable of -the Tower was discharged from his office, and Sir Henry Bedingfield, -a zealous Romanist, appointed in his place. The fact of Sir Robert -Brackenbury having been seventy years before, in like manner, removed, -and Sir James Tyrell put in, when the princes were murdered, appeared an -ominous precedent, but there was no real cause for apprehension; Mary -had no wish to shed her sister's blood. Elizabeth, spite of the evidence -against her, protested vehemently her innocence, and wished "that God -might confound her eternally if she was in any manner implicated with -Wyatt." - -The Court of Spain, through Renard the ambassador, urged perseveringly -the execution of Elizabeth and Courtenay. Renard represented from his -sovereign that there could be no security for her throne so long as -Elizabeth and Courtenay were suffered to live. But Mary replied that -though they had both of them, no doubt, listened willingly to the -conspirators, and would have been ready had they succeeded to step into -her throne, yet they had been guilty of no overt act, and, therefore, by -the constitutional law of England which had been enacted in her first -Parliament, they could not be put to death, but could only be imprisoned, -or suffer forfeiture of their goods. - -In spite of the many warnings and the most universal expression of -dislike to the match, Mary persisted in her engagement of marriage with -Philip of Spain, though he himself showed no unequivocal reluctance to -the completion of it; never writing to her, but submitting to his fate, -as it were, in obedience to the parental command. At the end of May the -unwilling bridegroom resigned his government of Castile--which he held -for his insane grandmother, Juana--into the hands of his sister, the -Princess-Dowager of Portugal, and bade adieu to his family. He embarked -at Corunna on the 13th of July for England, and landed at Southampton on -the 20th, after a week's voyage. He married his wife, who was much older -than himself, and whose importunate love soon began to annoy him, at -Winchester. - -On the 11th of November the third Parliament of Mary's reign was -summoned, and she and her Royal husband rode from Hampton Court to -Whitehall to open the session. The king and queen rode side by side, -a sword of State being borne before each to betoken their independent -sovereignties. The queen was extremely anxious to restore the lands -reft from the Church by her father and brother to their ancient uses, -but she must have known little of the men into whose hands those lands -had fallen, if she could seriously hope for such a sacrifice. The Earl -of Bedford, than whom no one had more deeply gorged himself with Church -plunder, on hearing the proposition, tore his rosary from his girdle -and flung it into the fire, saying he valued the abbey of Woborn more -than any fatherly counsel that could come from Rome. All the rest of the -Council were of the same way of thinking as Bedford, and Mary saw that -it was a hopeless case to move them on that point, though she set them a -very honourable example by surrendering the lands which still remained in -the hands of the Crown, to the value of L60,000 a year. - -Though Mary could not recover the property for the Church, she resolved -to restore that Church to unity with Rome. She expressed her earnest -desire to have the presence of her kinsman, Cardinal Pole, in her -kingdom, and he now set out for England, from which he had been banished -so many years. He rendered this return the more easy, by bringing with -him from the Pope a bull which confirmed the nobles in their possession -of the Church property, on condition that the Papal supremacy was -restored. The queen despatched Sir Edward Hastings to accompany the -cardinal; and Sir William Cecil, who had been Edward's unhesitating -minister in stripping the Church, set out of his own accord to pay homage -to the Papal representative. Cecil's only real religion was ambition, and -Mary knew that so well that, in spite of all his time-serving, she never -would place any confidence in him, whence his bitter hostility to her -memory. - -Pole, on his arrival, ascended the Thames from Greenwich in a splendid -State barge, at the prow of which he fixed a large silver cross, thus -marking the entrance of the legatine and Papal authority into the -country, as it were, in a triumphal manner. On the 24th of November the -king and queen met the united Parliament in the presence-chamber of the -palace of Whitehall: this was owing to the indisposition of the queen. -Gardiner introduced the business, which, he told them, was the weightiest -that ever happened in this realm, and begged their utmost attention to -Cardinal Pole. Pole then made a long speech, reverting to his own history -as well as that of the nation. All listened in solemn seriousness and -yet apprehension when he announced to them the fact that the Pope was -ready to absolve the English from their crimes of heresy and contumacy. -But when he added that this was to be done without any reclamation -of the Church lands, there was a unanimous vote of both Houses for -reconciliation with Rome. - -The next morning, the king, queen, and Parliament met again in the -presence-chamber, when, Pole presenting himself, Philip and Mary -rose, and, bowing profoundly to him, presented him with the vote of -Parliament. The cardinal, on receiving it, offered up thanks to God for -this auspicious event, and then ordered his commission to be read. The -Peers and Commons then fell on their knees and received absolution and -benediction from the hands of the cardinal, and thus for a time again was -the great breach between England and the Papacy healed. - -Parliament proceeded to pass Acts confirming all that was now done, -and repealing all the statutes which had been passed against the Roman -Church since the 20th of Henry VIII., while the clergy in Convocation -made formal resignation of the possessions which had passed into -the hands of laymen. The legate also issued decrees authorising all -cathedral churches, hospitals, and schools founded since the schism, to -be preserved, and that all persons who had contracted marriage within -prescribed degrees should remain married notwithstanding. - -The year 1555 opened with dark and threatening features. The queen's -health was failing; and, under the idea that she was merely suffering -maternal inconvenience, she was rapidly advancing in a dropsy which, -in less than four years, was destined to sink her to the tomb. The -king, gloomy, despotic, and, consequently, unpopular, though he often -endeavoured to act against his nature, and assume a popular character, -still hoping for an heir to the English crown, had obtained from -Parliament an Act constituting him regent, in case Mary should die after -the birth of a child, during the minority of that child. Thus, whether -the queen lived or died, he appeared to possess a reasonable prospect of -obtaining the supreme power in this country; and how he would have used -it, we may judge from his government of Spain and the Netherlands. If the -child was a female, he was made governor till her fifteenth year; if a -male, till his eighteenth year. Philip protested on his honour that he -would give up the government faithfully when the child came of age; but -Lord Paget asked "who was to sue the bond if he did not?"--a suggestion -never forgiven. With this flattering but illusive prospect before -him, the tempest of persecution soon burst forth; and, had Providence -permitted, England would soon have exhibited the same scene of tyranny, -bloodshed, and insult which Flanders did under his rule. As it was, for a -short period, terrible war for conscience' sake burst forth, the prisons -were thronged, and the fires of death blazed out in every quarter of the -island. Mary, with failing health, and doting absurdly on her husband, -was easily drawn to acquiesce in deeds and measures which made her name -a byword to all future times. - -We are now called upon to pass through a reign of terror, a time of -fire and blood, such as has no parallel in the history of England. The -statutes against the Lollards enacted in the reigns of Richard II., -Henry IV., and Henry V., were revived and were to come into force on the -20th of January. Bonner, accompanied by eight bishops and 160 priests, -made a grand procession through the streets of London, and held services -of public thanksgiving for the happy restoration of Catholicism. A -commission was then held in the Church of St. Mary Overy, in Southwark, -for the trial of heretics. The first man brought before this court, over -which Gardiner presided, was John Rogers, a prebendary of St. Paul's, -who had nobly distinguished himself by defending the first priest sent -by Mary to preach Papacy at St. Paul's Cross. The Court condemned him to -be burnt, and on the 4th of February this horrible sentence was executed -in the most barbarous manner. The day of his death was kept a profound -secret from him, and early that morning he was suddenly awakened out of a -sound sleep and informed that he was to be burnt that day. The condemned -man, so far from sinking under the appalling announcement, only calmly -observed, "Then I need not truss my points." He requested to be permitted -to take leave of his wife and children, of whom he had eleven--one still -at the breast--but this Bonner refused. As he was led by the sheriffs -towards Smithfield, where he was to suffer, he sang the "Miserere." His -wife and children were placed where he would have a full view of them -at the stake, and it was expected that this would induce him to recant -and save his life, and thus induce others to follow his example; but -outwardly unmoved, he maintained the most sublime fortitude. - -Bishop Hooper, Ferrar, Bishop of St. David's, Dr. Rowland Taylor of -Hadleigh, in Suffolk, and Lawrence Saunders, Rector of Allhallows, -Coventry, were all condemned to the same death, and, like Rogers, -were offered their lives on recantation, which one and all refused. -The treatment of the pious Bishop Hooper was a most glaring case of -ingratitude. Decided Protestant as he was, and of the most primitive -simplicity of faith, he had from the first manifested the most staunch -loyalty to Mary. In his own account of himself he says, "When Mary's -fortunes were at the worst, I rode myself from place to place, as is well -known, to win and stay the people to her party. And whereas when another -was proclaimed [Lady Jane Grey] I preferred our queen, notwithstanding -the proclamations. I sent horses in both shires [Gloucestershire and -Worcester] to serve her in great danger, as Sir John Talbot and William -Lygon, Esq., can testify." Hooper was sent down to Gloucester, his own -diocese, to suffer, where he was burnt on the 9th of February, in a slow -fire, to increase and prolong his agonies to the utmost. On the same day -Dr. Taylor was burnt at Hadleigh. - -This shocking state of things was interrupted for some time by the sudden -and extraordinary outbreak of Alphonso di Castro, the confessor of King -Philip, a Spanish friar, who preached before the Court a sermon in which -he most vehemently and eloquently inveighed against the wickedness and -inhumanity of burning people for their opinions. He declared that the -practice was not learned in the Scriptures, but the contrary; for it was -decidedly opposed to both the letter and the spirit of the New Testament; -that it was the duty of the Government and the clergy to win men to the -Gospel by mildness, and not to kill but to instruct the ignorant. A -mystery has always hung over this singular demonstration. Some thought -Philip, some that Mary, had ordered him to preach this sermon, but it -is far more probable that it was the spontaneous act of zeal in a man -who was enlightened beyond his age and his country. It is not probable -that it proceeded from Philip, for he could at once have commanded this -change; it is besides contrary to his life-long policy. Had it been the -will of the sovereigns it would have produced a permanent effect. As it -was, it took the Court and country by surprise. The impression on the -Court was so powerful that all further burnings ceased for five weeks, by -which time the good friar's sermon had lost its effect; and the religious -butcheries went on as fiercely as ever, till more than two hundred -persons had been slaughtered on account of their faith in this short -reign. Miles Coverdale, the venerable translator of the Bible, was saved -from this death by the King of Denmark writing to Mary and claiming him -as his subject. - -[Illustration: ARCHBISHOP CRANMER. - -(_From the Portrait in the Collection at Lambeth Palace._)] - -Mary had now, according to the custom of English queens, formally taken -to her chamber in expectation of giving birth to an heir to the throne. -She chose Hampton Court as the scene of this vainly-hoped-for event, and -went there on the 3rd of April, where she continued secluded from her -subjects, only being seen on one occasion, till the 21st of July, after -she had again returned to St. James's. This occasion was on the 23rd of -May, St. George's Day, when she stood at a window of the palace to see -the procession of the Knights of the Garter with Philip at their head, -attended by Gardiner the Lord Chancellor, and a crowd of priests with -crosses, march round the courts and cloisters of Hampton Court. A few -days afterwards there was a report that a prince was born, and there -was much ringing of bells and singing _Te Deum_ in the City and other -places. But it soon became known, that there was no hope of an heir, but -that the queen was suffering under a mortal disease, and that such was -her condition, "that she sat whole days together on the ground crouched -together with her knees higher than her head." On the 21st of July she -removed for her health from London to Eltham Palace. - -Gardiner took advantage of the pause in persecution caused by the sermon -of Di Castro to withdraw from his odious office of chief inquisitor. -Might _he_ not have instigated the friar to express his opinion so -boldly, for it is obvious that he wanted to be clear of the dreadful -work of murdering his fellow-subjects for their faith? He therefore -withdrew from the office, and a more sanguinary man took it up. This -was Bonner, Bishop of London. He opened his inquisitorial court in the -consistory court of St. Paul's, and compelled the Lord Mayor and aldermen -to attend and countenance his proceedings. Burnet gives a letter written -in the name of Philip and Mary exhorting him to increased activity; but -from what we have seen of Mary's condition we may safely attribute the -spur to Philip. Cardinal Pole did all in his power to put an end to the -persecutions, but in vain. - -It was now resolved to proceed to extremities with the three eminent -prelates, Cranmer, Ridley, and Latimer. But the charge of high treason -was dropped, undoubtedly because it was hoped that they might, by the -prospect of the flames, be brought as heretics to recantation. On the -15th of April, 1554, they were led from their prisons to St. Mary's -Church, Oxford, where the doctors of the university sat in judgment upon -them. They were promised a free and fair discussion of their tenets, -and the still more vain assurance was given that if they could convince -their opponents they should be set free. The so-called disputation -continued three days, but it more truly represented a bear-baiting than -the discussion of men in quest of the truth. - -On the 16th of April, the day appointed, Cranmer appeared before -this disorderly assembly in the divinity school. He was treated with -peculiar indignity, for they had a deep hatred of him from the long and -conspicuous part which he had enacted in the work of Reformation. It was -in vain that he attempted to state his views, for he was interrupted at -every moment by half a dozen persons at once; and whenever he advanced -anything particularly difficult of answer, the doctors denounced him as -ignorant and unlearned, and the students hissed and clapped their hands -outrageously. The next day Ridley experienced the same treatment, but -he was a man of a much more bold and determined character, of profound -learning, and ready address, and, in spite of the most disreputable -clamour and riot, he made himself heard above all the storm, and with -telling effect. When his adversaries shouted at him five or six at a -time, he calmly observed, "I have but one tongue, I cannot answer all at -once." - -Latimer was not only oppressed by age but by sickness, and he was -scarcely able to stand. He appealed to his base judges to pity his -weakness and give him a fair hearing. "Ha! good master," he said to -Weston, the moderator, "I pray ye be good to an old man; ye may be once -as old as I am: ye may come to this age and this debility." But he -appealed in vain; his judges and hearers were lost to all sense of what -was due to truth and religion, of what was due to the age and spirit of a -veteran servant of God, whatever might have been his errors or failings. -The rude students only laughed, hissed, clapped their hands, and mocked -the old man the more. Seeing that all hopes of a hearing were vain, he -told the rabble of his judges and spectators, for such they truly were, -"that he had spoken before attentive kings for two and three hours at -a time, but that he could not declare his mind there for a quarter of -an hour for mockings, revilings, checks, rebukes, and taunts, such as -he had not felt the like in such an audience all his life long." The -three insulted and unheard prisoners wrote to the queen that they had -been silenced by the noise, not by the arguments of their opponents, and -Cranmer in his letter said, "I never knew nor heard of a more confused -disputation in all my life; for albeit there was one appointed to dispute -against me, yet every man spake his mind, and brought forth what him -liked without order; and such haste was made that no answer could be -suffered to be given." - -On the 28th of April they were all three brought again into St. Mary's -Church, and asked by Weston whether they were willing to conform, and -on replying in the negative, were condemned as obstinate heretics, -and returned to their prison. There they lay till the October of the -following year (1555), when Ridley and Latimer were ordered to prepare -for the stake. On the 16th of that month a stake was erected in the town -ditch opposite to Balliol College. Soto, a Spanish priest, had been sent -to them in person to try to convert them, but in vain; Latimer would not -even listen to him; and now at the stake a Dr. Smith, who had renounced -Popery in King Edward's time, and was again a pervert, preached a sermon -on the text, "Though I give my body to be burned and have not charity, it -profiteth me nothing." The two martyrs cheered each other, and exhorted -one another to be courageous. Ridley, on approaching the pile, turned to -Latimer who was following him, embraced and kissed him, saying, "Be of -good heart, brother, for God will either assuage the fury of the flame, -or strengthen us to bear it;" and when Latimer was tied to the stake -back to back with his fellow-sufferer, he returned the consolation, -exclaiming, "Be of good comfort, Master Ridley, and play the man; we -shall this day light such a candle, by God's grace, in England, as I -trust shall never be put out." A lighted faggot was placed at the feet -of Ridley, and matches were applied to the pile. Bags of gunpowder were -hung round their necks to shorten their sufferings, and as the flames -ascended Latimer quickly died, probably through suffocation in the smoke; -but Ridley suffered long. His brother-in-law had piled the faggots high -about him to hasten his death, but the flames did not readily find their -way amongst them from their closeness, and a spectator hearing him cry -out that he could not burn opened the pile, and an explosion of gunpowder -almost instantly terminated his existence. - -Cranmer was reserved for a future day. The punctilios of ecclesiastical -form were strictly observed, and as he enjoyed the dignity of Primate -of England, it required higher authority to decide his fate than that -which had pronounced judgment on his companions. Latimer and Ridley had -been sentenced by the commissioners of the legate, Cranmer must only be -doomed by the Pontiff himself. He was therefore waited on in his cell -by Brooks, Bishop of Gloucester, as Papal sub-delegate, and two Royal -commissioners, and there cited to appear before him at Rome within -eighty days, and answer for his heresies. As this was impossible, the -citation was a mockery and an insult. When the archbishop saw his two -friends led forth to their horrible death, his resolution, which never -was very great, began to fail, and he now presented a woful image of -terror and irresolution, very different to the bravery of his departed -friends. He expressed a possibility of conversion to Rome, and desired -a conference with Cardinal Pole. But soon he became ashamed of his own -weakness, and wrote to the queen defending his own doctrines, which she -commissioned the cardinal to answer. When the eighty days had expired, -and the Pope had pronounced his sentence, and had appointed Bonner, and -Thirlby, Bishop of Ely, to degrade him, and see his sentence executed, -he once more trembled with apprehension, and gave out that he was ready -to submit to the judgment of the queen; that he believed in the creed of -the Catholic Church, and deplored and condemned his past apostacy. He -forwarded this submission to the Council, which they found too vague, and -required a more full and distinct confession, which he supplied. When the -Bishops of London and Ely arrived to degrade him, he appealed from the -judgment of the Pope to that of a general Council, but that not being -listened to, he sent two other papers to the commissioners before they -left Oxford, again fully and explicitly submitting to all the statutes of -the realm regarding the supremacy, and professing his faith in all the -doctrines and rites of the Romish Church. - -On the 21st of March, 1556, Cranmer was conducted to St. Mary's Church, -Oxford, where Dr. Cole, provost of Eton College, preached a sermon, in -which he stated that notwithstanding Cranmer's repentance, he had done -the Church so much mischief that he must die. That morning Garcina, a -Spanish friar, had waited on him before leaving his cell, and presented -him with a paper making a complete statement of his recantation and -repentance, which he requested him to copy and sign. It seems that his -enemies calculated that, having so fully committed himself, the fallen -Primate would not, at the last hour, depart from his confession; but they -were mistaken. Cranmer now saw nothing but death before him, and he most -bitterly repented of his weakness and the renunciation of what he felt -to be the holy truth. He therefore transcribed once more the paper which -had been brought to him, but in place of the latter part of it he wrote -in a very different conclusion. Accordingly, when he read his paper at -the conclusion of the sermon, there was a profound silence till he came -to the fifth article of it, which went on to declare that through fear of -death, and beguiled by hopes of pardon, he had been led to renounce his -genuine faith, but that he now declared that all his recantations were -false; that he recalled them every one, rejected the Papal authority, and -confirmed the whole doctrine contained in his book. The amazement was -intense, the audience became agitated by various passions, there were -mingled murmurings and approbation. The Lord Williams of Thame called to -him to "remember himself and play the Christian." That was touching a -string which woke the response of the hero and the martyr in the Primate. -He replied that he did remember; that it was now too late to dissemble, -and he must now speak the truth. - -[Illustration: THE PLACE OF MARTYRDOM, OLD SMITHFIELD.] - -When the first astonishment at this unlooked-for declaration had passed, -there was a rush to drag down Cranmer, and hurry him to the stake in -the same spot where his friends Ridley and Latimer had suffered. There -he was speedily stripped to the shirt and tied to the stake; through it -all he was firm and calm. He no longer trembled at his fate; he declared -that he had never changed his belief; hope of life only had wrung from -him his recantation; and the moment that the flames burst out he thrust -his right hand into them, saying, "This hath offended." The writers of -those times say that he stood by the stake whilst the fire raged round -him, as immovable as the stake itself, and lifting up his eyes to heaven, -exclaimed, "Lord, receive my spirit," and very soon expired. - -The day after the death of Cranmer, Cardinal Pole, who had now taken -priest's orders, was consecrated Archbishop of Canterbury; and showed his -anxiety to check this fierce and impolitic persecution, but, as we shall -find, with no great result. - -While these terrible transactions had been taking place King Philip -had quitted the kingdom. With all his endeavours to become popular -with the English, Philip never could win their regard. He conformed to -many national customs, and affected to enjoy the national amusements; -threw off much of his hauteur, especially in his intercourse with the -nobles, and conferred pensions on them on the plea that they had stood -by the queen during the insurrection. But nothing could inspire the -English with confidence in him. They had always an idea that the object -of the Spaniards was to introduce the Spanish rule and dominance here. -They had always the persuasion that it was no longer their own queen, -but the future King of Spain and the Netherlands who ruled. It was -clearly seen that Philip never had any real affection for Mary; it was -the public opinion that he had now less than ever, whilst the poor -invalid Mary doated on him, and was ready to yield up everything but the -actual sovereignty to him. And now came a very sufficient cause for the -departure of Philip from England. His father, Charles V., wearied of -governing his vast empire, was anxious to abdicate in favour of his son. -Philip embarked at Dover on the 4th of September, 1555. Mary accompanied -him from Hampton to Greenwich, riding through London in a litter, in -order, as the French ambassador states, "that her people might see that -she was not dead." The queen was anxious to proceed as far as Dover, and -see him embark, but her health did not permit this; and after parting -from him with passionate grief, she endeavoured to console herself by -having daily prayers offered for his safety and speedy return. - -[Illustration: MARY I.] - -Charles V., at the age of only fifty-five, had now resigned his vast -empire to his son and his brother Ferdinand; and Spain, the Netherlands, -Naples, Sicily, Milan, and the new lands of South America, owned Philip -as their lord. On the 25th of October, 1555, Charles, in an assembly of -the States of the Netherlands, resigned these countries to Philip, and -in a few months later he also put him in possession of the government -of other parts of his dominions, Ferdinand succeeding to the Imperial -crown. Charles then retired to the monastery of St. Just, near Placentia, -on the borders of Spain and Portugal, where this great king, who had -so long exercised so strong an influence on the destinies of Europe, -lived as a simple private gentleman, retaining only a few servants and a -single horse for his own use, and employing his now abundant leisure in -religious exercises, in gardening, and clock-making. - -During Philip's absence, a series of insurrections took place which -disturbed the quiet of the queen, and in which the King of France seems -to have borne no inconsiderable part. His assiduous minister, Noailles, -disseminated reports that Mary, hopeless of issue, had resolved to settle -the Crown on her husband. This having produced its effect, a conspiracy -was set on foot to put Elizabeth on the throne, and depose Mary. Sir -Henry Dudley, a relative of the late Duke of Northumberland, was to head -it and the French king, to secure his interest, had settled a pension -on him. The worthless Courtenay, who was at this moment on his way to -Italy, whence he never returned, was still to play the part of husband -to Elizabeth, though the management of the plot was to be consigned to -Dudley. Elizabeth had again, it is said, fully consented to this plot, -though the health of Mary was such as must have promised her the throne -at no distant day. Dudley was already on the coast of Normandy with some -of his fellow-conspirators, making preparations, when the King of France -unexpectedly concluded a truce for five years with Philip. He therefore -advised Dudley and his accomplices to lie quiet for a more favourable -opportunity. This was a paralysing blow to the scheme of insurrection, -and the coadjutors in England had gone so far that they did not think -it safe to stop. Kingston, Uedale, Throgmorton, Staunton, and others of -the league determined to seize the treasure in the Tower, and, once in -possession of that, to raise forces and drive the queen from the throne. -But one of them revealed the design; several of them were seized and -executed, and others escaped to France. Mary applied by her ambassador, -Lord Clinton, to Henry II. to have them delivered up, and received a -polite promise of endeavour to secure them, which there was in reality -no intention to fulfil. Amongst the conspirators arrested were two -officers of the household of Elizabeth, Peckham and Werne, who made very -awkward confessions; but again the princess escaped, it is said at the -intercession of Philip, who was apprehensive, if Elizabeth was removed -from the succession, of the claims of the French king on behalf of his -daughter-in-law, the Queen of Scots. Elizabeth at all events escaped, -protesting her innocence as stoutly as ever, but receiving from the -Council in place of those two officers executed, two other trusty ones, -Sir Thomas Pope and Robert Cage. - -But if Elizabeth was uneasy, Mary was still more so. The disquiets -which surrounded her, and the wretched state of her health, made her -very anxious for the return of her husband. She had lost her able -minister, Gardiner, who died in November, 1555, and his successor, Heath, -Archbishop of York, by no means supplied his place. Mary, therefore, -wrote long and repeated letters to urge the return of Philip, and, -finding them unavailing, she despatched Lord Paget to represent the -urgent need of his presence in the kingdom. At last his difficulties -with France and the Pope brought Philip home to his wife when all -conjugal persuasions on her part had failed. He sent over, to announce -his approach, Robert Dudley, son of the late Duke of Northumberland, -whom Mary had liberated from the Tower, and who already, it seems, had -contrived to win so much favour as to be taken into the royal service, -in which he continued to mount till, in the next reign, he became the -notorious Earl of Leicester and favourite of Queen Elizabeth. On the 20th -of March, 1556, Philip himself arrived at Greenwich. As he wanted to win -the English to join him in the war against France, he paid particular -respect to the City of London. During this visit there appeared at Court -the novel sight of a Duke of Muscovy, in the character of ambassador from -Russia, who astonished the public by the enormous size of the pearls and -jewels that he wore, and the richness of his dress. - -Philip used all his influence to induce the queen and her Council to -declare war against Henry of France, who had broken that five years' -truce into which he had so recently entered. But the finances of the -country were not such as to render either the queen or her Council -willing to go to war with France, which, connected as France was now with -Scotland, was sure to occasion a war also with that country. Cardinal -Pole and nearly the whole Council were strongly opposed to it. They -assured her that to engage lightly in Philip's wars was to make England -a dependency of Spain, and Philip, on the other hand, protested to the -queen that if she did not aid him against France he would take his leave -of her for ever. - -While matters were in this position a circumstance occurred which -turned the scale in Philip's favour. Henry II. of France, on deciding -to accept the Pope's invitation, and to make war on Philip, called on -Dudley and his adherents to renew their attempts on England. Dudley -and his coadjutors opened a communication with the families of the -Reformers in Calais and the surrounding district, who had suffered from -the persecution of the English Government, or who were indignant at the -cruelties practised on their fellow professors, and they concurred in a -plan to betray Hammes and Guines to the French. This scheme was defeated -by the means of an English spy who became cognisant of the secret. The -mischief, though stopped there, soon showed itself in another quarter. -Thomas Stafford, the second son of Lord Stafford, and grandson of the -late Duke of Buckingham, mustered a small army of English, French, and -Scots, and, sailing from Dieppe, landed at Scarborough in Yorkshire, and -surprised the castle there. But he soon found that, however much the -public might dislike the Spanish match, they were not at all inclined to -rebel against their queen. Wotton, the English ambassador in France, had -duly warned his court of the designs of Stafford, and on the fourth day -the Earl of Westmoreland appeared with a strong body of troops before -the castle, and compelled Stafford to surrender at discretion. Stafford, -Saunders, and three or four others were sent to London, and committed -to the Tower, where, under torture, they were made to confess that the -King of France had instigated and assisted their enterprise. Stafford was -beheaded on Tower Hill on the 28th of May, 1557, and the next day three -of his confederates were hanged at Tyburn. - -The Council had been averse from the war, and had advised that, instead -of appearing as principals, we should merely confine ourselves to the -furnishing that aid which we were bound to by our ancient treaties -with the House of Burgundy. Now, however, it felt itself justified in -proclaiming open war against the King of France, as the violator of the -treaty between the nations, in having harboured the traitors against the -queen, and in having sent them over in French ships to Scarborough with -arms, ammunition, and money. Philip, having obtained what he wanted, -hastened over to Flanders, and neither Mary nor England ever saw him -again. - -The Earl of Pembroke, accompanied by Lord Robert Dudley as his master of -ordnance, followed Philip at the end of July with 7,000 men. They joined -the army of Philip, consisting of men of many nations--Germans, Italians, -Flemings, Dalmatians, Croats, Illyrians, and others--making altogether -a force of 40,000 men, the supreme command of which was given to the -rejected suitor of the Princess Elizabeth, Philibert Duke of Savoy. -The duke successfully threatened an attack upon Marienberg, Rocroi, and -Guise, but he finally drew up before St. Quentin, on the right bank -of the Somme. There he won a great victory. The English fleet made -descents upon France at various points, menaced Bordeaux and Bayonne, and -plundered the defenceless inhabitants of the coasts. This was all that -was achieved, except what Philip probably most looked for, the drawing -of the Duke of Guise out of Italy. But this, while it removed all danger -from Philip's Transalpine possessions, led to a loss on the part of his -English ally which might be termed the crowning mischief of his union -with Mary. - -The Duke of Guise, disappointed of his laurels in Italy, was now -planning an attack on Calais. The English were never less prepared for -the invasion. The fleet which had ravaged the coasts of France, and the -troops sent to Flanders, had totally exhausted the exchequer of Mary, -which at no time was well supplied. To victual that navy the queen had -seized all the corn she could find in Norfolk without paying for it, -and to equip the army sent to aid Philip, she had made a forced loan on -London, and on people of property in different places; she had levied -the second year's subsidy voted by Parliament before its time, and now -was helpless at the critical moment. Lord Wentworth, the Governor of -Calais, foreseeing the approaching storm, sent repeated entreaties for -reinforcements for its defence. They were wholly unattended to. - -The Duke of Guise, after entering the English pale, sent a detachment -of his army along the downs to Rysbank, and led the other himself, with -a very heavy train of artillery, towards Newnham Bridge. He forced -the outwork at the village of St. Agatha, at the commencement of the -causeway, drove the garrison into Newnham, and took possession of the -outwork. The bulwarks of Froyton and Nesle were abandoned, for the -lord-deputy could send no forces to defend them. At Newnham Bridge -the garrison withdrew so silently that the French continued firing -upon the fort when the men were already in Calais; but at Rysbank the -garrison surrendered with the fort. Thus, in a couple of days, the Duke -of Guise was in possession of two most important forts, one commanding -the harbour, the other the causeway across the marshes from Flanders. A -battery on the heath of St. Pierre played on the wall to create a false -alarm, whilst another in real earnest played on the castle. A breach -was made in the wall near the water-gate, and, while the garrison -was busy in repairing it, Guise cannonaded the castle (which was in a -scandalous state of neglect) with fifteen double cannons. A wide breach -was speedily made. Lord Wentworth, well aware that the castle could -not be maintained, had ordered mines to be prepared, and calculated on -blowing the castle and the Frenchmen into the air together as soon as -they were in. Guise, seeing no garrison defending the breach, ordered one -detachment to occupy the quay, and another, under Strozzi, to take up -a position on the other side of the harbour. Strozzi was repulsed; but -at ebb-tide in the evening, Grammont, at the head of 100 arquebusiers, -marched up to the ditch opposite to the breach. No one being seen in the -castle, Guise ordered plenty of hurdles to be thrown into the ditch, and, -putting himself at the head of his men, forded the ditch, finding it not -deeper than his girdle. The lord-deputy, seeing the French in the castle, -ordered the train to be fired; but there was no explosion. The soldiers -crossing from the ditch to the breach, with their clothes deluging the -ground with water, had wet the train, and defeated Wentworth's design. -The next morning Guise sent his troops to assault the town, calculating -on as easy a conquest of it; but Sir Anthony Agar, with a handful of -men, not only repulsed the French, but chased them back into the castle. -The brave Sir Anthony, with a larger force, would have driven the French -from the decayed old castle too, but he had the merest little knot of -followers, and in the vain attempt to force the enemy out of the castle, -he fell at the gate with his son, and eighty of his chief officers. -Lord Wentworth perceiving the impossibility of continuing the defence, -destitute of a garrison, and having waited in vain for reinforcements -from Dover, that night demanded a parley, and surrendered. - -[Illustration: THE HOTEL DE VILLE AND OLD LIGHTHOUSE, CALAIS.] - -The fall of Calais necessitated, as a matter of course, the loss of -the whole Calais district. Having put Calais into a state of defence, -Guise marched on the 13th of January, 1558, to Guines, about five miles -distant, to reduce the town and fort there. These were defended stoutly -by Lord Grey de Wilton, who had received about 400 Spanish and Burgundian -soldiers from King Philip, but they were in too miserable a state of -repair to be long held. The walls in a few days were knocked to pieces; -the Spanish soldiers were nearly all killed, and the remaining force -compelled their officers to surrender. The little castle of Hammes now -only remained, and situated in the midst of extensive marshes, it might -have given the enemy some trouble; but its governor, Lord Edward Dudley, -the moment he heard of the surrender of Guines, abandoned it, and fled -with his few soldiers into Flanders. The French were as elated at their -success as the English were mortified with it, and the poor queen felt -the loss so deeply, that she declared that if her body were opened after -her death, the name of Calais would be found graven on her heart. - -[Illustration: SHILLING OF PHILIP AND MARY.] - -In England, during the spring, preparations were made for the invasion -of France. Seven thousand troops were raised and diligently drilled. -One hundred and forty ships were hired, which the Lord-Admiral Clinton -collected in the harbour of Portsmouth, to be ready to join the fleet -of Philip, and, in conjunction, to ravage the coasts of France; whilst -Philip, with an army of Spanish, French, and English, should enter the -country by land. But this fleet and the English army, instead of aiming -to recover Calais, sailed to make an attack on Brest. But their progress -had been so dilatory that the French had made ample preparations to -receive them, and despairing of effecting any impression on Brest, they -fell on the little port of Le Conquet, which they took and pillaged, -with a large church and several hamlets in its immediate neighbourhood. -They then marched some miles up the country, burning and plundering, and -the Flemings, in the eager quest of booty, going too far ahead, were -surrounded, and 400 of them cut off. - -[Illustration: REAL OF MARY I.] - -It appeared as if the war would be brought to a conclusion by a pitched -battle between the sovereigns of France and Spain. Philip had joined -his general, the Duke of Savoy, and they lay near Dourlens with an army -of 45,000 men. Henry had come into the camp of the Duke of Guise near -Amiens, who had an army of nearly equal strength. All the world looked -now for a great and decisive conflict. But Philip, though superior in -numbers, as well as crowned with the prestige of victory, listened to -offers of accommodation from Henry, and dismissing their armies into -winter quarters, they betook themselves to negotiation. From the first no -agreement appeared probable. Philip demanded the restoration of Calais, -Henry that of Navarre, and they were still pursuing the hopeless phantom -of accommodation, when the news of Queen Mary's death changed totally the -position of Philip, and put an end to the attempt. She died, desolate and -broken-hearted, on the 17th of November, 1558. - -With all her bigotry, Mary had many excellent and amiable qualities. -No English monarch ever maintained a less expensive and less corrupt -court. She avoided all unnecessary taxation, and treated the cost of -her war with France as largely a private charge of her own. She lived -unostentatiously, went about amongst the poor with her maids, inquiring -into their wants and relieving them. She was an enlightened patron of -learning, and was the first to propose a hospital for old and invalid -soldiers, leaving a legacy for this purpose, which was, however, never -appropriated. Except in the matter of religious toleration, she showed a -scrupulous regard for the maintenance of the Constitution and the law. -Under her the administration of justice was pure and without respect of -person. Nor were the interests of trade neglected. She was the first to -make a commercial treaty with Russia, and she revoked the privileges of -the Hanse Town merchants, who had exercised them to the hurt of her own -people. By nature she was mild, but the persecution of her own faith in -the persons of her mother and herself, and, above everything, the fatal -Spanish marriage, produced a reaction which entailed all the calamities -of her short and miserable reign. - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -THE REIGN OF ELIZABETH. - - Accession of Elizabeth--Sir William Cecil--The Coronation--Opening - of Parliament--Ecclesiastical Legislation--Consecration of - Parker--Elizabeth and Philip--Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis--Affairs - in Scotland--The First Covenant--Attitude of Mary of Guise--Riot - at Perth--Outbreak of Hostilities--The Lords of the Congregation - apply to England--Elizabeth hesitates--Siege of Leith--Treaty - of Edinburgh--Return of Mary to Scotland--Murray's Influence - over her--Beginning of the Religious Wars in France--Elizabeth - sends Help to the Huguenots--Peace of Amboise--English Disaster - at Havre--Peace with France--The Earl of Leicester--Project of - his Marriage with Mary--Lord Darnley--Murder of Rizzio--Birth - of Mary's Son--Murder of Darnley--Mary and Bothwell--Carberry - Hill--Mary in Lochleven--Abdicates in favour of Her Infant - Son--Mary's Escape from Lochleven--Defeated at Langside--Her - Escape into England. - - -Parliament had met on the morning of the 17th of November, 1558, unaware -of the decease of the queen; but before noon, Dr. Heath, the Archbishop -of York and Lord Chancellor of England, sent a message to the House of -Commons, requesting the Speaker, with the knights and burgesses of the -Lower House, to attend in the Lords to give their assent in a matter of -the utmost importance. On being there assembled, the Lord Chancellor -announced to the united Parliament the demise of Mary, and, though by -that event the Commons were dissolved by the law as it remained till -the reign of William III., he called upon them to combine with the -Lords, before taking their departure, for the safety of the country, by -proclaiming the Lady Elizabeth queen of the realm. Whatever might have -been the fears of any portion of the community as to the recognition of -the title of Elizabeth on the plea of illegitimacy, or from suspicion of -her religion, that question had long been settled by the flocking of the -courtiers of all creeds and characters to Hatfield, where she resided; -and now on this announcement there was a loud acclamation from the -members of both Houses of "God save Queen Elizabeth! Long may she reign -over us!" - -For two days Elizabeth, as if from due respect to her deceased sister and -sovereign, remained quiescent at Hatfield; but thousands of people of all -ranks were flocking thither; and on the 19th her Privy Council proceeded -thither also, and, after announcing to her her joyful and undisputed -accession, they proclaimed her with all state before the gates of -Hatfield House. They then sat in council with her, and she appointed her -own ministers, having, no doubt, made all these arrangements with the man -whom she had long marked out for her prime minister, Sir William Cecil. -He had for years been her confidential counsellor. By his shrewd and -worldly guidance, she had shaped her future course; and in appointing her -ministers now, she showed by her address to Cecil that it was for him -that she designed the chief post. - -Besides Cecil, she named Sir Thomas Parry, her cofferer, Cave, and -Rogers of her Privy Council. Cecil immediately entered on his duties as -her Secretary of State, and submitted to her a programme of what was -immediately necessary to be done, which she accepted; and thus began that -union between Elizabeth and her great minister, which only terminated -with his life. - -On the 23rd the new queen commenced her progress towards the metropolis, -attended by a magnificent throng of nobles, ladies, and gentlemen, and -a vast concourse of people from London and from the country round. At -Highgate she was met by the bishops, who kneeled by the wayside, and -offered their allegiance. She received them graciously, and gave them -all her hand to kiss, except to Bonner, whom she treated with a marked -coldness, on account of his atrocious cruelties: an intimation of her own -intentions on the score of religion which must have given satisfaction -to the people. At the foot of Highgate Hill, the Lord Mayor and his -aldermanic brethren, in their scarlet gowns, were waiting to receive her, -and conducted her to the Charter House, then the residence of Lord North, -where Heath, the Lord Chancellor, and the Earls of Derby and Shrewsbury -received her. There she remained five days to give time for the necessary -preparations, when she proceeded to take up her residence in the Tower, -prior to her coronation, which took place on the 15th of January, 1559. - -[Illustration: QUEEN ELIZABETH. - -(_From the painting by Zucchero at Hatfield House._)] - -On the 25th of January Elizabeth proceeded to open her first Parliament. -She had prepared to carry the decisive measures of religious reform which -she contemplated, by adding five new peers of the Protestant faith to the -Upper House, and by sending to the sheriffs a list of Court candidates -out of which they were to choose the members. Like all other public -proceedings, this was a strange medley of Romanism and Protestantism. -High mass was performed at the altar in Westminster Abbey before the -queen and the assembled Houses, and this was followed by a sermon -preached by Dr. Cox, the Calvinistic schoolmaster of Edward VI., who had -just returned from Geneva. The Lord Keeper, Sir Nicholas Bacon, then -opened the session by a speech, the queen being present, in which he held -very high prerogative language, assuring both Lords and Commons that they -might take measures for a uniform order of religion, and for the safety -of the State against both foreign and domestic enemies; not that it was -absolutely necessary, for she could do everything of her own authority, -but she preferred having the advice and counsel of her loving subjects. - -The first thing which the Commons proposed was the very last thing -which she would have wished them to meddle with--that is, an address -recommending her to marry, so as to secure a legitimate heir to the -throne. Elizabeth, as we have seen, had had many suitors, none of whom, -if we except the unfortunate Lord Admiral Seymour, or the handsome -but imbecile Courtenay, Earl of Devon, had she shown any willingness -to marry. There have been many theories regarding the refusal of -Elizabeth to enter into wedlock. The only one which will bear a moment's -examination is, that her love of power was so strong as to absorb every -other feeling and consideration. She made a long speech in reply to the -address, glancing towards the close of it at her coronation ring, and -then saying that when she received that ring, she became solemnly bound -in marriage to the realm, and that she took their address in good part, -but more for their good will than for their message. - -Without referring to the questionable marriage of her mother, Anne -Boleyn, an Act was passed restoring Elizabeth in blood, and rendering her -heritable to her mother and all her mother's line. She was declared to be -lawful and rightful queen, lineally and lawfully descended of the blood -royal, and fully capable of holding, and transmitting to her posterity, -the possession of the crown and throne. - -Next came the regulations for the government of the Church, which -Elizabeth had so prudently avoided making upon her own responsibility, -but left to the authority of Parliament. By it the tenths and -first-fruits resigned by Mary were again restored to her. The statutes -passed in Mary's reign for the maintenance of strict Romanism were -repealed, and those of Henry VIII. for the rejection of the Papal -authority, and of Edward VI. for the reformation of the Church ritual -were revived. The Book of Common Prayer, considerably modified, was to -be in uniform and exclusive use. The old penalties against seeking any -ecclesiastical authority or ordination from abroad were re-enacted, -and the queen was declared absolute head of the Church by a new Act of -Supremacy. - -Notwithstanding the softening of the parts and expressions in the liturgy -most offensive to the Papists, such as the prayer "to deliver us from the -Bishop of Rome and all his detestable enormities," and the modification -of the terms in administration of the sacrament, to avoid offence to -other Protestant churches, the bishops opposed these measures most -resolutely. Convocation presented to the House of Lords a declaration -of its belief in the Real Presence, transubstantiation, the sacrifice -of the Mass, and the supremacy of the Pope. On the other hand, the -Protestants were grievously disappointed in other particulars, especially -as to restoration of the married clergy, and of the restoration to their -sees of Bishops Barlow, Scorey, and Coverdale. Both these petitions -failed on the question of marriage, for Elizabeth never could tolerate -married priests or bishops, and these expelled bishops were all married -men. The Protestants were equally disappointed in the failure of a Bill -to nominate a commission to draw a code of canon law for the Anglican -Church. Elizabeth, like her father, rather preferred deciding all such -matters herself than allowing any other body to be authority. - -But to give an air of liberality to what was not meant to involve any -concession, permission was given for the Papist and Protestant divines to -argue certain great points in public. Five bishops and three doctors on -the part of the former, and as many Protestant divines, were appointed -to dispute before the Lord Keeper, Sir Nicholas Bacon, and the debates -of the two Houses were suspended, that the members might attend the -controversy. The Roman Catholics were to have the privilege of opening -the conference, and the Protestants were to reply; but it was speedily -discovered that this gave immense advantage to the Protestants. The Roman -Catholics called for a change of this mode; the Lord Keeper refused to -grant it; the bishops, therefore, protested that the conditions were -not equal, and refused to attend. For this disobedience the Bishops of -Winchester and Lincoln were committed to the Tower, and the other six -disputants were bound to make their appearance at the bar of the Lords -till judgment was pronounced, and they were compelled to do so till the -end of the session, when they were fined in sums from L500 to forty -marks. Parliament was dissolved on the 8th of May, and within a week -Elizabeth summoned the bishops and other dignitaries before herself and -the Privy Council, and admonished them to make themselves conformable to -the laws just passed regarding religion. Heath, the archbishop, replied -by boldly advising her Majesty to remember her own coronation oath, not -to alter the religion which she found by law established; adding that his -conscience could not permit him to conform to the new regulations, and -all the other prelates and dignitaries declared the same. The Council -then charged Heath and Bonner, on the evidence of certain papers, with -having, during the reign of Edward VI., carried on secret conspiracies -with Rome, with the intent to overthrow the Government. To this they -replied by pleading two general pardons, and the Council then proceeded -to administer to them the oath of supremacy. This they all refused except -Kitchen, the Bishop of Llandaff, who had clung to his see through all -changes for the last fourteen years, and clung to it still. They were -then deprived of their sees, and a considerable number of other Church -dignitaries were also deprived by the same test. The bulk of the clergy, -however, conformed, and to those who were ejected pensions for life were -allowed--a policy far more considerate than had ever prevailed in such -circumstances before. The refugees on account of the Marian persecution, -who had now flocked home from Switzerland and Germany, were installed -in the vacant livings, and before the end of this year the Church -of Rome had lost the State patronage in Great Britain for ever. Two -statutes--the Act enforcing the oath of Supremacy, and the other the Act -of Uniformity--became law, during this session. The latter Act prohibited -under heavy penalties the use by a minister of any but the established -liturgy, and confirmed the revised Book of Common Prayer of Edward VI. - -To replace the expelled bishops was no very easy matter, not from the -paucity of candidates, but from the revolutions which had taken place in -the ordinal of the Church. Dr. Matthew Parker, who had been the chaplain -of Anne Boleyn, and who had stood so faithfully by her, was appointed by -Elizabeth Archbishop of Canterbury, but how was he to be consecrated? His -election was to be confirmed by four bishops, and his consecration to be -performed by them. Where were they to be found? There was not a bishop -left, except Llandaff. Still more, Mary had abolished the ordinal of -Edward VI., and Elizabeth had abolished that of Mary. The difficulty was, -at first sight, insurmountable, and no way out of it presented itself for -four months. It was then recollected that Barlow, Hodgkins, Scorey, and -Coverdale, the deprived Bishops of Bath, Bedford, Chichester, and Exeter, -had been consecrated by the Reformed ordinal, and that restoration which -had been denied them at the petition of their friends, because they -were married men, was now accorded as an escape from this dilemma. They -were reinstated, and confirmed the election of Parker, consecrated him -according to the form of Edward VI., and helped to confirm and consecrate -all the newly elected prelates. - -While Elizabeth and her ministers had been thus engaged in settling the -constitution of the Church, they had also been occupied with effecting a -Continental peace. Philip had refused to conclude a treaty with France -previous to the death of Mary, without including in it the restoration -of Calais to England, and to Philibert the Duke of Savoy his hereditary -estates. The death of Mary at once cut the actual connection of Philip -with England, but he remained firm in his demand, for he had formed the -design of obtaining the hand of Elizabeth. He lost no time in making the -offer, observing that though they were within the proscribed degrees of -affinity the Pope would readily grant a dispensation, and the union of -England and Spain would give them the command of Europe. But, independent -of the partnership in power which this marriage would create, Elizabeth -entertained schemes of Church arrangement very different to any which -would accord with Philip's ideas. She, therefore, courteously excused -herself on the plea of scruples of conscience, and this refusal was -followed by the non-appearance of Feria, Philip's ambassador, at her -coronation. Philip, however, did not give up the suit without employing -all the eloquence and the arguments that he could muster; he kept up a -brisk correspondence for some time with the new queen, and even when the -attempt appeared hopeless, he still offered to assist her in the treaty -with France. He settled his own disputes with France by marrying the -daughter of the King of France, as soon as he saw the hand of Elizabeth -unattainable, and procured the sister of Henry II. for his friend -Philibert. - -[Illustration: ELIZABETH'S PUBLIC ENTRY INTO LONDON. (_See p._ 246.)] - -The great demand of Elizabeth was the restoration of Calais, and at -Cateau-Cambresis a treaty was concluded on the 2nd of April, 1559, by -which the King of France actually engaged to surrender that town to -England at the end of eight years, or pay to Elizabeth 500,000 crowns; -and he agreed to deliver, as guarantee for this sum, four French noblemen -and the bonds of eight foreign merchants. But to this article was -appended another which, to any one in the least familiar with diplomacy, -betrayed the fact that the whole was illusory, and that the French would -have no difficulty, at the end of the prescribed term, in showing that -England had in some way broken the contract. The article stipulated that -if, within that period, Henry of France, or Mary of Scotland, should -make any attempt against the realm or subjects of Elizabeth, they should -forfeit all claim to the retention of that town; and if Elizabeth should -infringe the peace with either of those monarchs, she should forfeit -all claim to its surrender or to the penalty of 500,000 crowns. The -public at once saw that the French would never relinquish their hold on -Calais from the force of any such condition, and the indignation was -proportionate. The Government, to divert the attention of the people from -this flimsy pretence of eventual restoration, ordered the impeachment of -Lord Wentworth, the late governor of the castle and of the Rysbank, on a -charge of cowardice and treason. Wentworth, as he deserved, was acquitted -by the jury; the captains were condemned, but the object of the trial -being attained, their sentence was never carried into effect. - -Elizabeth, at her accession, had assumed the title of Queen of France. -Henry II. immediately, by way of retaliation, caused his daughter-in-law -Mary (she had married the Dauphin in 1558) to be styled Queen of -Scotland and England, and had the arms of England quartered with those -of Scotland. Elizabeth, with her extreme sensitiveness to any claims -upon her crown, and regarding this act as a declaration of her own -illegitimacy and of Henry's assertion of Mary's superior right to the -English throne, resented the proceeding deeply, and from that moment -never ceased to plot against the peace and power of Mary till she drove -her from her throne, made her captive, and finally deprived her of her -life. - -We have already shown that Henry VII. commenced, and Henry VIII. and -Edward VI. continued, the system of bribing the Scottish nobility -against their sovereign. Elizabeth, in pursuance of her plans against the -Queen of Scots, now adopted the same practice, and kept in pay both the -nobles and the Protestant leaders of Scotland. To understand fully her -proceedings, we must, however, first take a hasty glance at the progress -of the Reformation in Scotland. That kingdom received the Reformation -in its simplest, most rigid, and severe form. The doctrines which had -sprung up in republican Switzerland, under Calvin and Zwingli, were -imbibed there by Knox and others in their most unbending hardness. There -was little of the gentle and the pliant in their tenets, but a stern -asceticism, which suited well with the grave and earnest character of the -Scots. When summoned by Mary of Guise to appear in Edinburgh and answer -for their conduct, the preachers, attended by thousands of the respective -congregations, presented themselves in such a formidable shape, that -the Regent declared that she meant no injury to them. A period of such -tranquillity succeeded, that the leaders of the Reform party--the Earl -of Glencairn, Lord Lorne, son of the Earl of Argyll, Erskine of Dun, -Lord James Stuart, afterwards the Regent Murray--on the 3rd of December, -1557, drew up that League and Covenant which was destined to work such -wonders in Scotland, to rouse the suffering Reformers into a church -militant, to put arms into the hands of the excited peasants, brace the -sword to the side of the preacher, and, through civil war and scenes of -strange suffering, bloodshed, and resistance on moor and mountain, to -work out the freedom of the faith for ever in Scotland. The Covenant -engaged all who subscribed it, in a solemn vow, "in the presence of the -Majesty of God and His congregation," to spread the Word by every means -in their power, to maintain the Gospel and defend its ministers against -all tyranny; and it pronounced the most bitter anathemas against the -superstition, the idolatry, and the abominations of Rome. This bond -received the signatures of the Earls of Glencairn, Argyll, and Morton, -Lord Lorne, Erskine of Dun, and many other nobles and gentlemen, who -assumed the name of the Lords of the Congregation: and from this hour it -became a scandalous apostacy for any one to flinch or fall away from this -"Solemn League and Covenant." - -Mary at first temporised, but eventually determined to stand firm. In a -convention of the clergy held in Edinburgh, in March, 1559, the Lords -of the Congregation demanded that the bishops should be elected by the -gentlemen of the diocese, and the clergy by the people of each parish. -This was peremptorily refused, and it was decreed that the practice of -using English prayers should cease, no language should be permitted in -public worship but Latin, and this was followed by a proclamation of the -Queen-Regent, ordering all people to conform strictly to the established -religion and to attend Mass daily; and, in an interview with the leaders -of the Protestants, she showed them the commands which she had received -on these heads from France, and summoned the chief ministers of the -Reformed body to appear before a Parliament to be held at Stirling to -answer for their conduct in introducing heretical practices and doctrines. - -At this moment Knox arrived from France. It was determined by the Lords -of the Congregation to attend their ministers to Stirling in such numbers -as to overawe the Government, and Knox volunteered to take his part -with the other preachers. The nobles and the people mustered at Perth. -There Knox preached a stirring sermon; a riot was the result, and some -religious houses were sacked. - -The Queen-Regent, at the news of this destruction, became furious. She -vowed she would raze the town of Perth to the ground, and sow it with -salt as a sign of eternal desolation. She summoned to her aid Arran, now -Duke of Chatelherault, the Earl of Athole, and D'Oyselles, the French -commander, and being joined by two of the Lords of the Congregation, -Argyll and Lord James Stuart, who were averse from the outrages -committed, on the 18th of May she marched to Perth. The Congregation -hastened to address letters both to the Queen-Regent and the two Lords -of the Congregation, who, to their indignation, had joined her. They -told Mary of Guise that hitherto they had served her willingly; but if -she persisted in her persecutions, they should abandon her and defend -themselves. They would obey the queen and her husband if permitted -to worship in their own way, otherwise they would be subject to no -mortal man. To the two Lords of the Congregation they wrote first -in mild expostulation, but they soon advanced their tone to threats -of excommunication, and the doom of traitors, if they did not come -from amongst the persecutors. They addressed another letter "To the -generation of Anti-Christ, the pestilent prelates and their shavelings in -Scotland;" and they warned them that, if they did not desist from their -persecutions, they would exterminate them, as the Israelites did the -wicked Canaanites. - -Matters were proceeding to extremity when Glencairn arrived in the -Protestant camp with 2,500 men. This made the Queen-Regent pause, and -an agreement was effected by means of Argyll and the Lord James, by -which toleration was again granted, and the Queen-Regent engaged that no -Frenchman should approach within three miles of Perth, a condition which -she characteristically evaded by garrisoning it with Scottish troops in -French pay. Knox and Willock had an interview with Argyll and the Lord -James, and sharply upbraided them with appearing in arms against their -brethren, to which these nobles replied that they had done it only as a -means of arbitrating for peace; but the Congregation took means to bind -them in future by framing a new covenant, to which every member swore -obedience, engaging to defend the Congregation or any of its members when -menaced by the enemies of their religion. - -They were soon called upon to prove their sincerity. The -Queen-Regent--totally regardless of the treaty just entered into--the -very same day that the Lords of the Congregation quitted Perth, entered -it with Chatelherault, D'Oyselles, and a body of French soldiers. She -deprived the chief magistrates of their authority because they favoured -the Reformation; made Charteris of Kinfauns, a man of infamous character, -provost of the city, and left a garrison of troops in French pay to -support him. - -The Lords of the Congregation assembled at St. Andrews, and with them -Knox, who had come, as he said, to the conclusion that to be rid of the -rooks it was necessary to pull down their nests. Their action was prompt; -Perth surrendered at the first assault. Argyll and the Lord James had -succeeded in checking the march of the Queen-Regent; and on their advance -to Linlithgow, she and the French forces evacuated Edinburgh, falling -back to Dunbar; whilst the Covenanting army, entering Linlithgow, pulled -down the altars and images, destroyed the relics, and then advanced on -Edinburgh, which they entered in triumph on the 29th of June, 1559. - -It was at this crisis that the progress of the Reformers in Scotland -arrested the attention of the Government in England, and a letter was -received from Sir Henry Percy by Kirkaldy of Grange, inquiring into the -real objects of the Lords of the Congregation. Kirkaldy replied that they -meant nothing but the reformation of religion; that they had purged the -churches of imagery and other Popish stuff wherever they had come, and -that they pulled down such friaries and abbeys as would not receive the -Reformed faith; but that they had not meddled with a pennyworth of the -Church's property, reserving the appropriation of that to the maintenance -of godly ministers hereafter; that if the Queen-Regent would grant them -spiritual liberty and send away the Frenchmen, they would obey her; if -not, they would hear of no agreement. Knox also wrote to Percy in the -name of the whole Congregation, and entreated that England should aid -them in their struggle, telling them, in his sturdy way, that if it did -it would be better for it; if not, though Scotland might suffer, England -could not escape her share of the trouble. - -[Illustration: ELIZABETH. (_From the Portrait by Isaac Oliver._)] - -The parsimony of Elizabeth, however, and the caution of her minister -Cecil, withheld all efficient aid from the Scottish Reformers at the time -that it was most essential. Whilst the Queen-Regent delayed any active -proceedings in the hope of the arrival of fresh troops from France, and -the knowledge that the irregular army brought into the field by the -Scottish barons could not long be kept together, Elizabeth deferred the -promised subsidies. In this predicament, the Lords of the Congregation -made still more impassioned appeals to Cecil, and Knox wrote to him -entreating him to abate the prejudice of Elizabeth towards him. But that -prejudice was of the most bitter and unconquerable kind in the heart of -Elizabeth. Knox had perpetrated the unpardonable offence to Elizabeth in -writing his "First Blast of the Trumpet against the Monstrous Regiment of -Women." While Elizabeth hesitated, the Regent was fortifying Leith. - -At last the English queen determined to help her fellow-religionists, -and by the treaty of Berwick agreed to aid them in an attack on the -Regent. The Covenanters prepared for an assault on Leith, by constructing -scaling-ladders in the High Church of St. Giles, Edinburgh, to the great -scandal of the preachers, who prognosticated that proceedings begun -in sacrilege would end in defeat. This soon appeared likely to be the -result, for the money sent from England being exhausted, the soldiers -clamoured for pay, and the army of 12,000 was on the verge of melting -away very rapidly. In great alarm, the leaders vehemently entreated -Elizabeth for more money, and making a struggle with her natural -parsimony, she sent L4,000 to Cockburn of Ormiston, who undertook the -perilous office of conveying it to headquarters. But a man who afterwards -became notorious for the audacity of his crimes, the Earl of Bothwell, -who now professed to be a zealous supporter of the Congregation, and had -by this means obtained the knowledge of the transmission of the treasure, -waylaid Cockburn, and carried off the money. This was a severe blow to -the Congregation, and was speedily followed by another. Haliburton, -provost of Dundee, had led a party of Reformers to attack Leith. He had -planted his heavy artillery on an eminence near Holyrood; but whilst the -majority of the leaders were attending a sermon, the French garrison -attacked the battery, and drove the Reformers back into the city with -great slaughter. - -[Illustration: AUTOGRAPH OF ELIZABETH.] - -Even the arrival of an English army did not mend matters. The siege was -carried on against Leith in a manner little creditable to the ancient -fame of the English; as for the Scots, Sadler said, "they could climb -no walls:" that is, they were not famous for conducting sieges and -taking towns by assault. The English, who had acquired great fame in -that kind of warfare, now seemed to have forgotten their skill, though -they had lost none of their courage. Their lines of circumvallation were -ill-drawn, their guns were ill-directed, their trenches were opened -in ground unfit for the purpose, and they were repeatedly thrown into -disorder by sorties of the enemy. To make matters worse, the supplies -of the Scots became exhausted, and they began to make their usual cries -to the English for more money. But from the English court came, instead -of the all-needful money, signs of discouragement. Elizabeth still -maintained her equivocal conduct, and the Lords of the Congregation -were greatly alarmed to find her actually negotiating with the sick -Queen-Regent for an accommodation. At the very time that the Scots and -the English were engaged in a smart action at Hawkhill, near Lochend, -during the siege, Sir James Croft and Sir George Howard were with the -dying Mary of Guise in the castle of Edinburgh. Elizabeth still declared -that she was not fighting against Francis and Mary, the king and queen of -France and Scotland, but against their Ministers in the latter country, -and simply for the defence of her own realm against their attempts. She -desired Sir Ralph Sadler to express her willingness to treat, and to make -it clear that she was no party to any design to injure or depose the -rightful queen. What she aimed at was the expulsion of the French from -Scotland as dangerous to her own dominions, and he was instructed, if -the old plea was raised--namely, that the French only remained there to -maintain the throne of their mistress against disaffected subjects--to -state that his sovereign would not admit this plea, as it was a mere -pretence, and would not lay down her arms till the Queen of Scots was -also secured in her just power and claims. - -On the 10th of June, 1560, the Queen-Regent died in the castle of -Edinburgh. On her death-bed she entreated Lord James Stuart, and some -others of the Lords of the Congregation, as well as her own courtiers, to -support the rightful power of her daughter: but, as the events showed, -and the treacherous, ambitious character of the bastard brother of Queen -Mary rendered probable, to very little purpose. The Queen-Regent's -decease, however, opened a way to negotiation. The insurrectionary -feeling in France made the French court readily support such a -proposition, and it was agreed that the French and English commissioners -should meet at Berwick on the 14th of June. The English commissioners -were Cecil and Dr. Wotton, Dean of Canterbury; the French, Monluc, Bishop -of Valence, and Count de Randon. Perhaps four more acute diplomatists -never met. On the 16th of June, they proceeded to Edinburgh, passing -through the English camp on the way, where they were saluted by a general -discharge of firearms. By the 6th of July all the conditions of peace -were settled, and it was announced both to the besiegers and besieged -that hostilities were at an end. - -The French commissioners stood stoutly for the rights and prerogatives -of the Crown, but they were compelled to yield many points to the -imperturbable firmness of Cecil. Dunbar and Inchkeith were surrendered -as well as Leith. The French troops, excepting a small garrison in -Dunbar and another in Inchkeith, were to be sent home and no more to be -brought over. An indemnity for all that had passed since March, 1558, in -Scotland, was granted; every man was to regain the post or position which -he held before the struggle, and no Frenchman was to hold any office in -that kingdom. A Convention of the three Estates was to be summoned by -the king and queen, and four-and-twenty persons were to be named by this -Convention, out of whom should be chosen a Council of twelve for the -government of the country, of whom the Queen should name seven, and the -Estates five. The king and queen were not to declare war, or conclude -peace, without the concurrence of the Estates; neither the Lords nor -the members of the Congregation should be molested for what they had -done, and Churchmen were to be protected in their persons, rights, and -properties, and to receive compensation for their losses according to the -award of the Estates in Parliament. - -On one point, and that the chief point of the quarrel, the leaders of -the Congregation did not obtain their demand, which naturally was for -the establishment of their religion. We may suppose that Cecil and his -colleague were not very desirous of carrying this; for the Queen of -England regarded the Scottish Reformers as fanatical and she especially -abominated the character and doctrines of Knox. It was conceded, however, -that Parliament should be summoned without delay, and that a deputation -should lay this request before the king and queen. - -By a second treaty between England and France, it was determined that -the right to the crowns of England and Ireland lay in Elizabeth, and -that Mary should no longer bear the arms or use the style of these two -kingdoms. Another proposition, however, was refused in this treaty, and -that was the surrender of Calais to England. - -It remained now to obtain the consent of Francis and Mary to these -decisions; and Sir James Sandilands, a knight of Malta, was despatched -to Paris for this purpose. His reception was such as might be expected. -Mary refused to sanction the proceedings of a Parliament which had been -summoned without her authority, and which had acted in the very face of -the treaty, by seeking to destroy the religion in which she had been -educated. Thereupon the Estates established Protestantism on their own -authority. - -All speculations as to what the Guises would do were cut short by the -death of Francis II., the husband of Mary, on the 5th of December, -1560. He had always been a sickly personage, and his reign had lasted -only eighteen months. His successor, Charles IX., was only nine years -of age, and had a mind and constitution not exhibiting more promise of -health and vigour than those of his late brother. His mother, Catherine -de Medici, became regent, and his uncles of Lorraine lost the direction -of affairs. Catherine and Mary were no friends; the young Queen-Dowager -of France, only nineteen, was now treated harshly and contemptuously by -the Lady-Regent, and she retired to Rheims, where she spent the winter -amongst her relatives of Lorraine. - -Mary now prepared to make her way home by sea. Her false half-brother, -the Lord James, instead of being to her, at this trying moment, a friend -and staunch counsellor, was, and had long been, leagued with her most -troublesome and rebellious subjects, and was expecting, by the aid of -Elizabeth of England, to engross the chief power in the State, if not -eventually to push his unsuspecting sister from the throne. The Roman -Catholics of Scotland were quite alive to the dangers which attended -their sovereign in such company, and deputed Leslie the Bishop of Ross, -a man of high integrity--which, through a long series of troubles, he -manifested towards his queen--to go over to France and return with her. -Leslie was so much alarmed by the dangers which menaced her amongst her -turbulent and zeal-excited subjects, that he advised her in private to -extend her voyage to the Highlands, and put herself under the protection -of the Earl of Huntly, who, at the head of a large army, would conduct -her to her capital and place her in safety on her throne, at the same -time that he enabled her to protect the ancient religion. But Mary -would not listen to anything like a return by force. She determined to -throw herself on the affections of her subjects, and to go amongst them -peaceably. - -Mary embarked at Calais on the 15th of August, 1561. She eluded the -ships sent to prevent her, and on the 19th she landed on her native -shore at Leith. She had come a fortnight earlier than she had fixed, to -checkmate the schemes of her enemies; but the people flew to welcome -her and crowded the beach with hearty acclamations: the lords, however, -says a contemporary, had taken small pains to honour her reception and -"cover the nakedness of the land." Instead of the gay palfreys of France -to which she had been accustomed, in their rich accoutrements, she saw a -wretched set of Highland shelties prepared to convey her and her retinue -to Holyrood; and when she surveyed their tattered furniture and mounted -into the bare wooden saddle, the past and the present came so mournfully -over her, that her eyes filled with tears. The honest joy of her people, -however, was an ample compensation, had she not known what ill-will -lurked in the background against her amongst the nobles and clergy. - -Mary was the finest woman of her time. Tall, beautiful, accomplished, in -the freshness of her youth, not yet nineteen, distinguished by the most -graceful manners and the most fascinating disposition, she was formed -to captivate a people sensible to such charms. But she came into her -country, in every past age turbulent and independent, at a crisis when -the public spirit was divided and embittered by religious controversy, -and she was exposed to the deepest suspicion of the Reforming party, by -belonging to a family notorious for its bigoted attachment to the old -religion. Yet the candour of her disposition and her easy condescension -seemed to make a deep impression on the masses. They not only cheered -her enthusiastically on the way to her ancestral palace of Holyrood, -but about 200 of the citizens of Edinburgh, playing on three-stringed -fiddles, kept up a deafening serenade under her windows all night; and -such was her good-natured appreciation of the motive, that she thanked -them in the morning for having really kept her awake after her fatiguing -voyage. Not quite so agreeable, though, was the conduct of her liege -subjects on the Sunday in her chapel, where, having ordered her chaplain -to perform Mass, such a riot was raised, that had not her natural -brother, the Lord James Stuart, interfered, the priest would have been -killed at the altar. - -This was a plain indication that, although the Reformers demanded liberty -of conscience for themselves, they meant to allow none to others; and -a month afterwards the same riot was renewed so violently in the royal -chapel at Stirling, that Randolph, writing to Cecil, said that the Earl -of Argyll and the Lord James himself this time "so disturbed the quire, -that some, both priests and clerks, left their places with broken heads -and bloody ears." - -Mary bore this rude and disloyal conduct with an admirable patience. -She had the advantage of the counsels of D'Oyselles, who had spent some -years in the country, and had learned the character of the people. She -placed the leaders of the Congregation in honour and power around her, -making the Lord James her chief minister, and Maitland of Lethington her -Secretary of State, both of whom, however, were in the pay and interests -of the English queen. It was not in the nature of Knox to delay long -appearing in her presence, and opening upon her the battery of his fierce -zeal. - -It is, perhaps, impossible to imagine a situation more appalling than -that of this young and accomplished girl suddenly thrown into the midst -of this effervescence of spiritual pride and boorish dogmatism, which -was so insensible to the finer influences of social life, so unconscious -of the rights of conscience in those of a different opinion. Mary showed -a far more Christian spirit. She reminded Knox of his offensive and -contemptuous book against women, gently admonished him to be more liberal -to those who could not think as he did, and to use more meekness of -speech in his sermons. - -But the Scottish clergy at that moment received a severe recompense -for their contempt of the social amenities, in their aristocratic -coadjutors treating them as men who had no need of temporal advantages. -The nobles used them to overturn by their preaching the ancient Church; -and that done, they quietly but firmly appropriated the substance of it -to themselves. The example of the English hierarchy had not been lost -upon them. When the clergy put in their claim for a fair share of the -booty, the nobles affected great surprise at such a worldly appetite -in such holy men. The clergy proposed that the property of the Church -should be divided into three portions: one-third for the pastors of the -new Church, one-third for the poor, and one-third for the endowment of -schools and colleges. Maitland of Lethington asked Knox, "Where, then, -was the portion of the nobles? Were they to become hod-bearers in this -building of the Kirk?" Knox replied that they might be worse employed. -But he and his fellow-ministers had different material to operate upon -in the hard-fisted nobles. They might browbeat and insult a young queen, -but they could not force the plunder from the grip of their aristocratic -patrons. The whole sum which they could obtain for the maintenance of -1,000 parish churches was only about L4,000, or about L6 sterling as the -annual income of a parish priest. - -As for the unhappy queen, she was equally vexed by clergy and -aristocracy. She was soon called upon for extensive favours by her -ambitious brother, the Lord James, prior of St. Andrews. She created -him Earl of Mar, and she further contemplated conferring on him the -ancient earldom of Murray, which had been forfeited to the Crown in -the reign of James II. A great part of the property, however, of this -earldom had been taken possession of by the Earl of Huntly, the head -of the most powerful family in the north. Huntly had offered, if Mary -would land in the Highlands, to conduct her to Edinburgh at the head -of 20,000 men, and enable her to put down the whole body of Reformers. -Mary had declined this offer, as the certain cause of a civil war, if -accepted. Huntly, therefore, stood aloof from the present Government, -and was especially hostile to the Earl of Mar, who was the leading -person in it. Mar determined to break the power of this haughty chief, -and thus wrest from him the lands he claimed for his new earldom. Mary -was anxious to advance her brother, and did not need much persuasion to -sanction this design of Mar; and the son of Huntly, Sir John Gordon, -having committed some feudal outrage, was seized and imprisoned for a -short term. This punishment was regarded as an indignity by the house -of Gordon, and the symptoms of disaffection towards the Government were -increased. Mary, therefore, took the field with her brother, the Lord -James, and marched into the Highlands at the head of her troops. The Earl -of Huntly, dismayed at this spirit in the young queen, who appeared to -enjoy the excitement and the inconveniences of a campaign, hastened to -make overtures of accommodation; and the matter would probably have been -soon amicably arranged, but, unfortunately, a party of Huntly's vassals -refused Mary and her staff entrance into the castle of Inverness, and -made a show of holding it against her. They were, however, soon compelled -to surrender, and the governor was executed as a traitor. At this time, -Sir John Gordon, escaping from his prison, flew to arms, roused the -vassals of the clan Gordon far and wide; and his father, seeing no longer -any chance of agreement, led his forces into the field. He advanced -towards Aberdeen, and met Mar, who had now exchanged that title for the -title of Earl of Murray, encamped on the hill of Fare near Corrichie. -There Murray, as an excellent soldier, defeated Huntly, who was killed on -the field, or died soon after. His son, Sir John Gordon, was seized, and -executed at Aberdeen, three days after the battle. Murray was thus placed -in full possession of his title and new estate, and Mary, with so able -and powerful a relative as her chief minister, appeared in a position -to command obedience from her refractory subjects. But now a new danger -menaced her from the rival queen of England, who was still bent on seeing -Mary so married as to give her no additional power. - -In the spring of 1562 Elizabeth became engaged in the support of the -Huguenots, or Protestants of France, against their Government, as she had -supported the Covenanters of Scotland. After the failure of a conspiracy -to surprise the court at Amboise, and the accession of Catherine de -Medici to the Regency, the heads of the party again flew to arms; but -Catherine making concessions, in order to engage the Huguenot chiefs -Conde and Coligny to assist her in counteracting the influence of the -house of Guise, a treaty was entered into by which the Protestants -were to be allowed free exercise of their religion. But the Duke of -Guise becoming possessed of the person of the king, soon persuaded -Catherine--his mother and Regent--to break the treaty. The Huguenots -again rose in defence of their lives and principles, and no less than -fourteen armies were soon on foot in one part or another of France. The -Duke of Guise headed the Catholics; the Prince of Conde, Admiral Coligny, -Andelot, and others, commanded the Huguenots. The Parliament of Paris -issued an edict, authorising the Papists to massacre the Protestants -wherever they found them; the Protestants retaliated with augmented fury, -and carnage and violence prevailed throughout the devoted country. The -Duke of Guise found himself so hard driven by the Protestants, in whose -ranks the very women and children fought fiercely, that he entreated -Philip of Spain to come to his aid. Philip gladly engaged in a work so -congenial, his own Protestant subjects having had bloody experience of -his bigotry, and sent into France 6,000 men, besides money. On this the -Prince of Conde appealed to Elizabeth for support against the common -enemies of their religion. To induce her to act promptly in their favour, -he offered to put Havre-de-Grace immediately into her hands. Nowadays, -in such a case, the English Government would take the public means of -endeavouring by negotiation to lead its ally to concede their rights -to its subjects. But Elizabeth took her favourite mode of privately -aiding the discontented subjects of a power with whom she was at peace, -against their sovereign. She made no overtures to Catherine de Medici, -as Queen-Regent. She made no declaration of war, but despatched Sir -Henry Sidney, the father of the afterwards celebrated Sir Philip Sidney, -ostensibly to mediate between the Roman Catholics and Protestants, but -really to enter into a compact with Conde. She was to furnish him with -100,000 crowns, and to send over 6,000 men, under Sir Edward Poynings, to -take possession of the forts of Havre and Dieppe. - -[Illustration: THE PREACHING OF JOHN KNOX BEFORE THE LORDS OF THE -CONGREGATION, 10TH JUNE, 1559. - -FROM THE PAINTING BY SIR DAVID WILKIE, R.A., IN THE NATIONAL GALLERY OF -BRITISH ART.] - -[Illustration: MARS' WORK, STIRLING.] - -On the 3rd of October a fleet carried over the stipulated force, took -possession of the ports, and Ambrose Dudley, Earl of Warwick, the brother -of the favourite Lord Robert Dudley, was made commander-in-chief of -the English army in France. The French ambassador, with the treaty of -Cateau-Cambresis in his hand, demanded the cause of the infringement of -the thirteenth article of this treaty, and reminded the queen that, by -proceeding to hostilities, she would at once forfeit all claim to Calais -at the expiration of the prescribed period. Elizabeth replied that she -was in arms, in fact, on behalf of the King of France, who was a prisoner -in the hands of Guise, and when the ambassador required her, in the name -of his sovereign, to withdraw her troops, she refused to believe that -the demand came from the king, because he was not a free agent, and that -it was the duty of Charles IX. to protect his oppressed subjects, and to -thank a friendly power for endeavouring to assist him in that object. - -But these sophisms deceived nobody. The nobility of France regarded -Guise, who had driven the English out of France by the capture of Calais, -as the real defender of the country; and Conde, who had brought them in -again by the surrender of Havre and Dieppe, was considered a traitor. -Numbers flocked to the standard of Guise and the Queen-Regent, who were -joined by the King of Navarre. The Royal army, with Charles in person, -besieged Rouen, to which Poynings, the English commander at Havre, sent a -reinforcement. The governor of the city defended it obstinately against -this formidable combination, and the Englishmen, mounting a breach which -was made, fought till their last man fell. Two hundred of them thus -perished, and the French, rushing in over their dead bodies, pillaged the -place for eight days with every circumstance of atrocity. - -The fall of Rouen and the massacre of a detachment of her troops was news -that no one dared to communicate to Elizabeth. The ministers induced -her favourite, Lord Robert Dudley, to undertake the unwelcome task; -but even he dared only at first to hint to her that a rumour of defeat -was afloat. When at length he disclosed the truth, Elizabeth blamed -nobody but herself, confessing that it was her own reluctance to send -sufficient force which had caused it all. She determined to send fresh -reinforcements; commissioned Count Oldenburg to raise 12,000 men in -Germany, and ordered public prayers for three days in succession for a -blessing on her arms in favour of the Gospel. - -Conde, who had been engaged near Orleans, on the arrival of 6,000 -mercenaries from Germany, advanced towards Paris; and at Dreux, on the -banks of the Eure, where the Duke of Guise achieved a victory over the -Huguenots, Conde and Montmorency, a leader of each party, were taken -prisoners; and Coligny, who now became the chief Huguenot general, fell -back on Orleans, and sent pressing entreaties to Elizabeth for the -supplies which she was bound by the treaty to furnish. The English queen, -never fond of parting with her money, had at this crisis none in her -exchequer. But money must be forthcoming, or the cause of Protestantism -must fail through her bad faith. The German mercenaries were clamorous -for their pay, none of which they had received, and the representations -of Coligny were so urgent that Elizabeth was compelled to summon a -Parliament and ask for supplies. - -Meanwhile affairs in France had been anything but satisfactory. The -Huguenot chiefs had promised Elizabeth, as the price of her assistance, -the restoration of Calais. Elizabeth, on her part, ordered the Earl -of Warwick not to advance with his troops beyond the walls of Hammes; -and when Coligny reduced the chief towns of Normandy, he gave up their -plunder to his German auxiliaries, and, instead of awarding any share to -the English, complained loudly of the neutrality of Warwick's troops, -and the more so when he saw the Duke of Guise preparing to lay siege to -Orleans. But Guise was assassinated (February 24, 1563) by Poltrot, a -deserter from the Huguenot army, and this circumstance produced a great -change amongst the belligerents on both sides. The Catholics were afraid -of the English uniting with Coligny, and gaining still greater advantages -in Normandy; and, on the other hand, Conde was anxious to make peace, -and secure the position in the French Government which Guise had held. A -peace was accordingly concluded at Amboise on the 6th of March, in which -freedom for the exercise of their religion was conceded to the Huguenots -in every town of France, Paris excepted; and the Huguenots, in return, -promised to support the Government. - -Elizabeth, in her anger at this treaty, made without any reference -to her, appeared to abandon her own shrewd sense. Though the French -Government offered to renew the treaty of Cateau, to restore Calais at -the stipulated time, Havre being of course surrendered, and to repay her -all the sums advanced to the Huguenots, she refused, and declared that -she would maintain Havre against the whole realm of France. But when -she saw that the two parties were united to drive the English troops -out of France, she thought better of it. She despatched Throgmorton to -act for her in conjunction with Sir Thomas Smith, her ambassador. But -Throgmorton arrived too late. The united parties were now pretty secure -of the surrender of Havre, and, as Throgmorton's intrigues in France were -notorious, to prevent a repetition of them they seized him on pretence of -having no proper credentials, and delayed audience to Sir Thomas Smith -from day to day, while they pushed on the siege. - -To prevent insurrection, or co-operation with the French outside, Warwick -had expelled most of the native inhabitants from Havre. He had about -5,000 men with him, and during the siege Sir Hugh Paulet threw in a -reinforcement of about 800 more. Elizabeth had now the mortification -of seeing her old allies take the command against her. Montmorency, the -constable, had the chief command; and Conde, who had been the principal -means of leading her into the war, served under him. It was clear that -the place could not hold out long, yet the English manned the walls, -defended the breaches and, till the whole garrison was reduced to less -than 1,500 men, gave no sign of surrender. The Constable made the first -proposals for a capitulation, which Warwick agreed to accept; but such -was the fury of the French soldiers, or rather, the rabble collected from -all quarters to the siege, that, in spite of the truce, they fired on -the besieged repeatedly, and shot the Earl of Warwick through the thigh, -as he stood in the breach. The next day the capitulation was signed, the -garrison and people of the town being allowed to retire within six days, -with all their effects. The chief marshal, Edward Randall, caused the -sick to be carried on board, that they might not be left to the mercy of -the French, and himself lent a helping hand. But the infected troops and -people carried out the plague with them; it spread in various parts of -England, and raged excessively in London. The inns of court were closed; -those who could fled into the country. To the plague was added scarcity -of money and of provisions. There were earthquakes in Lincolnshire, -Northamptonshire, and other places; terrific thunders and lightnings--and -all these terrors were attributed by the Papists to the heresies which -were in the ascendant. - -Thus terminated Elizabeth's demonstration in favour of the Huguenots. -She contemplated the humiliating result with indignation, which she -was unable to conceal even in the presence of Castelnau, the French -ambassador. At one moment she declared that she would not consent to -peace, at another she vowed that she would make her Commissioners pay -with their heads for offering to accept conditions which were gall to -her haughty spirit. But there was no alternative. She first attempted -to compel the French court to liberate Throgmorton, by seizing the -French envoy De Foix, and offering him in exchange; but the French would -not admit that Throgmorton was a duly appointed ambassador, and in -retaliation for the seizure of De Foix, they arrested Sir Thomas Smith, -and consigned him to the castle of Melun. Elizabeth still held the bonds -for 500,000 crowns, or the restoration of Calais, and the hostages; and -in the end she submitted to surrender the hostages for the return of -Throgmorton, and reduced her claim of 500,000 crowns to one-fourth of -that sum. Thus, not only Havre but Calais was virtually resigned, though -Elizabeth still claimed to negotiate on that point. The proud English -queen was, in fact, most mortifyingly defeated, both in the cabinet and -the field. The treaty was signed on April 11th, 1564. - -This French campaign terminated, Elizabeth turned her attention again -to Scotland, and the subject on which she was most anxious was the -marriage of the Scottish queen. To Elizabeth, who abhorred the idea of -any one ever succeeding her on the throne, it was of much consequence -how Mary, her presumptive heir, should wed. If to a foreign prince, it -might render the claim on the English throne doubly hazardous. By this -time it was pretty clear that Elizabeth herself was resolved to take no -partner of her power, as the hands of numerous other princely suitors -had been refused besides that of Philip. Of all the long array of the -lovers of this famous queen, foreign or English, none ever acquired such -a place in her regard and favour as the Lord Robert Dudley, one of the -sons of the Duke of Northumberland, who had been attainted, with his -father and family, for his participation in the attempt to place Lady -Jane Grey on the throne, to the exclusion of Queen Mary and of this -very Elizabeth. The queen restored him in blood, made him Master of the -Horse, installed him Knight of the Garter, and, soon after this period, -Earl of Leicester. This maiden queen, who had rejected so many kings -and princes, soon grew so enamoured of this young nobleman, that their -conduct became the scandal of the Court and country, but probably it was -nothing more than indiscreet. The reports were believed of their living -as man and wife, even whilst Leicester was still the husband of Amy -Robsart, whom he is said, though falsely, to have murdered. The Queen of -Scots, in one of her letters, tells her that she hears this asserted, -and that she had promised to marry him before one of the ladies of the -bed-chamber. Throgmorton, her ambassador, sent his secretary, Jones, to -inform Elizabeth privately, and at the suggestion of Cecil and the other -ministers, of the common remarks on this subject by the Spanish and -Venetian ambassadors at Paris. Elizabeth, listening to Jones's recital, -including the account of the murder of Amy Robsart, sometimes laughed, -sometimes hid her face in her hands, but replied that she had heard it -all before, and did not believe in the murder. From the evidence on this -subject, it appears that Elizabeth had promised Dudley to marry him, and -was this time very near being involved in the trammels of matrimony; but -she escaped to have another long string of princely suitors. - -Careful to avoid the bonds of matrimony herself, Elizabeth was, however, -bent on securing in them the Queen of Scots. Since Mary of Scotland had -become a widow, the suitors of Elizabeth had transferred their attentions -to her. She was younger and much handsomer; her kingdom was much less -important, but then she was by no means so haughty and immovable. She -was of a warm, a generous, a poetic nature, and would soon have found a -congenial husband, but either her own subjects or her rival Elizabeth -had something in each case to object. Her French relatives successively -proposed Don Carlos, the son of Philip, and heir of Spain; the Duke of -Anjou, one of the brothers of her late husband; the Cardinal de Bourbon, -who had not yet taken priest's orders; the Duke of Ferrara, and some -others. But none of these would suit her Scottish subjects, for they -were all Papists; and they suited Elizabeth as little, for they would -create too strong a foreign coalition. Mary, with an extraordinary -amiability, listened to all the objections of Elizabeth, and expressed -herself quite disposed to accept such a husband as should be agreeable to -her. Be it understood, however, that Mary was not without policy in this -condescension. She hoped to induce Elizabeth, by thus being willing to -oblige her in this particular, to acknowledge her right to succeed her, -but in this she was grievously disappointed. - -[Illustration: GREAT SEAL OF ELIZABETH.] - -Mary at last sent Sir James Melville to London to consult with Elizabeth, -in personal interview, fully and candidly as to the person that she would -really recommend as her consort. Elizabeth received him at her palace at -Westminster, at eight o'clock, in her garden. She asked Melville if his -queen had made up her mind regarding the man who should be her husband. -He replied that she was just now thinking more of some disputes upon the -Borders, and that she was desirous that her Majesty should send my Lord -of Bedford and my Lord Dudley to meet her and her Commissioners there. -Elizabeth affected to be hurt at Melville naming the Earl of Bedford -first. She said that "it appeared to her as if I made but small account -of Lord Robert, seeing that I named Bedford before him; but ere it were -long she would make him a greater earl, and I should see it done before -me, for she esteemed him as one whom she should have married herself, if -she had ever been minded to take a husband. But being determined to end -her life in virginity, she wished that the queen her sister should marry -him, for with him she might find it in her heart to declare Queen Mary -second person, rather than any other; for, being matched with him, it -would best remove out of her mind all fear and suspicion of usurpation -before her death." - -Elizabeth immediately carried into effect her word that she would make -Dudley an earl, by creating him, whilst Melville was present, Earl of -Leicester and Baron Denbigh. "This was done," he says, "with great state -at Westminster, herself helping to put on his robes, he sitting on his -knees before her, and keeping a great gravity and discreet behaviour; as -for the queen, she could not refrain from putting her hand in his neck to -tickle him, smilingly, the French ambassador and I standing beside her. -Then she asked me 'how I liked him.' I said, 'as he was a worthy subject, -so he was happy in a great prince, who could discern and reward good -service.' 'Yet,' she replied, 'ye like better of yon long lad,' pointing -towards my Lord Darnley, who, as nearest prince of the blood, that day -bare the sword before her. My answer was, 'that no woman of spirit would -make choice of _sic_ a man, that was liker a woman than a man, for he was -lusty, beardless, and lady-faced.' I had no will that she should think -I liked him, though I had a secret charge to deal with his mother, Lady -Lennox, to purchase leave for him to pass to Scotland." - -[Illustration: MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS. - -(_From a Contemporary Portrait on Wood._)] - -Lord Darnley, "the long lad," as Elizabeth called him, was the son of -that Earl of Lennox who in the time of Henry VIII. joined with Glencairn, -Cassillis, and others in attempting to betray Scotland to Henry. For -these services, and especially for attempting to betray Dumbarton Castle -to the English, he was banished and suffered forfeiture of his estates, -but received from Henry VIII., as the promised reward for his treason, -the hand of the Lady Margaret Douglas, daughter of Margaret, Queen -of Scotland, and sister of Henry VIII., one of the lewdest and most -turbulent women of the age. Thus Darnley was the son of Mary's aunt, the -Lady Margaret Douglas, and grandson of Elizabeth's aunt, Margaret Tudor. -He was thus near enough to have laid claim to the crown of England, and -of Scotland too, in case of the failure of issue by the present queens. -His nearness to the thrones of both kingdoms seems to have suggested the -idea of marrying him to the Queen of Scots, whereby her claim on the -English throne would receive added force. Mary was induced to favour the -family, her near relatives. She corresponded with the Countess of Lennox, -and invited Lennox to return to Scotland, and reversed his attainder. -He did not recover the patrimony of Angus, his father, for that was in -possession of the powerful Earl of Morton, Chancellor of the kingdom, but -Mary promised to make that up to him by other means. Once restored to -favour and rank in Scotland, Lennox pushed on the scheme of marrying his -son Darnley to the queen. Melville was commissioned to intercede for his -return to Scotland, but Elizabeth, who could not be blind to the danger -of Darnley's wedding the Queen of Scots, for a time would not listen to -it. We may believe too that Cecil did his best to prevent this, for of -all his desires, the most earnest was that of the removal of Leicester -from the Court, and therefore he used all his eloquence to get Leicester -chosen for that honour. - -On returning from Hampton Court, Leicester conducted Melville to London -by water, and on the way he asked him what the Queen of Scots thought -of him as a husband. The answer of Melville, who did not care so nicely -to flatter the favourite, was not very complimentary, and thereupon -Leicester made haste to assure the Scottish envoy that he had never -presumed so much as to think of marrying so great a queen; that he knew -he was not worthy to wipe her shoes, but that it was the plot of Cecil to -ruin him with both the queens. - -Melville, on his return to Edinburgh, assured the Queen of Scots that she -could never expect any real friendship from the Queen of England, for -that she was overflowing with jealousy, and was made up of falsehood and -deceit. These royal courtships and rivalries went on still for some time: -Queen Mary finally determined to refuse the Archduke Charles of Austria, -probably to avoid giving umbrage to Elizabeth, and Elizabeth received -one more suitor in no less a personage than the young King of France. -This was a scheme of the busy and intriguing Catherine de Medici, who -thought it would be a fine thing to link England and France together by -marriage, but Elizabeth was not likely to perpetrate anything so shallow. -The king was only fourteen, and Elizabeth replied that "her good brother -was too great and too small; too great as a king, and too small, being -but young, and she already thirty." Catherine, however, again pressed it, -by De Foix the ambassador; but Elizabeth, laughing, said, she thought -her neighbour Mary Stuart would suit him better; this, however, was only -thrown out because Elizabeth had heard of some such project, which, if -real, she would oppose resolutely. But a circumstance now took place -which it seems difficult to account for. Having refused to permit Lord -Darnley to go to Scotland, lest he should marry the Queen of Scots, -and add to her claims on the English throne, all at once her objection -seemed to vanish, and in February, 1565, she permitted him to travel to -Edinburgh. Darnley was at this time in his twenty-fourth year, tall and -handsome, possessing the courtly accomplishments of the age, and free in -the distribution of his money. He waited on the young queen at Wemyss -Castle, in Fife, and was well received by Mary, who was now about the -same age. There appears no doubt but that the marriage had been planned -and promoted by the Lennox party, and it is said that Murray encouraged -it, thinking that with a young man of Darnley's weak and pleasure-loving -character, he could easily retain the power of the State in his hands. Be -that as it may, Darnley soon proposed, and was rejected; but Elizabeth, -contrary to her own intentions, contributed to alter Mary's resolution. -Elizabeth, probably apprehensive that Darnley being present might obtain -the queen's goodwill, again sent Randolph to press the marriage with -Leicester; on which Mary, bursting into tears, declared that the Queen of -England treated her as a child, and immediately favoured the pretensions -of Darnley. The marriage took place on the 29th of July, 1565. - -As Darnley was a Catholic, the Protestant party was much alarmed. The -lords, headed by Murray, assembled at Stirling, and entered into a bond -to stand by each other. They sent off a messenger to urge speedy aid -from Elizabeth, and actively diffused reports that Lennox had plotted -to take away the life of Murray. This, both Lennox and Darnley stoutly -denied, and the queen, to leave no obscurity in the case, gave Murray a -safe conduct for himself and eighty others, and ordered him to attend -in her presence and produce his proofs. She declared that such a thing -as enforcement of the religion or consciences of her subjects had never -entered her mind, and she called on her loyal subjects to hasten to -her defence. This call was promptly and widely responded to, and Mary, -finding herself now in security, declared the choice of Darnley as her -husband, created him Duke of Albany, and married him openly, in the -chapel of Holyrood. He was by proclamation declared king during the time -of their marriage, and all writs were ordered to run in the joint names -of Henry and Mary, King and Queen of Scotland. - -Elizabeth, meanwhile, had complied with the demands of the Scottish -lords; sent off money, appointed Bedford and Shrewsbury her lieutenants -in the north, and reinforced the garrison of Berwick with 2,000 men. -Finding, however, that the call of Mary on her subjects had brought -out such a force around her as would require still more money and men -to cope with it, she despatched Tamworth, a creature of Leicester's, -to Scotland, to deter Mary by menaces and reproaches. It was too late; -and Mary, assuming the attitude of a justly incensed monarch, compelled -the ambassador to deliver his charge in writing, and answered it in the -same manner, requesting Elizabeth to content herself with the government -of her own kingdom, and not to interfere in the concerns of monarchs -as independent as herself. When Tamworth took leave, he refused the -passport given him bearing the joint names of the king and queen, out -of fear of his imperious mistress, for which Mary ordered him to be -apprehended on the road by Lord Home as a vagrant, and detained a couple -of days; and on Randolph remonstrating, she informed him that unless he -ceased to intrigue with her subjects, she would treat him the same. This -bold rebuff to the meddling Queen of England, and the demonstration of -affection on the part of the people, confounded the disaffected lords, -and their resistance collapsed. - -The Queen of Scots, victorious by arms over her enemies, determined -to call together a Parliament, and there to procure the forfeiture of -Murray and his adherents. This threw the rebel lords into the utmost -consternation; for, in the then temper of the nation at large, the -measure would have been passed, and they would have been stripped of -their estates and entirely crushed. To prevent this catastrophe no time -was lost. It was actively spread amongst the people that Mary, having -signed the league, it was the intention, through the Kings of France -and Spain, to put down the Reformation in Scotland. It was represented -that David Rizzio, a Milanese, who had become Mary's secretary for the -French language, was the agent of the league and a pensioner of Rome, -and that it was necessary to have him removed. Unfortunately for -Rizzio, he had incurred the hatred not only of these Protestant lords, -but of Darnley, the queen's husband. That young man had soon displayed -a character which could bring nothing but misery to the queen. He was a -man of shallow intellect, but of violent passions, and, as is usually the -case with such persons, of a will as strong as his judgment was weak. He -was ambitious of the chief power, and sullenly resentful because it was -denied. Mary, who was of a warm and impulsive temperament, in the ardour -of her first affection, had promised Darnley the crown matrimonial, which -would have invested him with an equal share of the royal authority; -but soon unhappily perceiving that she had lavished her regard on a -weak, headstrong, and dissipated person, she refused to comply, fully -assured of the mischiefs which such power in his hands would produce. -Darnley resented this denial violently. He reproached the queen with her -insincerity in most intemperate language; treated her in public with -scandalous disrespect; abandoned her society for the lowest and worst -company, and threw himself into the hands of his enemies, who soon made -him their tool. They persuaded him that Rizzio, who, in his quarrels with -the queen, always took her part, and who, as the keeper of the privy -purse, was obliged to resist his extravagant demands upon it, was not -only the enemy of the nation, the spy and paid agent of foreign princes, -but was the queen's paramour, and the author of the resolve to keep him -out of all real power. The scheme took the effect that was desired. -Darnley became jealous and furious for revenge. His father, the Earl of -Lennox, joined him in his suspicions, and it was resolved to put Rizzio -out of the way. - -Darnley, in his blind fury, sent for Lord Ruthven, imploring him to -come to him on a matter of life and death. Ruthven was confined to his -bed by a severe illness, yet he consented to engage in the conspiracy -for the murder of Rizzio, on condition that Darnley should engage to -prevent the meeting of Parliament, and to procure the return of Murray -and the rebel chiefs. Darnley was in a mood ready to grant anything -for the gratification of his resentment against Rizzio; he agreed to -everything; a league was entered into, a new covenant sworn, the objects -of which were the murder of Rizzio, the prevention of the assembling -of Parliament, and the return of Murray and his adherents. Randolph, -the English ambassador, now banished from Scotland for his traitorous -collusion with the insurgents, yet had gone no farther than Berwick, -where he was made fully acquainted with the plot, and communicated -it immediately to Leicester in a letter, dated February 13th, 1566, -which yet remains. He assured him that the murder of Rizzio would be -accomplished within ten days; that the crown would be torn from Mary's -dishonoured head, and that matters of a still darker nature were -meditated against her person which he dared not yet allude to. - -Mary was not without some warnings of what was being prepared, but she -could not be made sensible of her danger, neither could Rizzio; though -Damiot, an astrologer, whom he was in the habit of consulting, bade him -beware of the bastard. The obscurity attending all such oracles led -Rizzio to believe that Damiot alluded to Murray, and Rizzio laughed at -any danger from him, a banished man; but we shall see that he received -his first wound from another bastard, George Douglas, the natural son of -the Earl of Angus. - -On the 3rd of March Parliament was opened, and a statute of treason -and of forfeiture against Murray and his accomplices was immediately -introduced on the Thursday, which was to be passed on the following -Tuesday. But on the Saturday evening, the queen, sitting at supper in -a small closet adjoining her chamber, attended by her natural sister -the Countess of Argyll, the Commendator of Holyrood, Beaton Master of -the Household, Arthur Erskine captain of the guard, and her secretary -Rizzio, was surprised by the apparition of Darnley suddenly putting aside -the arras which concealed the door, and standing for a moment gloomily -surveying the group. Behind him came a still more startling figure; it -was that of Ruthven, in complete armour, just come from his sick bed, -and with a face pale and ghastly as that of a ghost. Mary, who was seven -months gone with child, started up at this terrible sight, and commanded -Ruthven to be gone; but at this moment Darnley put his arm round her -waist as if to detain her, and other conspirators entered, one after -another, with naked weapons, into the room. Ruthven drew his dagger, and -crying that their business was with Rizzio, endeavoured to seize him. -But Rizzio, rushing to his mistress, caught the skirt of her robe, and -shouted, "Giustizia! giustizia! sauve ma vie--Madame, sauve ma vie!" - -Darnley forced himself between the queen and Rizzio, to separate them -from one another, and probably the intention was to drag him out of her -presence, and dispatch him. But George Douglas, the bastard, in his -impetuosity, drove his dagger into the back of Rizzio over the queen's -shoulder, and the rest of the conspirators--Morton, Car of Faudonside, -and others--dragged him out to the entrance of the presence-chamber, -where, in their murderous fury, they stabbed him with fifty-six wounds, -with such blind rage that they wounded one another, and left Darnley's -dagger sticking in the body as an evidence of his participation in the -deed. This done, the hideous Ruthven, exhausted with the excitement, -staggered into the presence of the shrieking queen, and, sinking upon a -seat, demanded a cup of wine. Mary upbraided him with his brutality; but -he coolly assured her that it was all done at the command of her husband -and king. At that moment one of her ladies rushed in crying that they had -killed Rizzio. "And is it so?" said Mary; "then farewell tears, we must -now study revenge." - -It was about seven in the evening when this savage murder was -perpetrated. The palace was beset by troops under the command of Morton. -There was no means of rousing the city, the queen was kept close prisoner -in her chamber, whilst the king, assuming the sole authority, issued -letters commanding the three Estates to quit the capital within three -hours, on pain of treason, whilst Morton with his guards was ordered to -allow no one to leave the palace. Notwithstanding this, Huntly, Bothwell, -Sir James Balfour, and James Melville, made their escape in the darkness -and confusion; and as Melville passed under the queen's window, she -suddenly threw up the sash, and entreated him to give the alarm to the -city. Her ruffianly guards immediately seized her, and dragged her back, -swearing they would cut her to pieces; and Darnley was pushed forward to -harangue the people, and assure them that both the queen and himself were -safe, and commanding them to retire in peace, which they did. - -[Illustration: THE MURDER OF RIZZIO. (_See p._ 264.)] - -But Mary was not long left alone with Darnley, before she convinced him -of the dupe he had made of himself. She asked him whether he was so mad -as to expect that after they had secured her, after they had imperilled -the life of his child, they would spare him? And she bade him look at -their conduct now, where they usurped all authority and did not even -allow him to send his own servants to her. Darnley became thoroughly -alarmed; he vowed he had had no hand in the conspiracy, and offered to -call the conspirators into her presence, and declare that the queen was -ready to pardon them, on condition that they withdrew their guards, -replaced her own servants, and treated her as their true queen. The noble -traitors were this time over-reached in their turn; probably trembling -for the consequences of their daring conduct, on seeing Darnley and -the queen reconciled, they consented, and in the night the queen and -Darnley mounted fleet horses and fled to Dunbar. The consternation of the -murderers in the morning may be imagined. The outraged and insulted queen -had escaped their hands, and the news came flying that already the nobles -and the people were hurrying from all sides to her standard. Huntly, -Athole, Bothwell, and whole crowds of barons and gentlemen flew to her, -and at Dunbar a numerous army stood as if by magic ready to march on the -traitors and execute the vengeance due. They fled. Morton, Ruthven--the -grisly, pale-faced assassin--Brunston, and Car of Faudonside, escaped to -England. Maitland of Lethington betook himself to the hills of Athole, -and Craig, the colleague of Knox, dived into the darksome recesses of the -city wynds. - -The spirit of Mary was not of a character long to brood over revenge; -that belonged rather to such men as Ruthven, Murray, and Morton. They -vowed deadly vengeance on Darnley, and from that hour his destruction -was settled, and never lost sight of. As for Elizabeth of England, -she was loud in denunciation of the outrage on the queen, and wrote -expressing deep sympathy; and the virtuous Murray was indignant at the -villainy in which he had been engaged, but now only seemed to perceive -the full extent of. The assurances of the friendship of England and -France seemed, however, to tranquillise the queen's mind, and the hour -of her confinement drawing nigh, she called her councillors around her, -became reconciled to the king, and prepared everything for her own life -or death. On the 19th of June she was, however, safely delivered, in -the castle of Edinburgh, of a son, who was named James, and Sir James -Melville was dispatched to carry the tidings to Elizabeth. The messenger -arrived as the English queen was dancing after supper at Greenwich. -Cecil, who had seen Sir James, took the opportunity to whisper the news -to her in preparation. No sooner did she hear the news than she seemed -struck motionless. She ceased, sat down, leaning her cheek on her hand, -and when her ladies hastened to ascertain what ailed her, burst out, "The -Queen of Scots is mother of a fair son, and I am a barren stock!" Her -agitation was so visible that the music stopped, and there was general -wonder and confusion. There were not wanting spies to carry this to -Melville, and, aware of the truth, he was curious to mark the official -look which the great dissembler wore the next morning. She was then -all smiling and serene, and even received the message, he says, with a -"merry volt," that is, we suppose, a caper of affected joy. She declared -that she was so delighted with the news, that it had quite cured her of -a heavy sickness which she had had for fifteen days. Melville was too -much of a courtier to congratulate her on being able to dance merrily -in sickness; but he wanted her to become godmother, which office she -accepted cheerfully, by proxy. She expressed quite an ardent desire to -go and see her fair sister, but as she could not she sent the Earl of -Bedford, with a font of gold for its christening and L1,000. With Bedford -and Mr. Carey, son of her kinsman, Lord Hunsdon, she sent a splendid -train of knights and gentlemen to attend the christening. The ceremony -was performed at Stirling by the Archbishop of St. Andrews, according -to the rites of the Romish Church, the Kings of France and the Duke -of Savoy being godfathers by their ambassadors. The English embassy -remained outside the chapel during the service, for they dared not take -part in the idolatries of the mass. They reported that Mary looked very -melancholy, and Darnley was not present, it was supposed for fear the -officers of Elizabeth should not give him the homage of royalty; for -Elizabeth had still refused to acknowledge his title as King of Scotland. - -The attention of Elizabeth and her ministers was soon attracted to -Scotland by the startling events in progress there. The birth of the -young prince had only for the moment had the effect of softening the -wayward temper of Darnley. It became absolutely necessary for Mary to -construct a strong Government if she was to enjoy the slightest power or -tranquillity. Had she known the villainous materials out of which, at -best, she must erect such a Government, she would have despaired. All the -men of talent and influence were more or less tainted by treason, and in -the enjoyment of bribery to work her evil. She leaned on Murray as on -a brother, and he was at heart a very Judas. He advised her to recall -Morton and reinstate Maitland. By his efforts Bothwell and Maitland were -reconciled; the Lairds of Brunston, Ormiston, Hatton, and Calder, the -heads of the Church party, were admitted to favour. But the prospect of -so many of the traitors, cognisant of his own treason, assembling about -the throne, rendered Darnley desperate. He resolved on throwing himself -into the arms of the Roman Catholic party, and actually wrote to the -Pope, blaming the queen for not taking measures for the restoration of -the Mass. His letters were intercepted and, in his indignation, he gave -out that he would quit the kingdom. - -Nothing availed to show Darnley the folly of his proceedings, everything -tended rather to aggravate his waywardness. He persisted in his -declarations that he would leave the kingdom, yet he never went. He -denounced Maitland, Bellenden the justice-clerk, and Macgill the clerk -register, as principal conspirators against Rizzio, and insisted that -they should be deprived of office. He opposed the return of Morton, and -thus embittered his associates, Murray, Bothwell, Argyll, and Maitland. -There was no party, except the Roman Catholics, which did not regard him -with suspicion or aversion. The Reformers hated him for his intriguing -with their enemies; Cecil suspected him of plotting with the Papists -of England; the Hamiltons had detested him from the first for coming -in between them and the succession. The queen now became grievously -impatient of his intractable stupidity, and deeply deplored her union -with the man who had already endangered the life of herself and her -child, and now kept the Government in a constant state of struggle and -uncertainty. - -Matters were in this state when, in the commencement of October, 1566, -disturbances on the Borders rendered it necessary for the queen to go -thither in person. Her lieutenant, the Earl of Bothwell, in attempting -to reduce the Borderers to subordination, was severely wounded, and left -for dead on the field. He was not dead, however, and was conveyed to -Hermitage Castle. Mary arrived at Jedburgh on the 7th of October, and -the next day opened her Court. The trials of the marauders lasted till -the 15th, when she rode over to Hermitage, a distance of twenty miles, -to visit her wounded lieutenant. This visit excited much observation and -remark amongst her subjects, and the events which succeeded have given -deep significance to it. Bothwell was a bold and impetuous man, who had -from the first maintained a sturdy attachment to the service of the -queen, even when all others had deserted and betrayed her. This had won -him a high place in Mary's estimation, and she was not of a character -to conceal such preference. He was a man of loose principles, which he -had indulged freely on the Continent. Ambition and gallantry, united -to unabashed audacity, made up a forcible but dangerous character. The -manifest favour of his young, beautiful, and unhappy sovereign seems -very soon to have inspired him with the most daring designs, which still -lay locked in his own heart. There is little doubt that he had entered -into the conspiracy to kill Darnley, for he was mixed up with that -clique; and the miserable and irritating conduct of Darnley towards the -queen was now rousing the indignation of far better men than Bothwell. -The favour in which Bothwell was with the queen was early observed and -encouraged by Murray, Maitland, and their associates, because it tended -to punish and might eventually lead to the dismissal of Darnley. Sir -James Melville, indeed, attributes Bothwell's scheme for murdering -Darnley and gaining possession of the queen to this time. - -There is, however, no reason to believe that Mary consciously encouraged -the unhallowed passion of Bothwell at this period. As an officer high -in her Court, and in her esteem for his fidelity, it was not out of the -generous course of Mary's usual proceedings to pay him a visit, which, -moreover, was only of two hours, for she rode back to Jedburgh the same -day, ordering a mass of official papers to be immediately sent after her. -Immediately on reaching Jedburgh she was seized with a fever so severe -and rapid, that for ten days her physicians despaired of her life. This -was ascribed to the fatigue of her long ride to Hermitage and back; -but it probably arose from that fatigue operating on a mind and body -already shaken by deep anxiety. She recovered, but her peace of mind -and cheerfulness were gone. Darnley never went to see her during the -extremity of her illness; and though he made her two visits during her -convalescence, they were not visits of peace or regard. They left her in -a state of great melancholy, and she often wished that she was dead. The -recollection of what Darnley had shown himself capable of in the plot -against Rizzio, and his duplicity on that occasion, seemed now to inspire -her with a dread that he would conspire against her life, and she never -saw him speaking to any of the lords but she was in alarm. - -Bothwell, Murray, and Maitland, now invited Huntley and Argyll to meet -them at Craigmillar Castle, and there proposed that a divorce should be -recommended to the queen, on condition that she pardoned Morton and his -accomplices in the death of Rizzio. Mary listened to the scheme with -apparent willingness, on the understanding that the measure was not to -prejudice the rights of her son; but when it was proposed that Darnley -should live in some remote part of the country, or retire to France, -the idea appeared to realise their separation too vividly. She evidently -cherished a lingering affection for him, and expressed a hope that he -might return to better mind. She even offered to pass over to France -herself, and remain there till he became sensible of his faults. On this -Maitland exclaimed that, sooner than that she should banish herself, they -would substitute death for divorce. This effectually startled Mary, and -she commanded them to let the matter be, for that she should wait and see -what God in His goodness would do to remedy the matter. - -The conspirators expressed their obedience to the queen's demands, but -they still proceeded with the plot. At Craigmillar they met again, and -drew up a bond or covenant for the murder of Darnley, which was signed -by Huntly, Maitland, Argyll, and Sir James Balfour, of which Bothwell, -kept possession. It declared Darnley a young fool and tyrant, and bound -them to cut him off as an enemy to the nobility, and for his unbearable -conduct to the queen. - -Soon after the Earl of Bedford arrived to attend the baptism of the -child. As we have stated, Darnley, though in the palace, did not attend -the ceremony, and the queen was observed to be oppressed with melancholy -and to shed tears. The ministers now prevailed on the queen to pardon all -the murderers of Rizzio, except Car of Faudonside, who had held a pistol -to her breast, and George Douglas, who was the first to stab Rizzio. -This gave such offence to Darnley that he quitted Edinburgh, and went -to his father's, at Glasgow. There he was seized with a severe attack -of illness, and an eruption which came out all over his body. It was -believed to be poison, but proved to be the small-pox. - -Whilst he was lying ill, Morton returned to Edinburgh. Bothwell and -Maitland met him at Whittingham, the seat of Archibald Douglas, where -they pressed him to join the conspiracy for the murder of Darnley, -professing that it was all done at the queen's desire. Morton insisted -that they should bring him the queen's warrant, under her own hand, but -this they failed to do. At the time that these plottings were going on, -in the month of January, 1567, the queen set out to visit Darnley, who -had received some hints of the plots against him, and was greatly alarmed -by the tidings that the queen, whose severe censure of him he was well -acquainted with, was on the way to see him. He sent a messenger to meet -her, apologising for not waiting on her in person. The queen replied -there was no medicine against fear, and rode on. She went direct to his -father's, entered his room, and greeted him kindly. Darnley professed -deep repentance of his faults, pleading his youth and the few friends -and advisers that he had. He complained of a plot got up at Craigmillar, -and that it was said that the queen knew of it but would not sign it. He -entreated that all should be made up, and that she should not withdraw -herself from him, as he complained she had done. Mary conducted him -by short journeys to Edinburgh, herself travelling on horseback, and -Darnley being carried in a litter. They rested two days at Linlithgow, -and reached Edinburgh on the last day of January. It was intended to take -Darnley to Craigmillar, on account of Holyrood being thought to lie too -low for a convalescent; but probably Darnley, after what he had heard, -objected to go thither, and he was therefore taken to a suburb called -Kirk-of-Field, an airy situation, where the Duke of Chatelherault had a -palace. The attendants proceeded to the duke's house, but the queen told -them the lodging prepared for the king was not there, but in a house just -by, and also by the city wall, near the ruinous monastery of the Black -Friars. - -The place appeared a singular one for a king, for it was confined in size -and not over well furnished. What was more suspicious was, that it was -the property of Robert Balfour, the brother of that Sir James Balfour -who was of the league sworn to destroy Darnley, and the same who drew -up the document. He was a dependent of Bothwell's, who held the bond, -and who met the king and queen a little way before they reached the -capital, and accompanied them to this place. These circumstances taken -along with those which followed, show that the whole had reference to -the catastrophe, and the great question which has divided historians to -this hour is, how far the queen was a party to the proceedings. For the -present, so far as Mary was concerned, all appeared fair and sincere. -She seemed to have resumed all her interest in her husband. She was -constantly with him, and attended to everything necessary for his comfort -and restoration. She passed the greater part of the day in his chamber, -and slept in the room under his. Though Darnley was apprehensive of -danger from the circumstance that his mortal enemies were now in power -and about the Court, the constant presence and affection of the queen -were a guarantee for his safety, and appeared to give him confidence. - -But the conspirators were watching assiduously for an opportunity to -destroy him. Morton, Maitland, and Balfour, had now gathered into the -plot the Earls of Huntly, Argyll, and Caithness, Archibald Douglas, the -Archbishop of St. Andrews, and many other lords and leading men of the -bench and bar. Murray alone seemed to stand aloof; though, from the -evidence existing, there can be no question that he was privy to the -whole affair. - -[Illustration: HOLYROOD PALACE, EDINBURGH. (_From a photograph by J. -Valentine, Dundee._)] - -Darnley during this time received a warning of his danger from the Earl -of Orkney, who, finding opportunity, told him that if he did not get -quickly out of that place it would cost him his life. Darnley told this -to the queen, who questioned the earl, and he then denied having said -so. This was precisely what Morton stated would take place, when on his -death-bed, confessing a knowledge of the plot, he was asked why he had -not revealed it. He replied, that there was nobody to tell it to; that -it was no use telling it to the queen, for he was assured that she was -in the plot; and that if he had told Darnley, he was such a fool that -he would immediately tell it to the queen. The circumstance, however, -startled the conspirators, and determined them to expedite the terrible -business. The desired opportunity arrived. The queen agreed to be present -on the evening of the 9th of February at the marriage of Sebastiani and -Margaret Carwood, two of her servants, which was to be celebrated with -a masque. The queen remained with the king the greater part of the day, -which was passed in the most apparent cordiality, and Mary declared her -intention of remaining all night at Kirk-of-Field. However, she suddenly -recollected her promise to attend the marriage, and taking leave of -Darnley, kissed him, and taking a ring from her finger placed it on his -own. It was now that the hired assassins executed their appointed task. -How Darnley and his page were murdered is yet a disputed point. The house -was blown up with gunpowder, but the bodies of the king and his page -were found in the orchard adjoining the garden wall, the king only in his -night-dress, his pelisse lying by his side, and no marks of fire upon the -body. - -However doubtful may be other matters, there is no question of the -presence of Bothwell at the tragedy. He attended the queen from -Kirk-of-Field to Holyrood, but about midnight quitted the palace, changed -his rich dress, and in disguise joined the murderers, who were waiting -for him. About two o'clock two of them entered the house and lit a -slow-burning match, the other end of which was placed amongst the powder. -They remained some time expecting the catastrophe, till Bothwell grew so -impatient that he was with difficulty withheld from entering the house -to ascertain whether the match still burnt. This was done by one of the -fellows, who looked through a window and perceived the match alight. -The explosion soon after took place, and with a concussion which seemed -to shake the whole city. Bothwell hurried away and got to bed before -a servant rushed in with the news. He then started up with well-acted -astonishment, and rushed forth shouting, "Treason! treason!" Huntly, and -some others of the conspirators then proceeded to the queen's chamber, -and informed her of what had taken place. She seemed petrified with -horror, gave herself up to the most violent expression of grief, and, -shutting herself up in her chamber, continued as if paralysed by so -diabolical a tragedy. - -The demands of the outraged people for inquiry were loud. The city was -placarded with the names of Bothwell, James Balfour, David Chambers, -black John Spens, Signors Francisco, Joseph Rizzio--the brother of -David--Bartiani, and John de Bourdeaux, as the leading murderers. The -Earl of Lennox, the father of Darnley, called on the queen to bring -them to trial; but he demanded in vain. Bothwell, the man whom the -whole public denounced, continued the first in favour with the queen. -Everything demonstrated the necessity of the queen exerting herself to -discover the murderers of her husband. Sir Harry Killigrew arrived from -Elizabeth, bearing a message of condolence, but at the same time urging -the absolute necessity of the trial of Bothwell. Killigrew found the -capital in a most excited state, clamorous for inquiry, and loud in its -censures of the queen. At the same time a letter arrived from Bishop -Beaton, her ambassador in France, stating in plainest terms that she was -publicly accused there of being herself the chief mover in the whole -dark business, and telling her that if she did not exert herself to take -a rigorous vengeance she had better have lost life and all. Mary promised -Killigrew that Bothwell should be brought to strict trial; but as soon -as he was gone means were taken to secure Bothwell more completely -from any effectual inquiry. The Earl of Mar was induced to give up the -possession of the castle of Edinburgh to Bothwell, Morton had his lands -and his castle of Tantallon restored to him, and in return supported -Bothwell with all his influence. The castle of Blackness, the Inch, and -the superiority of Leith, were conferred on Bothwell; and Murray--who -neither liked to play the second to the aspiring favourite, nor to run -any risk of exposure in those inquiries which must sooner or later -ensue--requested permission to visit France. - -Mary could not possibly be happy in such circumstances. Whatever might -be the state of her conscience, her character was fearfully implicated, -and on all sides came calls for inquiry, which she did not seem to have -the power or the will to make. The climax to her trouble was put by the -queen-mother of France and her uncle, the cardinal, sending her the most -cutting message of reproach; calling on her without delay to avenge -the death of the king, and to clear her own reputation, or regard them -as no longer her friends, but the proclaimers of her utter disgrace. -There was no possibility of delaying inquiry any longer, but every means -was adopted to make it a mockery. Lennox was forbidden to appear with -more than six followers, and his efforts to obtain a postponement were -fruitless. In his absence Bothwell was unanimously acquitted. - -Rumours now arose that Bothwell was about to divorce his wife, the -sister of Huntly--to whom he had been married only six months--and to -marry the queen; and in the face of these reports Mary conferred on him -the castle and lordship of Dunbar, with extension of his powers as Lord -High Admiral. As tidings of the queen's intended marriage grew, Murray, -her brother, stole away out of contact with danger or responsibility -and retired to France. But, nevertheless, she did not lack warning. -Her ambassador at the French Court entreated her, in the most serious -manner, to punish her husband's murderers, and not allow the world to -use such freedom with her character as it did. She had equally strong -letters from her friends in England, which Melville showed to her, and -was advised by Maitland of Lethington to get away from Court for fear -of Bothwell. Bothwell, however, soon put the matter beyond doubt. He -invited the principal nobility to a tavern, kept by one Ainslie, and -there he drew out of his pocket a bond expressing his innocence of the -murder of Darnley, as established by the bench and the legislature, and -his intention to marry the queen, and containing, it is said, her written -warrant empowering him to propose the matter to the nobility. The company -was composed partly of his friends and accomplices. The rest were taken -with confusion, but they had all been deeply drinking, and they found -the house surrounded by 200 of Bothwell's hackbutters. Under constraint, -eight bishops, nine earls, and seven lords, subscribed the paper. - -But the daring ambition of the man now roused even his old accomplices to -conspire against him, for the safety of the young prince and Government. -Morton, Argyll, Athole, and Kirkaldy of Grange, were at the head of this -plot; and they wrote to Bedford the day after the supper at Ainslie's, -saying it was high time that his dangerous career was checked, and -engaging by Elizabeth's aid to avenge the murder of the king. Kirkaldy, -who was the scribe, added that the queen had been heard to say that "she -cared not to lose France, England, and her own country for him, and would -go with him to the world's end in a white petticoat, before she would -leave him." - -An anonymous letter, but undoubtedly from some of this party, soon -followed, declaring that the queen had concerted with Bothwell the -seizure of her person. The correctness of this information was -immediately proved. On Monday, the 21st of April, the very day foretold, -Mary rode to Stirling to visit her son, where the Earl of Mar, -entertaining strong suspicions of her intentions, refused to allow her -access to him with more than two attendants, to her great indignation. -On her return, as had been foreseen in the letter quoted, Bothwell -met her at the head of 1,000 horse, at Almond Bridge, six miles from -Edinburgh; and, according to Melville, who was in the queen's train, -taking the queen's bridle, he boasted that "he would marry the queen, -who could or who would not; yea, whether she would herself or not." He -says that Captain Blackadder, one of Bothwell's men, told him that it -was with the queen's own consent. Whether this were so or not, has been -argued eagerly on both sides, but it is probable from what we have seen, -that Mary really was a consenting party. The royal retinue was suffered -to continue its journey, with the exception of Melville, Maitland, and -Huntly, who were conducted along with the queen to the castle of Dunbar, -the recent gift of Mary to Bothwell. The queen seems to have made no loud -outcries against her apparently forcible abduction, and the country was -so convinced of the sham nature of the affair, that there was no attempt -to rescue her. - -The divorce of Bothwell from his wife was now hastened, and after -detaining the queen five days at the castle of Dunbar, he conducted her -to Edinburgh, and led her to the castle, where she was received with a -salute of artillery, Bothwell holding her train as she dismounted. The -ministers of the Church were ordered to proclaim the banns of marriage -between the queen and Bothwell, but they declined; and Craig, the -colleague of Knox, who was absent, declared that he had no command from -her Majesty, who was held in disgraceful constraint by Bothwell. This -brought to him the Justice Clerk with a letter under the queen's own -hand, stating that the assertions he had made were false and commanding -him to obey. Craig still refused till he had seen the queen herself; -and, before the Privy Council, charged Bothwell with murder, rape, and -adultery. No punishment followed so daring a charge, and the preacher -having done his duty, obeyed the Royal mandate and published the banns, -at the same time exclaiming, "I take heaven and earth to witness that I -abhor and detest this marriage, as odious and slanderous to the world; -and I would exhort the faithful to pray earnestly that a union against -all reason and good conscience may yet be overruled by God to the conform -of this unhappy realm." - -Nothing moved by these public expressions of censure and disgust, the -queen appeared, on the 12th of May, at the high court of Edinburgh, and -informed the Chancellor, the judges, and the nobility that, though she -was at first incensed against the Earl of Bothwell for the forcible -detention of her person, she had now quite forgiven him for his -subsequent good conduct. That day she created Bothwell Duke of Orkney and -Shetland, and with her own hand placed the coronet on his head. On the -15th they were married, at four o'clock in the morning, in the Presence -Chamber of Holyrood. The ceremony was performed by the Bishop of Orkney, -according to the Protestant form, Craig being present; and afterwards -privately, according to the Romish rite. - -Very soon circumstances hastened the inevitable insurrection in Scotland. -Mary had summoned her nobles to accompany her on an expedition to -Liddesdale, but many disobeyed the order. Murray had now arrived in -England, and was using all his influence with Elizabeth to make a -movement for the expulsion of Bothwell from his usurpation; and even -Maitland, who to the last had remained at Court, wearing the air of a -staunch supporter of the queen, slipped away and joined the opposition. -These were ominous circumstances, and suddenly, while the queen and -Bothwell were at Borthwick Castle, about ten miles from Edinburgh, -the conspirators made a rapid night march, and morning saw the castle -surrounded by nearly 1,000 Borderers, under the command of Hume and other -Border chiefs, with whom were Morton, Mar, Lindsay, Kirkaldy, and others -of the nobles. - -The confederates deemed the queen and Bothwell now safe in their hands, -but they were deceived. Bothwell escaped through a postern to Haddington, -whence he reached Dunbar; and the queen also eluding them disguised as a -man, rode booted and spurred after him. The confederates, disappointed of -their grand prize, marched on the capital, forced the gates, and entered, -proclaiming that they came to revenge the death of the king, and to -rescue the queen from the murderer. There the Earl of Athole and Maitland -joined them, and a banner was displayed on which was painted the body -of the murdered king lying under a tree, and the young prince kneeling -beside it, exclaiming, "Judge and avenge my cause, O Lord!" The people -flocked to this exciting standard, and the leaders speedily commanded a -strong force. - -Mary and Bothwell, meanwhile, summoned the nobles and people around -Dunbar, and the Lords Seton, Yester, and Borthwick, appeared in arms, -with a body of 2,000 men. Impatient to quell the confederates at once, -they marched to Seton, where Mary issued a proclamation, declaring that -all the pretences of the confederates were false; that her husband, -the duke, was no murderer but had, as they knew, been fully acquitted; -she was under no restraint but freely married to Bothwell, by consent -and approbation of these very nobles; nor was her son in any danger, -unless it were from them, for he was in their hands. Mary advanced and -entrenched herself on Carberry Hill, in the old works which the English -had thrown up before the battle of Pinkie. - -The confederates marched out of Edinburgh and confronted the Royal army, -eager for the battle. De Croc, the French ambassador, now attempted to -mediate between the two parties, and carried a message to Morton and -Glencairn, offering the queen's pardon, on condition that they all -returned to their allegiance; but Glencairn replied that they were not -come there to seek pardon, but rather to give it those who had sinned; -and Morton added, "We are not in arms against our queen, but the Duke -of Orkney, the murderer of her husband, and are prepared to yield her -our obedience, on condition that she dismisses him from her presence and -delivers him up to us." - -It was clear that these terms must be complied with or they must fight; -and it was soon perceived that the soldiers of the queen's army began -to show symptoms of disaffection. Bothwell, therefore, rode forward, -and defied any one who dared to accuse him of the king's murder. His -challenge was accepted by James Murray of Tullibardine, the baron who was -said to have charged Bothwell with the murder, in a placard affixed to -the Tolbooth gate. Bothwell declined to enter the lists with Murray, on -the plea that he was not his peer, whereupon Lord Lindsay of the Byres -offered himself and was accepted, but at the moment of action the queen -forbade the fight. By this time the defection in the queen's army became -so conspicuous that Mary rode among her men to encourage them, assuring -them of victory; but her voice had lost its charm, and the soldiers -refused to fight in defence of the alleged murderer of the king. Whilst -this was passing, it was observed that Kirkaldy of Grange was wheeling -his forces round the hill to turn their flank, and the panic becoming -general, the queen and Bothwell found themselves abandoned by all but -about sixty gentlemen and the band of hackbutters. - -To prevent Kirkaldy from advancing his troops so as to cut off their -retreat towards Dunbar, the queen demanded a parley, which was granted. -Kirkaldy went forward and assured the queen that they were all prepared -to obey her authority, provided she put away the man who stood by her -side stained with the blood of the king. The queen promised to acquiesce, -and she held a moment's conversation with Bothwell, gave him her hand, -and followed Kirkaldy; Bothwell turning his horse's head and riding off -to Dunbar. This brutal and unheroic man afterwards became a rover in the -North Sea, and died in prison in Denmark in 1578. Mary did not follow -Kirkaldy of Grange far till she saw Bothwell out of danger, when she -reminded him that she relied on the assurances of the lords, on which -Grange, kissing her Majesty's hand, took her horse by the rein, and -led her towards the camp. On reaching the lines, the confederate lords -received the queen on their knees, and vowed to obey and defend her as -loyally as ever the nobility of the realm did her ancestors; but they -very soon showed the hollowness of these professions, and the common -soldiers assailed her ears with the most opprobrious language. - -[Illustration: MARY SIGNING THE DEED OF ABDICATION IN LOCHLEVEN CASTLE. -(_See p._ 273.)] - -The unfortunate but guilty queen at every step learned more plainly her -real situation, and the faith which she was to put in these nobles. She -was conducted like a captive into Edinburgh, the soldiers constantly -waving before her eyes the banner on which was painted the murdered -king. The mob was crowding round in thousands, shouting and yelling in -execration, and the women heaped on her all the coarsest epithets of -adulteress and murderess. On arriving in the city, instead of conducting -her to her own palace, the patriot nobles shut her up as a solitary -prisoner in the house of the Provost, not even allowing her to have her -women to attend her; and in the morning she was greeted by a repetition -of the scenes of the previous day--the same hideous banner was hung -out opposite her window, and the yells of the mob were furious. Driven -to actual delirium by this treatment, she rent the clothes from her -person, and almost naked attempted to speak to the raving populace. This -shocking spectacle roused the sympathy of the better class of citizens, -and they determined on a rescue of the insulted queen, when the watchful -nobles removed her to Holyrood. There they held a Council, and concluded -to send her prisoner to Lochleven Castle, at Kinross, under the stern -guardianship of Lindsay and the savage Ruthven. While there she was -persuaded (July 23, 1567), to resign in favour of her baby, and Murray, -who was summoned home, became Regent. - -The queen, seeing herself destined by Murray to perpetual captivity, -resolved to exert every faculty to effect her escape. After several -unsuccessful efforts, she succeeded in May, 1568, through the ingenuity -of a page called Little Douglas. The news of Mary's escape flew like -lightning in every direction; the people, forgetting her crimes in her -beauty and her sufferings, gathered to her standard; and she who a few -days before was a deserted captive, now beheld herself at the head of -6,000 men. Many of the nobility, and some of those who had sinned deeply -against her, now flocked around her. Murray, on the first news of their -movement, marched out of Glasgow, and took possession of a small hamlet -called Langside, surrounded by gardens and orchards, which occupied each -side of a steep narrow lane directly in the way of the queen's army. -Instead of avoiding this position, and making their way to Dumbarton by -another course, Lord Claud Hamilton charged the troops there posted with -his cavalry, 2,000 strong, in perfect confidence of driving them thence; -but the hackbutters, who had screened themselves behind walls and trees, -poured in on the cavalry a deadly fire which threw them into confusion. -Lord Claud cheered them on to renew the charge, and with great valour -they pushed forward and drove the enemy before them. But, pursuing them -up the steep hill, they suddenly found themselves face to face with -Murray's advance, composed of the finest body of Border pikemen, and -commanded by Morton, Home, Ker of Cessford, and the barons of the Merse, -all fighting on foot at the heads of their divisions. - -The battle was unequal, for the troops of Murray were fresh, while -those of the queen were out of breath with their up-hill fight. -Notwithstanding, the main body of the queen's forces coming up, there -was a severe struggle, and the right of the Regent's army began to give -way. Grange, who was watching the field from above, quickly brought up -reinforcements from the main body, and made so furious a charge on the -queen's left as to scatter it into fragments; and Murray, who had waited -with the reserve for the decisive moment, rushed forward with so much -impetuosity, that the main battle of the queen was broken, and the flight -became general (May 13, 1568). Mary, who had surveyed the conflict from -the castle of Crookston, on a neighbouring height, about four miles from -Paisley, beholding the rout of her army, turned her horse and fled, and -never drew bit till she reached the abbey of Dundrennan, in Galloway. She -then set sail in a boat, and landed at Workington, in Cumberland. Here -she wrote to Elizabeth, expressing her strong confidence that Elizabeth -would receive her and protect her against her rebellious subjects. She -concluded her letter with these words:--"It is my earnest request that -your majesty will send for me as soon as possible, for my condition is -pitiable, not to say for a queen, but even for a simple gentlewoman. I -have no other dress than that in which I escaped from the field. My first -day's ride was sixty miles across the country, and I have not since dared -to travel except by night." - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -REIGN OF ELIZABETH (_continued_). - - Elizabeth Determines to Imprison Mary--The Conference at - York--It is Moved to London--The Casket Letters--Mary is sent - Southwards--Remonstrances of the European Sovereigns--Affairs - in the Netherlands--Alva is sent Thither--Elizabeth Aids the - Insurgents--Proposed Marriage between Mary and Norfolk--The - Plot is Discovered--Rising in the North--Its Suppression--Death - of the Regent Murray--Its Consequences in Scotland--Religious - Persecutions--Execution of Norfolk--Massacre of St. - Bartholomew--Siege of Edinburgh Castle--War in France--Splendid - Defence of La Rochelle--Death of Charles IX.--Religious War in the - Netherlands--Rule of Don John--The Anjou Marriage--Deaths of Anjou - and of William the Silent. - - -Elizabeth, on reading Mary's letter, felt that she was now entirely in -her power; and all her art was exerted to draw her over into the heart -of the kingdom, so that she could neither retreat nor escape to France. -She took every measure to avoid alarming her. She dispatched letters -to the sheriff of Cumberland, commanding him to treat the Scottish -queen with all honour, but to keep the strictest watch over her, and to -prevent any possibility of escape. Nothing was farther from Elizabeth's -intentions than to enter on friendly terms with the Queen of Scots. -She had never forgiven her the offence of insisting on her claims of -succession to the crown of England. She had a personal jealousy of the -fame of her superior beauty; and, with such a counsellor as Cecil, it -was certain that a selfish and suspicious policy would prevail. In those -days, honour and high principle were of little account: expediency was -the only statesmanship. It was, therefore, easy for Elizabeth and her -ministers to plead the accusations against Mary--the imprudence of her -conduct, and her still unabated infatuation for the murderer Bothwell. -Mary was a firm Papist, Murray was a high professing Protestant, and to -favour him and his party was to be the champion of Protestantism. To let -Mary escape to France was not to be thought of, for of all things it was -essential to keep asunder the union of French and Scottish interests. It -was clear, therefore, that Mary must be detained in England, at least for -the present; after she had been sufficiently discredited she might be -allowed to return to Scotland. - -Elizabeth, after some consideration, determined that Mary's conduct -should be submitted to a formal inquiry. When Mary learned that a message -was actually on its way to call Murray and his accomplices to England, -to prefer their charges against her, she protested vehemently against -such a proceeding and declared that she would rather die than submit to -such indignity. Murray received his summons with his usual artfulness. -He was required by Elizabeth to prefer his charges against the Queen of -Scots, but in the meantime to refrain from hostilities. He obeyed the -requisition; placed his soldiers in quarters; but demanded to know what -was to be the result of the inquiry. If the queen was declared innocent, -what guarantee was he to receive for his own security? If guilty, what -then? He said he had already sent copies of his proofs by his servant -Wood; and if they were found to be faithful to the originals, would they -be deemed conclusive? - -Thus the cunning Regent was seeking to ascertain whether he had already -evidence deemed by the selected judge sufficiently damnatory, or whether -he should fabricate more. Nothing could be cleverer than Elizabeth's -dealings in reply. She assured Murray, and also Mary, that she did not -set herself up as a judge of the Scottish queen, far less as an accuser; -that her sole object was to settle the disputes between Mary and her -subjects, and to reinstate her at once in their good opinion and in her -full power; but in secret she assured Murray, as we learn from Goodall -and Anderson, that, whatever were her assurances to Mary, she really -meant to try her and, if she could find her guilty, to retain her in -perpetual imprisonment. - -After considerable delay Murray appointed his commissioners--the Earl -of Morton, the Bishop of Orkney, Lord Lindsay, and the commendator of -Dunfermline, who were to be assisted by Maitland, Buchanan, and Macgill. -Elizabeth appointed, as hers, the Duke of Norfolk, the Earl of Sussex, -and Sir Ralph Sadler. Maitland, at this juncture, while engaged on the -part of Murray, sent Mary copies of the letters which Murray intended to -present against her, and begged her to say what he could do to assist -her. She replied, that he should use his influence to abate the rigour of -Murray, influence the Duke of Norfolk as much as possible in her favour, -and rely on the Bishop of Ross as her sincere friend. She then named, on -her part, the said Bishop of Ross, the Lords Herries, Boyd, Livingston, -the abbot of Kilwinning, Sir John Gordon of Lochinvar, and Sir John -Cockburn of Stirling. - -The Commissioners, Murray attending in person with his own, met at York, -on the 4th of October. Some obstruction of business was occasioned by -the Duke of Norfolk insisting that, as the Regent had consented to plead -before Elizabeth, he must first do homage to the English crown. This was -refused, and was therefore waived; but the step discovered the desire -of Elizabeth to seize on this occasion to achieve what none of her -ancestors could accomplish--the acknowledgment of the feudal vassalage -of Scotland. The next betrayed the duplicity of her promises to the two -parties. Mary's commissioners claimed that the engagement of Elizabeth -to place Mary on the throne of Scotland in any case, should appear in -their powers; and Murray's, on the contrary, pleaded the queen's promise -that if Mary were pronounced guilty she should remain a prisoner. These -contradictory powers were granted, and Mary's commissioners opened -the conference with their charges that Murray and his associates had -rebelliously risen in arms against their lawful sovereign, had deposed -and imprisoned her, and compelled her to seek justice from her royal -kinswoman. - -Murray was now called upon to reply, but, instead of openly and boldly -stating his reasons for the course he had pursued, and producing and -substantiating, as Elizabeth hoped and expected, the charges of her -participating in her husband's murder, which he had so long and loudly -vaunted, he solicited a private interview with the English commissioners, -before whom he stated his defence. In this defence, to the unmitigated -astonishment and disappointment of Elizabeth and her ministers, he made -no charge against Mary of participation in the murder of Darnley; but -reiterated the charges against her of marrying Bothwell, and the danger -thereby incurred by the prince. Nor was this all. Mary's commissioners -did not so far excuse him; they accused him boldly of complicity with -Bothwell and the murderers, and of being on the most friendly terms with -Bothwell whilst the marriage with the queen was in progress. Murray, with -all his art, was confounded and silenced. - -[Illustration: LORD BURLEIGH. (_From the Portrait by Mark Gerard._)] - -It is said that the arguments and disclosures of the Duke of Norfolk -had, at this moment, greatly staggered him. Norfolk had conceived the -design of marrying the Queen of Scots; and, in order to deter Murray -from pressing the worst charges, intimated to him privately that he was -pursuing a dangerous course, for that Elizabeth, it was well known, -never meant to decide against Mary. Murray was rendered sufficiently -cautious to abstain from the public accusation of the queen; but he laid -privately before Norfolk, Suffolk, and Sadler, the alleged contents of -the celebrated silver casket, consisting of love-letters and sonnets, -addressed by Mary to Bothwell, and a contract of marriage in the -handwriting of Huntley. Copies of these were transmitted to Elizabeth. - -Being now in possession of Murray's charges, Elizabeth determined to -compel him to make them openly, her grand object being to establish an -accusation of Mary sufficiently atrocious to warrant her in keeping her -a perpetual prisoner. For this reason she summoned the Commission to -Westminster, alleging that York was too distant for a quick transaction -of business. When Murray appeared before Elizabeth, he found, to his -dismay, that she was perfectly informed of his private interviews with -Norfolk, and she insisted that he should make a public accusation of -Mary, threatening in case of refusal, to transfer her interests to the -Duke of Chatelherault, and to favour the latter's claim to the Regency. -But Murray was not inclined to make this accusation, unless assured that -Elizabeth would pronounce sentence on Mary, which Norfolk had led him -to doubt. Mary, on the other hand, received information from Hepburn of -Riccarton, a confederate of Bothwell's, that Elizabeth was of all things -really anxious to compel Murray to this accusation. To prevent this, she -ordered her commissioners, if any such attempt was made at accusing her, -to demand her immediate admission to the presence of Elizabeth, and, if -that were refused, to break up the conference. - -[Illustration: FARTHING OF ELIZABETH.] - -[Illustration: HALFPENNY OF ELIZABETH.] - -[Illustration: PENNY OF ELIZABETH.] - -[Illustration: TWOPENCE OF ELIZABETH.] - -These conferences were opened in the Painted Chamber at Westminster, -the commissioners of Mary refusing to meet in any judicial court; and, -acting on the instruction of their queen, they at once demanded the -admission of Mary to Elizabeth's presence, on the reasonable plea that -that privilege had been granted to Murray. This was again declined, on -the old ground that Mary must first clear herself; and on the retirement -of the commissioners it was demanded of Murray to put in his accusation -in writing, Bacon, the Lord Keeper, assuring him that, if Mary were found -guilty, she should be either delivered to him, or kept safe in England. -To this Murray replied, that he had prepared his written accusation, -but that before he would give it in he must have an assurance, under -the hand of Elizabeth, that she would pronounce judgment. On this Cecil -said, "Where is your accusation?" and Murray's secretary, Wood, taking it -imprudently from his bosom, replied, "Here it is, and here it must remain -till we have the queen's written assurance." But while he spoke the paper -was snatched from his hand by Bothwell, Bishop of Orkney, who rushed over -the table, pursued by Wood, and handed it to the English commissioners. -It was received amid roars of laughter, and Cecil, who had now gained his -great object, became radiant with exultation. The confusion of the scene -was extraordinary; Lord William Howard, a blunt sea-officer, shouting -aloud in his glee, and Maitland whispering to Murray that he had ruined -his cause for ever. - -[Illustration: HALF-CROWN OF ELIZABETH.] - -[Illustration: HALF-SOVEREIGN OF ELIZABETH.] - -But as there was now no going back, the paper was read, and found to -contain the broadest and most direct charge against Mary, not only of -being an accomplice in the murder of her husband, but even of inciting -Bothwell to it, and then marrying the murderer. This was totally -different from Murray's former declaration to the English ministers; but -it was now backed by a similar one from Lord Lennox, demanding vengeance -for the death of his son. No sooner did the commissioners of the Queen -of Scots hear this than they most indignantly condemned the conduct of -the English commissioners, declared themselves prepared to prove that -Murray and his friends themselves were the actual authors, and some of -them the perpetrators of the murder. They demanded instant admittance -to the presence of Elizabeth; complained loudly of the breach of the -contract that nothing should be received in prejudice of their queen's -honour, in her absence; demanded the instant arrest of the authors of the -foul charge, and, on that being refused, broke off the conference. - -Here, indeed, the conference really ceased. Elizabeth, despite the -withdrawal of Mary's commissioners, summoned Murray to produce his -proofs; and the pretended love-letters and sonnets, of which Elizabeth -had already had copies, were spread before her commissioners. The -originals of these celebrated documents have long disappeared, but -the copies which remained have evidently been tampered with, and have -been pronounced most suspicious by all who have examined them. Mary, -on hearing this, demanded by her commissioners the right to see these -papers, declaring that she would prove the exhibitors of them the real -murderers, and expose them as liars and traitors. This most reasonable -request was refused, and Elizabeth, having now all she wanted, delivered -by her Council this extraordinary decision on the 10th of January, -1569:--That neither against the Queen of Scotland, nor against Murray, -had any convincing charge of crime, on the one hand, or treason on -the other, been shown; and that the Queen of England saw no cause to -conceive an ill opinion of her good sister of Scotland. It was conceded -that Mary should have copies of the papers in the casket, on condition -that she should reply to them, which she consented to do, provided that -Murray and her accusers were detained to abide the consequence. This, -however, did not suit the object of Elizabeth. Murray and his associates -were permitted to retire to Scotland, but it was declared that, on many -grounds, the Queen of Scots must remain in England. - -Meanwhile Elizabeth had removed Mary farther from the Scottish border. -She evidently doubted the security of the Queen of Scots so near her -Scottish subjects, and in a part of the country so extremely Popish. -Mary, on her part, was quite sensible of the views of Elizabeth, and -protested against going farther into the interior of England. She did -not hesitate to express her opinion that it was the intention of Cecil -to make away with her. But resistance on her part was now hopeless. -She was in the hands of a powerful and unscrupulous woman, who every -day felt more and more the difficult position in which she had placed -herself by thus making herself the gaoler, against all right and honour, -of an independent queen. She sent express orders to Scrope and Knollys -to permit no person to approach the Queen of Scots who was likely to -dissuade her from her removal, and furnished them with a list of such -well-affected gentlemen as should attend her on her way through the -different counties. On the 26th of January, 1569, in wintry weather, -Mary and her attendants were obliged to quit Bolton Castle and, mounted -on miserable horses, to take their way southward. On the 2nd of February -they reached Ripon, and thence proceeded to Tutbury Castle, a ruinous -house belonging to the Earl of Shrewsbury, who was now her keeper. The -castle lay high above the valley of the Dove, and was a wretched abode -for a crowned head; and Mary was watched and guarded with the utmost -anxiety lest some of her partisans should find means of communicating -with her. - -Not only were the Roman Catholic subjects of Elizabeth greatly -discontented with the detention of the Scottish queen--whom Elizabeth -had again removed to Wingfield Manor, in Derbyshire, in April--but the -sovereigns of the Continent also remonstrated with Elizabeth on the -injustice of treating a queen--as much a sovereign as herself--as a -captive and a criminal. Elizabeth, however, feeling that she had now -little to fear from them, replied that they were labouring under a -mistake; and that so far from treating the Queen of Scots as a captive, -she was giving her refuge and protection against her rebellious subjects, -who sought her life, and laid the most grievous crimes to her charge. - -The Duke of Norfolk, and the Earls of Arundel and Pembroke, as friends of -Mary, were extremely hostile to Cecil, regarding him as the real mover -and influencer of the queen against her. They succeeded in securing the -favour of Leicester to their design against him, who ventured to lay -their complaints, as the complaints of the country, before Elizabeth, -representing the clamour against the measures of Cecil, and the belief -that his policy was prejudicial to her reputation and injurious to the -interests of the realm, as universal. Elizabeth defended her favourite -minister with zeal; but the politic Cecil was struck with a degree -of alarm at their combination, which might have eventually proved -formidable, had they not stumbled on the scheme of marrying Norfolk to -Mary. The results of that scheme, however, we must postpone till we have -noticed some anterior affairs. - -We have seen how Elizabeth assisted the Huguenots in France. In the -Netherlands she was not less active. The commercial natives of these -countries had not only grown rich under the mild sway of the Dukes of -Burgundy, but they had exercised privileges which did not accord with the -bigoted and despotic notions of Philip II. Both Protestants and Romanists -murmured at his harsh and arbitrary government. The latter complained -that opulent abbeys in the possession of natives were dissolved to -form bishoprics for Spaniards. The Protestants groaned under a stern -persecution, and every class of subjects beheld with horror and disgust -the Spanish Inquisition introduced. Protestants and Papists alike united -to put down this odious institution. The league, from including both -religious parties, was named the Compromise, and the Prince of Orange and -the Counts Egmont and Horn took the lead in it. The Duchess of Parma, -who governed the country, gave way before the storm, and abolished the -Inquisition, which had the effect of separating the Roman Catholics from -the Protestants. The latter deemed it necessary, when thus deserted, to -conduct their worship with arms in their hands; and the duchess, alarmed -at this hostile attitude, issued a proclamation forbidding all such -assemblies. In Antwerp and other cities where the English and German -Protestants greatly abounded, no notice was taken of her proclamation; -but it was resolved no longer to remain on the defensive, but to carry -the war into the enemy's quarters. - -The people, assembling in April, 1567, in vast crowds, proceeded to -demolish the images and altars in the churches, and even to pull the -churches down. On the feast of the Assumption, as the priests were -carrying an image of the Virgin through the streets, the crowd made -terrible menaces against it, and the procession was glad to hasten back -to the church from which it had set out. But a few days afterwards the -people rushed to the cathedral, which was filled with rich shrines, -treasures, and works of art, and set systematically to work to smash and -destroy every image that it contained. Amongst these was a crucifix, -placed aloft, the work of a famous artist, which they dragged down with -ropes, and knocked in pieces. The pictures, many of them very valuable, -they cut to shreds, and the altars and shrines they tore down and -utterly destroyed. From the desecrated cathedral they proceeded to the -other churches, where they perpetrated the same ruin, and thence to the -convents and monasteries, driving the monks and nuns destitute into the -streets. The example of Antwerp was zealously followed in every other -province in the Netherlands, except in the Walloons. The iconoclasts were -at length interrupted in their work by the Duchess of Parma, who fell -upon them near Antwerp, and defeated them with great slaughter. Philip -dispatched the notorious Duke of Alva to take vengeance on the turbulent -heretics, and overran the Netherlands with his butcheries. The Prince of -Orange retired to his province of Nassau, but Horn and Egmont were seized -and beheaded on the 5th of June, 1568. - -The Huguenots in France, alarmed at this success of Alva, and believing -that he was appointed to carry into execution the secret league of -Bayonne, for compelling the Protestants of France, Spain, and Flanders, -to give up their religion or their lives, rose under Conde, and attempted -to seize the king, Charles IX., at Monceaux. Charles, however, was -rescued by his Swiss guards, who, surrounding him in a body, beat off -the Huguenots, and conducted him in safety to Paris. There, he was, -nevertheless, a prisoner, till he was released by the defeat of the -Huguenots at the battle of St. Denis, where his principal general, the -constable Montmorency, was killed. Conde had fallen in the battle of -Jarnac (March 15, 1569). Norris, the English ambassador, was accused -of giving encouragement and aid to the insurgents, and the king was -compelled to make a treaty with his armed subjects. In the spring of -1568, 3,000 of these French Huguenots marched into Flanders, to join the -Prince of Orange, who had taken the field against Alva. After various -successes, the prince, at the close of the campaign, was obliged to -retreat across the Rhine. - -Throughout these struggles, both in France and Belgium, Elizabeth lent -much aid and encouragement in the shape of money; but, with her usual -caution, she would take no public part in the contest, and all the while -professed herself the friend of Philip, and most hostile to rebellion. - -The summer of 1569 was distinguished by a remarkable scheme for -the marriage of the Duke of Norfolk to the Queen of Scots, which -ended fatally for that nobleman, and increased the rigour of Mary's -incarceration. The scheme was said to have originated in the ever-busy -brain of Maitland. Murray fell into it, probably under the idea that -Mary would then content herself with living in England, and leave the -government of Scotland in his hands; or it might have entered into his -calculations that it would, on discovery, so exasperate Elizabeth, as -to lead to what it did, the closer imprisonment of the Queen of Scots, -which would be equally acceptable to him. Elizabeth was not long in -catching the rumours of this plot, and she burst out on the duke in her -fiercest style; but Norfolk had the art to satisfy her of the folly of -such an idea, by replying that such a thing had, indeed, been suggested -to him, but that it was not a thing likely to captivate him, who loved to -sleep on a safe pillow. The plan, however, went on, and from one motive -or another, it eventually included amongst its promoters the Earls of -Pembroke, Arundel, Bedford, Shrewsbury, Northumberland, and Westmoreland. -Leicester and Throgmorton were induced to embrace it, and even Cecil was -made aware of it and favoured it. In Scotland, Murray, Maitland, the -Bishop of Ross, and Lord Boyd, were favourable to the measure. Mary was -sounded on the subject, and professed her readiness to be divorced from -Bothwell; but as to marriage, from her past sorrowful experience, she -would rather retain her solitary life; yet, if the sanction of Elizabeth -was obtained, she would consent to take Norfolk--but not, since all her -miseries had flowed from her marriage with Darnley, contrary to the Queen -of England's pleasure. The duke, on his part, when it was proposed to -him, had recommended Leicester rather, and on his declining, his own -brother Lord Henry Howard. How far either party was sincere in these -statements matters little; the promoters were urgent and they acquiesced. - -The Bishop of Ross, with the apparent approbation of Murray, undertook -to negotiate with Elizabeth for the restoration of the Scottish queen, -on condition that neither she nor her issue should lay claim to the -English throne during the life of Elizabeth; and that Mary should -enter into a perpetual league, offensive and defensive, with England, -and establish the Reformed religion in Scotland. Elizabeth affected -to listen to these proposals, and the matter went so far that, on the -assembling of the Scottish Parliament in July, 1569, Murray professed to -be quite agreeable to the liberation of Mary, but took care to reject -the proposals approved of by Elizabeth, and opposed the appointment to -examine the queen's marriage with Bothwell. Maitland at once fathomed -the long-concealed deceit of the Regent, and dreading his vengeance on -those who had committed themselves in the matter, took a hasty flight -into the fastnesses of Athole. - -And now befell what, no doubt, Murray had calculated upon. He despatched -an envoy to the English queen, bearing full details of the propositions -laid before the Scottish Parliament, and the consent received from -Bothwell in Denmark to the divorce. The marriage with Norfolk, which was -the end and object of all these plottings, had never been communicated -to Elizabeth; for though Leicester had promised to impart it to her, -he had not ventured to do it. Elizabeth immediately invited Norfolk to -dine with her at Farnham, and, on rising from table, reminded him, in -a very significant tone, of his speech when charged with such a design -some time before, saying, "My lord duke, beware on what pillow you lay -your head." Alarmed at this expression, Norfolk urged Leicester to -redeem his promise, and speak to the queen on the subject; and this he -did, under pretence of being seriously ill, while the queen was sitting -by his bedside. The rage of Elizabeth was unbounded, but on Leicester -expressing the deepest regret for his meddling in the matter, she forgave -him, but sent for Norfolk and poured out on him her wrath and scorn. -Norfolk expressed himself perfectly indifferent to the alliance, though -so strongly recommended by his friends; but his words and manner did not -deceive the deep-sighted queen. She continued to regard him with stern -looks, and the courtiers immediately avoided him as a dangerous person. -Leicester, who had promised him so much, lowered upon him as a public -disturber. Norfolk felt it most agreeable to withdraw from Court, and -his example was followed by his staunch friends Pembroke and Arundel. -From Norfolk he wrote to Elizabeth excusing his absence, and expressing -fears of the acts and slanders of his enemies. Elizabeth immediately -commanded him to return to London. Her first information from Murray had -been increased by the treachery of that nobleman and of Leicester, who -had hastened to reveal to her the secret correspondence of Norfolk with -them. His friends advised him to fly, but he did not venture on this, but -wrote to Cecil to intercede with the queen. Cecil assured him there was -no danger; the duke, therefore, proceeded to London, and was instantly -arrested and committed to the Tower in October, 1569. - -At the same time Elizabeth joined the Earl of Huntingdon, an avowed -enemy of the Queen of Scots, in commission with her keeper, the Earl -of Shrewsbury, and Viscount Hertford, to secure more completely the -person of Mary, who was again removed to Tutbury, and to examine her -papers for further proofs of the correspondence with Norfolk. Her -confidential servants had been dismissed; her person surrounded by an -armed force; and her cabinets and apartments were strictly searched for -this correspondence, but without effect. It is also asserted that it was -determined to put her to death, if, as had been expected, the Duke of -Norfolk should attempt her rescue by force. The friends of Mary blamed -the duke for not having taken arms for her rescue, declaring that a short -time would have brought whole hosts to his standard, but Norfolk must -have too well known the hopelessness of such an enterprise. - -[Illustration: THE DUKE OF NORFOLK'S INTERVIEW WITH ELIZABETH. (_See p._ -280.)] - -The disclosure of the plot produced consternation and distrust on all -sides. Murray, in revealing the correspondence with Norfolk, had not been -able to escape suspicion himself. Elizabeth saw enough to believe that -he had been an active promoter of the scheme; she saw still clearer that -Maitland had been the originator of it; she was, moreover, incensed at -the double-faced part which Murray's secretary, Wood, had been playing -in the matter in London; and she ordered Lord Hunsdon, and her other -agents in the North, to keep a sharp eye on Murray, and the movements -of the leading Scots. To propitiate Elizabeth Murray determined to -sacrifice Maitland; he, therefore, lured him from his retreat by some -plausible artifice, when, on the demand of Lennox, he was arrested in the -Council as one of the murderers of his son Darnley. Sir James Balfour, -whom Lennox also accused, was seized with his brother George, in spite -of the pardon which had been granted him on this head. In the midst of -Murray's exultation over his success, Kirkaldy of Grange, dreading fresh -disclosures, attacked the house where Maitland was kept, and carried him -off. - -As the autumn approached, there were repeated rumours of rebellion -in the North, which alarmed the Court of Elizabeth. On inquiry, -however, no trace of such a thing could be discovered, and the Earls of -Northumberland and Westmoreland, when questioned, gave such apparently -honest and satisfactory answers, that the Government was perplexed. -Suddenly, however, at the beginning of October, the two earls received -a summons to York on the queen's business, and the Earl of Sussex was -instructed, when he had secured them, to forward them to London. The -fate of Norfolk, and consciousness of their actual secret proceedings, -determined them to disobey the summons. But, unfortunately for them, -their plans of action were yet so immature that they were not prepared -to take up arms. While consulting what course to follow, the summons of -Sussex arrived, and at the same time a rumour that a force was on the -march to arrest Northumberland at Topcliffe. He and his countess hastened -to Branspeth Castle, where the Earl of Westmoreland had already assembled -around him his guests and retainers. Northumberland was still of opinion -that they should avoid hostilities, for which they were unprepared; -but others, and amongst them the Countess of Westmoreland, the sister -of Norfolk, the Markenfields and Nortons, demanded war. Northumberland -still dissented, and resolved to set out for Alnwick; but was detained by -force, and the banner of revolt was unfurled. - -The first step of the insurgents was to occupy the city of Durham. So -insignificant was their number at this moment, that only sixty horsemen -followed the banner of the two earls. But their appeals to rise and -defend the ancient faith found a strong response. Mass was celebrated -in the cathedral before some thousands of people, who tore up the -English Bible and destroyed the Communion table. They then, continually -increasing in numbers, marched through Staindrop, Darlington, Richmond, -and Ripon, everywhere turning out the appliances of the Reformed worship -from the churches, and reinstating the ancient ritual. - -They proceeded as far as Bramham Moor, or, according to other -authorities, Clifford Moor, near Wetherby, where their forces were found -to amount to 1,700 horse, and something less than 4,000 foot, but many of -them badly armed. The earls, who were famous for their hospitality, had -but little ready money; Northumberland bringing only 8,000 crowns, and -Westmoreland nothing at all. The Roman Catholics did not rise in their -favour, as they had calculated. The insurgents had sent to the Spanish -ambassador soliciting his help, but he referred them to the Duke of -Alva, and the duke waited for orders from Philip. This aid not arriving -cast a damp on the Romanists, who now, doubting of the expedition, lay -still, or went over to the Royal army under the Earl of Sussex. To add to -their confusion, 800 horse, whom they had despatched to Secure the Queen -of Scots at Tutbury, returned with the news that she was removed thence -to Coventry. They were confounded by this intelligence, and still more by -the rumours of the numerous forces which were being raised under Ambrose -Dudley, Earl of Warwick, and the Lord Admiral, whilst Lord Hunsdon from -Berwick was hastening down upon them with his garrison and Royalists from -the Borders. - -Dissension now began to appear in their ranks and amongst the leaders. -The Earl of Westmoreland, who at first was the most daring, now began -to hesitate; and Northumberland, who was, in a manner, dragged into the -rising, on the contrary, counselled bold measures, as they had committed -themselves. The result, however, was that they retreated to the Earl of -Westmoreland's castle of Branspeth. They there issued a new manifesto; -and as the Papists had not come forward as they expected, they now -dropped the argument of religion, and took up the plea that there was a -determination at Court to exercise arbitrary power over the lives and -liberties of the subject, and that it was necessary to drive from her -Majesty's counsels the persons who gave her pernicious advice. - -But this retreat had shaken the confidence of the people; and the -different noblemen to whom they sent messengers followed the example -of the Earl of Derby, and arrested them and sent them to the queen. -The measures on the part of Elizabeth's Government were active and -effectual. Orders were issued to muster a large army in the south. The -Earl of Bedford was despatched to maintain quiet in Wales. A regiment of -well-disciplined troops was marched from the Isle of Wight to defend the -person of the sovereign, and suspected persons were arrested. To prevent -any communication with the foreign princes, the mail-bags of the Spanish -and French ambassadors were stopped and examined. Leicester entreated to -be sent against the rebels, but Elizabeth would not risk his precious -life, and kept him near her as her chief adviser, Cecil being indisposed. - -The patience of Elizabeth was greatly tried by the cautious delay of the -Earl of Sussex, who was her commander in the north, and especially as his -procrastination allowed the two earls to besiege Sir George Bowes in -Barnard Castle for eleven days, which then opened its gates. There were -even insinuations that Sussex was in secret league with the rebel earls. -On the approach of the army of the Earl of Warwick, 12,000 in number, -the insurgents held a council at Durham, on the 16th of December, 1569; -but dissension again broke out between Westmoreland and Northumberland -to such a degree that the forces scattered, and the enterprise was at -an end. The foot got away to their homes, and the earls fled across the -Border with 500 horse. - -In England no severity was spared in punishing the fallen insurgents. -Those who possessed property were reserved for trial in the courts, -to secure the forfeiture of their estates. These, and the fugitives -together, amounted to fifty-seven noblemen, gentlemen, and freeholders, -so that their wealth would form a good fund for the payment of the -expenses of the campaign, and the reward of the officers and soldiers. -On the poorer class Sussex let loose his vengeance with a fury which -was intended to convince Elizabeth of his before-questioned loyalty. In -the county of Durham he put to death more than 300 individuals, hanging -at Durham at one time sixty-three constables; and Sir George Bowes made -his boast that, for sixty miles in length, and fifty miles in breadth, -between Newcastle and Wetherby, there was hardly a town or village in -which he did not gibbet some of the inhabitants as a warning to the rest; -a cruelty, says Bishop Percy, "which exceeds that practised in the West -after Monmouth's rebellion; but this was not the age of tenderness or -humanity." Sussex, in writing to Cecil, says, "I gesse it will not be -under six or seven hundred at leaste of the common sort that shall be -executed, besides the prisoners taken in the field." - -Meanwhile the Regent Murray, finding that there would never be any rest -for either England or Scotland while the Queen of Scots was detained in -her unjust captivity, entered into serious negotiations with Elizabeth, -to have her surrendered to his own custody, when it would have been in -his power to get rid of her on some pretence. Knox, in no equivocal -language, in a letter to Cecil which still remains, had recommended her -being put out of the way, telling him, "If ye strike not at the root, the -branches that appear to be broken will bud again, and this more quickly -than man can believe, with greater force than we could wish." On the -day on which this letter was dated, Murray despatched Elphinstone to -Elizabeth, to impress upon her the absolute necessity of some immediate -and decisive dealing with Mary. He assured her that the faction in her -favour both at home and abroad was daily acquiring fresh force; that the -Spaniards and the Pope were intriguing with the Romanists of England and -Scotland, and that daily succours were expected from France. He demanded -that she should, therefore, at once exchange the Queen of Scots for -Northumberland, and enable him, by a proper supply of money and arms, to -resist their common foes. He entreated her to remember that the heads -of all these troubles--no doubt meaning Mary and Norfolk--were at her -command, and that if she declined this arrangement, he must forbear to -adventure his life as he had done. - -These negotiations, however private, did not escape the knowledge of -Mary's friends. The Bishop of Ross immediately entered a protest before -Elizabeth against the scheme, which he declared would be tantamount -to signing the death-warrant of the Queen of Scots. He induced the -ambassadors of France and Spain to enter like protests; but whether they -would have been effective remains a mystery, for Elizabeth had despatched -Sir Henry Gates to the Regent on the subject, when the news of Murray's -end altered the whole position of affairs. - -Private revenge and public had combined to accomplish this tragedy. -James Hamilton, of Bothwellhaugh, an estate adjoining the celebrated -Bothwell-brig, was one of the Hamilton clan who fought at Langside, and -was there taken and condemned to death, but let off with the forfeit of -his estate. The loss of his property might have been cause enough of -discontent to a proud and high-spirited gentleman, but this was rendered -tenfold more intolerable by the seizure of that of his wife, and her -ejectment from it in the most brutal manner. He determined to have -revenge. - -Murray was about to proceed from Stirling to Edinburgh, and had arranged -to pass through Linlithgow. The Archbishop of St. Andrews, the uncle -of Bothwellhaugh, had an old palace in the High Street of that town, -through which Murray must pass. Bothwellhaugh took possession of this, -and made all his preparations for the murder with the coolest exactness. -He barricaded the front door, so that no one could, without considerable -delay, force their way in to seize him. In the back yard he placed a -powerful and swift horse, ready bridled and saddled for flight; and even -removed the head of the doorway, so as to admit him to spring upon his -steed, and ride through it without the moment's delay of leading the -horse there. He then cut a hole for the barrel of his gun through a panel -below a window, in a sort of wooden gallery, from which he could survey -the procession. To prevent his booted steps from being heard, he laid -a feather bed on the floor, and to prevent the possible casting of a -shadow, hung up behind him a black cloth. These preparations being made, -he stood ready, with his piece loaded with four bullets. - -[Illustration: THE REGENT MURRAY. - -(_From the Portrait in the Collection at Holyrood Palace._)] - -The Regent had been duly warned of his danger by a faithful servant named -John Herne, who seems to have had full knowledge of Bothwellhaugh's plan -and place of ambush, and offered to take the Regent where he could seize -the assassin on the spot. With that fatal neglect which so often attends -such victims, Murray agreed to avoid the public street, but took no means -to secure the murderer. The crowd on entering the town became so great -that he allowed himself to be densely surrounded--as it were, borne -irresistibly along the fatal street. The throng, moreover, compelled him -to move slowly, giving his enemy ample time to take aim. As he passed the -archbishop's house, Bothwellhaugh fired so accurately that he shot him -through the body, and killed the horse of the person riding next to him -(January 23, 1570). The confusion which followed allowed the assassin -to escape before his barricade could be forced, and he was just seen -galloping away towards Hamilton. There the archbishop, the Lord Arbroath, -and the whole clan of the Hamiltons, received him in triumph, as the -liberator of his country from an unnatural tyrant who was plotting the -murder of his sister and sovereign. They immediately flew to arms, and -resolved to march to Edinburgh, liberate the Duke of Chatelherault, and -assume the government. - -The assassination of Murray greatly disconcerted the policy of Elizabeth. -The wily diplomatist who had such strong reasons for securing her -co-operation in detaining the Queen of Scots from the throne, being gone, -there was a serious danger of the two parties combining, and, by the aid -of France, placing Mary, if not on the throne, at least at their head -during the minority of her son. The Hamiltons, Maitland, Herries, Huntly, -and Argyll, were all on the side of the Queen of Scots, and Morton and -his associates were in no condition of themselves to resist them. They -were on the march to secure the castles of Dumbarton and Edinburgh; -the French were already on the Clyde; the Kers and Scots, friends of -Mary, had burst across the Border, accompanied by the refugee Earl of -Westmoreland; and an emissary from the Duke of Alva had arrived, bringing -money, and promise of substantial help from Philip. It was necessary -to sow instant dissension in Scotland, and for this purpose Elizabeth -dispatched that subtle intriguer, Sir Thomas Randolph, to that country -only three days after Murray's death, and resolved to recommend Lennox, -whom the Hamiltons hated, as Regent. The young king, indeed, was his -grandson, and therefore he had a natural claim to that position, if his -abilities had been adequate to its responsibilities. - -[Illustration: HIGH STREET, LINLITHGOW.] - -Fortune seemed to favour Elizabeth. At the very moment that Cecil was -recommending these measures, Lord Hunsdon, the Governor of Berwick, -wrote to inform her that Morton was anxious to secure her support, and -that nobleman lost no time in waiting on Sir Henry Gates and Sir William -Drury, who had arrived on a mission to Murray, just before he was killed. -He represented that his party trusted to the Queen of England not to -liberate the Queen of Scotland, or the foreigners would soon possess the -chief power in Scotland, but to send them Lennox as Regent, and assist -them as she had assisted Murray, and they would pledge themselves to -pursue the same policy. Randolph, on his arrival, promised them the -queen's aid, and encouraged them to refuse any connection with the -Hamiltons, who had warned them to acknowledge no authority but that of -the queen. Morton and his friends replied by a proclamation, maintaining -the rights of the king, and forbidding any one, on pain of treason, to -hold communication with the Hamiltons. As they wanted a clever head, -they liberated Maitland from the castle; and on his declaration of -innocence of the murder of Darnley--a notorious untruth--they reinstated -him in his old post of Secretary, and made Morton Chancellor. Randolph -assured them of Elizabeth's determination to increase the rigour of -the imprisonment of the Queen of Scots, and promised them both money -and soldiers on condition that they should take care that the young -king should not be carried off to France, that they should maintain the -Protestant religion, and deliver up Westmoreland and Northumberland. -These conditions were readily accepted, and letters were dispatched to -hasten the arrival of Lennox. - -On the queen's side were now ranged the whole power of the Hamiltons, -the Earls of Argyll, Huntly, Athole, Errol, Crawford, and Marshall; -Caithness, Cassillis, Sutherland, and Eglinton; the Lords Home, Seton, -Ogilvy, Ross, Borthwick, Oliphant, Yester, and Fleming; Herries, Boyd, -Somerville, Innermeith, Forbes, and Gray. But more than all, their -strength lay in the military abilities of Kirkaldy of Grange, and the -diplomatic abilities of Maitland, who was no sooner at liberty than he -went over to them. On the side of the king were Lennox, Mar, the governor -of his youthful majesty, Glencairn, Buchanan, and the Lords Glammis, -Ruthven, Lindsay, Cathcart, Methven, Ochiltree, and Saltoun. - -The friends of Mary, encouraged by promise of support from Spain and -France, liberated Chatelherault from the castle of Edinburgh, and -compelled Randolph to fly to Berwick. They then addressed a memorial to -Elizabeth, calling upon her to put an end to the miseries of Scotland by -liberating the queen. But Elizabeth was in no humour to listen to such -requests. She had excited all Mary's friends at home and abroad, and a -perpetual succession of intrigues, plots, and menaces of invasion kept -her in no enviable condition. The intrigues of Norfolk for obtaining -Mary, the successive rebellions in the northern shires, the invasions -of the Borderers under Buccleuch and Ferniehurst--who had announced -the death of Murray before it took place--and the constant rumours of -expeditions from France or Spain, wrought her to such a pitch, that on -pretence of seizing her rebels Northumberland and Westmoreland, she sent -the Earl of Sussex into Scotland at the head of 7,000 men, the real -object being to take vengeance on the allies of Mary, and to devastate -the country with fire and sword. - -This excessive fury so roused the indignation of all parties in -Scotland, and such loud remonstrances were made by Maitland, the Bishop -of Ross, and the French ambassador, that Elizabeth began to fear that -she had gone too far and, instead of ruining Mary's party, had created -her one out of her old enemies. She wrote to Sussex, commanding him to -stop the siege of Dumbarton, and to Randolph, ordering him to proceed -again from Berwick to Edinburgh, and to inform the two parties that, -having reasonably chastised her rebels, she had listened to the request -of Mary's ambassador the Bishop of Ross, and was about to arrange at -Chatsworth for the liberation and restoration of the Queen of Scots. -On this Sussex retired with his forces, and the commissioners for the -adjustment of the terms with Mary proceeded to the Peak. Cecil and -Mildmay were then the agents of Elizabeth; the Bishop of Ross that of -Mary. The Scottish queen, who had been removed about four months to this -palace of the Peak, then one of the houses of the Earl of Shrewsbury, her -keeper, during these negotiations showed herself a complete match for -the deep and practical diplomatists of Elizabeth; but of course she was -under the necessity of complying with many things which she would never -have listened to at liberty. Elizabeth expressed herself quite satisfied; -still the assent of the two parties in Scotland had to be obtained, and -that was not at all likely, so that Elizabeth's offer could appear fair, -and even liberal, with perfect safety. Morton, the head of the opponents -to Mary, advocated the right of subjects to depose their sovereigns -where they infringed the rights of the community--a doctrine which was -abominable to the ears of Elizabeth, and called forth her unqualified -censure. On the other hand, the guarantees to be given by and on -account of the Queen of Scots were such as never could be settled, from -Elizabeth's fears of the resentment of Mary if once she became free. Thus -the discussion was prolonged till Cecil found a way out of it without the -liberation of the Scottish Queen. He represented that if Elizabeth were -to marry a French prince, she would almost entirely annihilate any hopes -of the English crown in Mary: for if she had issue her claims would be -superseded; if she had not, then the French would be directly interested -in keeping Elizabeth firm on her throne. The Duke of Anjou was the prince -this time proposed, and Elizabeth appeared, as she generally did at -first, to listen with pleasure to the proposal. No sooner was this scheme -entertained than she caused the commissioners on the part of the King of -Scotland to be dismissed for the present, on pretence that they were -not furnished with sufficient credentials, by which she left herself at -liberty to renew the treaty if necessary, or to take no further notice -of it if she came to an arrangement with the French prince. Prolonged -negotiations with the French Court were set on foot, but neither party -was sincere, and eventually the marriage project was abandoned, though it -was subsequently revived in favour of Anjou's brother Alencon. - -No sooner had the Scottish commissioners withdrawn than Elizabeth -summoned a Parliament, in which she proceeded to the enactment of -severities against both Romanists and Protestants. Pope Pius V. had had -the folly to cause a bull of excommunication against Elizabeth to be -published. This now effete instrument of Papal vengeance could only serve -to enrage the heretic Queen, and to cause her wrath to fall heavily on -some zealous unfortunate. The lawyers being amongst those who clung the -longest to the old faith, a search was made in the inns of court for -copies of the offensive paper. One was found in the chambers of a poor -student, who, being stretched on the rack to force a confession from -him of the party from whom he had received it, to save himself from -torture, confessed that it was given to him by John Felton, a gentleman -living near Southwark. Felton was seized, and confessed to the fact of -delivering the bull to the student: and to force a revelation of his -accomplices from him he was tortured, but to no purpose--he would confess -nothing more. He was committed to the Tower on the 25th of May, and kept -till the 4th of August, when he was tried at Guildhall on a charge of -high treason, condemned, and executed with the disgusting cruelties of -being cut down alive, and then embowelled and quartered in St. Paul's -Churchyard, before the gates of the palace of the Bishop of London. - -On the 2nd of April, 1571, Parliament met at Westminster. A subsidy of -two shillings and eightpence in the pound was granted by the Commons, -and of five shillings in the pound by the clergy, towards defraying -the charges of suppressing the rebellion in the North, and of pursuing -the rebels and their abettors into Scotland. This obtained, a bill was -introduced to make it high treason for any one to claim a right to the -succession of the Crown during the lifetime of the queen, or to say that -it belonged to any other person than the queen. A second bill was passed -this session enacting that any one was guilty of high treason who not -merely obtained any bull from, or entered any suit in, the Court of -Rome, but who was merely absolved by the Pope, or by means of any Papal -instrument; and that all persons should suffer the pains of Praemunire who -received any _Agnus Dei_, cross, bead, or picture, which had been blessed -by the Pope, or any one deriving authority from him; and their aiders -and abettors the same. All persons whatsoever, of a certain age, were -bound to attend the Protestant worship, and receive the Sacrament as by -law established; and all such as had fled abroad in order to escape this -most despotic state of things were ordered to return within six months -and submit themselves, under penalty of suffering the forfeiture of all -property or rents from land. This Parliament was distinctly Puritan in -its temper, and introduced several bills for the reform of religious -worship, which were dropped in the House of Lords, or failed to receive -the royal assent. - -The result of the friendship between England and France was that many -of the English Catholics turned to Spain, and the dangerous conspiracy -was hatched which is known as the Ridolfi plot. In the month of April, -1571, Charles Bailly, a servant of the Queen of Scots, who was coming -from Brussels to Dover, was arrested at the latter place, and upon him -was discovered a packet of letters, which being written in cipher created -suspicion. The Bishop of Ross, Mary's staunch and vigilant friend, who -knew very well whence they came, on the first rumour of their seizure, -contrived to obtain them from Lord Cobham, in whose hands they were, from -a pretended curiosity to read them before they were sent to the Council. -Having obtained his desire, he dexterously substituted others, and very -innocent ones, in their place in a like cipher: but Bailly being sent to -the Tower and placed on the rack, at length confessed that he had written -the letters from the dictation of Ridolfi, of Brussels, formerly an -Italian banker in London, and then had been commissioned by him to convey -them to England. He further confessed that they contained assurances -from the Duke of Alva of his warm sympathy with the cause of the captive -queen, and approved of the plan of a foreign invasion of England; that -if his master the King of Spain authorised him, he should be ready to -co-operate with "30" and "40." Who these "30" and "40" were Bailly said -he did not know, but that all that was explained by a letter enclosed -to the Bishop of Ross, who was requested to deliver them to the right -persons. - -One of these persons was immediately believed to be the Duke of Norfolk. -When he had been ten months a prisoner without any matter having -been brought against him of more consequence than that of his having -desired to marry the Queen of Scots, provided the Queen of England was -willing--which was no treason--and had been brought to no trial, he -petitioned to be liberated, contending that though he was wrong in not -communicating everything fully to the queen, yet that he had neither -committed nor intended any crime, and that his health and circumstances -were suffering greatly from his close imprisonment. In consequence, he -was removed from the Tower on the 4th of August, 1570, to one of his -own houses, under the custody of Sir Henry Neville. He certainly then -obtained sufficient variety of prisons, but no more liberty, for he -was repeatedly removed from one house to another. He petitioned to be -restored to his seat in the Council, but was refused; and in August of -1571 circumstances transpired which occasioned his return to the Tower. - -A man of the name of Brown, of Shrewsbury, on the 29th of August carried -to the Privy Council a bag of money which he said he had received from -Hickford, the Duke of Norfolk's secretary, to carry to Bannister, the -duke's steward. The money on being counted in presence of the Council was -found to amount to L600. But besides the money there were two papers in -cipher; and on this suspicious appearance Hickford, the secretary, was -at once arrested, and ordered to decipher the notes, which then showed -that the money was intended to be sent to Lord Herries in Scotland, to -assist in making fresh efforts on behalf of Mary. Here was treason, and -the duke was immediately sent back to the Tower in the custody of Sir -Ralph Sadler, Sir Thomas Smith, Sir Henry Neville his old keeper, and -Dr. Wilson. The duke denied all knowledge of it; but Bannister, and -Barker, another secretary of Norfolk's, being now apprehended, as well as -the Bishop of Ross, the rack forced a confession from them. The result -was the destruction of the entire conspiracy. The Bishop of Ross, who -was immediately arrested, made such revelations, that when the Duke of -Norfolk, who had hitherto stoutly denied everything laid to his charge, -saw the depositions of the bishop, of Hickford, and Barker, he exclaimed -that he had been betrayed and ruined by those in whom he put confidence. -On comparing the various answers of these men and of the duke, it would -appear that several plans had been in agitation for the liberation of the -Queen of Scots; that Norfolk, though he would confess to nothing of the -kind, had taken active part in them; that the money lately taken from -Hickford had been sent from France for the Scottish friends of Mary. But -the most fatal to the duke was the revelation of the mission of Ridolfi, -who had it appeared been sent by him to Alva, to the King of Spain, and -to the Pope--or rather by Mary, with the cognisance and approbation of -the duke. - -From further disclosures it appeared that the Pope placed a sum of money -at the disposal of Mary, and accompanied it by a letter to Norfolk, -regretting that he could send him no further aid this year. Thence -Ridolfi hastened to Spain, and reaching Madrid on the 3rd of July, 1571, -he delivered his letters to Philip. Meanwhile Philip had received letters -from both the Pope and Alva. The Pope urged him to accept the enterprise -and rescue England from heresy. The more astute Alva advised him to have -nothing to do with it, for he had no faith in the men engaged in it, -nor in the soundness of their plans. Philip, however, listened to the -scheme, and was so much impressed by it as to determine to undertake the -expedition, and to appoint Vitelli its commander. Ridolfi assured the -king that he would find plenty ready to co-operate with his forces in -England; that he might calculate on an army of 20,000 infantry and 3,000 -cavalry meeting his troops on landing, led on by the Duke of Norfolk, -the Earls of Worcester and Southampton, the Lords Montague, Windsor, and -Lumley, with many others; that it was intended to dispatch Elizabeth -while on a visit to some country house, and also to destroy with her -Cecil, Bacon, Leicester, and Northampton. All this Ridolfi wrote to -communicate; but the scheme was suddenly scattered to the winds by the -discovery of his money and letters. - -At length the queen determined to bring Norfolk to the bar. She named -the Earl of Shrewsbury High Steward, and he summoned six-and-twenty -peers, who were in the first place chosen by the ministers, to attend -on the 16th of January, 1572, in Westminster Hall. Thither Norfolk was -brought by the Lieutenant of the Tower and Sir Peter Carew, and was -charged with having compassed and imagined the death of the queen, and -with levying war upon her within the realm--1st, By endeavouring to marry -the Queen of Scots, and supplying her with money, well knowing that she -claimed the Crown of England; 2nd, By sending sums of money to the Earls -of Westmoreland and Northumberland and other persons concerned in the -rebellion in the North, enemies to the queen, and attainted of high -treason; 3rd, By despatching Ridolfi to the Pope, Alva, and the King of -Spain, recommending them to send forces to depose the queen, and set -up the Queen of Scots in her place; he himself marrying the said Queen -of Scots. Norfolk was found guilty on the fullest evidence, and the -complicity of Mary was also brought to light. - -[Illustration: KENILWORTH CASTLE.] - -On Saturday, the 8th of February, Elizabeth signed the warrant for -Norfolk's execution on the Monday; but late on Sunday night she sent for -Cecil--now more commonly called Burleigh--and commanded the execution -to be stayed, revoking the warrant, to the great disappointment of the -good citizens of London, who had seen all the preparations made for the -spectacle. Elizabeth soon after signed a fresh warrant which, as the time -of execution approached, she also revoked. As she herself hung back, the -preachers and the Commons took it up, and demanded the duke's death, -for the security of both the sovereign and the State. When the public -excitement had reached its height, then the queen slowly and reluctantly -yielded, and issued a third warrant, which she did not revoke, for now -it was become the act of the nation rather than her own. On the 2nd of -June, 1572, at eight o'clock in the morning, the duke was brought out -of the Tower to a scaffold on Tower Hill, the drawing to Tyburn and all -its revolting accompaniments being dispensed with on account of his high -rank. He addressed the people, confessing the justice of his sentence, -though he still denied all treason. On being offered a handkerchief to -bind his eyes, he refused, saying he was not afraid of death; and after -a prayer he stretched his head across the block, and it was severed at a -stroke. - -Meanwhile, Elizabeth had been making a gay procession amongst her -subjects, and had been royally feasted at the castle of her favourite, -Leicester, at Kenilworth, and was at Woodstock, on her return towards -town, when she was met by one of the most horrible pieces of news -which ever flew across affrighted Europe. This was the massacre of St. -Bartholomew. - -The pacification which had been patched up between the Romanists and -the Huguenots in France had no sincerity in it. All the old hatred and -resentment were fomenting beneath the surface. The Huguenots had no faith -in the Papists, and the Papists longed to annihilate the Huguenots as -heretics. None thirsted so much for their blood as the queen-mother, -Catherine de Medicis. She entered into the most subtle and daring schemes -for their destruction, and the imbecile Charles IX. was mere wax in her -hands. Her plans ripened, the massacre broke out on St. Bartholomew's -day, August 24th, 1572, and it continued until many Protestants of all -ages had been cruelly murdered. - -A sensation of horror was diffused all over Europe by the news of this -unexampled atrocity of bigotry, which was greatly augmented in England -by the crowds of Protestants who fled thither for refuge. The body of -the nation called for instant war, to avenge on the sanguinary French -Government this infamous treatment of the Reformed church. The French -ambassador hastened to apologise to the Queen of England for what he -termed this unfortunate accident. Burleigh carefully impressed upon -Elizabeth the necessity of the death of Mary as "the only means of -preventing her own deposition and murder;" and Sandys, the Bishop of -London, sent in a paper of necessary precautions to be adopted, the first -and foremost of which was to "forthwith cut off the Scottish queen's -head." The nation also clamoured for her execution. Elizabeth listened -to the advice, but was too politic to imbrue her hands in the blood of -the Queen of Scotland, without exerting herself first to transfer the -odium to some other person. Killigrew was therefore sent down to Scotland -to see if the execution of the queen could not be effected there. His -ostensible mission was to arrange, if possible, the terms of an armistice -between the adherents of Mary and those of the young king in Scotland, -at the head of which parties were Huntly and Morton. But the private and -real object was to lead the Protestant lords to the point of removing -Mary from the hands of Elizabeth, "to receive that she had deserved by -order of justice." But before an answer could be received the Regent -Mar died suddenly. This occurred on the 28th of October, 1572, and on -the 9th of November Morton, by the influence of Elizabeth, was elected -Regent in his place. Thus Elizabeth had obtained the appointment to -be guardian of the young king of the very man who had for many years -been in her pay, and was ready to execute any designs demanded by her -policy. Both Mary and her son might now be said to be in her hands. No -sooner was Morton in power than he managed, with the help of Elizabeth, -who had always _weighty_ persuasions at hand, to bring over Mary's -chief friends the Hamiltons, and Huntley's people the Gordons, and he -demanded the immediate and unconditional surrender of the castle of -Edinburgh. Kirkaldy, Maitland, and Hume, who held it, however, refused -to give it up, and thus put them at the mercy of their enemies. On this, -Elizabeth ordered Drury, the marshal of Berwick, to advance to Edinburgh -with a strong force furnished with a powerful battering train, and, -if necessary, lay the castle in ashes. In this extremity the besieged -lords, and Mary from her prison in England, implored the King of France -to hasten to their assistance, and not to allow Elizabeth to extinguish -the last spark of opposition in Scotland. But Charles replied that it was -quite out of his power, for Elizabeth, on the very first movement, would -send a fleet to La Rochelle, where he was besieging the Huguenots. The -castle was consequently compelled to surrender on the 9th of June, 1573, -after a siege of thirty-four days, and the King's party was for the time -being triumphant. - -Though the French king had refused to assist Mary's party in Scotland -in their last extremity, for fear of Elizabeth's affording aid to the -Huguenots besieged in La Rochelle by the Duke of Anjou, that did not -prevent Elizabeth assisting the Rochellais. She allowed a strong fleet -of Englishmen, under the nominal command of the Count de Montgomery, to -assemble in Plymouth for their relief, and she promised them further -help. To avert this, Charles IX. endeavoured to flatter Elizabeth into -neutrality. He requested her to stand godmother to his infant daughter. -The French Protestants, however, were so incensed at Elizabeth's -compliance, which they regarded as an act of apostacy, that they attacked -the squadron which conveyed the English ambassador, Elizabeth's proxy, -seized one of his ships, slew some of his attendants, and put his own -life in peril. Charles IX. saw in this a favourable opportunity for -inducing Elizabeth to cause the Plymouth fleet to disperse. He therefore -despatched an ambassador before the queen's anger could cool, requesting -her to refuse a promised loan to these audacious Rochellais, and to -disperse the hostile fleet at Plymouth. But Elizabeth referred the envoy -to her ministers on that point, who assured him that they had no power -whatever to impede the sailing of the fleet, for that Englishmen sailed -on the plea of traffic wherever they pleased; and if they committed any -acts of hostility on friendly powers, they were at the mercy of those -powers to seize them and treat them as pirates. - -Elizabeth was soon, however, punished for this flagrant equivocation. -Montgomery sailed in April; but on discovering the strength of the -French fleet moored under the forts and batteries of La Rochelle he -was seized with terror, and returned to Plymouth without striking a -blow. Elizabeth, indignant at his failure, then sent him word that she -was highly displeased at his presuming to unfurl the English flag, and -forbade his access to any of the English ports. In June, 1574, he was -taken prisoner in Normandy, and on the 26th of that month he was executed -as a traitor in Paris. The bravery of the people of La Rochelle, however, -and the election of the Duke of Anjou to the throne of Poland, saved that -city. A new pacification was entered into, but the peace of France was -again disturbed by a coalition between the heads of the Huguenots and the -Marshals Montmorency, De Cosse, and Damfont, the Papal leaders called -the Politiques. This league was formed to get possession of the king, -whose health was now fast failing, remove Catherine and the Duke of Guise -from power, and proclaim Alencon as the successor to the crown in the -absence of Anjou in Poland. Elizabeth was actively engaged in all these -movements, especially in advising Alencon to place himself at the head -of affairs. But the watchful genius of Catherine discovered and defeated -the plot: Montmorency and Cosse were committed to the Bastille, Alencon -and the King of Navarre were so closely watched that they were stopped in -five attempts to escape, and numbers of the inferior actors were put to -death. - -In May, 1574, Charles IX. of France died a miserable death, full of -remorse and horror, worn out with consumption, in the twenty-sixth year -of his age. By the management of Catherine, the throne was secured by her -next son, Anjou, notwithstanding his being absent in Poland. Anjou as -ended the French throne under the title of Henry III., detested by all -the Protestants for his share in the massacre of St. Bartholomew. In the -following year a new plot was formed between the Protestant council at -Millaud in Rovergne and the Romanists under Damville, to place Alencon -on the throne--a scheme cordially supported by Elizabeth, in favour of -her present lover, Alencon. Alencon effected his escape from Court in -September, 1575; and Elizabeth, notwithstanding her recent renewal of -the treaty of Blois, advanced him money to raise him an army of German -Protestants. In February, 1575, the King of Navarre also escaped, and -the two princes called on Elizabeth to declare war in their favour; but -the demand was overruled in the Council, and Elizabeth offered herself -as mediatrix between the king and his brother, Alencon, who was grown -jealous of the ascendency of Navarre. - -On the 21st of April a treaty was concluded by which the exercise of -the Protestant religion was permitted to a certain extent; the king -promised to call an assembly of the States to regulate the affairs of the -kingdom, and Alencon succeeded to the appanage of his elder brother, and -hence-forward was styled Anjou. - -This settlement of the differences of creeds was of very short duration. -The Protestant league of Millaud stimulated the Roman Catholics to -counter-leagues, which entered into obligation under oath to maintain -the ascendency of the ancient faith, and to resist all the encroachments -of the Protestants. Henry III., who beheld his own authority usurped -by these leagues, determined to place himself at the head of a great -combined league of the Catholics, which he did in February, 1577, the -deputies of the assemblies of the States, for the most part, following -his example, and annulling the bulk of the privileges lately conceded -to the Protestants. The consequence was another religious war, followed -by as short-lived a peace, by which the privileges revoked were again -restored. - -But our narrative of the French contests between the two parties has -passed ahead of the disturbances in the Netherlands. A furious war had -been raging there between the Protestant and Papist interests, which also -represented the interests of the native Netherlanders and Spain. The Duke -of Alva had waded through oceans of blood to maintain the bigoted and -cruel power of his master, Philip; but the natives had found a resolute -and skilful champion in the Protestant Prince of Orange. He succeeded in -establishing the independence of Holland and Zealand; and Philip, angry -with Alva for his want of success, recalled him, and treated him with a -stern neglect, which, however ungrateful in the king, was perhaps the -best reward for the commission of such crimes as Alva had given himself -up to work for him. In the place of Alva, Philip despatched Requescens, -who adopted a more conciliatory policy towards the people, and thus -weakened the influence of the Prince of Orange. - -In these circumstances William applied to Elizabeth for help; but, since -he had assumed the government of Holland and Zealand, Elizabeth had begun -to regard him with jealousy. She felt sure that, from his connection -with the Protestants of France, he would seek for their assistance, and -this once gained would afford a pretext for Henry III. invading Holland; -and the extension of the sway of France into the Netherlands by no means -offered a pleasing prospect to the commerce and tranquillity of England. -Instead of granting aid to the struggling Protestants of Flanders, she -withdrew her forces from Flushing, and entered into negotiations with the -Spaniards. Requescens, rejoiced at this change, conceded what he could, -agreed to expel the English refugees from the Netherlands, and obtained, -in return, an order to arrest all the vessels of the insurgents in her -ports, and for their exclusion from England. - -This change of policy greatly mortified the Prince of Orange and the -Protestant interests in the Netherlands, but Elizabeth represented it -as her object to mediate between them and France. The Prince of Orange, -however, would listen to no such mediation, till the civil war breaking -out again in France put an end to all hope of assistance thence. To -effectually secure the aid of Elizabeth, the prince sent over deputies -to make her an offer of the sovereignty of Holland and Zealand, as the -representative of the ancient princes of those countries by descent -from Philippa of Hainault. This proposal flattered her; but, after much -discussion and diversity of opinion in her Council, it was deemed best -to decline it, but she intimated that she would do all in her power to -reconcile them to their sovereign, Philip. - -About a month after this decision, Requescens died, and was succeeded -towards the end of the year by Don John of Austria, the bastard brother -of Philip, attended by all the reputation of his victory over the -Turks at the great battle of Lepanto. He was compelled to ratify an -accommodation which had just taken place between Holland and Zealand and -the Popish states of the Netherlands, which was styled the Pacification -of Ghent, and provided that no foreign soldiers should be permitted in -the States, and that they should help each other against all opponents. -This treaty was known as the "perpetual edict," but it appeared very -likely to be broken immediately. Don John, without a foreign army, -found himself impotent to contend with the independent Belgians. He -therefore sent for the Spanish army from Italy, and the Prince of Orange -also appealed to Elizabeth for men and money to resist this direct -violation of the edict. Elizabeth recommended both parties to abide by -that contract, but the Prince of Orange, hopeless of any justice or -toleration with a Spanish army in the country, threatened to transfer the -sovereignty of his estates to Alencon, Elizabeth's suitor, now Anjou. He -moreover despatched an envoy to communicate a grand design of Don John of -Austria against England. He represented that Don John was of a restless -and ambitious character, that he had been disappointed of becoming King -of Tunis by the commands of Philip, and that he now found that he had -conceived a plan for making himself monarch of England and Scotland. This -plan had already received the sanction of the Pope, who had engaged to -aid him with 6,000 mercenaries on pretence of assisting the knights of -Malta. The prince assured her that the recall of the Spanish army was -for the invasion of her realm; that the Pope's reinforcement was to meet -them at sea, and together they were to land in England and, aided by the -friends of the Queen of Scotland, liberate that princess, who was to -marry Don John, and they were to reign as John and Mary, King and Queen -of England and Scotland. - -Elizabeth must have credited the reality of this design, for she agreed -to guarantee a loan of L100,000 to the States, and to furnish 1,000 -horse and 5,000 foot, on condition that they should not make peace -without her approbation, nor allow her rebels to find an asylum amongst -them. This was not a defence of her own country, but an invasion of -her ally Philip's; and she was obliged to assure him that she had no -hostile intention, but to compel the observance of the Pacification -of Ghent, and to defend her own territory against the designs of his -brother, Don John. Philip affected to hope that her mediation might be -successful, but probably trusted to the talents of Don John and the army -from Italy to subdue the insurgent people, in spite of the English aid. -The Netherlanders, notwithstanding the money which they had raised on -Elizabeth's guarantee, wanted yet more; and they put into her hands the -jewels and plate which Matthias of Austria, the brother of the Emperor -Rudolph and nominal governor of the States, had pledged to them. On this -pledge Elizabeth advanced them L50,000. Animated by this supply, the -Dutch proceeded to attack the army of Don John, but were defeated in -the great battle of Gembloux, an overthrow which spread consternation -throughout the Netherlands. Once more they appealed to Elizabeth, to the -Protestant princes of Germany, and to the Duke of Anjou. - -[Illustration: THE HOUSE OF THE ENGLISH AMBASSADOR DURING THE MASSACRE OF -ST. BARTHOLOMEW. (_After the Picture by P. H. Calderon, R. A._)] - -Casimir, brother of the Elector Palatine, marched across the Rhine with -12,000 men, paid with English gold, and Anjou also advanced at the head -of 10,000. The Protestant followers of Casimir, however, seemed to act -rather as invading an enemy's country than as come to succour friends -and the people, wherever they came, declared that they had better remain -under Philip than under such allies. The Prince of Orange, despairing of -being able to resist such commanders as Don John and Farnese, Duke of -Parma, formed a confederation of the Northern States alone, afterwards -known as the United Provinces; and Don John dying (not, it has been said, -without a suspicion of having been poisoned) on the 1st of October, 1578, -the Duke of Parma won over the Walloon States to Philip by promising to -observe the Perpetual Edict, and replacing the foreign army by native -troops. - -However, the contest in the Netherlands went on. On March 15th, 1580, -Philip published a ban, offering 25,000 crowns for the head of the -Prince of Orange; and Anjou, on the other hand, prosecuted his claim -to the Netherlands. Elizabeth, who probably was now looking for a -plausible excuse for dismissing Anjou, professed to doubt how far, if he -succeeded in making himself master of those provinces, she could keep -her engagement to marry him, as it would, probably, be dangerous to the -trade and independence of England; and moreover, if she did marry Anjou, -would not such a marriage be as hateful to her subjects as that of Mary -with Philip? Yet, immediately afterwards, she consented to his acceptance -of the government of the Netherlands, and made him a present of 100,000 -crowns, by means of which he put his army in motion. - -In April, 1581, in consequence of this return of regard for Anjou, a -distinguished embassy was sent over from France, and was received by the -nobles and the authorities of the city of London with great _eclat_. The -ambassadors persuaded themselves that this time success would attend -them; but they were much astonished to find that the queen had now -discovered a new objection to the match: that it would involve her in a -war with Philip, who had lately become additionally formidable by the -acquisition of Portugal, and proposed to enter, instead of marriage, -into a league, offensive and defensive, with France. By the perseverance -of the ambassadors, however, these scruples were also overcome, and the -marriage was definitively settled to take place in six weeks, provided -that the league of perpetual amity were signed within that time. The six -weeks having expired, and Elizabeth still continuing undetermined, Anjou, -who had crossed the frontier with 16,000 men, and expelled the Prince of -Parma from Cambray, hastened over to settle matters with his wavering -mistress. - -Elizabeth received him with every demonstration of affection, and -probably would have married him had it not been for the public -indignation. She let her vengeance fall on the author of a pamphlet -called "The Gaping Gulf," showing the dangers of this marriage. The -author was one John Stubbs, a student of Lincoln's Inn. Elizabeth laid -hold on him, his printer and publisher, and had them condemned in the -Court of Queen's Bench to have their right hands cut off. The printer -was suffered to depart, but the sentence was executed on Stubbs and -his publisher in the market-place of Westminster, by driving a cleaver -through the wrist with a mallet. The foolish Stubbs, the moment his hand -was off, waving his cap with the left, cried--"Long live the queen!" -At the end of three months Anjou grew weary of this silly farce, and -announced his determination to depart. Even then Elizabeth would not -permit him to go without exacting a promise that he would soon return. -She stormed, she raved, she called the States of the Netherlands, which -summoned him to his duties there, _des coquins_, and accompanied the duke -to Canterbury, where she parted from him weeping like a girl. - -On his arrival in the Netherlands, Anjou found plenty of employment in -contending with the genius and the forces of the Prince of Parma. He -found, also, that the real authority in the country was centred in the -Prince of Orange, and resolving to make himself the actual master of -it, he laid a plan of seizing all the chief towns in the states on the -same day. But this extraordinary scheme failed. The Dutch, resenting the -attempt, attacked his troops on all sides, and soon compelled him to fly -back to France, where he terminated his existence at Chateau-Thierry, on -the 10th of June, 1584, not without suggestion of foul play. So great was -Elizabeth's fondness for this prince, whom she might have married, and -would not, that even at this period no one dare for some time inform her -of his death, which she appeared to bewail with all the symptoms of deep -grief. - -Within one month of the death of Anjou there fell a far more noble and -important man. William the Silent, Prince of Orange, the great champion -and founder of the independence of Holland, perished by the hand of -an assassin. The ban of Philip had not failed to operate, though at a -distance of four years. Balthazar Gerard, impelled by fanaticism and the -25,000 crowns offered by the unscrupulous Spanish King, shot him on the -10th of July, 1584. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -REIGN OF ELIZABETH (_continued_). - - Affairs of Ireland: Shane O'Neil's Rebellion--Plantation of - Ulster--Spanish Descent on Ireland--Desmond's Rebellion--Religious - Conformity--Campian and Parsons--The Anabaptists--Affairs - of Scotland--Death of Morton--Success of the Catholics in - Scotland--The Raid of Ruthven--Elizabeth's Position--Throgmorton's - Plot--Association to Protect Elizabeth--Mary removed - to Tutbury--Support of the Protestant Cause on the - Continent--Leicester in the Netherlands--Babington's Plot--Trial - of Mary--Her Condemnation--Hesitation of Elizabeth--Execution of - Mary. - - -It is now necessary to trace the course of events in Ireland during the -years we have just passed over. A great work had been going on in that -country, the object of which was to reduce the turbulent native chiefs to -obedience, and to establish English settlers in the lands of those who -were driven out or exterminated. - -The most distinguished of those chiefs was Shane O'Neil, the Earl -of Tyrone. Henry VIII. had granted the succession to Matthew, an -illegitimate son of the old earl's; but Shane, the eldest legitimate -son, would not submit to this arrangement. He was supported in his -claims by the people, and vindicated his rights. By the persuasion of -the Earl of Sussex, at that time governor, he was induced to appear -at the Court of Elizabeth in 1562. He laid his claims before her, and -excited a great sensation by appearing in his native costume, attended -by a guard armed with battle-axes, and clad in saffron-coloured vests. -Elizabeth did not grant all his requests, but expressed herself highly -pleased with his presence, and made him great promises. But Shane was too -sensitive and independent in his feelings and ideas to be a very orderly -subject. Frequently he did essential service as the ally of the English -Government, but more frequently was compelled to seek vengeance for -injuries and encroachments. In 1565, three years after his appearance at -the English Court, he was driven into open rebellion; and after a severe -struggle, was compelled to seek refuge in the wilds of Ulster amongst the -Scots. There, at the instigation of Piers, an English officer, he was -assassinated (1567), his estates were confiscated, with those of all his -followers, comprising one-half of Ulster, and the name and dignity of -O'Neil were abolished for ever. - -That which was done in Ulster had to be done in every other province of -Ireland. Whenever insurrection broke out and was suppressed, the lands -were forfeited to the Crown. But so long as the Crown held nominally -these lands, the natives continued to hold them really. To remedy this, -and to ensure a certain forfeiture by the rebels, and a reward to the -English conquerors, Sir Thomas Smith proposed that these lands should -be granted in various portions to English settlers, who, in prosecution -of their own claims, would drive out the rebel natives and cultivate -the soil. It needs no reflection to perceive that this system must be -fruitful beyond conception in crimes, murders, and miseries. Lands were -granted to a bastard son of the projector's, and to numerous other -adventurers. They drove out the Irish, and these came back in infuriated -numbers, with fire and desolation. Under this frightful system the -country soon became a desert. To put an end to these sanguinary scenes, -Walter Devereux, Earl of Essex, represented that it needed only a -sufficient force on the part of the English. He offered to bring under -subjection, and to colonise, the district of Clandeboy in Ulster. His -proposals were that the queen and himself should furnish equal shares -of the charge, and the colony, being organised, should be divided -equally between them. The courtiers who had envied him his favour with -Elizabeth pretended to promote his design till he had embarked all his -fortune in it, when they threw all possible obstacles in his way. Through -these hindrances, it was late in the summer of 1573 before he arrived -in Ireland, and then only to find that the Lord-deputy Fitzwilliam -questioned his powers; and on proceeding to the lands of Clandeboy, -Phelim O'Neil and his adherents contended with him for its possession -fort by fort. He maintained his ground, however, through the winter, -though grievously suffering from the bad quality of the provisions -furnished by the queen's contractors, and from the ill-armed condition -of his troops--for the evils which mowed down our army in the Crimea -were among the most ancient evils of the English Government. Essex is -said to have invited Phelim O'Neil to a banquet, and there assassinated -him and his attendants; but this did not mend his position. The Lords -Dacre and Rich, and many gentlemen, abandoned the enterprise and returned -home. Though deserted and unable to conquer his own allotted territory, -he assisted the Lord-Deputy to suppress the rebels in other parts of the -island. He returned to England in 1575, and was appointed Earl Marshal of -Ireland, but with no adequate force; and ultimately died, September 22nd, -1576, at Dublin. - -After the death of Essex, the system of planting Ireland, as it was -called, still went on. The destruction of the O'Neils all the other clans -regarded as only preliminary to their own. They therefore appealed to -the Kings of Spain and France for assistance; and on their declaring -themselves unable, from their own dangers and insurrections at home, to -assist them, they implored the protection of the Pope, Gregory XIII. -His holiness launched a bull at the heretic queen, declaring Ireland -forfeited, as previous bulls had declared England and Wales forfeited. -Under his encouragement two adventurers, Thomas Stukely and James -Fitzmaurice, set out to proclaim the bull, and to carry the arms of his -holiness all over Ireland. Stukely, however, having obtained a ship of -war, 600 soldiers, and 3,000 stand of arms, carried them to the service -of the King of Portugal, and died fighting in his wars against the Moors. -Fitzmaurice, a brother of the Earl of Desmond, and a deadly enemy of -the English invaders, was more faithful; and after suffering shipwreck -on the coast of Galicia, landed at Smerwick, in Kerry, in June, 1579. -He had with him, however, only eighty Spanish soldiers, and a few Irish -and English refugees; and his expedition proved an utter failure, for -the inhabitants had no faith in so insignificant a knot of adventurers. -Fitzmaurice being killed in a private quarrel, his followers fled into -the territories of his brother, the Earl of Desmond. - -The Earl of Desmond professed himself a loyal subject; but he was -suspected of favouring the insurgents, and the English marched into his -demesnes, and plundered them. Another detachment from the Pope, however, -landed at Smerwick, the port which Fitzmaurice had made. It consisted -of several hundred men, having a large sum of money, and 5,000 stand -of arms, under the command of San Giuseppe, an Italian. Lord Grey de -Wilton, the new Lord-Deputy, had recently suffered a defeat in the vale -of Glandaclough; but he managed to besiege this foreign force in their -newly-erected fort, while Admiral Winter blockaded them on the sea side. -After three days' resistance, the handful of Italians and Spaniards put -out a flag of truce, and offered to surrender on condition that their -lives were spared. Foreign writers all assert that this was granted them; -but Sir Richard Bingham, who was present, says that they surrendered one -night at the pleasure of the Lord-Deputy, to have mercy or not, as he -willed. Sir Walter Raleigh and Spenser, the poet, were in Grey's army, -and their conduct reflects no honour upon them. Sir Walter entered the -fort to receive their arms, and then ordered them all to be massacred -(1580); and this proceeding Spenser endeavours to vindicate. He was -Lord Grey's secretary; and while he styles him "a most gentle, affable, -loving, and temperate lord," he gives this account of his act:--"The -enemy begged that they might be allowed to depart with their lives and -arms according to the law of nations. He asked to see their commission -from the Pope or the King of Spain. They had none: they were the allies -of the Irish. 'But the Irish,' replied Grey, 'are traitors, and you must -suffer as traitors. I will make no terms with you; you may submit or -not.' They yielded, craving only mercy, which it not being thought good -to show them, for danger of them, if being saved, they should afterwards -join the Irish, who were much emboldened by those foreign successes, and -also put in hope of more ere long. There was no other way but to make -that short end of them as was made." - -This was a fatal precedent to the French and Spaniards, against whom -our own countrymen were fighting in the very same manner by the orders -of Elizabeth, in France, in the Netherlands, and in South America; and -whilst we denounce the savage slaughter of English adventurers in the -trans-Atlantic lands of Spain wherever they were found without mercy or -quarter, we are bound to remember that we thus set the Spaniards the -example, and furnished them with warrant. - -After this butchery Grey and his myrmidons combined to chase Desmond from -spot to spot in his mountain fastnesses. Three years later (1583) a party -of the English, attracted by a light, entered a hut, where they found a -venerable old man lying on the hearth before the fire, quite alone. On -their demanding who he was, he replied, "The Earl of Desmond," when Kelly -of Moriarty instantly struck off his head, which he sent as a grateful -present to Elizabeth, by whom it was fixed on London Bridge. With Desmond -fell for some time the resistance of the hunted natives in Ireland. From -the forfeited lands of these immolated Irish, Sir Walter Raleigh received -42,000 acres, other gentlemen from 5,000 to 18,000, and Spenser the poet -3,000 and a castle of the unfortunate Desmond's--Kilcolman--which the -exasperated natives burnt over his head, and with it one of his children. -Spenser's concern in this bloody affair proved, in fact, his ruin. - -[Illustration: MURDER OF THE EARL OF DESMOND. (_See p._ 296.)] - -Returning to England, we find that Elizabeth during this period had -been persecuting every form of Christianity which did not agree with -her own. There were three parties against whom she felt herself -aggrieved--the Puritans, the Papists, and the Anabaptists; and she set -to work resolutely to squeeze them into the mould of her orthodoxy, or -to crush them. Many of the Puritans who had imbibed the sternest spirit -of Geneva had got into the pulpits of the State Church and refused to -wear the robes, to perform the rites, or to preach the exact doctrines -as prescribed by law. If they did not accord with that Church, they -certainly had no business there, and had no right to complain that -Elizabeth turned them out. The time to complain was when she had -expelled them, and they set up a Church of their own, which she would -not allow. Their freedom was their birthright; but the queen would -not suffer them to exercise it. She had but one word in her religious -vocabulary--conform; and this rigid conformity was carried out ruthlessly -by the very ministers and clergy who had so manfully complained of -compulsion in the last reign. They purged one diocese after another by -expelling Puritan clergy. These acts of arbitrary power were loudly -denounced in the House of Commons, where there was a strong Puritan -party, and numerous bills were brought in to advance the Reformation. Out -of doors, Parker, the old Archbishop of Canterbury, faithfully executed -the will of the sovereign; and opinion, suppressed in the Church and -in Parliament, where the queen even sent personal and most dictatorial -messages stopping all religious discussion, now burst forth through the -press. Pamphlets of a most inflammatory nature and abusive style issued -in shoals; and one Burchell, a student of the Middle Temple, became so -inflamed by zeal that he murdered Hawkins, an officer, mistaking him for -Hatton, the queen's new favourite. In prison he also killed his keeper -under the delusion that he was Hatton; and though palpably insane, he was -hanged for murder. - -Parker died in 1575 and was succeeded by Grindal, who, Elizabeth soon -discovered, was too much of a Puritan himself to persecute them severely, -and she suspended him, and harassed him to such a degree that he died in -1583. To him succeeded Whitgift, a man after Elizabeth's own heart, who -framed a test of orthodoxy, which he put to all clergymen or others whom -he suspected, which consisted of these three notable dogmas--the queen's -supremacy, the perfection of the Ordinal and Book of Common Prayer, and -the complete accordance of the Thirty-nine Articles with the Scriptures. -All those clergymen who refused to subscribe to this he expelled; and -in defiance of clamour and intrigue in Council or Convocation, he held -on his way immovably. Nor did the queen long satisfy herself with -mere expulsion. Thacker and Copping, two Brownists, were indicted for -objecting to the Book of Common Prayer, which was treated as an attack -on the royal supremacy, and were put to death. The persecution of the -Catholics was still more severe than that of the Puritans. - -The fury of persecution in England stimulated the Roman Catholics abroad -to a corresponding enthusiasm of martyrdom. Gregory XIII. followed -the example of William Allen--who had founded an English seminary at -Douay--and established a second English seminary in the hospital of -Santo Spirito, in Rome, from which emissaries were despatched into -the heretical kingdom. First and foremost the general of the Jesuits -selected in 1580 two Englishmen of distinguished abilities, and sent -them from this college. Robert Parsons and Edmund Campian arrived with -a reputation, and with rumours of the dark conspiracy in which they -were engaged, which roused all the alarm and the vigilance of the -Government. Rewards were offered for their discovery, and menaces of -punishment issued for remissness in tracing them out. The queen sent -forth a proclamation, calling on every person who had children, wards, -or relatives gone abroad for education to make a return of their names -to the ordinary, and to recall them within three months; and all persons -whatsoever who knew of any Jesuit or seminarist in the kingdom, and -failed to give information, were to be punished as abettors of treason. - -As soon as Parliament met in January of 1581, still more stringent laws -were passed for the punishment of Roman Catholics. It was made high -treason merely to possess the power of absolution, or to receive any -person into the church of Rome. The fines for hearing or saying Mass were -re-enacted. Absence from church was made punishable at the rate of twenty -pounds per month, and, if prolonged to a whole year, besides the penalty, -the offender must produce two securities for his good behaviour of L200 -each. The concealment of Roman Catholic tutors, schoolmasters, or priests -entailed a year's imprisonment, a priest or tutor being also amenable to -the same punishment, and the employer of them to a fine of ten pounds per -month. There was but one step possible beyond this outrageous despotism, -and that was to the stake, as in Mary's time; but the very fury of legal -punishment defeated its own object. - -Parsons and Campian put into the hands of their friends written -statements of their objects in coming into the country, which they -declared to be solely to exercise their spiritual functions as priests, -not to interfere with any worldly concerns or affairs of State; but they -declared that all the Jesuits in the world had entered into a league to -maintain the Catholic religion at the risk of imprisonment, torture, or -death. This announcement excited the greatest alarm, and the most fiery -persecution burst forth on the whole body of the Romanists, whilst every -means was exerted to discover and secure these missionaries. The names -of all the recusants in the kingdom, amounting to 50,000, were returned -to Government, and no man included in that number had any longer the -least security or privacy in his own house. The doors were broken open -without notice given, and the pursuivants, rushing in, spread themselves -all over the dwelling. Cabinets, cupboards, drawers, closets were forced -and ransacked, beds torn open, tapestry or wainscot was dragged down, and -every imaginable place explored, for the purpose of obtaining evidence -by vessels, vestments, books, or crosses, of heretical worship. The -inmates were put under strict watch, till they had been searched and -interrogated; and many were driven nearly or wholly out of their senses -by the rudeness and the insults which they received from brutal officers. -Lady Neville was frightened to death in Holborn, and Mrs. Vavasour was -deprived of her reason at York. - -In July, Campian was taken at Lyfford, in Berkshire, and was committed -to the Tower; and Parsons, seeing no prospect of long escaping pursuit, -contrived to get over again to the Continent. Campian was repeatedly -racked, and under the force of torture and the promises that no injury -should be done to his entertainers, he related the whole course of his -peregrinations in Yorkshire, Lancashire, Denbigh, Northampton, Warwick, -Bedford, Buckingham, and elsewhere, and the names of those who had given -him hospitality. No sooner, however, had the Council the names than they -summoned all those who had harboured him, and fined some and imprisoned -others. - -In November, Campian and twelve other priests and a layman were put upon -their trial, and were charged with a horrible conspiracy to murder the -queen and to overturn Church and State. Rome and Rheims were declared to -be the places where this direful plot had been hatched. The astonishment -of the prisoners, several of whom had never been out of England, was -extreme. Not an atom of evidence was produced to authenticate these -charges, yet the whole were pronounced guilty. One of them was saved by -an _alibi_ established by Lancaster, a Protestant barrister; the rest -were executed as traitors, except those who were still kept prisoners. On -the scaffold (December 1, 1581), Campian lamented that the weakness of -the flesh on the rack had forced him to disclose the names of some of his -entertainers, by which they had been brought into trouble. - -The Anabaptists, who had created great scandals and disturbance in -Germany, made repeated visits to London under pretence of belonging to -the Dutch Church. They denied the propriety of infant baptism; they also -denied that Christ assumed the flesh of the Virgin; they believed it -wrong to take an oath, or to accept the office of a magistrate. In some -of these tenets they resembled the Society of Friends which afterwards -rose, and their creed did not interfere with the quiet of the State; -yet numbers of them were imprisoned, ten of them were sent out of the -kingdom, and two, Peters and Turwert, were burnt in Smithfield in July, -1575. Again, in 1579, Matthew Hammond, a ploughman, was burnt at Norwich. - -In no quarter had Elizabeth for a long time any security except in -Scotland. There Morton was her faithful ally, inasmuch as she held fast -the King of Scots, and so guaranteed the chief means of his own tranquil -enjoyment of power. But Morton's rule was not such as any country would -long tolerate. He was essentially a base and selfish man, and his -severity and rapacity alienated the public from him more and more. He -debased the coin, multiplied forfeitures to enrich himself, appropriated -the estates of the Church, and at the same time was so subservient to -Elizabeth, that the national pride resented it. In 1578, Athole and -Argyll made their way to the presence of the young king, who was now -approaching thirteen years of age, and assured him that it was now quite -time that he freed himself from the tutelage of Morton and ruled the -country himself. James readily listened to them, and sent Morton an order -to resign, and to attend a council at Stirling, where the friends of -Athole and Argyll were summoned. - -Morton, though taken by surprise, appeared to obey with perfect -acquiescence; but he lost no time in intriguing with the Erskines, and -in three months had again possessed himself of the person of the king, -and resumed his authority in the State. Athole and Argyll mustered their -friends to force the reins from the hands of Morton, who boldly met them -in the field, when the ambassador of England appeared as a mediator, -and persuaded them to a reconciliation. But it was not in the nature of -Morton to forget the opponents of his power, although they now appeared -as nominal friends. He invited Athole, the chief actor in his late fall, -to a banquet, from which he retired, as Mar had done, to die. Like Mar, -he was poisoned. Secure as he now seemed, Morton let loose his vengeance -on his enemies; and the Hamiltons, the friends of Mary, were compelled, -in spite of the treaty of Perth, to fly to England for security; and -being freed from their restraint he indulged freely his insatiable -avarice at the expense of the country. - -But justice reached this minister of evil when it was least expected. -Esme Stuart, the Lord of Aubigny, a son of the younger brother of the -Earl of Lennox, who had become naturalised in France, returned to -Scotland. With a handsome person and French accomplishments, he soon -captivated the young monarch, who could not live at any period of his -life without a favourite. He created Aubigny captain of the guard, first -lord of the bed-chamber, and finally Duke of Lennox, being the nephew -of the late earl, and cousin of Darnley. Associated with Lennox was -another and far more deep and designing Stuart--James, commonly called -Captain Stuart, the second son of Lord Ochiltree. He was also related -to the king, and lent essential aid to Lennox, not only from his genius -for intrigue, but because Lennox was suspected of being an emissary of -the Duke of Guise. Lennox and his friend Stuart, who was now created by -James Earl of Arran, instilled every possible suspicion into the king's -mind against Morton, who, they averred, intended to convey him to England -and give him up to Elizabeth. To seize Morton, and arraign him for the -multitude of illegal acts which he had perpetrated in his position of -Regent, might not succeed, for the wily offender had taken care to -procure bills of indemnity for whatever he had done. They determined, -therefore, to accuse him of Darnley's murder, of which he was notoriously -guilty in common with others. - -[Illustration: THE EARL OF ARRAN ACCUSING MORTON OF THE MURDER OF -DARNLEY. (_See p._ 300.)] - -One morning, therefore, Captain Stuart, now Earl of Arran, fell on his -knees in the Council, and charged Morton to the king with the murder of -his (the king's) father. Morton, thunderstruck at this bold and sudden -act, stoutly denied the charge, but he was ordered to be guarded in his -own house, and soon after sent off to the Castle of Dumbarton. Morton -despatched a messenger to his trusty friend the Queen of England, who -forthwith despatched Randolph to intercede with the king, the Council, -and the Parliament for the precious life of this vile murderer. -Elizabeth, as she had not been ashamed to countenance and support him, so -neither was she now ashamed to plead for him, and to beg that he might -be set at liberty as a special favour to her, in recompence of the many -services she had rendered Scotland. She accused Lennox of being in league -with the French Government for the invasion of England, and Randolph -produced documents to prove it. On examining these papers, the Council -pronounced them forgeries, and the trial was ordered to proceed. On -perceiving his failure with the king and Council, Randolph had recourse -to his old arts of endeavouring to stir up sedition, and did his utmost -to rouse Mar and the Earl of Angus to rise in arms for Morton's rescue. -This becoming known, Randolph, who had been twice sent out of the country -for his traitorous meddling, was now glad to flee for his life. - -To save this execrable villain, but very useful tool, Elizabeth induced -the Prince of Orange and the King of Navarre to support the exertions -of her ambassador on his behalf, but all in vain. James was firm in -following out the advice given him. Elizabeth ordered a body of troops -to march to the Border, as if she were resolved to invade Scotland for -the rescue of Morton; but James, far from being intimidated, called -all his subjects to arms, ordered Angus to retire beyond the Spey, Mar -to surrender the charge of Stirling Castle, and demanded of Elizabeth -whether she meant peace or war. - -[Illustration: DUMBARTON ROCK, WITH VIEW OF CASTLE.] - -This bold attitude put an end to her efforts. Randolph suddenly found -out that Morton was accused of murder with a fair show of proof, and -Elizabeth then pretended to think that if it were so it did not become -her any longer to defend him. Deserted by his great patron Elizabeth, the -hoary criminal was brought to trial, and charged not only with the murder -of Darnley, but that of Athole. Besides verbal and personal evidence of -his guilt, his bond of manrent, or guarantee of indemnity for the murder, -given to Bothwell, was exhibited, together with a paper purporting to be -a confession of Bothwell made on his death-bed in Denmark, in which he -accused Morton as a principal contriver of the murder, and exonerated -the Queen of Scots. Whether this paper were genuine or not, there was -abundant proof without it; he was condemned by the unanimous verdict of -the peers, and executed (June 3, 1581). - -The fall of Morton and the display of independence in the young King -James opened up the most extravagant hopes in the minds of the friends -of Queen Mary, and of the Papists in general. They were ready to believe -that James would soon show his regard for his mother, and a deep sense -of her wrongs. Morton had been the stern adherent of Protestantism, -scandalous as he was; but who should say that Aubigny, educated in -France, and with many friends and relatives there, would not incline to -favour the Papists, and that James, under his guidance, though educated -by the disciples of Knox, might not, young as he was, return to the -religion of his ancestors? Parsons, the Jesuit, was enthusiastic in -this behalf, and he despatched Waytes, an English Popish clergyman, -to Holyrood, and soon afterwards Creighton, a Scottish Jesuit. These -emissaries returned with the most flattering accounts of their reception -by James and his ministers. Probably, in prospect of no very friendly -relations with Elizabeth, the advisers of James might adopt the policy -of conciliating the Romanists, and thus securing the ancient support of -France, and also of Spain. Be that as it may, James professed to feel -deeply the wrongs of his mother, and to cherish great filial affection -for her. He assured them that he would always receive with favour such -persons as came with an introduction from her, and he consented to -receive an Italian Catholic into his Court as his tutor in that language. - -Elated by these tidings, Parsons and Creighton hastened to Paris in -May of 1582. There happened to be present an extraordinary number of -persons interested in the cause of Popery--the Duke of Guise; Castelli, -the Papal nuncio; Tassis, the Spanish ambassador; Beaton, Archbishop of -Glasgow; Matthieu, the Provincial of the French Jesuits; and Dr. Allen, -the provost of the seminary of Douay. They all agreed that Mary ought -to be restored without deposing James; that they should reign jointly; -and Parsons was sent to Spain to solicit assistance, and Creighton to -the Pope for the same object. Both missions were successful: Philip gave -12,000 crowns to relieve the necessities of James, and the Pope engaged -to pay the expenses of his body-guard for twelve months. Both Mary and -James assented to this proposal, Mary offering to leave all the exercise -of power in James's hands. - -Successful as this scheme appeared, every movement in it had been watched -by the Court of England, and a counterplot of a most startling kind was -set on foot. In August, 1581, the Earl of Gowrie, the son of the murderer -Ruthven, was induced to invite the king to his castle of Ruthven, when -he made him prisoner. The government was then seized by the Earl of Mar, -the Master of Glamis, the Lord Oliphant, and others. Lennox, the king's -chief minister, escaped to France, but died soon after, as was suspected, -from poison. Arran, the successful destroyer of Morton, was thrown into -prison. The pulpit was set to work to proclaim that there had been a -plot to restore "the limb of Satan," the lewd Queen Mary, with all the -ceremonial of the Mass; and that Lennox was at the bottom of it, though -he died professing himself a staunch Protestant. - -But the position of affairs in Scotland was calculated to excite the -utmost vigilance of both France and England. Henry III. saw with terror -the young King of Scotland in the hands of the English faction, and -sent thither La Motte Fenelon and Maigneville to encourage James to -call together the Estates, to insist by their means on his liberty, -and on the liberation of his mother to govern with him. The English -Court, on the other hand, instructed its agents, Bowes and Davidson, to -demand the dismissal of the French envoys, and to show him the danger -of the measures which they proposed. James appeared to listen to both -parties; and ostensibly in order to consult on their advice, he summoned -a council of the nobility to meet at the castle of St. Andrews. Once in -their midst, James felt his freedom; and to prevent any contest on the -question, published a pardon to all who had been concerned in the Raid of -Ruthven, as it was called, or the conspiracy of Gowrie. This bold stroke -of the young king so took the English Court by surprise that Walsingham -was sent, notwithstanding his age and important duties at home, to -the Scottish Court. Walsingham must have been amazed at the small -success which attended his mission, for James received him with little -consideration, appeared to regard his communications with indifference, -and dismissed him with a paltry present on his departure. Elizabeth could -not help complaining of the palpable slight to her ambassador, and the -friends of Queen Mary drew fresh hope from the circumstance. - -But little solid hope could be entertained of Mary's enfranchisement -by any one who considered the real situation of affairs. The King of -France was far from sincere in his wish for her release. So long as she -was in the hands of Elizabeth, he was secure from any further meddling -of Elizabeth in the internal affairs of France. At any moment he could -alarm her by rumours of designs to set the Scottish queen free, at the -same time that James, as a young man, was open to influence from France -against England. For these reasons a fresh conference in Paris on Mary's -behalf came to nothing. The Duke of Guise, Castelli, the Archbishop of -Glasgow, and Matthieu met again, this time with the addition of Morgan, -a Welsh gentleman, one of the commissioners of her dower in France. They -proposed that Guise should land in the south of England with an army, -while James should simultaneously enter it at the north. James at once -assented to the project; but Mary, who knew very well that her life would -be sacrificed at once if there were a formidable attempt at her rescue, -resorted to the hopeless course of endeavouring to persuade Elizabeth to -treat with France for her release on safe terms. Elizabeth appeared to -listen; but the rumours of the invasion speedily caused her to abandon -any such negotiation, on the plea that, once at liberty, Mary could not -be trusted. Revenge might induce her to ally herself with France and -Spain, to the great peril of England. - -No situation in the world could be conceived more miserable than that -of Elizabeth. The captive queen had become to her a source of perpetual -alarms--alarm of invasion from France and from Scotland--alarm at -insurrections among the Papists, whom persecutions kept in a state of -the deepest disaffection. For two years the prisons had been crowded -with Catholics, and the scaffolds drenched with their blood. They had -been persecuted and insulted till they must have been more than mortal -to have felt no desire for revenge. Therefore the country swarmed with -spies and informers; and Walsingham, as a skilful unraveller of plots, -was kept hard at work to trace, by his secret emissaries, every concealed -movement of sedition. Both at home and abroad he had a host of agents -under a multitude of disguises. The Jesuits never had a more expert and -fearless general, nor a more varied army of informers. They presented -themselves in the shape of travelling noblemen, of physicians, of -students in Popish seminaries. They swarmed in sea-ports lying between -England and the different Continental routes. There was scarcely a Roman -Catholic gentleman or nobleman into whose house they had not found their -way. To those whom they suspected of a leaning towards the Queen of Scots -they professed to be confidential agents of her or of her adherents, -and presented forged letters by which they might entrap the unwary into -compromising answers. - -At length the chief of the conspirators was brought to justice in the -person of Thomas Throgmorton, the son of Sir John Throgmorton, Chief -Justice of Chester. Walsingham intercepted letters, and by his spies -made his way into every abode and company. He received from his trusty -emissaries the information that Charles Paget, one of the commissioners -of the Queen of Scots' dower--Morgan, just mentioned, being the -other--had landed on the coast of Sussex under the name of Mope. A letter -of Morgan's was also intercepted, and from something in its contents the -two sons of Sir John Throgmorton, Thomas and George, were immediately -arrested and committed to the Tower. The Earl of Northumberland, with -his son the Earl of Arundel, his countess, uncle, and brothers, were -summoned before the Privy Council and repeatedly questioned. The Lord -Paget, brother of Charles Paget, and Charles Arundel, escaped to the -Continent, but sent a declaration that they had fled, not from any sense -of guilt, but from the utter hopelessness of acquittal where Leicester -had any influence. Northumberland and Lord Arundel, with their wives -and relatives, stoutly denied all concern with plots or any species of -disloyalty, and no proof could be brought against them. Meanwhile it -was asserted that the Duke of Guise was proceeding with his scheme of -invasion, and that many English noblemen and gentlemen were co-operating -in it; that a letter had been intercepted from the Scottish Court to -Mary, informing her that James was quite ready to perform his part -of the scheme by invading the kingdom from the north, having had the -promise of 20,000 crowns; but that he was desirous to know who were -the influential persons in England that might be calculated upon for -support. All this was soon wonderfully corroborated by the confession -of Thomas Throgmorton, in whose trunks were found two catalogues, one -of the chief ports, and the other of the principal Romanists in the -kingdom. He admitted that these were for the use of Mendoza, the Spanish -minister, and that he had devised a plan with that ambassador to raise -troops in the name of the queen through the Catholics, who were then to -call on her to tolerate Catholicism, or to depose her. This was a strong -case indeed against the prisoners and the fugitives; and Burleigh, with -Throgmorton's confession in his hand, charged the Spanish ambassador with -his breach of all the laws of nations and of his office. Mendoza had -the impudence to deny the charges; but he was ordered to withdraw from -England, and Throgmorton was hanged (1583). From that hour war with Spain -was inevitable. - -The patriotism of England was now awake. An association was formed, -under the influence of the Government, by which all the members bound -themselves to pursue and kill every person who should attempt the -life of the queen, and every person for whose advantage it should be -attempted. This palpably pointed at the Scottish Queen. The bond of -association was shown to Mary as a means of intimidating her. At the -first glance she perceived that it was aimed at her life; but, after a -moment of astonishment, she proposed to sign the bond herself so far as -she was concerned, which, of course, was not permitted, as it would have -neutralised the whole intention, but it was industriously circulated for -signature amongst those who dared not well do otherwise. - -The same object was pursued in the Parliament, which met on the 23rd -of November. After the clergy had granted an aid of six shillings in -the pound to be paid in three years, and the Commons a subsidy and -two-fifteenths, an Act was passed condemning as traitors any one who -had been declared by a court of twenty-four commissioners cognisant of -any treasonable designs against the queen; and Mary and her issue were -excluded from the succession in case of the queen coming to a violent -death. The Roman Catholics were also treated with increased severity, -in consequence of the alleged plots. No Popish clergyman was to be -allowed to remain in the kingdom; if found there after forty days he was -pronounced guilty of high treason; any one knowing of his being in the -country, and not giving information within twelve days, was to be fined -and imprisoned during the queen's pleasure; and any one receiving or -relieving him was guilty of felony. All students in Popish seminaries -were called on to return to their native country within six months after -proclamation; parents sending their children to such seminaries without -licence were to forfeit for every such offence a hundred pounds; and the -students themselves forfeited all right to the property of their parents. - -To avoid, if possible, the fate which the bill of this Session prepared -for them, the Roman Catholics drew up an earnest and loyal memorial to -the queen, declaring it as their settled and solemn conviction that she -was their sovereign _de jure_ and _de facto_; that neither Pope nor -priest had power to license any one to lift their hand against her, nor -to absolve them were such a crime committed, and that they renounced and -abominated any one who held a contrary doctrine. - -All these transactions only tended to aggravate the situation of -the Queen of Scots. She was now taken out of the hands of the Earl -of Shrewsbury, and consigned to the custody of Sir Amyas Paulet, a -dependent of Leicester's, a man of a rigid, gaoler-like disposition, -but not destitute of honour. She was removed from Sheffield Park to the -ruinous stronghold of Tutbury. Finding that all appeals to Elizabeth -and all protestations of her innocence of any participation in, and -even ignorance of, the plots charged on different persons were alike -disregarded, she turned to her son, but only to receive from that quarter -a disregard still harder to bear. James coldly announced to her that he -had nothing to do with her concerns, nor she with his: he was now, in -fact, in the pay of Elizabeth. He bade her remember that she was only -the queen-mother, and enjoyed no authority in Scotland, though she bore -the empty title of queen. Abandoning all hope of assistance from him, -Mary now demanded of Elizabeth to liberate her on any conditions she -pleased--she asked only liberty and life. But her requests were unheeded. - -Meanwhile Elizabeth was supporting Protestantism abroad. Henry of Navarre -had become the next in succession to the crown of France, by the death of -the Duke of Anjou in 1584. Being well known as a Protestant, the Roman -Catholics in France, with the Duke of Guise at their head, reorganised -their league, and compelled the French King to subscribe to it. The King -of Spain, a member of the league, promised it all his support. On the -other hand, Elizabeth, anxious to see a Protestant prince on the throne -of France, sent Henry large remittances, and invited him to make England -his home in case his enemies should compel him to retreat for a time, -when he could wait the turn of events. In all this there was nothing to -complain of. Henry had a clear right to the throne of France, and justice -as well as the Reformed faith called upon her to support it; but not so -honourable were her proceedings in the Netherlands. There she secretly -urged to insurrection the subjects of a power with whom she was at peace, -and maintained them by repeated supplies of money. - -Sympathising as she did with the oppressed Protestants of the -Netherlands, her course was quite obvious. She could call on Philip to -give to them free exercise of their religion, and if he refused, she had -a fair plea to break with him and to support the cause of the common -religion. But Elizabeth had too much politic regard for the rights of -kings openly to support against them the rights of the people; and, what -was still more embarrassing, she was practising the very intolerance and -persecution against her Roman Catholic subjects that Philip was against -his Protestant ones. - -The Primate, when appealed to, stated broadly this fact, and declared -that Philip had as much right to send forces to aid the English Roman -Catholics as Elizabeth had to support the Belgian Protestants. When, -therefore, in June of 1585 the deputies of the revolted provinces of the -Netherlands besought Elizabeth to annex them to her own dominions, she -declined; but in September she signed a treaty with them, engaging to -send them 6,000 men, and received in pledge of their payment the towns -of Brielle and Flushing, and the strong fortress of Rammekens. This -was making war on Philip without any declaration of it; but she still -persisted that she was not assisting the Flemings to throw off their -allegiance to their lawful prince, but was only helping them to recover -undoubted privileges of which they had been deprived. - -[Illustration: THE EARL OF LEICESTER. - -(_From the Portrait in the Possession of the Marquis of Salisbury._)] - -But the fact was, that Elizabeth had long been warring on Spain, and it -was the fault of Spain that it had not declared open war in return. In -1570 she had sent out the celebrated Admiral Drake, to scour the coasts -of the West Indies and South America, on the plea that Spain had no -right to shut up the ports of those countries, and to exclude all other -flags from those seas. Under her commission, Drake and other captains -had ravaged the settlements of Spain in the New World, had plundered -Carthagena, St. Iago, and St. Domingo, and almost every town on the -coasts of Chili and Peru. They had intercepted the Spanish galleons, -or treasure vessels, and carried off immense booty of silver and other -precious articles. But as Drake had received special marks of royal -favour--the queen had dined on board his vessel, the _Golden Hind_, when -it lay at Deptford, and had knighted him (1581) for his services,--and as -there was no declaration of war, all these were clear cases of piracy; -but Philip was too much engaged at home to defend these trans-Atlantic -possessions from the daring sea captains of Elizabeth, and if he did -declare war he at once sanctioned her interference both in the Spanish -seas and in the Netherlands. - -To conduct her campaign in the Netherlands, Elizabeth had appointed the -Earl of Leicester. The way in which he conducted himself there was not -calculated to increase his reputation for honesty or military talent. No -sooner did he arrive, than, without consulting the queen, he induced the -States to nominate him governor-general of the United Provinces, with the -title of Excellency, and with supreme power over the army, the State, and -the executive. In fact, his ambition rested with nothing short of being -a king: with nothing but possessing all the title and authority enjoyed -by the Duke of Anjou. When this news reached Elizabeth she flew into a -terrible rage, charged him with presumption and vanity, with contempt of -her authority, and "swore great oaths that she would have no more Courts -under her abeyance than one;" desired him to remember the dust from which -she had raised him, and let him know if he were not obedient to her every -word, she would beat him to the ground as quickly as she had raised him. - -The unfortunate States, who thought they were gratifying the Queen of -England when they were honouring her favourite, were confounded at this -discovery; but Leicester, as if he really thought that he could render -himself independent of his royal patroness, remained lofty, insolent, and -silent. Trusting to the position into which he had thus stepped, he left -it to the ministers at home to pacify the queen. He had so long ruled -her that he appeared to think he could still do as he pleased. The great -Burleigh and the cunning Walsingham were at their wits' end to satisfy -Elizabeth: the only letter which they got from Leicester being one to -Hatton, so insolent and arrogant that they dared not present it till they -had remodelled it. Meanwhile, Elizabeth continued to write to the new -captain-general the most bitter reproaches and menaces, and to heap upon -his friends fierce epithets which could not reach him and produced no -effect on him. With all the airs of a great monarch, Leicester progressed -from one city to another, receiving solemn deputations, and giving grand -entertainments in return. - -In the field his conduct was as contemptible as in the government. He -had an accomplished general, Alexander Farnese, the Prince of Parma, to -contend with, and never did an English general present so pitiable a -spectacle in a campaign as did Leicester. His great object appeared to -be to avoid a battle, and the only conflict which he engaged in, which -has left a name, is the attack upon Zutphen, on September 22, 1586, -because there fell the gallant and gifted Sir Philip Sidney, in the -thirty-second year of his age. - -As autumn approached Leicester marched back his forces to the Hague, and -was greatly disgusted and astonished to be called to account by what he -pleased to name an assembly of shopkeepers and artisans. Not the less -loudly, however, did the merchants and shopkeepers of the Netherlands -upbraid him with the utter failure of the campaign, with the waste of -their money, the violation of their privileges, the ruin of their trade, -and the extorting of the people's money in a manner equally arbitrary and -irritating. In a fit of ineffable disgust he broke up the assembly: the -assembly continued to sit. He next resorted to entreaties and promises; -it regarded these as little. He announced his intention of returning to -England, and in his absence nominated one of his staff to exercise the -supreme government. The assembly insisted on his resigning that charge to -them; he complied, yet, by a private deed, reserved it to himself; and -thus did this proud, empty, inefficient upstart dishonour the queen who -had raised him, the country which had tolerated him, and which had long -impatiently witnessed his arrogance, and his abuse of the queen's favour. -At length, on the approach of winter, he obeyed the call of his sovereign -and returned home. Scarcely had he quitted the Netherlands when the -officers whom he had left in command surrendered the places of strength -to the Prince of Parma, and went over to the Spaniards. The campaign was, -from first to last, a scandal and a disgrace to the English name and -government. - -Mary had now been removed, in the early part of this year, to Chartley -Castle, in Staffordshire, under the care of Sir Amyas Paulet; and the -gentlemen in England whom the foreign adherents of the Queen of Scots -had pitched upon to carry out their plan, were a young enthusiastic -Papist--Anthony Babington, of Dethick, near Matlock, in Derbyshire--and -his friends and companions, all men of fortune, family, and education. -Babington had long been an ardent admirer of the Queen of Scots, had -corresponded with her whilst she was at Sheffield Park, and was ready to -devote himself to the death in her cause. At the same time he had such -an idea of the peril of meddling with the government of Elizabeth, that -he despaired of accomplishing Mary's enfranchisement during Elizabeth's -life. Ballard, a Jesuit, assured him that Elizabeth would be taken -off, by command of the Pope; that Savage, an officer who had served in -Flanders, and was exasperated at the death of Throgmorton, had determined -to do it; and that the Prince of Parma would land simultaneously with -that event, and set Mary at liberty. The plan was made known to Mary, and -received her sanction. "When all is ready," she wrote, "the six gentlemen -must be set to work." - -Walsingham, who had long been on the watch, was now in possession of all -the evidence that he was likely to get, for Babington soon discovered -that he had been betrayed by somebody, whom he could not tell; and -though he remained in London as though there were no danger, he made -preparations for the escape of Ballard to the Continent, by procuring him -a passport under a feigned name. Every moment might throw fresh light on -the deception, and allow the escape of the victims. On the 4th of August, -therefore, Babington found his house entered by the pursuivants of -Walsingham, and Ballard, who had not got off, was there seized. Babington -escaped for the moment, but was arrested on the 7th, and was taken to the -country house of Walsingham, but escaped from the servants into whose -charge he was given. With his friends and accomplices, Gage, Charnock, -Barnewell, and Donne, he concealed himself in St. John's Wood, till -they were compelled by hunger to make their way to the house of their -common friend Bellamy, at Harrow, who concealed them in his outhouses and -gardens. But the cunning Walsingham had his agents on their trail the -whole time, and on the 15th they walked into the premises of Bellamy, -secured the concealed conspirators, together with their host, his wife -and brother, and conveyed them, amid the shouts and execrations of the -populace, and the universal ringing of bells, to the Tower, whither also -were soon brought Abingdon, Tichbourne, Tilney, Travers; the only one of -the friends of Babington that escaped being Edward Windsor, the brother -of Lord Windsor. - -On the 13th of September, Babington, Ballard, Savage, Donne, Barnewell, -and Tichbourne were put upon their trial, charged with a conspiracy -to murder Elizabeth, and raise a rebellion in favour of the Queen of -Scots. They pleaded guilty to one or other of the charges, and seven -others pleaded not guilty; but all were alike convicted, and condemned -to the death of traitors. The greater part of them appear to have taken -no part in the blacker part of the conspiracy, the design to murder -Elizabeth; and some of them, as Tichbourne and Jones, declared that they -had taken no part whatever, but merely kept the secret for the sake of -their friends. Bellamy was condemned for affording them an asylum; his -wife escaped through a flaw in the indictment. Pooley, the decoy, was -imprisoned as a blind, and then liberated; and Gifford was already in -prison in Paris, where, three years later, he died. On the 20th and 21st -of September, 1586, they were executed in Lincoln's Inn Fields, because -they used there to hold their meetings. - -Though no mention was made on the trial of any participation of the Queen -of Scots in this conspiracy, nothing was farther from the intention of -Elizabeth and her ministers than her escape. They had already prepared -for her death by the bill passed empowering twenty-four or more of the -Lords of the Council and other peers to sit in judgment on any one -concerned in attempts to raise rebellion, or to injure the queen's -person. To procure every possible evidence for this end the following -stratagem was used:--The Queen of Scots was kept in total ignorance -of the seizure of the conspirators, and on the copy of her letter to -Babington being laid before the Council, an order was sent down to Sir -Amyas Paulet to seize all her papers and keep her in more rigorous -confinement. Accordingly, one morning, Mary took a drive in her carriage, -accompanied, as was her custom, by Paulet, but with a larger attendance. -When Mary desired to return, Paulet told her that he had orders to convey -her to Tixall, a house belonging to Sir Walter Aston, about three miles -distant. Astonished and alarmed, Mary refused to go, and declared that -if they took her there it should be by force. She must have suspected -the design of searching her cabinets during her absence; but, in spite -of her protestations and her tears, she was compelled to proceed. There -she was confined to two rooms only, was guarded in the strictest manner, -and debarred the use of pen, ink, and paper. Meanwhile Sir William -Wade arrived at Chartley, and proceeded to break open the cabinets and -take possession of all her letters and papers, as well as those of her -secretaries. A large chest was filled with these papers, amongst which -were Mary's own minute of the answer to Babington, and other damning -proofs. It was determined to bring her to a public trial. - -Mary was now removed to Fotheringay Castle in Northamptonshire, in -preparation for her trial. It was first proposed to convey her to the -Tower, but they feared her friends in the City; then the castle of -Hertford was suggested, but that also was thought too near the capital; -and Grafton, Woodstock, Coventry, Northampton, and Huntingdon were all -proposed and rejected, showing that her enemies were well aware of the -seriousness of the business they contemplated. - -On the 5th of October a commission was issued to forty-six persons, -peers, privy councillors, and judges, constituting a court competent to -inquire into and determine all offences committed against the statute -of the 27th of the Queen, either by Mary, daughter and heiress of James -V., late of Scotland, or by any other person whomsoever. The moment this -was known, Chasteauneuf, the French ambassador, demanded in the name -of his sovereign that Mary should be allowed counsel, according to the -universal practice of civilised nations. But Elizabeth sent him a message -by Hatton, that "she did not require the advice or schooling of foreign -powers to instruct her how she ought to act." - -On the 12th the commissioners arrived at the castle. They were the Lord -Chancellor Bromley, the Lord Treasurer Burleigh, and many other magnates. - -On the 14th the Court assembled in the great hall of Fotheringay, at the -upper end of which was placed a chair of State with a canopy, as for -the queen of England; and below it, at some distance, a chair without -a canopy, for the Queen of Scots. The Chancellor, Bromley, opened the -Court by informing Mary that the Queen of England, having heard that she -had conspired against her state and person, had deputed them to inquire -into the fact. Upon this Mary, who had at first refused to plead at all, -entered her solemn protest against their authority, declaring that she -had come as a friendly sovereign to seek aid from her cousin, the Queen -of England, and had been unjustly detained by her as a prisoner; on that -ground she denied their authority to try her. It was permitted to record -her protest, together with the Chancellor's reply. - -The charges against her were two: first, that she had conspired with -traitors and foreigners to invade the realm, and secondly, to compass the -death of the queen. As to the first charge Mary pleaded guilty to it, and -justified it. They grounded this charge on a host of letters intercepted -or found in her cabinets, to and from Mendoza, Paget, Morgan, and others. -From these it appeared that she had sanctioned an invasion on her -behalf, had offered to raise her friends to support it, and had requested -that those in Scotland should make themselves master of the person of her -son, and prevent any aid from being sent to the Government of England. -When they came to the second charge, the conspiracy to murder Elizabeth, -she denied any participation in it totally, indignantly, and with tears. -She called God to witness the truth of her assertion, and prayed Him, -if she were guilty of such a crime, to grant her no mercy. The proofs -produced to establish her approval of this design were--first, the copy -of the letter of Babington, in which was this passage:--"For the dispatch -of the usurper, from the obedience of whom, by the excommunication of -her, we are made free, there be six noble gentlemen, all my private -friends, who, for the zeal they bear to the Catholic cause and your -majesty's service, will undertake the tragical execution." Next there -was a copy of seven points, which were professedly derived from her -answer to Babington, the sixth of which was, "By what means do the six -gentlemen deliberate to proceed?" After these came the confessions of -Mary's secretaries, and, finally, reported admissions in her letters to -her foreign correspondents of having received these intimations of their -intention to assassinate the queen, and of having given them cautions and -instructions on this point. - -Mary at first denied any correspondence with Babington, but she soon -saw enough to convince her that they had the correspondence in their -possession, and admitted having written the note of the 18th, but not -any such answer to Babington on the 17th of July, as they asserted. She -demanded the production of the original letters, and the production of -her secretaries Nau and Curle face to face with her, for that Nau was -timid and simple, and Curle so accustomed to obey Nau, that he would -not do otherwise; but she was sure that in her presence they would not -venture to speak falsely. But neither of these things, no doubt for the -strongest of reasons, was consented to. As to her letters, she said it -was not the first time that they had been garbled and interpolated. It -was easy for one man to imitate the writing and ciphers of another; and -she greatly feared that Walsingham had done it in this instance, to -practise against the lives of both herself and her son. In fact, her -defence was most ingenious but quite unconvincing. - -[Illustration: TRIAL OF MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS IN FOTHERINGAY CASTLE. (_See -p._ 308.)] - -On this the commissioners adjourned their sitting to the 15th of October, -and from Fotheringay to the Star Chamber at Westminster. There the -secretaries were re-examined, and finally the commissioners unanimously -signed Mary's condemnation, the sentence running as follows:--"For that -since the conclusion of the session of Parliament, namely, since the -first day of June, in the twenty-seventh year of her Majesty's reign and -before the date of the commission, divers matters have been compassed and -imagined within this realm of England by Anthony Babington and others, -with the privity of the said Mary, pretending a title to the Crown of -this realm of England, tending to the hurt, death, and destruction of -the royal person of our lady the queen; and also for that the aforesaid -Mary, pretending a title to the Crown, hath herself compassed and -imagined within this realm divers matters tending to the hurt, death, and -destruction to the royal person of our sovereign lady the queen, contrary -to the form of the statute in the commission aforesaid specified." Nau -and Curle were declared abettors, so that it was a sentence of death to -all the three. To this a provision was added that the sentence should -in no way derogate from the right or dignity of her son, James King of -Scotland. - -On the 29th of October--that is, four days after the passing of this -sentence--Elizabeth assembled her Parliament. She had summoned it for -the 15th, anticipating quicker work at Fotheringay, but prorogued it to -this date. The proceedings of the trial were laid before each house, and -both Lords and Commons petitioned Elizabeth to enforce the execution of -the Queen of Scots without delay. Serjeant Puckering, the Speaker of the -Commons, in communicating the prayer of the House, reminded Elizabeth of -the wrath of God against persons who neglected to execute His judgments, -as in the case of Saul, who had spared Agag, and Ahab, who had spared -Benhadad. Elizabeth replied with perfect serenity that she was unwilling -to shed the blood of that wicked woman, the Queen of Scots, though she -had so often sought her life, for the preservation of which she expressed -her deep gratitude to Almighty God. She wished that she and Mary were -two milkmaids, with pails upon their arms, and then she would forgive -her all her wrongs. As for her own life, she had no desire on her own -account to preserve it; she had nothing left worth living for; but for -her people she could endure much. Still, the call of her Council, her -Parliament, and her people to execute justice on her own kinswoman, had -brought her into a great strait and struggle of mind. But then, she said, -she would confide to them a secret: that certain persons had sworn an -oath within these few days to take her life or be hanged themselves. She -had written proof of this, and she must, therefore, remind them of their -own oath of association for the defence of her person. "She thought it -requisite," she said, "with earnest prayer to beseech the Divine Majesty -so to illuminate her understanding, and to inspire her with His grace, -that she might see clearly to do and determine that which would serve to -the establishment of His Church, the preservation of their estates, and -the prosperity of the commonwealth." - -She sent a message to the two Houses, expressing the great conflict which -she had had in her own mind, and begging to know whether they could not -devise some means of sparing the life of her relative. Both Houses, on -the 25th, returned answer that this was impossible. To this declaration -of Parliament she returned to them one of her enigmatical answers, "If I -should say that I meant not to grant your petition, by my faith, I should -say unto you more perhaps than I mean. And if I should say that I mean to -grant it, I should tell you more than it is fit for you to know. Thus I -must deliver to you an answer answerless." - -On the 6th of December proclamation of the judgment of the commissioners -against the Queen of Scots was made through London by sound of trumpet, -whereupon the populace made great rejoicings, kindled large bonfires, and -rang the bells all day as if some joyful event had occurred. They were -so fully persuaded that the Queen of Scots was at the bottom of all the -alleged and real plots for the overturn of the Government, the bringing -in of the King of Spain, and the Roman Catholic religion, that their -exultation was boundless. - -Meanwhile, in spite of the eagerness of the nation, Elizabeth hesitated -to put Mary to death. Her conduct was tortuous, for she was devising to -escape the opprobrium. At length Lord Howard of Effingham persuaded her -that she could delay no longer. She went about continually muttering -to herself, "_Aut fer aut feri: ne feriare feri_" ("Either endure or -strike: strike lest thou be stricken"). Instead of proceeding to sign -the death-warrant and let the execution take its course, she had it -again debated in the Council whether it were not better to take her -off by poison. Walsingham, who saw that the responsibility would be -certainly thrown on somebody near the queen, got away from Court; and the -warrant, drawn up by Burleigh, was handed by him to Davison, the queen's -secretary, to get it engrossed and presented to the queen for signature. -When he did this, she bade him keep it awhile, and it lay in his hands -for five or six weeks. But both Leicester and Burleigh were impatient for -its execution; and directly after the departure of James's ambassadors -in February, he was ordered to present it; and then Elizabeth signed it, -bidding him take it to the Great Seal, "and trouble her no more with -it." Then, as if suddenly recollecting herself, she said, "Surely Paulet -and Drury might ease me of this burden. Do you and Walsingham sound -their dispositions." Burleigh and Leicester, to whom Davison showed the -warrant, urged him to send it to Fotheringay without a moment's delay; -but Davison had a feeling that he certainly should get into trouble if -he did so. He therefore went on to Walsingham, and after showing him -the warrant, they then and there made a rough draft of a letter to Sir -Amyas Paulet and Sir Drew Drury, Mary's additional keeper, proposing -that they should act on their own authority, as the queen requested. -While Walsingham made a fair copy, Davison went to the Lord Chancellor -and got the great seal affixed to the warrant. Davison the next day -had confirmation doubly strong that Elizabeth was watching to entrap -him in the matter. She asked him if the warrant had passed the Great -Seal. He said it had; on which she immediately said, "Why such haste?" -He inquired whether, then, she did not wish the affair to proceed. She -replied, certainly; but that she thought it might be better managed, as -the execution of the warrant threw the whole burden upon her. Davison -said he did not know who else could bear it, as her laws made it murder -to destroy the meanest subject without her warrant. At this her patience -appeared exhausted, and she uttered a wish that she had but two such -subjects as Morton and Archibald Douglas. - -Davison was terrified at the gulf on the edge of which he saw himself -standing, with the queen ready and longing to drag him in. He went to -Hatton, and told him that though he had her orders to send off the -warrant to Fotheringay at once, he would not do it of himself. They -therefore went together to Burleigh, who coincided with them in the -demand for caution. He therefore summoned the Council the next morning, -and it was there unanimously agreed, as the queen had discharged her -duty, to do theirs, and to proceed on joint responsibility. The warrant -was therefore issued. - -On the 7th of February the order for Mary's death reached Fotheringay. -The Earl of Shrewsbury, who had guarded her so many years, as Earl -Marshal, had now the painful office of carrying into effect her -execution. There had been for some time a growing feeling at Fotheringay -that the last day of Mary was at hand, for there had been a remarkable -coming and going of strangers. When Shrewsbury was announced, his office -proclaimed the fatal secret. The Scottish queen rose from her bed, and -was dressed to receive him, having seated herself at a small table -with her servants disposed around her. The Earl of Shrewsbury entered, -followed by the Earls of Kent, Cumberland, and Derby, as well as by the -sheriff and several gentlemen of the county. Beale, the clerk of the -Council, read the order for the execution, to which Mary listened with -the utmost apparent equanimity. When it was finished she crossed herself, -bade them welcome, and assured them that she had long waited for the day -which had now arrived; that twenty years of miserable imprisonment had -made her a burden to herself and useless to others; and that she could -conceive no close of life so happy or so honourable as that of shedding -her blood for her religion. She recited her injuries and the frauds and -perjuries of her enemies, and then laying her hand on the Testament upon -her table, called God to witness that she had never imagined, much less -attempted, anything against the life of the Queen of England. A long -conversation followed, and Mary asked whether the foreign powers had -made no efforts in her behalf, and whether her only son had forgotten -her; and finally, when she was to suffer. The Earl of Shrewsbury replied -with much emotion, "To-morrow morning, at eight o'clock." Mary received -this announcement with a calm dignity which awed and even affected -the beholders. And on the scaffold, which was erected in the hall of -Fotheringay, she played her part with the same perfection of acting, -posing as a religious martyr and wholly ignoring the political crimes of -which she had been guilty (February 8, 1587). - -The Earl of Shrewsbury sent his son with the intelligence of the -execution of Mary, which reached Court the next day. Burleigh, who -received the letter, immediately sent for Davison and several of the -Privy Council, and it was resolved to keep the fact from the queen for a -short time. But such a fact, though it might be officially, could not be -otherwise concealed. The news flew abroad, and the Protestant population -gave the reins to their joy by the ringing of bells and kindling of -bonfires. Elizabeth neither could nor did remain ignorant of the cause of -this noisy exultation. She inquired why the bells rang so merrily, and -was told, says Davison, "for the execution of the Queen of Scots;" but -she took no notice of it, having not been officially informed. Far from -displaying any emotion of any kind, she took her usual airing, and on her -return appeared to be enjoying herself in the company of Don Antonio, -the pretender to the Crown of Portugal. But in the morning, being then -officially informed, she flew into very well-acted paroxysms of rage and -grief. She declared that she had never contemplated or sanctioned such a -thing; that Davison had betrayed her, whom she had charged not to let the -warrant go out of his hands; and that the whole Privy Council had acted -most unjustifiably. - -[Illustration: MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS RECEIVING INTIMATION OF HER DOOM. -(_See p._ 311.)] - -Davison, who fondly hoped that he had secured himself under the shield of -the Privy Council, made his appearance at Court; but the councillors, who -saw there must be a victim, advised him to keep out of sight for a few -days; and the consequence was, that his amiable friends of the Council -most likely made him their scapegoat, for he was immediately arrested and -committed to the Tower. But the ministers themselves did not escape their -share of the storm. For four days the matter was before the Council, and -they received the severest and most unmeasured upbraidings from their -royal mistress, the burden being naturally thrown on poor Davison, who -was actually dismissed from the public service and condemned to pay a -large fine. - -[Illustration: _By permission, from the Painting in the City of -Manchester Art Gallery._ - -THE INVINCIBLE ARMADA, 1588. - -By ALBERT GOODWIN, R.W.S.] - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -REIGN OF ELIZABETH (_concluded_). - - State of Europe on the Death of Mary--Preparations of Philip - of Spain--Exploits of English Sailors--Drake Singes the King - of Spain's Beard--Preparations against the Armada--Loyalty of - the Roman Catholics--Arrival of the Armada in the Channel--Its - Disastrous Course and Complete Destruction--Elizabeth at - Tilbury--Death of Leicester--Persecution of the Puritans and - Catholics--Renewed Expeditions against Spain--Accession of Henry - of Navarre to the French Throne--He is helped by Elizabeth--Essex - takes Cadiz--His Quarrels with the Cecils--His Second Expedition - and Rupture with the Queen--Troubles in Ireland--Essex appointed - Lord-Deputy--His Failure--The Essex Rising--Execution of - Essex--Mountjoy in Ireland--The Debate on Monopolies--Victory of - Mountjoy--Weakness of Elizabeth--Her last illness and Death. - - -Among all these equivocations Elizabeth displayed her usual ability, and -prevented the only thing which she feared--a coalition between Scotland, -France, and Spain, to avenge the death of the Scottish queen. James of -Scotland was readily checked, being of a pusillanimous character, and -fonder of money than of the life and honour of his mother. Henry III. of -France, as Elizabeth well knew, was too much beset by difficulties to be -formidable. His course was now fast running to a close. Civil war was -raging in his kingdom; and we may here anticipate a little to take a view -of his end. His feud with the Guises grew to such a pitch, that, to rid -himself of them, he determined to assassinate their leaders, the duke -and cardinal, the cousins of the late Queen of Scots. For this purpose, -near the close of 1588, he assembled a body of assassins in the Castle -of Blois, where he privately distributed daggers to forty-five of them. -The Duke of Guise was invited to the fatal feast, and murdered at the -very door of the king's chamber (December 23). The next day his brother, -the cardinal, was also slain. But this infamous action only procured the -destruction of Henry himself. The Papists, exasperated by the murder of -their chiefs, were infuriated. The Pope excommunicated the king, and the -clergy absolved the people from their oath of allegiance; and on August -2, 1589, Henry was assassinated by a fanatic monk of the name of Jacques -Clement, whilst besieging his own capital. - -But not so readily was Philip of Spain disposed of. He was crafty and -powerful, and remembered the conduct of Elizabeth, who, from the very -commencement of her reign, while professing friendship and high regard -for him, had done all in her power to strip him of the Netherlands. -She had supported his insurgent subjects with both money and troops; -and at this time her favourite, Leicester, at the head of an army, was -enjoying the rule of the revolted territory called the United Provinces, -as governor-general. Not only in Europe, but in the new regions of -South America, she carried on the same system of invasion and plunder -by some of the greatest naval captains of the age--all still without -any declaration of war. Besides, Mary had left to him her claim on the -English throne, and Philip had accepted it, thereby alienating the King -of Scotland. Philip did not hesitate to denounce Elizabeth as a murderer, -and excited amongst his subjects a most intense hatred of her, both as -a heretic and a woman oppressive and unjust, and stained with kindred -and regal blood. In vain did she attempt to mollify his resentment -by recalling Leicester from the Netherlands, and alluring a native -prince, the Prince of Orange, to take his place. She opened, through -Burleigh, negotiations with Spain, and sent a private mission to the -Prince of Parma, in the Netherlands. There was a great suspicion in the -minds of the Dutch and Flemings that she meant to give up the cause of -Protestantism there, and to sell the cautionary towns which she held to -Spain. But fortunately for them, Philip was too much incensed to listen -to her overtures, and had now made up his mind to the daring project of -invading England. News of actual preparations for this purpose on a vast -scale convinced Elizabeth that pacification was hopeless, and she resumed -her predatory measures against Spain and its colonies. - -To obtain a clear idea of the causes which, independent of the continual -attempts of Elizabeth to break the yoke of Spain in the Low Countries, -had so exasperated Philip, we must refer to the marauding expeditions -of Hawkins, Cavendish, and Drake--men whose names have descended to our -day as types of all that is enterprising, daring, and successful in the -naval heroes of England. They were men who, like most of the prominent -persons of that time, had no very nice ideas of international justice or -honesty, but had courage which shrank from no attempt, however arduous, -and ability to achieve what even now are regarded as little short of -miracles. Whilst in Europe they were Royal commanders, in the distant -seas of America they were, to all intents and purposes, pirates and -buccaneers. - -Sir John Hawkins has the gloomy fame of being the originator of the -African slave trade (1562). He made three voyages to the African coast, -where he bartered his goods for cargoes of negroes, which he carried -to the Spanish settlements in America, and sold them for hides, sugar, -ginger, and pearls. This traffic, which afterwards increased to such -terrific and detestable dimensions, was so extremely profitable that -Elizabeth fitted out two ships and sent them under his command. On this -his third voyage, however, Hawkins was surprised by the Spanish admiral -in the Bay of St. Juan de Ulloa. A desperate engagement took place, and -Hawkins's fleet, with all his treasure, was captured or destroyed except -two, one of which afterwards went down at sea, the only one returning -home being a little bark of fifty tons, called _Judith_, and commanded by -one Francis Drake. Elizabeth, of course, lost her whole venture in the -slave trade. - -But this Francis Drake, destined to win a great name, could not rest -under the defeat in the bay of Ulloa and the loss of his booty. He -obtained interest enough to fit out a little fleet, and also made three -voyages, like Hawkins, to the Spanish American settlements. In the logic -of that age, it was quite right to plunder any people of a particular -nation in return for a loss by aggrieved persons of another nation; and -Drake felt himself authorised to seize Spanish property wherever he could -find it. In his first two voyages he was not eminently successful; but -the third, in 1572, made him ample amends. He took and plundered the -town of Nombre de Dios, captured about 100 little vessels in the Gulf of -Mexico, and made an expedition inland, where, ascending a mountain in -Darien, he caught sight of the Pacific, and became inflamed with a desire -to sail into that sea and plunder the Spanish settlements there. He -captured in March of 1573 a convoy of mules laden with gold and silver, -and in October reached England with his plunder. - -This success awoke the cupidity of his countrymen. Elizabeth embarked -1,000 crowns in a fresh expedition, which was supported by Walsingham, -Hatton, and others of her ministers. In 1577 Drake set out for the -Spanish Main with five ships and 160 men. In this voyage he pursued -steadily his great idea of adventures in the Pacific, coasted the -Brazils, passed the straits of Magellan, and reached Santiago, from which -place to Lima he found the coast unprotected, and took the vessels and -plundered the towns at will. Among his prizes was a Spanish merchantman -of great value, which he captured in the spring of 1579. By this time, -however, the Spaniards had sent out a squadron to meet and intercept -him at the straits; and Drake, becoming aware of it, took the daring -resolution of sailing to the Moluccas, and so home by the Cape of Good -Hope. The hardihood of this determination we can scarcely at this day -realise, for it implied the circumnavigation of the globe, which had -never yet been accomplished, Magellan himself having perished on his -voyage at the Philippines. Drake, however, reached Plymouth safely, on -the 3rd of November, 1580, after a voyage of three years. The dangers -and hardships which he had endured in this unprecedented exploit may be -conceived from the fact that only one of his five vessels reached home -with him; but that vessel contained a treasure of L800,000. - -Elizabeth was in a great strait. The wealth which Drake had brought, -and of which she expected an ample share, was too agreeable a thing to -allow her to quarrel with the acquirer; but the ravages which he had -committed on a Power not openly at war with her, were too flagrant to -be acknowledged. For four months, therefore, Drake remained without any -public acknowledgment of his services, further than his ship being placed -in the dock at Plymouth, as a trophy of his bold circumnavigation of the -globe. At length the queen consented to be present at a banquet which -Drake gave on board, and she there broke from her duplicity by knighting -him on the spot (1581). A tithe of the enormous amount of money was -distributed as prize among the officers and men; the Spanish ambassador, -who had laid claim to the whole as stolen property, was appeased by a -considerable sum; and the huge remainder was shared by the queen, her -favourites, and the fortunate commander. - -It was not long before Sir Francis Drake was placed in commission and -sent out as the queen's own admiral against Spain. In 1585 he sailed for -the West Indies with a fleet of twenty-one ships, where he burnt down the -town of St. Iago, ravaged Carthagena and St. Domingo, and committed other -mischief. The following year Thomas Cavendish followed in Drake's track, -with three ships which he had built out of the wreck of his fortune, -and reaching the Spanish Main, committed many depredations. In 1587 he -secured the freight of gold and silver of a large Manila merchantman, and -returned home by the new route which Drake had pointed out. - -These terrible chastisements of the Spanish colonies had embittered -the mind of Philip and his subjects even beyond the warfare of the -Netherlands; and he was now steadily preparing that mighty force and -that host of vessels by which he vowed to prostrate the power of the -heretic queen, and reduce the British Islands to the Spanish yoke and -to the yoke of the Papal Church. Elizabeth, having endeavoured in vain -to arrange a peace, buckled on the armour of her spirit, and determined -to meet the danger with a fearless front. She despatched Drake with a -fleet of thirty vessels to examine the Spanish harbours where these means -of invasion were preparing, and to destroy all that he could come at. -No task could have delighted him more. On the 18th of April, 1587, he -entered the roads of Cadiz, and discovering upwards of eighty vessels, -attacked, sank, and destroyed them all. He then sailed out again, and -running along the coast as far as Cape St. Vincent, demolished above a -hundred vessels, and, besides other injuries, battered down four forts. -This Drake called "singeing the King of Spain's beard." In the Tagus he -encountered the Grand Admiral of Spain, Santa Cruz, but could not bring -him to an engagement, owing to the orders which the admiral had received; -but he captured, in his very teeth, the _St. Philip_, one of the finest -ships of Spain, and laden with the richest merchandise. Santa Cruz took -it so much to heart that he was not permitted to engage Drake, that he is -said to have died shortly afterwards of sheer mortification. - -When Drake returned from this expedition he was received by the public -with acclamation; but Elizabeth was perfectly frightened by the extent of -the calamities inflicted, believing that they would only rouse Philip to -more inveterate hostility--and in that she was right. She actually made -an apology to the Prince of Parma, Philip's general in the Netherlands, -for the deeds of Drake, assuring him that she had sent him out only to -guard against any attacks on herself. Farnese replied that he could -well believe anything of a man bred as Drake had been in piracy, and -professed still to be ready to make peace. But Philip was in no pacific -mood. He was now eagerly employed in forwarding his huge preparations; -and the name of the Spanish Armada began to sound familiarly in -England. He prevailed on the Pope to issue a new bull of excommunication -against Elizabeth, and to advance him large sums of money for this holy -enterprise, which was to restore these rich but recreant islands to the -Holy See. He collected his best vessels into the Spanish ports, and went -on industriously building others in all the ports of Spain, Portugal, and -those portions of the Netherlands now belonging to him. He collected all -the vessels that his Sicilian and Neapolitan subjects could furnish, and -hired others from Genoa and Venice. In Flanders he prepared an immense -shoal of flat-bottomed boats to carry over an army of 30,000 men to the -coasts of England, under the command of the Prince of Parma. - -The time appeared to have arrived which was to avenge all the injuries -and insults which, during twenty years, the English queen had heaped upon -him. She had, in the first place, refused his hand; she had year after -year incited and encouraged his subjects in the Netherlands to rebel -against his rule; she had supplied them first secretly, then openly, with -money; she had hired mercenary troops against him; and, finally, sent the -Earl of Leicester to assume the position of a viceroy for herself. While -this state of intolerable interference on land had been growing, she had -sent out men to attack and plunder his colonies, intercept his treasure -ships, and chase from the high seas the merchant vessels of his nation. -All this time she had been with an iron hand crushing the Church which he -believed the only true one, and had ended by putting to death a queen who -was regarded as the champion of that Church in Britain. We are apt, in -thinking of the Spanish Armada and the attempt of Philip to invade this -kingdom, to overlook these provocations, which were certainly sufficient -to rouse any monarch to such an enterprise. - -While carrying matters with so high a hand, Elizabeth's parsimony had -prevented her from making those preparations for defence which such an -enemy dictated. In November, 1587, the danger had grown so palpable that -a great council of war was summoned to take into consideration the grand -plan of defence, and the mode of mustering an adequate force both at land -and at sea. It was well known that the dockyards of Antwerp, Newport, -Gravelines, and Dunkirk had long been alive with the building of boats, -and that the forest of Waes had been felled to supply material. Farnese, -reputed one of the ablest generals in Europe, had at his command, -besides the forces necessary to garrison the Spanish Netherlands, 30,000 -infantry and 1,800 cavalry; whilst the Spanish fleet consisted of 135 -men-of-war, prepared to carry over 8,000 seamen, and 19,000 soldiers. -Both in Spain and in the Netherlands the enthusiasm of volunteers for the -service had been wonderful; not only the members of the noblest families -had enrolled themselves, but the fame of this expedition, which was to -be a second conquest of England, yielding far more riches and glory than -that of William of Normandy, had drawn adventurers from every corner of -Europe. - -What had England to oppose to all this force and animating spirit of -anticipation? It was discovered that the whole navy of England amounted -to only thirty-six sail. As to the army, it did not amount to 20,000 men, -and those chiefly raw recruits, the order for the muster of the main body -of the forces even having been issued only in June. Courage Elizabeth -undoubtedly possessed in an eminent degree; but such was her parsimony, -that though the army which was to serve under Leicester was ordered -to assemble in June, that which, under Lord Hunsdon, was to follow -particularly the movements of the queen, did not receive orders for -enrolment till August. What was to be done with such raw recruits against -the disciplined and tried troops of Parma, and his military experience? -It was the same as regarded the sailors to man the fleet. In the autumn -of 1586 she ordered a levy of 5,000 seamen; but in January she thought -more of the expense than the danger, and insisted on 2,000 of them being -disbanded. The rumours of growing danger, however, enabled the Council to -dissuade her from this impolitic measure, and even obtain an increase to -7,000. - -In the war council held in November, 1587, Sir Walter Raleigh earnestly -advocated what his quick genius had seen at a glance--that the defence -of the country must depend on the navy. The enemy must not be suffered -to land. At sea, even then, England was a match for almost any amount of -force; and never did she possess admirals who had more of that daring -and indomitable character which has for ages distinguished the seamen of -Great Britain. Sir Walter Raleigh prevailed: and at once was seen that -burst of enthusiasm which, on all occasions when Britain has been menaced -with invasion, has flamed from end to end of the country. Merchantmen -offered their vessels, the people fitted them out at their own expense, -and very soon, instead of thirty-six ships of war, there were 191, of -various sizes and characters, with not 7,000, but 17,400 sailors on -board of them. To the thirty-six Government ships of war were added -18 volunteer vessels of heavy burden, forty-three hired vessels, and -fifty-three coasters. The _Triumph_ was a ship of 1,100 tons; there was -another of 1,000, one of 900, two of 800 each, three of 600, five of 500, -five of 400, six of 300, six of 250, twenty of 200, besides numbers of -smaller size, the total amount of tonnage being 31,985. - -But the main strength, after all, was in the character of the men who -commanded and animated this fleet. Supreme in command was the Lord -Admiral, Howard of Effingham, a man of undaunted courage, of firm and -independent resolution, and very popular with the sailors. Under him -served the Earl of Cumberland and the Lords Henry Seymour, Thomas Howard, -and Edmund Sheffield, as volunteers; and the want of experience in these -aristocrats was amply overbalanced by the staunch men whose fame was -world-wide--Drake, who was lieutenant of the fleet, Hawkins, Frobisher, -and others of those marine heroes who had made themselves a terror to the -remotest shores of the earth. - -The neighbouring Protestant States, who were naturally called on to aid -in this struggle, which was not so much for the conquest of England -as for the annihilation of the Reformed Church, were Scotland and the -Netherlands. But James of Scotland was the worst possible subject to -depend on in such an emergency, and no assistance could be secured from -him. Very different was the conduct of the Dutch. Though Leicester had -wasted their wealth in useless campaigns, abused their confidence, -abridged their privileges, encumbered their trade, and insulted their -honour; though Elizabeth had appeared quite ready to sell them to Spain, -and in their distress had called upon them to raise L100,000 to pay for -fresh soldiers, or declared she would abandon them;--yet knowing that -it was not Elizabeth or the worthless Leicester they had to support, -but the very existence of that faith for which they had fought so long -and so bravely, and for their country, which, if England fell, must -fall inevitably too, they at once "came roundly in," says Stowe, "with -threescore sail, brave ships of war, firm and full of spleen, not so much -in England's aid as in just occasion for their own defence, foreseeing -the greatness of the danger that must ensue if the Spaniards should -chance to win the day and get the mastery over them." They engaged to -block up the mouth of the Scheldt with ten ships of war, and sent the -others to unite with the English fleet. That fleet was dispersed to -watch as much as possible all points of approach, for rumours confounded -the people by naming a variety of places on which the descent was to be -made. Lord Howard put the division of the fleet immediately under his -command in three squadrons on the western coast; Drake was stationed in -the direction of Ushant; Hawkins, a regular adventurer, who had not long -ago offered his services to Philip and had been rejected, now thirsting -for revenge on him, cruised between the Land's End and the Scilly Isles; -Lord Henry Seymour scoured the coast of Flanders, blockading the Spanish -ports to prevent the passage of the Prince of Parma's army; and other -commanders sailed to and fro in the Channel. - -[Illustration: SIR FRANCIS DRAKE.] - -On land there was at first a haunting fear of the Roman Catholics. -Their oppression had been of a character which was not thought likely -to nourish patriotism; and the very invasion was professedly for their -relief and revenge. But the moment that the common country was menaced -with danger, they forgot all but the common interest. There was no class -which displayed more zeal for the national defence. Yet to the very last -moment their loyalty was tried to the utmost. Few could believe that they -would not seize this opportunity to retaliate those severities which -had been practised upon them; and there were those who even advised an -English St. Bartholomew, or at least the putting to death of the leading -Roman Catholics. This bloody project Elizabeth rejected; but they were, -nevertheless, subjected to the most cruel treatment out of fear. A -return was ordered of those suspected of this religion in London, who -were found to amount to 17,000. All such as were convicted of recusancy -were put in prison. Throughout the land the old domiciliary searches -were made, and thousands of every rank and class, men and women, were -dragged off to gaol to keep them safe, while the Protestant clergy -inveighed in awful terms against the designs of the Pope and the terrible -intentions of the Papists. All commands, with few exceptions, amongst -which were those entrusted to the Lord Admiral Howard and his family, -were placed in the hands of Protestants; yet this did not prevent the -Papists from offering their services, and gentlemen of family and fortune -from serving in the ranks, or as sailors at sea. The peers armed their -tenants and servants, and placed them at the disposal of the queen; and -gentlemen fitted out vessels and put Protestants into command of them. -The ministers themselves, in the famous "Letter to Mendoza," which they -published in almost every language of Europe, confessed that they could -see no difference between the Romanists and the Protestants in their -enthusiasm for the defence of the country. They mention the Viscount -Montague, his son, and grandson, appearing before the queen with 200 -horse which they had raised to defend her person, and add that the very -prisoners for their religion in Ely signed a memorial to her, declaring -that they were ready to fight to the death for her against all her -enemies, whether they were Pope, priests, kings, or any power whatever. - -Meanwhile the muster throughout the kingdom had brought together -130,000 men. True, the greater part of them were raw recruits without -discipline and experience, and could not have stood for a moment before -the veterans of Parma, had he landed; but they were instructed to lay -waste the country before him, to harass his march day and night by -hanging on his skirts, and obstructing his way; and as not a town would -have surrendered without a violent struggle, the event, with the dogged -courage and perseverance of an English population, could only have been -one of destruction to the invaders. This great but irregular force was -dispersed in a number of camps on the east, west, and southern coasts. -At Milford Haven were stationed 2,200 horse; 5,000 men of Cornwall and -Devon defended Plymouth; the men of Dorset and Wiltshire garrisoned -Portland; the Isle of Wight swarmed with soldiers, and was fortified at -all points. The banks of the Thames were fortified under the direction -of a celebrated Italian engineer, Federico Giambelli, who had deserted -from the Spaniards. Gravesend was not only fortified, but was defended by -a vast assemblage of boats, and had a bridge of them, which at once cut -off the passage of the river, and opened a constant passage for troops -between Essex and Kent. At Tilbury, opposite to Gravesend, there was a -camp for 22,000 foot and 2,000 horse, under the command of the Earl of -Leicester, and Lord Hunsdon defended the capital with an army of 28,000 -men, supported by 10,000 Londoners. - -Such were the preparations for the vaunted Invincible Armada. With all -the courage of Elizabeth, however, she continued to negotiate anxiously -for peace to the very last minute, and to the great chagrin of Leicester -and Walsingham, who assured her that such a proceeding was calculated -to encourage her enemies and depress her own subjects. Burleigh, with -his more cautious nature, supported her, and even so late as February, -1588, she sent commissioners to Bourbourg, near Calais, to meet the -commissioners of Philip, and they vainly continued their negotiations for -peace till the Armada appeared in the Channel. - -And now the time for the sailing of this dread fleet had arrived. The -King of Spain, tired of delays, ordered its advance. It was in vain -that the wisdom of further postponement seemed to be suggested by the -sudden death of his experienced Admiral Santa Cruz, and his excellent -Vice-Admiral the Duke of Paliano; he immediately gave the command to the -Duke of Medina Sidonia, a man wholly without such experience, and the -second command to Martinez de Ricaldez, a good seaman. In vain the Prince -of Parma entreated that he might reduce Flushing before he carried such -a force out of the country, and Sir William Stanley, who had deserted to -Spain from the Netherlands army, recommended the occupation of Ireland -before the descent on England. The Pope had delivered his bull for the -deposition of Elizabeth, had collected the money which he promised to -advance, had made Dr. Allen a cardinal, and appointed his legate in -England to confer on Philip the investiture of the kingdom; the fleet was -at anchor in the Tagus, and he commanded it to put forth. - -This famous Armada consisted of 130 vessels of different sizes. There -were forty-five galleons and larger vessels of from 500 to 1,000 tons -each; twenty-five were pink-built ships, and thirteen were frigates. It -carried 2,680 pieces of artillery, and 19,295 troops, exclusive of the -crews which worked the vessels, of whom 2,000 were volunteers of the -highest families in Spain. The English fleet outnumbered the Armada by -about sixty vessels, but its entire tonnage did not amount to half that -of the Armada. - -On May the 30th, 1588, this formidable and long-prepared fleet issued -from the Tagus. The spectacle was of such grandeur, that no one could -behold it without the strongest emotions and the most flattering -expectations of success. But these were of very brief duration: one of -those tempests which in every age, since the Norman Conquest, as if -indicating the steady purpose of Providence, have assailed and scattered -the fleets of England's enemies, burst on the Armada off Cape Finisterre, -scattered its vessels along the coast of Galicia, ran three large ships -aground, dismasted and shattered eight others, and compelled the proud -fleet to seek shelter in Corunna, and other ports along the coast. The -damage to the ships was so considerable, that it occasioned the admiral -a delay of three weeks at Corunna. - -No sooner was this news announced in London, than Elizabeth, amid her -most warlike movements never forgetting the expense, immediately ordered -the Lord Admiral to dismantle four of his largest ships, as if the -danger were over. Lord Howard had the wise boldness to refuse, declaring -that he would rather take the risk of his sovereign's displeasure, and -keep the vessels afloat at his own cost, than endanger the country. To -show that all his vessels were needed, he called a council of war, and -proposed that they should sail for the Spanish coast, and fall on the -fleet whilst it was thus disordered. At sea they saw and gave chase to -fourteen Spanish ships. The wind veered and became at once favourable -to his return, and also to the sailing of the Armada. He turned back -to Plymouth, lest some of the Spanish vessels should have reached his -unprotected station before him. - -The event proved that his caution was not vain. He had scarcely regained -Plymouth and moored his fleet, when a Scottish privateer, named Fleming -sailed in after him and informed him he had discovered the Armada off -the Lizard. Most of the officers were at the moment playing at bowls on -the Hoe, and Drake, who was one of them, bade them not hurry themselves, -but play out the game and then go and beat the Spaniards. The wind, too, -was blowing right into harbour, but having with great labour warped out -their ships they stood off, and the next day, being the 20th of July, -they saw the Spanish fleet bearing down full upon them. It was drawn up -in the form of a crescent, the horns of which were seven miles apart, and -a nobler or more imposing sight was never seen on the ocean. Lord Howard -deemed it hazardous to measure strength with ships of such superior size -and weight of metal, and he was soon relieved from the necessity, for the -Duke of Medina, on perceiving the English fleet, called a council of his -officers--who were impatient to attack and destroy the enemy at once--and -showed them his instructions, which bound them strictly to avoid all -chance of damage to his vessels by a conflict before he had effected the -main object of seeing the Flemish army landed on the English coast. The -Grand Armada, therefore, swept on in stately magnificence up the Channel, -the great galeasses, with their huge hulks, their lofty prows, and their -slow imposing motion, making a brave show. To the experienced eyes of the -English sailors, however, this immediately communicated encouragement, -for they saw at once that they were not calculated, like their own -nimbler vessels, to tack and obey the helm promptly. - -And now began, as it were, a strange chase of the mighty Armada by the -lesser fleet. The Duke of Medina pressed on with all sail to reach -Dunkirk, and make a junction with the fleet of flat-bottomed boats of -the Prince of Parma, which were to carry over the army; but some of his -vessels soon fell behind, and in spite of his signalling for them to come -up, they could not do so before the nimbler English vessels were upon -them, and fired into them with right good will. The _Disdain_, a pinnace -commanded by Jonas Bradbury, was the first to engage, and was speedily -seconded by the Lord Admiral himself, who attacked a great galleon, and -Drake in the _Revenge_, Hawkins in the _Victory_, and Frobisher in the -_Triumph_, closed in with the others. Ricaldez, the Rear Admiral, was in -this affray, and encouraged his men bravely, but it was soon found that -the Spaniards, though so much more gigantic in size, had no chance with -the more manageable English ships. Their heavy artillery, from their -uncommon height, fired over the enemies' heads, and did little mischief, -whilst the undaunted English tacked about and hit them first in one -place and then in another. Drake justified his fame by boarding a great -galleon, the mast of which was shot away, and taking her with 55,000 -ducats on board. The Duke of Medina was compelled to heave-to till the -jeopardised squadron could come up; but night set in, and there was seen -another of the galleons blazing on the water, having, it was said, been -purposely set on fire by a Flemish gunner, whom the captain had accused -of cowardice or treachery. In the confusion the neighbouring vessels -ran foul of each other, there being a heavy sea, and a third vessel was -separated from the fleet, and captured near the French coast. - -[Illustration: THE HOE, PLYMOUTH. - -(_From a Photograph by W. Heath, Plymouth._)] - -Lord Howard on the 23rd again came up with the Armada off Portland. He -was now reinforced by forty fresh sail, and had on board this accession -Sir Walter Raleigh. The weather was still adverse to the advance of the -Spaniards, and the English kept them well engaged by pouring in ever and -anon a broadside, and then dropping out of range. Sometimes, the wind -lulling, they were compelled to stand the full fire of the great ships, -and in one of these encounters Frobisher was surrounded in the _Triumph_, -and had to sustain an unequal combat for two hours. By direction of the -Admiral, however, a number of vessels moved to his rescue, and reserving -their fire till they were close in with the enemy, they poured such a -broadside into the Spaniards as turned the scale. Many of the Spanish -ships were completely disabled in this day's fight, and a Venetian argosy -and several transports remained in possession of the English. - -The next day the English fleet could not renew the action, for they had -burnt all their powder, and the time to prevent the junction of Medina -with Parma was totally lost. The next, the 25th, having in the meantime -procured a fresh supply of ammunition from shore, the Admiral renewed -the fight off the Isle of Wight, where Hawkins took a large Portuguese -galleon, and the Duke of Medina's ship had its mainmast shot away, and -was much shattered; but in the midst of the engagement the powder of the -English again failed, and they were obliged to draw off. Fortunately the -Spanish admiral also found that he had expended his heavy shot, and sent -to the Prince of Parma to hold himself in readiness and send him back -some shot. On the 26th the Armada held on its way with a fair breeze -up the Channel, and Howard, who had received fresh ammunition, besides -continual reinforcements of small vessels and men from the ports as -they passed, directly pursued. In the Straits of Dover he expected to -be joined by a strong squadron under Lord Henry Seymour and Sir Thomas -Winter, and, therefore, he reserved his fire. On the following day, the -Duke of Medina, instead of making at once for Dunkirk, as he wished, -was prevailed on to cast anchor before Calais. It was represented that -there was a Dutch and English fleet blockading Newport and Dunkirk, the -only outlets for Parma's flat-bottoms, and that the Armada would then -be enclosed between the two hostile fleets. It was necessary first to -beat off the fleet which hung on his rear, and he had already found it -impracticable with his huge unwieldy vessels. He therefore despatched -a messenger to the Prince of Parma over land, urging him to send him a -squadron of fly-boats to beat off the English ships, and to be ready -embarked, that he might land in England under his fire as soon as he -could come up. - -[Illustration: THE ARMADA IN SIGHT. (_See p._ 319.) - -(_From the Painting by Mr. Seymour Lucas, R.A., by permission of Mr. -Arthur Lucas, Publisher._)] - -But Parma sent the discouraging news that it was impossible for him to -move or even to transport his troops till the grand fleet came up to his -assistance. Fourteen thousand troops, he informed him, had been embarked -at Newport, and the other division at Dunkirk had been held in readiness -for the word of command, in expectation of the arrival of the fleet; but -having been so long delayed, their provisions were exhausted, the boats, -which had been built in a hurry with green wood, had warped and become -unseaworthy, and with the hot weather fever had broken out among his -troops. Were he, however, otherwise able to stir, there lay a force of -Dutch and English vessels at anchor large enough to send every boat to -the bottom. - -Under these circumstances there was nothing for it but to make for -Dunkirk, force the blockades at the mouth of the Scheldt, and effect -the junction with Parma. But now the expected junction of Winter and -Lord Henry Seymour had taken place with the Lord Admiral's squadron, -and the Spaniards found themselves closely hemmed in by 140 English -sail, crowded with sailors and soldiers eager for the fray, and there -was clearly no avoiding a general engagement. This being inevitable, -the Spaniards placed their great ships in front, anchored the lesser -between them and the shore, and awaited the next morning for the decisive -battle. But such captains as Drake and Hawkins saw too well the strong -position of the Armada to trust to their fighting, and they determined -to throw the enemy into confusion by stratagem. They therefore prepared -eight fire-ships, and the wind being in shore, they sent them, under the -management of Captain Young and Prouse, at midnight, down towards the -Spanish lines. The brave officers effected their hazardous duty, and took -to their boats. Presently, there was a wild cry as the eight vessels -in full blaze, and sending forth explosion after explosion, bore right -down upon the Spaniards. Remembering the terrible fire-ships which the -Dutch had formerly sent amongst them, the sailors shouted--"The fire of -Antwerp! the fire of Antwerp!" and every vessel was put in motion to -escape in the darkness as best it might. The confusion became terrible, -and the ships were continually running foul of each other. One of the -largest galeasses had her rudder carried away by coming in contact with -her neighbour, and, floating at the mercy of the waves, was stranded. -When the fire-ships had exhausted themselves, the Duke of Medina fired -again to recall his scattered vessels; but few heard it, flying madly as -they were in fear and confusion, and the dawn found them scattered along -the coast from Ostend to Calais. A more horrible night no unfortunate -creatures ever passed, for a tempest had set in, a furious gale blowing -from the south-west, the rain falling in torrents, and the pitchy gloom -being lit up only by the glare of lightning. - -A loud cannonade in the direction of Gravelines announced that the -hostile fleets were engaged there, and it became the signal for the -fugitives to draw together, but all along the coast the active English -commanders were ready to receive them, and Drake, Hawkins, Raleigh, -Frobisher, Seymour, and Cumberland vied in their endeavours to win the -highest distinction. Terrible scenes were presented at the different -stranded galeasses. One was boarded off Calais after a desperate -engagement, its crew and troops were cut to pieces or pushed overboard, -and 50,000 ducats were taken out of her. Another galleon sank under the -English fire; a third, the _San Matteo_, was compelled to surrender; and -another, dismantled and in miserable plight, drifted on shore at Flushing -and was seized by the sailors. Some of the battered vessels foundered -at sea, and the duke, calling a council, proposed to return home. This -was vehemently opposed by many officers and the seamen, who had fought -furiously and now cried for revenge; but the admiral said that it was -impossible long to hold out against such an enemy, and gave the order to -make for Spain. But how? The English now swarmed in the narrow seas, and -the issue of the desperate conflict which must attend the attempt the -whole way was too clear. The only means of escape he believed was to sail -northward, round Scotland and Ireland. Such a voyage, through tempestuous -seas and along dangerous coasts, to men little, if at all, acquainted -with them, was so charged with peril and hardships, that nothing but -absolute necessity could have forced them to attempt it. The fragments -of the Armada, no longer invincible, and already reduced to eighty -vessels, were now, therefore, seen with a favourable wind in full sail -northward. With such men as Drake and the rest it might have been safely -calculated that not a ship would ever return to Spain. A strong squadron -sent to meet the Spanish fleet on the west coast of Ireland, and another -following in pursuit, would have utterly destroyed this great naval -armament. But here again the parsimony of Elizabeth, and the strange want -of providence in her Government, became apparent. Instead of pursuing, -the English fleet returned to port on the 8th of August, for want of -powder and shot, and, as if satisfied with getting rid of the enemy, -no measures whatever were taken to intercept the fugitive fleet! "If," -says Sir William Monson, "we had been so happy as to have followed their -course, as it was both thought and discoursed of, we had been absolutely -victorious over this great and formidable navy, for they were brought to -that necessity that they would willingly have yielded, as divers of them -confessed that were shipwrecked on the coast of Ireland." - -[Illustration: "THE SURRENDER:" AN INCIDENT OF THE SPANISH ARMADA. - -(Don Pedro de Valdes, Commander of the Andalusian Squadron of the Spanish -Armada, delivering up his sword to Sir Francis Drake.) - -FROM THE PAINTING BY SEYMOUR LUCAS, R.A.] - -This gross piece of misgovernment occasioned much disappointment amongst -the brave seamen, both officers and men, a few ships only being able -to follow the Spaniards as far as the Frith of Forth. Walsingham, in a -letter to the Lord Chancellor at the time, said, "I am sorry the Lord -Admiral was forced to leave the prosecution of the enemy through the -want he sustains. Our half doings doth breed dishonour, and leaveth the -disease uncured." But the winds and waves did for the English what they -themselves had left undone. A terrible tempest assailed the flying Armada -to the north of Scotland, and scattered its unhappy ships amongst the -iron-bound islands of the Orkneys and Hebrides. To save themselves the -Spaniards threw overboard their horses, mules, artillery, and baggage, -and in many instances to no purpose. On many a wild spot of the shores -of the Western Isles, and those of Scotland and Ireland, you are still -told, "Here was stranded one of the great ships of the Invincible -Armada." Innumerable summer tourists hear this at Tobermory, in the Isle -of Mull; and the hosts of visitors to the Giant's Causeway are shown the -terrible cliffs of Port-na-Spagna, whose very name commemorates the awful -catastrophe which occurred there. More than thirty of these vessels were -stranded on the Irish coast; others went down at sea, every soul on board -perishing; and others were driven to Norway and stranded there. - -Never was there so fearful a destruction; and well might the triumphant -Protestants exult in the idea that the wrath of an avenging Deity was -let loose against this devoted navy. No mercy was shown to the wretched -sufferers in general who escaped to land. In Ireland the fear of their -joining the natives made the Government scandalously cruel. Instead -of taking those prisoners who came on shore they cut them down in -cold blood, and upwards of 200 are said to have been thus mercilessly -butchered. Some of the scattered vessels were compelled to fight their -way back down the English Channel, and were the prey of the English, -the Dutch, and of French Huguenots, who had equipped a number of -privateers to have a share in the destruction and plunder of their hated -enemies. The Duke of Medina eventually reached the port of St. Andero in -September, with the loss of more than half his fleet, and of 10,000 men, -those who survived looking more like ghosts than human beings. - -Philip, though he must have been deeply mortified by this signal failure -of his costly and ambitious enterprise, was too proud to show it. He -received the news without a change of countenance, and thanked God that -his kingdom was so strong and flourishing that it could well bear such a -loss. He gave 50,000 crowns to relieve the sufferers; forbade any public -mourning, assigning the mishap, not to the English, but the weather; and -wrote to the Prince of Parma--whom the English Government had tempted at -this crisis to throw off his allegiance, and make himself master of the -Catholic provinces of the Netherlands, as the Prince of Orange had done -of the Protestant ones--to thank him for his readiness to have carried -out his design, and to assure him of his unshaken favour. - -In following the fate of the Spanish fleet, and the bravery and address -of England's naval commanders, we have left unnoticed the less striking -proceedings of the army on shore. The chief camp at Tilbury, which would -have come first into conflict with the Spanish army had it effected a -landing, was put under the command of Leicester--a man who had been -tried in the Netherlands, and found wanting in every qualification of a -general. There, a few days after the defeat of the Armada, Elizabeth held -a grand review. Leicester and the new stripling favourite, Essex, led her -bridle rein, whilst she is said to have delivered this fine speech: "My -loving people! we have been persuaded by some that are careful of our -safety, to take heed how we commit ourselves to armed multitudes, for -fear of treachery; but I assure you I do not desire to live to distrust -my faithful and loving people. Let tyrants fear! I have always so behaved -myself that, under God, I have placed my chiefest strength and safeguard -in the loyal hearts and good-will of my subjects; and, therefore, I am -come amongst you at this time not as for my recreation and sport, but -being resolved, in the midst and heat of the battle, to live or die -amongst you all--to lay down for my God, for my kingdom, and for my -people, my honour and my blood, even in the dust. I know that I have but -the body of a weak and feeble woman, but I have the heart of a king, and -a King of England too, and think foul scorn that Parma, or Spain, or -any prince of Europe, should dare to invade the borders of my realm: to -which, rather than any dishonour should grow by me, I myself will take -up arms--I myself will be your general--the judge and rewarder of every -one of your virtues in the field. I already know by your forwardness -that you have deserved rewards and crowns; and we do assure you, on the -word of a prince, they shall be duly paid to you. In the meantime my -lieutenant-general shall be in my stead--than whom never prince commanded -a more noble or more worthy subject; nor will I suffer myself to doubt -that, by your obedience to my general, by your concord in the camp, and -your valour in the field, we shall shortly have a famous victory over -those enemies of my God, of my kingdom, and my people." - -On Lord Howard, as admiral of the fleet, rewards and favours were -conferred; but neither he, nor the other heroes of his immortal contest -at sea, received a tithe of the honour of Leicester, who had done -nothing but write a love-letter to the queen from Tilbury camp. Nothing -that she had done or could do appeared adequate to his incomprehensible -merits. She determined to create a new and most invidious office in his -favour; and the warrant for his creation of Lord Lieutenant of England -and Ireland lay ready for the royal signature, when the remonstrances -of Burleigh and Hatton delayed, and the sudden death of the favourite -put an end to it. In ten days after the queen's visit to the camp he -had disbanded the army, and was on his way to his castle of Kenilworth, -when he was seized with sickness at Cornbury Park, in Oxfordshire, and -died on the 4th of September, of a fever. His enemies declared he had -been poisoned, and invented the following story:--He had discovered or -suspected a criminal connection between his wife, the Countess of Essex, -and Sir Christopher Blount. He had attempted to assassinate Blount, but -failed; and his countess, profiting by his own instructions in getting -rid of her former husband, administered the fatal dose. This and other -stories against Leicester are now discredited. - -The first use which Elizabeth made of her victory was to take vengeance -on the Papists--not because they had done anything disloyal, but because -they were of the same religion as the detested Spaniards. All their -demonstrations of devotion to the cause of their country and their -queen during the attempted invasion went for nothing. A commission was -appointed to try those already in prison; and six priests, four laymen, -and a lady of the name of Ward, for having harboured priests, other -four laymen, for having been reconciled to the Roman Catholic Church, -and fifteen persons, charged with being connected with them, in all -thirty individuals, were, within a period of three months, condemned as -traitors, and executed with all the disembowelling and other atrocities -attending that sentence. Their only crime was the practice of their -religion, or the succouring their clergymen. Elizabeth, however, treated -their proceedings as political offences, and her efforts to dragoon the -nation into conformity continued the greater part of her life; old age -alone appearing to abate her virulence, as it dimmed her faculties and -subdued her spirits. Sixty-one Roman Catholic clergymen, forty-seven -laymen, and two ladies suffered death for their religion. The fines -for recusancy were levied with the utmost rigour, L20 per lunar month -being the legal sum, so that many gentlemen were fleeced of their entire -income. Besides this, they were liable to a year's imprisonment and a -fine of 100 marks every time they heard Mass. The search for concealed -priests was carried on with great avidity, because it gave occasion for -plunder, and on conviction of such concealment, forfeiture of the whole -of their property followed, with ample gleaning to the informers. The -poorer recusants were for some time imprisoned; but the prisons becoming -full, officers were sent through the country, visiting all villages and -remote places, and extorting what they could. - -[Illustration: PHILIP II. (_After Titian._)] - -As Elizabeth grew in years she more and more resembled her father, and -persecuted the Puritans as zealously as the Papists, and for similar -reasons. In these Reformers, however, she found a sturdy class of -men, who would not endure so quietly her oppressions. Hume blames the -Nonconformists for not setting up separate congregations of their own; -but he forgot the L20 a month, which would have been levied on every -individual that could pay, and the imprisonments and harassing of others. -Where, however, the Nonconformists could not preach, they printed. Books -and pamphlets flew in all directions; and there was set up a sort of -ambulatory press, which was conveyed from place to place, till at length -it was hunted down and destroyed near Manchester. In 1590, Sir Richard -Knightley, Hooles, of Coventry, and Wigmore and his wife, of Warwick, -were fined, in the Star Chamber, as promulgators of a book called "Martin -Marprelate," the first L2,000, the second 1,000 marks, the third 500, the -fourth 100, and to be imprisoned during the queen's pleasure. - -In 1591 Udal, a Nonconformist minister, was condemned to death for -publishing a book called "A Demonstration of Discipline," but died -in prison. Mr. Cartwright, fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, for -pointing out defects in the system of the Church, was deprived of his -fellowship, expelled the university, and in 1591 was summoned before -the ecclesiastical commission with some of his friends, and committed -to prison because they would not answer interrogatories on oath--a -practice clearly contrary to law. In 1593 Barrow, Greenwood, and Penry, -Independent ministers, or Brownists, were put to death for writings said -to reflect on the queen. But no suppression produced the desired effect. - -In the spring of 1589 Parliament and Convocation assembled, and Elizabeth -laid before them a statement of the heavy expenses incurred in beating -off the Spaniards. She had already levied a forced loan, to which the -recusants had been made to contribute heavily, and she now received most -liberal grants from both Parliament and Convocation. Having given this -freely, the House of Commons prayed the queen to send out a strong force -and take vengeance on the Spaniards for their attack on this country. -Elizabeth was perfectly agreeable that they should punish Philip to -their hearts' content, but not out of the supplies they had granted. -She said there were great demands on her exchequer; that she could only -furnish ships and soldiers, and they must pay the cost. The proposal of -retaliation was so much to the taste of the public that an association -was formed under the auspices of Drake and Norris, and very soon they -had a fleet of 100 sail at Plymouth, carrying 21,000 men. Elizabeth -had long been patronising Don Antonio, prior of Crato, an illegitimate -branch of the Royal family of Portugal. This pretender was now sent -out in this fleet in royal state, and the expedition was directed to -land in Portugal, and call on the people to throw off the Spanish yoke, -and restore their government under a native, and, as Elizabeth boldly -asserted, legitimate prince. If the Portuguese would not receive Don -Antonio, the fleet was then to scour the roads of Spain, and inflict on -the territory of Philip all the damage possible. - -The fascination of this expedition under so renowned a commander -as Drake, seized on the fancy of a young noble, who had now become -Elizabeth's prime favourite--the Earl of Essex. This was the son of -the Countess of Essex whom Leicester had secretly married, much to -Elizabeth's indignation, in 1578. Leicester introduced the young earl to -Elizabeth, who, for a time, hated him on account of his mother, for the -queen, in spite of her numerous quarrels with Leicester, was never able -to free herself wholly from her early attachment to him. However, some -time before Leicester's death, the graces and lively disposition of the -young earl had made a strong impression on her heart or head, and she -lavished blandishments on the handsome boy in public, even in the face -of the camp at Tilbury, which must have been eminently ludicrous. After -Leicester's death he was installed as the chief favourite, and she could -scarcely bear him out of her sight. Her consternation was great when she -found that he had slyly eloped, and had set off after the fleet bound for -Spain. - -Drake made first for Corunna, where he seized a number of merchantmen -and ships of war, made himself master of the suburbs or marine part of -the town, with large stores of oil and wine, but failed to take the -town itself, though he succeeded in making a breach in the wall, at the -cost of many lives. Norris, meantime, attacked the forces of the Conde -d'Andrada, posted at the Puente de Burgos, and drove them before him for -some miles; but sickness and shortness of powder compelled them to embark -again. Drake and Norris, as famous for their bulletins as Napoleon in -our day, wrote home that they had killed 1,000 of the enemy, with the -loss of only three men! but Lord Talbot, writing at the same time to his -father, said that they had lost a great number of men, quite as many -as the Spaniards. From Corunna they coasted to Peniche, about thirty -miles north of Lisbon. At Peniche the young Earl of Essex, who kept out -at sea till the commanders could say in their dispatches that they had -heard nothing of him, was the first to spring on shore, and showed great -gallantry. They quickly took the castle, and the fleet then proceeded -along the shore to the Tagus, while the army marched by land to Lisbon -through Torres Vedras and St. Sebastian. - -The garrison in Lisbon was but weak, and Essex knocked at the gates, and -summoned the commander to surrender; but the Spaniards had taken the -precaution to lay waste the neighbourhood and destroy all the provisions, -or carry them into the city, so that famine, fever, and want of powder -soon compelled the English to retire. They found that their pretender, -Don Antonio, was everywhere treated as a pretender--not a man would own -him; and they marched to Cascaes, which they found already plundered by -Drake and his squadron. They there embarked for England, but were soon -dispersed by a storm, and reached Plymouth in straggling disorder, one -of the sections of the fleet having, before leaving Spain, plundered -the town of Vigo. It was found that out of their 21,000 men, they had -lost one-half. Out of the 1,100 gentlemen who accompanied the expedition -one-third had perished. Elizabeth secretly grumbled at the expense and -loss, but publicly boasted of the chastisement she had given to Philip. - -On the death of Henry III. of France by assassination, as we have -previously related, Henry of Navarre, a lineal descendant of St. Louis, -by his youngest son Robert, Count of Clermont, assumed the crown as Henry -IV. But Henry's known Protestantism placed him in extreme difficulty, -even with those who had hitherto supported himself or the late king. -The Papist followers of that monarch insisted that he should sign an -engagement to maintain their worship, and that to the exclusion of every -other, except in the places in which the Protestant form was already -established. They bound Henry to hunt out and punish the murderers of the -late king; to give no offices in the State, in cities or corporations, -except to Papists, and to permit the nobles of the Roman Catholic -league to defend to the Pope their proceedings. But by conceding these -conditions, he mortally offended the Protestants, who had hitherto -faithfully adhered to him, and who refused any longer to fight under the -banners of a prince who had thus, as they deemed it, abandoned their -cause. Nine regiments deserted his standard, whilst a regiment of Papists -on the other side, not sufficiently satisfied with the concessions thus -dearly purchased, also marched out of his camp. - -Such was the extent of the disaffection, that instead of being able -to take Paris, he was compelled to raise the siege and retreat into -Normandy. Thither the Duke of Mayenne, the leader of the Guise party, and -his fanatic rabble pursued him, but Henry, advantageously encamping his -little army, which did not amount to a fourth of the enemy, on a slope -opposite to the castle and village of Arques, a few miles from Dieppe, -defeated his assailants with great slaughter. The battle was fought on -the 21st of September, 1589, and the spot is now marked by a lofty column. - -On the heels of this victory came a most timely aid from Elizabeth of -England, of L20,000 in gold and 4,000 troops under Lord Willoughby. -Henry now retraced his steps to Paris, where he made himself master -of the suburbs on the left bank of the Seine, and continued to act on -the offensive during the remainder of the year. At the commencement of -1591 the English army was dismissed, having suffered heavy losses, and -displayed marked bravery. - -But they only returned home for Henry to solicit fresh assistance; the -Spaniards and the Duke of Mercoeur put in claims for the province of -Brittany, and united their forces to obtain it. Elizabeth, who professed -to desire the Protestant ascendency in France, sorely rued the expense -of supporting that interest, and her old and cunning minister Burleigh, -threw his weight into the scale of parsimony, because he delighted to -see France depressed. But now that the hated Spaniards had actually -landed in that country over against her very coasts, she was roused to do -something. She advanced a fresh loan and sent over a small reinforcement -of 3,000 men. Essex was impatient to have the command of this force, -but the queen, listening to Burleigh, gave it to Sir John Norris, and -Essex quitted the Court in a pet. Fresh forces were, however, solicited, -and Essex, to his great delight, received the appointment. In August he -landed at Dieppe, and finding Henry engaged in the distant Champagne, -he pitched his tent at Arques, near the scene of Henry's triumph, and -remained there for two months doing nothing but knighting his officers -to keep them contented. His whole force consisted only of 300 horse, 300 -gentlemen volunteers, and 3,000 infantry. On the king's arrival the siege -of Rouen was begun, where the English army suffered terrible hardships, -and in the spring of 1592, the siege having been raised on the approach -of the Prince of Parma, Essex left his troops with Sir Roger Williams, -having lost his brother, Walter Devereux, in the campaign. - -This unsatisfactory state of things in France continued till the -midsummer of 1593. Henry was continually demanding fresh aid, fresh -advances of money, fresh troops, which he did not employ, as was -stipulated with Elizabeth, solely against the Spaniards, but against -his rebellious subjects. Elizabeth was greatly enraged at his breach of -faith, but still found it impossible to refuse him, lest the Spaniards -should get the upper hand, and Henry, calculating on this, went on doing -with her troops just what he pleased. Elizabeth was further incensed, and -went into the worst of tempers on this account, and for this cause not -only dealt sharp words, but heavy blows about her on her attendants. But -worst of all came the news that Henry IV. was about to embrace the Roman -Catholic faith. The fact was he saw that it was impossible otherwise -to maintain himself on the throne. She sent off a strong remonstrance -composed by Burleigh, but before its arrival the deed was done, nor is -it to be supposed that its arrival would have prevented it. Elizabeth's -limited aid could not enable him to overcome the tremendous opposition -arrayed against him. On the 15th of July, 1593, Henry publicly abjured -the Protestant and embraced, if not the Roman Catholic faith, the -profession of it. On hearing that this was done, Elizabeth burst into one -of her violent passions, and heaped on him her choicest terms of abuse. -She wrote to him after four months had somewhat abated her fury, but -still in a strain of high remonstrance. - -Elizabeth, after getting over her resentment against Henry IV. on account -of his lapse of faith, found it convenient to make a league offensive and -defensive with him against Philip. The consequence was that the Spaniards -speedily poured into France from the Netherlands. Velasco, the constable -of Castile, penetrated into Champagne, and directed his attack against -Franche-Comte. Fuentes marched into Picardy, defeated Henry's army, took -Dourlens and Cambray, and threw the King of France into the greatest -alarm. In vain he sent to demand aid of Elizabeth: she had heard of -preparations in the Spanish ports for a second invasion of her kingdom; -and so far from aiding Henry, she withdrew her troops from Brittany, -complaining dreadfully of all the money and men which she had foolishly -wasted on the apostate monarch of France. In March, 1596, the Archduke -Albert, who had become Governor of the Netherlands, suddenly marched on -Calais, pretending that his object was to raise the siege of La Fere. -By this ruse he was already under the walls of Calais with 15,000 men. -The outstanding forts were soon won, and as Elizabeth was one Sunday at -church at Greenwich, the distant report of the Archduke's cannonade on -the walls of Calais was plainly heard. Elizabeth sprang up in the midst -of the service, and vowed that she would rescue that ancient town. She -sent off post-haste to order the Lord Mayor of London to immediately -impress 1,000 men, and send them on to Calais; but the fit of enthusiasm -was soon over, and the next morning she countermanded the order. When -Henry's ambassadors urged her for assistance, she coolly proffered it on -condition that she should garrison Calais with an English army. When the -proposal was made to Henry, he was so incensed that he actually turned -his back on her ambassador, Sir Robert Sidney, saying he would rather -receive a box on the ear from a man than a fillip from a woman. In a few -days--namely, on the 14th of April--the town was carried by storm, and -Elizabeth had the mortification of seeing the Spaniards in possession -of a port so calculated to enable them to invade England. Henry, on his -part, was excessively enraged at her duplicity and selfishness, and spoke -in no sparing terms of her. Nevertheless, his necessities soon compelled -him to lower his tone, and even to condescend to flatter her in the most -extravagant manner of the age, with the result that 2,000 troops were -sent to garrison Boulogne. - -The hostile preparations in the ports of Spain at this time occupied -all the attention of Elizabeth and her Government, and the more so as -during the past years she had lost her two famous commanders, Drake and -Hawkins. They had been sent out on one of their predatory expeditions -against the Spanish settlements in South America and the West Indies. -But circumstances in these quarters had become greatly changed. The -colonies had acquired population and strength: the former ravages of -these commanders had put the people and the Government on their guard. -Wherever the English fleet appeared, it found the ports and coasts well -guarded and defended. Their attacks were repulsed, and such was the -deplorable failure of the expedition, and the contrast of their former -profitable and splendid exploits, that both commanders sank under their -mortification. Hawkins died in 1595, and Drake in the following year. The -survivors only returned to experience the anger of the queen, who felt -with equal sensibility the loss of reputation and of the accustomed booty. - -The Lord Howard of Effingham, the brave High Admiral who had so -successfully commanded the fleet against the Armada, recommended at this -crisis that the English Government should adopt the advice which he had -given on the former occasion, to anticipate the intentions of Spain, -and attack and destroy the menacing fleet ere it left the port. In this -counsel he was ardently seconded by Essex, who loved above all things an -expedition of a bold and romantic character, and the more so, because it -was directly opposed to the cold and cautious policy of his enemies, the -Cecils. He prevailed, and a fleet of 130 sail was fitted out to carry -over an army of 14,000 land forces. The fleet was confided to the command -of Lord Howard, the army to Essex; but to put some check on his fiery -enthusiasm he was required to take, on all great occasions, the advice -of a council of war consisting of the Lord Admiral, Lord Thomas Howard, -Sir Walter Raleigh, Sir Francis Vere, Sir George Carew, and Sir Coniers -Clifford. - -On the 1st of June, 1596, the fleet issued from Plymouth, and being -joined by twenty-two ships from Holland, it amounted to 150 sail, -carrying 14,000 men. On the 20th the fleet cast anchor at the mouth of -the harbour of Cadiz, and there discovered fifteen men-of-war, and about -forty merchantmen. The next morning a fierce battle took place, which -lasted from seven in the morning till one o'clock at noon. The English -sailed right into the harbour, despite the fire from the ships and forts, -and the Spaniards, finding the contest going against them, attempted to -run their vessels ashore and burn them. The galleons got out to sea, -while the merchantmen having reached Puerto Real, discharged their cargo -and were burnt by order of the Duke of Medina. Two large ships with an -argosy were taken, and much booty fell to the captors. The Earl of Essex -displayed the utmost gallantry. Instead of remaining with the army, he -went on board and fought in the thick of the danger. The sea-fight over, -he landed 3,000 men and marched into Cadiz. A body of horse and foot was -posted to oppose his progress, but fled at his approach; and, finding -that the inhabitants in their terror had closed the gates, they made -their way over a ruinous wall, and the English without delay followed -them. In spite of the fire kept up from the tops of the houses, Essex led -his men to the market-place, where they were speedily joined by the Lord -Admiral, who had found his way through a portal. The city capitulated, -paying 120,000 crowns for the lives of the people, the town and all its -wealth being abandoned to the plunder of the troops. - -[Illustration: BEAUCHAMP TOWER, WARDERS' HOUSES, AND YEOMAN GAOLERS' -LODGINGS: TOWER OF LONDON.] - -Essex proposed to strike a great blow while the panic of their victory -paralysed the country. He recommended that they should march into -the heart of Andalusia; and such was the destitution of disciplined -troops from the drain which the wars of France and the Netherlands had -occasioned, such were the discontent of the nobles and the disaffection -of the Moriscoes, that much mischief might have been done before they -could have been successfully opposed. The plan, however, was resisted by -the other commanders, and Essex then offered to remain in the Isla de -Leon with 4,000 men, and defend it against the whole force of the enemy. -But the other leaders would hear of nothing but hastening home. They had -laid the town in ruins, with the exception of two or three churches; -they had nearly annihilated the fleet, had collected a vast booty, and -inflicted on the Spaniards a loss of 20,000,000 ducats. - -The conquerors returned home, having dealt the severest blow at Spain -that it had received for generations. They had raised the prestige of the -English arms, amply avenged the attempt at the invasion of their country, -and sunk the reputation of Spain in no ordinary degree. Foreigners -regarded the exploit with wonder, and the people raised thunders of -acclamations as the victorious vessels sailed into port. But the gallant -and magnanimous deeds of Essex had been gall and wormwood to the Cecils, -and they had neglected no means of injuring him in his absence. Essex had -succeeded ever since the death of Walsingham--that is, for six years--in -preventing the dearest wish of Burleigh's heart, to see his son, Sir -Robert, established in his post. While Essex was away he carried this -point with the queen; and the courtiers, now auguring the ascendency of -the Cecils, united in defaming Essex to win favour with them. They talked -freely of his vainglory, rashness, extravagance, and dissipation. - -Day after day the queen subjected Essex to the scrutiny and -cross-questioning of his enemies in the Council, till, luckily for him, -there came the news that the Spanish treasures from the New World had -just arrived safely in port with 20,000,000 of dollars. This put the -climax to Elizabeth's exasperation; and Essex, who, since his return -from the expedition, as if to take away every ground for the censure of -the courtiers, had assumed a totally new character, and was no longer -the gay and pleasure-seeking young nobleman, but the grave and religious -man; who lived at home with his countess, attended her to church, and -exhibited the most pious demeanour; who, instead of his haughty and -irritable temper, had displayed the utmost patience and forbearance -under the galling examination of the Council, now broke out at once with -the declaration that he had done everything in his power to persuade -his colleagues to permit him to sail to Terceira to intercept this very -fleet; that the creatures of the Cecils had opposed him resolutely, -defeated the enterprise, and robbed the queen of this princely treasure. - -Instantly the whole current of Elizabeth's feelings underwent a change. -It was deemed necessary to send out an expedition to Spain to hunt up -the hostile fleet and destroy it as before. Essex stood undoubted in the -queen's confidence, and she gave him the command of the fleet for this -purpose, with Lord Thomas Howard and Sir Walter Raleigh under him. This -time there was no subjection to a council of war. On the 11th of July, -1597, the fleet set sail; but had not sailed more than forty leagues -when it was driven back by a tempest, which raged for four days. Essex -himself disdained to turn back, but, with his utter contempt of danger -and dogged obstinacy, he, to use his own words, beat up his ship in the -teeth of the storm, till it was actually falling asunder, having a leak -which obliged them to pump eight tons of water per day out of her; her -main and foremast being cracked, and most of her beams broken and reft. -The gentlemen volunteers were so completely satisfied with sailing with -such a man, that on reaching land at Falmouth they all stole away home. -But Essex himself was as resolved as ever to prosecute the voyage, though -the queen would advance nothing more for refitting the fleet. He got as -many of his ships into order as he could, and on the 17th of August was -enabled to sail again, though the men by this time had consumed most -of their provisions. He made now, not for the coast of Spain, but the -Azores, where they took Fayal, Graciosa, and Flores--useless conquests, -as they could not keep them, and which led to immediate quarrels, for -Raleigh, with his indomitable ambition, took Fayal himself without -orders, which Essex deeming an honour stolen from him, resented greatly. -He ordered several of the officers concerned to be arrested; but when -he was advised to try Raleigh by a court-martial, he replied, "So I -would had he been one of my friends." What was worse than this dispute, -however, was that the Spanish treasure vessels returning from America, -which Elizabeth had expressly ordered them to lay wait for, had escaped -into Terceira, and they were obliged to return with the capture of three -Spanish ships and other plunder, valued at L100,000. - -Essex, on landing, hastened to Court, but the queen was in the worst of -humours at the missing of the treasure ships, and complained that he -had done nothing to discharge the expenses of the expedition. She laid -all the blame of failure on him, and gave all the credit to Sir Walter -Raleigh, whom she accused him of oppressing and insulting. With his -usual choleric petulance, he hastily left the Court and retired to his -own house at Wanstead. He was so far from admitting that he was in the -wrong, that he demanded satisfaction for the injuries which he considered -had been done him in his absence. The Chancellorship of the Duchy of -Lancaster, which he had asked for a dependent, had been conferred on -Cecil, and the Lord Admiral Howard had been created Earl of Nottingham, -and thus had obtained an official precedency over him. Worse still, and -more unjust, the honour of the capture of Cadiz was allowed to be usurped -by Lord Howard in his new patent, though it really belonged to Essex. The -passionate favourite was so enraged that he offered to fight Nottingham -in vindication of his claim, or one of his sons, or any gentleman of the -name of Howard. However, he bridled his resentment, and on the 18th of -December all was made smooth, and Essex again appeared at Court, being -created Earl Marshal, by which he regained precedency over the new Earl -of Nottingham. - -The King of France, in the commencement of the year 1598, announced to -the Queen of England his intention to seek peace with Spain. This was -news by no means agreeable to Elizabeth, as such a peace would leave -Philip at liberty to pursue his designs against her; and she endeavoured -by her ambassador to dissuade Henry from such a measure. But Henry had -now for thirteen years been harassed by the cares of a kingdom involved -on two sides in war with Philip, and rent in every quarter by religious -dissension. The death of the Guises had broken up, in a great measure, -the Roman Catholic League, but the spirit of opposition was still as much -alive as ever, and was fanned into flame by a Protestant League, formed -on the same principles. He longed intensely for peace, that he might -more fully exert himself to abate this religious discord. His anxiety -for it had been doubled by the capture of Amiens by the Spaniards in -February, 1597; and his recovery of it in the following September only -rendered him the more willing to treat, because he could do it on better -terms. It was necessary to send over Sir Robert Cecil as ambassador -extraordinary, to attend the negotiations: and fearing the influence of -Essex in his absence, the cunning minister had been induced to favour his -advancement to the post of Earl Marshal, and he sought to win the Earl -over more completely by moving the queen to present Essex with a cargo -of cochineal worth L7,000, and a contract for the sale of a much larger -amount out of the royal stores. Greatly pleased by these instances of -Cecil's friendship, as he deemed it, Essex transacted the business of the -Secretaryship for Sir Robert in his absence, and that politic gentleman -took his departure for France on the 10th of February, 1598. - -At the conference both Cecil and the Dutch deputies did everything in -their power to prevent the peace, but in vain. Henry was resolved on -giving tranquillity to his kingdom; and when reproached by Cecil for -deserting Elizabeth, he replied that in aiding him she had served her -own interests. On the 20th of April he published the edict of Nantes, -giving security and toleration to the Protestants; and on May the 2nd he -signed, at Vervins, the treaty with Spain, which was so advantageous that -he recovered Calais and all places which had been taken during the war. -Elizabeth was in reality a gainer, for she thus became free from a charge -of L126,000 per annum in holding the cautionary towns; and the States -gave an acknowledgment of a debt of L800,000, which they engaged to pay -by instalments. - -On the return of Cecil he submitted to the queen the proposals which -Philip had made for the extension of the peace to England, and Burleigh -and Sir Robert contended that Spain having made peace with France, it was -wise for this kingdom to do the same. Essex, on the contrary, contended -for war, and for still punishing the Spaniards for their attempt at -invasion. In the midst of one of the debates in the Council, Burleigh -put his pocket Bible gently before him, open at these words in the -Psalms:--"Blood-thirsty men shall not live out half their days." Essex -took no apparent notice of it, but after his death the circumstance came -to be looked on as prophetic. The Council was in favour of peace. The -nation sympathised with Essex, and especially the army and navy, who -hated the Spaniards, and thought Essex stood up for the honour of the -country. But if Essex's favour rose with the people, it was in utmost -peril at Court. - -A scene soon occurred in the Council chamber which hastened the rupture. -There was a warm debate on the appointment of a new Lord Deputy for -Ireland. That country was in such a cruelly distracted state, and the -population, both English and Irish, so hostile to the English Government, -that no one would willingly accept the office. At this moment the Cecils -were warmly recommending Sir William Knollys to that unenviable post, -Essex still more vehemently urging the appointment on Sir George Carew. -But each party was not striving to confer the post as a favour, but as an -annoyance. Sir William Knollys was the uncle of Essex, and, therefore, -when the queen named him, the Cecils supported the nomination; and Essex, -on the contrary, named Sir George Carew as a partisan of the Cecils. -The debate grew vehement, and Essex, without regard to the wishes of -the queen, spoke violently against the appointment of Sir William. The -queen made a sarcastic observation on Essex's advocacy, and the petted -favourite turned his back upon her with an expression neither respectful -nor prudent. The soul of the great queen rose in all its Tudor fury, -and she fetched the rash and forgetful youth a sound buffet on the ear. -Instead of being called to his senses by this action, the fiery Earl -started to his feet and clapped his hand on his sword; but the Lord -Admiral threw himself between the ungallant Earl and the queen; and Essex -exclaiming that "it was an insult which he would not have taken from her -father, much less from a king in petticoats," rushed out of the room. - -[Illustration: THE QUARREL BETWEEN ELIZABETH AND THE EARL OF ESSEX. (_See -p._ 332.)] - -The rupture took place in June, and not till the 6th of November did -the haughty favourite and the offended queen become reconciled; and it -is not probable that the reconciliation was ever sincere on the part of -Elizabeth. Meanwhile, death had removed two persons of great consequence -in the history of Elizabeth--her aged minister Burleigh, and Philip of -Spain (1598). Sir Robert Cecil, Burleigh's son, succeeded him in the -councils of the queen, much to the disgust of Essex, and perpetuated his -father's cautious principles. - -Ireland was now at such a pitch of confusion that the English Government -was at its wit's end about it, and no one liked to undertake its -vice-royalty. It was come to such a pass that it was even worse than -when Walsingham wished it four-and-twenty hours under water. The Lord -Grey, though eulogised by Spenser, had left it with the character -of a cruel and rapacious tyrant. Sir John Perrot, reputed to be an -illegitimate brother of Elizabeth, succeeded him, and dispensed -justice with a stern hand. He was as ready to punish the English for -their excesses as to do justice to the Irish under their wrongs; and -the enmity of his own domineering and avaricious countrymen became -much more effective than the respect of the natives. In 1592 the -clamours and intrigues of his enemies occasioned his recall. At home, -however, he suffered himself to speak incautiously of the queen and of -Chancellor Hatton, and a secret inquiry was instituted into his late -administration of Ireland. All sorts of charges of a treasonable nature -were advanced against him by those whose rapacity he had punished during -his deputyship--such as favouring the Roman Catholic clergy, plotting -with Parma and the Spaniards, and encouraging the insurrections of the -O'Rourkes and the Burkes. They could establish none of these, but they -managed to touch him in a still more dangerous quarter. They proved that -in his irritation at the obstructions thrown in his way by the Court, he -had spoken sometimes freely of the queen and her ministers. Essex, whose -sister Perrot's son had married, exerted all his influence in his favour; -but where Elizabeth's vanity was wounded she was unforgiving. Sir John -was condemned to death, and soon after died in the Tower from chagrin at -his unjust treatment, or, as was suspected, from poison. - -[Illustration: THE EARL OF ESSEX. - -(_From the Portrait by Isaac Oliver._)] - -The most formidable Irish chieftain with whom the English had to -contend was Hugh, the son of the late Baron of Dungannon. This active -and ambitious chief, who had been rewarded for his services in the war -against the Earl of Desmond with the earldom of Tyrone, soon proclaimed -himself not merely the successor to the earldom of O'Neil, but the -genuine O'Neil himself. The natives of Ulster, in need of such a -champion, admitted his claims, and were ready to support him in all his -pretensions. As these were not admitted by the English, he became their -enemy, and by his military talents proved a terrible thorn in their -side. He demanded for the natives liberty of conscience and all their -old lands, rights, and privileges; and the successive deputies found -themselves engaged in a most harassing and destructive war with this -subtle chief and his followers, in which he wore them out by constant -skirmishes and surprises amongst the woods, bogs, and mountains of his -wild territories. Sir John Norris, who had served with so much honour -in the Netherlands and France, sank under it; and in August of 1598 Sir -Henry Bagenal was defeated and slain in a pitched battle at Blackwater, -in Tyrone, his baggage and artillery being lost, and 1,500 men killed. -The consequence of this victory was that nearly all Ireland rushed into -a state of open rebellion, and the great question in the English cabinet -was, who was the man capable of reducing the insurgents. It required no -common man; for the Irish everywhere proclaimed the Earl of Tyrone the -saviour of his country, and looked to him to drive the English wholly -out of Ireland. The Earl of Essex dwelt so much in the Council on the -necessary bravery and address of the man who should be appointed, that -the Cecils, anxious to remove him to a distance from the Court, declared -that he himself was by far the most fitting for the office. His friends -warned him of the dangers and difficulties of a Government which had been -the ruin of so many; but the queen, seconding the recommendations of the -Cecils, to induce him to accept the post, remitted him a debt of L8,000, -and made him a present of nearly three times that sum. He was furnished -with an army of 18,000 men, many of them veteran troops who had fought in -the Netherlands, and with the fullest powers that had ever been conferred -on any Irish Deputy. He had full authority to continue the war or to -make peace; to pardon all crimes and treasons at his pleasure, and to -determine all his own appointments. - -Such were the terms of his commission; but in one particular the queen -had laid a strict injunction upon him, in conversation, which was, -that he should not give the command of the cavalry, as he wished, to -his friend and the friend of Shakespeare, the Earl of Southampton, -with whom Elizabeth had the old cause of quarrel, that of presuming to -marry without her consent. In March, 1599, Essex marched out of London, -surrounded by the flower of the young nobility, and followed by the -acclamations and good wishes of the populace, of whom he was the idol for -his military reputation and his frank and generous disposition. - -No sooner did he arrive in Ireland than he set at defiance the orders of -the queen, and placed Southampton at the head of the horse. Elizabeth -sent an angry command for his removal, and Essex reminded her of the -terms of his commission, and wished to know whether she meant to revoke -it. Worse was to follow. Sickness, from the wretched and unwholesome -supplies of provisions--the worst enemy of the British soldier in all -ages being frequently the commissariat officers--soon decimated them; and -by the month of August his 18,000 men showed no more than 3,500 foot, and -300 horse. He was compelled to demand a reinforcement of 2,000 men before -he could march into Ulster, the chief seat of the rebellion. The queen -sent the soldiers, but accompanied the order by very bitter letters, -complaining of his waste of her troops, her money, and of her time, which -was so precious. Essex defended himself by representing the difficulties -of the task which he had to encounter, and which had mastered so many -before him. He assured her that he acted entirely by the advice of the -Lords of the Irish Council; but "these rebels," he said, "are far more -numerous than your Majesty's army, and have--though I do unwillingly -confess it--better bodies, and more perfect use of their arms, than those -men your Majesty sends over." He added, that for his part he received -nothing from home but "discomfort and soul-wounds." - -When he came up with Tyrone on the 5th of September, encamped with his -whole army in the county of Louth, that chief demanded a parley, and -instead of a battle, as was expected, an armistice was agreed upon for -six weeks, which was to be renewed from six weeks to six weeks till the -following May, to give time for full inquiry. His enemies thereupon -insinuated that Essex was at heart a traitor, and was in collusion with -the Irish to betray his trust and make himself independent. Still worse, -they declared that he was waiting for a descent of the Spaniards on -the island to assist in the design. Certain that his destruction was -determined upon by his foes, and that no justice was to be expected -whilst he was at such a distance, he formed the sudden resolve to hasten -to London and defend his policy in person. His first idea was to take -with him such a body of troops as should overawe the adverse party, and -secure his own person; but Sir Christopher Blount, who had now married -the mother of Essex, convinced him of the fatality of such a proceeding. -He departed, therefore, with a small attendance; and arriving in London -on the 28th of September, 1599, and finding the queen was at Nonsuch, he -lost no time in hastening thither, to prevent any one from prejudicing -her against him. But he found that, quick as he had been, his enemies -had been quicker, and that one of the most hostile of them, Lord Grey of -Wilton, was on the way at full speed. Essex knew what the effect would be -if Cecil got the news before his arrival, that he had left his government -contrary to the positive order of the queen; and if time were allowed -to excite the queen's resentment, he would undoubtedly be arrested the -moment of his arrival. For this reason he rode like a madman, through mud -and mire, but hate travelled faster, and Grey had been closeted a good -quarter of a hour with Cecil when he reached the palace. - -Without pausing to alter his dress, Essex rushed into the queen's privy -chamber, and not finding her there, did not hesitate to rush into her -bed-chamber, though it was only ten o'clock in the morning. The queen was -just up, and sat with her hair all about her face in the hands of her -tire-woman. She was naturally excessively astonished at this unexpected -apparition; but Essex threw himself on his knees before her, covered her -hands with kisses, and did not rise till she had given him evidence of -her good-will. He retired to make his toilet in such good humour at his -reception that he thanked God that after so many troublous storms abroad, -"he found a sweet calm at home." Within an hour he returned, and had a -long interview with her Majesty, who was so kind and gracious, that the -courtiers, who had carefully watched how this rude entrance would be -taken, persuaded themselves that love would carry the day against duty -with the queen; and they all, except the Cecil party, were very courteous -towards him. But by the evening the poison of the venomous minister had -been instilled and done its work. Essex was received by the queen with -a stern and distant air, and she began to demand of him why he had thus -left Ireland without her permission, affairs being in so disordered and -dangerous a state. He received an order at night to consider himself a -prisoner in his room; and the next day, at two o'clock in the afternoon, -he was summoned to give an account of himself to the Council. On entering -the Council the lords arose and saluted him, but reseated themselves, -leaving him standing at the end of the board. It was demanded why he had -left his charge in Ireland without leave; why he had made so many knights -there, contrary to the express desire of the queen; why he had written -such presumptuous letters to her Majesty; and how he had dared to enter -her Majesty's bedroom. After awhile he was allowed a certain amount of -freedom, but the queen never saw him again. - -In June of 1600 she put Essex on his trial before a court of eighteen -commissioners, whom she empowered to pass "censure," but not judgment. -The result of this trial was that Essex was condemned to forfeit every -office which he held by patent from the Crown, and to remain a prisoner -at the royal pleasure. Elizabeth trusted that now she had broken the -proud spirit of the Lord Deputy, and that the sentence of the court would -bring him humbly to sue for forgiveness. But the great failing of Essex -was his high spirit, his indignant sense of wrong, and his obstinate -refusal to surrender his own will when he felt himself right, though -there was no other way of appeasing his equally self-willed sovereign. He -only begged to be dismissed, and that she "would let her servant depart -in peace." He declared that all the pleasures and ambitions of this world -had palled upon his mind; that he saw their vanity, and desired only -to live in retirement with his wife, his friends, and his books in the -country. Had that wish been real, few men were better qualified, by their -refined and elevated taste and their love of literature, to have adorned -such a life; but Essex, if he truly longed for private and domestic life, -did not know himself, for he was one of those restless and quick spirits -of whom the poet said "quiet is a hell." However, on the 26th of August -he was released from custody, but informed that he must not appear at -Court. - -Essex, once at large, cast off his pretences of retirement and contempt -of the world, and petitioned the queen for a continuation of his patent -for a monopoly of sweet wines. Elizabeth replied that she would first -inquire into the value of this privilege, which she understood was -worth L50,000 per annum. She accompanied this message with an ominous -remark that when horses became unmanageable it was necessary to stint -them in their corn. Accordingly, she refused his request, and appointed -commissioners to manage the tax for herself. - -Essex now became beside himself. Hitherto he had lived in privacy, -but now he came to Essex House, in the Strand, where he gave free -entertainment to all sorts of people. His secretary Cuffe and other -dangerous persons encouraged him in the belief that by his popularity -with the people it would be no difficult matter to force Cecil, Raleigh, -and his other enemies from office; and that once removed from the queen, -all would be right. He therefore kept open house, and was soon surrounded -by crowds of military men and adventurers, by Roman Catholics and -Puritans. His military friends formed themselves into a sort of guard; -and it was remarked that many of the nobility also visited him, as the -Earls of Worcester, Southampton, Sussex, Rutland, and Bedford. There were -daily preachings in his house, and he proposed to some of the theologians -the question whether it were not lawful, in case of mal-administration, -to compel a sovereign to govern according to law. He moreover sent to -the king of Scotland, assuring him that there was a design at Court -to exclude him in favour of the Infanta of Spain, and urged James to -send an ambassador to demand a distinct declaration of his right to the -succession. James, who was in great anxiety on this head already, appears -to have listened to the advice of Essex, and to have taken measures to -act upon it. - -Essex was now stimulated by his passions into a most perilous position. -He was actively engaged in dangerous courses; and though some pains -were taken to conceal his real designs, by the chief coadjutors in the -conspiracy meeting at the Earl of Southampton's, and communicating -privately by letter with Essex, the proceedings could not escape the -ever-open ears of Cecil and his party. The conspirators had concluded -that the safest thing to do in the first instance was for Sir Christopher -Blount, Sir John Davis, and Sir Charles Davers to head three parties, -and to take possession of the gate of Westminster palace, the guard, and -the presence chamber, whilst Essex threw himself on his knees before the -queen, and refused to rise till she had complied with his petition, and -dismissed the obnoxious ministers. But while they were planning, Cecil -and his friends acted. The secretary Herbert arrived with a summons for -Essex to appear before the Council. He replied that he was too unwell -to attend; and while he was thus evading the summons, he received an -anonymous note warning him to escape as he valued his life; and this -was immediately followed by the intelligence that the guard had been -doubled at the palace. It was high time now to act, as his arrest was -certain. In the night he despatched messages to collect his friends; -and it was resolved that the next morning, which was Sunday, the 8th of -February, 1601, the Earls of Southampton and Rutland, the Lords Sandys -and Mounteagle, and about 600 gentlemen, should enter the City with Essex -during sermon time, and assembling at St. Paul's Cross, where the Lord -Mayor, Aldermen, and Companies were wont to attend, to call upon them to -accompany them to the palace to assist in obtaining the removal of the -pernicious advisers of the Crown. - -When they were on the point of executing this plan they were interrupted -by a visit from the Lord Keeper Egerton, the Earl of Worcester, Knollys, -the comptroller of the household, and the Lord Chief Justice. Essex -ordered them to be admitted through the wicket, but without any of their -attendants, except the purse-bearer. When the officers of the Crown found -themselves in the midst of an armed company, Egerton demanded what was -the meaning of it; on which Essex replied in a loud and excited tone, -"There is a plot laid for my life. Letters have been counterfeited in my -name; men have been hired to murder me in my bed. We are met to defend -our lives, since my enemies cannot be satisfied without sucking my blood." - -"If such be the case," said the Lord Chief Justice Popham, "let it -be proved. We will relate it fairly, and the queen will do impartial -justice." "Impartial justice!" said the Earl of Southampton; "then -why is it not done on Lord Grey?" Grey had attacked Southampton in -the Strand with a number of followers on account of an old grudge, -Southampton having only a foot-boy with him, whose hand was struck off, -and Southampton himself was in great danger, till a number of people with -clubs came to his help. Popham replied that Grey was imprisoned for the -offence; and Egerton desired Essex to explain his grievances in private, -when there was a cry of "They abuse you, my lord; they are undoing you; -you lose your time!" Egerton put on his cap, and commanded every man, -in the queen's name, to lay down his arms and depart. The crowd outside -continued to shout, "Kill them, kill them! Keep them for hostages! Throw -the great seal out of the window!" The queen's officers, being shown into -a back room guarded by musketeers, Essex begged them to have patience -for half an hour and locking the door upon them, left them. Sir John -Davis, Sir Gilly Merrick, Francis Tresham, and Owen Salisbury were left -in charge of them. - -[Illustration: LORD GREY AND HIS FOLLOWERS ATTACKING THE EARL OF -SOUTHAMPTON. (_See p._ 336.)] - -Then Essex, rushing into the street, drew his sword, and followed by -Southampton, Rutland, Sandys, Mounteagle, and most of the knights and -gentlemen, he made for the City. They were joined on the way by the -Earl of Bedford and Lord Cromwell, with 200 others. At Ludgate the -guard suffered them to pass, Essex declaring that he was endeavouring -to save his life from Raleigh, Cobham, and their accomplices. To their -great disappointment they found nobody at St. Paul's Cross, the queen -having warned the Corporation to keep away, and to see that the people -remained within their houses. Essex rode along shouting, "For the -queen, my mistress! a plot is laid for my life!" and called upon the -citizens to come and follow him. He had relied on his popularity with the -masses; but he now found himself miserably deceived. The common people -shouted "God bless your honour!" but no man joined him. He returned -crestfallen to his house; but it was presently surrounded by a military -force with a battering train, and not a soul rose in his defence. The -case was hopeless, and about ten o'clock at night Essex and Southampton -held a parley from the top of the house with Sir Robert Sidney, and -surrendered on promise of a fair trial. They were conveyed for the night -to Lambeth Palace. The next day Essex and Southampton were committed -to the Tower, and the other prisoners to different gaols in London and -Westminster. Essex was tried, and on the whole fairly, for his technical -guilt was obvious; and, after the usual hesitation on the part of -Elizabeth, suffered the penalty of the law on the 25th of February, 1601. -Southampton was imprisoned for life. - -Lord Mountjoy, the friend of Essex, though advanced to the deputyship of -Ireland in his room, knew that Elizabeth had become aware of his offer -to attempt a release of Essex from his confinement before his last rash -outbreak, and he was prepared to escape to the Continent on the first -symptom of an attempt to arrest him; but to his agreeable surprise he -received a very gracious letter from Elizabeth, in which she stated that -the defection and death of Essex had caused her deep grief, but his, -Mountjoy's, loyalty and success in Ireland had been a comfort to her. -This had been done at the suggestion of Cecil, who represented to her -that Mountjoy's loyalty might be secured by not seeming to doubt it, and -it was a great consequence to have so able a general in Ireland, as the -Spaniards were now meditating a descent on the coast of that island. -Indeed, in September, 4,000 Spaniards landed at Kinsale, under Don Juan -D'Aguilar, fortified the town, and called on the people to join them -against the heretic and excommunicated Queen of England, their oppressor. -Whilst Mountjoy marched his forces to Kinsale and shut up the Spaniards -in their own lines, Elizabeth summoned her last Parliament. She opened -it in person on the 27th of October, 1601, but she was now so enfeebled -that she was actually sinking under the weight of the robes of State, -when the nobleman who stood nearest to her caught her in his arms and -supported her. Notwithstanding this exhibition of her weakness, her -determined will enabled her to rally and to go through the ceremony. The -Session was a very stormy one. The great object of calling it together -was to obtain money. Money the House of Commons expressed its willingness -to grant, but at the same time called for the abolition of a number -of monopolies which were sapping the very vitals of the nation. These -monopolies were patents granted to her courtiers, for the exclusive sale -of some article of commerce. It was a custom which had commenced in the -seventeenth year of her reign, and by the greediness of her favourites -had grown into a monstrous abuse. Scarcely a man about her but had one or -more of these monopolies in his hand, by which the price of all sorts of -the necessities of life was doubled, or more than doubled. Sometimes the -patentee exercised the monopoly himself, sometimes he farmed it out to -others, whose only object was to screw as much as possible out of it. The -members for counties and boroughs had been repeatedly called on by their -constituents to demand the abolition of these detestable abuses; but they -had always been silenced by Ministers, on the ground that the queen would -highly resent any interference with her prerogatives. - -On the 18th of November a motion to put an end to these monopolies was -made, which received the regular Ministerial answer, with the addition -that it was useless to endeavour to tie the Royal hands, because, even if -it were done by both Houses, the queen could loose them at her pleasure. -Cecil said that the Speaker was very much to blame to admit of such a -motion at the commencement of a Session, knowing that it was contrary -to the Royal command. But, nothing daunted, the members of the Commons -replied that they had found, however useless it was to petition for the -removal of these grievances, that the remedy lay in their own hands, -and the patentees were such blood-suckers of the commonwealth, that the -people would no longer bear the burden of them. When the list of the -monopolies was read over, a member asked if bread were not amongst them. -The House appeared amazed at the question. "Nay," said he, "if no remedy -be found for these, bread will be there before next Parliament." Bacon -and Cecil still talked loudly of prerogative, but the House went on with -so much resolution that the favourites began to tremble, and Raleigh, who -had monopolies of tar and various other commodities, saw such a storm -brewing that he offered to give them all up. For four days the debate -continued with such an agitation as had not been witnessed through the -whole reign; and Cecil found it necessary to give way, and the monopolies -were withdrawn. On the 25th the queen sent for the Speaker, and in the -presence of the Council, addressed him in a truly noble speech, saying -that she had rather her heart and hand should perish than that either -heart or hand should allow such privileges to monopolists as might injure -her people. - -While these events had been taking place in Parliament, Mountjoy had -defeated the queen's enemies in Ireland. He had united his forces with -those of the President of Munster, and kept the Spaniards shut up in -Kinsale. On Christmas Eve the Earl of Tyrone advanced to the assistance -of the besieged, with 6,000 Irish and 200 fresh Spaniards, who had landed -at Castlehaven under the command of Ocampo. His plan was to surprise -the English before daylight, and to have a second division of his army -ready with a supply oprovisions to throw into the town. But Mountjoy -was already aware of his approach, which was delayed by the fears of -Ocampo--only too well founded--of the fatal want of discipline amongst -the natives, and by his endeavours to bring them into some regularity. -Mountjoy surprised these wild hordes as they were crossing a stream, -and thoroughly routed them. The Spaniards, left on the field alone, -surrendered, and Tyrone retreated northwards with the remnant of his -army. About 500 Irish were killed. - -[Illustration: A STORY OF THE SPANISH MAIN - -FROM THE PICTURE BY SEYMOUR LUCAS, R.A.] - -The Spaniards in Kinsale yielded the place on this defeat of their -allies, on condition of being allowed to return home with their arms -and ammunition. Tyrone was then pursued by Mountjoy with great vigour, -and after a number of defeats retired still more northward. Munster was -reduced, and Tyrone offered to submit on favourable terms; but Mountjoy -could obtain no such terms from the queen; she insisted on unconditional -surrender. Her ministers strongly advised her to concede and settle the -state of Ireland, which was now costing her L300,000 a year to defend -it against the natives. Sometimes she appeared disposed to comply, -and then again was as obstinate as ever; and matters remained in this -position till 1603, when Mountjoy, hearing that the queen was not likely -to live long, agreed to receive Tyrone's submission, to grant him and -his followers a full pardon, and restore the whole of his territories, -with some few exceptions. Tyrone then accompanied Mountjoy to Dublin, -where they heard of the death of Elizabeth; and Tyrone burst into tears -and regretted his too hasty surrender. The deed, however, was done, and -tranquillity ensured to Ireland for a short time. - -The last warlike demonstration of the reign of Elizabeth was an -expedition to the coast of Spain to prevent the passage of fresh fleets -to Ireland. Admirals Levison and Monson proceeded thither with a fleet; -but, tempted by a carrack of immense value in the harbour of Sesimbria, -they seized it and returned home. This desertion of their duty to satisfy -their greed of prize-money, would, in Elizabeth's days of vigour, have -cost the commanders dearly. While they were guarding their treasure -homewards the Spanish fleet might have made sail. Therefore no time -was lost in sending back the fleet under Monson, who found six Spanish -galleys out, and stealing along the French coast. Before he could pursue -them they were met by a squadron of Dutch and English ships, and after -some hard fighting three of them were sunk, and three escaped into Sluys. - -The reign of Queen Elizabeth was now drawing to a close. She was -approaching her seventieth year, and till lately had still listened to -the voice of flattery as if she were yet in the glory of her youth. But -nature had begun to give her stern warnings, and the failing of her -strength brought deep melancholy. At one time she affected an unnatural -gaiety; at another she withdrew into solitude, and was often found in -tears. One of her household says in a letter--"She sleepeth not so much -by day as she used, neither taketh rest by night. Her delight is to sit -in the dark, and sometimes with shedding tears to bewail Essex." - -Yet she still strove against the advancing infirmities of age. She would -insist to the last on making her annual progress and on hunting. Only -five months before her death Lord Henry Howard wrote to the Earl of -Mar--"The queen our sovereign was never so gallant many years, nor so -set upon jollity." A letter of April 7th, 1602, says--"The queen walks -often on Richmond Green with greater show of ability than can well stand -with her years. Mr. Secretary sways all of importance, albeit of late -much absent from the Court and about London, but not omitting in his -absence daily to present Her Majesty with some jewel or toy that may be -acceptable. The other of the Council or nobility estrange themselves -from Court by all occasions, so as, besides the master of the horse, -vice-chamberlain, and comptroller, few of account appear there." - -When Cecil was present it required all his art to conceal his -correspondence with the King of Scotland. One day a packet was delivered -to him from James in the queen's presence. She ordered him instantly to -open it, and show its contents to her. It was a critical moment, and none -but a long-practised diplomatist could have escaped the exposure which it -would probably occasion; but recollecting her excessive dislike of bad -smells and terror of contagion, he observed as he was cutting the string -that "it had a strange and evil smell," and hinted that it might have -been in contact with infected persons or goods. Elizabeth immediately -ordered the cunning Minister to take it away and have it purified, and no -doubt he did purify it of any dangerous contents before displaying them -to Her Majesty. - -Meanwhile, not only Cecil and Howard, but another clique, was busy -paying court to James. These were Raleigh, Cobham, and the Earl -of Northumberland. They met at Durham House, and kept up a warm -correspondence with James; but they were as zealously counteracted by -Cecil and Howard, who warned James of all things not to trust to them, -Howard declaring that as for Raleigh and Cobham, "hell did never spew up -such a couple when it cast up Cerberus and Phlegethon." - -[Illustration: ELIZABETH'S PROMENADE ON RICHMOND GREEN. (_See p._ 339.)] - -While these self-seeking courtiers were thus anxiously labouring to stand -first with the heir, Elizabeth was sinking fast into a most pitiable -condition. She was weighed down by a complication of complaints, and her -mind was affrighted by strange spectres. When the Lord Admiral urged her -to go to bed, she said, "No, no; there were spirits there that troubled -her;" and added that, "if he were in the habit of seeing such things -in his bed as she did in hers, he would not try to persuade her to go -there." Cecil hearing this, asked if Her Majesty had seen any spirits. -At this she cast one of her old lightning flashes at him, and said, "I -shall not answer _you_ such a question." Cecil then said she must go to -bed to content the people. "Must," she said, smiling scornfully; "_must_ -is a word not to be used to princes;" adding, "Little man! little man! if -your father had lived you durst not have said so much, but you know I -must die, and that makes you so presumptuous." She now saw Cecil's real -character, and ordering him and all the rest except the Lord Admiral out -of her chamber, she said, "My lord, I am tied with a chain of iron round -my neck." He endeavoured to dissipate the idea, but she only said, "I am -tied! I am tied! and the case is altered with me." - -[Illustration: RICHMOND PALACE. (_See p._ 382.)] - -"The queen," says Lady Southwell, "kept her bed fifteen days, besides -the three days she sat upon a stool, and one day, when, being pulled up -by force, she obstinately stood upon her feet for fifteen hours." What -a most miserable scene was the death-bed of this glorious woman! Surely -nothing was ever more melancholy and terrible in its mixture of mental -decay, dark remorse, and indomitable hardiness and self-will. At one and -the same time around her bed were men urging her to take broth, to name -her successor, and to hear prayers. The kings of France and Scotland were -mentioned to her, but without eliciting the slightest notice; but when -they named Beauchamp, the son of the Earl of Hertford and Catherine Grey, -one of Elizabeth's victims, she fired up and exclaimed, "I will have no -rascal's son in my nest, but one worthy to be a king!" - -At length they persuaded her to listen to a prayer by the Archbishop of -Canterbury, and when he had once begun she appeared unwilling to let him -leave off; half-hour after half-hour she kept the primate on his knees. -She then sank into a state of insensibility, and died at three o'clock -in the morning of the 24th of March, 1603, in the seventieth year of her -age, and the forty-fifth of her reign. Robert Carey, afterwards Earl of -Monmouth, was anxiously waiting under the window of Elizabeth's room at -Richmond Palace for the first news of her death, which Lady Scrope, his -sister, communicated to him by silently letting fall, as a signal, a -sapphire ring, afterwards celebrated as "the blue ring," which he caught, -and the moment after was galloping off towards Scotland to be the first -herald of the mighty event to the expecting James. Three hours later -Cecil, the Lord Keeper, and the Lord Admiral were with the Council in -London, and it was resolved to proclaim James VI. of Scotland James I. of -England. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI. - -THE PROGRESS OF THE NATION IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. - - The Tudors and the Nation--The Church--Population and - Wealth--Royal Prerogative--Legislation of Henry VIII.--The Star - Chamber--Beneficial Legislation--Treason Laws--Legislation - of Edward and Mary--Elizabeth's Policy--Religion and - the Church--Sketch of Ecclesiastical History under the - Tudors--Literature, Science, and Art--Greatness of the - Period--Foundation of Colleges and Schools--Revival of - Learning--Its Temporary Decay--Prose Writers of the Period--The - Poets--Scottish Bards--Music--Architecture--Painting and - Sculpture--Furniture and Decorations--Arms and Armour--Costumes, - Coins, and Coinage--Ships, Commerce, Colonies, and - Manufactures--Manners and Customs--Condition of the People. - - -The century of which we have just traced the events was a period marked -by vast progress and by changes which were the springs of still more -wonderful progress in after ages. Though the character of the Tudors -was absolutely despotic, no dynasty since the days of Alfred and Magna -Charta wrought out such revolutions in the constitution of England. -These revolutions were partly effected by the very efforts of the Tudor -monarchs to establish their own power and gratify their own self-will, -but were due also to the fact that the Tudor despotism was essentially -popular, and encouraged manifestations of the national will. These -revolutions extended not only into the political constitution of the -nation, but into its religious one; into its literature, its philosophy, -and its morals; and that simply because the spirit of the age was of -that tone and strength that, though outward powers could agitate it, -nothing but its own momentum could direct its tendency. Henry VII., with -an indifferent title, succeeded to the crown, because the nation was -weary of the conflicts of the York and Lancaster monarchs, and longed for -peace, which his disposition promised. Cold, cautious, and penurious, -he took care not to raise a fresh race of powerful barons in place of -that which the Wars of the Roses had destroyed, but hoarded up money; -and beyond the injustice practised in its collection, left his people to -pursue their trades and their agriculture, and thus renew their strength. -Henry VIII.--violent, passionate, sensual, and intensely arbitrary, but -fond of parade, and in his youth boastful of his prowess--gratified -the pride of the nation, whilst he ruled it with a rod of iron. In the -gratification of his lusts he did not hesitate to renounce allegiance to -that great spiritual power which for above a thousand years had ruled -haughtily over Europe and all its kings and warriors. By this act he -set free for ever the mind and conscience of England. In vain did he -endeavour to bind the nation in a knot of his own making. Though he -hurled his fiercest terms against those who claimed a universal liberty -which he intended only for himself, he had broken the mighty spell of -ages--a power and a mystery before which the world had bowed in impotent -awe; and no chains which he could forge, no creed which he could set up, -no hierarchy which he could frame, could possess more than the strength -of the fire-scorched flax against the will of the enfranchised people. -The moment that Henry perished, the soul of the nation showed itself -alive. The very Reformers around his throne, who had cowered beneath -the fell and deadly ire of the tyrant, rose, with Cranmer at their head -and, under the mild auspices of the religious Edward, gave free vent to -the spirit and the doctrines of the Reformation. The return of theologic -despotism under Mary only added force to the spirit of reform, by showing -how terrible and bloody was the animus of ancient superstition. The fires -of Smithfield lit up the dark places of spiritual tyranny to the remotest -corners of the nation, and gave the blow to the tottering Bastille of -restringent faith in Great Britain. Elizabeth, with all the self-will of -her father, lived to see both in people and Parliament, a spirit that -made her lion-heart shrink with awe, and own, however reluctantly, a -power looking already gigantically down upon her own. She felt more than -once, in the pride of her might, the terror of that national will which, -in less than half a century from her death, shattered the throne of her -successor, and gave to the world the unheard-of spectacle of a king -decapitated for treason to his people. - -The grand underlying impulse of the forward movement of this age was -that of the general progress of the world in knowledge--knowledge of its -rights and of the force inherent in popular association. The restoration -of classical literature, and especially of the Greek, had rekindled -the lofty and independent sentiments of antiquity; but still more, the -knowledge of the doctrines, principles, and promises of the Bible, which -had been disseminated among the people by the Reformers, had spread like -a flame amongst them, and had given them totally new ideas of human -prerogative and dignity. Henry VIII., after being induced to make public -the Scriptures, saw so clearly their effect that he withdrew the boon -as far as was possible, and pronounced the severest penalties on any of -the common people who should consult that Divine fountain of truth and -freedom. Throughout the civilised world, far even beyond the countries -in which the Reformation had established itself, the stimulating boon of -this knowledge was diffused, and gave a perilous and uneasy feeling to -the most slavish nations and the most despotic sovereigns. - -But in England many other causes had co-operated to raise the power and -condition of the people. The long civil wars had, by the time of the -accession of Henry VII., reduced the old nobility to a mere fragment. -Such extraordinary specimens of baronial wealth and dominion as the -Warwicks, Beauchamps, and Shrewsburys, no longer existed. In the first -Parliament of Henry VII., the peers amounted to only twenty-eight; -in that of Henry VIII. they had risen only to thirty-six. With their -extinction had lapsed their vast estates to the Crown, and this property -had in part been sold to defray the costs by which the throne had -maintained its straggles against various claimants and their factions. -Henry VII., as we have said, carefully kept down this haughty class to -the limits into which it had fallen. His son, Henry VIII., like him, -pursued the policy of Edward IV., who had established a system of fine -and recovery to cut off entails; and by liberal use of attainders, with -their consequent forfeitures of title and estate, made the nobility -entirely subservient to the Crown, which augmented its wealth and power -on their ruin. By conferring their estates in part on new aspirants to -the peerage from the families of the lesser gentry, and in many cases--as -in those of Wolsey and Cromwell--from the ranks of the common people, he -divided the aristocracy against itself, and thus added fresh influence to -the throne. - -This predominance of the Crown once established, Henry VIII. proceeded to -a still more startling blow at a power hitherto equal and often paramount -to that of the Crown--the Church. To the terror and astonishment of the -whole of Papal Christendom, he stretched his hand not only against the -supreme rule, but the vast property of that august and time-honoured -institution. In 1532 he abolished the annates, or first-fruits, before -that time paid to the court of Rome--an act in itself proclaiming his -independence of that court. In the following year he declared by Act of -Parliament that his subjects might discuss the claims and condemn the -acts and opinions of the Pope without incurring any charge of heresy. -Another year, and he caused himself to be proclaimed "Supreme head of the -Church" in his own realms, and prohibited not only all payments to the -Pope, but all appeals to or recognition of his authority. In 1535, the -very next year, he confiscated the property of the lesser monasteries; -and this course, once begun, never stopped, till he had made himself -master of all the vast demesnes of the monasteries, the collegiate -churches, hospitals, and houses of the order of the Knights of St. John -of Jerusalem; the bulk of which he appropriated to his own use, turning -adrift 150,000 monks, priests, and nuns into the world. So daring a -sweep of ecclesiastical property, power, and privilege never was made by -any other man or in any other era of the world; and nothing could have -emboldened even this impious and lawless monarch to so astounding a deed -but the clear consciousness that the spirit of the age was with him. - -By this unexampled stroke Henry made himself master of 644 convents, -90 colleges, 2,374 chantries and free chapels, and 110 hospitals; the -whole of which property, with trifling exception, was speedily conveyed -to the vast swarm of hungry upstarts--the Russells, the Brownes, the -Seymours, and the like--who rapidly bloomed into aristocratic greatness, -and constituted an impregnable barrier against any restoration of this -affluent but corrupt ecclesiastical princedom. - -These new men, in their turn, were compelled to subdivide a portion, more -or less, among their followers, to establish their own position; and -other large areas of lands were sold in minor amounts to the successful -merchants and traders, so that by this means there grew up again a new -power in the country--that of small but sturdy freeholders, who, at once -independent of the Crown and the aristocracy, soon made their might felt -in the community, and added to the House of Commons that popular infusion -of authoritative life which speedily electrified the Government by its -tone, and prostrated it by its measures. - -That a large number of such men of substance, whose wealth was the -produce of industry, existed at the period, is an indication that the -nation had grown rich by trade, and had also advanced in population. When -we talk of the England and other countries of Europe of former ages, -we are scarcely aware of what extremely different countries they were, -both in regard to the cultivation of their lands, the arts, aspects, -and habits of their cities, their general knowledge, their polish of -speech, and their amount of population. It will scarcely be credited that -at the close of the Wars of the Roses, the whole population of England -and Wales did not exceed two millions and a half--far less than the -present population of London. But in 1575, that is, in the seventeenth -year of Elizabeth, the men fit to bear arms alone amounted to 1,172,674, -and the entire population to not less than 5,000,000. Harrison, in his -"Description of England" at this time, says that "Some do grudge at the -great increase of people in these days, thinking a necessary herd of -cattle far better than a superfluous augmentation of mankind. They laid," -he says, "the cause upon God, as though He were in fault for sending such -increase of people, or want of wars that should consume them; affirming -that the land was never so full." So little did they comprehend that the -multitude of people, properly employed, were the strength and wealth of -the nation. - -But we shall have occasion to notice that with this wealth and strength -there also existed much poverty, owing to the derangements of society -in the days of Henry VIII., and to the great tendency to leave the land -in pasture to supply the growth of wool necessary for the large demand -for the Netherlands and the rapidly increasing one at home, where the -manufacture of both coarse and fine cloths had been growing from the time -that Edward III., at the instigation of his queen Philippa of Hainault, -invited the weavers of fine woollens over from that country. Still the -rise in the value of all kinds of articles of life, including wages, -during the whole of this period, is a proof of the enlarged demand -for skilled workmen, and the capacity to pay much more than formerly, -which could only be the case with augmented means in the bulk of the -population. At various times, as in 1496 and 1514, Acts were passed -with the vain object of keeping down wages--attempts which, though they -show little progress in political economy, prove with equal clearness -that employers were more numerous than they had been in proportion to -labour. In 1500 the wages of a master mason were 6d. a day; in 1575 -they were doubled; and in 1590 they had reached 1s. 2d. The wages of -common labourers had risen from 6d. a day to 10d. In 1511 the salary of -a domestic priest was L3 6s. 8d. a year; in 1545 it had risen to L4 14s. -6d. In 1544 the wages of sailors were advanced from 5s. per month, in the -Royal navy, to 6s. 8d., and all other trades and professions exhibited -the similar advance of payment. - -This, of course, was the result of the like advance in the prices of -provisions, rents, and clothing--another proof that the people had become -not only more numerous, but more luxurious, and, therefore, demanded -better diet and accommodation. Wheat, the staple of the people's food, -had advanced from 3s. 4d. a quarter in 1485 to 17s. in 1589; L2 2s. in -1596; and L1 7s. in 1599. It is true the price of wheat varied a great -deal in this period, but except in a very few seasons it never approached -the low price of the previous century; and in 1587, a year of scarcity, -it rose to L5 4s. In 1500 a dozen pigeons were 4d., in 1541 they were -10d., in 1590 they were 1s., and in 1597, a year of scarcity, 4s. 3d. In -1500 a hundred eggs could be had for 6d., in 1541 they were 1s. 2d., and -in 1597 they were 3s. A good fat goose in 1500 was only 4d., but in 1541 -it was 8d., in 1589 it was 1s. 2d. A fat sheep in 1500 was 1s. 8d., in -1549 from 2s. 4d. to 4s., and in 1597, the dear year, it could not be had -under 14s. 6d. In 1500 an ox could be purchased for 11s. or 12s., in 1541 -its price had advanced from L1 to L2; in 1597 a single stone of beef was -2s., and a whole fat ox upwards of L5. - -In "Stafford's Dialogue," published in 1581, all the speakers agree in -respect to this advance of prices in their time. "I am fain," says the -capper, "to give my journeymen twopence in a day more than I was wont to -do, and yet they say they cannot sufficiently live thereon." "Such of -us," says the knight, "as do abide in the country, still cannot, with -L200 a year, keep that house that we might have done with 200 marks but -sixteen years past. Cannot you, neighbour," he adds, addressing the -farmer, "remember that within these thirty years I could in this town -buy the best pig or goose that I could lay my hand on for 4d., which now -costeth 12d., a good capon for 3d. or 4d., a chicken for 1d., a hen for -2d., which now costeth me double and triple the money? It is likewise in -greater ware, as in beef and mutton. I have seen a cap for 13d. as good -as I can get now for 2s. 6d.; of cloth ye have heard how the price is -risen. Now a pair of shoes costs 12d., yet in my time I have bought a -better for 6d. Now I can get never a horse shoed under 10d. or 12d., when -I have also seen the common price was 6d." - -This steady advance of prices of all articles is a sufficient test of the -progress of the nation in general wealth, and in notions of comfort and -style of living; for though undoubtedly a vast mass of pauperism existed -during this period, no people could go on paying higher and higher rates -for everything, who had not the means of doing so. A poor nation might -have suffered distress or scarcity, but could not have raised the means -of living to such a degree as is here shown, if they had not had the -money to purchase on such a scale. - -[Illustration: TOWN AND COUNTRY FOLK OF ELIZABETH'S REIGN.] - -But we have abundant other evidence, with some degree of detail, of the -progress of wealth in the splendour maintained by the Court, in the cost -of dress, jewellery, horses, and household establishments, in the amount -of taxation and revenue, in the extent of shipping and foreign commerce, -and in the rank and influence which the nation had assumed in Europe. We -now proceed to notice these tokens of advance. - -The Tudors were a race who had the highest possible idea of their power -and prerogative. Under Henry VIII. especially the sentiment of Louis XIV. -of France was thoroughly realised though the phrase was not yet coined, -"L'etat? c'est moi!"--"I am the State." If he did not actually annihilate -the Constitution, he reduced it to a mockery and a mere machine, which -moved only at his will. Yet in truth, paralysed as the nation appeared -then under the terror of the axe and the gallows, its spirit only waited: -it was never extinguished, and under his successors it showed itself -again unmistakably. It has been asserted that the people in the time of -Henry VIII. were most cowardly, for that he had no means of maintaining -his arbitrary course against them, as he had no standing army. But this -is not altogether true, for though he had no actual standing army, he had -such authority over the minds of both aristocracy and people, that--as -we have seen on all occasions in which the people revolted, chiefly on -account of religion, and when they were instigated and supported by the -Roman Catholic nobles--he speedily mustered sufficient forces to put -them down. In contemplating the strange mystery of the base submission -of the Parliament and people to the reckless caprices and bloodthirsty -despotism of Henry VIII., we must ever bear in mind that the whole nation -was rent into two most antagonistic parts by the schism in religion. The -Roman Catholics feared the loss of their estates, the Protestants were -eager to secure them. Of the few noblemen remaining in the country from -the sanguinary decimation of the civil wars, some of the wealthiest were -still staunch Roman Catholics, and were watched with greedy eyes by the -host of poor but ambitious adventurers who were ready to second every -scheme of spoliation meditated by the monarch. When the ancient Church -was going to the ground, with all its proud establishments and enormous -estates, the nobles who belonged to it felt the very earth shaking -under their feet, and saw no means of safety but in the most implicit -obedience. On the other hand, the numerous swarm of courtiers--whose only -law was the word of the prince, and their only real creed the belief in -plunder and in the acquisition of the lands of nobles, prelates, abbots, -and chantries, as the reward of subservience--were ever ready to rush -to arms or to the execution of the most fierce and unconstitutional -orders of the king. No mercy was shown by the members of families to -one another, where the terror of the monarch and the hope of his favour -intervened. And at that day, when the country swarmed with vagabonds, who -had no home and no ties, who had been increasing ever since the abolition -of villenage, there was no difficulty in mustering numbers of soldiers, -where there was the chance of liberal pay and more liberal plunder. - -This state of things, this facility of drawing forces to the field on -the shortest notice, and on the most certain basis, was particularly -provided for by Henry VII. He took care to save money by all means, and -to hoard it, so that though no man was more reluctant to spend, and none -ever incurred so much odium by his parsimony where the military fame of -the nation was concerned; yet he gained at least the reputation of ample -means, and the credit for a disposition to punish promptly and severely -any disloyalty or adverse claims on his Crown. He moreover passed two -statutes for the purpose of bringing his nobles and dependents rapidly -to his standard on any emergency. By the Acts 2 Henry VII. c. 18, and -19 Henry VII. c. 1, every one who possessed an office, fee, or annuity, -by grant from the Crown, was required to attend the king whenever he -went to war, under penalty, in case of failure, of forfeiture of all -such grants. There were, of course, certain exemptions. Some obtained -the king's licence, for an equivalent consideration, to remain at home, -and such as could prove any disqualifying infirmity were excused. The -clergy, as a matter of course, were exempt, also the judges and principal -officers of the law; and by the latter Act this privilege was extended -to the members of the king's Council, to such persons as had bought -their patents for a certain sum, and to all persons under twenty and -above sixty years of age. The exemptions extended to comparatively a -small number of persons, the fear of forfeiture applied to the majority. -To render this more effectual, Henry VII. was rigorous in prohibiting -a large array of retainers by the nobles, whilst he was strenuous to -enforce the attendance of the feoffees of the Crown. This process -was carried farther by Henry VIII. by the free use of attainders, by -which, at will, he struck down the most wealthy and exalted nobles, and -appropriated their demesnes; so that eventually there was not a foot of -land in the kingdom nor an individual life which was not held at the -king's mercy. - -But still more than by the passing of attainders were the lives, -liberties, and property of the nobles submitted to the will of the king, -by the institution of the Court of the Star Chamber. This court set aside -all other courts at will, and by abandoning the use of juries in it, laid -Magna Charta and the life and fortune of every man, at the foot of the -throne. From the moment, in fact, that this court was formally erected -by the 3 Henry VII., c. 1, there was an end of the Constitution, the -privilege of Habeas Corpus was suspended, and Parliament legislated in -vain. The king was the State, and ruled in this arbitrary court by the -officers of his Privy Council. This court was so called from the stars -which ornamented the ceiling of the room in which it met. - -Henry VII., in his original enactment, plainly avowed his reason for -establishing this court to be, that he might reach and punish such -persons as by one means or another escaped sentence in the ordinary -courts, through the bribery or "remissness" of juries, and check the -evils of "maintenance," or the overriding of justice through the -assistance of a powerful neighbour, and the granting of "liveries" for -the same purpose. The court was, therefore, directed against the licence -of the nobility, and though arbitrary was at first popular. It consisted -in its original form of the Chancellor, Treasurer, and Keeper of the -Privy Seal, or any two of them, with a bishop and a temporal lord of the -council and the chief justices of the King's Bench and Common Pleas, or -two other justices in their absence. Ultimately it developed into a mere -gathering of privy councillors, and its jurisdiction at first accurately -defined, and for the most part beneficial, became extremely vague and was -exercised at haphazard. - -In the reign of Henry VII. the privilege of benefit of clergy was greatly -modified. This privilege, which originally exempted all clergymen from -the authority of lay tribunals, had become extended to all such laymen as -could read, and were therefore capable of becoming "clerks." To restrict -this abuse, Henry VII., in 1488, enacted that such privilege should be -allowed to laymen only once; and afterwards--when a man had murdered his -master--a statute was passed to deprive all murderers of their lords and -masters of benefit of clergy. Where it was admitted, the culprit, if a -layman, did not entirely escape punishment, for he was burnt with a hot -iron in the brawn of the left thumb. - -The statutes in this reign were drawn up in English, and printed as they -came out, by De Worde, Pynson, and Faques, a signal step in progress -towards a public knowledge of the laws. - -Under Henry VIII. the principle of arbitrary government arrived at its -culmination. The freedom from restraint which his father had prepared -for him, the passionate and imperious nature of this prince led him to -exercise to the utmost. By the means which we have described--terror -of death to those who offended, and participation in the spoils of -nobles and the Church, and hope of new honours to those who served him -regardless of law or conscience--he put himself above all control of -Parliament or statute, and ruled as royally, according to his own fancy, -as any Eastern despot. Out of this monstrous evil came, nevertheless, -much good to the nation. By his own daring act he broke up the ancient -system of the Church, with its accumulated wealth, superstitions, -and abuses, and cleared the ground for a new and more liberal state -of things. By the distribution of this property he founded a new and -influential class of freeholders, and enabled the affluence of trade to -flow into land, and to give to the mercantile class a new status and -influence. His motive was his own selfishness, but the result was the -public good. - -Among the useful Statutes which he passed may be mentioned the Statute -of Uses and the Statute of Bankruptcy. By the former he put an end to a -most mischievous practice of conveying property for the use of certain -parties or corporate bodies, which had been introduced to evade the -Statute of Mortmain. So many secret modes of conveyance, so many legal -fictions had been introduced into the transfer of this property, that -it was difficult to ascertain the real owner; and creditors thus became -defrauded, widows were deprived of their dowers, and husbands of their -estates, by the courtesy. But the great feudal lords also were defrauded -of their dues on wardships, marriages, and reliefs. By an Act of the -twenty-seventh year of his reign (1536), it was decreed that whoever was -found in the possession of such property should be deemed its _bona-fide_ -owner, and liable to the charges leviable upon it. By this means the -dubious and fraudulent practice of uses was abolished, and the lawyers -were compelled to resort to the more tangible theory of trusts. The -nature of the tenure still remained the same, for the use was but a -trust; but it was simplified, and brought more into the region of common -sense and common observation. - -By the preamble to the Statute of Bankruptcy, we find that the progress -of commerce had led to frauds. Men by means of credit got the property -of others into their hands and absconded with it. In the 34 and 35 of -Henry VIII., therefore, it was enacted that the Chancellor or Keeper of -the great seal, with the Lord Treasurer, Lord President, Privy Seal, -and others of the privy council, and chief justices, or any three of -them--the Chancellor, Keeper, President, or Privy Seal being one--should -have power to constitute a court, before which, on complaints from a -party aggrieved, they should summon the defaulter, should take possession -of all his property, should hear all necessary evidence on oath, and -should make a distribution of his effects amongst the creditors according -to their claims. Persons concealing effects of the offender were to -forfeit double their value; and claimants making fraudulent claims were -to forfeit double the amount demanded. - -This was the first outline and foundation of our court and law of -bankruptcy, the main principles of which are still in force, but -considerably modified by the greater development of the action of trade, -and a spirit of increased enlightenment and humanity. The bankrupt is no -longer treated necessarily as a criminal, but as one who has suffered -from misfortune; and where he is innocent of dishonest conduct, is -discharged from such obligations as he has no means of fulfilling, and -the way opened for future enterprise. - -But the laws of Henry were rarely so rational or innocent as these. We -have seen, in tracing the events of his reign, that, to stop the mouths -of his subjects regarding his many criminal deeds, the cruel calumnies -on and divorces of his wives, followed by their execution, and the -perpetration of fresh marriages equally revolting, he was continually -creating new species of treasons, and loading the Statute book with the -most atrocious specimens of legislation which ever disgraced the annals -of any nation, Christian or pagan. - -The first of these extraordinary enactments was the Statute 25 Henry -VIII., c. 22, passed on the occasion of his divorce of Catherine of -Aragon, and his marriage of Anne Boleyn. In this he declared that any -one who dared to write, print, or circulate anything to the prejudice -of this marriage, or the queen herself, or the issue of such marriage, -should be guilty of high treason. The same was to be the fate of any one -who endeavoured to dispute this alliance by advocating the validity of -the former marriage with Catherine, and every one was to take an oath to -obey this Act fully; and if any refused to take such oath, they were to -be also guilty of misprision of treason. As, however, the tyrant could -not prevent people from thinking and speaking their minds in private, -next Session he got from his pliant Parliament a fresh Act, forbidding -all persons to speak or even think a slander against the king; for if -they thought, they could have the oath put to them, and must either deny -their very thought, or be found guilty of treason. - -But by the twenty-eighth year of his reign the fickle despot had cut off -the head of this very queen, against whom nobody had on any account been -allowed to whisper the slightest fault, on peril of their lives (1536). -The marriage with her, as well as that with Catherine, was declared -void, and never to have been otherwise; the issue of both was pronounced -illegitimate, and the same penalties were enacted against every one -who called in question the tyrant's marriage with Jane Seymour. Thus, -on every occasion that this Royal sensualist thought fit to destroy or -divorce a wife and marry another, did he compel the whole of his subjects -to swear and forswear at his pleasure. In a Statute of the thirty-first -of his reign, c. 8, he clearly enunciated that doctrine of Divine right -which the Stuarts, his successors, upheld to their perdition. It is -worthy of note, too, that by abolishing the authority of the Pope, to -serve his own selfish ends, he let loose the human mind from its long -thraldom, and prepared the way--a necessary sequence--for that political -rebellion which was certain to be assumed by a people who had once -triumphed in a religious one. Thus was political freedom the consequence -of this lawless monarch's attempt to crush it, as much as the Reformation -was that of his rejection of the Papacy for the gratification of his -passions. - -It is needless to follow Henry VIII. through the still repeated progress -of those contradictory oaths as he slew or wedded fresh wives. It was the -same in the divorce of Anne of Cleves, on the decapitation of Catherine -Howard; but growing perfectly frantic with wrath and shame on finding -himself married to an unchaste woman whom he had proclaimed an angel, he -went a step farther, and denounced the terrors of high treason against -any woman who should dare to marry him if she had been incontinent before -marriage, and against all such persons as should know of this and should -not warn the king in time. When to these hideous Statutes we add that -of 31 Henry VIII., c. 14, which abolished all "Diversity of opinions," -and that of 34 and 35 Henry VIII., c. 1, for the "Advancement of true -religion and abolishment of the contrary," we have exhibited the most -perfect example of what a man may become by the intoxication of unlimited -power. - -Besides particular laws, Henry VIII. erected two new courts of -justice--the Court of the Steward of the Marshalsea, for the trial of -all treasons, murders, manslaughters, and blows by which blood was shed -in any of the palaces or houses of the king during his residence there; -and the Court of the President and Council of the North. This latter -court was established in the thirty-first year of his reign to try the -rioters who had risen against his suppression of the lesser monasteries; -but it included all the powers vested in the king's own Council, and -not only decided such civil cases as were brought before it, but was -armed with authority, by secret instructions from the Crown, to inquire -into presumed illegalities, and to bring before it alleged offenders -against the prerogatives of the king. Such oppressive use was made of -it by Strafford in the time of Charles I., that it was abolished in the -sixteenth year of that monarch's reign. - -[Illustration: STATE TRIAL IN WESTMINSTER HALL IN THE TIME OF ELIZABETH.] - -To the honour of Edward VI. and his counsellors, all these arbitrary Acts -of his father were repealed by him: the law of treason was restored to -its state under the Statute of 25 Edward III.; religion was again set -free, and proclamations by the king in council were declared to have no -longer the force of Acts of Parliament. A few years, however, introduced -Queen Mary, and a reversal of the State religion and all its laws. That -dreadful persecution which we have narrated, and which is one of the -darkest spots in the history of the world, was carried on to force the -human mind into its former thraldom; and an attempt was made by the -Spanish power which was then introduced to restore arbitrary rule by a -singular suggestion. Charles V. presented, through his ambassador, a -book to the queen, in which the principle was laid down that as she was -the first queen regnant, none of the limitations which had been set to -the prerogative of her ancestors the kings of England, applied to her, -but to kings only; and that by consequence she was free and absolute. -This book Mary showed to Gardiner, and asked his opinion of it, which -was that it was a pernicious book, and could work her no good. Thereupon -Mary threw the book into the fire; and Gardiner, on the plea of defining -and establishing her authority, brought in an Act which, giving her the -_same_ powers as the kings before her possessed, consequently restrained -her within the same limits. - -Mary confirmed the Act of her late brother, confining the law of treason -to the Statute of the 25th of Edward III.; nor does she seem to have -created fresh treasons, except in one instance--making it treasonable -to counterfeit not merely the coin of the realm, but also such coins as -circulated there by Royal consent. - -On the accession of Elizabeth the Reformed religion was once more -restored; and, like her father, she was not only declared supreme head of -the Church, but she assumed all his claims of supreme authority in the -State. She frequently told her Parliament that it existed entirely by her -will and pleasure; and when the members entered on matters disagreeable -to her, she snubbed them in language which sounds oddly enough in these -days of high Parliamentary privilege. By the very first Statute passed -in her reign, she proceeded to set up a new Court, ignored everything -like Magna Charta and the right of jury, making her own will the entire -law, and placing every subject, with his life and property, at her mercy. -This was the Court of High Commission, which assumed all the pretensions -of the Star Chamber, but was directed more especially to ecclesiastical -affairs. The queen was empowered to appoint by letters patent, whenever -she thought proper, such persons, being natural-born subjects, as she -pleased, to execute all jurisdiction concerning spiritual matters, and -to visit, reform, and redress all errors, heresies, schisms, abuses, -offences, &c., which by any ecclesiastical authority might be lawfully -ordered or corrected. The Reformers were only too eager to put this -formidable engine into her hands, because it was to crush the Romish -hierarchy; but they did not reflect that it could on occasion be employed -against themselves, as Laud and Strafford afterwards demonstrated to -their children. This inquisitorial court was armed with authority to -employ torture to effect the necessary confessions, and its jurisdiction -was extended to the punishment of breaches of the marriage vow, and all -misdemeanours and disorders in that state. It was, therefore, sanctioned -in forcing its operations into the very bosom of social and domestic life. - -Elizabeth, indeed, was fully as arrogant and despotic as her father; and -nothing but her lion-like resolution, her choice of able and unscrupulous -ministers, and the cunning of her Government, could have enabled her -to maintain her sway so successfully as she did. The homage due to her -sex no doubt also contributed essentially to this result. Yet not all -these circumstances could prevent her from perceiving that her power -was silently and even rapidly waning before that of the people. She -frequently had to tell persons that they dared not have done or said -certain things in her father's time. She had repeatedly to concede the -point to the pertinacity of her Parliament; especially so when, towards -the end of her reign, the House of Commons called so boldly upon her to -abolish the monstrous list of monopolies which had been granted to her -favourites, commencing from the seventeenth year of her reign. Amongst -these monopolies were those for the exclusive sale of salt, currants, -iron, powder, cards, calf-skins, felts, poledavy (a kind of canvas), -ox shin-bones, train-oil, lifts of cloth, potash, anise-seed, vinegar, -sea-coal, steel, aqua-vitae, brushes, pots, bottles, saltpetre, lead, -accidences (or books of the rudiments of Latin grammar), oil, calamine -stone, oil of blubber, glasses, paper, starch, tin, sulphur, new drapery, -dried pilchards; the exportation of iron, ham, beer, and leather; the -importation of Spanish wool and Irish linen; such an astonishing list, in -fact, that when it was read over in the Commons in 1601, but two years -before her death, a member in amazement asked, as already stated, whether -bread was not of the number. - -These grants had been obtained from her by her courtiers through -the weak side of the woman; but in the expenses of her government, -considering the aid she had to render to her Protestant allies in -Scotland, France, and the Netherlands, and the enemies she had to contend -with, necessitating costly armaments and navies, her administration shows -most favourably. She would never incur debt, but paid off that incurred -by her predecessors, Edward and Mary. Instead of debasing the coin, -like her father, she increased its purity; and the annual outlay of her -government averaged only about L65,000 per annum. - -In fact, the more we recede from the personal history of Elizabeth, -and approach her great political measures, the more we perceive the -true evidences of her glory. She was courageous, beyond the power of a -world in arms to terrify her; she was moderate in her demands on her -subjects, though vain in her person and showy in her court; shrewd in -her choice of ministers, though weak in her indulgence of favourites; -she was ambitious of the reputation of her country; and she rendered to -the labouring people their birthright in the land, which her father had -stripped them of in levelling the monastic institutions by enacting the -Poor Law, the celebrated Statute of the forty-third of her reign (1601), -on which yet rests the whole fabric of parochial right to support in age -and destitution. In nothing did she display her sagacity so much as in -her repeated declaration that money in her subjects' purse was as good -as in her own exchequer. It was better, for there it would be growing -tenfold in the ordinary augmentation of traffic, ready to yield the State -proportionate interest on any real emergency. - -The great struggle between the Papacy and the growing Protestant forces -was nearly ended, but complete and terrible as was the overthrow of -the ancient hierarchy in England and Scotland, it came at last with a -rapidity which astonished even the friends of the change. From the time -of Richard II. hatred of the Papacy had been afloat among the people, -and even in his day had availed to shake the throne, and fill the public -mind with prognostics of Papal decay. Yet reign after reign had passed, -and the Church had not only maintained its position, but had seemed to -crush with a successful hand the Protestant schismatics. The fires which -consumed the more daring advocates of the new opinions seemed to scare -the rest into obscurity. The triumphant Church of Rome still presented -a front of determined strength, and lorded it over the land with a -magnificence which seemed destined to endure for ever. - -Henry VII. was a firm upholder of the Roman Catholic hierarchy. "He -advanced churchism," says Bacon; "he was tender of the privileges of -sanctuaries, though they did him much mischief; he built and endowed -many religious foundations, besides his memorable hospital of the Savoy; -and yet he was a great alms-giver in secret, which showed that his works -in public were rather dedicated to God's glory than his own." The fact -was that Henry VII. was too cautious a man to become a reformer. He was -too fond of money to risk its loss by the most distant chance of an -unsuccessful enterprise, and he was too recently placed on the throne of -a vanquished dynasty to venture on so bold a measure of ecclesiastical -revolution had he been thus inclined, which he was far enough from -being. On the contrary, his ministers were almost all great and able -churchmen. Cardinals Bourchier and Morton, Archbishops Deane and Warham, -were the accomplished churchmen who conducted the governmental affairs -of Henry; and when the public outcry against the worldly and dissolute -lives of the clergy, both secular and regular, became too loud to be -disregarded, these clerical ministers of the king endeavoured with one -hand to reduce the corruption by advice and remonstrance, and to check -the progress of heresy by the stake and fagot. Henry VII. permitted this -mode of extinguishing opinion by destroying the entertainers of it. In -the ninth year of his reign Joan Boughton was burnt in Smithfield, and -this auto-da-fe was followed by that of William Tylsworth, at Amersham, -whose daughter was compelled to set fire to the pile which destroyed -her father, and that of Laurence Guest at Salisbury. In addition to the -victims of these odious crimes, many persons were burnt in the cheek, -imprisoned, and otherwise cruelly treated. These atrocities so far from -diminishing the heresy, only excited the abhorrence of the people and -weakened their attachment to the Church. - -Henry VIII. continued the persecuting practices of his father with -unabated rigour. In his earlier days he appeared determined to do honour -to the Church beyond most of his predecessors. He raised up and created -in Cardinal Wolsey such a colossus of ecclesiastical pomp and greatness -as the world had rarely seen. In 1513 Wolsey was made Bishop of Tournay, -in France; in 1514, Bishop of Lincoln and Archbishop of York; in 1515, -the king's almoner, Cardinal, and Lord High Chancellor of the kingdom; -in 1518 he became the Pope's legate _a latere_ and Bishop of Bath and -Wells; in 1521, he was made Abbot of St. Albans; in 1523, Bishop of -Durham, in exchange for the bishopric of Bath and Wells; and in 1529, -Bishop of Winchester, in exchange for that of Durham. Besides these -dignities, he had pensions from the King of France, the Emperor of -Germany, the Pope, and other princes. The whole power of the kingdom was -in his hands; for Henry, so far from being jealous of his greatness, only -felt himself the greater for having a servant who in pride and splendour -rivalled the greatest monarchs. The state which Wolsey kept would lead us -to infer that the Church had reached a higher pitch of power and grandeur -than ever in this country. His palaces were more gorgeous, and filled -with more evidences of enormous wealth, than those of kings. His retinue -of servants and attendants, many of the latter being nobles or the sons -of nobles, was inconceivable. It was only at Hampton Court that the -whole train of his servants and the crowd of his visitors, including the -nobility and ambassadors of foreign courts, could be suitably lodged and -entertained. For a long course of years the whole government of England -was in his hands. The king did nothing without him; and as prime minister -and Lord Chancellor of England, Archbishop of York, and chief judge in -the court of Star Chamber, there was no man or his estate that was not in -his power. His revenues from a hundred sources were immense, and such was -the magnificence of his position and influence, that he might well forget -himself and utter the famous words of unparalleled egotism--"Ego et rex -meus." - -Who could have deemed that the Papal Church was near its end as the State -religion of England, whilst the king thus honoured its dignitaries? The -very greatness of Wolsey hastened the fall of the Church as well as of -himself. The arrogance, the rapacity, and the frequent injustice of -the proud minister made for him and his Church deadly enemies. "For," -says Strype, "he disobliged not only the inferior sort by his pride and -haughty behaviour, but by laying his hands upon the rights, privileges, -and profits of the gentry and clergy, he made them his implacable enemies -too. He took upon him to bestow benefices, though the real right of -patronage lay in others. He called all offending persons before him, -whether of the laity or clergy, and compelled them to compound as his -officers thought fit." - -But in spite of all his grandeur, Wolsey was but the creature of the -most violent and capricious of men. A single word and he fell headlong, -assuredly shaking in his fall the great hierarchy of which he had -seemed the most gorgeous pillar and ornament; for the whole system was -corrupt and rotten to the core. The wealth of the monastic orders had -especially demoralised them. Both the regular and secular clergy were -accused of not only spending their time in taverns and gambling-houses, -but of abandoning in such resorts the very costume which distinguished -them from the laity, of wearing daggers, gowns, and hoods of silk and -embroidery, and of letting their hair grow long and fall on their -shoulders. The interiors of the monastic houses were described as dens of -licentiousness, both in monks and nuns. We have it, on the evidence of -one of the letters of reproof addressed by Archbishop Morton to the Abbot -of St. Albans, that that famous abbey was filled with every species of -vice and sensuality. He further charges them with cutting down the woods, -wasting and embezzling the property of the Church, stealing the plate, -and even picking out the jewels from the shrine of the patron saint. - -Whilst such was the corruption of the clergy, these infatuated men fell -to quarrelling amongst themselves. The most remarkable circumstance, -moreover, in this schism, is the very question which in these latter -days has furnished such a fiery theme of discussion in both Romanist and -Protestant Churches--the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin. - -With the blind tenacity which often induces falling bodies to assert -their prerogatives with arrogant obstinacy, the Church, in the fourth -year of Henry VIII., commenced a daring opposition to the Government, -in defence of the benefit of clergy. Henry VII., as we have stated, -had limited this much abused privilege, by his Statute ordering such -laymen as claimed it under charge of murder, to be burnt in the brawn -of the thumb with the letter M. Henry VIII. had a Bill introduced into -Parliament for the purpose of still further limiting this mischievous -right, and denying benefit of clergy to all murderers and robbers -whatever. This the clergy opposed in Parliament and preached against in -the pulpit. The Lords and Commons were unanimously in favour of the Bill -as well as the people, but the clergy determined not to yield. Whilst -the public mind was in a ferment on this subject, a tailor of London, of -the name of Hunne, was brought into conflict with the incumbent of his -parish, on account of mortuary dues. Being sued in the spiritual court, -with a boldness which marked the rising spirit of the times and which the -clergy ought to have noted seriously, he took out a writ of Praemunire -against his prosecutor, for appealing to a foreign jurisdiction, the -spiritual court, still under the authority of the Pope. Enraged at this -audacity they put the tailor into prison on a charge of heresy, and there -he was discovered hanging dead. A coroner's inquest found the officers of -the prison guilty of murder, and it appeared that the Bishop of London's -chancellor, the sumner, and bell-ringer had perpetrated the crime. This -threw the deepest odium on the clergy, and alienated the people from -them; yet they did not cease to prosecute their claim of privilege, and -after much contest, Wolsey prayed the king to refer the matter to the -Pope. But even then Henry showed that he was tenacious of his power, and -gave a striking foretaste of what he would one day do. He replied, "By -permission and ordinance of God, we are King of England; and the king of -England in times past hath never had any superior but God only. Therefore -know you well that we will maintain the right of our crown, and of our -temporal jurisdiction, as well in this as in all other points, in as -ample a manner as any of our progenitors have done before our time." - -[Illustration: JOHN KNOX. (_From a Portrait of the Period._)] - -Whilst Edward VI. thoroughly established Protestantism, Mary as -completely reinstated Popery, and with a series of horrors which for -ever stamped terror and aversion of Roman Catholic ascendency deep on -the spirit of the nation. The number of persons who died in the flames -in that awful reign, for their faith and the freedom of conscience, is -stated to have been 288; but Lord Burleigh estimated those who perished -by fire, torture, famine, and imprisonment at not less than 400. Besides -these, vast numbers suffered cruelly in a variety of ways. "Some of -the professors," says Coverdale, "were thrown into dungeons, noisome -holes, dark, loathsome and stinking corners; others lying in fetters and -chains, and loaded with so many irons that they could scarcely stir. -Some tied in the stocks with their heels upwards; some having their -legs in the stocks, with their necks chained to the wall with gorgets -of iron; some with hands and legs in the stocks at once; sometimes both -hands in and both legs out; sometimes the right hand with the left -leg, or the left hand with the right leg, fastened in the stocks with -manacles and fetters, having neither stool nor stone to sit on to ease -their woful bodies; some standing in Skevington's gyves [commonly called -"Skevington's daughter"]--which were most painful engines of iron--with -their bodies doubled; some whipped and scourged, beaten with rods, and -buffeted with fists; and some having their hands burned with a candle -to try their patience, and force them to relent; some hunger-pined, and -some miserably famished and starved." The leading Reformers fled out -of the kingdom, chiefly to Frankfort and to Switzerland; and 800 or -more lived to become the heads of the restored Church under Elizabeth; -amongst these were Poynet, Bishop of Winchester; Grindal, afterwards -Bishop of London, and finally Primate of England; Sandys, afterwards -Archbishop of York; Ball, Bishop of Ossory; Pilkington, afterwards Bishop -of Durham; Bentham, afterwards Bishop of Lichfield; Scorey, Bishop of -Chichester, and afterwards of Hereford; Young, afterwards Archbishop of -York; Cox, afterwards of Ely; Jewel, afterwards of Salisbury; Coverdale, -the translator of the Bible, Bishop of Exeter; Horn, Dean of Durham; -Knox, the apostle of Scotland; and Foxe, the martyrologist. Besides -these eminent men, there were Sir John Cheke, the famous Greek scholar, -Sir Anthony Cooke, and Sir Francis Knollys, afterwards Elizabeth's -vice-chamberlain. - -On Elizabeth's accession to the throne she was by no means disposed -to go so far as her brother Edward had gone, much less as far as the -refugees--who now flocked back again from Geneva--would have carried her. -They had imbibed the rigid independent notions of Calvin and Zwinglius, -and that probably before their departure from England--a circumstance -which there is little doubt directed their course to Switzerland, -for the Reformers who resorted to Frankfort were much nearer to her -standard--a standard very much the same as that of her father. She -renounced all allegiance to the Pope and the Church of Rome, though she -hesitated to declare herself the supreme head of the Church till it was -conferred on her by Parliament. She issued orders to restrain the zeal of -the Protestants, who began to pull down the images, and to restore the -service to its state in King Edward's time. She gave directions that a -part of the service should be read in English, and forbade the elevation -of the Host; but at the same time she suspended all preaching. - -Parliament, on meeting, passed an Act asserting the supremacy of the -Crown over the Church, revived the Acts of Henry VIII. which abolished -the power and jurisdiction of the Pope in England, and authorised the -use of King Edward's Book of Common Prayer, with some alterations, -chiefly in the Communion Service. Thus they cast off the Roman Catholics -who would not conform, but did not go far enough for the more zealous -Reformers. The oath of Supremacy was presented to the bishops, and it -had the effect of clearing the Church of all but Kitchen of St. Asaph. -The inferior clergy, however, were not so firm, and only six abbots, -twelve deans, twelve archdeacons, fifteen heads of colleges, fifty -prebendaries, and eighty rectors refused compliance. The monks returned -to secular life, but the nuns mostly went abroad. The clergy were ordered -to wear the habits in use in the latter part of King Edward's time; and -their marriages, against which the queen showed a strong repugnance, -were put under stringent regulations. The press also was laid under the -most rigorous restrictions, and no book was to be printed or published -without the licence of the queen, or of six of her privy council, -or of her ecclesiastical commissioners, or the two archbishops, the -Bishop of London, the chancellors of the universities, and the bishop -and archdeacons of the place where it was produced. All persons were -commanded to attend their parish churches under severe penalties. In 1562 -the articles of religion of King Edward were reduced from forty-two to -thirty-nine. In 1571 they underwent a further revision, and were made -binding on the clergy before they could be admitted to orders. - -Like her father, the longer she lived the more resolute she became -to enforce her own dogmas on the whole body of her subjects. In the -twenty-third year of her reign the penalty for non-attendance of the -Established Church was raised to L20 per month. In the same year another -Act was passed, declaring it high treason to attempt to draw any one -to the Church of Rome; and the persons thus drawn were equally guilty -of treason, and all their aiders, abettors, and concealers were made -guilty of misprision of treason. These arbitrary laws against the freedom -of opinion went on increasing in severity. In 1585 an Act was passed -which made traitors of all Jesuits and other Popish priests who had -been ordained abroad, and of all subjects whatever educated in Papal -seminaries who did not immediately return home and take the oath of -supremacy. The receivers of any such persons were declared felons without -benefit of clergy. Whoever sent money to any foreign Jesuits or priests -was liable to Praemunire; and parents sending their children to school -abroad without licence from her Majesty were liable to a penalty of L100. -Fresh Acts were added in 1581 and 1593, the former to make void all -conveyances of property by Popish recusants, with the object of escaping -the penalties imposed upon them, and to decree that the penalty of L20 a -month for non-attendance at church should be levied by distress to the -extent of all the offenders' goods and two-thirds of their lands; the -latter ordered all Popish recusants above sixteen to repair to their -proper places of abode, and never more to go more than five miles from -them without special licence from the bishop of the diocese or lieutenant -of the county, under penalty of forfeiture of their goods and of the -profits of their lands for life; those having no goods or lands to be -deemed felons. - -But if the atrocities committed by the Roman Catholics in the reign of -Mary, and the fears of their recurrence should the Papists regain the -power, afforded some plea for these persecutions, what is to be said of -the same rigours applied to the Reformers, who simply desired to form -their religious opinions on the Bible--the Divine charter of Humanity? -Thousands of these, from the earliest days of the Reformation, had -claimed this privilege as their birthright; and many of those who came -back from the Continent on the termination of the Marian persecution, -were surprised and discouraged to find themselves equally excluded with -the Catholics from the exercise of their own judgments by a Protestant -queen. They were required to attend the preaching of those against whose -doctrines they protested, and suffered the same monstrous fines if they -absented themselves. Instead of that "glorious liberty of the gospel" -which they had promised themselves, they had to accept with all homage -the cut out and prescribed pattern of opinion dictated by an autocratic -woman, who made a desperate stand against the removal of images from the -churches, and practised many Popish ceremonies in her own private chapel. -Instead of the form of service which the English refugees had established -at Geneva, in which there were no Litany, no responses, and scarcely any -rites or ceremonies, they were commanded to adopt a form which appeared -to them little removed from Popery. The Genevan refugees--who, from -their demand for the utmost purity and primitive simplicity in worship, -were styled Puritans--would, had they been permitted, have planted a -church far more like the church as it came to exist in Scotland than -that which was established for England. They opposed the claims of the -bishops to a superior rank or authority to the presbyters; they denied -that they possessed the sole right of ordination, and exercise of church -discipline; they objected to the titles and dignities which had been -copied by the Anglican Church from the Roman, of archdeacons, deans, -canons, prebendaries; to the jurisdiction of Spiritual Courts; to an -indiscriminate admission of all persons to the Communion; to many parts -of the liturgy, and of the offices of marriage and burial, including -the use of the ring in marriage; they repudiated set forms of prayers, -and the use of godfathers and godmothers, the rite of confirmation, -the observance of Lent and holidays, the cathedral worship, the use of -the organ, the retention of the reading of apocryphal books in church, -pluralities, non-residence, the presentation to livings by the Crown, or -any other patron, or by any mode but the free election of the people. - -But in that age no conception of religious liberty was entertained. The -Puritans were as resolute in their ideas of conformity to their notions -as Elizabeth was to hers; and had they had the power, would have used -the same compulsion. Knox exhibited that spirit of exclusiveness to the -extreme in Scotland, even calling for the deposition of the queen as a -"Jezebel" and "an idolatress," because she would not adopt his peculiar -tenets and view of things. The Puritans exhibited the same spirit long -after in America for the exercise of their faith. In fact, the great and -divine principle of the entire liberty of the gospel was too elevated to -be arrived at suddenly after so many ages of spiritual despotism, and -required long and earnest study of the spirit and example of Christ. -Severe struggles, bloody deaths, and incredible sufferings in those -who came to see the truth, had to be undergone before the battle of -religious freedom was fought out, and all parties could admit the plain -fact which had revealed itself to Charles V. after his abdication of the -throne, when he amused himself with clock making--that as no two clocks -can be made to go precisely alike, it is folly to expect _all_ men to -think precisely alike. "Both parties," says Neal, in his "History of the -Puritans," "agreed too well in asserting the necessity of a uniformity of -public worship, and in using the sword of the magistrate for the support -and defence of their respective principles, which they made an ill use -of in their turns whenever they could grasp the power in their hands. -The standard of uniformity, according to the bishops, was the queen's -supremacy, and the laws of the land; according to the Puritans, the -decrees of provincial and national synods, allowed and enforced by the -civil magistrate: but neither party were for admitting that liberty of -conscience and freedom of profession which is every man's right as far -as is consistent with the peace of the civil Government he lives under." -Heresy was, in fact, punished by the Government as a purely political -offence. - -Elizabeth, having the power, compelled all those clergymen who conformed -sufficiently to accept livings and bishoprics, not only to conform -but more or less to persecute their brethren. Even men like Parker -and Grindal, naturally averse from compulsion, were obliged to do her -bidding, till Grindal rebelled and was set aside; but their places were -supplied by Sandys, who had himself fled from Popish compulsion, and by -Whitgift, who rigorously enforced the laws. Sandys actually sentenced -the anabaptists who, in 1575, were burnt at the stake by order of the -queen--for to this pass it came: Hammond, a ploughman, being burnt at -Norwich in 1579, and Kett, a member of one of the universities, in the -same place, ten years afterwards, under Elizabeth. - -Such was the state of the Protestant Church at the termination of -the period we are now reviewing. The queen discouraged preaching and -instruction of the people, allowing many bishoprics, prebends, and -livings to be vacant, and receiving their incomes. She declared that one -or two preachers in a county was enough, probably fearing the prevalence -of the more advanced opinions. Parker in his time had been ordered to -enforce strict compliance with the rubric, and numbers of the most -eminent and eloquent clergymen resigned their livings and travelled over -the country, and preached where they could, "as if," says Bishop Jewell, -"they were apostles; and so they were with regard to their poverty, for -silver and gold they had none." Being, however, continually brought -before the authorities and fined and otherwise punished, they determined -to break off all connection with the public churches, and form themselves -into an avowed separate communion, worshipping God in their own way and -being ready to suffer for His sake. Here, then, commenced the great cause -of Nonconformity, and the formation of all those sects which from time -to time have since appeared, each claiming--and justly--the right to -worship God and to regulate their particular church as seems conformable -to their understanding of the Scriptures. These separate assemblies, -however, were stigmatised as conventicles, and from this time many were -the laws passed to put them down, as we shall hereafter find. Among the -Nonconformists a most zealous and resolute sect arose called Brownists, -from Robert Brown, a preacher in the diocese of Norwich, a man of good -family, and said to be a relative of Lord Burleigh. His followers soon -acquired the name of Independents, which they afterwards changed for that -of Congregationalists, from their denial of all ecclesiastical dignities -and authority whatever, asserting that each congregation constitutes -a complete church, with the right to nominate their own minister and -conduct their own affairs. This body of Christians, at this day so -extensive and respectable, of course felt the especial weight of the -persecution of the Established Church, with which it refused to hold -the slightest communion; yet to such a degree did it flourish--a proof -of the onward spirit of the time, that Sir Walter Raleigh declared in -Parliament that there were before the death of Elizabeth not less than -20,000 members of that body in Norfolk, Essex, and the neighbourhood of -London. - -[Illustration: REDUCED FACSIMILE OF THE TITLE-PAGE OF THE GREAT BIBLE, -ALSO CALLED CROMWELL'S BIBLE.] - -In the narration of the struggles of this period in Scotland we have -sufficiently traced the persecution of the Protestants by the Romish -Church--the martyrdom of Patrick Hamilton, George Wishart, Walter -Mill, and others; the murder of Cardinal Beaton, and the final triumph -of Knox and his compeers, from which period the organisation of the -Protestant Church of Scotland went on rapidly. In 1560 the Lords of -the Congregation entered Edinburgh in arms; and Parliament assembling, -abolished for ever the Pope's jurisdiction, abolished the celebration of -Mass, and authorised "The Confession of the Faith and Doctrine believed -and professed by the Protestants of Scotland." An Act also was passed to -pull down all cloisters and abbey-churches still left standing: and the -Church, not waiting for any further enactment of the Parliament or Crown, -went on exercising its own proper functions as an independent church, -governed, not by the State, but by presbyteries, synods, and general -assemblies. In 1580 the General Assembly, after having at various times -diminished the power and rank of bishops, declared that episcopacy was -unscriptural and unlawful--a dictum which the Parliament fully ratified -in 1592, establishing the Presbyterian Church as the national one, with -general assembly, provincial synods, presbyteries, and kirk sessions. In -1597 the Parliament admitted certain representatives of the clergy to -seats in it, to which the General Assembly assented at its next meeting; -and thus was completed the system of Church government in Scotland at -that time. - -The sixteenth century produced as great a revolution in Literature and -Science as in religion. We still look back to this era for some of the -greatest names and greatest works which have adorned and enlightened not -only our own country, but the whole civilised world. When we enumerate -Sir Thomas More, Lord Surrey, Roger Ascham, Spenser, Sir Philip Sidney, -Shakespeare, Marlowe, Bacon, Buchanan, Gawin Douglas, Dunbar, and -Sir David Lyndsay, we remind our readers that we are moving amid a -constellation of genius, than which Time has scarcely any brighter. -But in the two words Shakespeare and Bacon, we pronounce the names and -glorious births of dramatic and philosophic genius, which have placed -England on the summit of intellectual fame, by works never surpassed -before or since in any nation, and by discoveries in science and art -which have flowed from the "Novum Organum" of Bacon as from an eternal -and ever-strengthening fountain. True it is both men belong, by their -works, rather to the succeeding period than to the present; but Bacon -had, long before the death of Elizabeth, sketched out the plan of his -immortal work, though he had not dared to publish it; and Shakespeare had -not only written his poems, but had also written and acted in many of his -most brilliant and original plays. By these great writers the English -language was established as a classical language; and though it has since -extended and connected itself with the progress of knowledge and most -astonishing and varied discoveries, we can produce no purer, no stronger, -nor more eloquent specimens of it than from the pages of Shakespeare, -which continue to be read and listened to on our stage, the genuine -speech of Englishmen--somewhat quaint occasionally, but always musical to -the ear, familiar to the sense, and animating to the spirit. - -The violent changes and spoliations of the Reformation did not check the -foundation of new colleges and seminaries of learning--the fountains, -under a more liberal order of things, certain to produce noble results. -Even Henry VIII., in his wholesale destruction of endowed property, and -though college property was included in the Acts which he procured from -his obsequious Parliament, for the most part spared the resources of -education. His reign was distinguished by the foundation, in Oxford, of -Brazenose College, in 1509, by Sir William Smith, Bishop of Lincoln, and -Sir Richard Sutton, of Prestbury, in Cheshire. Old Richard Fox, Bishop -of Winchester, who had been prime minister of Henry VII., and still was -of the council of his son, in 1516 founded Corpus Christi. The only -exception to Henry VIII.'s patronage of the colleges occurred in those -founded by Wolsey--his Cardinal College at Oxford, and his college at -Ipswich, which both fell with him. In 1545 Henry himself founded Christ -Church instead of that of Wolsey, which he then dissolved. In 1554 -Trinity College was founded on the basis of Durham College by Sir Thomas -Pope. In 1555 Sir Thomas White, alderman and merchant tailor of London, -founded St. John's College, on the site of Bernard College. These were -in the reign of Queen Mary. In Elizabeth's time rose Jesus College, in -1571, from funds furnished by Dr. Hugh Price, and augmented by the queen -herself. - -In Cambridge three colleges arose during the reign of Henry VII.--the -only educational endowments of any note during that period. In 1496 John -Alcock, Bishop of Ely, founded Jesus College. In 1505 Margaret Countess -of Richmond, mother of Henry VII., founded Christ's College, and also in -1511, very shortly before her son's death, St. John's College. In 1519 -Edward Stafford, Duke of Buckingham, commenced the College of Magdalene; -but as he was executed for high treason in 1521, Lord Audley, the Lord -Chancellor, completed it. Henry VIII. founded Trinity College in 1546, -and at the same time four new professorships in the university; namely, -for theology, law, Greek, and Hebrew. Henry was proud of his learning, -and had the good sense to support, with all the imperative force of his -character, the new study of Greek, when it was violently assailed by -the Church and professors. Dr. Caius founded the college named after -him, and popularly pronounced "Keys," on the basis of the old hall of -Gonville, in 1558--the only extension of Cambridge University under -Queen Mary. Sir Walter Mildmay founded Emmanuel College in 1584, and in -1598 Sidney-Sussex College was founded by Lady Frances Sidney, widow of -Ratcliffe, Earl of Sussex. - -The universities of Scotland were greatly extended during this period. -That of Aberdeen was founded in 1494 under the name of King's College, -James IV. having procured a bull for that purpose from Pope Alexander -VI., though the bishop was the main benefactor. In 1593 Marischal -College, in the same university, was erected by George, Earl Marischal. -At St. Andrews the college of St. Leonard's was established in 1512 by -Archbishop Stuart and John Hepburn, prior of the metropolitan church. -This was afterwards united with that of St. Salvator (founded in 1456), -and together bore the name of the United College. St. Mary's, in the same -university, was founded, in 1537, by Beaton. In 1582 James VI. founded -the University of Edinburgh. In 1591 Elizabeth founded in Dublin the -University of Trinity College. - -Contemporaneous with these colleges and universities rose a great number -of grammar-schools, designed to extend the knowledge of Latin to the -mass of the people. Among the magnificent endowments, since too much -withdrawn, by the influence of wealth, from the poor and the orphan, for -whom they were designed, and devoted to the use of the affluent, for whom -they were not designed, we may name St. Paul's School, London, founded -by Dean Colet in 1509; Christ's Hospital, London, founded by Edward -VI. in 1553, the year of his death; Westminster School, established by -Elizabeth, 1560; and Merchant Taylors School, founded by that guild -in 1561. In Scotland the High School of Edinburgh was founded by the -magistrates of that city in 1577. - -It is a curious fact that the revival of the Greek language and -literature was coincident with the Reformation. Widely opposed as the -spirit of Christianity and of the Greek mythology are, yet in one -particular they are identical, in breathing a spirit of liberty and -popular dominance which were not long in showing their effects in -Great Britain. The Scriptures were now translated and made familiar -to the people, at least by means of Puritan preachers, who were thus -proclaiming that God had made of one blood all the nations of the earth, -and that He was no respecter of persons; thereby laying the foundations -of eternal justice in the public mind, and teaching, as a necessary -consequence, that the end and object of all human government was not the -good of kings or nobles, but of the collective people. The poets, the -historians, the dramatists, and the philosophers of republican Greece -were made to bring all the force of their fiery eloquence, their glowing -narratives, and their subtle reasoning to bear upon the same theme; -presenting not only arguments for general liberty and a popular polity, -but examples of the most sublime struggles of a small but glorious people -against domestic tyrants and the vast hordes of barbarism without, of -noblest orators thundering against the oppression of the mighty, of awful -tragedians steeping their stage in the imaged blood of tyrants and of -traitors, of patriots perishing in joy for the salvation of their country. - -It was not to be wondered at that on the bursting of these novel elements -like a sudden and strong torrent into the arena of human life, there -should arise a fearful struggle and combat between the old intellectual -ideas and the new. The two-fold inundation pouring from the hills -of Palestine and of Greece, and in united vastness deluging Europe, -threatened to destroy all the old land-marks of the schoolmen, and to -drown Duns Scotus and Aquinas along with the owls and bats of the monkish -cells and dream chambers. It was soon seen that this new language was -the language of the very book from which the Reformers drew their words -winged with the fire of destruction to the ancient slavery of popular -ignorance and popular dependence on priests and Popes, and no time was -lost in denouncing it as a gross and new-fangled heresy. It was a heresy -from which not only freedom in Church but in State was to spring; the -seed from which grew, in the next age, our Hampdens, Marvels, Pyms, -Prynnes, Cromwells, and Miltons. - -Yet it is only due to Henry VIII., to his ministers Wolsey, Fox, and -More, and to other eminent dignitaries--amongst them Cardinal Pole -in Queen Mary's reign--to state that they were zealous advocates and -promoters of the Greek learning. The very first public school in which -Greek is said to have been taught in England was the new foundation of -Dean Colet, St. Paul's school, where the celebrated scholar William -Lilly, who had studied in Rhodes, was the master. Wolsey introduced it -into his new colleges, and Henry VIII. being at Woodstock, and hearing -of a furious harangue made at Oxford against the study of the Greek -Testament in the University, immediately ordered the teaching of it, and -established a professorship of it also in Cambridge. - -Notwithstanding, a violent opposition arose against the study of Greek in -consequence of the authority it gave to the doctrines of the Reformers, -rendering an appeal to the original text invincible. Erasmus informs -us that the preachers and declaimers against his edition of the Greek -Testament really appeared to believe that he was by its means attempting -to introduce some new kind of religion. The book was prohibited in the -University of Cambridge, and a heavy penalty decreed for any one found -with it in his possession. Erasmus attempted to teach the Greek grammar -of Chrysoloras there, but a terrible outcry was raised against him, and -his scholars soon deserted his benches. As the contest went on, however, -the Universities, both here and abroad, became divided into the factions -of the Greeks and Trojans, the Trojans being those who were advocates for -Latin, but not for Greek. The Greeks, however, victorious, as of old, -expelled the works of the famous Duns Scotus from the schools; they were -torn up and trodden under foot; and the King sent down a Commission which -altogether abolished the study of this old scholastic philosophy which -had had so long and absolute a reign. - -Yet the new knowledge appears for some time after the first excitement -to have made less progress in the schools than at Court and amongst the -aristocracy. On the surface, therefore, the age appeared a very learned -one. All the chief churchmen on both sides of the question in the reigns -of Henry VIII. and Edward VI.--Wolsey, Fox, Gardiner, Cranmer, Ridley, -Tunstall, Cardinal Pole--were men of great acquirements. Henry was a fine -scholar, and, despite his harsh treatment of his wives and children, -gave to the latter educations perhaps superior to those of any princes -or princesses of the time. Edward was steeped in learning, to the injury -of his overtaxed constitution. Mary and Elizabeth were both accomplished -linguists, speaking Latin, French, and Spanish fluently; and Elizabeth -adding to these Greek and Italian, with a smattering of Dutch and German. -Mary was studiously instructed in the originals of the Scriptures, and -made a translation of the Latin paraphrase of St. John, by Erasmus, which -was printed and read as part of the Church service, till it was ordered -to be burnt by herself in her own reign with other heretical books. -She was deeply read in the fathers, and in the works of Plato, Cicero, -Seneca, Plutarch, and selected portions of Horace, Lucan, and Livy. -Elizabeth was a poetess of no mean pretensions and, besides her knowledge -of the classical and modern languages, read by preference immense -quantities of history. Roger Ascham, the teacher of Lady Jane Grey, said -that "numberless honourable ladies" of the time surpassed the daughters -of Sir Thomas More, but that none could compete with the Princess -Elizabeth; that she spoke and wrote Greek and Latin beautifully; that -he had read with her the whole of Cicero, and great part of Livy; that -she devoted her mornings to the New Testament in Greek, select orations -of Isocrates, and the tragedies of Sophocles, whilst she drew religious -knowledge from St. Cyprian and the "Common-places" of Melanchthon; that -she was skilful in music, but did not greatly delight in it. - -With such examples, no wonder that there were such learned ladies at -Court as Lady Jane Grey, Lady Tyrwhit, Mary Countess of Arundel, Joanna -Lady Lumley, and her sister Mary the Duchess of Norfolk--all learned -in Greek and Latin, and authoresses of translations from them; the two -daughters of Sir Thomas More, and the three daughters of the learned -Sir Anthony Cooke--one of them the wife of the all-powerful statesman -Burleigh, another the mother of the illustrious Francis Bacon, and the -third, Lady Killigrew, a famous Hebrew scholar, as well as profound in -Latin and Greek. It is extraordinary that learning, which had been so -ardently taken up by these accomplished women, should have languished -in the schools and amongst the people. Yet such was the fact, and is -explained by the violent and continual changes which were taking place -in Church and State. A great part of the reign of Henry VIII. was -engrossed by the conflict with the Court of Rome regarding his divorce -from Catherine, and then by his stupendous onslaught on the monastic -and cathedral property. As no man at the Universities could tell where -promotion was to come from in the Church under a king who equally took -vengeance on Romanist and Protestant who dared to differ from him, and as -it was equally uncertain whether, in some new fit of anger or caprice, -he might not suppress the colleges as he had suppressed monasteries, -ministers, and chantries, it is not surprising to hear Latimer exclaim, -"It would pity a man's heart to hear what I hear of the state of -Cambridge. There be few that study divinity, but so many as of necessity -must furnish the college." - -[Illustration: CHRIST'S HOSPITAL, LONDON (1899).] - -Under Edward VI. things became far worse. Then it was a scramble amongst -his courtiers who should get the most of the property devoted to religion -or learning. Bishoprics, good livings, the rest of the monastic lands -which yet remained with the Crown did not suffice. These cormorants -clutched at the University resources. They appropriated exhibitions -and pensions, and, says Warton, in his "History of English Poetry," -"Ascham, in a letter to the Marquis of Northampton, dated 1550, laments -the ruin of grammar-schools throughout England, and predicts the speedy -extinction of the universities from this growing calamity. At Oxford the -schools were neglected by the professors and pupils, and allotted to the -lowest purposes. Academical degrees were abrogated as anti-Christian. -Reformation was soon turned into fanaticism. Absurd refinements, -concerning the inutility of human learning, were superadded to the just -and rational purgation of Christianity from the Papal corruption." He -adds that the Government visitors of the University totally stripped the -public library, established by Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, of all its -books and manuscripts; and Latimer, in one of his sermons about that -time, declared his belief that there were then 10,000 fewer students than -there had been twenty years before. - -Classical literature did not fare better during the persecuting reign -of Mary, though Cardinal Pole was a warm friend of the introduction of -Greek, notwithstanding the use made of it by the Protestants. When he -urged Sir Thomas Pope to establish a professorship of that language -in his new college of Trinity, Sir Thomas replied, "I fear the times -will not bear it now. I remember, when I was a young scholar at Eton, -the Greek tongue was growing apace, the study of which is now a-late -much decayed." Nor was it likely when Elizabeth discouraged preaching -even, saying that "one or two preachers in a county was enough," that -Classical studies would be much encouraged. In fact, nothing could be -lower than the condition into which both learning and preaching had -fallen in Elizabeth's Church. The Bishop of Bangor stated that he had -but two preachers in all his diocese. Numbers of churches stood vacant, -according to Neal, where there was no preaching, nor even reading of the -homilies for months together, and in many parishes there could be found -no one to baptise the living or bury the dead; in others, unlearned -mechanics, and even the gardeners of those who had secured the clerical -glebes and income, performed the only service that there was. But no -doubt this afforded good scope to the Puritans, who had now the Bible in -English, Cranmer's, Coverdale's, and Parker's, or the Bishops' Bible; and -these zealous men, despite the crushing penalties, would find constant -opportunities of diffusing their knowledge. In Oxford there were only -three divines in 1563 who were considered able to preach a sermon, and -these three were Puritans. The knowledge of the Classics was fallen -so low that all that Archbishop Parker required of the holders of his -three new scholarships in Cambridge, in 1567, was that they should be -well instructed in grammar and be able to make a verse. The classical -qualifications in the two Universities were below contempt. - -It is a satisfaction to turn from this humiliating state of things to -the great lights of genius and learning which were burning brightly amid -this thick darkness. Here there meets us the illustrious constellation -of names of More, Ascham, Puttenham, Sidney, Hooker, Bacon, Barclay, -Skelton, Sackville, Heywood, Surrey, Wyatt, Spenser, Shakespeare, -Marlowe, and others--names which cast a lustre over this period, and in -whose blaze all its faults and failings are forgotten. - -Of the prose writers Sir Thomas More (_b_. 1480, _d_. 1535) is one of the -earliest and most famous. He was equally remarkable for the suavity of -his manners, his wit, his independence of character, and the eloquence -and originality of his writings. We have seen how he served and was -served by Henry VIII. Erasmus, who stayed some time at his house, says, -"With him you might imagine yourself in the academy of Plato. But I -should do injustice to his house by comparing it to the academy of Plato, -where numbers and geometrical figures, and sometimes moral virtues, were -the subjects of discussion. It would be more just to call it a school, -and an exercise of Christian religion. All its inhabitants, male and -female, applied their leisure to liberal studies and profitable reading, -although piety was their first care. No wrangling, no angry word was -heard in it, no one was idle; every one did his duty with alacrity, and -not without a temperate cheerfulness." - -More's chief work is his "Utopia," and it may be pronounced the first -enunciation of a system of Socialism since the Apostolic age. It may -surprise many, but More, in fact, was the forerunner of Proudhon and -Fourrier. His "Utopia" describes an island in which a commonwealth is -established completely on Socialistic principles. No one is allowed to -possess separate property; because such possession produces an unequal -division of the necessaries of life, demoralising those who become -inordinately rich and, in a different direction, depraving and degrading -those who are obliged to labour incessantly. What is remarkable, More in -his imaginary commonwealth admits the fullest toleration of religious -belief, though he fell so far in practice as to join in the persecutions -of his time. His principles were too noble for his practice; yet with -this one flaw he was one of the most admirable men who ever lived. His -"Utopia" was written by him in Latin, but was translated into English -in 1551, afterwards by Bishop Burnet, and in 1808 by Arthur Cayley. -In addition to this, he wrote a life of Richard III., and various -compositions in Latin and English, besides a number of letters which have -been published in his collected works. As a specimen of the prose style -and state of the language in the early part of the reign of Henry VIII., -we may quote a short passage from a letter to his second wife, Alice -Middleton, in 1528, on hearing that his house at Chelsea was burnt down:-- - -"Maistress Alyce, in my most harty wise I recommend me to you; and -whereas I am enfourmed by my son Heron of the losse of our barnes and of -our neighbours also, with all the corne that was therein, albeit (saving -God's pleasure) it is grit pitie of so much good corne loste; yet sith -it hath liked Hym to sende us such a chaunce, we must and are bounden, -not only to be content, but also to be glad of His visitacion. He sente -us all that we have loste; and sith He hath by such a chaunce taken it -away againe, His pleasure be fulfilled. Let us never grudge thereat, but -take in good worth, and hartily thank Him, as well for adversitie as for -prosperite; and peradventure we have more cause to thank Him for our -losse than for our winning; for His wisdome better seeth what is good -for us than we do our selves. Therefore I pray you be of good chere, and -take all the howshold with you to church, and there thanke God, both for -what He hath given us, and for that He hath taken from us, and for that -He hath left us, which, if it please Hym He can encrease when He will. -And if it please Hym to leave us yet lesse, at His pleasure be it. I -pray you to make some good insearche what my poore neighbours have loste, -and bid them take no thought therefore; for an I shold not leave myself -a spone, there shal no poore neighboure of mine bere no losse by any -chaunce happened in my house. I pray you be with my children, and your -howshold mery in God." - -Latimer (_b._ 1470, _d._ 1555) was the son of a Leicestershire farmer, -and rose to be Bishop of Worcester, and to the far higher rank of a -martyr for his faith. He has been pronounced by writers of this age as -a good but not a great man. To our mind he was a very great man. Not in -worldly wisdom, for he was simple as a child; but he was a genius, true, -racy, and original. He was made, as his sermons show, for a preacher -to the people rather than to princes, though to them he bore a bold -and unblenching testimony. But to the people he was a prophet and an -awakener. He had been amongst them; he knew their deepest feelings, their -most secret thoughts their language and their desires; and he addressed -them from the pulpit with the loving and picturesque familiarity which -he used at their firesides. There is occasionally much rudeness in his -discourses, his images are often bizarre, his allusions grotesque; -but there is a life that kindles, there is a poetry that warms, a -spirit that arouses, a bold aggressive truth which must have made his -hearers look into their souls and think. We take a short passage from a -sermon preached before Edward VI. in 1549--twenty-one years after the -composition of More just given, and yet how much more old-fashioned is -the language. After telling the king that so plain was his preaching -that it had been called seditious, and that his friends, with tears in -their eyes, assured him he would get into the Tower, he says:--"There -be more of myne opinion than I. I thought I was not alone. I have now -gotten one felowe more, a companyon of sedytyon, and wot ye who is my -felowe? Esaye the prophete. I spake but of a lytle preaty shyllynge; but -he speaketh to Hierusalem after another sorte, and was so bold to meddle -with theyr coine (Isaiah i. 22). Thou proude, thou covetous, thou hautye -cytye of Hierusalem, _argentum tuum versum est in scoriam_; thy sylver is -turned into what? into testyiers. _Scoriam_--into drosse. Ah, sediciouse -wretch, what had he to do wyth the mynte? Why should not he have lefte -that matter to some master of policy to reprove? Thy sylver is drosse, -it is not fine, it is counterfeit, thy sylver is turned, thou haddest -good sylver. What pertayned that to Esaye? Mary, he espyeth a piece of -divinity in that policie; he threatened them God's vengeance for it. He -went to the rote of the matter, which was covetousness. He espyed two -poyntes in it: that eythere it came of covetousnesse, whych became hym -to reprove; er els that it tended to the hurte of the pore people, for -the naughtyness of the sylver was the occasion of dearth to all thynges -in the realme. He imputeth it to them as a great cryme. He may be called -a mayster of sedicion in dede. Was this not a sidicyouse varlet to tell -them thys to theyr beardes, to theyr face?" - -Amongst writers of this age who tended to purify and perfect the language -were Sir Thomas Wilson, and Puttenham, who wrote the "Art of English -Poesy," which was published in 1582. Wilson (_b._ 1520, _d._ 1581) wrote -his "Art of Rhetorique" thirty years before, only three years later -than the sermon of Latimer's just quoted; yet what an advance in both -style and orthography:--"What maketh the lawyer to have such utterance? -Practice. What maketh the preacher to speake so soundly? Practice. Yea, -what maketh women go so fast awai with their wordes? Marie, practice, I -warrant you. Therefore in all faculties, diligent practice and earnest -exercise are the only thynges that make men prove excellent." - -Contemporary with More was Sir Thomas Elyot (_b._ 1495, _d._ 1546), whose -treatise called "The Governor" is a fine example of vigorous English. -Cranmer and Ridley were not less distinguished for their fine style than -for their liberal principles; and Roger Ascham (_b._ 1515, _d._ 1568), -the instructor of Lady Jane Grey and Queen Elizabeth, was equally famed -for his caligraphy, his musical talents, his proficiency in the new -learning--Greek--for his classical Latin, and his English composition. -To relieve the severities of study he practised archery, and wrote his -"Toxophilus, the Schole of Shootinge," to recommend that old English art. -In it he strongly advocated the old English language, and the abstinence -from foreign terms, a recommendation which succeeding generations wisely -declined, to the vast enrichment of the language. But Ascham was a -genuine Englishman, and advised his countrymen to follow the counsel of -Aristotle, and "speak as the common people do, but think as wise men do." -His next principal work was the "Scholemaster: a plaine and perfite way -of teaching children to understand, write, and speak the Latin tong"--a -work which has become more known than any other of his, because in it he -mentions his visit to Lady Jane Grey at Bradgate Park, near Leicester, -where he found her deep in Plato's "Phaedo" while the rest of the family -were hunting. But besides these works he wrote on the affairs of Germany; -and Latin poems, Latin letters, and his celebrated Apology for the Lord's -Supper, in opposition to the Mass. - -[Illustration: LATIMER PREACHING BEFORE EDWARD VI. (_From a Woodcut in -Foxe's "Martyrs," 1563._)] - -As a prose writer Edmund Spenser (_b._ 1553, _d._ 1599), the author -of the "Faerie Queene," must be mentioned for his "View of the State -of Ireland," which contained many judicious recommendations for the -improvement of that country, and presents in its serious statesmanlike -views a curious contrast to the allegorical fancy of his great poem. -But far greater as prose writers of the latter portion of this period -stand forth Sir Philip Sidney and the "judicious Hooker." Sir Philip -Sidney (_b._ 1554, _d._ 1586), who was celebrated as the most perfect -gentleman of his time, or as, in the phrase of the age, "the Mirror of -Courtesy," was killed at the age of thirty-three at Zutphen. Yet he -left behind him the "Arcadia," a romance; the "Defence of Poesie," and -various minor poems and prose articles, which were published after his -death. The person and writings of Sidney have been the theme of unbounded -panegyric. He was a gentleman finished and complete, in whom mildness -was associated with courage, erudition mollified by refinement, and -courtliness dignified by truth. He is a specimen of what the English -character was capable of producing when foreign admixtures had not -destroyed its simplicity, or politeness debased its honour. In his own -day he was the object of the most enthusiastic praises, and has been -lauded in the most vivid terms by writers of every period since. Near his -own times Nash, Lord Brooke, Camden, Ben Jonson, Naunton, Aubrey, Milton, -and Cowley, were his eulogists; Wordsworth and the writers of our own day -are equally complimentary. Perhaps, after so continuous and high-toned -a hymning, a modern reader, taking up his "Arcadia" for the first time, -would find it stiff, formal, and pedantic. He might miss that fervid -spirit which animates the fictions of the great masters of our own age, -and wonder at the warmth of so many great authorities upon what failed to -warm him. In fact, it must be confessed, that it is a noble specimen of -what pleased the taste of the time in which it was written. It displays -imagination, though often on stilts instead of on wings, and breathes -the spirit which animated its author, of a refined nature, a chivalrous -temperament, a generous heart, and the instincts of the perfect scholar. -Of that period it is a noble monument; in this it is a unique work of -art, which, however, strikes us as fair, mild, and antiquated. "The -Defence of Poesie," with much of the same mannerism, is worthy of a poet, -and of a man whose life was the finest poem, from its generous patronage -of talent, its high literary taste, and the hero's death, in the very -agonies of which he gave from his own scorched lips the draught of cold -water to the dying soldier at his side. - -[Illustration: ROGER ASCHAM'S VISIT TO LADY JANE GREY. (_See p._ 364.)] - -The list of the prose writers of this period presents no more honourable -name than that of the great champion of the Church of England, Richard -Hooker (_b._ 1553, _d._ 1600), whose composition is as remarkable for its -cogent reasoning and elevated style, as Sidney's is for fancy and grace -of sentiment. His "Ecclesiastical Polity," in eight books, is regarded as -the most able defence of church establishments that ever appeared. From -the breadth of its principles it drew the applause of Pope Clement VIII. -as well as of the royal pedant, James I. To those who study it as an -example of the intellect, learning, and language of the time, it presents -itself, even to such as dissent from its conclusions, as a labour most -honourable to the country and age which produced it. - -A still greater man was yet behind. Bacon (_b._ 1561, _d._ 1626) was -figuring as the great lawyer, the eloquent advocate and senator; -but under the duties of these offices lay hid the master who was to -revolutionise philosophy and science; the father of the new world of -discovery, and the most marvellous career of social and intellectual -advance. To this period he is the sun sending its rays above the horizon, -but not yet risen. His speeches, his "Essays Civil and Moral," and -"Maxims of Law," already foretold his fame. - -A very different writer was John Lyly, the Euphuist (_b._ 1553, _d._ -1601). Lyly was a poet and dramatist of repute; but in 1579 he published -"Euphues; or, Anatomy of Wit," which was followed, in 1581, by a second -part, called "Euphues and his England." In this he invented a style -and phraseology of his own, which seized the fancy of the public like -a mania, and set the Court, the ladies, the dandies, and dilettanti of -the day speaking and writing in a most affected, piebald, and fantastic -style. Sir Philip Sidney, in his "Arcadia," ridiculed it, not without -being in a considerable degree affected by it himself. Shakespeare, in -"Love's Labour's Lost," and Sir Walter Scott, in his Sir Piercie Shafton, -in "The Monastery," have made the modern public familiar with it. Yet, -after all, probably Lyly was only laughing in his sleeve at the follies -of others, and was, as has been asserted, aiming at the purification of -the language; for in his dramas his diction is simple enough, considering -the taste of the age. - -Among the rising writers was also Sir Walter Raleigh; but his literary -reputation belongs rather to the age that was coming. On the whole, the -period from the reign of Henry VII. to the end of that of Elizabeth was -a period more kindred to our own than any which had gone before it. -It produced prose writers whose minds still hold communion with and -influence those of to-day. Its philosophy had assumed a more practical -stamp, and was full of the elements of change and progress. Its poetry, -which we have now to consider, reached the very highest pitch of human -genius. - -The earliest poet who has left any name of note is Stephen Hawes, whose -principal work was "The Pastime of Pleasure," which was printed by Wynkyn -de Worde in 1517. Hawes was a native of Suffolk, had travelled much, and -by his proficiency in French and French literature acquired the favour -of Henry VII. Another poem, "The Temple of Glass," has been ascribed to -Hawes, but is most probably Lydgate's, who, Hawes tells us, composed such -a poem. - -Next to Hawes comes Alexander Barclay, the author of numerous works in -prose and poetry, as "The Castell of Labour," wherein is "Rychesse, -Vertue, and Honour," an allegorical poem, translated from the French; -"The Shyp of Foles of the Worlde," translated from Sebastian Brandt's -German poem, "Das Narren Schiff;" "Egloges; or, the Miseries of Courts -and Courtiers;" a treatise against Skelton the poet; a translation of -Livy's "Wars of Jugurtha;" "Life of St. George," &c. &c. The work, -however, which has handed down his name to posterity is the "Ship of -Fools," which, by interspersing it with original touches on the follies -of his countrymen, he made in some degree his own. But the chief merit -of the poem in our time is the evidence of the polish which the English -language had acquired, and to which Barclay probably contributed, for -he had travelled through Germany, Holland, France, and Italy, studying -diligently the best authors of those countries. He was successively a -prebendary of the college of Ottery St. Mary, a Benedictine monk, Vicar -of Great Barlow, in Essex, of Wokey, in Somersetshire, and Rector of All -Hallows, London, terminating his life at Croydon. A stanza or two will -suffice to show the state of the language at the close of the reign of -Henry VII. A man in orders is speaking:-- - - "Eche is not lettred that nowe is made a lorde, - Nor eche a clerke that hath a benefice: - They are not all lawyers that plees do recorde, - All that are promoted are not fully wise. - On such chaunce nowe fortune throwes her dice - That, though one knowe but the Yrishe game, - Yet would he have a gentleman's name. - - * * * * * - - I am like other clerkes which so frowardly them gyde, - That after they are once come unto promotion, - They give them to pleasure, their study set aside, - Their avarice covering with fained devotion. - Yet daily they preache, and have great derision - Against the rude lay men, and all for covetise, - Though their own conscience be blinded with that vice." - -The reign of Henry VIII. was distinguished chiefly by satirists: and it -says much for the courage of poets that they were almost the only men in -that terrible period who dared open their mouths on the crying sins of -Government. Skelton, Heywood, and Roy were men who amused themselves with -the follies and vices of their contemporaries. When the sun of poetry -rose in a more glowing form in Surrey, the ferocious king, so ready with -the headsman's axe, quenched it in blood. John Skelton (_b._ 1460, _d._ -1529) was a clergyman, educated at Oxford. Erasmus declared him to be -"Britannicarum Literarum Lumen et Decus"--"the light and ornament of -Britain." He became Rector of Diss, in Norfolk; but, like Sterne at a -later day, Skelton was overflowing with humour and satire rather than -sermons, and so fell under the resentment of Nykke, Bishop of Norwich. -He lashed with all the wonderful power of his merry muse the licentious -ignorance of the monks and friars; and, soaring at higher game, attacked -the swollen greatness of Cardinal Wolsey in a strain of the most daring -invective. The incensed cardinal endeavoured to lay hold on him, and he -would not have escaped scatheless out of his hands, had not the venerable -John Islip, Abbot of Westminster, opened the sanctuary to him; and there -Skelton lived secure for the remainder of his days, neither stinting his -stinging lashes at the cardinal, nor suppressing his overflowing humour, -which welled forth in a torrent of the most wild, sparkling, random, and -rodomontade character. His amazing command of language, his never-failing -and extraordinary rhymes, remind us of one man only, and that of last -century--Hood. The airiness and irregularity of his lyrical measures -equally suggest a comparison with that most untranslatable Swedish poet, -Bellmann. - -His friend Thomas Churchyard, in a eulogium on him, enumerates a number -of poets of that and preceding times, some of them now little known:-- - - "Peirs Plowman was full plaine, - And Chaucer's spreet was great; - Earl Surrey had a goodly veine, - Lord Vaux the marke did beat. - And Phaer did hit the pricke - In things he did translate, - And Edwards had a special gift; - And divers men of late - Have helped our English tongue, - That first was base and brute. - Oh! shall I leave out Skelton's name?-- - The blossom of my fruit!" - -The "Pithy, Pleasant, and Profitable Works of Maister Skelton, Poet -Laureate to Henry VIII.," contain "The Crowne of Laurell," by way of -introduction; "The Bouge of the Courte," in which this unique poet -laureate attacks the vices of the Court without mercy; "The Duke -of Albany," a poem equally severe on the Scots; "Ware the Hawk," a -castigation of the clergy; "The Tunning of Eleanor Rumming," a wild -rattling string of rhymes on an old ale-wife and her costume; and "Why -come ye not to Court?" an unsparing satire on Wolsey. There is no part -of the cardinal's history or character that he lets escape. His mean -origin, his puffed-up pride, his sensuality, his lordly insolence, his -covetousness and cruelties, run on in a strain of loose yet vivid jingle -that was calculated to catch the ear of the people. The gentlest word -that Skelton has for him is that-- - - "He regardeth lords - No more than potsherds; - He is in such elation - Of his exaltation - Of our sovereign lord - That God to record, - He ruleth all at will, - Without reason or skill, - Howbeit they be primordial - Of his wretched original - And his base progeny, - And his greasy genealogy. - He came of the sink royal - That was cast out of a butcher's stall. - But however he was born, - Men would have the less scorn - If he could consider - His birth and room together." - -He tells us that the king, - - "Of his royal mind, - Thought to do a thing - That pertaineth to a king-- - To make up one of nought, - And made to him be brought - A wretched poor man, - With his living wan, - With planting leeks, - By the days and by the weeks; - And of this poor vassal - He made a king royal!" - -We cannot afford space for the wild riot of Skelton's description of old -Eleanor Rumming-- - - Droupy and drowsy, - Scurvy and lousy, - Her face all bowsy; - Comely crinkled, - Wonderfully wrinkled, - Like roast pig's ear, - Bristled with hair. - -But Skelton has shown that he could praise in strains not unworthy the -fair and noble, and buoyant with music of their own. Such is his canzonet -to - -MISTRESS MARGARET HUSSEY. - - Merry Margaret - As midsummer flower, - Gentle as falcon, - Or hawk of the tower. - With solace and gladness, - Mirth and no madness, - All good and no badness: - So joyously, - So maidenly, - So womanly, - Her demeanour - In everything - Far, far passing - That I can indite, - Or suffice to write - Of Merry Margaret, - As midsummer flower, - Gentle as falcon, - Or hawk of the tower, etc. - -A far more grave and not less vengeful satirist of Wolsey and the clergy -was William Roy, the coadjutor of Tyndale in the translation of the -Bible. He was originally a friar, but joining the Reformers, he wrote -a poem against Wolsey, who had ordered the burning of Tyndale's New -Testament. It is called-- - - "Rede me, and be not wrothe, - For I saye no thynge but trothe." - -In this work he placed on the title a coat of arms for Wolsey in black -and crimson, with a description in verse at the back of the title, -of which the following stanza, alluding to the deaths of the Duke of -Buckingham (the swan) and the Duke of Norfolk (the white lion), may serve -as a specimen:-- - - "Of the proude Cardinall this is the shelde, - Borne up betweene two angels of Sathan. - The sixe bloody axes in a bare felde - Sheweth the cruelty of the red man, - Which hath devoured the beautiful swan, - Mortal enemy of the white lion, - Carter of York, the vile butcher's sonne." - -The burning of Tyndale's New Testament is denounced by Roy in many verses -of the bitterest feeling, every stanza repeating his indignation at the -unhallowed deed:-- - - "O miserable monster, most malicious - Father of perversitie, patron of hell! - O terrible tyrant, to God and man odious, - Advocate of antichrist, to Christ rebell; - To thee I speak, O caytife cardinall so cruell, - Causeles chargynge by thy coursed commandment - To burne Godde's worde, the wholly Testament." - -Besides these satirists there was John Heywood, in the time of Henry -VIII., Edward, and Mary, who wrote "Six Centuries of Epigrams," of a -pious nature, a considerable number of plays, and an allegory called -"The Spider and the Fly." Of course, he was a favourite with Henry and -Mary, and is said to have been more amusing in his conversation than in -his books. Heywood has the honour commonly assigned him of being the -first author of interludes; the stepping-stones from the old mysteries -and moralities to the regular drama. With the Church passed away these -grotesque performances called religious; and the drama quickly expanded -in all its fair proportions before the eyes of the public. Shakespeare -arose, and the dates of the appearance of his plays show us that they -were many of them produced before 1603, the close of the reign of -Elizabeth. In fact, Shakespeare seems to have retired from the stage in -the very year of Elizabeth's death. Before him, however, a number of -dramatic writers had appeared; but the greater part of them overlived -the termination of Elizabeth's reign, or their works began after that -period to take their due rank. Of these dramatic writers some may be -noted in passing. Heywood had been preceded by Skelton in the line of -interlude, whose strange "Nigromansia" was printed by Wynkyn de Worde as -early as 1505. Heywood wrote various interludes, but his chief one was -the "4 P's," namely, a Palmer, a Pardoner, a Poticary, and a Pedlar. On -the heels of this appeared the first regular comedy, "Gammer Gurton's -Needle," written by John Hill, and printed in 1551. Ten years after was -acted the first English tragedy, "Gorboduc," written by Thomas Norton -and the celebrated poet Thomas Sackville, afterwards Lord Buckhurst and -Earl of Dorset. Passing over the "Damon and Pythias" of Richard Edwards, -the "Promos and Cassandra" of George Whetstone, which, borrowed from -an Italian novel, contains the rude outline of Shakespeare's "Measure -for Measure," we come to Robert Greene, who with Kyd, Lyly, Peele, -Nash author of "Queen Dido," and Marlowe, constituted a remarkable -constellation of genius. Greene's chief plays are "Friar Bacon and -the Friar of Bungay," and "A Looking Glasse for London," written in -conjunction with his friend Thomas Lodge. He also wrote much poetry. -The principal dramas of George Peele are "David and Bethsabe, with the -Tragedy of Absolon," written in 1579, which is a real mystery play, and -"The Famous Chronicle of Edward I.," "The Old Wives' Tales, a Comedy," -&c. Lyly, the Euphuist, wrote nine plays, amongst them "Alexander and -Campaspe," "Sappho and Phaon," "Midos," "Gallathea," etc. Lyly was fond -of Greek subjects, but he could also enjoy English comedy, as in "Mother -Bombie," and others, which are regular comedies, divided into acts and -scenes, and interspersed with agreeable songs. - -Contemporary with the preceding, as well as with Shakespeare, Marlowe -(_b._ 1564, _d._ 1593) is the greatest name which precedes that of -the supreme dramatist. We can do no more here than name some of his -chief tragedies, for Marlowe was essentially a tragedian. These were -"Tamburlaine the Great," in two parts, "The Massacre of Paris," "Edward -II.," including the fall of Mortimer and Gaveston, "Doctor Faustus," "The -Rich Jew of Malta," and "Lust's Dominion; or, the Lascivious Queen." -Marlowe was, moreover, a beautiful lyrical poet, as is evident by his -charming madrigal "Come live with me and be my love," given in Walton's -"Angler." Greene, Peele, Marlowe, Nash, and that whole company were -dissipated in their lives, and lived and died in deep poverty. To these -we must add, as dramatic poets of this era whom it is essential to a -continuous view of the progress of the drama to mention with the rest, -Decker; Kyd, author of "Jeronimo" and the "Spanish Tragedy;" Lodge, -author of "The Wounds of Civil War," &c.; Gascoine; Chapman, also the -celebrated author of the translation of Homer; Jasper Heywood, son of -John Heywood; Weston, Marston, &c. So much was the drama now advanced in -estimation, that even Elizabeth's Lord Chancellor, Hatton, was in part -author of the tragedy of "Tancred and Sigismunda," founded on the story -of Boccaccio. - -[Illustration: EDMUND SPENSER.] - -Amongst the lyrical poets, the reign of Henry VIII. presents us with a -remarkable trio, who were associated as well by their genius as their -position and fate. These were Sir Thomas Wyatt, the early lover of Anne -Boleyn, her brother, George Boleyn, afterwards the unfortunate Earl of -Rochford, and the equally unfortunate Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, the -last victim of the sanguinary Henry VIII. Surrey was the cousin-german -of the Boleyns, Wyatt was their early neighbour and playfellow; together -they all figured amongst the most accomplished courtiers: two of them -lost their heads, the third only narrowly escaping; and their poetry was -printed together in one volume. - -Sir Thomas Wyatt (_b._ 1503, _d._ 1542, and called the Elder, to -distinguish him from his son, who was executed for rebellion in the reign -of Queen Mary) was one of the most illustrious men of the Court of Henry -VIII. His country-house was Allington Castle, in Kent, and its vicinity -to the residence of the Boleyns made him a youthful companion of Anne and -her brother and sister. He became attached to Anne, but was obliged to -give way to the king, of whose wrath he was in some danger. After that he -was long employed abroad in embassies to France, Spain, Italy, and the -Netherlands. Incurring the king's displeasure for aiding Cromwell in the -promotion of the marriage with Anne of Cleves, he prudently withdrew from -Court to his castle in Kent. He had never ceased writing poetry even when -engaged in his diplomatic missions, and he now more than ever cultivated -the muses. His amatory verses are polished and elegant, but his satires -display more vigour, and are remarkable as containing the earliest -English version of "The Town and Country Mouse." Besides his poems he has -left letters, in which he not only gives us many insights into the state -of the Courts where he resided, but various particulars regarding the -fate of Anne Boleyn, and some addressed to his son, which place him in a -most favourable light as a man and a father. His prose has been greatly -admired. A short lyric, which we may give, addressed to Anne Boleyn, when -her creation of Marchioness of Pembroke warned him that he saw in her the -future queen, clearly informs us that he had been her accepted lover:-- - - "Forget not yet the tried intent - Of such a truth as I have meant; - My great travail so gladly spent, - Forget not yet. - - "Forget not yet when first began - The weary life ye know; since when - The suit, the service none tell can, - Forget not yet. - - "Forget not yet the great assays, - The cruel wrongs, the scornful ways, - The painful patience and delays, - Forget not yet. - - "Forget not, O! forget not this, - How long ago had been and is - The love that never meant amiss, - Forget not yet. - - "Forget not now thine own approved, - The which so constant hath thee loved, - Whose steadfast faith hath never moved, - Forget not yet." - -His friend George Boleyn was, perhaps, a more spirited poet than himself, -and is said to have sung the night before his execution (May 17, 1536) a -lyric which had been printed some time, along with the poems of Wyatt, -called, "Farewell, my lute," the refrain of which was too strikingly -applicable to his situation:-- - - "Farewell, my lute, this is the last - Labour that thou and I shall waste, - For ended is that we began; - Now is the song both sung and passed; - My lute, be still, for I have done." - -But the most famous of these was the Earl of Surrey (_b._ 1516, _d._ -1547). Like Wyatt, he had travelled in Italy, and formed a high -admiration of the great Italian poets, Dante, Ariosto, and Petrarch, on -whose model he formed his taste. Like his ancestor, the conqueror of -Flodden, he was brave and high-spirited but seems to have had a facility -for getting into scrapes, both with his own family and the Government. -As a gay courtier, however, he was much admired by the ladies, and -still more by people of taste for his poems, which went through four -editions in two months, and through seven more in the thirty years -after their appearance. They are supposed to have strongly influenced -the taste of Spenser and Milton. The theme of his lyrics was the fair -Geraldine, but who she was precisely neither critics nor historians -have quite determined, though believed to be a lady of the Irish family -of Fitzgerald. A single stanza will indicate the spirit with which he -proclaimed her beauty:-- - - "Give place, ye lovers, here before - That spent your boasts and brags in vain! - My lady's beauty passeth more - The best of yours, I dare well say'n, - Than doth the sun the candle-light, - Or brightest day the darkest night." - -But the most important fact in Surrey's poetical history is his -introduction of blank verse into the English language, a simple but, in -its consequences, most eventful innovation, liberating both the heroic -and the dramatic muse from the shackles of rhyme, and leading the way to -the magnificent works of Shakespeare and Milton in that free form. There -has been much dispute among critics as to whether Surrey invented blank -verse, or merely copied it from some other language; but the only wonder -seems that some one of our poets had not attempted it before. What so -likely as that Surrey, in translating the first and fourth books of the -"Aeneid," should adopt the blank verse in which the original was written, -not exactly the hexameter but a measure more suitable to the English -language? All the verse of the ancient Greeks and Romans is of this blank -species; and it is extraordinary that men well read in these tongues had -so long omitted the experiment; especially as the Italians, the French, -and the Spaniards had tried it. Gonsalvo Perez, secretary to Charles V., -had translated Homer's "Odyssey" into blank verse; and in 1528 Trissino, -in order to root out the _terza rima_ of Dante, had published his "Italia -Liberata di Goti"--"Italy delivered from the Goths"--in blank verse. In -the reign of Francis I. two of the most popular poets of France, Jodelle -and De Baif, wrote poems in this style. Gawin Douglas, Bishop of Dunkeld, -had already translated the "Aeneid' into Scots metre, and it would seem -as if Surrey, in trying his hand on two books of the same poem, had been -induced to make the essay of blank verse at the same time. Whatever -was the immediate cause, nothing could exceed the success of Surrey's -experiment. His verse flows with a stately dignity full of music and -strength. We take a specimen from the fourth book of the "Aeneid," where -Dido, who has vowed never to marry again, perceives her new passion for -Aeneas, and discloses her pain to her sister:-- - - "Ne to her lymmes care graunteth quiet rest. - The next morrowe with Phoebus' lampe the erthe - Alightened clere, and eke the dawning daye, - The shadowe danke gan from the pole remove, - When all unsownd her sister of like minde, - Thus spoke she to: 'O sister An, what dremes - Be these that me tormenten, thus afraide? - What newcome gest unto our realm ys come? - What one of chere? How stowt of harte in arms? - Truelie I think, ne vaine ys my beliefe, - Of goddishe race some of springe should he seeme. - Cowardie noteth harts swarved owt of kinde - He driven, lord, with how hard destinie! - What battells eke atchieved did he tell! - And but my minde was fixt immovablie - Never with wight in wedlocke for to joine, - Sithe my first love me lefte by deth disseverid, - Yf bridal bowndes and bed me lothed not, - To this one fawlt perchaunce yeet might I yeld; - For I will graunt sith wretched Syche's dethe, - My spouse and hawse with brother slaughter stained, - This onley man hath made my senses bend, - And pricketh forthe the minde that gan to slide: - Feelinglie I taste the steppes of mine old flame. - But first I wishe the erth me swallow downe, - Or with thunder the mighty Lord me send - To the pale gostes of hell and darkness depe, - Or I thee stayne shamefastness, or the lawes.'" - -If we turn to Sackville's "Gorboduc," acted before Queen Elizabeth in -1561, we shall see how thoroughly blank verse had asserted its freedom of -the language. Even Greene, in his "Friar Bacon," in 1594, has passages -that in their rich and harmonious diction display the wonderful power of -blank verse. The true vehicle for the deathless dramas of Shakespeare was -established, and already he had taken possession of it with some of his -noblest imaginings, for Nash, as early as 1589, alludes to "Hamlet." - -But before coming to Shakespeare, we must add another word regarding -Sackville (_b._ 1527, _d._ 1608). In 1559 he published "The Mirrour for -Magistrates." The poetical preface to this work, which he called "The -Induction," and the "Complaint of Henry, Duke of Buckingham," displayed -the most remarkable powers of poetry, and at once arrested the public -attention. The work itself was a mere series of the lives of personages -prominent in English history; it is supposed to be an imitation of -Lydgate's "Fall of Princes," but is expanded by the loftier genius of the -author, while the induction is so illustrated by allegory, as to give -rise to the belief that Spenser was indebted to him. - -Edmund Spenser, the greatest of our allegoric poets, was born (1553) in -East Smithfield, in London, and was educated at Pembroke Hall, Cambridge. -He had the good fortune to secure the friendship of the all-powerful -Earl of Leicester, of Sir Philip Sidney and Sir Walter Raleigh. By their -introduction to Queen Elizabeth, he obtained an annuity of L50 a year; -and besides being employed by Leicester on a mission to France, went to -Ireland in 1580 with Lord Grey de Wilton. We have already mentioned his -"View of the State of Ireland," and for that able work, as well as for -other services, he received a grant of the abbey and manor of Enniscorthy -in Wexford, which the same year, probably under pressure of necessity, -he transferred to a Mr. Lynot. The estate, at the time of Gilbert's -survey of Ireland, was worth L8,000 a year. Afterwards Spenser obtained -the grant of the castle of Kilcolman, in the county of Cork, part of the -estate of the unfortunate Earl of Desmond, with 3,000 acres of land. -On this property the poet went to live, and his dear friend Sir Philip -Sidney being just then killed at the battle of Zutphen, he wrote his -pastoral elegy of "Astrophel" in his honour. He also wrote his great work -the "Faerie Queene" there; but in 1597 he was chased by the exasperated -Irish from his castle, which was burned over his head, his youngest child -perishing in the cradle. He reached London, with his wife and two boys -and a girl, and thus broken down by his misfortunes, he sank and died in -1599 at an inn or lodging-house in King Street, Westminster. Ben Jonson -says "he died for lake of bread, yet refused twenty pieces sent to him by -my Lord of Essex, adding he was sorry he had not time to spend them." - -It has been asked how he could die of "lack of bread" with an annuity -of L50 a year. The thing is very possible. Burleigh was his life-long -enemy. He hated him as the commonplace soul instinctively hates the man -of genius, and this hatred was aggravated by his being patronised by -Leicester, Essex, and Raleigh, all men whom Burleigh detested. Nothing -was, therefore, easier than for Burleigh to withhold the dying poet's -pension, or his son Robert Cecil, who now possessed his power, for -Burleigh was in his last days, and Cecil inherited all his meanness. -Spenser has recorded the malice of Burleigh in various places. In his -"Ruins of Time" he says:-- - - "The rugged foremost that with grave foresight - Wields kingdoms' causes and affairs of state, - My looser verse, I wot, doth sharply wite - For praising love." - -And at the close of the sixth book of "The Faerie Queene," he declares -there is no hope of escaping "his venomous despite." Spenser's verses in -"Mother Hubbard's Tales," describing the miseries of Court dependence, -have often been quoted:-- - - "Full little knowest thou that hast not tryed - What hell it is in suing long to byde; - To lose good days that might be better spent; - To waste long nights in pensive discontent; - To speed to-day, to be put back to-morrow; - To feed on hope, to pine with fear and sorrow; - To have thy prince's grace, yet want her peeres'; - To have thy asking, yet wait many years; - To fret thy soul with crosses and with cares; - To eat thy heart with comfortless despairs; - To fawn, to crouch, to wait, to ride, to run, - To spend, to give, to want, to be undone." - -The minor poems of Spenser beside the "Astrophel," are the "Epithalamium" -on his own marriage; four "Hymns to Love and Beauty;" "Sonnets;" "Colin -Clout come Home again;" "The Tears of the Muses;" "Mother Hubbard's -Tales," which refer to Court characters of the time; "The Ruins of -Time;" "Petrarch's Visions," "Bellaye's Visions," &c. In all these there -is much beauty and fancy, mingled with much that is far-fetched and -fantastic--the inevitable fault of that age. The "Faerie Queene" rises -above them all as the cathedral over the lesser churches of a great city. -It was written in a stanza which from him has ever since been called the -Spenserian, a stanza so capable of every grace, strength, and harmony, -that there are few poets who have not essayed it: Thomson's "Castle of -Indolence," Beattie's "Minstrel," Mrs. Tighe's "Psyche," Campbell's -"Gertrude of Wyoming," and Byron's "Childe Harold's Pilgrimage," have -made it the vehicle of many immortal thoughts. - -To the modern reader, nevertheless, the "Faerie Queene" would prove a -tedious task in a continuous perusal. It is of a fashion and taste so -entirely belonging to the age in which it was written--that of courtly -tourneys, of parade of knighthood, at least in books, and of fondness -of high-flown allegory--that it unavoidably strikes a reader of this -more realistic age as visionary, formal in manner, and descriptive not -of actual human life, but of an impossible style of existence. It is -dedicated to Queen Elizabeth as "The Most High, Mightie, and Magnificent -Empresse," and in a letter to Sir Walter Raleigh he explains its plan. -Following the example of Ariosto in his "Orlando," he endeavours to -exalt worthy knighthood by portraying Prince Arthur before he was king, -under the image of a brave knight, perfected in the twelve private moral -virtues, as Aristotle hath devised, in which is the purpose of these -first twelve books. From the arguments of "Despair" to the "Red-Crosse -Knight," we may take a specimen of the "Faerie Queene:" - - "'Who travailes by the wearie, wandering way, - To come unto his wished home in haste, - And meets a flood that doth his passage stay, - Is not great grace to help him over past, - Or free his feet that in the myre sticke fast? - Most envious man that grieves at neighbour's good, - And fond, that joyest in the woe thou hast, - Why wilt not let him passe, that long hath stood - Upon the bancke, yet wilt thyselfe not pas the flood? - - "'He there does now enjoy eternall rest, - And happy ease, which thou dost want and crave, - And further from it daily wanderest: - What if some little payne the passage have, - That makes frayle flesh to feare the bitter wave? - Is that not payne well borne, that bringes long ease, - And lays the soul to sleepe in quiet grave? - Sleepe after toyle, port after stormie seas, - Ease after warre, deathe after life, does greatly please.' - - "The knight much wondered at his suddeine wit, - And sayst, 'The terme of life is limited, - Ne may a man prolong, nor shorten it; - The soldier may not move from watchful steed, - Nor leave his stand, until his captaine bid.' - 'Who life did limit by Almightie doome,' - Quoth he, 'knows best the terms established; - And he that points the centenel his roome, - Doth license his depart at sound of morning droome. - - "'Is not his deed, whatever thing is done, - In heaven and earth? Did he not all create - To die againe? All ends, that was begoune, - Their times in his eternall booke of fate - Are written sure, and have their certain date. - Who, then, can strive with strong necessitie? - That holds the world in its still changing state, - Or shunne the death ordayned by destinee? - When houre of death is come, let none aske whence nor why. - - "'The longer life, I wote, the greater sin; - The greater sin, the greater punishment. - All those great battles which thou boasts to win, - Through strife, and bloodshed, and avengement, - Now praysed, hereafter deare thou shalt repent-- - For life must life, and blood must blood repay. - Is not enough thy evill life forespent? - For he that once hath missed the right way, - The further he doth goe, the further he doth stray.'" - -The language of Spenser must not be held to be the language of the time; -he purposely used an antiquated diction to give a quaint and piquant -tone to his romance. A modern critic has denied that the language is -thus treated by the poet; but it must be allowed that Sir Philip Sidney, -living at the moment, was a competent judge of this fact, and in his -"Defence of Poesie" he complains of this very circumstance in the "Faerie -Queene." - -[Illustration: THE HOUSE AT STRATFORD-ON-AVON IN WHICH SHAKESPEARE WAS -BORN.] - -We arrive now at the last name which we intend to introduce in our review -of the literature of England at this period, and it is the greatest; -perhaps the greatest which has yet diffused its glory over this or any -other country. The genius of Shakespeare appears to penetrate into all -departments of human knowledge, and his instincts possess a universal -accuracy. Whether he describes the beauties of Nature at large, or -enters the haunts of busy life, high or low, royal, noble, or plebeian, -or sends his all-searching glance into the depths of the human mind, -or the strange intricacies of human nature, we are equally astonished -at the clearness of his perceptive faculties, and the justness of his -conclusions. We shall not here discuss the various guesses, for such to a -great degree they are, which have been indulged in by his host of critics -and biographers, regarding his little known life. It is sufficient that -we know that he was born at Stratford-on-Avon in 1564; that his father -was in the Town Council, and a man of property; that William was said to -have been apprenticed to a butcher, or that one of his father's trades -was that of a butcher; that at the age of nineteen he married Anne -Hathaway, who was eight years his senior; that at the age of twenty-two -he was driven by increasing poverty, and it is said through a disturbance -about poaching in Sir Thomas Lucy's park, to London, where he became -connected with the theatre, and so early as 1589 we find that he had -written "Hamlet," if no other of his dramas, though none of them seem to -have been published till 1597, eight years afterwards. The first of his -poems, "Venus and Adonis," was printed in 1593, four years earlier, and -the "Rape of Lucrece" in the following year. From that time to 1603, -the year of the death of Elizabeth, a great number of his dramas was -published, but "King Lear," "Macbeth," "Cymbeline," "The Winter's Tale," -the "Tempest," "Troilus and Cressida," "Henry VIII.," "Coriolanus," -"Julius Caesar," and "Antony and Cleopatra," would appear to have been the -glorious products of his ten or thirteen years of leisure in his native -town. One of the first labours of his retirement seems to have been the -collection of his Sonnets, for they were published in 1609. - -We mention these facts here merely as historical data; because it will -be necessary to notice his plays in the next centennial period of our -history, in connection with the drama at large; but we shall confine our -notice of Shakespeare on this occasion solely to his poetical character. - -The poems of Shakespeare are "Venus and Adonis," "The Rape of Lucrece," -"Sonnets," "A Lover's Complaint," and "The Passionate Pilgrim." The -poems for the most part, if not altogether--"The Passionate Pilgrim" and -some of the sonnets excepted--would appear to have been his earliest -productions. He dedicates "Venus and Adonis" to Lord Southampton, and -styles it "the first heir of my invention." This poem, "The Rape of -Lucrece," and the "Lover's Complaint," bear marks of youthful passion. -They burn with a voluptuous fire, yet they are at the same time equally -prodigal of a masterly vigour, imagination, and the faculty of entering -into and depicting the souls of others. They as clearly herald the great -poet of the age, as a morning sun in July announces what will be its -intensity at noon. The language, in its purity and eloquence, is so -perfect that it might have been written, not in the days of Elizabeth, -but in those of Victoria, and presents a singular contrast to that of -Spenser. "The Passionate Pilgrim" is an extraordinary production; it has -no thread, not even the slightest, of story or connection, and seems -to be merely a stringing together of various passages of poetry, which -he had struck off at different moments of inspiration, and intended to -use in his dramas. Some of them indeed we find there. It opens with a -commencement of the legend of "Venus and Adonis," apparently his first -rude sketch of the poem he afterwards wrote more to his mind. It then -breaks suddenly off with those well-known lines, beginning-- - - "Crabbed age and youth - Cannot live together;" - -soon after as suddenly changes into-- - - "It was a lording's daughter, the fairest one of three;" - -as abruptly gives us those charming stanzas opening with-- - - "Take, oh, take those lips away - That so sweetly were forsworn;" - -and presents us with a number of disjointed passages which are found in -"Love's Labour's Lost." - -But the Sonnets are the most interesting, because they give us glimpses -into his own life and personal feelings. Many of them are plainly written -in the characters of others; some express the sentiments of women towards -their lovers, but others are unmistakably the deepest sentiments and -feelings of his own life. From these we learn that Shakespeare was not -exempt from the dissipations and aberrations incident on a town life at -that time, but his true and noble nature led him to abandon the immoral -city as early as possible, and retire to his own domestic roof in his own -native place. We may select one specimen of these sonnets, which probably -was addressed to his wife, and which at once betrays his dislike of his -profession of an actor, and his regret over the influence which it had -had on his mind, and the stigma which it had cast on his name; for the -profession of a player was then so low as to stamp actors as "vagabonds." - - "Oh, for my sake do you with Fortune chide, - The guilty goddess of my harmful deeds, - That did not better for my life provide - Than public means which public manners breeds: - Thence came it that my name receives a brand, - And almost thence my nature is subdued - To what it works in, like the dyer's hand. - Pity me then, and wish I were renewed; - Whilst, like a willing patient, I will drink - Potions of eysell[A] 'gainst my strong infection; - No bitterness that I will bitter think, - Nor double penance to correct correction. - Pity me then, dear friend, and I assure ye, - Even that your pity is enough to cure me." - -But if the great dramatist and inimitable poet shrank with disgust from -the profession of acting, because of the estimation in which the actor -then was held and the pollutions which surrounded the stage, he held a -very different opinion of the vocation of a dramatist. In the peaceful -and virtuous retirement of his country residence he still occupied -himself with the composition of the noblest dramas of all time; and -whilst he was so free from the petty egotism of a small mind that he left -scarcely any record of himself, he boldly avowed his assurance of the -immortality of his fame:-- - - "Now with the drops of this most balmy time, - My love looks fresh, and Death to me subscribes;[B] - Since, spite of him, I'll live in this poor rhyme, - While he insults o'er dull and speechless tribes: - And thou in this shalt find thy monument, - When tyrants' crests and tombs of brass are spent." - -[Footnote A: Vinegar.] - -[Footnote B: Submits.] - -[Illustration: WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE. - -FROM THE PAINTING KNOWN AS THE CHANDOS PORTRAIT, ATTRIBUTED TO RICHARD -BURBAGE, IN THE NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY.] - -We shall have occasion to show that Shakespeare had much to do in shaping -and raising the drama out of that chaotic state in which he found it, -and the wonder has always been that, with his apparently imperfect -education, he could accomplish so much. But there is no education like -self-education; this was William Shakespeare's, and his genius was of -that brilliant and healthy kind that gave him all the advantages of such -a tuition. In history and in society he found the materials of the drama, -but the wealth and power of the poet he found in the great school of -Nature. - -In Scotland the language had remained much more stationary than in -England. In this period we find the chief Scottish poets writing in a -diction far more unintelligible to the English reader than Chaucer's or -Gower's was in the middle of the fourteenth century. Two of the Scots -poets of that period--Barbour and King James I.--wrote in English, and, -therefore, in a language far in advance of Gawin Douglas, Dunbar, and -Sir David Lyndsay in the sixteenth century. One great reason of this -probably was the constant strife and enmity between the nations, which -made the Scots cling in confirmed nationality to their own language and -customs, for the works and merits of the English poets were known and -acknowledged. James I. called Chaucer and Gower "his maisters dear." -Henryson, a succeeding poet, even wrote a continuation of Chaucer's -"Troilus and Cresseide," under the names of the "Testament," and the -"Complaint of Cresseide;" and Gawin, or Gavin, Douglas, the famous Bishop -of Dunkeld, pronouncing his vernacular tongue barbarous, declared that -rather than remain silent through the scarcity of Scottish terms, he -would use bastard Latin, French, or English. A still greater and later -poet, Dunbar, expresses repeatedly his admiration of "Chawcer of Makars -flowir," of "the Monck of Berry," "Lydgate," and "Gowyr." Yet if we use -the very language which he did to utter his admiration in, we find no -advance towards the polish of these poets: - - "O reverend Chawcer, rose of rethouris all, - As in our toung the flowir imperiall, - That ever raise in Brittane, quha reids richt, - Those biers of makars the triumphs ryall, - The fresche enamallit termes celestiall; - This matter thou couth haif ilumint bricht, - Was thou not of our _Inglis_ all the licht; - Surmounting every toung terrestiall, - As far as Mayis fair morning does midnight. - - "O morale Gower and Lidgate laureat, - Zour suggurat toungs and lipps aureat - Bene till our eirs cause of grit delyte." - -It is curious that Dunbar calls this English and not Scots. He also -enumerates a long list of Scottish poets who were deceased, as Sir Hew -of Eglintoun, Etrick, Heriot, Wyntoun, Maister John Clerk, James Afflek, -Holland, Barbour, Sir Mungo Dockhart of the Lie, Clerk of Tranent, who -wrote the adventures of Sir Gawayn, Sir Gilbert Gray, Blind Harry, and -Sandy Traill, Patrick Johnstone, Mersar, Rowll of Aberdeen, and Rowll -of Corstorphine, Brown of Dunfermline, Robert Henryson, Sir John the -Ross, Stobo, Quinten Schaw, and Walter Kennedy. Of these little is now -known, except of Henryson, and that chiefly for his ballad of "Robert and -Makyn," given by Bishop Percy in his "Reliques of English Poetry." - -Gawin Douglas, third son of the celebrated fifth Earl of Angus, called -Bell-the-Cat, was born in 1474. He lived a troubled life in those stormy -times, and died a refugee in London, of the Plague, in 1522. He was -patronised by Queen Margaret, sister of Henry VIII., and richly deserved -it, for his learning, his virtues, and his genius. He was most celebrated -in his own time for his translation of Virgil's "Aeneid," the first -metrical version of any ancient classic in either English or Scots. He -also translated Ovid's "De Remedio Amoris." But his original poems, "The -Palace of Honour," "King Hart," and his "Comoediae Sacrae," or dramatic -poems from the Scriptures, are now justly esteemed the real trophies of -his genius. "The Palace of Honour" and "King Hart" are allegoric poems, -abounding with beautiful descriptions and noble sentiments. - -The principal poems of William Dunbar (_b._ 1465, _d._ 1530,) are "The -Golden Terge," or target; "The Thistle and the Rose," in honour of the -marriage of Margaret of England with James IV. of Scotland; "The Fained -Friar;" the "Lament of the Death of the Makars," or poets, and a number -of other poems, chiefly lyrical, which display versatile genius--comic, -satirical, grave, descriptive, and religious--and place him in the first -rank of Scotland's poets, notwithstanding the obsolete character of his -language; and not the least of his distinctions is the absence of that -grossness which disfigured the writings of the poets of those times. A -few lines may denote the music of his versification: - - "Be merry, man, and tak nocht far in mynd - The waivering of this wrechit world of sorrow, - To God be humill, and to thy freynd be kynd, - And with thy nychtbouris glaidly len and borrow; - His chance to-nycht, it may be thyne to-morrow." - -[Illustration: SHAKESPEARE. (_From the Portrait by Droeshout in the First -Folio._)] - -The last poet of this period that we must notice is Sir David Lyndsay -of the Mount, Lyon King-at-Arms, whom Sir Walter Scott, in "Marmion," -has made so familiar to modern readers, predating, however, Sir David's -office of Lyon King by seventeen years. Sir David was born about 1490, -and is supposed to have died about 1567; so that he lived in the reigns -of Henry VII. of England and of Elizabeth, through the whole period -of Henry VIII., Edward VI., and Mary. His life was cast in times most -eventful, and Sir David, as Lyon-Herald of Scotland, occupied a prominent -position in the shaping of those events. At the time of the battle of -Flodden in 1513, both Pitscottie and Buchanan assure us that he was with -James IV. when the ghost appeared to him in the church at Linlithgow, -warning him against the battle. Lyndsay was then only three-and-twenty. -He was appointed page to the young king, and continued about him and in -his service during the king's life. In his "Complaynt," addressing the -king, he says:-- - - "How as are chapman beres his pack, - I bore thy grace upon my back, - And sometymes stridlingis on my neck, - Dansand with mony bend and beck: - The first syllabis that thou did mute, - Pa-da-lyn upon the lute; - For play, thou leit me never rest, - But gyngertoun, thou luffit ay best. - And ay quhen thou come from the scule, - Then I luffit to play the fule." - -Lyndsay went to France on embassies of royal marriage; and after the -king's early death, under the Regency, he was again sent to the Low -Countries on a mission to the Emperor Charles V. In 1548 he went as -Lion-King to Denmark, to King Christian, to seek aid against the English, -and afterwards lived to see the great struggle between the old Church and -the Reformation, the murder of Cardinal Beaton, the return of Knox, and -must have died about the time of the murder of Darnley. - -[Illustration: THE ACTING OF ONE OF SHAKESPEARE'S PLAYS IN THE TIME OF -QUEEN ELIZABETH.] - -Sir David, though bred a courtier, was a thorough Reformer; and his poems -abound with the most unrestrained exposure of the corruptions of Courts -and of the Church. On the flagitious lives of monks, nuns, and clergy, -he pours forth the most trenchant satire and denunciation; and in this -respect he may be styled the Chaucer of Scotland. His poems are "The -Dreme," "The Complaynt," "The Complaynt of Papingo," "The Complaynt of -Bagsche," "Ane Pleasant Satyre of the Three Estatis," "The Answer to the -King's Flyting," "Kittie's Confession," "The Tragedie of the Cardinal," -"The Historie and Testament of Squire Meldrum," "Monarchie," and "The -Epistill Nuncupatorie." - -"The Dreme" reminds one of the dreams of former poets, of Chaucer, -William Langland's, "The Vision of Piers Plowman," and of those of -Douglas and Dunbar. Probably "The Golden Terge" of Dunbar suggested -this poem, for just as Dunbar goes out, as "the stern of day began to -schyne," and lying under a _roseir_, or arbour of roses, lulled by -the songs of birds and the sound of a river, dreams, so does Lyndsay -dream, passing, with Dame Remembrance as his guide, through earth, hell, -purgatory, heaven, paradise, and "the planets seven," hearing and seeing -all the works of God, and the rewards and punishments of the good and -the evil. "The Complaynt" describes the degenerate manners of the Court -whilst Lyndsay was banished from it, and the grapes were sour. "The -Complaynt of the Papingo," or the king's parrot, deals out the same -measure to the hierarchy as Lyndsay had given to the State, and in it -Cardinal Beaton, the Pope and the clergy in general, are soundly rated. -Next comes "The Three Estatis," a morality play in which all kinds of -emblematical personages--Rex Humanitas, Sensualitie, Chastitie, &c.--act -their parts. Its scope may be inferred from its being declared to be -"in commendation of vertew and vituperation of vyce." This is the great -work of Lyndsay, and was acted before the king and queen, who sat out -nine mortal hours in its performance, in which they successively heard -every order in the State--Court, nobility, Church, and people--severely -criticised. Lyndsay's play has the merit of preceding both "Gorboduc" -and "Gammer Gurton's Needle;" and it certainly possesses the moral of -the former and the wit of the latter. "The Answer to the King's Flyting" -is a very curious example of what the indulgence of a professional fool -at Court led to: it produced not only the jester but the poet laureate. -The king condescended to flyte, or jibe, with his jester; the jester -in return became the satirist, and the poet laureate healed all wounds -by his eulogies. James V. flyted with Lyndsay, and Lyndsay answered -with interest. In "Kittie's Confession" Lyndsay ridicules auricular -confession. In "The Cardinal" he sings a song of triumph over the fall -of Beaton. In the "Legend of Squire Meldrum" the poet dresses up the -adventures of a domestic of Lord Lyndsay's of that name in the manner of -an ancient romance, and it was extremely popular. It has been declared by -critics of note to be the best of Lyndsay's poems, and equal to the most -polished pieces of Drayton, who lived a century after him. - -We have taken thus much notice of the Lyon King-at-Arms, because -nowadays he does not enjoy, perhaps, his due fame in comparison with -that of our Chaucer and our early dramatists; yet a perusal of his works -is necessary to a real knowledge of the times in which he lived. The -reader, however, must be warned that in the search after this knowledge -he will have to wade through much filth, and language now astonishing -for its naked coarseness. On the other hand, he will occasionally find -scientific theories of modern pretension quite familiar to our Lyon-King. -For instance, Kirwan in his "Elements of Mineralogy"--a work published -in 1794 and marking a considerable advance in knowledge--claimed the -geologic discovery that the currents which broke up the hills in Europe -came from the south-west, leaving the diluvial slopes declining to the -north-east. But hear Lyndsay three hundred years ago:-- - - "I reid how clerkis dois conclude, - Induryng that maist furious flude - With quhilk the erth was sa opprest, - The wynd blew feorth of the south-west, - As may be sene be experience, - How, throw the watter's violence, - The heich montanis, in every art, - Ar bain fornenst the south-west part; - As the montanis of Pyreneis, - The Alpis, and rochis in the seis; - Richt sa the rochis gret and gray - Quhilk standis into Norroway. - The heichest hillis, in every art, - And in Scotland, for the maist part, - Throuch weltryng of that furious flude, - The craigis of erth war maist denude. - Travelling men may considder best - The montanis bair nixt the south-west." - -The sixteenth century was nearly as distinguished for its Music as its -poetry. The reproach which has been cast on England in our own time for -not being a musical or music-producing nation did not apply then. On the -contrary, we stood at the head of Europe in original musical composition. -The monarchs of that age, like their most illustrious predecessors from -Alfred downwards, were highly educated in music. Henry VIII. was himself -a composer of Church music. It must be recollected that Henry, being but -the second son of Henry VII., was originally educated for the Church, -whose dignities were then princely; and, as a matter of course, he was -made familiar with its music, which occupied so prominent a part in its -worship. Erasmus bears testimony to the fact of Henry having composed -Offices for the Church--a fact confirmed by Lord Herbert of Cherbury and -Bishop Burnet; and Sir John Hawkins in his "History of Music," and Boyce, -in his "Cathedral Music of English Masters," have preserved specimens of -the Royal composition. Boyce gives a fine anthem of Henry's, "O Lord, the -Maker of all things." The king's musical establishment for his chapel -consisting of 114 persons cost annually upwards of L2,000, and was -continued by Edward. Mary and Elizabeth were equally learned in music, -though they do not appear to have patronised it as royally. - -Under these circumstances great composers, both of sacred and social -music flourished in the sixteenth century. The names of Tye, Marbeck, -Tallis, Bird, Farrant, Dowland, Bennet, Wilbye, Ford, &c., stand in -superb array as composers of some of our finest Church music, or of -madrigals and part songs. - -Tye was so much esteemed by Henry VIII., that he was made music -preceptor to Edward VI., and was afterwards organist to Elizabeth. He -composed both anthems and madrigals; and his motett, "Laudate nomen -Domini," is still famous. Marbeck composed the notes to the Preces -and Responses, which, with some alterations, are still in use in our -cathedrals. He was organist at Windsor, and was very nearly losing his -life under the ferocious Henry, being found to be a member of a society -for religious reformation. He and his three accomplices were condemned to -the stake; but Marbeck was saved by his musical genius, Henry observing, -on Marbeck's "Latin Concordance," on which he had been employed, being -shown to him, "Poor Marbeck! it would be well for thine accusers if they -employed their time no worse." His fellows were burnt without mercy, -though no more guilty than himself. - -[Illustration: QUEEN ELIZABETH'S CITHER AND MUSIC-BOOK.] - -Tallis was indebted to Marbeck for the notes just mentioned in his -compositions for the Church. His entire service, including prayers, -responses, Litany, and nearly all of a musical kind, are preserved in -Boyce's collections. They became the most celebrated of any of that -remarkable age. In conjunction, also, with his pupil William Bird, he -published, in 1575, "Cantiones Sacrae"--perfect of their kind; one of -them, "O sacrum convivium," since adapted by Dean Aldrich to the words -"I call and cry," still continues to be frequently performed in our -cathedrals. The "Cantiones" are also remarkable as having been the first -things of the sort protected by a patent for twenty-one years, granted by -Elizabeth. - -Bird was the author of the splendid canon, "Non nobis, Domine," which has -been claimed by composers of Italy, France, and the Netherlands, but, as -sufficiently proved, without any ground. The names of Tallis and Bird are -of themselves an ample guarantee to the claim of musical genius by this -country. Richard Farrant and Dr. Bull--the first a chorister in Edward -VI.'s chapel, and the latter organist to Queen Elizabeth--added greatly -to the sacred music of the period. Farrant's compositions especially are -remarkable for their deep pathos and devotion. His anthem, preserved by -Boyce, "Lord, for Thy tender mercy's sake." is unrivalled. - -In social music the poetical Surrey stands conspicuous, having set his -own sonnets to music. Madrigals and other part songs--since better -known as glees--were carried to a brilliant height in this country. The -madrigal was originally invented by the Flemings, but glee singing seems -to be English, though no doubt derived from the madrigal. Morley's first -book of madrigals was published in 1594, Weelkes's in 1597, Wilbye's -in 1598, Bennet's in 1599, and soon after Ward's and Orlando Gibbons'. -Dowland's and Ford's are more properly glees than madrigals; the former -appeared in 1597, and the latter in 1607. Morley, one of the gentlemen -of Queen Elizabeth's chapel, appears, like Dowland, to have studied the -works of the great composers abroad; and the harmony and science which he -evinces are eminent. His canzonets for two voices are especially lively -and pleasing. Dowland not only travelled in France, Italy, and Germany, -but, at the request of King Christian IV., who saw him in England, -he went to reside in Denmark. Fuller declares that he was the rarest -musician of the age. In 1598 Wilbye published thirty madrigals, and a -second book, applicable to instrumental as well as vocal music, in 1609, -amongst which are, "Lady, when I behold the roses sprouting," "As fair -as morn," "Down in a valley," &c.; and in 1599 John Bennet published a -set of madrigals, including the admirable ones of "O sleep, fond Fancy!" -"Flow, O my tears!" Lastly, John Milton, the father of the poet, who -also composed several psalm tunes, was a contributor to "The Triumphs -of Oriana," a set of madrigals in praise of Queen Elizabeth. Altogether -this century was brilliant in both Church and convivial music; and if -we are to judge from some specimens to be found in "The Dancing Master" -and "Queen Elizabeth's Virginal Book," the popular airs were in many -instances of a superior character, among which we may mention Bird's -"Carman's Whistle" and the "Newe Northern Ditty of Ladye Green Sleeves." - -The change which marked religion and literature in this country extended -itself as strikingly into Architecture. We have no longer to record -the rise of new Orders of ecclesiastical building, nor to direct the -attention of the reader to splendid churches as examples of them. The -unity of the Church, which had enabled it to erect such a host of -admirable cathedrals and abbeys, was broken up; the wealth which had -supplied the material and engaged the skill was dispersed into other -hands, and destined not only to produce new orders of society, but new -forms of architecture. Churches must give way to palaces and country -halls, as full of innovations as the very faith of the country. From -this period to our own time the taste for ecclesiastical architecture -continued to decline, till the very principles of what is called Gothic -architecture were forgotten. The architects, as Wren and Jones, went back -to classic models, so little adapted to the spirit of Christian worship -that, in spite of the genius expended upon them, they have remained few -in number and, from the revival of the knowledge of Anglo-Gothic amongst -us, are not likely to increase. - -[Illustration: HOLLAND HOUSE, KENSINGTON. (_From a Photograph by Bedford, -Lemere & Co._)] - -But it is even a question whether the Gothic style had not reached its -full development at the period of the Reformation; for we find in most -European countries that the noblest buildings of this kind are for the -most part anterior to this epoch. It is at the same time true that the -same causes which brought our ecclesiastical architecture to a sudden -stand in the sixteenth century strongly affected all Europe, even where -Roman Catholicism managed to maintain its ground. Everywhere the conflict -was raging--everywhere the rending influence was felt; and the ancient -power and wealth of the Church were broken and diminished. In England a -few churches might be pointed to of this period, but they exhibit the -influence of the age in marks of decline, and to none can we turn as -examples to be named with our Westminsters, Yorks, and Winchesters. Bath -Abbey was in progress of erection when the Reformation burst forth and -arrested its progress. It was not completed till 1616--more than ten -years after the death of Elizabeth--and cannot be named as one of our -finest erections. - -The wealth which was diverted from the Church into the hands of the Crown -and the aristocracy, reappeared in palaces and country halls; and a -totally new genius displayed itself in these. The old Tudor, so called, -which marked the baronial residences even before the Tudors reached the -throne, the mixture of castle and manor-house, with its small windows, -battlemented roofs, and flanking turrets, began to enlarge and exaggerate -most of these features, and to mix with them new elements clearly brought -into the country by foreign architects, and in a great measure from -Italy. The windows rapidly augmented themselves, till they soon occupied -a predominant portion of the towers and fronts; the turrets became -surmounted by domes, and by those bulbous domes which were often piled -one above another. There was soon seen one tier of pillared or pilastered -storey above another, in the Palladian or Paduan fashion. Turrets often -gave way to scroll-work parapets; and instead of the house standing as -heretofore on a level plain, it was elevated on a terrace, with broad and -balustraded flights of steps, and all the adjuncts of fountains, statues, -and balustraded esplanades essential to the Italian garden. - -[Illustration: THE GREAT COURT OF KIRBY HALL, NORTHAMPTONSHIRE.] - -The houses were still built round a court or quadrangle, and adorned -with outer and inner gateways, while groined roofs and rich oriels still -demonstrated the connecting link of descent from the Gothic. In fact, -the architecture of the Tudor period is a singular yet often superb -mixture of the Gothic and the Italian, with profusion of ornaments and -ingraftment of parts which tell strongly of a more Eastern origin. Nor -does it appear that these foreign elements were introduced at the latter -portion of this period only--they stand forth conspicuously in the very -commencement of it. In the later years of the reign of Elizabeth we -can point to noble houses which are more allied to the ancient Tudor, -with its small windows and simple towers and roofs, than those of the -Henrys VII. and VIII., who in their earlier days had a gorgeous and even -fantastic taste for palatial architecture. For example, Hampton Court -is far more simple and chaste than Richmond Palace (_see_ p. 341), built -by Henry VII., or Nonsuch, built by Henry VIII. In family mansions, -Wimbledon House, built in 1588, with its open court, its two terraces, -clearly Italian in character, is yet so chaste and simple, with its flat -roof, its square slated towers, and mixture of small and large windows, -that, compared to Nonsuch, as it has been, you at once see the violent -contrast of the fanciful and the grave. Again, in Charlton House, in -Kent, with its central entrance of Italian character, with two tiers of -engaged columns, its ornamented parapets just verging into scroll-work, -its turret windows of medium size, and its turret domes simple, and still -plainer chimneys; or in Holland House (_see_ p. 380), built in 1607, -without domes, but with ogee-gables; or in Campden House, as it was built -in 1612, with roof of plainest character, and pilastered entrance, we -mark a far less ornate style than in the days of the Henrys. The whole -of this period was one of a mixed style, in which different architects -indulged themselves in employing more or less of one or other of the -prevailing elements, according to their tastes. What is more strictly -called Elizabethan may be seen in such houses as Wollaton or Hardwicke, -in which the ample square windows, the square towers superseding the -octagon ones of Nonsuch, the absence of the Eastern-looking domes, and -the presence of superb scroll-work, give a fine distinctive style. - -The Palace of Richmond, as built by Henry VII., with its projecting -towers occupied almost entirely with windows, and its roof presenting -an immense number of double domes, a smaller one surmounting a lantern -placed on the larger domes, had an air more Saracenic than English; -but the Palace of Nonsuch, built by Henry VIII., outdid that in the -singularity of its style, and was the wonder of its age. It was built -round a quadrangle; the front was flanked by octagonal towers which, at -the height of the ordinary roof, rose, by a demi-arch expanding over -the lower one, into three more storeys, and upon these were lesser -towers of two storeys, surmounted by domes and fanes. All the lower -storeys were divided into compartments by pilasters and bands, these -compartments embellished by figures and groups in bas-relief. The lower -part of this palace was of stone, the upper of wood. Hentzner, the German -traveller, became quite enthusiastic in describing it as a palace in -which everything that architecture could perform seemed to have been -accomplished; and says that it was "so encompassed with parks full of -deer, delicious gardens, groves ornamented with trellis-work, cabinets -of verdure, and walks so embowered by trees, that it seemed to be a place -pitched upon by Pleasure herself to dwell in along with Health." - -But there were two men in the reign of Henry VIII. who drew him off from -this more florid and fanciful style to others of a very different, but -equally imposing character, and full of rich detail. These were Wolsey -and John of Padua. Wolsey appeared to have an especial fondness for -brick-work, and Hampton and the gatehouse of his mansion at Esher remain -as proofs of the admirable masonry which he used. In Hampton Court (_see_ -p. 121) we go back from the barbaric pomp of Nonsuch to the castellated -style; to small windows, pointed archways, castellated turrets and -battlements, mingled with rich oriel windows over the entrances, rich -groined roofs in the archways, but a very sparing use of the ordinary aid -of the bulbous dome. In this and the other buildings of this class, as -Hengrave in Suffolk, the richly cross-banded chimneys are a conspicuous -ornament. John Thorpe, or John of Padua, who became chief architect to -Henry VIII., and afterwards built Somerset House for the Protector, -seems to have been unknown in his own country, but originated a modified -Italian style here which bears his name, possessing great grace and -dignity, and of which Stoneyhurst College in Lancashire, Longleat in -Wiltshire, and Kirby Hall in Northamptonshire (built for Sir Christopher -Hatton), are fine examples. - -In the smaller houses of town and country there continued to be -little change. They were chiefly of timber, and displayed much more -picturesqueness than they afforded comfort. In towns the different -storeys, one over-hanging another till the inhabitants could almost shake -hands out of the attic windows across the narrow streets, and their want -of internal cleanliness and ventilation, caused the plague periodically -to visit them. The Spaniards who accompanied Philip, in Mary's reign, -were equally amazed at the good living of the English people and the -dirt about their houses. One great improvement about this time was the -introduction of chimneys; and in good country-houses the ample space of -their staircases, often finely ornamented with balustrade work, diffused -a pure atmosphere through them. - -In other arts, however, the sixteenth century in England was almost -destitute of native talent. In Statuary and Carving the preceding century -had made great progress, but the destruction of the churches, and -the outcry raised against images and carving on tombs as idolatry and -vain-glory, gave a decided check to their development. As for Painting, -it had never, except in illumination, flourished much among the English, -and now that the Italian and Flemish schools had taken so high a -position, it became the fashion of the princes and nobility, not to call -forth the skill of natives, but to import foreign art and artists. In -the reign of Henry VII. a Holbein, supposed to be the uncle of the great -Hans Holbein, visited England, but we know little of his performance -here. There is a picture at Hampton Court, called a Mabuse, of the -Children of Henry VII.--Prince Arthur, Prince Henry, and the Princess -Margaret. As Prince Henry appears to be about seven years old, that -would fix the painting of the picture about 1499. But its authenticity -is doubtful, as, according to some, Mabuse was born that year. In Castle -Howard there is a painting by him of undoubted authority, "The Offering -of the Magi," containing thirty principal figures. It is in the highest -state of preservation, and Dr. Waagen, who was well acquainted with the -productions of this artist in the great galleries of the Continent, -pronounced it of the highest excellence. He is said to have painted the -children of Henry VIII., but if he did so, the picture has perished. -The date of his visit is quite uncertain, and the attribution to him of -portraits is at the best no more than conjectural. Mabuse was a very -dissipated man, and had fled from Flanders on account of his debts or -delinquencies, yet the character of his performances is that of the most -patient industry and painstaking. His works done in England could not -have been many, as his abode here is supposed to have been only a year. -He died in 1532. - -[Illustration: ENTRANCE FROM THE COURTYARD OF BURLEIGH HOUSE, STAMFORD.] - -Besides Mabuse, the names of several other foreign artists are known -as having visited England; but little or nothing is known of the works -of Toto del Nunziata, an Italian, or of Corvus, Fleccius, Horrebout -or Horneband, or of Cornelius, Flemish artists; but another Fleming -was employed, in the early part of the reign of Henry VIII., by Bishop -Sherbourne, in painting a series of English kings and bishops in -Chichester Cathedral. - -Of the celebrated Hans Holbein, the case is better authenticated. He -resided in England nearly thirty years, and died in London of the plague -in 1543. There is an obscurity about both the time and place of his -birth, but the latter appears now to be settled to be Gruenstadt, formerly -the residence of the Counts of Leiningen-Westerburg. He accompanied his -father to Basle, receiving from him instructions in his art. There he -became acquainted with Erasmus, who gave him letters to Sir Thomas More. -He arrived in England in 1526, and lived and worked in the house of his -noble patron, Sir Thomas, for three years. The learned chancellor invited -Henry VIII. to see his pictures, who was so much delighted with them, -that he took him instantly into his service. It is related of him that -while busily engaged with his works for the king, he was so much annoyed -and interrupted by a nobleman of the court, that he ordered him to quit -his studio, and on his refusing, pushed him downstairs. When the nobleman -complained to Henry of this rudeness, Henry bluntly told him that the -painter had served him right, and warned him to beware of seeking any -revenge. "For," added he, "remember you now have not Holbein to deal -with, but me: and I tell you, that of seven peasants I can make as many -lords, but I cannot make one Holbein." - -The demand of portraits from Holbein by the Court and nobility was so -constant and extensive, that he completed comparatively few historical -compositions. He has left us various portraits of Henry, and adorned the -walls of a saloon at Whitehall with two large paintings representing the -triumphs of riches and poverty. He also painted Henry as delivering the -charter of the barber-surgeons, and Edward VI. delivering that for the -foundation of Bridewell Hospital. The former piece is still at the hall -of that guild. Amongst the finest of Holbein's paintings on the Continent -is that of "The Burgomaster and his Family" in the gallery at Dresden. -There is less of the stiffness of his manner in that than in most of his -pieces; but in spirited design, clearness and brilliancy of tone, and -perfection of finish, few painters excel Holbein; he wanted only a course -of study in the Italian school to have placed him among the greatest -masters of any age. - -[Illustration: ELIZABETH'S DRAWING-ROOM, PENSHURST PLACE. - -(_From a Photograph by Carl Norman and Co., Tunbridge Wells._)] - -In the reign of Mary, Sir Antonio More, a Flemish artist, was the great -portrait-painter. In that of Elizabeth, though she was not more liberal -to the arts than to literature, yet her personal vanity led her to have -her own portrait repeatedly painted, and the artists, chiefly Flemings, -were much employed by the nobility in the same department. Some of the -foreign artists also executed historical and other pieces. Among these -artists may be named Frederic Zuccaro, an Italian portrait-painter; Luke -van Heere, who executed a considerable number of orders here, including -a series of representations of national costume for the Earl of Lincoln; -and Cornelius Vroom, who designed the defeat of the Spanish Armada, for -the tapestry which adorned the walls of the House of Lords, and which -was destroyed by the fire in 1834. In Elizabeth's reign also two native -artists distinguished themselves: Nicolas Hilliard, a miniature-painter; -and Isaac Oliver (_b._ 1556, _d._ 1617), his pupil, who surpassed his -master in portraits, and also produced historical works of merit. - -Among the sculptors were Pietro Torregiano, from Florence, who, assisted -by a number of Englishmen, executed the bronze monument of Henry VII., -and is supposed also to be the author of the tomb of Henry's mother in -his chapel. John Hales, who executed the tomb of the Earl of Derby at -Ormskirk, was one of Torregiano's English assistants. Benedetto Rovezzano -designed the splendid bronze tomb of Henry VIII., which was to have -exhibited himself and Jane Seymour, as large as life, in effigy, an -equestrian statue, figures of the saints and prophets, the history of St. -George, amounting to 133 statues and forty bas-reliefs. This monument -of Henry's egotism none of his children or successors respected him -enough to complete; and Parliament, in 1646, ordered the portion already -executed to be melted down. - -[Illustration: SOLDIERS OF THE TUDOR PERIOD.] - -In Scotland during this period the arts were still less cultivated. -The only monarch who had evinced a taste for their patronage was James -V., who improved and adorned the royal palaces, by the aid of French -architects, painters, and sculptors whom he procured from France, with -which he was connected by marriage and alliance. His chief interest and -expenditure were, however, devoted to the palace at Linlithgow, which he -left by far the noblest palace of Scotland, and worthy of any country in -Europe. - -The furniture of noble houses in the sixteenth century was still -quaint; but in many instances rich and picturesque. The walls retained -their hangings of tapestry, on which glowed hunting-scenes, with their -woodlands, dogs, horsemen, and flying stags, or resisting boars, or -lions; scenes mythological or historical. In one of the finest preserved -houses of that age, Hardwicke, in Derbyshire, the state-room is hung -with tapestry representing the story of Ulysses; and above this are -figures, rudely executed in plaster, of Diana and her nymphs. The hall is -hung with very curious tapestry, of the fifteenth century, representing -a boar-hunt and an otter-hunt. The chapel in this house gives a very -vivid idea of the furniture of domestic chapels of that age; with its -brocaded seats and cushions, and its curious altar-cloth, thirty feet -long, hung round the rails of the altar, with figures of saints, under -canopies, wrought in needlework. You are greatly struck as you pass -along this noble old hall, which has had its internal decorations and -furniture carefully retained, with the air of rude abundance, and what -looks now to us nakedness and incompleteness, mingled with old baronial -state, and rich and precious articles of use and show. There are vast and -long passages, simply matted; with huge chests filled with coals, which -formerly were filled with wood, and having ample crypts in the walls for -chips and firewood. There are none of the modern contrivances to conceal -these things; yet the rooms, which were then probably uncarpeted, or only -embellished in the centre with a small Turkey carpet bearing the family -arms, or perhaps merely with rushes, are still abounding with antique -cabinets, massy tables, and high chairs covered with crimson velvet, or -ornamental satin. You behold the very furniture used by the Queen of -Scots; the very bed, the brocade of which she and her maidens worked with -their own fingers. In the entrance hall the old feudal mansion still -seems to survive with its huge antlers, its huge escutcheons, and carved -arms thrust out of the wall, intended to hold lights. But still more -does its picture gallery, extending along the whole front of the house, -give you a feeling of the rude and stately grandeur of those times. This -gallery is nearly 200 feet long, of remarkable loftiness, and its windows -are stupendous, comprising nearly the whole front, rattling and wailing -as the wind sweeps along them, whilst the walls are covered with the -portraits of the most remarkable personages of that and prior times. -You have Henry VIII., Elizabeth, the Queen of Scots, with many of the -statesmen and ladies of the age. - -In such old houses we find abundance of furniture of the period. The -chairs are generally high-backed, richly carved, and stuffed and covered -with superb velvet or satin. At Charlcote House, near Stratford-on-Avon, -the seat of the Lucys, there are eight fine ebony chairs, inlaid with -ivory, two cabinets, and a couch of the same, which were given by Queen -Elizabeth to Leicester, and made part of the furniture of Kenilworth. At -Penshurst, Kent, the seat of the Sidneys, in the room called Elizabeth's -room, remain the chairs which it is said she herself presented, with the -rest of the furniture. They are fine, tall, and capacious; the frames are -gilt, the drapery is yellow and crimson satin, richly embroidered, and -the walls of each end of the room are covered with the same embroidered -satin. In the Elizabethan room at Greenwich Court are chairs as well as -other articles of that age. In Winchester Cathedral is yet preserved -the chair, a present from the Pope, in which Queen Mary was crowned and -married. - -At Penshurst we have, in the old banqueting-hall, the furniture and -style which still prevailed in many houses in Sir Philip Sidney's time: -the dogs for the fire in the centre of the room, from which the smoke -ascended through a hole in the roof, the rude tables, the raised dais, -and the music gallery, such as Sir Philip Sidney, Spenser, Shakespeare, -and Bacon, as well as the Royal Elizabeth, witnessed them. In this -house is also preserved a manuscript catalogue of all the furniture of -Kenilworth in Leicester's time, a document which throws much light on the -whole paraphernalia of a great house and household of that day. - -Looking-glasses were now superseding mirrors of polished steel. Sir -Samuel Meyrick had a fine specimen of the looking-glass of this age at -Goodrich, as well as a German clock, fire-dogs, a napkin-press, and an -"arriere-dos" or "rere-dosse," and a small brass fender of that age. He -also possessed the box containing the original portraits of Henry VIII. -and Anne of Cleves. The clock, like the large one over the entrance -at Hampton Court, had the Italian face, with two sets of figures, -twelve each, thus running the round of the twenty-four hours, such as -Shakespeare alludes to in "Othello:"-- - - "He'll watch the horologe _a double set_, - If drink rock not his cradle." - -Richly carved wardrobes and buffets adorned the Tudor rooms: some of -these buffets were of silver and of silver gilt. Engravings of these, as -well as of tables with folding tops, round tables with pillar and claw, -and many beds of that period may still be seen in old houses, and are -represented in engravings in Montfaucon, Shaw, and Willemin. The beds at -Hardwicke, the great bed at Ware, a bedstead of the time of Henry VIII. -at Lovely Hall, near Blackburn, are good specimens. Forks, though known, -were not generally used yet at table, and spoons of silver and gold were -made to fold up, and were carried by great people in their pockets for -their own use. Spoons of silver--apostle-spoons, having the heads of the -twelve apostles on the handles--were not unfrequent, but spoons of horn -or wood were more common. - -The armour of every period bears a coincident resemblance to the civil -costume of the time, and is in this period rather noticeable by its -fashion than by any material change of another kind. The breastplate was -still globose, as in the reign of Edward IV., but was beautifully fluted -in that of Henry VII. In the reign of Henry VIII., the breastplate being -still globose, the old fashion revived of an edge down the centre, called -a tapul; and in this reign puffed and ribbed armour, in imitation of the -slashed dresses of the day, was introduced. In the reign of Elizabeth -the breastplate was thickened to resist musket-balls. The helmet in all -these reigns assumed the shape of the head, having movable plates at the -back to guard the neck, and yet allow free motion to the head. In the -reign of Elizabeth the morions were much ornamented by engraving. In the -time of Henry VII. the panache which had appeared on the apex of the -bassinets of Henry V. was changed for plumes, descending from the back -of the helmet almost to the rider's saddle. A new feature in armour also -came in with Henry VII., called "lamboys" from the French "lambeaux," -being a sort of skirt or petticoat of steel, in imitation of the puckered -skirts of cloth or velvet worn at that time, and this fashion, with -variations in form, continued through the whole period. In the reign of -Henry VIII. the armour altogether became very showy and rich, in keeping -with the ostentation of that monarch. A magnificent suit of the armour -of Henry is preserved in the Tower, which was presented to him by the -Emperor Maximilian, on his marriage with Catherine of Aragon, and is -the fellow to a suit of Maximilian's preserved in the Little Belvedere -Palace in Vienna. It covers both horse and man, and is richly engraved -with legendary subjects, badges, mottoes, and the like. The seal of Henry -presents a fine figure of him on horseback, in armour, with his tabard -and crowned helmet, and its depending plumes. - -The tilting helmet disappeared altogether in the time of Henry VIII., -and a coursing-hat was worn instead, with a "mentonniere," or defence -for the lower part of the face. In the reign of Mary we learn that the -military force of the kingdom consisted of demi-lancers, who supplied -the place of the men-at-arms; pikemen, who wore back and breast-plates, -with tassets, gauntlets, and steel hats; archers, with steel skull-caps -and brigandines; black-billmen or halberdiers, who wore armour called -almain rivet and morions; and harquebussiers, similarly appointed. In -Elizabeth's reign the armour was seldom worn on the legs and thighs, -except in jousting, and not always then. - -There were various changes in the shapes of swords and glaives; the -battle-axe changed into the halberd in the time of Edward IV., which -became general in that of Henry VII. In the reign of Henry VIII. was -added the partisan, a kind of pike or spontoon; but the great change -was in firearms, the hand-gun making several steps towards its modern -termination in the musket and rifle, with detonating caps. The first -improvement was to place a cock to the gun-barrel, to hold and apply the -match instead of the soldier holding it in his hand. This was called an -arc-a-bousa, thence corrupted into the arquebuse, much used by Henry -VII. In his son's reign the wheel-lock was invented by the Italians, in -which a wheel revolving against a piece of sulphuret of iron ignited the -powder in the pan by its sparks. Pistols were also introduced now, and -called pistols or dags, according to the shape of the butt-ends; the -pistol finishing with a knob, the dag--or tacke--having its butt-end -slanting. Pistols at first more resembled carabines in length, and the -pocket pistol was of a considerable bulk. Cartridges were first used in -pistols, and were carried in a steel case called a patron. In the reign -of Elizabeth we hear of carabines, petronels, and dragons. Carabines were -a sort of light, Spanish troops, who, probably, used this kind of arm; -petronels were so called because their square butt-end was placed against -the chest, or "poitrine;" and the dragon received its name from its -muzzle being terminated with the head of that fabulous monster, and gave -the name of "dragoon" to the soldiers who fought with them. Bandoliers, -or leathern cases, each containing a complete charge of powder for a -musket, were used till the end of the seventeenth century, when they gave -way to the cartridge-box. - -With the progress of firearms, it is almost needless to say that the -famous art of archery, by which the English had won such fame in the -world, was gradually superseded. During the reigns of Henry VII. and -Henry VIII., bows were much used in their armies as well as firearms, -but it was impossible long to maintain the bow and arrow in the presence -of the hand-gun and powder. In vain did Henry VIII. pass severe laws -against the disuse of the bow; by the end of his reign it had fallen, for -the most part, from the hands of the warrior into that of the sportsman. -In vain did Henry forbid the use even of the cross-bow to encourage the -practice of archery, and Roger Ascham in his "Toxophilus" endeavour to -prolong the date of the bow. By the end of the reign of Elizabeth, the -endeavour to protract the existence of archery by statute was abandoned, -and its long reign, except as a graceful amusement, was over. - -The costumes of this age come down to us depicted by great masters, and -are displayed to us in their full effect, at least this much can be said -for those of the aristocracy. Looking at these ladies and gentlemen, they -appear as little like plain matter-of-fact English people as possible. -There is a length and looseness of robes about the men which has more the -air of a holiday, gala garb, than the attire of people who had serious -affairs to carry through, and you would scarcely credit them to be the -ancestors of the present prosaic, buttoned-up, and busy generation. In -a MS. called the "Boke of Custome," the chamberlain is commanded to -provide against his master's uprising, "a clene sherte and breche, a -pettycotte, a doublette, a long cotte, a stomacher, hys hosen, hys socks, -and his shoen." And the "Boke of Kervynge," quoted by Strutt, says to -the chamberlain, "Warme your soverayne his pettycotte, his doublette, -and his stomacher, and then put on his hosen, and then his schone or -slyppers, then stryten up his hosen mannerly, and tye them up, then lace -his doublette hole by hole." Barclay, in the "Ship of Fools," printed by -Pynson in 1508, mentions some who had their necks - - "Charged with collars and chaines, - In golden withs, their fingers full of rings, - Their necks naked almost to the raines, - Their sleeves blazing like unto a crane's winges." - -Their coats were generally loose and with broad collars, and turned back -fronts, with loose hanging sleeves, often slashed, and sometimes without -sleeves at all, but the sleeves of their doublets appearing through them, -laced tight to the elbow and puffed out above. Hats and caps were of -various fashions in the time of Henry VII. There was the square turned-up -cap, a round hat something like the present wide-awake, but the more -gay and assuming wore large felt hats, or bonnets of velvet, fur, or -other materials, with great spreading plumes of party-coloured feathers. -They wore the showy hats so much on one side, as to display under them -close-fitting caps, often of gold network. Others, again, wore only the -small cap, and let the large plumed hat hang on their shoulders. - -The hose, when the dress was short enough to show them, were -close-fitting, and of gay, often of two different colours; the long-toed -shoes had given way to others, with toes called duck-bills, from their -shape, being wider in front than they were long. Top-boots were worn for -riding. The face was close shaven, except in the case of soldiers or -old men, and the hair was suffered to hang long and flowing. The first -mention of a collar of the garter occurs in this reign, and a collar is -seen on the effigy of Sir George Daubeny, of this date. - -In the costume of the ladies the sleeves were as wide as they were in -that of the men, and have been imitated in modern times, being called -"bishop's sleeves" in London. The gown was cut square in the neck, and -they wore stomachers, belts, and buckles, girdles with long pendents in -front, and hats and feathers. Others wore caps and cauls of gold net, or -embroidery, from beneath which the hair hung down the shoulders half way -to the ground. The morning dress was a full, loose, flowing robe, with -cape and hood, and the extent and material of it was regulated by Royal -ordinance. - -Every one is familiar with the costume of the reigns of Henry VIII. and -Edward VI. The ordinary costume of bluff Harry was a full-skirted jacket, -or doublet, with large sleeves to the wrists; over which was worn a -short but equally full cloak or coat, with loose, hanging sleeves, and -a broad, rolling collar of fur. Many, however, still wore the doublet -sleeves, as in the last reign: tight to the elbow, puffed out about the -shoulders, and the coat sleeveless, allowing this to appear. The cap -was square or round, and still worn somewhat side-ways, jewelled, and -plumed with ostrich feathers. The hose were now often divided into hose -and stockings, and the shoes, though sometimes square-toed, yet often -resembling the modern shape. The Norman "chausses" were revived under -the older name of "trousses," being close hose, fitting exactly to the -limbs. - -[Illustration: THE WEDDING OF JACK OF NEWBURY: THE BRIDE'S PROCESSION. -(_See p._ 390.)] - -Henry VIII. was most extravagant in dress, and was followed with so much -avidity by his subjects in his ostentation, that in the twenty-fourth -year of his reign he was obliged to pass a sumptuary law to restrain -them, and the style and quality of dress for every different rank was -prescribed--as we may suppose with indifferent success. No person of less -degree than a knight was to wear crimson or blue velvet or embroidered -apparel, broched or guarded with goldsmith's work, except sons and heirs -of knights and barons, who might use crimson velvet, and tinsel in their -doublets. Velvet gowns, jackets and coats, furs of martens, &c., chains, -bracelets, and collars of gold, were proscribed to all but persons -possessing two hundred marks per annum; except the sons and heirs of such -persons, who might wear black velvet doublets, coats of black damask, -etc. - -Henry's own dress was of the most gorgeous kind. He is described at a -banquet at Westminster as arrayed in a suit of short garments of blue -velvet and crymosine, with long sleeves all cut and lined with cloth -of gold, and the outer garments powdered with castles and sheaves of -arrows--the badges of Queen Catherine--of fine ducat gold; the upper part -of the hose of like fashion, the lower parts of scarlet, powdered with -timbrels of fine gold. His bonnet was of damask silver, flat, "woven -in the stall," and therefore wrought with gold, and rich feathers on -it. When he met Anne of Cleves he had tricked himself out in a frock of -velvet embroidered all over with flatted gold of damask, mixed with a -profusion of lace; the sleeves and breast being cut and lined with cloth -of gold, and tied together with great buttons of diamonds, rubies, and -orient pearls. The king was deemed to be the best dressed sovereign in -the world, for he put on new clothes every holy day. - -Henry ordered his subjects to cut off their long hair; beards and -moustaches were now worn at pleasure. - -The reigns of Edward and Mary did not vary much in the costume of the -men. The dress worn now by the boys of Christ's Hospital (familiarly -known as the Bluecoat School), founded by Edward, is very much that which -was worn by the London apprentices of that period--blue coats and yellow -stockings being also common to the citizens generally. The square-toed -shoes were banished by proclamation in the reign of Queen Mary. - -The costume of the ladies of the reign of Henry VIII. is extremely -familiar, from the numerous portraits of his six wives, engravings of -which are in Lodge's "Portraits." With the exception of the bonnet or -coif--which, though worn by Catherine of Aragon, came to be called the -Anne Boleyn cap--the dress of the ladies of this reign bears a striking -resemblance to one of the later Victorian fashions, though differing of -course in material. You find the gown fitting close to the bust of the -natural length of waist, and cut square at the chest, where it is edged -with narrow lace. The sleeves, tight at the shoulder, widened to the -elbow, where they hung deep, showing an under-sleeve of fine lawn or -lace extending to the wrist, and terminated by lace ruffles. On the neck -was generally worn a pearl necklace, with a jewelled cross. The skirts -were full, the train long, according to rank. Seven yards of purple -cloth of damask gold were allowed for a kirtle for Queen Catherine, in -a wardrobe account of the eighth year of Henry's reign. The sleeves of -ladies' garments, like those of gentlemen's dresses, could be changed at -pleasure, being separate and attached at will. They were extremely rich; -and we find in one lady's inventory three pair of purple satin sleeves, -one of linen paned with gold over the arms, quilted with black silk, and -wrought with flounces between the panes and at the hands; one pair of -purple gold tissue damask wire, each sleeve tied with aglets of gold; one -pair of crimson satin, four buttons of gold on each sleeve, and in every -button nine pearls. - -The coif was of various materials, from simple linen to rich velvet and -cloth of gold; either with the round front, as in Mary and Elizabeth as -princesses, in Catherine Parr and Catherine Howard, or dipping in front, -which came to be called the "Queen of Scots" bonnet; but the commonest -shape was the five-cornered one. This last was indeed the hood of the -time of Henry VII., in which we have a portrait of his queen, Elizabeth -of York; the lappets of the hood depending on the bosom, embroidered and -edged with pearls; the scarf behind hanging on the shoulders. In the -portrait of Catherine of Aragon, the front, embroidered and jewelled, -had become shorter, touching the neck only; but the scarf behind still -spread on the shoulder. In Anne Boleyn's portrait the coif had reached -its extreme of elegance; the frontlet, consisting of the five-pointed -frame, is still shorter, only covering the ears, and is faced with a -double row of pearls (_see_ p. 165). Her hair is scarcely seen, being -concealed by an under-coif, which shows as a band in a slanting direction -over the forehead. The back consists of a green velvet hood, with broad -scarf lappets, of which one is turned up over the back of the head, -and the other hangs on the left shoulder. Of the dress of the ladies -of the citizen class we have a curious account in the bride of John -of Winchcomb, the famous clothier, called "Jack of Newbury." "She was -habited in a gown of sheep's russet, and a kirtle of fine worsted, her -head attired with a billiment of gold, and her hair, as yellow as gold, -hanging down behind her, which was curiously combed and plaited. She was -led to church by two boys with bride laces and rosemary tied about their -silken sleeves. When she in after years came out of her widow's weeds, -she appeared in a fair train gown stuck full of silver pins, having a -white cap on her head, with cuts of curious needlework under the same, -and an apron before her as white as driven snow." - -With Elizabeth came in a totally new fashion, not only of women's but -of men's costumes. The large trunk hose made their appearance; the -long-waisted doublet, the short cloak or mantle, with its standing -collar, the ruff, the hat, the band and feather, the roses in the shoes, -are all of this period. To such a degree did the fashion of puffed -and stuffed breeches obtain, which had begun to swell in the prior -reigns, that about the thirty-third of Elizabeth, over the seats in the -Parliament House, were certain holes, some two inches square, in the -walls, in which were placed posts to uphold scaffolds round about the -house for those to sit upon who wore great breeches stuffed with hair, -like woolsacks. - -As to ruffs, Stubbs, in his "Anatomie of Abuses," tells us that sooner -than go without them, men would mortgage their lands, or risk their -lives at Tyburn; and he adds, "They have now newly (1595) found out a -more monstrous kind of ruff of twelve, yea, sixteen lengths apiece, set -three or four times double, thence called three steps and a half to the -gallows." The French or Venetian hose, he tells us, cost often L100 a -pair, probably from being cloth of gold and set with jewels. To these -were added boot hose of the finest cloth, also splendidly embroidered -with birds, beasts, and antiques. The doublets, he says, grew longer -and longer in the waist, stuffed and quilted with four, five, or six -pounds of bombast, the exterior being of silk, satin, taffeta, gold, -or silver stuff, slashed, jagged, covered, pinched, and laced with all -kinds of costly devices. Over these were their coats and jerkins, some -with collars, some without, some close to the body, some loose, called -mandilions; some buttoned down the breast, some under the arm, some -down the back. They had cloaks also--white, red, tawny, yellow, green, -violet--of cloth, silk, or taffeta, and of French, Spanish, or Dutch -fashion, ornamented with costly lace of gold, silver, or silk. These -cloaks were as costly inside as out. Their slippers or "pantoufles" -were of all colours, and yet, says Stubbs, they were difficult to keep -on, and went flap-flap up and down in the dirt, casting the mire up to -their knees. Their hats, he states, were sharp at the crown, peaking up -like the shaft of a steeple a quarter of a yard above the crown of their -heads, some more, some less; others were flat and broad on the crown; -some had round crowns and bands of all colours; and these hats or caps -were of velvet, taffeta, or sarcenet, ornamented with big bunches of -feathers; and finally we hear of _beaver hats_, costing from twenty to -forty shillings apiece, brought from beyond seas. - -But if such was the dress of gentlemen to please the strange taste of -the maiden queen, that of this famous queen herself, as evinced by her -numerous portraits, has nothing like it in all the annals of fashion. -In an early portrait of Elizabeth we have her dressed in a costume very -little different to that of a man. Over her gown or doublet she wore a -coat with the enormous shoulder-points standing up six inches, and with -a close upright collar completely enveloping her neck, and surmounted by -a ruff; her coat cut and slashed all over, and on her head a round hat, -pulled down to a peak in front, and thickly jewelled. Stubbs, alluding to -this particular fashion, says, "The women have doublets and jerkins as -the men have, buttoned up to the breast, and made with wings, welts, and -pinions on the shoulder-points, as men's apparel in all respects.... Yet -they blush not to wear it." - -But it was about the middle of her reign that Elizabeth introduced -that astounding style of dress in which she figures in most of her -portraits, and in which the body was imprisoned in whalebone to the -hips; the partlet or habit-shirt, which had for some time been in use, -and covered the whole bosom to the chin, was removed, and an enormous -ruff, rising gradually from the front of the shoulders to nearly the -height of the head behind, encircled the wearer like the enormous wings -of some nondescript butterfly. In fact, there was ruff beyond ruff; -first, a crimped one round the neck like a collar; and then a round -one standing up from the shoulders behind the head; and, finally, the -enormous circular fans towering high and wide. The head of the queen is -seen covered with one of her eighty sets of false hair, and hoisted above -that a jaunty hat, jewelled and plumed. - -In order to enable this monstrous expanse of ruff to support itself, -it was necessary to resort to starch, and, as Stubbs tells us, also to -a machinery of wires, "erected for the purpose, and whipped all over -with gold thread, silver, or silk." This was called a "supportasse, or -underpropper." The queen sent to Holland for women skilled in the art of -starching; and one Mistress Dingham Vander Plasse came over and became -famous in the mystery of tormenting pride with starch. "The devil," says -Stubbs, "hath learned them to wash and dress their ruffs, which, being -dry, will then stand inflexible about their necks." - -From the bosom, now partly left bare, descended an interminable -stomacher, and then the farthingale spread out its enormous breadth, -like the Victorian crinoline. Stockings of worsted yarn and silk had -now become common; and Mistress Montague presented Her Majesty, in the -third year of her reign, with a pair of silk stockings knit in England; -thereupon she would never wear any else. A fashion of both ladies and -gentlemen of this time was to wear small looking-glasses hanging at their -sides or inserted in the fan of ostrich feathers. - -The history of the coinage from Henry VII. to the reign of Elizabeth is -one of depreciation and adulteration, as it had been in the preceding -century. Not till Elizabeth did it begin to return to a sound and honest -standard. - -Henry VII. made several variations in the money of the realm. He -preserved the standard of Edward IV. and Richard III., coining 450 -pennies from the pound of silver, or thirty-seven nominal shillings and -sixpences. He introduced shillings as actual money, being before only -nominal, and used in accounts. These shillings, struck in 1504--called -at first large groats, and then testons, from the French "teste," or -"tete," a head--bore the profile of the king instead of the full face; a -thing unknown since the reign of Stephen, but ever after followed, except -by Henry VIII. and Edward VI., who, however, used the profile in their -groats. Henry coined also a novel coin--the sovereign, or "double rose -noble," worth twenty shillings, and the "rose rial," or half-sovereign. -These gold coins are now very rare. On the reverse of his coins he for -the first time placed the Royal arms. - -The gold coins of Henry VIII. were sovereigns, half-sovereigns, or -rials, half and quarter rials, angels, angelets, or half angels, and -quarter-angels, George nobles--so called from bearing on the reverse -St. George and the dragon--crowns, and half-crowns. His silver coins -were shillings, groats, half-groats, and pennies. Amongst these appeared -groats and half-groats coined by Wolsey at York, in accordance with a -privilege, exercised by the Church long before. In his impeachment it was -made a capital charge that he had placed the cardinal's hat on the groats -under the king's arms. The groats also bore on each side of the arms his -initials, "T. W.," and the half-groats "W. A."--Wolsey Archiepiscopus. - -Not only did Henry adulterate the coin in the most scandalous manner, -but he also depreciated the value of the silver coins, by coining a much -larger number of pennies out of a pound of the base alloy. Before his -time the mixed mint pound had consisted of eleven ounces two pennyweights -of silver, and eighteen pennyweights of alloy; but Henry, in 1543, -altered it to ten ounces of silver and two ounces of alloy. Two years -later he added as much alloy as there was silver; and not content with -that, in 1546, or one year after, he left only four ounces of silver -in the pound, or eight ounces of alloy to the four ounces of silver! -But this even did not satisfy him: he next proceeded to coin his base -metal into a larger amount than the good metal had ever produced before. -Instead of 37s. 6d., or 450 pennies, into which it had been coined ever -since the reign of Edward IV., he made it yield 540 pennies, or 45s., -in 1527, and in 1543 he extended it to 48s., or 576 pennies. He thus, -instead of 450 pennies out of a pound containing eleven ounces two -pennyweights of silver, coined 576 pennies out of only four ounces of -silver! Such were the lawless robberies which "Bluff Harry" committed -on his subjects. Any one of the smallest debasements by a subject would -have sent him to the gallows. He certainly was one of the most wholesale -issuers of bad money that ever lived. - -The counsellors of his son Edward--a most rapacious set of -adventurers--however, even out-Harryed Harry; for though Edward restored -at first the value of the mint mixture in some degree, in 1551 the amount -of silver in a pound of that alloy was only three ounces, or an ounce -less than the worst coin of his father. And still worse, instead of 48s., -the largest number coined by his father out of a pound, he coined 72s., -or instead of 450 pennies out of four ounces of silver, 864 pennies were -coined out of three ounces. The ruin, the confusion of prices, and the -public outcry, however, consequent upon this violent public fraud, at -length compelled Government to restore the amount of silver in the pound -to nearly what it was at the beginning of the reign of Henry VIII., and -the number of shillings was reduced from seventy-two to sixty. The gold, -which was equally debased, was also restored to the same extent. - -Queen Mary, while she issued a proclamation at the commencement of her -reign denouncing the dishonest proceedings of her predecessors, again -increased the alloy in a pound of mint silver to an ounce instead of -nineteen pennyweights; and she added two pennyweights more of alloy to -the ounce of gold. The coins issued by Philip and Mary bear both their -profiles. - -Elizabeth honourably restored the coinage to its ancient value. She -fixed the alloy in a pound of silver at only eighteen pennyweights; -but she coined sixty-two shillings out of the pound instead of sixty, -at which it remained till 1816, when it became sixty-six, as it still -remains. The standard mixture of Elizabeth has continued the same to -our own day. She called in and melted down the base money of her father -and brother to the nominal value of L638,000, but of real value only -L244,000. The gold coins of Elizabeth are rials, angels, half-angels, -and quarter-angels, crowns and half-crowns, nobles and double nobles. -Some of her coins were the first which had milled edges, both of gold and -silver. Besides shillings, sixpences, groats, and pence, Elizabeth coined -a crown, for the use of the East India Company, called portcullis crowns, -in imitation of the Spanish dollar. These were valued at four shillings -and sixpence, and are now rare. - -[Illustration: SHIPS OF ELIZABETH'S TIME.] - -In Scotland the alloy of the silver at the mint was not so great as in -England during this period; but the number of shillings coined out of one -pound of silver was astonishingly increased. This kind of depreciation -had been going on for two centuries before this period; but from 1475, -when only 144 shillings were coined out of the pound of silver, the -number was rapidly augmented every few years, till in 1601 no less than -720 shillings were coined out of it, or, in other words, the original -value of one pound was made to pass for thirty-six pounds. - -In tracing the historical events of these reigns, we have had occasion to -show the increasing strength of the Royal navy of England. Both in the -reigns of Henry VIII. and of Elizabeth the sea fights were of a character -and attended by results which marked out England as a maritime power -growing ever more formidable. In the fourth year of his reign Henry drove -the French fleet from the Channel with forty-two ships, Royal and others. -He chastised the Scots, who, under James V., had become daring at sea; -and on various occasions during his reign he showed his superiority to -the French and Spaniards. - -But it was the victory over the Armada under Elizabeth, and the exploits -of Drake, Essex, Raleigh, and others in the Spanish ports, and of -Drake, Hawkins, and Frobisher in the Spanish settlements of America, -that raised the fame of the British fleet to a pitch which it had never -reached before. For, after all, the amount of Henry's fleet never was -large. We are told, indeed, that at first he had only one ship of war, -the _Great Harry_, till he took the _Lion_, a large Scottish ship, with -its commander, the celebrated Andrew Barton; but probably this is meant -of such size as to merit the name of man-of-war. Parsimonious as was -Henry VII., and careful to avoid any collisions with foreign powers, we -cannot suppose he left the kingdom totally destitute of a navy. But Henry -VIII. was not contented with owning merely a mediocre fleet; he had an -ambition of building large vessels, and in 1512 he built one of 1,000 -tons, called the _Regent_. This was blown up in a battle with the French -fleet off Brest, and instead of it he built another called _Grace de -Dieu_. The rivalry of Henry was excited by the King of Scotland building -a much larger ship than his _Regent_, which was said to carry 300 seamen, -120 gunners, and 1,000 soldiers. This ship, like Henry's _Regent_, -was unfortunately lost at sea. By the end of Henry's reign, his fleet -altogether amounted to 12,500 tons. - -Besides building of ships, Henry seems to have planned all the necessary -offices for a naval system. He established the Navy Office, with a -sort of Board of Admiralty for its management, and he also founded, in -the fourth year of his reign, the Corporation of the Trinity House at -Deptford, for managing everything relating to the education, selection, -and appointment of pilots, the putting down of buoys, and erecting -beacons and lighthouses. Similar establishments were created by him at -Hull and Newcastle. He built at great cost the first pier at Dover, and -passed an Act of Parliament for improving the harbours of Plymouth, -Dartmouth, Teignmouth, Falmouth, and Fowey, which had been choked up by -the refuse of certain tin-works, which he prohibited. But perhaps his -greatest works of the kind were his establishment of the navy-yards and -storehouses at Woolwich and Deptford. No monarch, in fact, had hitherto -planned so efficiently and exerted himself so earnestly to found an -English navy. Great merit is due to him for his advancement of the -maritime interests of the nation. - -The manner in which the different monarchs of the Tudor dynasty advanced -or neglected the navy is well shown by the returns of the Navy Office to -Parliament in 1791. At the end of the reign of Henry VIII. it amounted -to 12,500 tons, at the end of that of Edward VI. to only 11,065 tons, -and at the end of Mary's to 7,110 tons, but at the end of Elizabeth's -it rose to 17,110. At the time of the Armada, Elizabeth had at sea 150 -sail, of which, however, only forty were the property of the Crown; the -rest belonged to the merchants who were liable to be called upon on -such emergencies to furnish their largest craft for the public service. -Thirty-four of these ships were from 500 to 1,100 tons each, and these -larger vessels are said to have carried 300 men and forty cannon each. -Besides the vessels thus called out for war, the mercantile navy at this -time amounted to another 150 sail of various capacity, averaging each 150 -tons, and carrying forty seamen. - -This extent of Royal and mercantile navy had not been reached without -much fostering care on the part of the queen. With all her parsimony -and dread of expense, it was one of the finest parts of her very mixed -character, that she saw the necessity of a strong power at sea and had -all the pride of her father to maintain it. Whilst on land she introduced -the manufacture of gunpowder, and raised the pay of the soldiers, she -extended her care to the fleet, and made it in the end the best equipped -navy in Europe. She raised the pay of the sailors as she had done that -of the soldiers, and the merchants entered so readily into her service -that she had no longer occasion to hire vessels, as her predecessors -had done, from the Hanse Towns, or from Venice and Genoa. She built a -fort on the Medway, somewhere near the present Sheerness, to protect her -fleet, and justly acquired the name of the Queen of the North Seas. Many -circumstances combined to give a new and wonderful development in her -time to commerce--the discovery and partial settlement of the New World; -the way opened by the Cape to India; the extension of commercial inquiry -and enterprise into the north of Europe and to the banks of Newfoundland. -But ere this stirring period arrived, commerce had had to struggle -with many severe restrictions, the fruit of the ignorance of political -economy. - -[Illustration: THE WORLD - -in the - -XVIth CENTURY - -showing - -the DISCOVERIES of - -BRITISH & other EXPLORERS.] - -Henry VII. is praised by Hall, the chronicler, as a prince who "by -his high policy marvellously enriched his realm and himself, and left -his subjects in high wealth and prosperity; as is apparent by the -great abundance of gold and silver yearly brought into the kingdom, in -plate, money, and bullion, by merchants passing and repassing." But -the true reason of the rapid advance of commerce under Henry VII. was, -undoubtedly, the quietness and stability of affairs which he introduced; -for Henry was too fond of hoarding to be a very munificent patron of -trade. Amongst the very first measures which he passed was one against -usury, totally forbidding the loan of money on interest, which, if it -could have been really carried out, would have nearly extinguished -commerce altogether. In this, however, Henry was but continuing the -practice of his predecessors, who, though great warriors, were no -merchants. So severe was Henry's enactment against usury, that, by the -Act of the third year of his reign, every offender was, on discovery, to -be fined L100, and the bargain to be made void. Henry VIII. abrogated -this law, and allowed usury under ten per cent.; it was again put in -force by Edward VI. in terms of the utmost severity, declaring it to be -"a vice most odious and detestable, and utterly prohibited by the Word of -God." Elizabeth, however, again restored the law of her father in 1571, -permitting interest under ten per cent. - -Whilst Henry VII. endeavoured to extinguish usury, he was equally jealous -of foreign merchants--of their bringing their foreign manufactures and -carrying out English goods--lest our wealth should be drained away by -them. The careful old king could not see that it mattered little by whom -the exchanges of commerce were made, so that merchants were left to make -their own bargains; whence the result would be that they would only -purchase such things as they wanted, and sell such as they did not want, -with benefit to everybody. It accorded, however, with Henry's ideas, and -was so far beneficial as to induce the settling of English merchants in -foreign countries, with the object of endeavouring to drain them of their -wealth. Therefore, he was careful to heal the breach with the Netherlands -which the patronage of Perkin Warbeck by the Duchess of Burgundy had -made, and the company of Merchant Adventurers was again established in -Antwerp. The treaty on this occasion was termed by the rejoicing Flemings -the "Intercursus Magnus," or Great Treaty of Intercourse; but Henry, in -1506, on intercepting the Archduke Philip at Weymouth, forced from him -a less liberal treaty, which the Flemings branded as the "Intercursus -Malus," or Evil Treaty. - -In the same one-sided spirit of trade, Henry, in 1489, concluded a treaty -with Denmark, by which English companies were authorised to purchase -lands in Bergen in Norway, Lund and Landskrona in Sweden, and Lowisa in -Finland, on which to erect factories and warehouses, to remain theirs in -perpetuity for the purposes of trade. He also renewed a similar treaty -at the same time with the great trading republic of Venice, by which the -English companies were to enjoy all the privileges of the citizens of -Florence and Pisa, where they were established, and were privileged to -export English wool, and re-ship the spices and valuable articles which -were brought by the Venetians overland from India. - -It was not long, however, before Henry was called on to check the effects -of monopoly in his English companies. The Merchant Adventurers of London -soon showed so strongly these effects, that they compelled the king to -interfere with a view to counteract them. - -The markets of Europe were now fast growing in importance and demand. The -wealth of South America was flowing into Spain, in the shape of gold, to -the amount of a million sterling annually, and the spices and riches of -the East Indies into Portugal, since the discovery of the way round the -Cape. Amsterdam became the great mercantile depot of these commodities -in Europe, and the benefit of it was felt nowhere more sensibly than in -England. Henry VII., who had let slip the opportunity of securing South -America and the West Indies by neglecting the offers of Columbus, now -endeavoured to repair the mischief by granting patents to the Cabots and -others for the discovery of new lands. He could not open his heart or his -coffers sufficiently to assist the adventurers with funds, but he was -ready to reap his share of the benefit, which was to consist of all the -countries discovered and a fifth of the immediate proceeds. Under such -patents the Cabots, father and son, in the course of several voyages, -discovered Labrador in 1497, and afterwards ran along the whole coast of -North America, to the Gulf of Mexico. - -From this moment the spirit of mercantile enterprise rapidly developed -itself. In 1562 we find Captain Hawkins trading to Guinea for elephants' -teeth, and to Brazil, to which coasts voyages soon became common. -Trading to all parts of the Mediterranean was frequent during the reign -of Henry VIII.; taking out wool, cloth, and skins, and importing silks, -drugs, wines, cotton-wool, spices, and Turkey carpets. The voyages of -Cabot had opened up a new trade--that of cod-fishing--on the coasts of -Newfoundland, which was eagerly engaged in; and the voyages of Willoughby -and Richard Chancellor, by exploring the White Sea, at the suggestion of -Cabot, opened a new trade with Russia. A Russian company was formed by -Edward VI., and fully incorporated by Mary, who vigorously prosecuted -that trade; and in 1556 an ambassador arrived at London from the Czar. -Jenkinson, an agent of this company afterwards descended the Volga to -Astrakhan, and crossing the Caspian Sea, reached Bokhara, the great -resort of the merchants of Russia, Persia, India, and China. He is said -to have made six other voyages to Bokhara by that route--a striking proof -of the growing enterprise of the English merchant. The loss of Calais -by Mary was a circumstance which, as was to be expected, exerted an -injurious influence on commerce in her unfortunate reign. - -[Illustration: THE FIRST ROYAL EXCHANGE, LONDON (FOUNDED BY SIR THOMAS -GRESHAM).] - -The earliest European trade with India was Venetian, and was conducted by -way of the Black Sea. On the discovery by Vasco da Gama of the passage by -the Cape of Good Hope, in 1497, the Dutch claimed the exclusive right of -navigating those seas. The Spaniards again were equally exclusive with -regard to their own subsequent discovery of a passage by the Straits of -Magellan. These monopolies, so strange in their contrast to our modern -conceptions and practice, left the English the sole alternative of a -north-west or north-east passage. About 1500, a Portuguese named Corte -Real attempted to discover a north-west passage, and was followed by a -similar effort on the part of the English in 1553. The idea received the -greatest encouragement from Queen Elizabeth, and a company was formed -in 1585, called the "Fellowship for the discovery of the North-West -Passage." Sir Hugh Willoughby's last voyage, which was entered on with -a view to discover a north-east passage to China, was fatal to him and -his brave comrades, who perished in the ice. The instructions given to -Sir Hugh by Sebastian Cabot, Grand Pilot of England by appointment of -Henry VII., are extant, and furnish a curious and interesting specimen of -naval regulation. No dicing, carding, tabling, nor other such practices -were to be allowed on ship-board; morning and evening prayers were to be -diligently observed. On the other hand, the natives of strange countries -were to be "enticed on board and made drunk with your beer and wine, for -then you shall know the secrets of their hearts:" and they were to be -cautious with regard to "certain creatures with men's heads and the tails -of fishes, who swim with bows and arrows about the fords and bays, and -live on human flesh." - -[Illustration: SIR THOMAS GRESHAM.] - -During the long reign of Elizabeth foreign trade made gigantic strides. -Among the very first acts of this queen was one to abolish the -restriction of English merchants to English ships in the transport of -goods. The Act states that this restriction had provoked the natural -adoption of like restrictions by foreign princes. This was the first -acknowledgment of the mischief of meddling with the freedom of trade; -and our foreign trade had now acquired an importance which demanded -respect. With the Netherlands alone our trade was extraordinary, its -value amounting to nearly two millions and a half sterling annually; and -we find at this time the first mention of insurance of goods on their -voyage. In 1562 we hear also of that detestable commerce the slave trade, -which was introduced by John Hawkins, so well known afterwards as the -daring compeer of Drake and Frobisher, and one of the heroic conquerors -of the Armada. Hawkins carried out English goods, called at the Guinea -Coast, and took in slaves, sailed to Hispaniola, and brought thence -sugar, ginger, hides, and pearls. - -During the reign of Elizabeth the many voyages which were made in -order to discover a north-west passage to India led to a more intimate -knowledge of the North American coasts. In these Frobisher, Cavendish, -and Davis distinguished themselves. From 1576 to the end of Elizabeth's -reign, Raleigh and his step-brother, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, made repeated -attempts to colonise North America, and particularly Virginia--so called -in honour of Elizabeth--but in vain. Equally strenuous and unsuccessful -efforts were made to open a direct sea communication with India by the -English; and it was not till the close of Elizabeth's reign that the -incorporation of an East India Company, destined to establish that trade, -was effected. The charter was granted by Elizabeth in 1600. Elizabeth -also chartered a company in 1579 for the exclusive right of trading to -all the countries of the Baltic. - -As regarded the domestic manufactures of this period, the woollen -manufactures were the most important, and extended themselves greatly on -account of the foreign demand. This manufacture had to contend with many -old charters and restrictions which were introduced to monopolise the -practice of it to certain towns and persons; but these were gradually -broken through after much contest, and people in both town and country -were allowed to make cloths and other woollen goods. Originally London, -Norwich, Bristol, Gloucester, and Coventry were the privileged places. -Essex became a clothing county; but by degrees the trade spread into -those quarters where it still prevails. Berks, Oxford, Surrey, and -Yorkshire made coarse kerseys for exportation; Wales manufactured fringes -and coarse cloths; but Tiverton, Bridgewater, Chard, and other towns of -Wilts, Gloucester, and Somerset were famous for their broad-cloths; those -of Kidderminster, Bromwich, Coventry, Worcester, Evesham, Droitwich, -as also of Norfolk, Suffolk, and Essex, were in esteem. Manchester and -Halifax were already noted for rugs and fringes, Norfolk for coverlets, -and Lincolnshire and Chester for what were called "cottons," but which -were a species of woollen. There was much complaint at that day of the -adulteration of these fabrics by intermixture of inferior yarns, and -by not taking the proper means to prevent them from shrinking on being -exposed to wet. Norwich had manufactures of woollen different to ordinary -cloth, in which it excelled all other places; and in Elizabeth's reign -the Norwich manufacturers introduced new kinds under the name of Norwich -satins and fustians. - -The art of dyeing received a new impulse and new colours from the -discovery of Brazil and other distant countries. Soap-making was -also introduced, soap having before 1524 been chiefly imported. Many -manufacturing processes in weaving, dyeing, and cleaning cloths were -brought over by the refugees from the Netherlands, driven to England by -the Spanish persecutions. During Elizabeth's reign the smelting of iron, -which had been chiefly carried on in Kent, Sussex, and Surrey, became -restricted there on account of the consumption of wood. Copper mines and -alum pits were discovered in the time of Elizabeth, in Cumberland and -Yorkshire, which contributed to the extension of the manufacturing arts. - -Sir Thomas Gresham, the chief financial leader of the day, although a -protege of the Duke of Northumberland's, was received with much favour by -Elizabeth on her accession. The great merchant then gave her advice--the -following of which may well be called an epoch in the history of this -country. He told her that all the debased coin should be converted -into fine coin of a certain weight; that their monopoly should not be -restored to the Steelyard merchants; that licences should be granted as -seldom as possible; that she should incur no debt, or as little debt as -possible, beyond the seas; and that she should keep her credit with her -own merchants, as they would be her best and most powerful friends. These -wise measures of reform were gradually carried out. Elizabeth probably -perceived their value, but she could not find it in her heart to act -altogether with the necessary self-denial and liberality. Thus she would -not give up her power to reward favourites by means of special grants and -licences. The monopoly of sweet wines which Essex enjoyed is an instance -of her influence in this respect. - -Gresham himself superintended the restoration of the coinage, and his -advice with regard to the Steelyard merchants was also carried into -practice. It was to him that the merchants of that day owed their first -place of meeting for the transaction of business. Before that they had -been "constrained either to endure all extremities of weather, namely, -heat and cold, snow and rain, or else to shelter themselves in shops." -Gresham therefore built a house for them, which the queen visited in 1570 -and called the Royal Exchange. This building, like many others belonging -to the City companies, was destroyed in the Great Fire. It was designed -after the model of the Bourse of Antwerp, and was Flemish also in its -architect, its workmen, and its materials. The commerce of Scotland -during this century was affected by precisely the same circumstances as -that of England. - -During this century much progress was made in the improvement of London. -Henry VIII. passed various Acts for the paving of the thoroughfares, -which before were horrible sloughs, "very foul and full of pits." - -The public amusements of the nation underwent as great a revolution -during this century as its religion or its literature. The fall of the -Church and the introduction of firearms were fatal to the spirit of -chivalry, and the whole host of religious pageants and plays. Henry VIII. -and Elizabeth exerted themselves to prolong the exercises of chivalry, -but they had lost their spirit, and fell lifeless to the ground. In vain -was the tournament of the Cloth of Gold, or the jousts at which Elizabeth -presided at Greenwich. They were become mere mockeries of what once had -been the all-engrossing contests of knightly honour. In vain did they -endeavour to keep alive the long bow and the feats of archery. The musket -and the sportsman's gun had made the bow and quiver mere playthings. The -tournament made way for the joust, in which the contest was conducted -with headless lances, and fighting at the barriers with blunted axes; and -that gave way to "riding at the ring," in which the gentlemen did not run -their lances through their antagonists, but through a ring suspended for -the purpose. The last of the ancient exercises was the contest with the -sword and buckler; but the sword was deprived of both edge and point, -and as the combatants were not allowed to lunge, but only to strike, the -practice was perfectly harmless. In the time of Henry VIII., however, the -art of fencing was introduced; and in the time of Elizabeth the use of -the rapier and the deadly thrust rendered the acquirement of the art of -fence a matter of the first importance. - -But though the chivalric exercises went out in this age, never was -the love of pageant and display more alive. The revival of the Greek -literature brought forward a crowd of gods and goddesses, who figured in -public processions and galas; and the strangest allegoric absurdities -were gazed upon by grave princes and their counsellors, as well as by the -ladies, with all the enthusiasm of country lads and lasses gaping at a -strolling theatre or a puppet-show. - -Strange masquerades and allegoric pageants were got up in London for -Mary and Elizabeth; and readers of worthy Laneham's description of the -nineteen days in which Queen Bess was entertained at Kenilworth by -Leicester, will find plenty of giants, distressed Ladies of the Lake, -"salvage men," presents from Bacchus, Pomona, Ceres, floating islands, -and sham Arions riding on sham dolphins. More healthy but little less -romantic were the holiday sports which had survived the Church, and were -mingled in by both princes, nobles, and people. The old Mystery did not -for some time disappear before the secular drama, and the Coventry Play -was played before Elizabeth at Kenilworth. May-day had its grand may-pole -still; and Henry VIII. did not disdain, on May-day, 1515, to go a-maying -to Shooter's Hill, with his queen and his sister, the Queen-Dowager of -France. May-day was also the great day of the milkmaids, who danced from -door to door with a pyramid of plates on their heads. - -Stubbs--who, Puritan as he was, seems to have enjoyed what he describes -so well--gives us the following description of the amusements of the -merry gentlemen of the Temple in those days:-- - -"First, all the wild heads of the parish covening together, choose them -a grand captain of mischief, whom they ennoble with the title of My Lord -of Misrule, and him they crown with great solemnity and adopt for their -king. This king anointed chooseth for him twenty, forty, threescore, or -a hundred lusty guts like to himself to wait upon his lordly majesty and -to guard his noble person. Then every one of these his men he investeth -with his liveries of green, yellow, or some other wanton colour. And, as -though they were not gaudy enough, they bedeck themselves with scarfs, -ribbons, and laces, hanged all over with gold rings, precious stones, and -other jewels; this done, they tie about either leg twenty or forty bells, -with rich handkerchiefs in their hands, and sometimes laid across over -their shoulders and necks, borrowed for the most part of their pretty -Mopsies and loving Bessies.... Thus all things set in order, then have -they their hobby-horses, dragons, and other antics, together with their -pipers and thundering drummers to strike up the devil's dance withal; -then march these heathen company towards the church and churchyard, their -pipers piping, their drummers thundering, their stumps dancing, their -bells jingling, their handkerchiefs swinging about their heads like -madmen, their hobby-horses and other monsters skirmishing amongst the -throng; and in this sort they go to the church (though the minister be at -prayer or preaching), dancing and swinging their handkerchiefs over their -heads in the church like devils incarnate, with such a confused noise -that no man can hear his own voice. Then the foolish people they look, -they stare, they laugh, they fleer, and mount upon forms and pews to see -these goodly pageants solemnised in this sort. Then, after this, about -the church they go again and again, and so forth into the churchyard, -where they have commonly their summer halls, their bowers, arbours, and -banqueting-houses set up, wherein they feast, banquet, and dance all that -day, and peradventure all that night, too. And thus these terrestrial -furies spend the Sabbath-day in the country." - -To relate all the jollity with which Christmas was celebrated is beyond -our space. The Christmas carols with which the waits awoke all the -sleeping people for a fortnight before; the yule-log dragged into the -hall and piled on the fire; the boar's-head feast, with plum-pudding and -mince-pies, and all the dances and games, were as much in fashion as in -the days of the ancient Church. Plough Monday, Valentine Day, Easter and -Whitsuntide, St. John's Eve, and all the charities of Maundy Thursday, -were still maintained. Even Palm Sunday, when the figure of Christ went -on its procession mounted on a wooden ass, resisted the Reformation till -the year 1548. - -The drama, which was now shaping itself into freedom and splendour under -such men as Shakespeare and Marlowe, was yet conducted in a very rough -style. The theatres were mostly of wood; the actors were rarely arrayed -in proper costume; women's parts were represented by boys; any scenery -which the play had, remained, like a picture on a country fair booth, -through the whole piece. The aristocratic frequenters sate on the stage, -for there were no boxes or dress-circle, and the commonalty sate on -stools and enjoyed their pipes and beer during the performance. What was -worse, the theatre had to contend, in the affections of the public, with -the bear-garden, bull-baiting, and cock-fighting. This was true--and to -us the fact must seem deplorable--of the very highest classes among the -people. - -As Sunday had been the great day of the Church plays or Mysteries, -so Sunday was the chief day of the theatre, which brought it into -disrepute with the serious portion of the community; and when there was -bull-baiting, the theatre was closed that it might not interfere. Queen -Elizabeth was especially fond of the bear-garden, and that sport was -consequently included by Leicester in the recreations which he provided -for her at Kenilworth. In truth, bear-gardens, cock-pits, bowling-greens, -tennis-courts, dicing-houses, taverns, smoking ordinaries, and the like -abounded, giving us a fair idea of the grade of taste of that age. -Hunting and hawking were still pastimes of the gentry, and horse-racing -became a great rage. The first notice we have of this latter pastime is -on the occasion before mentioned, when Henry went a-maying in 1515; after -which it is said that he and his brother-in-law, the Duke of Suffolk, -diverted themselves by "racing on great coursers." - -But amid the pleasures of this century there must have existed a large -intermixture of a more moral class, for the Bible had become extensively -read, and the Reformers must have been numerous to enable the Government -to effect the ecclesiastical changes which they did; and the advance -of physical improvement must not be judged of by the popular condition -of to-day, but of previous times. In the course of the century the -condition of the people considerably advanced. At the beginning the -houses of farmers were generally of timber, and those of labourers of -mud, or wattle and mud. In many of them were no chimneys, except one for -cooking. Wooden trenchers and wooden spoons were used instead of pewter -or earthenware; and a yeoman who had half a dozen pewter dishes in his -house was looked on as wealthy. Their lodging was equally mean. Straw -beds and pillows of chaff were most common; flock beds were a rural -luxury; and the farm servants lay on straw, and often had not even a -coverlet to throw over them. The bread of the common people was made of -rye, barley, or oats, and in many districts of peas or beans. The gentry -only ate wheaten bread. The men by the fire in the evening, after their -day's work, made their own shoes, or prepared the yokes for oxen, and -their plough-gear. The women made the wool and the hemp or flax ready -for the weaver at the spinning-wheel. As they do now on the Continent, -the countrywomen worked much in the fields. Fitzherbert, the first of -our writers on husbandry, says that it was the business of the farmer's -wife "to winnow all manner of corn, to make malt, to wash, to make hay, -to shear corn, and, in time of need, to help her husband to fill the -muck-wain, or dung-cart, drive the plough, to load hay or corn, to go to -market and sell butter or pigs or fowls." - -Latimer, who was a farmer's son, describes the advance in the value of -land in his time. When he was young, he says, his father's farm was -rented by him at L4 a year; that he employed half-a-dozen men upon it, -and had 100 sheep and thirty cows; that his father managed to send him -to school and college, and to give to each of his daughters L5 on her -marriage. But, continues Latimer, at the time he wrote this, the same -farm was charged L16 a year, or fourfold, and then the farmer of it -could do nothing for his prince, himself, or his children, nor give a -cup of drink to the poor. The cause of this was the increased demand for -wool, which had occasioned great enclosures, and a decrease of tillage -in favour of pasturage. This pressed greatly on the labouring class who -were not employed; for the gentlemen had flocks of from 10,000 to 20,000, -and a few shepherds were all they needed in their great enclosures. The -gentry, who thus occupied the land, we are told, did not reside on it, -but crowded up to London and hung about the Court. "Hence," says Roger -Ascham, "so many families dispersed, so many houses ruined. Hence the -honour and strength of England, the noble yeomanry, are broken up and -destroyed." - -[Illustration: THE FROLIC OF MY LORD OF MISRULE. (_See p._ 399.)] - -The evils of this state of things compelled the Legislature to put -restrictions on the extent of pasturage, to insist on the tillage of -sufficient land for the wants of the community; and penalties were -enacted for such as did not build proper cottages for their labourers, -with four acres of land each, or who allowed more than one family in one -cottage. The evil produced its own remedy. The scarcity of tillage land -raised the price of produce, and that stimulated to the manuring and -better culture of the land. We learn from Harrison and Norden, writers -of the period, that towards the end of the century things were greatly -improved. The farmers and small builders were become more painstaking and -skilful. They collected manure and even the sweepings of streets, burnt -lime, and carted sea sand, as in Cornwall and Devon. The consequence was -that they had better cattle and better crops, they had milk from their -cows, ewes, and goats; and they used much more meat. In the autumn they -cured bacon and beef for the winter; and in summer they had abundance of -veal, beef, and mutton, which, says Harrison, they ceased to baste with -lard, but basted with butter, or suffered the fattest to baste itself. - -With their living, their houses improved. Wood or wattle gave way to -stone or brick, the wooden trenchers were superseded at substantial -tables by pewter, and with the pewter were sometimes seen articles of -silver. Feather beds replaced the straw and chaff mattresses; there was -more abundant linen, bed-covers, and better clothing. Coal was beginning -to make the scarcity of wood less felt. - -The vast increase of foreign trade and of manufactures which has been -described must have proved the most effectual means, far more than -enactments, for encouraging tillage, from the augmented demand of -provisions and luxuries; and the same causes would provide employment -and good wages for increased numbers. The land as well as every other -thing in the kingdom was in a transition state, and as the large estates -of nobles and the Church, now divided amongst a multitude, came to be -settled and cultivated, the diffusion of life and prosperity through -the rural districts was no doubt proportional. At this time there must -have been a great flow of population from the agricultural to the -manufacturing districts, as the latter were making increased demands on -the strength of the nation; yet it appears that the produce both of the -tilled ground and of pasturage grew steadily. The small cottagers, who -had probably been but poor farmers, being now gradually absorbed into the -growing artisan population, gave place to greater and wealthier men, who -laid out the ground in large grazing farms. This gave rise to the false -impression that the population was decreasing, and the statistics of the -period give frequent evidence of the alarm thus occasioned. The evidence, -however, for the increase of the population is incontestable; and the -wage for ordinary labour seems to have been quite double its old amount -in this century. It may be interesting to record some of the salaries -of the period. In the household of the Earl of Northumberland, in 1511, -the principal priest of the chapel received L5 a year; a chaplain -graduate, L3 6s. 8d.; a chaplain, not a graduate, L2; a minstrel, L4; -a serving-boy, 13s. 4d.; all these being lodged and fed in addition. -In 1500 a mason received 4d. a day, and 2d. for diet. In 1575 a master -mason received 1s. a day, and a common labourer 8d. In 1601 a master -mason had 1s. 2d. a day, and a labourer 10d. The long continuance of -internal peace had increased the population from two millions and a half -in the commencement of the fifteenth century, to six millions and a half -at the end of the sixteenth; but the increase of trade, of commerce, -and of tillage, had not been able to absorb a tithe of the homeless and -destitute people who had been increasing since the abolition of villenage -and the destruction of the monasteries, which had fed swarms of them. We -have had occasion to show that these wandering tribes overran the country -like a flood--"vagabonds, rogues, and sturdy beggars"--carrying terror -and crime everywhere. Henry VIII., Harrison tells us, in the course of -his reign, hanged of robbers, thieves, and vagabonds, no fewer than -72,000, and Elizabeth, toward the latter part of her reign, sent 300 or -400 of them annually to the gallows. - -We find a statute of the first year of Edward VI. containing the -following:--"Idleness and vagabondry is the mother and root of all -thefts, robberies, and all evil acts and other mischiefs, and the -multitude of people given thereto hath always been here within this -realm very great and more in number, as it may appear, than in other -regions; the which idleness and vagabondry all the king's highness' noble -progenitors, kings of this realm, and this high court of Parliament hath -often and with great travail gone about and assayed with godly acts -and statutes to repress; yet until this our time it hath not had that -success which hath been wished; but--partly by foolish pity and mercy -of them which should have seen the said godly laws executed, partly by -perverse natures and long-accustomed idleness of the persons given to -loitering--the said godly statutes hitherto hath had small effect, and -idle and vagabond persons hath been suffered to remain and increase, -and yet so do." "If," continues the Act, "they should be punished by -death, whipping, imprisonment, or with other corporal pain, it were not -without their desert, for the example of others and to the benefit of -the commonwealth; yet if they could be brought to be made profitable and -do service, it were much to be wished and desired." Such words would -lead us to conclude that they were about to adopt conciliatory measures -with regard to this troublesome class, but we find on the contrary the -harshest enactments put in execution. Thus, every person found idle -and wandering without any effort to obtain work was to be considered a -vagabond, and was liable to be seized by any one and forced to labour, -for which he was to receive only his daily food. If he attempted to -run away, he was to be branded on the breast with the letter "V" and -made the slave of his owner for two years. If he made a second attempt -for liberty, he was to be branded on the forehead or cheek with the -letter "S" and made his master's slave for ever; while a third effort -at escape was punishable by death. The severity of this law prevented -it from being properly executed, and caused its repeal in two years. -After various futile enactments, Henry VIII., in 1530, gave the sick and -impotent permission to beg; and in 1536 the magistrates and the clergy -were ordered to make collections for their relief. These were the first -approaches to a poor-law, and in the year 1562 Queen Elizabeth passed an -Act making parochial assessments for the poor compulsory. The poor-law, -therefore, in reality dates from that period; but in the year 1601, the -celebrated Act of the 43rd of Elizabeth organised and completed that -system of employing and maintaining the destitute poor, which--with its -subsequent modifications--has remained ever since the law of England. - -[Illustration: PUNISHMENT OF THE STOCKS.] - - - - -CHAPTER XVII. - -THE REIGN OF JAMES I. - - The Stuart Dynasty--Hopes and Fears caused by the Accession of - James--The King enters England--His Progress to London--Lavish - Creation of Peers and Knights--The Royal Entrance into the - Metropolis--The Coronation--Popularity of Queen Anne--Ravages - of the Plague--The King Receives Foreign Embassies--Rivalry - of the Diplomatists of France and Spain--Discontent of - Raleigh, Northumberland, and Cobham--Conspiracies against - James--"The Main" and "The Bye"--Trials of the Conspirators--The - Sentences--Conference with Puritans--Parliament of - 1604--Persecution of Catholics and Puritans--Gunpowder - Plot--Admission of fresh Members--Delays and Devices--The - Letter to Lord Mounteagle--Discovery of the Plot--Flight of the - Conspirators--Their Capture and Execution--New Penal Code--James's - Correspondence with Bellarmine--Cecil's attempts to get - Money--Project of Union between England and Scotland--The King's - Collisions with Parliament--Insurrection of the Levellers--Royal - Extravagance and Impecuniosity--Fresh Disputes with Parliament and - Assertions of the Prerogative--Death of Cecil--Story of Arabella - Stuart--Death of Prince Henry. - - -With the Stuart dynasty begins a new order of things. The direct line of -the Tudors ceased in Elizabeth, and the collateral one of the Stuarts -introduced the kings of Scotland to the English throne. After all the -ages of conflict to unite the two kingdoms under one crown, it was -effected, but in the reverse direction to that in which the monarchs -of England had striven. They had not mounted the throne of Scotland, -but Scotland sent her king to rule over England. With Elizabeth and the -Tudors terminated the reign of almost unresisted absolutism; with James -commenced that mighty struggle for constitutional liberty which did not -cease till it had expelled his dynasty from the throne, and placed on a -firm basis the independence of the people. - -With great haste various messengers flew to Scotland to announce the -demise of Elizabeth; the winner in the race of loyalty, or, in other -words, of self-interest, being, as we have seen, Sir Robert Carey, to -whom the artifice of his sister, Lady Scrope, had communicated the -earliest news of the queen's decease. He reached Edinburgh four days -before Sir Charles Percy and Thomas Somerset, who were despatched -officially by the Council. Meanwhile, on March 24th, 1603, Cecil -assembled thirty-five individuals--members of Council, peers, prelates, -and officers of State--at Whitehall, and accompanied by the lord mayor -and aldermen, proclaimed James VI. of Scotland James I. of England, first -in front of Westminster Palace, and then at the High Cross, in Cheapside. - -There were some who were apprehensive that the accession of James might -be opposed by the noblemen who had been so active in the death of his -mother. But these had taken care to make their peace with the facile -James, whose filial affection was not of an intensity to weigh much in -the scales with the crown of England. On the contrary, his accession -was hailed with apparent enthusiasm by all parties, for all parties -believed that they should reap decided advantages from his government. -The persecuted Catholics felt certain that the son of the queen of Scots -would at least tolerate their religion, as he had many a time privately -assured their agents. The Puritans were equally confident that a king -who had been educated in the strictest faith of Calvinism, would place -them in the ascendant. The Episcopal church--as it deemed, on equally -good grounds--rejoiced in the advent of a prince who had protested to -its friends that he was heartily sick of a religion which had domineered -over both his mother and himself with an iron rigidity. The populace, in -the hope of a milder yoke than that of the truculent Tudors, gave vent to -their joy in loud acclamations, by bonfires and ringing of bells, while -Elizabeth was lying a corpse, scarcely cold, on her bier. - -James, who was in his thirty-seventh year, was transported at the -prospect of his escape from the poverty and religious restraint of -Scotland, to the affluence of so much more extensive an empire, and -one impediment alone checked his flight southward--the want of money -for the journey. He sent a speedy message to Cecil for the necessary -funds, and also added a request for the transmission of the Crown jewels -for the adornment of his wife. The money was forwarded, but the jewels -were prudently withheld till he reached his future capital. Once in -possession of the means of locomotion, James did not conceal his pleasure -at escaping from the control of his Presbyterian clergy and the haughty -rudeness of his nobles, to an accession of wealth and power which he -imagined would make him as absolute as Henry VIII., a condition for which -he had an intense yearning. - -On the 5th of April James commenced his journey towards London, but -however much he rejoiced in the prospect of his new kingdom, he was in -no haste to reach the capital. The moment that he set foot in England -he seemed to have realised the full luxury of his new sovereignty, and -announced to those about him that they had indeed at last arrived at -the Land of Promise. At Berwick he fired a piece of ordnance himself -in his joy, which seemed for the moment to have raised him above his -constitutional timidity; and he then sate down and wrote to Cecil, -informing him of his progress, and of his intention to take York and -other places on his way. As he intended to enter York and pass through -other towns in state, he pressed on the obsequious minister the necessity -of forwarding to him coaches, litters, horses, jewels, and all that -was requisite for regal dignity, as well as a lord chamberlain; and he -forthwith appointed to that office the lord Thomas Howard. He stayed -three days at York, and did not reach Newark till the 21st of the month. -Cecil had met him at York, and accompanied his progress; and as he rode -forward the people crowded around to welcome their new sovereign with -the most hearty acclamations. To express his satisfaction to the gentry, -he made almost every man of any standing who approached him a knight; so -that by the time he reached London he is said to have created two hundred -and fifty, and before he had been in England three months, seven hundred -knights, a profusion which much diminished the value of the gift. - -[Illustration: JAMES I.] - -The truth was that James, who made himself very free and easy in his -immediate circle, disliked exposure to the mob, and dealt about his -smiles and knighthoods to get rid of his throngers as soon as possible. -By the time he had reached Berwick he had knighted three persons; at -Widdrington he knighted eleven, at York thirty-one, at Worksop in -Nottinghamshire eighteen, at Newark eight, on the road thence to Belvoir -Castle four, at Belvoir forty-five. Yet gracious as he was and agreeable -as he wanted to make himself, his new subjects did not behold his person -and manner without considerable astonishment. His ungainly figure and -his equally uncouth dialect no little amazed the stately courtiers of -Elizabeth, but nevertheless they paid him the most devoted homage, as the -dispenser of all honours and of every good. - -At Theobalds Cecil had the opportunity of studying James's character and -of ingratiating himself with him. A new Council was formed, and whilst -James introduced six of his own countrymen, Cecil recommended six of his -partisans to balance them. During his correspondence with James Cecil had -managed to fix in the king's mind a deep and ineradicable aversion to the -men whom he himself regarded with jealous and hostile feelings--Raleigh, -Cobham, and Grey. It was in vain that they paid their court; they were -treated with coldness, and Raleigh, instead of receiving the promotion to -which he aspired, was even deprived of the valuable office of warden of -the Stannaries. Northumberland was equally the object of Cecil's dislike, -but Bacon was warmly in his favour, and the king received him graciously. - -On the 7th of July James set out for his capital, and at Stamford Hill -was met by the lord mayor and aldermen in their scarlet robes, followed -by a great crowd, and with these he entered the City, and proceeded to -the Charterhouse. He immediately caused a proclamation to be made that -all licences and monopolies granted by Elizabeth, and which had excited -so much discontent, should be suspended till they had been examined by -the Council; that all protections from the Crown to delay the progress -of justice in the courts of law should cease, as well as the abuses of -purveyance, and the oppressions of saltpetre-makers and officers of the -household. From the Charterhouse he proceeded, according to routine, -to the Tower, and thence to Greenwich and back to Whitehall, at every -step making more knights and creating peers. He had sent for the Earl -of Southampton to meet him at York, and he now restored both him and -the son of his friend the Earl of Essex to their honours and estates. -Mountjoy and three of the Howards were raised to the rank of earls; nine -new barons were created, amongst them Cecil, who was made Lord Cecil, and -afterwards Viscount Cranbourne, and finally Earl of Salisbury. Buckhurst -and Egerton were promoted; and eventually, besides his seven hundred -spick-and-span new knights, he added sixty-two fresh members to the -peerage. So extravagant was his distribution of honours that a pasquinade -was affixed to the door of St. Paul's, offering to teach weak memories -the art of recollecting the titles of the nobility. - -The coronation took place on the 25th of July. James's wife, Anne of -Denmark, was crowned with him. The weather had been intensely hot, but -it now set in very rainy. To spoil the pleasure of the people, the -plague was raging in the City, and the inhabitants were by proclamation -forbidden to enter Westminster. No queen-consort had been crowned since -Anne Boleyn, nor had any king and queen been crowned together since Henry -VIII. and Catherine of Aragon, and therefore the restriction was the more -mortifying. Queen Anne went to the coronation "with her seemly hair down -hanging on her princely shoulders, and on her head a coronet of gold. She -so mildly saluted her new subjects, that the women, weeping, cried out -with one voice, 'God bless the royal queen! Welcome to England, long to -live and continue!'" - -That week there died in London and the suburbs eight hundred and -fifty-seven persons of the plague. On the 5th of August James ordered -morning and evening prayers and sermons, with bonfires all night to -drive away the pestilence, not forgetting to order that all men should -praise God for his Majesty's escape that day three years before, from the -Gowrie conspiracy; and on the 10th of August he commanded that a fast, -with sermons of repentance, should be held, and repeated every week on -Wednesday so long as the plague continued. - -James's pride was soon gratified by the flocking in of ambassadors -from all the great nations of Europe, soliciting his alliance; and on -the first intimation of their approach he appointed Sir Lewis Lewknor -master of the ceremonies, to receive and entertain these distinguished -persons. This was the first establishment of such an office in England. -First arrived, from Holland and the United Provinces, Prince Frederick -of Nassau son of the Prince of Orange, attended by the three able -diplomatists Valck, Barneveldt, and Brederode. James, with equally high -notions of the royal prerogative, had not the sympathy of Elizabeth -with the struggles of Protestantism abroad, and therefore regarded the -revolted Netherlanders as rebels and traitors, and did not fail amongst -his courtiers to pronounce them so; the more particularly as they owed -the English crown large sums for past assistance, which they were in -no hurry to pay. He, therefore, framed various excuses to defer their -audiences till the arrival of the envoy of the King of Spain, Count -Aremberg, who was not long in appearing, bringing the agreeable news that -the Archduke had liberated all English prisoners, as the subjects of a -friendly power. Two days after Aremberg's arrival, Henry IV.'s great -minister, the Duke of Sully, reached London. Aremberg was in no condition -to negotiate on any positive terms till he received instructions from -Spain; and Sully seized time by the forelock, by distributing amongst the -courtiers sixty thousand crowns, a considerable part of which found its -way into the queen's purse. He prevailed on James to make a treaty with -Henry IV., in which he engaged to send money to the States in aid against -the Spaniards, and join France in open hostilities should Philip attempt -to invade that country. Sully, delighted with his success--for Henry -feared nothing more than James's making peace with Spain, and leaving him -to assist Holland alone--returned to France. But a little time convinced -the French court that nothing in reality had been secured by it, for -James had no money to send to Holland had he been really so disposed, -which is doubtful, and that he merely temporised with them as he had done -with different States before. - -Meantime the Court of Spain, notwithstanding the activity of France, was -slow in deciding the course of policy to be adopted towards England under -the new king. After the decided hostility towards it under Elizabeth, and -the signal defeats experienced, pride forbade Philip to solicit a peace, -lest it should look like weakness. And, indeed, Spain had never recovered -from the severe blow received in the loss of its Armada, and the other -ravages of its ports and colonies by the English, added to the loss of a -great portion of the Low Countries; and this consciousness made it more -tardy in its proceedings. But while engaged in prolonged discussions on -this head, two Englishmen arrived at the court of Spain, whose mission -was of a nature to bring it to a decision. These were Wright and Fawkes, -who were soon to assume a conspicuous position in the strife between -the Catholics and Protestants of England. Previous to the death of -Elizabeth, Thomas Winter had negotiated with the Spanish Court a plan -for the invasion of England, which had been abandoned on her decease. -Now, however, the scheme was revived, and these two emissaries were -despatched to sound the present disposition of the Court of Madrid. This -direct appeal from the conspirators seems to have startled the Spanish -Government from its wavering policy. It was not prepared for anything -so desperate, and replied that it had no cause of complaint against -James, but, on the contrary, regarded him as a friend and ally, and had -appointed the Conde de Villa Mediana as ambassador to his Court. - -This was decisive, and the way now seemed open towards a more friendly -tone between Spain and England; but at the same moment a secret -and mysterious correspondence seems to have been going on between -Aremberg, the agent of the King of Spain, and a discontented party in -England. Northumberland, Cobham, and Raleigh were ill at ease under -the disappointment which they had met with in their hopes of favour at -James's Court. Northumberland had been to a certain degree graciously -received, and even entertained with promises by James; but he felt that -while Cecil was so completely in the ascendant there was little hope of -a cordial feeling towards him in the monarch's heart. Cobham and Raleigh -were undisguisedly in disgrace, and were shunned by the courtiers as -fallen men. The three friends, therefore, entered into intrigues with the -Court of France through the resident minister Beaumont, and Sully the -envoy extraordinary. For a time their suggestions were listened to, but -the apparent success of Sully with James put an end to further overtures, -and there Northumberland was prudent enough to desist. But Cobham and -Raleigh, disappointed of Court favour and burning with resentment against -Cecil--whom they felt to be the cause of their disgrace--plotted for the -overthrow of the crafty minister. - -Sully, the French envoy, had, while in London, done his best to inspire -James with distrust of Cecil; and there is little doubt that this was at -the suggestion, or with the co-operation of Cobham, Northumberland, and -Raleigh. When Northumberland drew back, these two held communication with -Aremberg, to whom they offered their services in promoting the objects -he sought on behalf of Spain and the Netherlands. Aremberg, who did not -know what was going on at the Spanish Court, communicated the proposal -to his master, who instructed him to give a favourable answer. What the -scheme proposed by Cobham and Raleigh precisely was seems never to have -been known, but we may suppose that in return for aid from the Continent, -these ambitious men were to attempt the removal of Cecil by some means, -and on their succeeding to power, their influence was to be exerted with -the king on behalf of Spain. - -This was designated by those in the secret as "The Main" conspiracy; but -there was also another going on simultaneously, of which these gentlemen -are supposed to have been cognisant, but not mixed up with. This was -called "The Bye" conspiracy, and was composed of an extraordinary medley -of the discontented, the most determined of whom aimed at nothing less -than the seizure of the king, and the government of the country in his -name, for their own party purposes. - -The grand cause of discontent was the disappointment of both Catholics -and Puritans in James. Before his coming to the English crown he had -held out the most flattering expectations to the Catholics that he -would grant them toleration, whilst the Puritans calculated on his -Presbyterian education for a decided adhesion to their views. But no -sooner did he reach England than he threw himself into the arms of the -High Church party, declaring that it was the only religion fit for a -king. To the Catholics he declared he would grant no toleration--rather -would he fight to the death against it; and he took no pains to conceal -his disgust at the Presbyterian clergy amongst whom he had spent his -youth. The antagonism of Catholic and Puritan was forgotten in the -resentment against this disclosure of the king's disposition. Instantly -plans were cogitated to avenge themselves of the royal perfidy, as it -was termed, and to secure themselves against the threatened storm. Sir -Griffin Markham, a Catholic gentlemen of no great property or influence, -concerted with two priests, Watson and Clarke, the means of raising the -Catholics against the Government. Watson had been sent into Scotland, to -James, on behalf of the Catholics, before the death of Elizabeth, and he -indignantly represented that James had given them, through him, the most -solemn promises of toleration, which he had now broken. He, therefore, -threw himself with the greatest heat into the conspiracy: he drew up an -awful oath of secrecy, and he and Clarke travelled far and wide amongst -the Catholic families, calling upon them to come forward in the name of -their religion and their property. - -But their success was trivial; few or none of the Catholics of weight -and station would engage in the enterprise. Failing there, Watson turned -his attention to the Puritans; and with them he was more successful, -by artfully concealing from them the paucity of the Catholics who had -joined the conspiracy, and the full extent of his own intentions. Lord -Grey de Wilton, who was a leading Puritan, and had his discontent from -the same causes as Cobham and Raleigh, was induced by Watson to join the -conspiracy, under the impression that a strong Catholic body was engaged -in it. He agreed to furnish a troop of a hundred horse, but he was not -long in discovering that he had been imposed upon, and advised the -conspirators to defer the execution of their design to a more favourable -opportunity. - -The conspirators proposed to meet during the darkness of night at -Greenwich; but the reflection that there were three hundred armed -gentlemen within the Palace, made that appear too hazardous; they, -therefore, altered their plan, and concluded to seize James as he was -hunting at Hanworth, and where he was accustomed to call for refreshment -at a gentleman's house. The plan, as communicated by Watson to the -conspirators, was to assemble in a numerous body under pretence of -presenting a petition to James as he went out hunting, seize the king, -and convey him to a place of safety, where they were to extort from him -a declaration of liberty of conscience. With the king in their hands, -they would then wreak their vengeance on Cecil and Sir George Howe; and -it was afterwards charged against them in the indictment, that they meant -to make Watson lord chancellor, Brooke, the brother of Cobham--who was a -most unprincipled man, and has been suspected of being Cecil's spy and -tool on the occasion--lord treasurer, Markham secretary, and Grey earl -marshal. Probably this was the scheme devised for them by the accusers, -for it appears too wild for belief; but be that as it may, the 24th of -June was the day named for the attempt, when the refusal of Lord Grey -caused it to be abandoned, and the party separated with much mutual -recrimination. - -But Watson had already proceeded to a length which led to the revelation -of the plot to Cecil. He had endeavoured to engage in it the Society of -the Jesuits, and had communicated his plans to a Jesuit of the name of -Gerard. The Society not only refused to sanction the conspiracy, but the -archpriest went at once and revealed it to Cecil. The crafty minister -kept his information close, and resolved to let the conspirators go on -till the very day for the execution of their design, so that he might -the more summarily convict them; but the failure of their plan left him -no further reason for delay, and Anthony Copley, one of the "Bye," was -arrested, as a man well known to be of a timid character and likely -in his terror to betray his associates. Cecil had probably plenty of -intelligence of both the plan and its agitators from others as well as -from Gerard, and most probably from Brooke. But with great judgment he -neglected no means of making the conspirators furnish evidence against -each other, and thus he kept his own sources of knowledge secret. On the -heels of Copley's arrest, followed, as a natural consequence, the arrest -of Griffin, Markham, the priests Watson and Clarke, and the rest of -Copley's associates. Cecil said that the mere fact of Brooke being in the -conspiracy made him feel certain that Cobham, Raleigh, and Northumberland -were in it. They were therefore apprehended separately; and, by playing -on the fears of the fallen Cobham, Cecil speedily made him incriminate -Raleigh. - -[Illustration: ST. THOMAS'S TOWER AND TRAITORS' GATE, TOWER OF LONDON.] - -The coronation of the king, which took place on the 25th of July, -being his saint's day, the festival of St. James, and the violence of -the plague, which caused the king to flee into the country, postponed -the trials of the conspirators. The Court, followed by the judges and -their suitors, fled from place to place for several months, pursued by -the plague; and it was not till November that the trials took place in -the castle at Winchester. Another cause had, perhaps still more than -the plague, deferred them. Aremberg was deeply implicated, but his -intrigues could not be opened up whilst he was in the country, nor could -an order be issued directing him to leave, without embarrassing the -public relations with Spain. But in October he left, and on the 15th -of November the trials of the conspirators commenced. The accomplices -of the "Bye"--Brooke, Brookesby, Markham, Copley, Watson, and Clarke, -with others--were all condemned on their own confessions, for they had -been so managed that they not only accused each other, but made the most -ample confessions of their own guilt, as if each thought he should obtain -pardon by discovering most. These confessions, which had been carefully -compiled, were put in as evidence against them. Sir Edward Parham only -was acquitted, for he pleaded that he joined solely to rescue the king -from the hands of those who held him in captivity; Cecil threw in his -word in his favour, suggesting that the king's dignity consisted as much -in freeing the innocent as condemning the guilty. This conduct gave an -air of impartiality--of which no one could estimate the effect more fully -than the astute Cecil--to the proceedings. - -Sir Walter Raleigh was next put upon his trial. His extraordinary -ability, and his knowledge of Court secrets, made it too dangerous an -attempt to connect him with the "Bye," and arraign him along with the -unhappy and weak members of that part of the conspiracy. He was not -placed at the bar even along with Cobham, for the only evidence against -him which the Court dared to bring forward, was that of Cobham; and -they knew too well that in Raleigh's presence, the wavering Cobham -would be worse than useless. Already repenting of his accusation of -Raleigh in the surprise of his resentment, Cobham had retracted his -accusations; and when pressed and cross-questioned by the Council, had so -contradicted himself, that to bring him into public would be to render -his evidence worthless. True, the Council had the intercepted letters, -which had passed between Aremberg and the Spanish authorities, which -were sufficiently criminatory of Raleigh and Cobham; but these could -not be produced without an exposure of the fact that the correspondence -of ambassadors and their principals was not safe in England. Indeed, -Coke, who was of course duly instructed in the particulars of this -correspondence, having made some too intelligible reference to Aremberg, -Cecil compelled him to apologise to the ambassador, and hastened to -assure the other ambassadors of foreign courts that Aremberg had no -notion of the purpose for which Cobham and Raleigh had solicited money -from Spain. - -Coke's device was to mix the two plots. He went into the case at -length, and what he lacked in proof he endeavoured to supply by abuse. -He described in inflated language the intentions of the agitators of -the "Bye," and declared that amongst other things, they meant to make -proclamation against monopolies, as if that were absolute treason. -Raleigh calmly reminded him that he was not charged with the "Bye." "You -are not," replied Coke; "but it will be seen that all these treasons, -though they consisted of several parts, closed in together like Samson's -foxes, which were joined in their tails, though their heads were -separated." Raleigh still insisted that the "Bye" was the treason of the -priests, and said, "What is the treason of the priest to me?" "I will -then come close to you," said Coke. "I will prove you to be the most -notorious traitor that ever came to the bar; you are, indeed, upon the -'Main,' but you have followed them upon the 'Bye' in imitation." - -Raleigh in reply demanded that his accuser should be brought face to -face with him. He demanded it on the authority of the statute law and -the law of God, both of which required that this should be done to prove -an offence. But Lord Chief Justice Popham told him that the Statutes of -Edward VI. to which he appealed, were cancelled by Philip and Mary; that -he must take his trial by the common law, as settled by Edward III., -under which a trial by jury and written evidence was as valid as a trial -by jury and witnesses; and that at most one witness was sufficient. But -Raleigh replied that his case was peculiar, and that there was not a -single witness against him; for even the man who had borne testimony -against him had retracted his assertions. He, therefore, reiterated his -demand for the production of Cobham; declaring that if Cobham dared in -his presence to reaffirm a single charge, he would submit to his doom, -and would not add another word. When this challenge was passed over -without any notice, he produced a letter which Cobham had written to him -about a fortnight before, in which he said:--"To free myself from the cry -of blood, I protest, upon my soul and before God and His angels, I never -had conference with you in any treason, nor was ever moved by you to the -things I heretofore accused you of; and, for anything I know, you are as -innocent and as clear from any treasons against the king as is subject -living. And God so deal with me and have mercy on my soul, as this is -true." - -This appeared a strong avowal, but Cecil was prepared for this, having, -no doubt, already seen this letter on its passage; and Coke produced in -defeat of it another letter written by Cobham to the Council but the day -before. In this letter Cobham stated that Raleigh had twice sent letters -to him in the Tower, which had been thrown into his window-sash in an -apple, and that in these letters he entreated him to do him right by -denying what he had said as to his wishing him to come from the Continent -by Jersey, and in other particulars. Cobham replied that he retracted the -assertion about Jersey, but went on to state that Raleigh had been the -original cause of his ruin, for that he had no dealings with Aremberg but -at Sir Walter's instigation. He added that at Aremberg's coming Raleigh -was to receive a pension of fifteen hundred pounds a year, for which he -was to keep the king of Spain informed of all designs against the Indies, -the Netherlands, or Spain; that he (Cobham) also counselled him (Raleigh) -not to be overtaken by preachers as Essex was, and that the king would -better allow of a constant denial than of the accusation of any one. - -During the reading of this letter Raleigh could not conceal his -astonishment and confusion. When it was finished, he admitted that there -had been some talk of a pension, but mere talk and nothing more. But the -fact made a deep impression on the minds of the jury, and the prisoner -probably being conscious of it, repeated his demand for the production -of Cobham himself. "My lords," he exclaimed, "let Cobham be sent for; I -know he is in this very house! I beseech you let him be confronted with -me! Let him be here openly charged--upon his soul--upon his allegiance -to the king--and if he will then maintain his accusations to my face, -I will confess myself guilty!" But no notice was taken of this appeal: -Coke still strove to bear him down by the coarsest brow-beating, shouting -fiercely, "I will have the last word for the king!" "Nay," retorted -Raleigh, "I will have the last word for my life!" "Go to," said the -insolent lawyer; "I will lay thee upon thy back for the confidentest -traitor that ever came to the bar." Cecil here interposed, telling Coke -that he was too impatient and severe; but Coke cried, "I am the king's -sworn servant, and must speak. You discourage the king's counsel, my -lord, and encourage traitors." - -The jury, but with evident reluctance, returned a verdict of guilty. -On being asked, in the usual form, whether he had anything to say why -judgment should not be pronounced against him, he replied that he was -perfectly innocent of the charges of Cobham, but that he submitted -himself to the king's mercy, and recommended to the compassion of his -majesty his wife and his son of tender years. After the sentence of high -treason, with all its disgusting details, had been pronounced, Raleigh -asked to speak privately with Cecil, Lord Henry Howard, and the Earls of -Suffolk and Devonshire, entreating them that, in consideration of the -position which he had held under the crown, his death might not be so -ignominious as the strict sentence required. They promised to use their -influence, and he was taken back to his quarters. - -The charges of complicity which were made against Arabella Stuart, in -the indictment against Raleigh, were of a nature which called for denial -on her part. She was present at the trial in a gallery; and Charles -Howard, Earl of Nottingham, who was sitting by her, arose, and in her -name protested, on her salvation, that she had never meddled in any -such matters. There appeared, indeed, no disposition at this moment to -implicate the Lady Arabella, though her relation to the Crown made her -an object of anxiety to James, as we shall soon have occasion to see. -Cecil himself acquitted her of any concern in this treason, admitting -that though she had received a letter from Cobham, entreating her to -countenance it, she only laughed at it and at once sent it to the king. -Of the actual extent of Raleigh's participation, and what was his real -object, we have no means of judging, for though James was in possession -of the letters between the accused parties and Aremberg, they could not, -as already stated, be produced. - -Cobham and Grey were arraigned before a tribunal of their peers, -consisting of eleven earls and nineteen barons. Nothing could be more -striking than the cowardice and meanness of Cobham, and the noble dignity -of Grey. They were both condemned. - -The two priests were first conducted to execution. They suffered all -the bloody horrors of the law at Winchester, on the 29th of November. -It was surmised that James was glad to be rid of Watson as one of -the individuals to whom, before coming to the English throne, he had -promised toleration to the Catholics. There was an attempt to prove -the non-existence of such a promise, but it was crude and convinced -nobody. At the gallows both Watson and Clarke declared that they were -convinced they owed their death to their priesthood. They were cut down -alive and their bowels torn out--a revolting practice which but too well -illustrates the vindictive spirit of the age. - -The next execution was that of Brooke. He was simply beheaded, also at -Winchester, on the 5th of December. The people expressed great sympathy -for him, under a belief that he had first been employed by Cecil in -the troubled waters of these conspiracies, and then victimised by him. -Markham, Grey, and Cobham were brought to the scaffold, induced to -confess, and, after an interval of suspense, reprieved. Raleigh was -imprisoned in the Tower of London for many years. - -The effect of this conspiracy was to deepen James's suspicion of the -Catholics and his dislike of the Puritans. The Catholics, since his -coming to the English throne, had conducted themselves with more policy -than their robustious rivals, the Puritans. They had claimed, indeed, -the fulfilment of his promises whilst merely King of Scotland, to favour -them as the staunch friends of his mother and serious sufferers on her -account; but they had preferred their claims with a degree of courtesy -and moderation to which the brusque Reformers were strangers. The pope, -Clement VIII., probably led by the same expectations, had by two breves -addressed to the archpriest and provincial of the Jesuits, strictly -enjoined the missionaries to confine themselves to their spiritual -duties, and on no account to mix themselves up with the agitators for -political change. He condemned unequivocally the conduct of Watson and -Clarke, and sent a secret envoy to the English Court, expressing his -abhorrence of all acts of disloyalty, and offering to withdraw any -missionary from the kingdom who was in any way obnoxious to the king and -Council. James appeared so far influenced by this moderation, that though -he stoutly refused all application for a free exercise of the Catholic -worship, and even committed individuals to the Tower who offended in this -respect, yet he invited the Catholics to frequent his Court, he conferred -knighthood on some of them, and assured them generally that they should -not suffer for recusancy so long as they abstained from a breach of the -laws as regarded religion, and from all acts of political insubordination. - -[Illustration: SIR WALTER RALEIGH. (_From the Portrait by Zucchero._)] - -But towards the Puritans he was by no means so courteous. He could never -forget that they had kept him in restraint in his infancy and youth; -that they had been the defamers and persecutors of his mother; and that -to the very hour in which he escaped into the larger field of English -power, they had goaded him with their demands and defied his authority. -As he drew nearer to the English throne, the charms of the English church -increased in his imagination. A church which set up the king as its head -was a church as much after James's own heart as after that of Henry VIII. -Like that monarch, he dearly loved to shine in polemics, and long before -he arrived in England, it required no great shrewdness to perceive where -his affections lay. - -[Illustration: THE DISSENTING DIVINES PRESENTING THEIR PETITION TO JAMES. -(_See p._ 416.)] - -No sooner was he in England than he spoke his mind roundly as to his real -feelings towards the Puritans. He said to the bishops and courtiers: "I -will tell you, I have lived amongst this sect of men ever since I was -ten years old; but I may say of myself as Christ said of Himself, though -I lived amongst them, yet, since I had ability to judge, I was never of -them." And this was at least sincere. He had grown more undisguisedly -Episcopalian as he saw Elizabeth sinking, and felt his hold on the -throne through her own ministers. He had given seats in parliament to -a certain number of clergymen, thus making them bishops without the -name; but it was in his "Basilicon Doron"--a manual for the instruction -of his son, published in 1779--that he had let loose his deep dislike -of the Presbyterians. He tells his son to "take heed to such Puritans, -very pests in the church and commonwealth, whom no deserts can oblige, -neither oaths nor promises bind, breathing nothing but sedition and -calumnies, aspiring without measure, ruling without reason, making their -own imaginations, without any warrant of the Word, the square of their -conscience. I protest," he added, "before the great God, and since I am -here upon my testament, it is no place for me to lie in, that you shall -never find with any Highland or Border thieves greater ingratitude, and -more lies and perjuries than with these fanatic spirits; and suffer not -the principal of them to brook your land, if ye list to sit at rest; -except you would keep them for trying your patience, as Socrates did an -evil wife." - -But whilst the royal Solomon thus plainly enunciated his hatred of -Puritanism, he was cautious not to let the English bishops too early -into his fixed intention to patronise them. He liked to feel himself -the undoubted head of that Church, and to see those dignitaries in -fear and trembling prostrate at his feet; and it was not till they had -sufficiently humbled themselves before him, that he revived their spirits -with the declaration of his real sentiments. The Puritans precipitated -this avowal, by urging on James a further reform of the Church, and -its purgation from ceremonies. In their millenary petition (so called -because it was expected it would have a thousand signatures, but in -reality it had only about eight hundred) they demanded a conference, -in which to settle the form and doctrines of the Church. This, of all -things, delighted James. It was the very arena in which to display his -theological knowledge; he gladly consented to it, and appointed it to -take place at Hampton Court early in January, 1604. On the 14th of that -month the first assembly took place; and the bishops, who were first -admitted to the royal presence alone, were so alarmed at the prospect -of a conference which had been demanded by Dissenters, that they threw -themselves on their knees, and earnestly entreated the king not to alter -the constitution of the Church, nor to give the Puritans the triumph in -the coming debate, lest the Popish recusants should rejoice over and -declare them justly punished for their repulsion and persecution of them. -Then James condescended to lift the weight of fear from their hearts. He -avowed to them that he was a sincere convert to the Church of England, -and thanked God "who had brought him to the promised land, to a country -where religion was purely professed, and where he sate among grave, -reverend, and learned men; not as before, elsewhere, a king without -state, without honour, and without order, and braved to his face by -beardless boys under the garb of ministers." - -The delight of the bishops and dignitaries at this gracious confession -may be imagined. They were nearly twenty in number, whilst the Reformers -summoned numbered only four--namely, Doctors Reynolds and Sparkes, -divinity professors of Oxford, and Doctors Knewstub and Chatterton, -of Cambridge. James somewhat cooled the raptures of the Churchmen, by -adding that he knew all things were not perfect, and that, as some -modifications of the ritual and the ecclesiastical courts were, in his -opinion, needed, he had called them together in the first instance, in -order that they might settle what concessions should be made to the -Puritans. It was necessary to show some compliance; and after the day's -discussion it was agreed that some explanatory words should be added -in the Book of Common Prayer to the forms of general absolution and of -confirmation; that the Chancellor and the Chief Justice should reform -the practice of the commissary court; that excommunication should only -be inflicted for particularly serious offences; that the bishops should -neither confer ordinations nor pronounce censures, without the assistance -and concurrence of other eminent divines; that baptism should not be -administered by women or by laymen. - -These points being determined, on the 16th the four Puritan divines were -admitted, and instructed to state their demands. These embraced a general -revision of the Book of Common Prayer, the withdrawal of excommunication, -of baptism by women, of the use of the ring in marriage, of bowing -at the name of Jesus, of confirmation, of the wearing of the cap and -surplice, of the reading of the Apocrypha. They further required that -pluralities and non-residence should cease, that obligation to subscribe -the Thirty-nine Articles be abrogated, as well as the commendatories -held by bishops. The bishops defended such parts of the church service -and practices as the king had agreed should remain, and the prelates of -London and Winchester argued in their behalf long and vehemently. As the -Puritan doctors were not thus to be satisfied, and had by much the best -of the argument, James himself took up the debate, and conducted it in -that royal style which admits of no contradiction. He was now in his true -element: theological discussion was his pride and glory, and he believed -himself capable of silencing all Christendom. Dr. Reynolds, however, -who was the chief speaker, undaunted by his crowned opponent, insisted -boldly on various points; but when he came to the demand for the disuse -of the Apocrypha in the Church service, James could bear it no longer. He -called for a Bible, read a chapter out of Ecclesiasticus, and expounded -it according to his own views; then turning to the lords of his Council, -he said, "What trow ye makes these men so angry with Ecclesiasticus? By -my soul, I think Ecclesiasticus was a bishop, or they would never use him -so." The bishops and courtiers applauded the royal wit. James continued -to hold forth on all sorts of topics--baptism, confirmation, absolution, -which he declared to be apostolical, and a very good ordinance--and -assured the anti-episcopal divines that in his opinion, if there were no -bishops, there would soon be no king. - -When he had tired himself out with talking, Dr. Reynolds again ventured -to open his mouth, and inquired how ordinances of the Church agreed with -Christian liberty. This was touching James closely: it brought back to -his memory the harangues on the same liberty which he had heard from his -clergy in Scotland. He declared that he would not argue that point, but -answer as kings were wont to do in parliament, "_Le roy s'avisera_." -Without pretending to treat the matter as one of conviction, he treated -it as one of authority. He exclaimed, "I will have none of that: I will -have one doctrine and one discipline, one religion in substance and in -ceremony." He was resolved to be as absolute over every man's conscience -and understanding as Henry VIII. had been. "If that is what you be at, -then I tell you that a Scottish presbytery agreeth with monarchy as well -as God with the Devil. Then shall Jack and Tom and Dick meet, and at -their pleasure censure me and my council and all our proceedings. Then -Will shall stand up and say, 'It must be thus;' then Dick shall reply and -say, 'Nay, marry, but we will have it thus;' and therefore, here I must -once more reiterate my former speech, and say, _Le roy s'avisera_." - -It was in vain that Dr. Reynolds, who was reputed one of the most -able divines and logicians of the age, attempted to state his views -and opinions. The king constantly interrupted him and scoffed at him, -treating him in the most insolently overbearing manner, and when he -paused, asked him, "Well, doctor, have you anything more to say?" -Reynolds, perceiving it useless, replied, "No, please your majesty;" on -which James told these brow-beaten divines, that had they disputed no -better in college, and he had been moderator, he would have had them all -fetched up and flogged for dunces; that if that was all they had to say -for themselves, he would make them conform, or hurry them out of the -kingdom, or worse. With this scandalous treatment they were dismissed -till the 18th, when the Conference met again. The greater part of the day -was consumed by the king, the Council, and prelates in inquiring into -the abuses of the high commission court, and devising means for checking -them. At a late hour the Dissenting delegates were again admitted, not to -continue the discussion, but to hear the fixed decision of the king. On -hearing it they prayed that a certain time might be allowed before the -new regulations were enforced. This was granted, but not strictly kept, -for the new Book of Common Prayer was immediately prepared and published -by authority. - -Thus ended this curious Conference, in a complete triumph for the High -Church party. The Reformers complained bitterly of this, but James -himself was incapable of feeling the force of public opinion. He was -inflated with the idea of his own unrivalled eloquence and ability. -He boasted that he had "peppered the Dissenters soundly. They fled -me," he said, "from argument to argument like schoolboys." The bishops -and ministers of his Council added to his absurd egotism, by actually -pouring deluges of the most fulsome adulation upon him. Bancroft, Bishop -of London, flung himself on his knees before him, and exclaimed "that -his heart melted with joy, and made haste to acknowledge unto Almighty -God His singular mercy in giving them such a king, as since Christ's -time the like had not been"; and Whitgift, the primate, protested "that -his majesty spake by the special assistance of God's spirit." The Lord -Chancellor Ellesmere, emulating the sycophants of the Church, said that -"the king and the priest had never been so wonderfully united in the same -person;" and the peers echoed the plaudits, declaring that his majesty's -speeches proceeded from the spirit of God operating on an understanding -heart. "I wist not what they mean," wrote Harrington, in "Nugae Antiquae"; -"but the spirit was rather foul-mouthed." - -All parties connected with the Church having thus admitted that the king -was acting under the most luminous effusion of the Divine spirit, ought -not, therefore, to have murmured when soon afterwards, without waiting -for ecclesiastical sanction, he made his own alterations in the Book of -Common Prayer, and then issued a proclamation, warning all men neither to -attempt nor expect any further alterations in the Church, and commanding -all ecclesiastical and civil authorities to enforce the strictest -conformity. Whitgift soon after died (1604), and many attributed the -acceleration of his death to his mortification at the king's ordering the -affairs of the Church by his own will and wisdom, which Whitgift had been -one of the first to extol as infallible. Bancroft succeeded him in the -primacy, and showed himself a capable instrument of James's bigotry, and -ready to enforce whatever cruelty he would attempt. - -James spent fully half of his year in hunting, and if any person or -party had an urgent matter to prefer, the only opportunity of doing so -was by waylaying him in his rides to the forest. The Dissenters, as the -time approached for the enforcement of the new canons of the Church, -presented a petition to him near Newmarket, praying a prolongation of -the time allowed them for conforming. James received them with savage -fierceness; told them that it was from such petitions that the rebellion -in the Netherlands originated; that his mother and he had been haunted by -Puritan devils from their cradles; that he would sooner lose his crown -than encourage such malicious spirits; and if he thought his son would -tolerate them in his time, he would wish to see him that moment lying in -his grave. The Nonconformists complained that he persecuted the disciples -whilst he favoured the enemies of the Gospel. This was referring to his -reception of Catholics at court, and his promises not to molest them if -they abstained from the open prosecution of their worship. But James left -them under no mistake on that head. He expressed an equally vehement -hatred of Papists; and on the 22nd of February he issued a proclamation -enjoining the banishment of all Catholic missionaries. He went to the -Star Chamber, framed regulations for the discovery and prosecution of -recusants, and issued orders to magistrates to see the penal laws put -in force against all persons, of whatever faith, who did not fully -conform to the rites and ordinances of the Church. Thus the miseries -and oppressions of religious persecution were renewed with all their -virulence; and the only consolation for those who refused to conform was -that they might persecute one another. - -In the midst of this state of things James was compelled to call a -Parliament. This assembled on the 19th of March, 1604. It was one of the -most remarkable Parliaments in our history, for it came together, on the -part of both King and Commons, prepared to contest the great principles -of absolutism and constitutional liberty; a contest which never again -ceased till the people had triumphed over the Crown, and prescribed for -it those limits within which it continues still to exist. The Tudors had -made themselves absolute, but rather by acting than talking. They had -willed, but had only occasionally boasted of the supremacy of their will. -Whenever they had done so, especially in the person of Elizabeth, they -received a protest so spirited from Parliament, that they wisely again -veiled their pretensions. But James, possessing all their personal vanity -and love of unlimited power, had not the policy to keep his pretensions -in the background. He obtruded them on the public notice; he vaunted his -towering belief of his earthly divinity, declaring that as God killed or -made alive, so had He ordained kings to do the same at pleasure. Years -before he came to England, he published these imperious and imprudent -doctrines in a discourse "On the True Law of Free Monarchies; or, the -Reciprogue and Mutual Duty betwixt a Free King and his Natural Subjects." -He was, in short, a firm believer in the doctrine of the Divine Right of -Kings, which had taken such a firm root in Europe. - -In the proclamation calling this Parliament, James took care to set forth -the supremacy of his prerogative, and commanded the sheriffs and other -officers to make no returns of members but such as were wholly agreeable -to his views; there were to be no "persons noted for their superstitious -blindness in religion one way, or for their turbulent humour the other." -That is, neither Puritans nor Catholics were to be elected. Instructions -were sent down to the various counties and boroughs, naming such persons -for candidates as were agreeable to the Court. But the Puritans were in -no humour to comply with such unconstitutional orders. They were justly -filled with resentment at the treatment of their representatives at -Hampton Court, and put forward their own men and returned them in great -numbers in defiance of the Government. One case led to a direct and -vehement collision between the Crown and the House of Commons. Sir John -Fortescue, a member of the Privy Council, had been named by the Court as -a member for the county of Buckingham. The people of Buckinghamshire, -afterwards so conspicuous in the struggles between the Stuarts and -Parliament, elected Sir Francis Goodwin. The clerk of the Crown refused -to receive the return, and sent it back to the sheriff as contrary to -the proclamation; for Goodwin had formerly been outlawed, and James had -forbidden the return of outlaws. A second writ was issued, and under it -Sir John Fortescue was elected. But the Commons refused to admit him, -declaring that as Goodwin's outlawry had been reversed, the proclamation -did not apply to him, and that his return was good and should stand. - -[Illustration: THE OLD PALACE, WESTMINSTER, IN THE TIME OF CHARLES I. - -(_Showing the Hall, Parliament House, Painted Chamber, and St. Stephen's -Chapel._)] - -The Government, in the name of the Lords, proposed to the Commons that -there should be a conference between the two Houses on the subject -before any other business was proceeded with; but the Commons, with -a clear insight into their privileges, where the constitution and -functions of their own body were concerned, replied that it did not -consist with the honour of their House to give an account of their -proceedings and doings. On this they received a second message, in which -they were informed, through Coke, that his majesty being apprised of -their objection, conceived that his honour was touched, and desired -that there should be some conference between the Houses. On this the -Commons sent a deputation of their members, headed by the Speaker, to -represent to the king why they could not confer with the Lords on any -subject. The king was exceedingly high, and let them know that they -held all their privileges by the royal favour; but the members stoutly -denied that doctrine, as the House at large had already this session -denied it, saying "that new laws could not be instituted, nor imperfect -laws reformed, nor inconvenient laws abrogated, by any other power than -that of the High Court of Parliament, that is, by the agreement of the -Commons, the accord of the Lords, and the assent of the Sovereign; -that to him belonged the right either negatively to frustrate, or -affirmatively to ratify, but that he could not institute; every bill -must pass through the two Houses before it could be submitted to his -pleasure." - -This was a doctrine that clashed disagreeably with James's absolute -notions, and he upbraided the Commons with their presumption. But they -stood firmly to their position and, what was extremely humiliating to -the new monarch, excused his unconstitutional ideas through ignorance or -misinformation of the custom and laws of England; the privileges of their -house, they said, were the birthright of Englishmen and could not be -surrendered. James claimed that all disputed matters should be referred -to his court of chancery; but they claimed to settle all such themselves, -as the essential to the government of their estate. - -When James found that nothing would induce the Commons to confer with the -Lords, he ordered them to confer with the judges, and this command the -deputation carried back to the House. But the House, after a warm debate, -unanimously refused to refer the question to the judges; they drew up an -answer to all the king's arguments, and sent it to the Lords, requesting -them to present it to his majesty, and be mediators between them. James, -now finding that he could make no impression by express command, sent for -the Speaker and endeavoured to coax him over to his views; but that being -unsuccessful, he ordered him to deliver to the House his command, "as an -absolute king," to confer with the judges. This was a direct challenge -to the popular element to try its strength with the royal one--language -which was sure to put a high-spirited people on its mettle: the first -utterance of that language, which no warning, no experience could teach -a Stuart to abandon, till the utterance was quenched in blood. - -When the Speaker delivered this command, there fell a profound silence -on the House--an augury and foreboding, as it were, of the gigantic -struggle which was commencing. At length the ominous silence was broken -by a member starting up and exclaiming that "the prince's command was -like a thunderbolt; his command over our allegiance," he said, "is like -the roaring of a lion! To his command there is no contradiction; but how, -or in what manner we should proceed to perform obedience, that will be -the question." It was finally agreed to send a deputation to confer with -the judges in the presence of the king and Council. At the conference -there appeared no better prospect of success, when the king happily -proposed that both Goodwin and Fortescue should be set aside, and a new -writ issued. The Commons gladly acceded to this proposal. The House was -rejoiced at this solution of the difficulty, but out of doors those they -represented were far from satisfied, and reproached the House with having -yielded the right which they had boldly claimed. But in reality, the -Commons had done no such thing, for they proceeded, by their Speaker's -warrant, to issue the new writ themselves, and they have ever since -exercised the right which they then assumed, of deciding all cases of -contested elections. - -The king, on his part, was as little satisfied as the people. He laboured -under no mistake as to where the victory lay: he felt keenly that he -was defeated in his soaring claims of prerogative, and the Commons went -on to let him know that they were resolved on an exercise of power -still greater. They attacked the monopolies which James had declared by -proclamation that he would abolish, but towards which not a step was -taken. They complained of the continuance of the feudal grievances of -assarts, wardships, aids for royal marriages, and purveyance. The right -of guardianship of minors of estate continued a source of vast emolument -to the Crown, which received the proceeds of these estates and rendered -no account. This was, moreover, a source of equal peculation to the -minister for the time being, and Cecil was thought to draw enormous -wealth from this abuse; and as for purveyance, it seems to have been as -recklessly and insolently pursued as under any of the kings of York or -Lancaster. The royal purveyors seized the property of the subject just -as they pleased; took horses, carts, carriages, and provisions at will; -called out men to labour for the royal pleasure, paying or not as suited -them, felling trees, and committing sundry other depredations. - -After much debate these grievances were referred to a committee; but -as the Lords would have nothing to do with it, the matter was obliged -to be dropped. Bacon, who was assiduously climbing into royal favour, -played a contemptible part on this occasion in the House. He affected -the character of a patriot, and discoursed feelingly of abuses and the -sufferings of the people, while in the Council, before the king, he -declared that his majesty was the voice of God in man, the good spirit of -God in the mouth of man. - -The struggle continued between the Crown and the Commons through the -whole session. As the Crown would not agree to reform the abuses -complained of, the Commons declined to grant the king any money beyond -the usual rate of tonnage and poundage. So apprehensive, in fact, was -the king of another defeat in the present temper of the House, that he -sent a message requesting them not to enter on the business of subsidy, -notwithstanding his urgent need of money. - -The struggle regarding religious liberty was carried on by the Puritans -in the House with equal obstinacy. Convocation sitting at the same time -with Parliament occupied itself in framing a new code of ecclesiastical -canons. In spite of the resolution of the Conference at Hampton Court, -which declared that no excommunication should issue except for very grave -offences, these canons--one hundred and forty-one in number--equalled -in ecclesiastical despotism anything which had been decreed under Henry -VIII. Excommunication was pronounced against all who denied the supremacy -of the king or the orthodoxy of the Church; who affirmed the Book of -Common Prayer to be superstitious or unlawful, that any one of the -Thirty-nine Articles was erroneous, or that the ordinal was opposed to -the Word of God. All who should separate from the Established Church, -or established conventicles, were equally denounced, and this bigoted -code James ratified by letters patent under the Great Seal. But it did -not pass without severe comment from the Puritan members of the House, -in the midst of which the king prorogued Parliament; and so remained the -question of the canon law of England, which in reality was and is a law -binding only on the clergy, having received their own sanction and that -of their head the king, but not that of the Legislature; for which reason -the judges have always held that it binds the clergy who framed, but not -the people whose representatives refused it. - -No sooner was the canon law promulgated and Parliament prorogued, than -Bancroft, the new archbishop, let loose the fury of the Church against -nonconformists, whether Catholic or Protestant. All were called on to -conform to the new regulations, and no less than three hundred clergymen -were forced from their livings. The Catholics, on their part, were -equally harassed, fined, and insulted. The legal penalty of twenty -pounds a month for recusancy was again enforced, notwithstanding James -had promised to overlook this; and it was executed with a new rigour of -barbarity, the fines for the whole period during which James had been -professing leniency being levied. Thus the sufferers were called on to -make thirteen payments at one time, which at once reduced a vast number -of families to absolute beggary. - -The Puritans did not submit to the outrages perpetrated on them without -sturdy resistance and remonstrance. The Catholics, or at least a section -of them, proceeded to something more dangerous. Smarting under their -renewed persecution, they felt it useless to remonstrate like the -Puritans, for both the Church party and Nonconformists were against them. -They, therefore, as a body, brooded in silence over their sufferings; -but there were amongst the oppressed spirits those who could not thus -endure in patience, but planned a desperate revenge. Amongst these was -Robert Catesby, the descendant of an ancient Catholic family, seated for -centuries at Ashby St. Legers, in Northamptonshire, and also possessing -considerable property in Warwickshire. Catesby's father had been a great -sufferer for recusancy, having several times been imprisoned, in addition -to the plundering of his substance. In his youth, the younger Catesby, -who was wild and extravagant, was not disposed to sacrifice his jollity -for the maintenance of a persecuted faith. He embraced Protestantism, -but in 1598 he returned to his original belief, and, feeling the bitter -force of persecution, he became stimulated to an active hatred of the -Government. He aided the insurrection of Essex on condition that he -should enjoy full religious freedom; and escaping the fate of his leader -by the forfeiture of three thousand pounds, he then secretly joined -himself to the Spanish party amongst the Catholics, in order to prevent -the succession of the Scottish prince. This hope being defeated, and -the Catholics not only seeing James prepared to falsify his promises of -Catholic indulgence, but all the heads of the Catholic world abroad--the -kings of France and Spain, and the Pope himself--seeking the friendship -of the king, Catesby conceived the gloomy idea that deliverance could -only proceed from the English Catholics themselves. In following out -this desperate idea, he gradually evolved a scheme of vengeance and -annihilation of all the persecutors of his faith. This was no other than -to blow up the king and Parliament with gunpowder. - -Catesby first made a confidant in his terrible project of Thomas Winter, -the younger brother of Robert Winter, of Huddington, in Worcestershire. -Winter was the intimate friend of Catesby, and had been long associated -with him in the plans for the relief of the Catholics. He had been a -volunteer in the wars of the Netherlands, and then was sent to Madrid as -the secret agent of the Spanish party in England, amongst whom his friend -Catesby was an active partisan. But familiar as Winter was with the -sufferings and projects of the Catholics, this bloody revelation struck -him with horror, and he denounced it vehemently as most criminal and -inhuman. But Catesby spared no labour to reconcile his mind to the idea; -he painted in vivid colours the long, the pitiless, and the unmerited -cruelties inflicted on the Catholics. He enumerated the numbers who -had been exterminated by the axe and the rope of the executioner; who -had perished in their prisons, or who had been reduced from affluence -and honour to beggary by the relentless bigotry of the Government. He -demanded whence relief was to come, what hope there was left of effectual -intercession from abroad, or of resolute resistance from the dispirited -Catholics at home. He appealed to him whether God had not given to every -man the right to repel force by force, and whether the whole world -besides afforded them any other chance. - -[Illustration: GREAT SEAL OF JAMES I.] - -Winter was staggered but not convinced, and declared that he would -not consent to any such frightful measure until fresh attempts had -been made to procure a mitigation of their sufferings by milder means. -He, therefore, hastened over to the Netherlands, where the Spanish -ambassador, Velasco, had arrived, in order to conclude a peace between -England and Spain. At Bergen, near Dunkirk, he had an interview with -the ambassador, and urged upon him to demand a clause in the treaty for -the protection of the Catholics. He was soon convinced that Velasco, -though promising to use his influence for that end, would not risk the -completion of the peace by the advocacy of such a stipulation. - -Indignant at this apathy, he hastened to Ostend on his return, where -he accidentally encountered an old comrade in the Netherland wars, of -the name of Guido or Guy Fawkes, a native of Yorkshire, and a man of -determined courage, as well as of great experience and address. He had -been Winter's companion in his mission to Madrid, and he now solicited -him to accompany him to England, and unite his endeavours with other -friends for Catholic relief. Winter, it would seem, had now made up his -mind to enter into Catesby's plot, but did not let Fawkes into the full -secret for some time. - -Meanwhile, Catesby had been ardently at work in the prosecution of his -idea. He had communicated his plan to Percy and Wright. Thomas Percy was -of the Northumberland family, and steward to the earl, and John Wright -was brother-in-law to Percy, and reputed to be the best swordsman in -England. Percy had joined the Catholics about the same time as Catesby -returned to them, and like a zealous proselyte had, during the latter -days of Elizabeth, gone to James at Edinburgh and endeavoured to draw -from him a promise of favour to the Catholics on his accession. James is -reported to have assured Percy that he would at least tolerate the mass -in a corner. This James afterwards denied, but his denial can go for very -little, for it was perfectly in keeping with his king-craft to promise -what served to secure his ends for the time; and almost every monarch in -Europe had to make that complaint against him. Percy, on the breaking out -of the persecution under James, felt that he had been made the dupe of -James's duplicity. He presented a remonstrance to the king, to which no -answer was deigned, and Catesby found him in a mood of great resentment -against the king, and in a favourable temper for his views. He not only -agreed to co-operate but brought in his brother-in-law Wright, who was -also a recent proselyte to Catholicism. - -[Illustration: GUY FAWKES'S CELLAR UNDER PARLIAMENT HOUSE.] - -Percy appears to have been of a very excitable nature: the embryo -conspirators assembled at Catesby's lodging, and Percy demanded whether -they were merely to talk and never to act. Catesby said that before he -would open his plan to them, he must demand from every one an oath of -secrecy. This was assented to, and a few days afterwards, as appears by -the confession of Winter, the five--that is, Catesby, Winter, Percy, -Wright, and Fawkes--"met at a house in the fields beyond St. Clement's -Inn, where they did confer and agree upon the plot, and there they took -a solemn oath and vows by all their force and power to execute the same, -and of secrecy not to reveal it to any of their fellows but of such as -should be thought fit persons to enter into that action." When they had -all sworn and perfectly understood what was proposed, Catesby led them -into an upper chamber of the house, where they received the sacrament -from Gerard, the Jesuit missionary, but who, according to Winter's -confession, was not let into the secret. - -This dreadful oath was taken on the 1st of May, 1604, but the -conspirators resolved to wait for the remotest chance of any good arising -out of the negotiations between England and Spain. But the treaty was -concluded on the 18th of August, without any clause protective of the -Catholics. Peace and commercial relations were restored between the -two countries, and James was left at liberty to do as he pleased with -the cautionary towns if the States did not redeem them. After the -ratification of the treaty, the Spanish ambassador solicited in the name -of his sovereign the goodwill of James towards his Catholic subjects; -but James assured Velasco that however much he might be disposed to such -indulgence, he dared not grant it, such was the terror of his Protestant -subjects of any return to power of the Catholics. Velasco took his -leave, and fresh orders were issued to judges and magistrates to enforce -the laws against the Catholics with all rigour. This put an end to the -patience of the conspirators, and they protested that it was but a -fitting retribution to bury the authors of their oppressions under the -ruins of the edifice in which they enacted such diabolical laws. - -They now sought for a proper place to commence their operations, and they -soon found a house adjoining the Parliament House in the possession of -one Ferris, the tenant of Whinyard, the keeper of the king's wardrobe. -This Percy hired, in his own name, of Ferris, on pretence that his office -of gentleman pensioner compelled him to reside part of the year in the -vicinity of the Court. But the conspirators were debarred from immediate -operations, by the commissioners appointed by James to consider a scheme -for the union of the two kingdoms, taking possession of this house where -they sate for several months. Not wholly, however, to lose time, the -conspirators hired another house in Lambeth, on the banks of the river, -where they stored up wood, gunpowder, and other combustibles, which they -could easily remove by night in boats, as occasion served, to their house -in Westminster, as soon as it was in their hands. They confided the -charge of this house in Lambeth to Thomas Kay, a Catholic gentleman of -reduced means, who took the oath and entered into the plot. - -On the 11th of December the conspirators obtained possession of their -house, when they again swore to be faithful to each other, and they -began their preparations by night. Behind the house, in a garden and -adjoining the Parliament House, stood an old building. Within this they -began to perforate the wall, one keeping watch while the others laboured. -The watching was allotted to Fawkes, whose person was unknown, and who -assumed the name of Johnson and appeared as the servant of Percy. Three -of the others worked whilst the fourth rested. During the day they toiled -at undermining the wall, and during the night they buried the rubbish -under the earth in the garden. They had laid in a store of eggs, dried -meats, and the like, so that no suspicion should be excited in the -neighbourhood by their going in and out, or by there being brought in -provisions for so many persons. They thus laboured indefatigably for a -fortnight, when Fawkes brought them the intelligence that Parliament was -prorogued from the 7th of February to the 3rd of October. On this they -resolved to suspend their work till after the Christmas holidays, and to -retire to their respective residences, agreeing neither to meet in the -interim, nor to correspond or send messages to each other regarding the -plot. - -During their late labours, as they discussed various matters, Catesby, -to his dread and mortification, discovered a strong tendency amongst his -associates to doubt the lawfulness of their attempt, because innocent -people must perish with the guilty, Catholics amid the persecuting -Protestants. In vain he employed all his ingenuity in reasoning; he saw -the feeling remain, and he endeavoured to secure a plausible argument -before their coming together again. He therefore consulted Garnet, -the provincial of the Jesuits, on this point. Catesby had accepted a -commission as captain in a regiment of cavalry, to be commanded by Sir -Charles Percy, in the service of Spain. He now observed to Garnet in a -large company that he had no doubt about the justice of the war on the -side of Spain, but as he might be called on to make attacks in which -the innocent might fall with the guilty, women and children with armed -soldiers, could he do that lawfully in the sight of the Almighty? Garnet -replied certainly, otherwise an aggressor could always defeat the object -of the party invaded by placing innocent persons amongst guilty ones in -his ranks. This was enough for Catesby, the principle was admitted; and -on the meeting of the conspirators after the recess, he was prepared -to banish their scruple by assuring them that it was decided to be -groundless by competent ecclesiastical authority. - -On the 30th of January, 1605, they resumed their operations. They found -the wall through which they had to dig was no less than three yards -thick, and composed of huge stones, so that the labour was intense, and -the danger of their blows being heard began to alarm them. They had an -accession of force to their numbers, the brothers of Wright and Winter, -and one John Grant, of Norbrook in Warwickshire, who had married a sister -of the Winters. He had suffered much from persecution under Elizabeth, -and his house was large and strongly fortified, offering a good depot for -horses and ammunition. Besides these, Catesby had admitted Bates, his -confidential servant, into the secret, believing he had more than half -guessed it, and sent him with arms and ammunition to Grant's house in -Worcestershire. - -But at this point the operations of the conspirators received a severe -check. There arose a difficulty which seemed to be insurmountable; which -so disheartened some of the band that they were in favour of abandoning -their project altogether--or at least for a time. This formidable -obstacle appeared in the shape of ordinary water, which now began to ooze -in from the river, and put a stop to all hope of making the passage. -Fortune came to their aid, however. Whilst they were in this state of -dejection, they were extremely alarmed by a loud noise, which appeared to -come from a room just over their heads. Fawkes went to endeavour to learn -the cause of it, and returned with the intelligence that it proceeded -from the selling of the stock in trade of Bright, a coal merchant, who -was evacuating the cellar, which would be in a few days unoccupied. At -this joyful news, the mining of the foundation was abandoned; the cellar, -which lay directly under the House of Lords, was immediately taken by -Fawkes in the name of his pretended master, Percy. In a short time they -had removed thirty-six barrels of gunpowder from the house in Lambeth -in the darkness of night, and had covered them over in the cellar with -faggots and billets of wood. All being prepared, they once more separated -till September, a few days before the assembling of Parliament. They -dispersed themselves to avoid all suspicion, and Fawkes went over to -Flanders to endeavour to procure a supply of military stores, and to -win over Sir William Stanley, Captain Owen, and other officers of the -regiment in the pay of the archduke. Catesby was an officer of this -regiment; most of these officers were Catholics and his personal friends, -and he informed them through Fawkes, that things were come to that pass -that it was reported that the Catholics were to be utterly exterminated -throughout England, and that if they could not defend themselves by -peaceable means, they must do it by the sword; and he enjoined them -to engage as many of their brethren as possible to aid them in their -deliverance. Sir William Stanley was absent in Spain and Owen promised -that he would communicate with him; but little effect appears to have -been produced by Fawkes's mission, except that of exciting the attention -of Cecil, who received repeated intimations from Flanders that the -English exiles had some secret enterprise in agitation, though what it -was the informants could not discover. - -Catesby at home was in constant activity. He had obtained a fresh -accomplice in Keyes, an intimate friend of his, who had been stripped of -his property and was prepared for the worst, being a man of determined -disposition; and he had his eye on others who appeared in a mood for it. -At the same time the growing excitement of Catesby endangered the secret. -There was a tone and a restlessness about him which attracted the notice -of his friends. He still delayed joining his regiment in Flanders, and -Garnet, the Jesuit, came to suspect that he was engaged in some plot and -warned him against such attempts. This only excited the anger of Catesby, -and Garnet wrote to Rome and obtained letters from the Pope and the -generals of his Order, strongly enjoining on the Catholics submission to -the Government. Catesby, uneasy in his conscience, at length confessed to -Garnet the existence of some plot. The Jesuit refused to hear anything -of it, but endeavoured to impress on the conspirator the necessity of -obedience to the breves from Rome. At length he prevailed on him to -promise that nothing should be done till they had sent a messenger to -the Pope fully detailing the condition of the Catholics in England, and -had received an answer. But Catesby had no intention of deferring his -enterprise on such grounds. Fawkes returned to England in September, and -they resolved to proceed. A second prorogation of Parliament, however, -from October to the 5th of November, disconcerted the conspirators, and -induced them to fear that their designs had become known to Government. -To ascertain this, if possible, Thomas Winter was deputed to attend -in the House of Lords and watch the countenances and behaviour of the -commissioners during the ceremony of prorogation. He returned, assuring -them that their secret was still safe, for the commissioners walked -about and conversed in the utmost unconsciousness of danger on the very -surface of the prepared volcano--the six-and-thirty barrels of gunpowder. - -These repeated delays, however, ensured the defeat of the plot. All the -conspirators except Catesby were now ruined by fines, exactions, and -persecutions on account of their faith. They had depended for support -for the last twelve months on the assistance of relations and friends. -Catesby had purchased the military stores and other requisites: his means -were now exhausted, and yet more money must be in hand against the day -of explosion if they meant to take full advantage of it. This induced -them to extend the number of their accomplices, a perilous proceeding in -anything demanding secrecy; and yet Catesby ventured on divulging the -scheme to no less than three fresh associates, men of family and fortune. -The first was Sir Everard Digby, of Drystoke in Rutlandshire, Gotehurst -in Buckinghamshire, and of other large estates. Digby had been left as a -boy a ward of Queen Elizabeth's and had been educated at her court as a -Protestant. But a little before the death of the queen he embraced the -Catholic faith, and thus abandoning the brilliant prospects before him, -retired to his estates in the country. At the time of the conspiracy he -had a young wife and two children, was only twenty-five himself, and -thus had every imaginable earthly good within his reach. Subtle must -have been the persuasion which could have induced such a man to risk all -this in a desperate enterprise, and bold the spirit of Catesby who could -venture to tempt him to do it. It was not effected without difficulty. -Digby could not avoid seeing the hazard and doubting the innocence of -such a proceeding, but eventually he gave way, and promised to assemble -his Catholic friends on the opening of Parliament to hunt with him on -Dunsmoor in Warwickshire, and to advance one thousand five hundred pounds. - -The next was Ambrose Rookwood of Coldham Hall, Suffolk, the head of -an ancient and wealthy family, who had suffered like his neighbours, -but was still affluent. He had a fine stud of horses, which made him -a very desirable coadjutor, independent of other considerations. He -seems to have had as little ambition as he had motive for conspiracy, -being, despite his share of persecutions, able to enjoy a quiet life; -but his attachment to Catesby was his snare. Like the rest, he at first -recoiled from the prospect of so much bloodshed; but Catesby managed to -reconcile him to the idea, and he removed his family to Clopton Hall, -near Stratford-on-Avon, in order to be near the Catholic rendezvous at -Dunsmoor. - -The third new accomplice was Sir Francis Tresham. His father, Sir Thomas -Tresham, had long been severely handled on account of his religion, in -Elizabeth's reign, and his son Francis, who succeeded him, had been -engaged in several plots. He was in that of Essex in conjunction with -Catesby and Percy, and escaped by a prompt distribution of three thousand -pounds amongst the queen's favourites. His chief seat was at Rushton, in -Northamptonshire. The selection of Tresham was especially imprudent, for -he had the character of being selfish, reserved, and fickle; but he had -money, which induced Catesby to trust him. From the moment, however, that -he did so, he had no more peace of mind. Terrible fears and suspicions -seized him, dreams as terrible haunted him at night. His comrades had no -confidence in Tresham, whose character was well known; but the thing was -done, and there was no retracing the step which was to bring destruction -upon them. Tresham promised a contribution of two thousand pounds, and -Percy also engaging to advance four thousand pounds from the rents of the -Earl of Northumberland, whose steward he was, the pecuniary provision -appeared ample, and they proceeded to organise their plan of operations. - -A list of all the peers and commons who were Catholics, or who had -opposed the penal statutes and other harsh measures against the -Catholics, was made out, and these were at the last moment on the fatal -morning to be called away from the House by some urgent message. Guy -Fawkes was appointed to fire the train with a slow burning match, which -should allow of his escape before the explosion; and a ship was to lie -ready in the river to carry him over to Flanders, where he was to publish -a manifesto justifying the deed and calling on the Catholic powers for -aid. Percy, as a gentleman pensioner, was to enter the palace and secure -the person of the young Prince Charles--it seems they were willing to -let Prince Henry perish--and on pretence of placing him in security, -convey him away to the appointed rendezvous at Dunchurch. Digby, Tresham, -Grant, and others, were to hasten to Combe Abbey, and secure the Princess -Elizabeth, whom, if the two young princes should not be saved, they were -at once to proclaim queen. Catesby was to proclaim the heir-apparent, -whoever it was, at Charing Cross; and on reaching Warwickshire a -declaration was to be issued abolishing monopolies, purveyance, and -wardships. A protector was to be appointed to conduct the Government -during the minority of the sovereign. - -[Illustration: LORD MONTEAGLE AND THE WARNING LETTER ABOUT THE GUNPOWDER -PLOT. (_See p._ 426.)] - -There were circumstances enough in these regulations to have alarmed -all but fanatics in the cause. Messages at the last moment to so many -members of the two Houses must have created suspicion, and the endeavour -to secure the royal children was full of hazard. But there were greater -dangers than these. As the time drew nigh, almost every one had friends -amongst the members of Parliament, and they were not contented with the -general plan of drawing them away at the critical moment. Each wished -to convey a particular warning to his own friends or relatives, which -should make their safety certain. Every such warning, however, menaced -the discovery of the whole scheme. Tresham was excessively anxious to -rescue the Lords Mordaunt and Monteagle, who had married two of his -sisters. Percy was equally desirous to save his relative, the Earl of -Northumberland; Keyes, the old gentleman who had the custody of the house -at Lambeth, was importunate to save Lord Mordaunt, who sheltered and -maintained his wife and children after his own ruin; and all were eager -to warn the young Earl of Arundel. - -Catesby, extremely alarmed by these proposals, declared that means enough -were in operation to keep those that they wished to save away; but that -rather than endanger the result, he would have all blown up, though they -were as dear to him as his own son. He and Fawkes, as the day drew near, -retired to a solitary house in Enfield Chase, called White Webbs, where, -as they were in consultation with Thomas Winter, Tresham suddenly made -his appearance. He appeared excited and embarrassed, and demanded that -he should be allowed to put Lord Monteagle, on his guard. When Catesby -and his associates protested against it, he advanced reasons for delay, -declaring that he should not be prepared with the promised advance of -money till he had sold some property. He pleaded that the explosion would -be as effectual at the end of the session as at the beginning; that in -the meantime the conspirators might live in Flanders, whither his ship -should convey them, and where he would supply them with the necessary -funds for maintenance. Catesby was confirmed in his fears of Tresham -by these proposals, but thought it best to dissemble and appear to -acquiesce. Tresham returned to town, and would seem to have warned not -only Monteagle but others, most likely including Lord Mordaunt. Digby and -others of the conspirators are supposed to have warned their own friends, -so that the danger of discovery was hourly increasing. Tresham, in his -examination, alleged that his real object at this moment was not to delay -but to put an end to the plot, as the only means he could devise to save -the lives of all concerned, and to preserve his own life, fortune, and -reputation. - -The movements of Lord Monteagle warranted the belief that he had received -a warning of some kind that there was danger in town, for he removed -from his house in London to one which he had at Hoxton, and on the 26th -of October, six days before the proposed opening of Parliament, he, much -to the surprise of his own family, ordered a good supper to be prepared -there. Monteagle had formerly been engaged in the Spanish treason, and -had written to Baynham, who was the emissary at Rome, and therefore was -probably aware of some plot in agitation, but he had latterly obtained -the confidence of the king and was one of the commissioners for the late -prorogation. - -As he sat at table about seven o'clock in the evening, a page handed -to him a letter, which he said he had received from a tall man whose -features he could not recognise in the dark. Monteagle opened the letter -and seeing that it had neither date nor signature, he handed it to -Thomas Ward, a gentleman of his establishment, to read aloud. It was as -follows:--"My lord out of the love i beare to some of youer frends i have -a caer of your preservacion therefor i would advyse yowe as yowe tender -youer lyfe to devyse some exscuse to shift of youer attendance at this -parleament for god and man hath concurred to punishe the wickednes of -this tyme and think not slightlye of this advertisement but retyere to -youre self into youre contri wheare you may expect the event in safeti -for thowghe theare be no apparance of anni stir yet i saye they shall -receyve a terrible blowe this parleament and yet they shall not seie who -hurts them this cowncel is not to be contemned because it may do yowe -good and can do yowe no harme for the danger is passed as soon as yowe -have burnt the letter and i hope God will give yowe the grace to mak good -use of it to whose holy protecion i comend yowe." - -The astonishment of the guests at the hearing of this letter may be -imagined. Lord Monteagle immediately hastened to town, and laid the -letter before Cecil and some of the other ministers, the king being away -still at Royston, hunting. Cecil determined that nothing should be done -till the king's return. The next morning Ward, who had read the letter -publicly at the supper-table, communicated the circumstance to Thomas -Winter, and said the letter was in the possession of Cecil. Winter was -thunderstruck, but put the best face upon the matter that he could, and -pretended to laugh at the whole affair as a hoax on the credulity of Lord -Monteagle; but no sooner was Ward gone than he flew to White Webbs and -imparted the news to Catesby. Catesby at once attributed the letter to -Tresham, and the more so as he had absented himself for several days on -the pretence of having business in Northamptonshire. The question was -whether he had revealed the particulars of the plot and the names of the -conspirators. To ascertain the extent of the mischief and of the guilt -of Tresham, he sent him an imperative message to come to White Webbs. -Tresham obeyed the summons on the 30th of October, and met Catesby and -Winter at this lonely house in Enfield Chase. They had made up their -minds if they found him guilty, to shoot him on the spot. They charged -him point blank with the discovery of the plot, and kept a searching gaze -upon his countenance as he received their declaration. Had he faltered or -shown any confusion, his doom would have been instant. But he exhibited -the utmost calmness and firmness of expression, protesting most solemnly -that he was innocent of the charge. - -That Tresham was the writer of the letter, and that he had entered into -a confidential understanding with Monteagle for the defeat of the plot, -there appears every reason to conclude. His own avowal on the examination -that such was his intention is borne out by all the examinations. The -delivery of the letter whilst Monteagle was at supper with his friends, -if it was done by Tresham, shows an intention that it should thus be made -irrevocably public. The instant communication of Lord Monteagle's servant -with Winter the conspirator, in order to warn them, confirms the idea -that all this was planned between Tresham and Monteagle; but there is no -reason to believe that Tresham had betrayed the names of his accomplices. - -Catesby and Winter returned with Tresham to town, and Guy Fawkes was -despatched to the cellar under the Parliament House to discover whether -all was right there. Not a thing or a secret mark was disturbed. They -then first told him why they had sent him, on which Fawkes complained of -their distrust of his courage, and said he would visit the cellar every -day till the 5th of November. Had Cecil not been still more cunning than -the conspirators, had he made a stir and an inquisition, the aim of -Tresham would have been effected, the conspirators would have escaped, -and the plot have been put an end to without any catastrophe. But the -artifice of Cecil lulled their suspicions and lured them on to their doom. - -On the 31st of October James returned to town, and the letter was laid -before him, with the particulars of its delivery. The king was struck -by the account, read the letter several times over, and discussed the -matter for two hours with his ministers. He boasted to Parliament on its -opening, that it was his own bright suggestion that the receiving of the -letter sent to Lord Monteagle implied that they were all to be blown up, -and that he in consequence ordered the search of the cellars under the -Parliament House. But this was a piece of consummate flattery on the part -of his ministers, to make it appear the result of his superior sagacity; -for we have direct evidence in the circular of the Earl of Salisbury, -that the ministers were in possession of the secret, but he observes, -"we all thought fit to forbear to impart it to the king until some three -or four days before the sessions." In fact, the intelligence that the -letter was in the hands of the king, and that the Council was consulting -on it, was immediately conveyed to Winter by Monteagle's servant. Upon -this Winter waited on Tresham at his house in Lincoln's Inn Walks, where -Tresham, in great agitation, assured him that the existence of the mine -was known to the ministers; that he knew certainly, but denied any -knowledge of the person by whom the discovery had been made. He declared -that they were all lost if they did not escape at once. From the moment -the affair was known, Tresham had avoided further intercourse with the -conspirators, meaning to appear ignorant of their concerns, for which -reason he went about openly, and even offered his services to the Council. - -The conspirators met to decide on their plan of action. Some of them -advised instant flight to the Continent; Catesby, Winter, and others were -perfectly convinced that Tresham was in communication with Monteagle, -and perhaps with Cecil; but some of them would not believe such treason, -and the arguments of Percy finally nailed them to their fate. This -discussion took place on the 3rd of November. Percy conjured them to wait -and see what the next day would bring forth, the very last day before the -grand crisis. He represented all the labour, the anxieties, the plannings -they had gone through, the costs they had incurred, the difficulties they -had overcome, and he demanded whether, on the very point of complete -success, they were to abandon their enterprise through the fears of a -recreant colleague, who probably described what only his affrighted fancy -pictured to him. He reminded them that his vessel still lay in the Thames -at their service, and on the first positive proof of danger, they had -only to hasten on board and drop down the river out of reach of their -enemies. - -These arguments prevailed, but they changed their plan of operations. -Fawkes was still to keep guard in the cellar, Percy and Winter to -superintend the necessary operations in London; but Catesby and John -Wright were to hasten to Dunchurch and put Sir Everard Digby and the -party on their guard. - -On the evening of Monday the 4th of November, the Earl of Suffolk, -in prosecution of his duty as Lord Chamberlain, to see all necessary -preparations made for the opening of Parliament, went down to the House -accompanied by Lord Monteagle. - -After they had been some time in the Parliament chamber, on pretence that -some necessary articles were missing, they went down to the cellars to -make a search. They entered the vault where the mine was prepared and -where Fawkes was at his post. The Lord Chamberlain, casually casting his -eyes round the place, inquired by whom it was occupied, and who Fawkes -was. The staunch traitor replied that it was occupied by Mr. Percy, whose -servant he was; on which Suffolk observed in a careless manner, "Your -master has laid in a good stock of fuel;" and he and Monteagle left the -cellar. No sooner were they off the ground, than Fawkes hastened to -inform Percy of what had occurred, but the warning was lost upon him. He -persuaded himself that all was yet undiscovered, and Fawkes returned to -the cellar to await the fatal hour. - -A little after midnight, being now actually the 5th of November, Guy -Fawkes had occasion to open the door of the vault, and he was immediately -seized by Sir Thomas Knevett a magistrate of Westminster, who, with a -party of soldiers, had silently invested the place. Fawkes was found to -be booted and spurred, ready for a precipitate flight after lighting -the train; three matches were found in his pocket, and a dark lantern -containing a light was placed behind the door. The least delay in -seizing the desperado, and he would have blown himself and the guard all -into the air together. But he was instantly pinioned, bound hand and -foot, and conveyed to Whitehall, where the Council had assembled in the -king's bed-chamber by four o'clock to interrogate him. Fast fettered -as he was, the determined look of the undaunted traitor struck terror -into the spectators. He appeared quite self-possessed, calm in aspect, -and bold, though respectful in speech. Nothing could be drawn from him -regarding the conspiracy. He said his name was Johnson, and that Percy -was his master. He avowed that his object was to annihilate King and -Parliament, as the only possible means of ridding the Catholics of their -persecutions. When asked who were his accomplices, he replied that should -never be known from him. Finding that nothing could be extracted from the -conspirator, on the morning of the 6th of November he was sent to the -Tower, accompanied by orders that the secret was to be extorted from him -by torture. The instructions of James directed that the gentle tortures -were to be tried first, with gradual resort to the severer forms if -necessary. For three or four days this man of iron nerve and will endured -the utmost agony they could put him to, without divulging a syllable, -nor did he relax till he learned for certain that the conspirators had -proclaimed themselves by appearing in arms. - -[Illustration: ARREST OF GUY FAWKES. (_See p._ 427.)] - -Catesby and John Wright had left on the evening of the 4th for Dunchurch -as agreed; Percy and Christopher Wright maintained their watch in London -till they heard of the arrest of Fawkes, when they mounted and rode after -Catesby and John Wright. Keyes and Rookwood still waited till morning, -when finding the whole known and all London in a state of terror, Keyes -got away after the rest. Rookwood lingered in town till near noon, as -he had a relay of vigorous horses ready, and when mounted, he rode -furiously, overtook Keyes on Finchley Common, whence they rode to Turvey -in Bedfordshire. Rookwood still pursued his gallop till he overtook first -Percy and Christopher Wright, and then Catesby and John Wright, and the -whole troop rode on together till they came to Lady Catesby's, at Ashby -St. Legers, in Northamptonshire. They arrived there at six o'clock in -the evening, Rookwood having ridden the whole eighty miles from London -in little more than six hours. A party of conspirators, with whom was -Winter, were just sitting down to supper when the fugitives came in, -covered with mud and sinking with fatigue. Yet no time was to be lost. -After a hasty refreshment, the whole company got to horse, and rode with -all speed to Dunchurch. - -The strange, haggard, and dejected appearance of the conspirators, and -their eager closeting with Sir Everard Digby, awoke the suspicions of -the hunting party. Before midnight, a whisper of treason and its failure -flew amongst them, and they quickly got to horse and rode off each his -own way. In the morning there remained only Catesby, Digby, Percy, the -Wrights, Winter, and a few servants. - -Catesby now advised that they should strike across Worcestershire for -Wales, where he flattered himself they might assemble the Catholic gentry -and make a formidable stand. In pursuance of this romantic plan, they -mounted and rode to Warwick, whence, after obtaining fresh horses for -their jaded ones, they made for Grant's house at Norbrook, and thence -rode on through Warwickshire and Worcestershire to Holbeach House, on the -borders of Staffordshire. All the way they had called on the Catholics -to arm and join them for the rescue of their faith, but not a man would -listen to the appeal. On this decided failure, instead of pushing for the -mountains of Wales, they resolved to make a stand at Holbeach. - -Meanwhile Sir Richard Walsh the sheriff of Worcestershire, with the whole -_posse comitatus_ and a number of volunteer gentlemen, was in chase of -them. They had diverged from their original route in the hope of being -joined by the gentry, who only drove them from their doors; and now, -no sooner did Stephen Littleton, the owner of Holbeach, learn the real -facts, than, horrified at the certain destruction impending over these -desperate men, he escaped at the earliest opportunity from the house. He -was soon followed by Sir Everard Digby, on the plea of endeavouring to -muster assistance. The remaining conspirators--who, with servants, did -not amount to more than forty men--put the house in a state of defence; -but as they were drying some powder before the fire, it exploded, -scorching Catesby and some others of the bystanders. - -This accident so appalled them, impressing them with the idea that their -enterprise was displeasing to God, that Robert Winter, Bates the servant -of Catesby, and others got away. About noon Sir Richard Walsh came up -with his troop, surrounded the house, and summoned them to surrender. But -preferring death in arms to the gallows, they defied their assailants, -and resolved to fight to the last. On this the sheriff ordered one part -of his followers to set fire to the house, and the other to batter in the -gates. Catesby, blackened and nearly blinded by the powder, called on the -rest to make a rush and die hand to hand with their assailants. In the -courtyard, Catesby, the two Wrights, and Percy were mortally wounded. -Catesby crawled on hands and knees into the house to a crucifix, which he -seized in his hands and expired. Rookwood, dreadfully burnt and wounded, -was seized as well as Winter, whose arm was broken. Percy died the next -day. The rest of them were soon taken. Robert Winter had overtaken -Stephen Littleton in a wood, and together they made their way to the -house of a Mrs. Littleton, near Hagley, where they were secreted, without -her knowledge, by her cousin Humphrey Littleton, but were betrayed by a -servant of Mrs. Littleton. Sir Everard Digby was pursued and taken in a -wood near Dudley. They were all captured, with Keyes and Bates Catesby's -servant, who was taken in Staffordshire. Four days after the seizure of -the captives at Holbeach, Tresham was arrested in London, notwithstanding -his affected innocence and his offers of assistance to the Council; and -thus were the authors of this conspiracy destroyed, or safe in the hands -of Government. Soon afterwards Garnet was discovered hiding at Hendip in -a secret chamber. - -The trials, of course, excited intense interest, and the king, queen, and -prince were said to be present, where they could see and hear without -attracting public notice. The prisoners were eight, Sir Everard Digby, -Robert and Thomas Winter, Rookwood, Grant, Guido Fawkes, Keyes, and -Bates. Sir Everard Digby pleaded guilty, all the rest not guilty, on the -ground that many things were included in the indictments which were not -true. There were no witnesses called, but the written depositions of the -prisoners and of a servant of Sir Everard's were taken as sufficient -proof. The accused, for the most part, denied that the three Jesuits -(Garnet and two others who had been implicated) had any part in the -plot, though they might more or less be aware of it; nor was there any -proof brought forward or admission made which affected the Catholic -body generally. On the contrary, it was too notorious that the Catholics -had everywhere shrunk from the conspirators with horror; and Sir Everard -Digby, in his letters to his wife, written from the Tower, pathetically -laments that the Catholics so far from supporting the conspiracy, -shunned and condemned them, and adds that he would never have engaged -in it if he had not thought it lawful. The prisoners who pleaded not -guilty, excused their conduct by the cruelty of the persecutions which -they were enduring, the ruin and sufferings of their families, the -violated promises of the king, and their consequent despair of any other -termination of their oppressions, as well as their natural desire to -effect the restoration of what they deemed the only true church. The -Earls of Salisbury and Northampton denied, on the part of the king, the -breach of any promises; and the prisoners were condemned to the death of -traitors, which they endured, in all its revolting severity, at the west -end of St. Paul's Churchyard. Digby, Robert Winter, Grant, and Bates, on -the 31st of January, and Thomas Winter, Fawkes, Rookwood, and Keyes, next -day. - -The Jesuits Garnet and Oldcorne and their two servants, Owen and -Chambers, who had been captured in Worcestershire, were lodged in the -Tower, and there underwent the strictest examination, and Oldcorne, Owen, -and Chambers were placed upon the rack. Garnet was not racked, but was -threatened with it, to which he replied, "_Minate ista pueris_"--"Threats -are only for boys." As it was probably thought that nothing was to be -hoped from Garnet through torture, a stratagem worthy of the Inquisition -was resolved on. The warder in whose custody the Jesuits lay, received -an order from the lieutenant of the Tower to assume a friendly demeanour -towards them; to express his sympathy for their sufferings, and his -respect for their undaunted maintenance of their faith. Having made a -favourable impression, he proceeded to offer them all the indulgence in -his power, consistent with their safe custody. The Jesuits fell into -the snare. The warder offered to take charge of any letters that they -wished to convey to their friends. His sincerity seemed so genuine -that the offer was accepted; a correspondence with several Catholics -was commenced, and the letters each way were regularly carried to the -commissioners, opened, and copied before delivery. Many of the letters -being found to have secret notes appended in lemon juice, which only -became visible when heated, were retained, and exact copies sent. Some -of these letters still remain in the Public Record Office. But this -correspondence, notwithstanding the sympathetic ink, was so guarded, that -it furnished no new facts and another plan was adopted. The warder, as if -growing more willing to serve them by longer acquaintance, showed them -that by leaving an intermediate door unlocked between their cells, the -two Jesuits could meet and converse at freedom. Still confiding entirely -in their apparent friend the warder, who recommended extreme caution, -Garnet and Oldcorne gladly embraced this opportunity of intercourse. -But in secret recesses in the passage were placed Lockerson the private -secretary of Cecil, and Forsett a magistrate of the Tower, who heard and -noted down the conversations of the prisoners. Five times were these -treacherous interviews permitted, and the reported conversations of four -of them are still preserved. - -As might be expected, the conversations chiefly turned on the best mode -of conducting their defence. In these conversations Garnet admitted that -though he had denied it, he had still been at White Webbs, in Enfield -Chase, with the conspirators, and would still maintain that he had not -been there since Bartholomew-tide. On another occasion he let fall things -which still further betrayed his knowledge of the plot. It is possible -that he might even yet have escaped had he not, at his trial, avowed that -he considered equivocation and mental reservation on any point that might -incriminate him, perfectly justifiable. After that declaration popular -sympathy was no longer in his favour. A verdict of guilty was pronounced -against him, and he was hanged, drawn and quartered on the 3rd of May, -1606. - -A Parliament was summoned for the double purpose of raising money and -of extending additional punishment over the Catholics generally. The -whole country was in that state of alarm and hostility to them, that -James found it necessary to restrain rather than encourage the mania. -Such was the public excitement, that even he was not exempt from blame -on account of this lenity. He had chosen this inauspicious moment to -make overtures to Spain for the Infanta as a wife for Prince Henry, -and the Puritans at once ascribed his moderation to this cause, and -declared that he was little better than a secret Papist himself. James -was alarmed and obliged to give way. It was in vain that Henry IV. of -France remonstrated against a bigotry which had already driven some of -the Catholics to such desperate lengths. His ambassador represented -that the king his master had learnt from experience that persecution -only stimulated zealots to a temper in which they gloried in suffering, -and that far more could be effected by kindness than by severity; that -James should, if he loved peace, make himself their protector instead -of their persecutor. But Parliament soon showed how useless at the -moment was such advice. Both Houses appeared to be carried beyond all -reason by their fears and their resentment. On the 3rd of February every -member of the Commons was ordered to stand up in his place and propound -such measures as appeared to him most desirable. The most extravagant -propositions seemed the most acceptable, and after impetuous debates upon -them, they were communicated by conferences to the other House, and in -both Lords and Commons motions of the severest description were made and -carried by triumphant majorities. Catholic recusants were now forbidden -to appear at Court, to dwell within its boundaries, or within ten miles -of the boundaries of London; or to remove on any occasion more than five -miles from their homes, under particular penalties, unless in the latter -case they had a licence from four neighbouring magistrates. They were -rendered incapable of practising in surgery, physic, or common or civil -law; of acting as judges, clerks, officers, in any court or corporation; -of presenting to church livings, schools, or hospitals in their gift; -or of exercising the functions of executors or guardians; where persons -were married by Catholic priests, the husband, if a Catholic, could -not claim the property of the wife, nor the wife, if a Catholic, that -of the husband; and if a child born was not baptised by a Protestant -minister within a month, the penalty was one hundred and fifty pounds; -and for every corpse not buried in a Protestant cemetery, the penalty -was twenty pounds. All existing penalties for absence from church were -retained, with the addition that whoever received Catholic visitors, or -kept Catholic servants, must pay for each such individual ten pounds per -lunar month. Every recusant was declared to be excommunicated; his house -might be broken open and searched at any time, his books and any articles -belonging to "his idolatrous worship" might be burnt, and his arms and -horses seized by the order of a single magistrate. - -A new oath of allegiance was framed recognising absolute renunciation -of the right of the Pope to interfere in the temporal affairs of the -kingdom. The Catholics who submitted to take this oath were to be liable -_only_ to the penalties now enumerated; but they who refused were to be -imprisoned for life, and to suffer forfeiture of their personal property -and the rents of their lands. - -The publication of these terrible enactments carried astonishment -and dismay through the nation; many Protestants as well as Catholics -condemned them. The French minister Villeroy declared that they were -characteristic of barbarians rather than of Christians. Many Catholics -made haste to quit their native country, and the rest prepared to -sacrifice both property and personal liberty. The Pope Paul V. despatched -a secret emissary to James, imploring him to relax the rigour of the -new laws, but without success. And the Pontiff, resenting the repulse, -then published a breve, denouncing the oath of allegiance as unlawful, -"because contrary to faith and salvation." The publication of this -imprudent breve only made matters worse. The Catholic clergy were before -its arrival divided in their opinions as to the lawfulness of taking -it; the archpriest Blackwall himself, with many of his brethren, were -prepared to take it. The authority of the Pope extinguished theirs and -decided the majority; yet Blackwall took the oath himself, and advised -the Catholics, by a circular letter, to take it. - -But no submission on the part of a portion of the Catholics could -mitigate the wrath of James at the conduct of the Pope. He ordered the -bishops in their several dioceses to tender the oath, and to enforce the -penalties on all recusants. Three missionaries lying under sentence of -death for the exercise of their priestly functions, were called upon to -take it; they refused. Two of them were saved by the earnest intercession -of the Prince de Joinville and the French ambassador. The third, named -Drury, was hanged, drawn, and quartered. Blackwall the archpriest himself -was thrown into prison, though he had both taken the oath and advised the -rest of the Catholics to take it; and though James pitied him, he could -do nothing more in his behalf than prevent him from being brought to -trial and capitally condemned. The case of Blackwall was extremely hard, -for, on the other hand, he had excited the resentment of the Pope by his -concession. He was called on by letters from Cardinals Bellarmine and -Arrigoni, and the Jesuits Parsons and Holtby to retract; but as he would -not, he was superseded by Birket. He was then in his seventieth year, and -remained in prison till his death, in 1613. - -A second breve from the Pope roused the spirit of James; he determined -to try whether he could not silence the clamour of the papal party -by his pen. He abandoned even the pleasures of the chase, refused to -listen to his ministers, and calling his favourite divines around him, -he shut himself up with them, and produced a tract called "An Apologie -for the Oath of Allegiance," which was immediately translated into -French and Latin. But as the royal _brochure_ did not convince the -Catholics, six priests were condemned for refusing the oath, and three of -them were executed, one at York and two at Tyburn. Moreau, Bellarmine, -and Parsons, published replies to the royal treatise; and again James -closeted himself with his divines, revised his publication, and prefaced -it with a "Premonition to all Christian Princes." It was in vain that -the kings of Denmark and France counselled him to desist from a contest -so unworthy of a great monarch, in vain that the queen urged the same -advice. He condescended to declare that the fittest answer to Parsons -would be a rope; and as for Bellarmine, who had written under a feigned -name, he dubbed him "a most obscure author, a very desperate fellow in -beginning his apprentisage, not only to refute, but to rail at a king." -The flatterers of the king applauded his "immortal labours," as they were -pleased to call them; and James continued to toil at them, revise, and -remodel his arguments till 1609. The Catholic peers, with the exception -of Lord Teynham, all took the oath on different occasions in the Upper -House. - -[Illustration: POUND SOVEREIGN OF JAMES I.] - -[Illustration: UNIT OR LAUREL OF JAMES I. (GOLD).] - -[Illustration: SPUR RIAL OF JAMES I. (GOLD).] - -[Illustration: THISTLE CROWN OF JAMES I. (GOLD).] - -To dismiss for the present the religious controversies which kept the -kingdom in a ferment of bitterness, we have a little overstepped the -progress of general events. In the spring of 1606 James called together -Parliament, for he was in much distress for money. As usual, the Commons -had their list of complaints to set off against his demands and as -James showed no eagerness to redress no less than sixteen subjects of -grievance, the Commons made no haste with the supplies. At length, in the -month of May, whilst the question of the subsidy was dragging its slow -length along, and Cecil was endeavouring in vain to quicken the motion -of the House, by making promises which meant nothing beyond inducing the -members to vote, a sudden rumour ran through the court that the king was -assassinated at Oaking in Berkshire, where he was hunting along with -his favourites, the Earl of Montgomery, Sir John Ramsay, and Sir James -Hay. The mode of his death was variously reported. One version was that -he had been stabbed with a poisoned knife, and another that he had been -shot with a pistol, and a third that he was smothered in his bed. The -murderers were differently represented to be the Jesuits, Scotsmen in -women's clothes, Frenchmen, and Spaniards. There was great consternation -both in the City and the Parliament. The Lords displayed the utmost -loyalty; and the Commons suddenly closed their money debate by voting -three subsidies and six fifteenths. In the midst of the panic James -arrived safe and sound in London, and was received with proportionate -enthusiasm. As the sensation went off, many began to suspect that Cecil, -and perhaps the king himself, could have explained the origin of the -_ruse_--that it was but a spur to the tardy liberality of the Commons. At -all events, James, having obtained his supplies, prorogued Parliament to -the 18th of November. - -[Illustration: SIR ROBERT CECIL, AFTERWARDS EARL OF SALISBURY. (_From the -Portrait by Zucchero._)] - -The great business of Parliament now for several sessions--that is, -from 1604 to 1607--was that of discussing James's suggestion for the -union of the two kingdoms. This very suggestion, so immediately brought -forward, was a glaring proof of James's want of solid judgment. The -least reflection might have satisfied the least reflecting mind, that -two nations which had for so many ages been inflamed against each -other by wars, injustice, mutual cruelties, political jealousies, and -the taunts which embittered passions had caused them to fling at each -other, would require a long time to reconcile them to the idea of entire -amalgamation. The centuries of attempted usurpation on the part of the -English, and the determined resistance, even to death, of the Scots, -made the latter sensitively apprehensive of the union. They saw in it -only the accomplishment of the same end by different means. They were -the less disposed to it in consequence of the foolish boastings of James -of his absolute power. His high notions of prerogative appeared to have -grown wonderfully since his accession to the English throne. He compared -himself to a god upon earth, and had already given out his style and -title as king of Great Britain. The Scots were, therefore, naturally -suspicious of a union which would very largely augment his powers. Still -more, his new and excessive leaning towards Episcopacy alarmed the Scots. -They saw nothing but its attempted imposition on them in the union of the -kingdoms, and they were not inclined thus easily to give up their freedom -of conscience which they had fought out at so much cost. On the other -hand, James's imprudent bestowal of posts and honours on Scotsmen in -England, offended and disgusted the English. They asked whether they were -to be overrun by a regular inundation of proud and hungry adventurers -from the North. In the Commons the expressions of contempt and aversion -to the Scottish race grew to the height of insolence and insult, and were -sure to excite the most indignant feeling in that people. Sir Christopher -Pigot, the member for Buckinghamshire, especially distinguished himself -by the vituperation of Scotsmen. He professed the utmost horror at the -idea of union between a rich and fertile country like England, and a -sterile and poor one like Scotland; between a people wealthy, frank, and -generous, and one at once haughty, beggarly, and penurious. This put the -climax to the patience of Scotland, and James declared he could no longer -tolerate language which insulted himself as a Scot. - -Cecil at the command of the king took up the matter warmly, and the House -of Commons, persuaded by him, expelled Pigot, and he was committed to -the Tower. Defeated in the Commons, James betook himself to the courts -of law. He had proposed to the Commons to pass an Act naturalising all -Scots, even those born before his accession to the English throne; -but when they rejected this, he obtained a decision from the judges -sanctioning the admission of the inhabitants of each kingdom to all the -rights of subjects in both. This would in a few years have made the -Scots as much subjects of the English Crown as the English themselves, -but James was not content with this. He used very angry and impudent -language, threatening to leave London and fix his court at York or -Berwick; telling his English subjects to remember that he was a king, who -had to govern them and to answer for their errors; who was made of flesh -and blood like themselves, and might be tempted to do what they would not -like. - -The Commons resented this language: they sent their Speaker to desire -that the king would receive no reports of their proceedings except -from themselves, and that they might be permitted to feel that they -were at liberty to deliver their opinions in their own House without -restraint or fear. James, who was easily alarmed, professed to have no -desire to encroach on their liberty of speech, but no sooner did they -put him to the test than he renewed his interference. A petition being -presented to the House complaining of the oppressions upon the Puritans, -and the abuses of the Church, James sent an order to the Speaker to -inform the House that they were meddling with what belonged alone to -him. The members declared this to be a violation of their privileges, -but the Speaker informed them that there were plenty of precedents for -such restraint on the House by the Crown. The House on this proposed to -appoint a committee to inquire into these precedents, and how far they -were founded in constitutional right; but here again, James, fearing he -had gone too far, sent them word that although the matter in question -properly belonged to him, he should not object to their reading the -petition. - -But the Crown and the House very soon came into collision on the -subject of the powers of the Commons. A petition was presented from the -merchants, representing the injuries their ships and commerce received -from Spain, particularly on the coasts of South America, the ports of -which the Spanish were endeavouring to close against all other nations. -The Commons thought it a subject of that national character that they -should have the co-operation of the Peers with them, and therefore sent -to the Upper House proposing a conference. But the Lords demurred, -thinking it a subject which the Commons were scarcely authorised to enter -upon. The difficulty, however, was mutually obviated; the Lords agreed to -the conference. But it proved only an occasion for the Crown to deliver -a lecture to the Commons on their aspiring to deal with subjects too -high for them. James was, in fact, contemplating an alliance with Spain, -and was by no means disposed to offend its rulers. Cecil, therefore, and -Lord Henry Howard, now Earl of Northampton, read the Commons a very plain -lecture, instructing them that all matters appertaining to peace or war, -and all such topics as led to these results, belonged especially to the -Crown; which indeed occasionally consulted the Commons, not out of right -or necessity but as a matter of favour and also of policy, when it was -advisable to have the sympathy and active support of the representatives -of the people. But the declaration of war or concession of peace was the -absolute prerogative of the Crown; the business of the Commons was more -private and local, such as the furnishing of funds--and when money was -wanted, they never failed to hear of it. - -The Commons allowed the petition of the merchants to stand over for the -time, but out of doors the spirit of dissatisfaction rose high, and the -leaning of James towards Spain was narrowly watched and commented upon. - -While the Government and the Commons were engaged in this discussion, a -serious insurrection called the attention of the Council another way. -The lucky courtiers who had obtained amongst them the estates of the -gentlemen who had forfeited them for their share in the Gunpowder Plot, -whilst dividing and enclosing, like their predecessors who had obtained -the estates of the Church, cast greedy eyes on the adjacent common -lands, and enclosed as much as they could of them with the rest. The -people, deprived of their right of pasturage, rose in resistance, as -they had done in the reign of Edward VI. They had the statutes regarding -enclosures in their favour, and assembling in numbers from one to five -thousand, they broke down the new fences, filled up the ditches, and -restored the usurped fields to their ancient state as common. Like the -agrarian reformer, Ket of Norfolk, they confined themselves strictly to -their legitimate object. They conducted themselves with perfect order, -committed no depredations on really private property, nor perpetrated any -excesses, to which their numbers might have tempted them. They appeared -in great force at Hill Morton, in Warwickshire, an estate of Tresham's, -and in their largest force of five thousand at Coleshill. Their leaders, -whoever they were, appeared in masks, except one man of the name of -Reynolds, who was an enthusiast and set all danger at defiance; declaring -that he was sent of God to satisfy men of all degrees, and had, moreover, -authority from the king to level all the new fences. He acquired the -name of Captain Pouch, from a large pocket which he wore at his side, -and in which he boasted that he carried a charm which not only made him -invulnerable to sword or bullet, but which would protect them from all -harm. - -The insurgents broke out about the middle of May, having in vain -previously presented their memorials to the Council, the members of which -were too much interested in the lands in question to pay any attention to -them. At first James and the Court were greatly alarmed, supposing it to -be a demonstration of Catholics or Puritans. The guards at Westminster -palace were doubled, and orders were issued to the Lord Mayor to watch -the movements of the apprentices in the City. A little time, however, -revealed the real nature of the rising, and the insurgents were ordered -to disperse; but they stood their ground, assuring the magistrates that -they were only executing the statutes against enclosures, and were -under orders not to violate the law in any manner, nor even to indulge -in swearing. The lieutenants then endeavoured to raise the counties, -but the yeomanry displayed no desire to interfere in such a cause; and -many gentlemen even contended that it was best to concede the matter to -the poor, advice which, if followed, would no doubt have ensured speedy -quietness without bloodshed. But this did not suit the views of the -interested Council, and the Earls of Huntingdon and Exeter and Lord Zouch -were sent with a considerable force to quell them. Sir Edward Montague -and Sir Anthony Mildmay came upon a number of them busy levelling the -enclosures at Newton, another estate forfeited by Tresham. They found -them well armed with bills and bows, pikes and stones. The officers -commanded them to disperse, but they refused, and after twice reading -the Riot Act in vain, a charge was ordered. The trained bands showed no -relish for the business; but the regular cavalry, and the servants of -Mildmay and Montague, attacked them briskly. The insurgents returned the -attack with much bravery, but at the second onset broke and fled. Forty -or fifty of them were killed, and a great number wounded. Sir Henry -Fookes, who led on the infantry against them, was severely wounded. After -this defeat "the levellers," as they were called, were pursued in all -directions and everywhere put down and dispersed. Many prisoners were -made and a commission, with Sir Edward Coke at its head, was appointed to -try them. - -James, with a feeling that did him honour, instructed the Commission to -use moderation in punishing the prisoners, declaring that the Council had -been more to blame than they, for neglecting their petitions. Had they -not intercepted them, he pretended to say that they would have received -redress from him. He maintained that they had been oppressed and driven -to resistance by the rapacity of the gentry and the neglect of ministers. -Pouch and some of his associates were condemned and executed as traitors -on the 28th of June; and some of the others were hanged as felons because -they had not dispersed on the reading of the Riot Act. - -[Illustration: SHILLING OF JAMES I.] - -The king on the 4th of July prorogued Parliament till November, but -having got a considerable amount of money from it, and little other -satisfaction, he did not summon it again till February, 1610. Could he -have found sufficient funds any other way, it is quite certain that he -would never have called it any more. In his suit of Lincoln green, with a -little feather in his hat, and a horn by his side instead of a sword, he -followed his hounds through the forest, happy as Nimrod himself, so long -as the means lasted. But James's Court was altogether on an extravagant -scale. Like a youthful heir whose guardians have kept him close, and who -makes up for a long abstinence by tenfold profuseness on coming to his -estate, James, escaped from the poverty of his Scottish establishment -where he had mainly lived on his pension from Elizabeth, now gave rein to -extravagance as if nothing could exhaust the affluence of England. He had -a most expensive household, and he gave money to his favourites as though -he had the wishing-cap of Fortunatus. - -[Illustration: CROWN OF JAMES I.] - -Not only was his own household lavishly managed, but even those of Henry -and Elizabeth, two of his children, consisted of one hundred and forty -personages. In 1610, but three years after this period, that of Prince -Henry was increased to four hundred and twenty-six individuals, of whom -two hundred and ninety-seven were in receipt of salaries, besides a -number of workmen employed under Inigo Jones, the architect. - -But above all the presents to his favourites would have given the idea -that his resources were interminable. At the marriage of Sir Philip -Herbert with Lady Susan Vere, he gave him an estate valued at L500 a -year. At the marriage of Ramsay, Viscount Haddington, with Lady Elizabeth -Ratcliffe, he paid his debts, amounting to L10,000, having already -endowed him with an estate of L1,000 per annum; and he presented to the -bride a gold cup containing the patent of a grant of lands worth L600 a -year. His gifts at different times to Lord Dunbar amounted to L15,262; to -the Earl of Mar, to L15,500; and to Viscount Haddington, to L31,000. - -This Viscount Haddington was the Sir John Ramsay who stabbed the Earl of -Gowrie, at the time of the singular Gowrie conspiracy; and James went -on promoting him till he became Earl of Holderness, with many grants of -lands, gifts, and pensions. The second in James's regard, in the early -part of his reign, was another Scotsman, James Hay, whom he successively -created Lord Hay, Viscount Doncaster, and Earl of Carlisle. Clarendon -says that this man, in the course of a very licentious career, spent -above four hundred thousand pounds and left neither house nor child to be -remembered by. James, in England, also chose several English favourites. -The first of those was Sir Philip Herbert, brother of the Earl of -Pembroke and son of the sister of Sir Philip Sidney. He was created Earl -of Montgomery, and was especially agreeable to James because he despised -learned men--for James was jealous of all such--and took pleasure -only, like his royal master, in dogs and horses. Montgomery was in the -ascendant till the king's eye fell on one Robert Carr, destined to a -strange history; and the English and Scottish favourites, by their mutual -hatred of each other, their quarrels and duels, gave James sufficient -trouble. Haddington and Montgomery had an affray in which Montgomery -showed the white feather, and James sent Haddington for a short time to -the Tower. Douglas, the Master of the Horse, was killed in one of these -squabbles; and some years later Lord Sanquhar had an eye thrust out by a -fencing master, for which his lordship killed him, and was executed for -the deed. Such was the disgraceful condition of the court of the British -Solomon. - -[Illustration: JAMES AND HIS COURTIERS SETTING OUT FOR THE HUNT. (_See -p._ 436.)] - -During the years 1608 and 1609, negotiations were pending between the -United Provinces of the Netherlands and Spain. James, who had a claim -on these Provinces for above eight hundred thousand pounds on account -of advances and services by Elizabeth, for which he held the towns of -Flushing, Brell, and Rammekens, would have been glad to obtain possession -of the money. So well was this known, that there were rumours that, as -he could not obtain the sum due, he was intending to sell the towns -to Philip III. of Spain. The Archduke Albert was still in Flanders, -not having abandoned the hope of recovering the revolted States; and -Catholics from England were in the habit of volunteering to assist him -in undoing what Queen Elizabeth had done there. But much as James was -pressed for money, he was scarcely daring enough to aid Spain in its -views. The spirit of Protestantism was too strong in England tamely to -witness such an anti-Protestant policy; and, in fact, James himself was -rather afraid of an attack from Spain, than hoping for a coalition with -it. The Earl of Tyrone had fallen under suspicion of fresh rebellion, -and had fled to the Spaniards in the Netherlands for security. Cecil -apprehensive that Philip might be disposed to attempt his restoration, -instructed Sir Charles Cornwallis, at Madrid, to use bold language on the -occasion. This appears to have had effect, for Tyrone retired to Italy. -But a new danger presented itself in the rumour of negotiations for peace -between Holland and Spain. Cecil dreaded a pacification between these -Powers, as it would allow Philip more opportunity to turn his attention -to Ireland, if so disposed. - -The English Government was surprised and mortified to learn that such -negotiations were actually proceeding, and that the King of France had -been invited to join in them. At length James, who had so deep a stake in -the Netherlands, received a formal notice to the same effect, soliciting -his co-operation. These negotiations were conducted at the Hague, but -it was not till March, 1609, that they were brought to a conclusion. -The result was a truce for twelve years, which was, in fact, equivalent -to a peace, acknowledging the independence of the Dutch States, after a -brave conflict for liberty of forty years. The debt of James, amounting -to eight hundred and eighteen thousand pounds, was acknowledged, and -engagements entered into for its payment by annual instalments of sixty -thousand pounds. But the first payment was not to be made till the end of -two years, and James was still to retain the cautionary towns till the -whole was discharged. - -The postponement of the payment of the debt of Holland was extremely -embarrassing to Cecil. On the death of the Earl of Dorset, in 1608, he -succeeded to the office of Treasurer, and to the clamorous demands which -had been made upon Dorset. His carriage had been stopped in the streets -by the servants of the king's household, who were loud in their demands -for their long arrears of wages, and the purveyors refused to bring in -any more supplies till they were paid their advances. Cecil, on examining -the accounts, found James one million three hundred thousand pounds in -debt, and exceeding his income at the rate of upwards of eighty thousand -pounds per annum. He set to work resolutely to curtail this expenditure -and to devise means of raising money. James always claimed an authority -paramount to all laws; and Cecil ventured to put in practice the idea of -prerogative in raising the necessary funds. He called in rigorously the -unpaid remains of the last voted subsidies, and then proceeded to lay -on duties and impose monopolies of the most odious nature, without any -sanction of Parliament. His predecessor Dorset had set him the example by -levying an import duty on currants by letters patent. This illegal demand -had been resisted, and Bates, a Turkey merchant, was proceeded against -for refusal to pay, in the Court of Exchequer. This court was base -enough to decide in favour of this unconstitutional stretch of power, and -James was delighted at so auspicious a concession of the justice of his -doctrine of prerogative. Cecil pressed on in the path thus opened, and -laid on import and export duties on various articles by orders under the -Great Seal. He imposed a feudal aid towards the knighting of the Prince -Henry, of twenty shillings on each knight's fee; but this produced only -twenty-eight thousand pounds. He then extended his duties to almost every -species of imported and exported goods, at the rate of five pounds per -cent. on the value of the goods, which he calculated would produce three -hundred thousand pounds per annum; and he sold to the Dutch a right of -fishing on the coasts of England and Scotland. Cecil himself was the -farmer of these duties. They were, however, of a character to excite the -utmost dissatisfaction; trade fell off under their influence, fewer ships -came into the English ports, and there was at length no alternative but -to summon a Parliament, which met on the 24th of February, 1610. - -The great topics which occupied this Parliament were, of course, the -king's want of money and his continual violations of Magna Charta. Cecil, -seeing the desperate state of the royal finances, made a bold demand that -six hundred thousand pounds should be at once voted to liquidate his -debts, and that an annual addition of two hundred thousand pounds should -be consented to as a permanent pension, to prevent him from getting into -debt again. But Cecil committed a great blunder both in routine and in -sound policy, by proposing this money measure to the Lords instead of -to the Commons, whose proper business it was. The Commons resented this -course, and were more determined than ever in demanding an abandonment of -the unconstitutional practice of imposing duties without their consent. -They declared that the imprisonment of Bates for opposing this practice, -though sanctioned by the Exchequer, was nevertheless illegal. Francis -Bacon and Sir John Davis endeavouring to justify the despotic proceeding, -only increased the exasperation of the House. It was declared that if -the taxing of merchandise by prerogative was permitted, the taxing of -their lands would soon follow. James sent them word to desist from such -discussions; but the Commons were not to be thus silenced, whereupon -James sent for both Houses to Whitehall, and delivered a most blasphemous -speech in vindication of his inflated notions of kingly authority. -"Kings," said he, "are justly called gods, for they exercise a manner -or resemblance of divine power upon earth. For if you will consider -the attributes of God, you shall see how they agree in the person of a -king. God hath power to create or destroy, to make or unmake, at His -pleasure; to give life or send death, to judge all, and to be judged of -nor accountable to none; to raise low things, and to make high things -low at His pleasure; and to God both body and soul are due. And the like -power have kings. They make and unmake their subjects; they have power -of raising and casting down, of life and of death; judges over all their -subjects, and in all cases, and yet accountable to none but God only. -They have power to exalt low things and abase high things, and make of -their subjects like men of chess--a pawn to take a bishop or a knight; -and to cry up or down any of their subjects as they do their money. -And to the king is due both the affection of the soul, and the service -of the body of his subjects." To resist the king in any of his acts or -impositions, he declared was sedition; for the king was above all law, -and laws were, in fact, but granted by kings to the people as a matter of -favour. - -The Commons would not listen to such insane language. They told the king -that in extolling the power of kings, he forgot the existence of Magna -Charta, which set eternal and impassable bounds to that power; and they -appointed a committee to search for the legality or illegality of all the -practices complained of. The Crown lawyers in committee argued that "the -reverence of past ages, and the possession of present times," sanctioned -the king's doctrine; and that the right of imposing duties had been -exercised by the three first Edwards by their own will, and independent -of Parliament; and that if it had been interrupted from Richard II. to -Mary, yet that princess had reassumed the royal privilege, and that it -was continued by Elizabeth. But the Commons replied that in all these -cases the monarchs had violated Magna Charta, the Statute _de tallagio -non concedendo_, and twelve other Parliamentary enactments; that no time -or practice could establish a right against those great bulwarks of -popular liberty. And the Commons therefore demanded that a law should -be made during this Session, declaring that all such impositions of -duties or taxes, without consent of Parliament, should be pronounced for -ever void. And they accordingly passed such a Bill, which, however, was -rejected by the more subservient Lords. - -James writhed under this plain and direct denial of his assumed -authority, and refused to surrender the question. He found in the bishops -a body, on the whole, ready to co-operate with him in his attempt to -destroy the Constitution; and Bancroft, the Primate, led the way with -unblushing baseness. Under his leadership the whole High Church party -echoed the king's most absolute dogmas, and claimed for him all the -divinity which he professed to possess. The king, according to their -creed, being divine, so were the bishops who were appointed by him, -and therefore this divine Crown and Church were above all law. The -ecclesiastical courts carried this theory into daily practice, and -encroached on the temporal courts as pertinaciously as the king did on -Parliament. There was a grand struggle between the common and the civil -law. The judges, who saw this arrogance of the clergy with jealousy and -disgust, began to relax their enmity against the Puritans and to regard -them as the natural allies of law against absolutism. - -On the other hand, the king and bishops sought out fresh means in support -of their doctrine, and one of these was to bring forward Dr. Cowell who, -in his "Interpreter, or Law Dictionary," broached unmitigated maxims of -despotism. He declared that the king inherited all the powers which had -been exercised by the Emperors of Rome; as if the empire of the Romans -had never ceased in England, or as if the civil law being still used by -the Church, it became in all its forms imperative on the nation. This -work was dedicated to Bancroft, and he and the king eulogised it as -maintaining all the rampant maxims of absolutism which James had ever -uttered. The king, Cowell declared, was "_solutus a legibus_," "freed -from all restraint of laws;" and though he took an oath at his coronation -to maintain all the laws unchanged, yet he was at full liberty to quash -any laws that he pleased; and, in a word, he contended "that the King of -England is an absolute king." - -The Commons called upon the Lords to unite with them in punishing this -apologist, who, not content with selling his own birthright for a mess of -pottage, was endeavouring to sell that of the nation too. The case was -so flagrant that the Lords could not decline the challenge. And Bacon, -who had shortly before been the advocate of the royal prerogative, now -conducted the case for the Commons in the conference against Cowell, who -was sent to prison for a time; his book was suppressed by the king's -proclamation, poor James himself being obliged to condemn his own -champion. - -Having triumphed in this particular, the Commons proceeded to much older -grievances. They demanded the abolition of that den of injustice and -extortion, the Court of High Commission, in which the king exercised that -unrestrained despotism which he claimed over the whole kingdom; where -men were sentenced and fined at the arbitrary will of the king and its -council, without jury or evidence admitted in their defence: but this -was an institution so dear to James's heart, that he would not listen to -any abatement of its power. They next complained of the growing abuse -of substituting royal proclamations for established law, "by reason of -which," said the Commons, "there is a general fear conceived and spread -amongst your majesty's people, that proclamations will, by degrees, grow -up and increase to the strength and nature of laws." To this James simply -replied that his proclamations should not exceed the warranty of law. -They further complained of the delay of the courts in granting writs of -_habeas corpus_ and prohibition, and of the encroachment of the Council -of Wales, which extended its jurisdiction over neighbouring counties -where it had no real authority; as well as of various monopolies, taxes -on public-houses and on sea-coal. - -The licenses to public-houses he agreed to revoke, but he demanded a -perpetual revenue in lieu of the income thence derived. This the Commons -refused, alleging that he had no right to impose that tax in the first -instance; and they further demanded that the feudal burthens of tenure -by knights' service, wardships, and purveyance, should cease. As to the -first, James absolutely refused compliance, on the plea that he would not -reduce all his subjects, "rich and poor, noble and base, to hold their -lands in the same ignoble manner;" but as to wardships, the marriages of -infants and widows, and other odious services, including purveyance, he -was willing to barter them for a sum of money. The sum which he demanded -was three hundred thousand pounds per annum. The Commons only offered -one hundred thousand pounds, but after a long course of haggling, like -chapmen in a fair, the king descended to two hundred and twenty thousand -pounds, and the Commons rose to one hundred and eighty thousand pounds. -Here the matter paused till James moved a dissolution, when the Commons -advanced to two hundred thousand pounds, and the king accepted the sum. -But here again the king and his advocates had boasted so much of his -being above the law, and of his power to quash, of his own will, any -statute to which he had consented, that the Commons were cautious in -their proceedings, and they had moreover to determine out of what funds -this revenue should be raised. These discussions had now driven on the -Session to the middle of July, and it was agreed that they should vote -one subsidy, and one tenth and fifteenth for the present Session, and -defer the final settlement of the other grant till the next. - -The interval was utilised by James and his ministers in attempts to -corrupt some of the members of the Opposition, and thus to enable him -to concede less and obtain more; but the Commons had employed the time -in weighing the slippery nature of the man with whom they had to deal. -His continual boasts of his superiority to all laws, and of an actually -divine power of dispensing with his most solemn obligations, made them -doubtful of the possibility of binding him to any terms; and the growing -extravagance and rapacity of both king and courtiers deepened their fears. - -When they met they were in a far less compliant humour than when they -separated. They insisted on seeing the promised reforms before they voted -the two hundred thousand pounds. James was growing desperate for money; -his coffers were empty, and the officers of the Crown were clamorous -for their arrears of salary. He therefore sent for them to Whitehall, -and a deputation of about thirty members attended. The king demanded -of them whether they thought that he was really in want of money, as -his Treasurer and the Chancellor of the Exchequer had informed them? -"Whereto," says Winwood, "when Sir Francis Bacon had begun to answer -in a more extravagant style than his majesty did delight to hear, he -picked out Sir Henry Neville, commanding him to answer according to his -conscience. Thereupon Sir Henry Neville did directly answer that he -thought his majesty was in want. 'Then,' said the king, 'tell me whether -it belongeth to you, that are my subjects, to relieve me or not?' 'To -this,' quoth Sir Henry, 'I must answer with a distinction: where your -majesty's expense groweth by the commonwealth, we are bound to maintain -it, otherwise not.'" Sir Henry reminded the king that in this one -Parliament they had already given four subsidies and seven fifteenths, -which was more than any Parliament at any time had given, and yet they -had no relief of their grievances. James demanded what these grievances -were--as though he had not heard them enumerated often enough before--and -desired Sir Henry to give him a catalogue of them. Sir Henry adverted to -the difficulties of obtaining justice in courts of law, to the usurped -jurisdiction in the marches of Wales, and would have gone through the -whole list had not Sir Herbert Croft interrupted him. - -[Illustration: THE STAR CHAMBER.] - -Finding that nothing was to be drawn from the resolute House, James again -prorogued them for nine weeks, in order to try every means of drawing -over to him individual members. But these efforts were as abortive as the -former: the Commons were determined not to part with their money till -they had a guarantee for the redress of their grievances, and James about -this time lost his two right-hand men, Bancroft and Cecil. Bancroft, had -died in November, 1610, staunch to the last in his exhortations to James -not to give up the High Court of Commission; assuring him that though -the Lords had thrown out the Bill, the Commons would bring it in again, -and that nothing but unflinching firmness would defeat them. Cecil died -on the 24th of May, 1612. He was grievously chagrined at the failure of -his favourite scheme for setting the king above all his difficulties. -In default of that, the old expedient of the sale of Crown lands was -resorted to for the raising of money, and privy seals for loans of money -were despatched into different counties. Meanwhile James was subsisting -on a subsidy of six shillings in the pound granted by the clergy, and -both king and ministers were in terror lest the privy seals should be -"refused by the desperate hardness of the people." They raised, however, -one hundred and eleven thousand pounds. - -The end of Cecil has been supposed to have been hastened by these -anxieties; but probably he was worn out by the incessant cares which -have pulled down other ministers besides him; for in his last moments he -said to Sir Walter Cope, "Ease and pleasures quake to hear of death; but -my life, full of cares and miseries, desireth to be dissolved." He had -sought benefit at Bath, but without effect, and died at Marlborough on -his return. Like his father, he had great talents, applied in a cold and -ungenerous manner; but with all his faults he was a great minister. - -We must now introduce the story of a lady whose fate was very -hard--Arabella Stuart. Lady Arabella (born in 1577) was descended from -Henry VII.'s eldest daughter Margaret, like James himself, and therefore -was to him an object of suspicion. Her proximity to the Crown had drawn -upon her the attention of both princes and conspirators at various -times. When she was only about ten years of age, Elizabeth used to show -her at Court as the person she meant to make her heir. This she did to -provoke James, whose pretensions were nearly as odious to her as those -of his mother. But in after years Elizabeth treated her with extreme -severity. James, indeed, contributed to this, by asking her in marriage -for his favourite, Esme Stuart, Duke of Lennox, who was Arabella's -cousin, also of the same royal descent. Elizabeth was extremely chagrined -at such a proposal, reprimanded James sharply, forbade the marriage, -and imprisoned the unoffending maiden. Again, Raleigh and Cobham were -accused on their trial of having designed to depose James and place her -on the throne in his stead. Lady Arabella did not wait to be questioned -on the subject, but on receiving a letter of such purport from Cobham, -immediately sent it to the king, and only laughed at the proposal. Again -her name was mentioned in the Gunpowder Plot. James does not seem to -have had any fear of her on these occasions. But he was more afraid of -aspirants to her hand than of conspirators; and had, no doubt, settled -in his mind that she should never marry. Like Elizabeth, he repulsed -all offers of the kind, both from subjects and foreign princes, lest -from the marriage should issue claimants to his throne. Cecil took care, -on the death of Elizabeth, to secure the person of Arabella till James -had been proclaimed and had taken possession of the throne. The king -himself appeared disposed to act liberally towards her, except in not -permitting her to marry. He settled a pension upon her, allowed her -apartments in the palace, and she was recognised while the Princess -Elizabeth was in her tutelage as first lady of the Court. The year after -James's accession, the King of Poland sent an ambassador to demand her in -marriage; but even Poland was not distant enough for royal fears. Next -came a proposal from Count Maurice, titular Duke of Guelders, but James -would not listen to it; and Lady Arabella, who was a clever woman, made -it her policy--both under Elizabeth and James--to appear averse from any -marriage whatever. She devoted herself to literature, poetry, and even -theology, which became fashionable at Court from the predilections of -James. - -Queen Anne appears to have had a great regard for the Lady Arabella, who -was handsome, of a lively and affectionate disposition, and ready to -enter into all the taste for masques and pageants which distinguished -her royal mistress. She was, in fact, the great ornament of the Court of -James; but her attractions were only the more dangerous to her safety, -considering her descent. The feeling that she excited increased James's -alarm, and she was kept under the close surveillance of Elizabeth -Cavendish the Countess of Shrewsbury, who was her aunt. The countess -appears to have treated her with much harshness, and James to have -paid her salary very badly. On the whole, no situation, with all its -splendour, could be more miserable than that of Lady Arabella. No wonder, -then, that she sought to escape from it. In her childhood she had been -acquainted with Sir William Seymour, the son of Lord Beauchamp. They met -again at Court, and their early attachment was renewed and rapidly grew -into love. The Lady Arabella was now watched and harassed more than ever -by her shrewish guardian Lady Shrewsbury, and matters came to such a pass -between them that James was obliged to interfere. He paid up the arrears -of her pension to enable her to discharge her debts, and to soothe her -made her a present of a cupboard of plate, worth two hundred pounds. The -chief cause of Lady Arabella's discontent was supposed to arise from -her pressing necessities; but there was a deeper cause--the restraint -upon her affections; and it was not long before some officious Court spy -conveyed to James the alarming intelligence that there was an engagement -of marriage plighted between Seymour and Lady Arabella. Seymour was also -descended from Henry VII., and such a marriage in prospect was enough -to terrify James beyond conception. He instantly summoned the offenders -before his Council, where they were severely snubbed and forbidden to -marry without the king's permission. They both promised to abandon the -idea, but this was only to disarm suspicion till they could effect -their marriage. In July, 1610, it was discovered that they were already -wedded, and James issued an immediate order for their arrest. Seymour was -committed to the Tower, and Arabella to the keeping of Sir Thomas Parry -at Lambeth. - -The youthful couple were so much pitied that they did not find it -difficult to meet. Seymour bribed his keeper so effectually that he -suffered him frequently to go out of the Tower, and he met Lady Arabella -in the garden at Lambeth, and even in the house, unknown to Sir Thomas -Parry. Meanwhile the friends of the young people were not inactive. They -used all the means they could imagine to soften the mind of the king -towards them; and the queen, who loved Arabella and received the most -eloquent letters from her, praying her to exert her influence in her -behalf, did her utmost to procure the liberation of her and her husband. -Unfortunately, whispers of their stolen interviews reached James, and -he sent instant orders to guard Seymour better, and to remove Lady -Arabella to Durham, where she was to be in the keeping of the bishop. -When the order reached Lady Arabella, she positively refused to go; but -the officers carried her forcibly out in her bed, placed her in a boat, -and rowed her up the river. In spite of her resistance, her keepers set -forward on their journey; but by the time that they reached Barnet, her -agitation of mind had thrown her into a fever, and the doctor declared -that nothing but the discontinuance of the journey could save her life. -He waited on the king himself and assured him of this. But though James -confessed that carrying her away in her bed was enough to make her ill -if she had been well, he was peremptory in his commands that she should -proceed. To Durham she should go, he said, if he were king. To this the -physician replied that the lady would obey if the king required it. -"Obedience!" repeated James; "is that required?" But when his first anger -was over he relented, and allowed her to remain for a month at Highgate -in the house of the Earl of Essex. There she was closely watched; but on -the 3rd of June, 1611, the very day that the Bishop of Durham set out -northward to prepare for her reception, she effected her escape. - -The plan of flight to the Continent had been carefully concerted between -herself and her husband in the Tower, through the medium of two of -Seymour's friends. It was arranged that Arabella should get away in -male attire, and Seymour in the garb of a physician. A French vessel -was engaged to lie off Gravesend to receive the fugitives, and carry -them to the Continent. All was in readiness, and Arabella, says Winwood, -"disguising herselfe by drawing a great pair of French-fashioned hose -over her petticoats, putting on a man's doublet, a man-lyke peruque, -with long locks over her hair, a black hat, black cloake, russet bootes -with red tops, and a rapier by her syde, walked forth between three and -four o'clock with Mr. Markham. After they had gone on foot a mile and -a halfe to a sorry inne, where Crompton attended with their horses, -she grew very sicke and fainte; so as the ostler that held the styrrup -said that gentleman would hardly hold out to London. Yet being set on a -good gelding a-stryde in an unwonted fashion, the stirring of the horse -brought blood enough into her face, and so she rode on towards Blackwall." - -Lady Arabella found boats and attendants ready to row her down to -Gravesend, where she expected to find her husband. But Seymour had not -been quite so expeditious in making his way out of the Tower. He had -indeed effected it, and was on his way, but Lady Arabella, on getting -on board, found that he had not arrived; and the French captain, aware -of the serious nature of his commission, grew afraid, and in spite of -Arabella's entreaties dropped down the river towards its mouth. Seymour, -on finding that the vessel had sailed without him, engaged the captain of -a collier for forty pounds to land him in Flanders. - -No sooner was the news of Arabella's flight from Highgate conveyed -to Court, than the utmost consternation prevailed. A messenger was -despatched to the Tower to order the strictest surveillance of Seymour, -but the man brought back the appalling tidings that he also had escaped. -The terrors of a new conspiracy seized James and the courtiers. It was -soon asserted that it was a design of the King of Spain and the Papists; -that the fugitives were to be received in the Netherlands by the Spanish -commander, and were to be brought to London at the head of a Catholic -host. - -Couriers were hurried off in all likely directions to intercept the -culprits, and the Thames was astir with ships and boats to discover them -on board any vessel there. In spite of this sharp pursuit, the collier -put Seymour safe on shore in Flanders; but Lady Arabella was not so -fortunate. The French vessel was chased and brought to in mid-channel. -After some resistance it was boarded, and the unhappy princess seized, -brought back, and secured in the Tower. Meanwhile James had written very -angry letters to the archduke of Austria and the authorities of the -Netherlands, as well as to the king and queen-regent of France, accusing -them roundly of being accessory to the plot, and demanding them to send -the fugitives back. - -For a time Lady Arabella bore imprisonment better than could have been -expected. She declared that she did not mind captivity for herself, so -that her husband had escaped. Yet not the less did she appeal to the -generosity of James for her liberty, nor relax her efforts to that end -through the kind offices of the queen. But all such endeavours were -useless: James had had too great a fright to risk anything more. He sent -the lady word that as she had eaten of the forbidden fruit, she must now -pay the penalty of it. All hope of moving the relentless soul of the -royal pedant gradually forsook her, and then her splendidly sensitive -mind gave way. She became a pitiable lunatic, and died in her prison on -the 27th of September, 1615. James had thrown the Countess of Shrewsbury -into the Tower at the same time with the Lady Arabella, on suspicion of -being a party to the scheme; but that high-spirited lady refused to give -an answer to any interrogatories put to her, notwithstanding menaces of -the Star Chamber and heavy fines. On the death of Lady Arabella she was -set at liberty. - -[Illustration: FLIGHT OF THE LADY ARABELLA STUART. (_See p._ 443.)] - -In pursuing the fate of this ill-used lady to its close, we have passed -over another tragedy, that of the popular but dissipated King Henry IV. -of France. Notwithstanding his adoption of Catholicism, from motives of -policy, it was believed that his heart was still with the Protestant -cause, and the death of John, Duke of Cleves, Juliers, and Berg, which -occurred in 1609, gave him an opportunity of serving that interest -under the plea of political necessity. The Duke of Cleves had died -without issue, and the Emperor of Germany seized it as a fief of the -imperial crown. The Electors of Brandenburg and Saxony, and the Duke of -Neuburg, also laid claim to it. Jealousy of the already too powerful and -ambitious house of Austria combined against it the Protestant princes -of Germany and Holland, and they were joined by Henry of France on the -same political ground, whilst the King of Spain, the archduke, and other -Catholic and kindred princes, supported the claims of Austria. James of -England engaged to furnish four thousand infantry, and the King of France -the same. The Protestant princes of Germany and Holland were to supply -nine thousand foot and two thousand horse, and it was agreed that the -Elector of Brandenburg should be acknowledged as the real heir. - -[Illustration: NOTRE DAME, CAUDEBEC.] - -Meanwhile Henry IV. did not confine himself to his quota of four -thousand infantry. The moment appeared to him favourable for extending -his own territory and power, and he appeared at the head of a splendid -army of thirty thousand men, with a great train of artillery and camp -supplies. Rumour was very busy on the appearance of this great force, -that Henry was for apostatising a second time, or rather now going back -to his original faith; and the priests diligently propagated the belief -that he meant to make war on the Pope and restore Protestantism. These -representations seem to have excited the brain of a mad young friar, of -the name of Francis Ravaillac, who stabbed him in the streets of Paris, -three days before his intended departure for the campaign (May 14, 1610). -The murderer was put to the torture to force from him the names of his -accomplices or instigators; but he persisted to the last in denying that -he had any. Three times before had the life of Henry IV. been attacked -by assassins: in 1593 by Pierre Barriere, in 1597 by Pierre Ouen, and -in 1605 by Jean de l'Isle. Ravaillac succeeded, and suffered the reward -of his deed in a terrible death. This horrible tragedy renewed the -terror of the Catholics in England, and both the Parliament of England -and the Council of Scotland called on James to secure himself by fresh -persecution of them. The Scottish Council saw in the French assassins the -frogs foretold in the Revelation, to be sent out by the devil against the -head of the Church, and prayed the king to protect his precious life by -fresh guards while he indulged himself in hunting. - -Whilst James was earnestly engaged in suppressing any rival claims to -the Crown by persecuting to death the Lady Arabella, he was equally busy -in endeavouring to secure a succession in his own family. Though he -persecuted the Catholics as a dangerous, sinful, and abominable body, -he had no objection whatever to marry his children to Catholic princes, -because they were by far the most considerable in Europe. Accordingly -he made overtures for the marriage of his son Henry, and his daughter -Elizabeth, both to France and Spain. Queen Anne was most bent on the -Spanish matches for both son and daughter, and was therefore vehemently -suspected of Popery, though her motives were the same as those of her -husband--the rank and prestige of the alliance. - -Prince Henry was the darling of his mother and of the nation. In -appearance, temper, and aspirations the very opposite of his father. All -persons, and especially all princes, who die young, are remembered with -a peculiar affection; their virtues are exaggerated and live in memory -as the roots of brilliant hopes cut off by fate. Time has not allowed -the adverse influences of life and of royal power to corrupt them. Had -Henry VIII. died young, he would have left a regretted name as a model of -chivalric spirit and generous enthusiasm; yet we have no right to infer -that Henry Prince of Wales, the eldest son of James, would have developed -into such a character as the eighth Henry. He was a handsome, brave, -and right-minded youth of eighteen, possessed of none of the timidity -or the bookishness of his father, and very fond of all sorts of martial -exercises--pitching the bar, handling the pike, riding, and shooting with -the bow. Though extremely fond of horses, he was not, like his father, -addicted to the chase, revolting from its cruelty. He seemed to have set -before him as models Henry V. and the Black Prince; models which might -have led him to inflict serious evils on his country had he lived, by -the spirit of conquest. Young as he was, he displayed all the tastes of -such a hero. He fired off cannon with his own hands, and had new pieces -cast on improved models. He conversed with unceasing pleasure with -engineers and men who had seen distinguished service, and he imported the -finest horses from the Continent that could be procured. In his private -character he was serious, modest, and devout. He attended the best -preachers, and listened with a quiet sobriety in striking contrast to his -father, who was always excited when listening to a preacher and wanting -to preach himself. Henry abhorred profanity and swearing, and had a box -in each of his houses at Richmond, Nonsuch, and St. James's to receive -the fines for swearing from his household, which were rigorously levied, -the money being given to the poor. - -As these traits became known, the people flocked after the prince in a -manner which much piqued his father, who could not help exclaiming--"Will -he bury me alive!" The Reformers conceived great hopes of him, and there -was a prophecy regarding him in every one's mouth:-- - - "Henry the Eighth pulled down abbeys and cells, - But Henry the Ninth shall pull down bishops and bells." - -Had James succeeded in obtaining the Spanish Infanta for Henry, he would -have effectually neutralised this popularity. But though Henry did not -stubbornly oppose his father's plans, he is said to have declared amongst -his own friends that he had made up his mind never to marry a Popish -princess, and the Puritans had the firmest faith that he never would. - -It was regarded as a good sign that the young prince was extremely -averse from his father's favourites, and especially from Carr, who -was rapidly rising, and had now been created Viscount Rochester. The -queen, who shared this aversion, strengthened him in it with all her -influence. But he was not destined to wear the crown of England: he was -now attacked with symptoms of premature decay. It was supposed that he -had grown too fast for his strength, having reached the stature of six -feet at seventeen, and his chivalrous exercises had been too violent -and imprudent for such rapid growth. He was accustomed to take his -exercises in the greatest heat of summer, to expose himself to all sorts -of weather, and to bathe for a long time together after supper. While -James was planning marriages for him, the prince was fast hastening -out of the world. The Spanish match still lingering, after years of -negotiation, James listened to a proposal of Mary de Medici, the widow of -Henry IV., and now Queen-Regent of France, for a wedding between Prince -Henry and the Princess Christine, the second daughter of France, on the -understanding that she should be educated as a Protestant. About the same -time James agreed to a marriage between his daughter Elizabeth and the -Protestant Elector Palatine. These marriages had been in accordance with -the policy of Cecil, who wished to make them the basis of a Protestant -alliance against the Catholic Powers. But the first of them was never -to take place. In the spring of 1612 the health of Prince Henry began -to fail. In the October of that year the Elector Palatine arrived in -England to complete his marriage with Elizabeth, who was still only -sixteen. Henry roused himself to receive his proposed brother-in-law; he -rode to town from Richmond, and most imprudently, in his infirm state of -health, engaged in the sports and pastimes of the occasion. On the 24th -of October he played a great match at tennis with the Count Henry of -Nassau in his shirt. He had been suffering from typhus already, and this -brought it to a crisis. He was seized in the night with a violent pain in -his head, and an oppressive languor; yet the next day, being Sunday, he -would rise and attend two services, one in his own chapel at St. James's, -and another at the king's in Whitehall. The text of the preacher at St. -James's was remarkable:--"Man, that is born of a woman, is of short -continuance and full of trouble." In the afternoon, after dinner, he was -compelled to yield to the complaint, and hastened home to bed. By the -29th he was so ill that there was great dismay amongst the people, and -this was immensely aggravated by a lunar rainbow, which appeared to span -that part of the Palace of St. James's where the sick prince lay. The -most fatal auguries were drawn from this phenomenon. - -The fever now assumed a putrid form, and was declared by the medical men -highly infectious; and his parents and sister were debarred from entering -his room. He grew daily worse, was highly delirious, calling for his -clothes and his arms, and saying he must be gone. On the 5th of November, -the anniversary of the Gunpowder Plot, James was informed that all hope -was extinct. Unable to bear his feelings so near the scene of sorrow, -the king hastened away to Theobalds; but the queen would only retire to -Somerset House, whence she sent continual messengers to inquire after -her son's symptoms. The prince had entertained a romantic admiration of -Sir Walter Raleigh, declaring that no prince but his father would keep -such a bird in a cage, and he had joined with his mother in entreating -for his liberty. To Sir Walter the life or death of the prince was life -or death to himself. The agonised mother was now seized with a desperate -desire to obtain from Raleigh a nostrum which he possessed, and which she -had herself formerly taken in a fit of ague. Sir Walter sent it, with -the assurance that it would cure any mortal malady except poison. After -taking Raleigh's nostrum he seemed to revive for a time, but again became -worse, and expired at eight o'clock on Friday night, the 6th of November. - -Perhaps a more extraordinary 5th of November was never passed than the -one preceding Henry's death. The people were assembled in dense crowds -around the palace, eagerly listening for news of the prince's condition, -while all around them were the noises--the firing, and the bonfires--of -the celebration of the Gunpowder Plot. They were still remaining there -the following day, and when the cry of the prince's servants was heard in -the palace on beholding him dead, the people groaned and wept in agony. -The Catholics, on their part, regarded the death of the first-born of the -royal house as a manifest judgment for the persecution of their Church. - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII. - -JAMES I. (_concluded_). - - Reign of Favourites--Robert Carr--His Marriage--Death of - Overbury--Venality at Court--The Addled Parliament--George - Villiers--Fall of Somerset--Disgrace of Coke--Bacon becomes - Lord Chancellor--Position of England Abroad--The Scottish - Church--Introduction of Episcopacy--Andrew Melville--Visit - of James to Scotland--The Book of Sports--Persecution of the - Irish Catholics--Examination into Titles--Rebellion of the - Chiefs--Plantation of Ulster--Fresh Confiscations--Quarrel - between Bacon and Coke--Prosperity of Buckingham--Raleigh's - Last Voyage--His Execution--Beginnings of the Thirty - Years' War--Indecision of James--Despatch of Troops to the - Palatinate--Parliament of 1621--Impeachment of Bacon--His - Fall--Floyd's Case--James's Proceedings during the - Recess--Dissolution of Parliament--Reasons for the Spanish - Match--Charles and Buckingham go to Spain--The Match is Broken - Off--Punishment of Bristol--Popularity of Buckingham--Change of - Foreign Policy--Marriage of Charles and Henrietta Maria--Death of - James. - - -From the death of Cecil we may date the reign of favourites, which -continued as long as the king lived. That cautious and able minister was -too fond of power himself to allow it to pass into the hands of much -weaker men. James, while Cecil lived, had indeed no lack of favourites -on whom he lavished affluence and honours; but his cunning minister had -the address to prevent him from giving them places of real power and -responsibility. James therefore, so long as Cecil remained, was content -to make his favourites his companions and left Cecil to conduct public -affairs; but no sooner was Salisbury in his grave, than James became the -slave of his favourites, who ruled both him and the kingdom. - -The first of these was Robert Carr, or Ker, a young border Scot of -the Kers of Fernihurst. He had been some years in France, and being a -handsome youth--"straight-limbed, well-formed, strong-shouldered, and -smooth-faced"--he had been led to believe that if he cultivated his -personal appearance and a gaiety and courtliness of address, he was sure -of making his fortune at the Court of James. Accordingly he managed to -appear as page to Lord Dingwall at a grand tilting match at Westminster, -in 1606. According to chivalric usage, it became his duty to present -his lord's shield to his Majesty; but in manoeuvring his horse on the -occasion, it fell and broke his leg. That fall was his rise. James was -immediately struck with the beauty of the youth who lay disabled at his -feet, and had him straightway carried into a house near Charing Cross, -and sent his own surgeon to him. As soon as he could get away from the -tilt-yard, he hastened to him himself. He renewed his visits daily, -waiting upon him himself, and displaying to the whole Court the intensity -of his sudden regard for him. "Lord!" says Weldon, "how the great men -flocked then to see him, and to offer to his shrine in such abundance, -that the king was forced to lay a restraint, lest it might retard his -recovery." - -The lad's fortune was made; and though James, in conversing with him, -found that he was very ignorant--the whole of his education having -been directed to his outside--this did not abate his regard, for he -condescended to be at once his nurse and schoolmaster. "The prince," says -Harrington, "leaneth on his arm, pinches his cheek, smooths his ruffled -garments. The young man doth study much art and device; he hath changed -his tailors and tiremen many times, and all to please the prince. The -king teaches him Latin every morning, and I think some one should teach -him English too, for he is a Scotch lad, and hath much need of better -language." - -[Illustration: SIR FRANCIS BACON (VISCOUNT ST. ALBANS). - -(_From the Portrait by Van Somer._)] - -James found that Carr had been his page in Scotland, and that his -father had suffered much in the cause of the unhappy Mary Stuart; -these were additional causes of favour. On Christmas-day, 1607, James -knighted him and made him a gentleman of the bed-chamber, so as to have -him constantly about his person. Such was his favour that every one -pressed around him to obtain their suits with the king. He received rich -presents; the ladies courted his attention; the greatest lords did him -the most obsequious and disgusting homage. Carr, however, had an eye to -pleasing the public and therefore, Scotsman as he was, he turned the -cold shoulder to his countrymen, and associated with and favoured the -English; probably, too, finding this the most profitable. Those about him -were almost wholly English; and his affairs were in the hands of one Sir -Thomas Overbury, a man of an evil look, and with a countenance said to -be shaped like that of a horse. The dark ability of this man supplied -the lack of talent in his patron, and became a mine of wealth to Overbury -himself. Even Cecil and the Earl of Suffolk strove to avail themselves of -his services; and when Cecil quitted the scene, Carr, through Overbury's -management, carried all before him. In March, 1611, he had been created -Viscount Rochester; in April, 1612, he became a member of the Privy -Council, and was invested with the order of the Garter. The Earl of -Suffolk succeeding to Cecil's post of Lord Treasurer, Carr stepped into -Suffolk's office of Lord Chamberlain, at the same time discharging the -duties of the post of Secretary by the aid of Sir Thomas Overbury. The -favourite's favourite, however, was no favourite of the king, who was -jealous of having so much of the time and confidence of Carr occupied by -Overbury, and this feeling was probably much heightened by the queen, -who had an instinctive aversion to the man. On one occasion the queen -succeeded in obtaining his expulsion from Court, for alleged discourtesy -to her, but he soon returned; and though the king appointed Sir Ralph -Winwood and Sir Thomas Lake to occupy jointly the office of Secretary of -State, yet Carr, by the king's favour and Overbury's ability, remained -lord paramount in the Court; Overbury himself being the avenue to every -favour. On April 21, 1613, Overbury boasted to Sir Henry Wotton of his -good fortune, and his flattering prospects, yet that very day saw him -committed close prisoner to the Tower. Adept as he was in all Court -intrigues, he had yet committed an irremediable blunder, and aroused -a spirit of vengeance which nothing but his blood could quench. This -spirit lived in the bosom of a beautiful girl not yet twenty years of age. - -Lady Frances Howard, the daughter of the Earl of Suffolk, had been -married at the age of thirteen to the Earl of Essex, the son of -Elizabeth's unfortunate favourite, who was only a year older. It was a -match promoted by the king out of regard, as he said, for the memory of -the young earl's father. The ceremony being performed, the bride returned -to the care of her mother, and the boy bridegroom proceeded, under care -of a tutor, on his travels. At the end of four years he returned, and -claimed his wife, whom he found the beauty and pride of the Court. But -whilst he was enraptured with her loveliness, he was mortified to find -that she treated him with every mark of aversion. It was only by the -stern command of her father that she consented to live with him at all, -and he soon discovered that in his absence her affections had been stolen -away by the profligate favourite Rochester, who had won her even from -another and a royal suitor, Prince Henry. - -This discovery, and the constant bickerings which took place between the -earl and countess, made Essex willing that a divorce should be obtained. -There were others who were glad of this expedient: Lady Howard's father, -Lord Suffolk, and the Earl of Northampton, Lord Privy Seal, saw in her -marriage with Rochester a mode of putting an end to the rivalry which -existed between them, and the king was equally eager for this result. -But to Overbury the scheme boded the destruction of his power, which -would be at an end if his patron coalesced with his enemies. He therefore -commenced a determined opposition to the match. He it was who had written -the glowing and eloquent love-letters of Rochester, and had promoted -the _liaison_ to the utmost of his power; but he had never dreamt of -its leading to a marriage which must work his own ruin. He therefore -represented to Rochester the odium of such a marriage; the base and -abandoned character of the woman, who might do for his mistress, but was -not to be thought of as a wife. When he found that his arguments did -not produce the effect which he wished, he took the dangerous step of -menaces, and declared that he could and would throw an insuperable bar -in the way of the divorce from Essex, without which there could be no -marriage. This bar was undoubtedly Overbury's knowledge of the adulterous -connection which had existed between the parties, and which would -certainly ruin the countess's demand of a separation. - -The master of deep policy could not see the rock upon which he was -running, and which would have been very clear to him in another person's -case. Rochester repeated to the countess all that he said, and the rage -of a sinful woman, proverbially fierce as hell, seized upon her. She -vowed that she would have his life. In her first fury she offered L1,000 -to Sir John Wood to kill him in a duel, but her friends interposed, and -suggested a less hazardous and less criminal method of getting Overbury -out of the way, which was to send him on an embassy to France or Russia. -If he accepted the office, he would be detained abroad till the divorce -was effected; if he refused, it would be easy to construe his conduct -into a contempt of the king's service. - -Overbury was sounded on the subject of a mission to Russia, and listened -to it with apparent pleasure; but the young beauty could not thus satisfy -her revenge, and at her instigation Rochester affected to feel his -projected absence intolerable. He declared his presence and counsel were -indispensable to him, and he promised to satisfy the king, if he agreed -to decline the offer. No sooner did Overbury consent than Rochester, so -far from excusing him to the king, represented his conduct as not only -disobedient to his Majesty, but as insolent and intolerable to himself. -James was only too glad to clear the Court of the hated man; a warrant -was immediately issued, and Overbury was committed to the Tower. By the -arrangement of Rochester and the Earl of Northampton, the lieutenant of -the Tower, Sir William Wade, was removed, and a creature of theirs, Sir -Jervis Elwes, was installed in his place. Under the care of Elwes, Sir -Thomas Overbury was at once cut off from all communication with the outer -world. Neither servant nor relative was permitted to see him; he was -already dead to the world, and the world was soon to be dead to him. - -The dangerous man secured, the measures for the divorce commenced. The -countess petitioned for it, alleging serious grounds, and her father -signed the petition. But no one was more forward and determined in -carrying this disgraceful transaction through than the king. He appointed -without delay a commission to try the cause. The commissioners were -Abbot the Archbishop of Canterbury, the bishops of London, Winchester, -Rochester, Ely, Lichfield, and Coventry; Sir Julius Caesar, Sir John -Barry, Sir Daniel Dunne, Sir John Bennet, Francis James and Thomas -Edwards, doctors of civil law. - -The Earl of Essex was only too glad to be rid of his virago, and -consented to anything, even to the most humiliating imputations on -his manhood. The real causes of the vile business were sufficiently -notorious; and the Primate, though at the head of the commission, -revolting at being made a tool for the accommodation of aristocratic -licentiousness, strongly opposed the divorce. But James took him sharply -to task, telling him in so many words that it was his duty to resign -his own judgment and follow that of his sovereign. "If," he wrote, in a -most imperative letter, "a judge should have a prejudice in respect of -persons, it should become you rather to have a kind of implicit faith -in my judgment, as well in respect of some skill I have in divinity, as -also that I hope no honest man doubts the uprightness of my conscience; -and the best thankfulness that you, that are so far my creature, can use -towards me, is to reverence and follow my judgment and not to contradict -it, except where you may demonstrate unto me that I am mistaken or wrong -informed." - -But James did not content himself with recommending implicit obedience; -he influenced and controlled the proceedings, and intimidated the judges -by all means in his power. His zeal was quickened by the receipt of -twenty-five thousand pounds from Rochester, at a moment when his officers -were at their wits' end for money. But do what he would, he could not -bend the integrity of the Primate, who to the last resisted the divorce, -and three of the doctors of law supported him. The Bishop of London also -voted with him, but the rest of the bishops and civil lawyers voted -for the divorce, which was carried by seven voices against five. The -Bishop of Winchester showed himself so servile on the occasion, that -the king knighted his son, who was ever afterwards dubbed by the people -Sir Nullity Bilson. The other judges and bishops who voted according to -his wish were also rewarded by James, and the sentence of divorce was -pronounced on the 25th of September. - -The public at large, to whom the facts of the case were no secret, -condemned the whole proceeding in no measured terms, and this reprobation -rose into actual horror when the news oozed out that, the very day -before the verdict for the divorce, Sir Thomas Overbury was found dead -in his cell in the Tower. He was buried in all haste, and with profound -secrecy, the officials diligently propagating a report that he died of a -loathsome and contagious disease: but the public entertained no doubt of -his perishing of poison. - -In the face of all this, James proceeded immediately to raise Rochester -to the dignity of Earl of Somerset, that he might equal in rank, if not -in iniquity, the murder-breathing countess. The marriage, moreover, was -celebrated on the 26th of December, at the royal chapel in Whitehall, -the king making it his own affair, being himself present, with Prince -Charles, and a great crowd of bishops and noblemen. The queen kept -herself commendably apart from the whole infamous business. The -blood-stained bride, with a shamelessness unparalleled, appeared with -her hair hanging loose on her shoulders, in the character of a virgin! -Montague, Bishop of Bath and Wells, married the guilty couple, and -Mountain, Dean of Westminster, pronounced a blessing upon them. Then -the king gave a series of banquets and masques at Whitehall in honour -of them, which continued till the 4th of January, 1614; and, as if all -classes of public men were eager to disgrace themselves by sanctioning -this Court wickedness, the Lord Mayor and aldermen invited the adulterous -couple to a splendid banquet, given at the Merchant Taylors' Hall, on the -same 4th of January, whither they were accompanied by the Duke of Lennox, -the Earl of Northampton, Lord Privy Seal, the Lord Chamberlain, and the -Earls of Worcester, Pembroke, and Montgomery. - -From his gaieties James was called, by his eternal want of money, to face -his Parliament. Since 1611, when he dissolved his last House of Commons, -he had endeavoured to carry on by any illegal and unconstitutional -means that the people would submit to. But the Dutch did not keep their -engagement to pay off their debt of upwards of eight hundred thousand -pounds by annual instalments of sixty thousand pounds, and James was too -pusillanimous to adopt the means which a Cromwell would have done. He -threatened war, and threatened only; and therefore became despised by his -debtors, who thenceforth made no movement towards paying. Disappointed -here, the only alternative was to fleece his own subjects. He resorted -to the scandalous measure of selling all the places of honour and trust, -and all kinds of dignities, for money. He sold several peerages for -high prices. Every place under Government was to be had only for cash; -nor did the proceeds of this infamous traffic always reach the king's -hands, but fell into those of his minion Somerset, and the Howards, the -relatives of Somerset's wife. The wicked Countess of Somerset, and Lady -Suffolk, her mother, got four thousand pounds as a bribe from Sir Fulke -Greville, for the Chancellorship of the Exchequer. The example thus set -at Court ran through all departments, and the whole management of the -country was given up to corruption and venality. So little of these -proceeds of iniquity came to the king, and that little was so foolishly -and recklessly given away amongst his hangers-on, that the salaries of -all who were not in a situation to be bribed, and thus pay themselves, -remained unpaid. In this difficulty, James hit upon a notable scheme, -and originated a new order of aristocracy--namely baronets, or little -barons, a link between the barons, or lowest peers, and knights. These -new titles he sold at one thousand pounds apiece. Sir Nicholas Bacon was -the first created for England, and Sir Francis Blundell for Ireland, in -1620. Baronets for Nova Scotia, of whom Sir Robert Gordon was first, were -added by Charles I., to extend this source of income, in 1625. - -[Illustration: THE BANQUETING HOUSE, WHITEHALL.] - -James was now compelled to summon a Parliament, and Sir Francis Bacon -concocted a scheme for managing the House of Commons. Bacon's plan was -this, and he had regularly weighed it and drawn it up for the king's -consideration: that, according to a principle afterwards made a maxim -by Sir Robert Walpole, every one had his price; that the leaders of the -late opposition, Neville, Yelverton, Hyde, Crew, and Sir Dudley Digges, -were chiefly lawyers, and there were plenty of means, by prospects of -promotion skilfully applied, to bring them zealously to the king's side; -that they being once brought over, he had the talking, persuasive power -of the House; and that much might be done beforehand also with the city -men and country gentlemen, and where any obstinate man appeared, means -might be used to keep him out. At the same time Bacon assured James that -it was necessary to make a show of some concession. It was suggested that -as he had promised to abolish abuses, he should at least give up some of -the lesser ones; and on his accepting this plan, he and his friends were -ready to "undertake" to manage Parliament, and to guarantee his Majesty -plenty of money and little trouble, provided James would only avoid -irritating speeches. - -James's Parliament met on the 5th of April 1614, and he endeavoured to -put in practice the Machiavellian instructions of Bacon by delivering a -very popular speech--popular because it promised plentiful persecution -for religion, which was the spirit of the day, and a liberal removal -of grievances; but, as usual, first of all he placed the supply of -his necessities. But the Undertakers had not succeeded in their first -out-of-door efforts; there was a sturdy assemblage of popular members, -and such faces appeared amongst them, according to a writer of the time, -as made the Court to droop. The House of Commons at once reversed the -topics of the king's speech, placing the grievances in the front and -making the supplies conditional on their abolition. The royal party which -the Undertakers had got together, found their pleas for slavish obedience -drowned in a storm of angry demand for justice; and the House demanded a -conference with the Lords on the subject. The Lords asked the opinion of -the judges on the question, and especially that of Coke the Lord Chief -Justice. Coke, who remembered the endeavours of Bacon to supplant him -in the good graces of the king, and who hoped for no higher preferment, -took the opportunity to throw cold water on the conference, asserting -that the judges, after consultation among themselves, felt that they were -bound by their office to decide between the king and his subjects, and -were therefore equally bound not to appear as disputants or partisans -on either side. The Lords on hearing this declined the conference, and -Neale, who had recently been transferred from the see of Lichfield to -the wealthier one of Lincoln, for his services in procuring the Countess -of Essex's divorce, rose and uttered a most unbecoming tirade against -the Commons, charging them with striking at the root of the royal -prerogative, and anticipating that if admitted to a conference, they -might use very disloyal and seditious language. - -This roused the indignation of the Commons: they did not understand the -etiquette of our time, which supposes what passes in one House unknown in -the other; but they immediately demanded of the Lords the punishment of -the man who had thus dared to slander their loyalty. On this the bishop, -who was as cowardly as he was insolent, and who was hated by the Puritans -as a merciless persecutor, instantly recanted in his place; and with many -tears, and fervent declarations of his high respect for the Commons, -denied many of the offensive expressions attributed to him. But the House -was not thus to be appeased. The members were greatly exasperated at -the plan of managing them, which had become public, and fell on Bacon -as the author of the scheme. The versatile Sir Francis pretended to -ridicule the very idea of any such scheme being in existence, as the -king had done in his opening speech, but the House gave him no credit; -they proceeded to question even his right to sit in their House, on his -accepting the office of Attorney-General, and only permitted it as a -special indulgence, which was not to be drawn into a precedent. - -The king, who saw no chance of supplies in the present temper of the -House, sent them a sharp message, desiring them to proceed to the -business of the supplies, attended with a threat of immediate dissolution -in case of non-compliance. This produced no effect, and the House was -dissolved on the 7th of June. Having thus broken the immediate power -of retaliation in the House, he, the next morning, arrested the most -refractory members and committed five of them to the Tower, amongst whom -was Wentworth, a lawyer, destined to act a very prominent part in the -next reign. These members were not discharged till they had, by their -admissions, occasioned the king to arrest others, who were committed in -their turn. This Parliament obtained the name of the Addled Parliament, -because it had not passed a single bill, but it had displayed a spirit -which was pregnant with the most momentous consequences. It had laid -the foundation of the rights of the Commons, and at the same time had -displayed its rigid temperament, by issuing an order which excluded all -Catholics, and by making it necessary for every member, before taking his -seat, to receive the Sacrament according to the form of the Church of -England. - -James had indeed got from the determined tone of the House a fright which -lasted him nearly seven years. He returned to his usual unconstitutional -modes of extorting revenue. Besides the sale of monopolies and -privileges, he compelled the payment of benevolences, an odious tax, not -only because raised without sanction of Parliament, but because its name -implied a free gift. Those who resisted these modes of royal robbery were -dragged into the Star Chamber, and there sentenced to enormous fines. -Mr. Oliver St. John, a gentleman who had not only refused such payment, -but had vindicated his conduct in an able letter, in which he commented -freely on the king's violation of Magna Charta, was fined by the tyrannic -Star Chamber five thousand pounds, and ordered to be imprisoned during -the king's pleasure. - -A new era now arrived in the history of the king's favourites. Though -the Countess of Somerset was hardened enough to stalk through adultery -and poison to the gratification of her desires, and show no remorse, it -appears that her new husband was not altogether of so callous a nature. -From the moment of the death of Overbury, he was a totally changed man. -All pleasure in life had deserted him; he had lost all his gaiety and -went about moody and morose. His person became neglected, his dress -disorderly, and even in the king's company he was absent of mind and -took no pains to please him. This was not lost on those courtiers who -envied the favour of the Howards, who now enjoyed complete ascendency -through their wicked kinswoman. The Earls of Bedford, Pembroke, and -Hertford maintained a sharp watch for a new favourite to bring before -James, confident that a suitable man once found, the day of Somerset was -over. This man soon appeared in a youth of the name of George Villiers, -the younger son of Sir George Villiers of Brooksby, in Leicestershire. -Sir George was dead, and young Villiers had been brought up under the -care of his mother, who was at once one of the most beautiful and -infamous women of her time. She saw in the beauty and grace of this boy -the means of advancing the fortunes of the whole family. She therefore -carefully educated him to win the favour of the favourite-loving king, -confident that if he once attracted his attention, the result was sure. -This far-seeing and ambitious woman therefore sent the lad to France, to -acquire the gay and easy manner of that Court. - -His courtly education being considered perfect, at the age of -one-and-twenty, the post of cup-bearer to his Majesty was purchased -amongst the lavish sale of offices of the time, as one that must -unavoidably place him under the eye of the king. Accordingly, he appeared -in that employment with a fine suit of French clothes on his back, and -as many French graces as any silly modern Solomon could desire. He was -a fine, tall young fellow, and pre-eminently handsome, at the same time -that he was one of the emptiest, haughtiest, and most profligate men that -ever lived. Time, however, was yet to display these qualities; they were -at present concealed under a garb of finished courtesy and agreeable -manners. The Herberts, the Russells, and the Seymours were delighted; -and it was planned that young Villiers should discharge his office of -cup-bearer at a supper entertainment at Baynard's Castle, in such a -manner as must strike the imagination of the king. James was, according -to expectation, smitten with the looks of the youth, and pointed out his -imagined likeness to a beautiful head of St. Stephen at Whitehall, whence -he gave him the pet name of "Steenie," which he always after used. - -Villiers once installed in James's good graces, the fall of Somerset -was easy, and no time was lost in effecting it. Somerset was not so -lost to observance of what passed around him as to be unaware of some -danger; probably his vigilant spouse brought the fact to his attention. -He therefore solicited a pardon of the king, in full and formal style, -of all and everything which he might have done, or should hereafter do, -which might subject him to a charge of treason, misprision of treason, -felony, or other accusation. James, who had not yet been incited to -his destruction, with his usual facility in such matters, especially -when under certain genial influences, freely granted it; but the Lord -Chancellor Ellesmere refused to put the Great Seal to such a document, -declaring that it would subject him to a Praemunire. After all, it might -be a _ruse_ of James to grant this pardon, thus still preserving an -appearance of favour to Somerset, as he did to the last moment, knowing -that a hint to Ellesmere, who was a very compliant creature of his, would -prevent the deed taking effect. James went further; he sent Villiers -to Somerset, to assure him that he desired not in any way to interfere -between him and the king's favour, but would seek preferment only through -his means and be "his servant and creature;" to which Somerset, with the -moroseness which had become his manner, replied, "I will have none of -your service, and you shall have none of my favour. I will, if I can, -break your neck." - -Matters now being ripe, Mr. Secretary Winwood was induced by Archbishop -Abbot, under promise of protection from the queen, to communicate -to James the popular rumour that Overbury had been poisoned in the -Tower, and that this had been confirmed by some admissions of Elwes, -the lieutenant of that fortress, in conversation with the Earl of -Shrewsbury. That the old favourite had lost his place in James's heart -was immediately evident. He took up the matter with his usual avidity -where a mystery was to be probed. He put a number of questions to Elwes -in writing, and demanded, on pain of his life, a faithful answer. The -answer satisfied James that Somerset and his wife were guilty of this -foul murder. He immediately sent for the Lord Chief Justice Coke, and -ordered him to arrest them. Coke demurred till the king had named several -others in commission with him. This being settled, this extraordinary -royal dissembler set out to Royston to hunt, and took Somerset with him, -showing him all his old marks of fondness. In the days of his real favour -he had refused him not the most iniquitous request. Even when the wife -of Sir Walter Raleigh, on his first condemnation for treason, had gone -down on her knees to him, to implore him to spare his castle and estate -at Sherborne, in Dorsetshire, for his children, James had ruthlessly -replied, "Na, na; I maun hae the land; I maun hae it for Carr." And at -this moment, when he was dooming the same Carr to destruction, he was -pretending the same infatuated regard. When the Chief Justice's messenger -arrived at Royston with the warrant, he found the king hanging about -Somerset's neck, kissing him in the true Judas style, and saying, "When -shall I see thee again? When shall I see thee again?" - -When the warrant was delivered to Somerset, in the midst of these -disgusting affectations of endearment, he exclaimed that never had -such an affront been offered to a peer of England in presence of his -sovereign. "Nay, man," replied the royal hypocrite, coaxingly, "if Coke -sends for _me_, I maun go;" and as soon as Somerset's back was turned, he -added, "Now the deil go with thee, for I will never see thy face mair." -Soon after Coke himself arrived, to whom James indignantly complained -that Somerset and his wife had made him a go-between in their adultery -and murder. Even his enormous self-conceit was so far overcome, as to -compel him to admit that he had been grossly duped. He commanded Coke -to search the affair to the bottom, and to spare no man or woman that -he found guilty, however great or powerful. "And," added he, "may God's -curse be upon you and your house if you spare any of them; and God's -curse be upon me and mine, if I pardon any of them." - -Coke seemed quite willing to act as vigorously and unsparingly as -the king could desire. The commissioners, of whom he was the chief, -subjected the adulterous pair to no less than three hundred examinations, -and then announced that they found ample proofs of their guilt; that -Frances Howard, formerly Countess of Essex, had resorted to sorcery -to incapacitate her then husband, the Earl of Essex, and to procure -the love of Lord Rochester; that, finding Sir Thomas Overbury an -obstacle to their criminal designs, they had, by the assistance of the -countess's late uncle, the Earl of Northampton, procured the commitment -of Sir Thomas to the Tower, and the removal of the lieutenant, and the -appointment in his place of their creature Elwes, and of one Weston to -be the warder of the prisoner; that this Weston had formerly been the -servant of Mrs. Turner, a woman famous for the introduction of yellow -starch for ruffs, and an early companion of the said Lady Frances Howard; -that, through Weston and Mrs. Turner, the countess had procured three -kinds of poison from one Franklin, an apothecary; and that Weston had -administered these poisons to his prisoner Overbury, and thus procured -his death. Coke added that, from private memorandum books and letters -which he had found amongst the papers of the prisoners, he had discovered -that Somerset had undoubtedly poisoned Prince Henry. The queen is said to -have been greatly excited by this intelligence, and had all her former -belief of this poisoning revived. She declared her full conviction that -Somerset and his clique had planned the removal of herself, and her son -Charles also, in order to marry the Princess Elizabeth to the son of -the Earl of Suffolk, brother to the countess. But James was too well -satisfied by the _post mortem_ examination of the body of Prince Henry, -and by the insufficiency of Coke's proof, to be led into this absurd -belief, though he admitted a persuasion that Somerset had received money -from Spain on condition of delivering up the Prince Charles to that -monarch. - -Though the minor confederates were promptly hanged, the trial of Somerset -and his wife was deferred till April, 1616. The real cause of delay was -probably the fear of bringing a man like Somerset, who had been so long -in all James's secrets, to trial, lest he should avow something in his -despair to the damage of the royal reputation. Certain it is that, when -the time of trial approached, James betrayed the most extreme terror -and uneasiness, and omitted no means to induce Somerset to make a full -confession in private, offering him both life and restoration to his -estates. He sent messenger after messenger to Somerset in prison, the -Attorney-General Bacon being the principal, James Hay, afterwards Earl -of Carlisle, another, with whom was employed Somerset's late private -secretary. They did all in their power to induce Somerset to accept the -king's terms, but he remained obstinate, replying, when offered life -and fortune, "Of what use is life when honour is gone?" He demanded -earnestly to be permitted to see the king himself, declaring that in half -an hour's interview he could place all in so clear a light as should -perfectly satisfy his majesty. This interview James declined, as well as -a proposal to send a private letter to the king. These requests being -refused, he assumed an attitude of menace, declaring that whenever he was -brought into court, he would make such avowals as should astonish the -country, and cause the king to rue his rejection of his offers. James -displayed much alarm on hearing of this. - -[Illustration: GREENWICH PALACE IN THE TIME OF JAMES I.] - -On the 24th of May the countess was brought before the Peers, where, -as she had already confessed, she had only to plead guilty. She was -extremely agitated, pale, spiritless. She trembled greatly all the -time that the clerk was reading the indictment, and put her fan before -her face at the mention of Weston. Her words were nearly inaudible, -through weeping, as she pleaded guilty, and threw herself on the royal -mercy. This done, she was removed from the bar before the sentence was -pronounced, during which interval Bacon delivered a perfectly unnecessary -speech, as she had pleaded guilty, detailing the damning facts which -he was prepared to produce, had he been compelled by her denying her -guilt. This manoeuvre was intended to criminate Somerset, without the -hazard of his wife's declaring his innocence on hearing him implicated. -Bacon's purpose being served, she was recalled, and the Lord Chancellor -Ellesmere, who acted as High Steward on the trials, pronounced sentence -of death upon her. - -That day Somerset was informed that he would go to trial on the morrow: -they had not deemed it safe to try him and his wife together. On hearing -this he went into a great rage, declaring that the king had assured him -that he should never go to trial, and protesting that if they took him -there, it should be by force and in his bed. He repeated his former -threats, adding the king dared not bring him into open court. More, the -lieutenant of the Tower, was so alarmed at this temper and language, that -he hastened away to James at Greenwich, though it was getting late, and -was midnight when he reached the palace. He was hastily admitted to the -king's chamber, and James, on hearing his statement, burst into an agony -of tears, and exclaimed: "On my soul, More, I wot not what to do. Thou -art a wise man: help me in this great strait, and thou shalt find thou -dost it for a thankful master." More promised to do his best, and was -afterwards actually rewarded for his services on this occasion with a -suit worth to him fifteen hundred pounds, though the Earl of Annandale, -his great friend, managed to get half of it. - -[Illustration: SIR EDWARD COKE. - -(_From the Portrait by Cornelius Janssen._)] - -The lieutenant hastened back to the Tower, and told Somerset that he -had communicated his wishes to the king, who was in the most gracious -disposition towards him, and sent him assurance that though for form's -sake he must appear in court, he should not be detained there by any -proceedings; but whilst he had there an opportunity of seeing his enemies -and their malice towards him, the royal power should protect him from any -harm. - -This appeased the rage of Somerset, and he prepared calmly to make his -appearance in the morning. But even then the officers of the court were -by no means secure of the result when he should find himself compelled to -plead, notwithstanding the royal promise. Bacon had planned all necessary -cautions for this emergency, as we find from his "Particular Remembrances -for his Majesty," preserved in the State Trials. "It were good," he says, -"that after he is come into the hall, so that he may perceive that he -must go to trial, and shall be retired to the place appointed till the -court call for him, then the lieutenant shall tell him roundly that, if -in his speeches he shall tax the king, the justice of England is that -he shall be taken away, and the evidence go on without him; and then all -the people will cry away with him, and then it shall not be in the king's -power to save his life, the people will be so set on fire." - -The lieutenant had carefully acted on this plan, and had provided two -servants, each with a cloak on his arm, to stand behind Somerset, so -that if More's representations did not after all prevent Somerset from -speaking out to the discredit of the king, they should throw the cloaks -instantly over his head, and drag him from the bar, from all consequence -of which proceeding he promised to protect them. - -These singular precautions, which betrayed an awful terror on the part of -the king of some withering exposure from the exasperated favourite, so -far prevailed, that Somerset stood upon his trial with apparent calmness, -but refused steadfastly to plead guilty. Bacon, on his part, was careful -in stating the charges against him, to do it so mildly that the prisoner -should not be excited to any dangerous pitch. Somerset never mentioned -the king, but he defended himself resolutely and with consummate ability. -He analysed the whole string of charges brought against him, explained -away whatever appeared to tell most forcibly to his disadvantage, and for -eleven hours prolonged the trial and the intolerable agony and suspense -of the king, who, during the whole time, was in the most pitiable -condition of terror. "But who had seen," says Sir Anthony Weldon, in a -passage which is fully borne out by the letters of More, the lieutenant, -"the king's restless motion all that day, sending to every boat landing -at the bridge, cursing all that came without tidings, would have easily -judged that all was not right, and that there had been some grounds for -his fears of Somerset's boldness; but at last, one bringing him word that -he was condemned, all was quiet." - -In the course of a few weeks James actually granted a pardon to the -murder-stained countess, on the plea that she was not tried as a -principal, but as an accessory before the fact; though all the facts of -the case go to show that she was the chief instrumental instigator of the -death of Overbury. He also offered the same grace to Somerset; but the -proud, though fallen, favourite haughtily refused it, saying that he was -an innocent man, who therefore needed no pardon, but expected a reversal -of his sentence. - -Time, however, showed him that the favour of the prince had passed on to -others, and that his enemies were working for further injury to him; he -therefore condescended in the autumn of 1624 to petition for the pardon -formerly rejected. It was granted on the 24th of October, with a promise -of the restoration of his property. James meanwhile allowed him an -income of four thousand pounds a year, and protected him from the infamy -attaching to his condemnation. He would not allow him to be expelled from -the Order of St. George, nor his arms to be reversed in the chapel of -that saint at Windsor. - -The guilty earl and countess are said to have retired together into the -country, not to the felicity of innocent affection but, as it was said, -to mutual hatred and recrimination. The countess died in 1632; the earl, -who never recovered his estates, lived on thirteen years longer. Their -only child, Lady Ann Carr, who was born in the Tower, was married to -William, the fifth Earl, and afterwards Duke, of Bedford, and became -the mother of the celebrated Lord William Russell, who perished on the -scaffold under Charles II. Out of such a soil can rise such plants; -nay, even the daughter of this infamous couple is declared to have been -a woman of the purest and noblest character; and so carefully was the -horrible history of her parents kept from her, that it never reached her -ears till a few years before her own death. The Earl of Essex, so cruelly -treated in this revolting affair, lived to lead with high distinction the -army of the Commonwealth. - -Fast on the fall of Somerset followed that of the Chief Justice Coke. -He had rendered distinguished service to James in hunting out the -evidence and bringing to punishment the favourite and his wife; but -he had neutralised this benefit by his haughtiness and opposition to -the royal authority in other respects. Coke and Bacon had pursued two -opposite systems of policy in their courses towards the highest honours -of the State. Bacon had affected liberalism and a championship of popular -rights, which the higher he rose the more he sacrificed to the pleasure -of the monarch. There was a profound flattery in this, for it seemed to -give an additional value to his growing attachment to the Crown, that it -was won from his original bias towards the people. On the other hand, -Coke commenced as a thorough-going supporter of the prerogative, and as -his abilities were pre-eminent, and his prosecution of State offenders -unrestrained by any scruples of conscience, he did the work of that -despotic prince with a gusto and a ruthlessness which highly delighted -his employer. No lawyer, except Jeffreys, in a later age, ever indulged -in the same unsparing abuse of those against whom he was retained. His -disposition was not merely unfeeling, it was truculent, and the insolence -of his language was beyond all former experience. When let loose on a -victim, he certainly was no respecter of persons; an Arabella Stuart or a -Raleigh were abused in a style which would not now be tolerated towards -the most abject criminal. But when Coke had reached the summit of his -ambition, and thought the height to which he had climbed secure, he began -to display the inherent pride of his nature, by assuming an independence -of manner and a haughtiness of opinion, exhibited even towards the -Throne, which astonished and irritated James. In the Commons he openly -opposed the claims of prerogative, came out in defence of popular rights, -and ended where Bacon had begun. From abject servility he rapidly passed -to daring opposition. On the subject of the late benevolences, he stood -forward as a patriot in the Commons; in the case of Peacham, that which -was prosecuted as treason, Coke declared was only defamation; and in that -of Owen, he agreed with the prisoner that he had committed no treason -in saying that the king, if excommunicated, might lawfully be killed, -because the king not having been excommunicated, the opinion could not -apply to him. These declarations, both in Parliament and on the Bench, -roused James to a keen resentment, and this was continually augmented. He -set his own court of the King's Bench above every other, and threatened -with the penalties of a Praemunire the judges of the Court of Chancery, -and all other judges who should grant relief in Equity after judgment -had been pronounced in the King's Bench; and he extended the same menace -to all suitors who sought for such relief. The judges of the Courts of -Admiralty, of High Commission, of Requests, of the Duchy of Lancaster, -and even the presidents of the Councils of the North and of Wales, felt -their jurisdictions invaded and repressed by his pretensions. The Court -of Star Chamber even, hitherto above all law, was called in question by -him, and its power to levy fines in many cases denied. He went farther, -and, as in the case of Owen and Peacham, dictated to the Privy Council, -and contradicted the Sovereign to his very face. - -It would seem as if at the moment when Coke was hunting down his former -benefactor Somerset, the secret decree had gone out from the king -against the Lord Chief Justice himself. Somerset was condemned on the -25th of May, and on the 30th of June Coke received an order from the -king to absent himself from the Council chamber, and not to proceed on -his circuit, but to employ himself in correcting the errors in his Book -of Reports. He had outraged James's sense of his own supreme authority, -by opposing him in the matter of Commendams and bishoprics, and had, -moreover, contended with Villiers, the new favourite, respecting a patent -place at Court. Long before he received this startling order for the -suspension of his diplomatic and judicial functions, the Archbishop, -the Chancellor, and Mr. Attorney-General Bacon had been employed by -royal command to collect charges against him. He was now charged with -concealing a debt of twelve thousand pounds, due from the late Chancellor -Hatton to the Crown; with contempt of the king's authority in declaring -from the Bench that the Common Law would be overthrown by proceedings in -Equity, or by claims of prerogative; and for disrespect to the Crown in -the affair of the Commendams. - -The charge regarding the money Coke refuted when brought before the -Council, and confirmed his case by a decision at law; as to the second -charge, he explained it as in no way reflecting on the king; and for the -third, he humbly solicited his majesty's forgiveness. James professed to -retain the highest regard for the Lord Chief Justice, and intended, on -his showing a proper humility, to continue to him his favour; but when -Coke brought in his Book of Reports, and maintained that he could only -find five trivial errors in it, James, in great anger for his "deceit, -contempt, and slander of government," dismissed him from the Bench, and -made Montague, the Recorder of London, chief justice in his place. Coke, -with all his harshness and cutting style to others, felt for himself -keenly, and is said to have wept like a child on receiving his dismissal. -Bacon displayed anything but a philosophical magnanimity on the fall of -his rival. He not only joked with Villiers on the disgrace of the great -man who had offended the favourite, but he wrote a most insulting letter -to the fallen judge, which was particularly odious from being garnished -with the cant of piety. - -Bacon now looked confidently towards the Chancellorship, and in March -of the next year (1617) Brackley resigning from age, the Great Seal -was transferred to him, with the title of Lord Keeper. Sir Francis had -reached the elevation to which he had so long and so ardently aspired, -by a slavish advocacy of the most unlimited claims of prerogative and, -as far as in him lay, the restriction of constitutional liberty--a -deplorable instance of how completely the most transcendent talents can -be united in an ignoble and mercenary nature. Indeed, the conduct of -Bacon on this occasion was vain and weak to a pitiable degree. Though -he had now reached the mature age of fifty-four, and drew an enormous -income from his grants and offices, he was so profuse of expenditure -that he was a needy man, pressed with difficulties, which he saw in the -Chancellorship an exhaustless means of dispersing. His vanity burst forth -to a surprising extent and he assumed all the state of a Wolsey. He rode -to Westminster Hall on horseback, in a gown of rich purple satin, and -attended by a crowd of nobles, judges, great law officers, lawyers, and -students, rivalling even the splendour of the king. - -While these affairs were progressing at home, the credit of James abroad -had sunk very low. At the conference for effecting a truce between -Holland and Spain, held at the Hague--a conference which established the -independence of the Low Countries--the English ministers had been made -to feel the ignominy of their position, compared with the dignity of the -ambassadors of Elizabeth. Prince Maurice told them openly that their -master dare not open his mouth in contradiction to the King of Spain; and -their allies, the French, in consequence assumed a superiority throughout -the negotiations which mortified deeply the English envoys. Nor was that -the only slight which James's truckling policy brought on him abroad. He -was anxious to ally his son to the Court of Spain, notwithstanding the -intense aversion of his subjects from the idea of a Catholic Princess. -But Spain declined the offer. He next applied for the hand of Madame -Christine, sister to Louis XIII. of France; but here again he was met -with the contempt which his mean and insecure character merited: France -preferred the suit of the Duke of Savoy. It was never before the fortune -of England to have to go begging to the Continental states for wives for -its princes: they had hitherto been only too officiously pressed on its -acceptance. - -We must now trace the proceedings of James in Scotland and Ireland, where -he was anxious to establish his principles of Church and State supremacy -as thoroughly as in England, and where the seed he sowed rapidly grew -into the same harvest of bloodshed and revolution as on the south side of -the Tweed. - -The Church of Scotland, as established by Knox and his contemporaries, -was, like Switzerland (from which they brought the idea), a republic. -It acknowledged no head but Christ, nor any concern which the State had -with it, except to furnish the support of the ministers whose lives were -devoted to the civilisation and religious improvement of the community. -The minister and the lay elders of a parish constituted the parochial -assembly, which governed all the spiritual affairs of that little -circle; a certain number of these assemblies constituted a presbytery, -which heard all appeals from the parochial assemblies, and sanctioned -the appointment, suspension, or dismissal of their ministers. Beyond -the presbytery extended the provincial synod, and the General Assembly -claimed the supreme management of the affairs of the Church under God. - -This free form of the Scottish Church had always been extremely repugnant -to James's despotic notions. Even when he professed to admire its -constitution as the purest and most perfect on earth, he was writhing -under its authority; and no sooner did he ascend the English throne -than he avowed his real opinion of its inconsistency with monarchy. -The hierarchy of England delighted him; he regarded it as the surest -bulwark of the Throne, and bishops he seemed to regard as the guarantees -of royal security. "No bishop no king," was his favourite motto; and -the hatred of presbytery which he expressed at Hampton Court led him -to seek its utter overthrow in Scotland. He knew the sturdy materials -that he had to deal with in the Scottish ministry and people, who had -driven out his mother in their hatred of Catholicism; yet this did not -deter him from endeavouring to plant episcopacy as firmly in Scotland -as in England. He looked on the spirit and form of the Scottish Church -but as one remove from republicanism in the State; and his first step, -taken in 1605, was a bold one, being no less than to assume the right -to prorogue the General Assembly at will. This was at once annihilating -the theocratic constitution of the Assembly, and placing the king at its -head. This measure was carried out by Sir George Home the Lord Treasurer -of Scotland, afterwards Earl of Dunbar. The ministers, though prorogued, -met again in defiance of the royal fiat, but were dissolved again and -again. The ministers from nine presbyteries still boldly met in assertion -of the paramount right of the Church, at Aberdeen, called themselves "an -Assembly," appointed a moderator, and before dissolving at the command of -the Council, adjourned their sitting to a fixed time that year. - -[Illustration: ANDREW MELVILLE BEFORE THE SCOTTISH PRIVY COUNCIL. (_See -p._ 462.)] - -Thirteen of the most prominent ministers were immediately arrested on -the charge of having violated the Act of 1584, "for maintenance of the -royal power over all estates." The jury was packed by Dunbar, and six -of the most refractory clergy were condemned as guilty of high treason, -and banished for life. They retired into Holland and France, and were -followed thither by numbers of their admirers. Meanwhile, at home, -undaunted by this lawless exercise of power, the ministers offered up -prayers for their exiled brethren, whom they boldly proclaimed from their -pulpits as martyrs to the freedom of the faith; and unsilenced by the -menaces of the Court, loudly warned the people of the impending danger to -the Church. - -But James, with the blind hardihood of a true Stuart, went on, and in -1606 appointed thirteen clergymen to the ancient abolished bishoprics, -and gave them precedency in the synods and Assembly. The ministers -refused to submit to their authority, and, as they were unsupported by -the old reverence, treated their assumed dignity with contempt. But -James went on to repeal the Act which had confiscated the episcopal -estates, endowed the bishops, and made them moderators of both synods -and presbyteries within their own districts. He erected two courts of -High Commission, and indeed gave them a power such as their predecessors -had never possessed. In 1610 three of these bishops went to England, and -received episcopal ordination from the English prelates, and on their -return conferred it on their colleagues. And finally, in 1612, it was -enacted by the Scottish Parliament that all General Assemblies should -only be appointed by the Crown; that the bishops only should present to -livings; that they should admit no one who would not first take the Oath -of Supremacy to the king, and of canonical obedience to the bishop; that -they should possess the power of deprivation and the right of visitation, -each in his own diocese. - -Andrew Melville, the successor of Knox, boldly though respectfully denied -these innovations, asserting the freedom of conscience, and its immunity -from the power of any earthly potentate. When pressed by some slavish -Scottish lords to conform, he said: "My lords, I am a free subject of -Scotland, a free kingdom, that has laws and privileges of its own. By -these I stand. No legal citation has been issued against me; nor are -you and I in our own country, where such an inquisition, so oppressive -as the present, is condemned by Parliament. I am bound by no law to -criminate or to furnish accusations against myself. My lords, remember -what you are; mean as I am, remember that I am a free-born Scotsman, to -be dealt with as you would be dealt with yourselves, according to the -laws of the Scottish nation." - -This was noble and patriotic language; but Melville had to deal with a -vain despot, who declared himself above all laws. He insisted on their -attending the royal chapel to hear the preaching of his bishops. The -plain presbyterian Scots were scandalised at both what they saw and heard -there: at the ceremonies, the gilded altar, the chalices, and tapers, -but above all, at the slavish doctrines of those courtly preachers. -The Scottish ministers did not hesitate to express their contempt and -indignation at the whole spectacle, and Melville ridiculed the entire -service in a Latin epigram. For this audacity James summoned him before -his Privy Council; but the preacher's blood was now chafed beyond -restraint, for he and his colleagues, though they were impatient to get -away from what they considered this idolatrous scene, where the conduct -of the bishops and clergy was by no means edifying, had been compelled -to stay. So far from expressing any regret for his satire on the royal -mode of worship, he denounced in the strongest terms the whole system -of the Anglican Church, and in his excitement seized the surplice of -the primate, and shook angrily what he called the Romish rags of the -Archbishop of Canterbury. - -James committed him to the Tower for his contumacy (1606), where he kept -him four years, and then banished him for life. He went to reside at -Sedan, where he died in 1622. His nephew, James Melville, was shut up at -Berwick, and died six years before his uncle; the rest of the preachers -were banished to remote districts of Scotland, wide apart from each other. - -To put the finish to this daring change, James determined to make a -journey to Scotland himself in 1617. On leaving that country he had -assured his Scottish subjects that he would visit his ancient capital -at least once in three years: fourteen years had now elapsed without -his redeeming his word, his poverty having hitherto presented an -insurmountable obstacle. But he had now consented to yield up the -cautionary towns, Brell, Flushing, and Rammekens, for 2,728,000 florins -instead of 8,000,000, which were due to him. He had been induced to -this by his necessities and the persuasions of Secretary Winwood, who -was said to have received L29,000 from the Dutch for his services on -the occasion. James now discharged some of his most pressing debts, and -obtained a loan of L96,000, with which he set forward to Scotland in the -spring of 1617. - -On the 7th of June the Scottish Estates met, and James excluded such of -the representatives as he knew were hostile to his object of establishing -the English Church in all its forms and authority, as the State Church of -Scotland for ever. But the Peers, alarmed lest he should restore to his -pet church the lands of which they now were in possession, rejected the -articles which he recommended. To win over these nobles, James invited -them to a secret conference, in which he assured them that no revocation -of these lands should be made. Reassured on this head, the Peers were -ready to vote as he pleased, and he opened the Estates in one of his -vaunting speeches about his power, in which he told his audience that "he -had nothing more at heart than to reduce their barbarity to the sweet -civility of their neighbours; and if the Scots would be as docible to -learn the goodness of the English as they were teachable to limp after -their ill, then he should not doubt of success; for they had already -learnt of the English to drink healths, to wear coaches and gay clothes, -to take tobacco, and to speak a language which was neither English nor -Scottish." - -In this insolent speech the king might have included himself both as to -clothes and language; but these were small matters in comparison with -those which he had in view. He brought in a Bill to enact that what the -king might determine upon regarding the Church, with the concurrence of -the bishops and a certain number of the clergy, should be good in law. -At this proposition the ministers were instantly in arms, and presented -so determined a remonstrance against it, that he became afraid and gave -it up, saying it was unnecessary to give him that by statute which was -already his by authority of the Crown. He managed, however, to carry a -Bill adding chapters to the bishoprics, regulating the appointment of -bishops, and also one for converting the hereditary offices of sheriffs -into annual ones, which he would thus be able to influence. Never, -surely, with a spirit so essentially cowardly, was there a monarch -so ingrained with the bigotry of absolutism, or who so perseveringly -laboured to annihilate every liberty of the subject, and leave the nation -a base and soulless heritage of the Crown. But the nation was not thus -to be trodden into a horde of serfs; and though James escaped to a -quiet tomb, it took a terrible vengeance on his children, whom he had -inoculated with his incorrigible lust of absolutism. - -As nothing more was to be obtained from Parliament, the uncouth tyrant -wended his way to St. Andrews, where he had planned a severe retribution -for the remonstrant ministers, from a more obsequious tribunal. There -the ministers having met at his summons, he singled out Simpson, Ewart, -and Calderwood, who had signed the remonstrance which baulked him of his -full intentions, and brought them before the High Commission Court, and -condemned Simpson and Ewart to suspension and imprisonment. Calderwood, -who by his influence and ability excited most of all his dread and -resentment, he banished for life. Having thus given the ministers a -sharp lesson, he now announced to them that it was his will that the -whole ritual of the English Church should be adopted in Scotland in five -articles, the name of which afterwards became famous, namely:--1st, -That the Eucharist should be received in a kneeling, and not in a -sitting, posture, as had been hitherto the mode in Scotland; 2nd, That -the Sacrament should be given to the sick at their own houses when they -were in danger of death; 3rd, That baptism should, in like cases, be -administered in private houses; 4th, That the youth should be confirmed -by the bishops; and 5th, That the festivals of Christmas, Good Friday, -Easter, Ascension Day, and Whit-Sunday, should be observed in Scotland -just as in England. These commands were received with unequivocal marks -of displeasure by the ministers, but the fate of the three remonstrants -availed to keep them silent for a time, and James regarded his plans -as fully accomplished; but presently the preachers fell on their knees -and implored him to refer the Five Articles to the General Assembly of -the Kirk. James for some time refused to listen to them, but on Patrick -Galloway assuring him that matters should be so managed that all should -go right, he consented. - -He then kept his Whitsuntide in the English fashion, with all his -crouching prelates and courtiers around him; and afterwards took his way -homeward, in the full persuasion that he had succeeded in his object. -Time told a very different tale; nor was he himself long in perceiving -that, though he had overawed, he had not subdued the sturdy Scottish -clergy. Scarcely had he reached England when he learned that the Scots, -both clergy and laity, were loud in denouncing the administration of -the Eucharist in private houses as a remnant of Popery; the revival of -the festivals of Christmas as the return to the ancient Saturnalia; -and of those of Easter and Whitsuntide as the renewal of the feasts of -the Jews. And on the 24th of November the ministers, in their assembly -at St. Andrews, confirmed none of the Five Articles except that of the -administration of the Sacrament at the houses of the sick, provided -that the sick person first took an oath that he or she did not expect -to recover. James was highly enraged. He ordered the observance of -the Five Articles to be commanded by proclamation, and withdrew the -promised augmentations of stipend. Nor did the king give way in the -slightest degree. The next year he managed the Assembly so far, through -Lord Binning, as to carry the Articles by a majority of eighty-six -against forty-one; and in 1621, three years later, he obtained an Act -of Parliament enforcing these Articles on the repugnant spirit of the -people. Dr. Laud, whose name we now meet for the first time, afterwards -to become so notorious, even urged James to go further lengths; but his -fatal advice was destined to act with more force on the next generation. - -Whilst James's hand was in, however, he hit upon another mode of -incensing the Puritans, and showing his dislike of them. He had been -extremely annoyed by the severity of the Presbyterian manners during his -visit; and when, on returning, the Catholics of Lancashire presented to -him petitions complaining of the strictness of the Puritans, who forbade -those sports and recreations to which they had been accustomed on Sundays -after service, adding that it drove men to the ale-house, a bright -idea occurred to him, and he determined to publish a Book of Sports, -encouraging the people on Sundays, after church, to play at running, -leaping, archery, morris-dances, and to enjoy their church-ales and -festivities as aforetime. These sports, however, were not to be indulged -in by the recusants, nor any who had not attended Church in the morning. -He also prohibited on Sundays bull and bear-baitings, interludes, and -bowls; the last, probably, because they led to gambling. He restored all -the jollity of may-poles and rush-bearings. - -Many of the established clergy were conscientiously opposed to this -mode of spending the Sunday, which appeared to them to savour greatly -of Papacy; but James persisted in his scheme, and not only published -his Book of Sports, but ordered the bishops, each in his own diocese, -to publish his ordinance regarding the Sunday amusements. Abbot, the -Primate, is said to have steadfastly refused to read the book in his -own church at Croydon, but the other bishops complied. Laud was zealous -in its promulgation, and in after years roused the stern and undaunted -spirit of the reformers by recommending the revival of the Book to -Charles I. - -In Ireland the same system had been pursued by James from the -commencement of his reign, of endeavouring to force the consciences of -his subjects into the mould of his own ideas. On the death of Elizabeth -the Irish had openly resumed the Catholic worship in most of the South -of Ireland. Mountjoy, the Lord-Deputy, issued a proclamation for its -immediate suppression; but the fear of the old lioness of a queen being -removed, they treated his orders with contempt and defiance. Mountjoy -marched down upon them, and compelled submission at the point of the -bayonet, and then passed over to England, having with him the two great -chiefs, Tyrone and O'Donnell, with a number of their followers. - -These chieftains being well received by James, Tyrone being restored to -his honours and estates, and O'Donnell created Earl of Tyrconnel, the -Irish conceived wonderful hopes of the clemency and liberality of James. -They sent a deputation to join the two earls in petitioning for the -full enjoyment of their religion, but they found themselves grievously -deceived. James declared that he would never consent to anything of the -kind, but so long as he had a hundred men left, he would fight to the -death to put down so idolatrous a worship. In his anger he committed four -of the delegates to the Tower, where he kept them three months; and this -practice of committing Irish deputies to prison for daring to present -petitions on such subjects, became his regular practice. - -The British Solomon never relaxed his war upon the religion of his -subjects, if it were not of the same colour and shape as his own, so long -as breath was left in him. It was in his eyes akin to the sin against -the Holy Ghost to differ from or doubt the infallibility of his wisdom, -for he deemed himself, according to his open avowal, a god upon earth. -In 1605, two years only after ascending the throne of England, he issued -a proclamation, commanding all Catholic priests to quit Ireland on pain -of death; and he commanded all officers, magistrates, and chief citizens -of Dublin to attend the Established Church, or suffer the fine of twenty -pounds a month, and moreover, imprisonment. The nobility prayed to be -permitted the exercise of their religion, but the ill-fated presenters of -the petition were thrown into the Castle of Dublin, and their spokesman, -Sir Patrick Barnewell, was sent over to England, and incarcerated in the -Tower. - -[Illustration: KEEPING SUNDAY, ACCORDING TO KING JAMES'S BOOK OF SPORTS. -(_See p._ 464.)] - -James now hit on a bold scheme for breaking down the clanship of Ireland, -and so weakening the opposition of the people to his despotic will. He -ordered all possessors of lands to bring in their titles to commissioners -appointed for the purpose, on the promise that they should receive them -again in a more valid and advantageous form. As, from the disturbed state -of the country for ages past, many of these titles were defective, the -landowners accepted the offer in good faith, but they found that the -commissioners, instead of returning them of the same value, and bearing -the same conditions, only returned them freehold titles of such lands as -were in their own hands. All such lands as were in the hands of tenants, -were made over to these tenants, only subject to the rent charges and -dues which they had formerly paid. Thus the great bulk of the tenantry -of Ireland was freed from its dependence on the will of the chief _in -capite_, and now set him at naught. But though the power of the chiefs -was broken, the commonalty showed no more inclination to adhere to a -Government which persecuted them on account of their faith. They were now -more at liberty, and readier than ever to follow some bold and defiant -leader who promised them protection and vengeance on their tyrants. The -great lords, thus tricked out of their hereditary rights, were converted -into deadly enemies of the English Government. - -Tyrone and Tyrconnel, on taking leave of the English Court to return to -Ireland, professed extreme gratitude for the kindness of their reception, -but in reality they were full of the most hostile sentiments. They looked -on this transfer of their seigneurial rights as a measure intended to -sever their vassals from them, and thus to subjugate the whole island to -the yoke of the English hierarchy. No sooner did they land in Ireland, -than Richard Nugent, Lord Delvin, invited them to meet him at his -Castle of Maynooth. They unanimously agreed that the destruction of the -hereditary faith of Ireland was planned, and they bound themselves by -oath to act together for its defence. - -Two years later, intelligence was gathered by some one at Brussels, in -the service of the archduke, that Tyrone had renewed his relations with -the Court of Spain; and, in order to decoy him into England, a pretender -to a large extent of his lands was set up, and both parties were summoned -over to have the cause tried before the Privy Council. Tyrone, aware of -the design, avoided the snare by sending an attorney with full powers -to act in his behalf. This stratagem did not succeed. Tyrone received -from the Lord-Deputy information that his presence would be necessary in -London to defeat the pretensions of his opponent. Tyrone, feigning to -comply, only solicited a delay of a month, in order to settle his affairs -and raise money for his journey and sojourn at Court. The request being -acceded to, he escaped in a vessel sent on purpose from Dunkirk, with two -of his sons and nephew, accompanied by Tyrconnel, with his son, and Lord -Dungannon, his brother, with thirty of their retainers, and reached in a -few days Quillebeque in Normandy. - -On the discovery of the escape of these nobles, James was greatly -alarmed, believing that they had gone to Spain to join the Armada which -during the summer had been collecting in the Spanish ports, and to -conduct it to Ireland. The news of their real resort abated his fears. -He demanded their delivery from France, and then from the Netherlands, -whither they betook themselves, describing them as traitors, and men -of mean birth, who had been merely ennobled for purposes of State. He -accused them of an intention to excite a rebellion, and returning to -Ireland with foreign confederates, to put to death all Irishmen of -English descent. The Court of Brussels declined to give up men exiled -only on account of their religion, and admitted them into the Spanish -army of Brabant. Tyrone himself proceeded to Rome, where the King of -Spain allowed him a pension of six hundred crowns per month, and the Pope -one hundred. - -Active search was made in Ireland for the accomplices of the fugitives; -many were arrested in Ulster, some were sent over for trial to England. -Lord Delvin, with the eldest son of Tyrone, and Sir Christopher St. -Lawrence, were secured and lodged in Dublin Castle. Delvin was tried and -condemned as a traitor, but he escaped on the morning fixed for his -execution; and no trace of him could be found till he suddenly appeared -at the English Court, and throwing himself on his knees before the king, -presented such a list of real wrongs inflicted on himself and his father, -as compelled James to pardon him and to make him amends by creating him -Earl of Westmeath; a clemency, as it proved, well bestowed, and which -might have taught the king a more successful way to secure obedience and -loyalty from his subjects, than those which he unhappily pursued. - -Another Irish chief, O'Dogherty of Inishowen, having received a mortal -insult from Paulet, the Governor of Derry, surprised him at table, and by -the aid of his followers succeeded in killing him and five others. The -avengers captured alive Hart, the governor of the Fortress of Culmore, -and leading him to the gates of the Castle, called on the governor's wife -to surrender the place, or see her husband murdered on the spot. Conjugal -affection prevailed, and O'Dogherty found himself in possession of the -stronghold. Possessed by this means of arms and ammunition, O'Dogherty -marched with a strong force to Derry, and received the submission of the -castle and town. The hopes of the exiles were wonderfully raised by so -unexpected an event. They despatched messengers instructing O'Dogherty -to hold the place, if possible, till their arrival with foreign aid; -but after two unsuccessful attacks, the place was evacuated on the -approach of Wingfield, the marshal of the camp, and O'Dogherty fled to -the mountains. There, in the month of June, 1608, he was accidentally -discovered, and shot. - -The rebellion of these great chiefs, by throwing into the hands of the -Crown an immense territory, suggested to James the planting of a new -English Colony. Undeterred by the failure of Elizabeth's plantation of -Ulster, he proceeded to divide the confiscated region, which included -nearly the whole of the northern counties of Cavan, Fermanagh, Armagh, -Derry, Tyrone, and Tyrconnel, amounting to two millions of acres, into -four great divisions. Two of these were again divided into lots of one -thousand acres each, a third into lots of fifteen hundred acres, and -the fourth into lots of two thousand acres. The two thousand acre lots -were appropriated to a class of men called "undertakers and servitors," -adventurers of capital from England and Scotland, with the civil and -military officers of the Crown. The lesser lots went amongst these -and the natives of the province also; but the natives were only to -receive their lots in the plains and open country, not in the hills -and fastnesses, where they might become formidable to Government. The -possessors were bound to pay a mark a year for every sixty acres, and the -lesser ones besides to take the Oath of Supremacy, and engage to admit no -recusant as tenant. - -By these means some hundred thousand acres were planted; but whole -districts in the hills were never divided at all, whilst many of the -undertakers managed to get immensely more land than they had any right -to. It was at this time (1611) that the scheme, already mentioned, of -creating baronets was proposed to James by Sir Anthony Shirley, as a -means of raising money for the support of the army in Ulster. James -caught eagerly at the idea, coined upwards of one hundred thousand pounds -out of it, but neither sent any of the money to Ireland, nor gave a -handsome gratuity to Shirley for the suggestion, as he promised. - -After these measures, James ventured to call a Parliament in Ireland, -in 1613, the first for seven-and-twenty years. He wanted money, and -he wanted also to enact new laws. But the Catholics were naturally -apprehensive of these intended laws, for the whole of James's policy -went to crush their religion out of the majority of the inhabitants, and -impose on them his own model church. So little had this shallow sovereign -profited by the lessons of history, that he expected to convert a whole -nation by the sword and confiscation. But Ireland had by all former -English monarchs, down to Elizabeth, been taught to regard the Pope as -the lord paramount of the island; it was a doctrine that secured the -obedience of the people under all their oppressions. But since Elizabeth -had separated from the Catholic Church, and stood excommunicated by -the pontiff, this maxim, so convenient before, was become extremely -inconvenient. To the political causes of discontent was now added the far -more irritating one of violated religious faith, which has continued till -our time. - -Under these circumstances the Lord-Deputy summoned the Parliament, -and soon found that, though he had a majority of more than twenty -Protestants, the spirit of the Catholics was such that he did not dare -to proceed. Since the former Parliament, no less than seventeen new -counties and forty new boroughs had been created, and these had been -filled by men devoted to the measures of the Crown; the boroughs, the -Catholics complained, had been put into the hands of attorneys' clerks -and servants, and they expected to find on the projected new plantations -only evil-disposed persons, ready to insult and injure the old -inhabitants. They objected to many of the returns; they complained that -obsolete statutes had been revived for the purposes of oppression; that -Catholics of noble birth were excluded from posts of honour; that they -were expelled from the magistracy; that they were forbidden to educate -their children abroad; that Catholic barristers were not permitted to -practise; that Catholic citizens were excluded from all influence in -the corporations; and that the whole community was subjected to fines, -excommunications, and punishments, which spread poverty and misery over -the island. - -The Lord-Deputy prorogued the impracticable assembly, and both parties -appealed to the king. The Catholics sent as deputies the Lords -Gormansbury and Dunboyne, and two knights and two barristers to plead -their cause. The expense of the mission was defrayed by a general -collection, which was made in spite of a severe proclamation against -it. James received them at first graciously, but his anger soon broke -out when he found them impervious to his controversial eloquence; and, -as usual, he threw two of them into prison--Luttrel into the Fleet, and -Talbot into the Tower. He soon had Talbot before the Star Chamber, and -strictly interrogated him on the point of loyalty to the Crown, and he -severely reprimanded the whole deputation on the same ground; but Lord -Delvin on his knees declared that he would ever be faithful to the king -as his rightful liege, yet that nothing should ever induce him to abandon -his religion. James dismissed them, after having appointed a commission -of inquiry regarding the representatives of the new Irish boroughs, which -decided that none of the four boroughs incorporated after the writs were -issued had a right to sit that Session. - -As to the religious grievances, no concession was made, and scarcely had -the deputies reached home, when a proclamation appeared ordering all -the Catholic clergy to quit Ireland on pain of death. When Parliament -met again in Dublin, in 1615, there was an outward air of conciliation; -the two parties avoided the grand subjects of discord, except that both -Houses joined in a petition that Catholic barristers might be permitted -to plead. The attainders of Tyrone, Tyrconnel, and O'Dogherty were -confirmed, as well as the plantation of Ulster, and all distinctions -between the two races of the Irish--that is, the native Irish and the -Anglo-Irish--were abolished by statute, and a liberal subsidy was -obtained. - -The conciliatory air did not long continue. The Lord-Deputy Chichester -made a cautious attempt to enforce the fines for absence from church, -beginning with a few timid persons in each county, whose compliance might -influence others. In 1623, Lord Falkland, then Lord-Deputy, repeated -the proclamation ordering all Catholic priests to leave the kingdom on -pain of death; but they only retired into the mountains and morasses and -defied his authority. James saw that it was useless to hope for success -in his scheme of crushing out Catholicism, till he had planted the whole -island after the Ulster fashion, and this was set about in good earnest. -Commissions were issued for the examination of all grants and titles, -and, by the most iniquitous proceedings, hardly a single foot of land was -exempted from the claim of forfeiture to the Crown. It was found that the -proprietors of the vast counties of Connaught, Galway, and Clare, had -been induced to surrender their titles to Elizabeth, on condition that -they should receive fresh ones, and that they had paid three thousand -pounds for the enrolment of these titles, but had never got them. On this -discovery James was advised to claim the whole island, with the exception -of the small portion which he had himself planted; but the owners -declared on all hands that they would defend their lands with their -swords rather than admit such a claim; and James preferred getting a sum -of money. His pretensions were commuted for a double annual rent and a -fine of ten thousand pounds. He, however, proceeded to plant the coast -between Dublin and Wexford, then the counties of Leitrim and Longford, -and finally Westmeath, and King's and Queen's Counties. In this business -all law and justice were set aside. James gave orders that three-fourths -of the lands should be settled on the original proprietors, but no regard -was paid to this. Few of the old possessors obtained above a quarter of -their lands again, and many were stripped of every acre which they had -inherited from their fathers. Whole septs were removed to the parts most -distant from their native localities. Seven such septs were transported -from Queen's County to King's, and menaced with instant death by martial -law if they dared return. Sir Patrick Crosby received the seigniory -of Tarbert, on condition that he leased out one-fourth of it to those -unhappy exiles, but very few of them got anything; and, in a word, Carte -declares that the injustice and cruelty then committed are scarcely to -be paralleled in the history of any age or country. At the same time, the -north of Ireland, hitherto a mere wilderness, began immediately to assume -an appearance of prosperity. - -Such was the condition of Ireland as left by James. He imagined that he -had pacified it; it was only the sullen lull before the storm which burst -forth in the days of his successor, with a fury only the more terrible -from its temporary delay. - -During the king's absence in Scotland, Bacon had shown such arrogance in -the Council, that he had disgusted everybody. He had appeared to imagine -himself king, took up his quarters in Whitehall, and gave audiences -in the great Banqueting-house at Whitehall. Mr. Secretary Winwood was -so incensed at his presumption that he quitted the Council Chamber, -declaring, that he would not enter it again till the king's return; -and he wrote at once an account of Bacon's proceedings, assuring the -king that it was high time that he returned, for his throne was already -occupied. The vain, foolish conduct of the Lord Keeper was watched by -an eye which owed him no favour, and a spirit smarting with envy, which -was relentless in his revenge. Coke, by offending the favourite, lost -his position, but he now saw a way to turn this opposition to Buckingham -against Bacon. Buckingham, since his rising into favour, had taken care -to promote the fortunes of his friends and relatives. He had cast his -eyes on the daughter of the fallen Chief Justice Coke, by Lady Hatton, -the widow of Queen Elizabeth's Chancellor; this young lady, who was -likely to have a large fortune from her mother, he determined to obtain -for his brother John Villiers, a sickly and nearly idiotic youth. Coke, -who despised the favourite, and was at feud with him respecting the -already mentioned patent place at Court, opposed the match, which was -agreeable neither to the young lady nor her mother. But when Coke found -himself deprived of his office, and his rival, Bacon, advanced, he -bethought himself that by the means of his daughter he had the power of -regaining the goodwill of the favourite, and pulling down the arrogant -Lord Keeper. Before Buckingham had left for Scotland, Coke had had a -private interview with him, in which he agreed to consent to the marriage -on condition of regaining his honours and position in the Council and on -the Bench. - -During the absence of the Court in Scotland, and while Bacon was in the -full tide of his assumed greatness, he discovered this compact, which -boded him nothing but destruction. Without delay he incited the Lady -Hatton, who was in almost everything violently opposed to her husband, -to make haste and secure her daughter by secreting her with herself in -the house of Sir Edward Withipole near Oxford, and by contracting her -in marriage to Henry de Vere, Earl of Oxford, for whom the young lady -really entertained a regard. Coke, enraged at this flight, and at the -attempt to marry his daughter contrary to his own plans, applied for a -search-warrant to enter the house where she was secreted. Bacon refused -it, but Winwood was only too happy to grant it. Coke, supported by -twelve armed men, made a forcible entry and carried away his daughter. -On this Bacon procured the new Attorney-General, Yelverton, to file an -information against Coke in the Star Chamber for a breach of the peace. -Bacon also wrote to the king and the favourite in Scotland, representing -to Buckingham that it was by no means to his honour or interest to ally -his family to that of Coke, a fallen, disgraced man, and disliked of -the king, especially as much better matches might be found. To James he -represented the trouble which Coke had given to his majesty, his fondness -for opposing the king's wishes, and the disturbances there had been in -the kingdom and courts of justice so long as Coke had been in power. Sir -Francis added that now everything was quiet, and that his majesty knew -that he had in him an officer always anxious to do his will. - -[Illustration: PARLIAMENT HOUSE, DUBLIN, IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.] - -The answer of the king struck him at once to the earth. The great -philosopher was not aware how far the compact with Coke had really -gone; and when he read the king's letter, reprimanding his presumption, -accompanied by another from Buckingham, in which he rated him for his -officious meddling, and telling him that the same hand which had made him -could unmake him, he saw the gulf into which he had plunged. At once he -wrote off to both monarch and minion, imploring the humblest pardon for -this unworthy offence, which he would now do all in his power to wipe -away. Accordingly, he stopped the proceedings before the Council and in -the Star Chamber against Coke, and assured Lady Hatton and her friends -that he could not assist them in a course so opposed to the wishes of the -young lady's father. - -On the return of the Court, Bacon hastened to pay his homage to the proud -favourite; but he was then made to feel how much it is in the power of a -base and little-souled man in favour, to humiliate the most gigantic mind -when it forgets to be submissive. The great renovator of science, the -proud and vaunting Lord Keeper, was made to wait for two whole days in -the lobby of the upstart. This is Weldon's account of it:--"He attended -two days at Buckingham's chamber, being not admitted to any better place -than the room where trencher-scrapers and lackeys attended, there sitting -upon an old wooden chest, amongst such as for his baseness were only fit -for his companions, although the honour of his place did merit far more -respect, with his purse and Seal lying by him on that chest. Myself told -a servant of my Lord of Buckingham, it was a shame to see the purse and -Seal of so little value or esteem in his chamber, though the carrier -without it merited nothing but scorn, being worst amongst the basest. But -the servant told me they had command it must be so. After two days he had -admittance. At his first entrance he fell down flat at the duke's foot, -kissing it, and vowing never to rise till he had his pardon; and thus was -he again reconciled. And since that time so very a slave to the duke and -all that family, that he durst not deny the command of the meanest of -the kindred, nor yet oppose anything. By which you see a base spirit is -even most concomitant with the proudest mind; and surely, never so many -brave parts, and so base and abject a spirit, tenanted together in any -one earthen cottage, as in this one man." - -Buckingham condescended to forgive the suppliant Lord Keeper: the -projected marriage was accomplished, and Bacon soon after--that is, on -the 4th of January, 1618--was raised to the dignity of Lord Chancellor, -with a pension of twelve hundred pounds a year and the title of Baron -Verulam. For, provided he threw no obstacle in the way of the marriage, -both James and Buckingham preferred his pliancy to the sturdy spirit of -Coke. - -The consequences of this forced and unnatural marriage were as deplorable -as the means of effecting it were vile. The brother of Villiers was -created Viscount Purbeck; but no title could give him a sound body or -a healthy intellect. It was not long before he was pronounced utterly -mad, was shut up in an asylum, and Buckingham took possession of Lady -Purbeck's property under pretence of managing it for her and Lord -Purbeck, but spent it for his own purposes; and Coke's daughter, outraged -in all her feelings as a woman and her rights as a subject, became a -degraded and abandoned character. - -Buckingham now reigned supreme at Court. He had rapidly risen from a -simple country youth into a baron, viscount, earl, and marquis; he was -a member of the Privy Council, Knight of the Garter, had been a Master -of the Horse, and was now Lord High Admiral; the Earl of Nottingham--the -brave old Howard, hero of the Armada--having been compelled to resign -to make way for him. He and his mother disposed of all places about -Court, in the Church, in the courts of law, and in the Government. Peers, -prelates, and men of all degrees courted humbly his favour, and paid him -large sums of money for the places they sought, or agreed to annuities -out of their salaries and emoluments. The king seemed to rejoice in the -wealth which flowed in on his favourite from these corrupt services, and -could not bear him out of his sight. - -Let us take Weldon's account of this state of things:--"And now -Buckingham, having the Chancellor or Treasurer, and all great officers, -his very slaves, swells in the height of pride, and summons up all his -country kindred, the old countess providing a place for them to learn to -carry themselves in a Court-like garb." The old countess, as Weldon calls -her, was far from old, but a woman yet in her prime, and of singular -beauty and notorious wickedness. She was another Elizabeth Woodville in -looking out for rich heirs and heiresses, and marrying her kin to them. -The brothers, half-brothers, cousins of Buckingham, were all matched -to rich women, and the women were matched to the eldest sons of earls, -barons, and men of large estate. And where there was no title, such was -soon conferred. The madman that they gave to Coke's daughter, as we -have seen, was made Lord Purbeck; another brother was created Earl of -Anglesea. Fielding, who married Buckingham's sister, was made Earl of -Denbigh, and his brother Earl of Desmond. Cranfield, who married a female -relative, was made Earl of Middlesex. But the most shameful case of all, -perhaps, was that of Williams, Dean of Westminster, a paramour of the -countess's, who was made Bishop of Lincoln, and allowed to retain not -only the deanery of Westminster, but the rectories of Dinam, Waldgrave, -Grafton, and Peterborough; the prebends of Asgarbie and Nonnington, -besides other dignities; so that, says Heylin, he was a perfect diocese -in himself, being bishop, dean, prebendary, residentiary, and parson, -and these all at once. Other livings and bishoprics were sold as highly -as these were freely given. Fotherby of Salisbury paid three thousand -five hundred pounds for his see, and all other dignities and benefices -in the Church were equally at the disposal of this upstart and his -venal, lascivious mother. "There were books of rates," says Weldon, "on -all offices, bishoprics, and deaneries in England, that could tell you -what fines and pensions were to pay." He adds, "that Buckingham's female -relatives were numerous enough to have peopled any plantation. So that -King James, that naturally in former times hated women, had his lodgings -replenished with them, and all of the kindred, and little children did -run up and down the king's lodgings like rabbits startled out of their -burrows. Here was a strange change, that the king, who formerly would not -endure his queen and children in his lodgings, now you would have judged -that none but women frequented them. Nay, this was not all; but the -kindred had all the houses about Whitehall, as if bulwarks and flankers -to that citadel." - -Buckingham himself, in time, seemed to clothe himself with half the -offices in the country. He became Warden of the Cinque Ports, chief -justice in eyre of all the parks and forests south of the Trent, Master -of the King's Bench Office, High Steward of Westminster, and Constable of -Windsor Castle. In his person he was lavish and showy even to tawdriness. -He was skilled in dancing, and therefore kept the Court one scene of -balls and masques. He had his clothes trimmed at even an ordinary dance -with great buttons of diamond, with diamond hatbands, cockades, and -earrings; "he was yoked with manifold ropes and knots of pearl; in short, -he was accustomed to be manacled, fettered, and imprisoned in jewels." - -But one of the most interesting and painful events of the reign of -James, and one which does him little credit, now occurred. Sir Walter -Raleigh, deprived (as we have seen, to gratify the favourite Carr) of his -beautiful estate of Sherborne in Dorsetshire--"which he had beautified -with orchards, gardens, and groves, of much variety and delight"--had -remained in the Tower from the time of his trial in 1603, that is, -thirteen years. His captivity was rendered less severe by the presence -in the Tower of other prisoners of intelligence, and, more than all -the rest, of the Earl of Northumberland, who gathered around him in -his prison men of science and literature, and thus was instrumental in -converting his cell into a palace of knowledge and refined delight. -Northumberland was another of those men who revelled in learning, whom a -king really wise and learned would have rejoiced to honour. But James's -love was not a love of learning or literature on its own account, it -was a love of himself. It was the vanity of passing for a sagacious and -learned king which he possessed, and not the sagacity and the learning -themselves. Therefore, so far from cherishing science and learning, -and loving the possessor of them, James was too shallow to comprehend -the one, and so egotistical that he hated the other. Northumberland -had been in prison ever since the year of the Gunpowder Plot, 1605, -eleven years, a victim to the suspicions of the king and the tyranny -of the Star Chamber, for no participation in the plot was ever proved -against him. Amongst his visitants and pensioners were the most profound -mathematicians of the age, Allen, Hariot, Warner--"the Atlantes of the -mathematical world," Burchill--the celebrated Greek and Hebrew scholar, -and other noted characters. Amongst them Sir Walter found the pleasure -of cultivating inquiries which his busy public and Court life had before -kept unknown to him. He commenced a series of chemical experiments, and -the celebrated Lucy Hutchinson, who was the daughter of Sir Allen Apsley, -Lieutenant of the Tower, in the preface to her interesting life of her -husband, Colonel Hutchinson, says:--"Sir Walter Raleigh and Mr. Ruthin, -being prisoners in the Tower, and addicting themselves to chemistry, -my mother suffered them to make their rare experiments at her cost, -partly to comfort and divert the poor prisoners, and partly to gain the -knowledge of their experiments and the medicines, to help such poor -people as were not able to seek physicians." - -In these chemical inquiries, Sir Walter imagined that he had discovered -a universal panacea. The queen in an illness had taken it, and appeared -cured by it, and afterwards, as we have seen, tried it in the case of -Prince Henry, but without effect. - -[Illustration: SIR FRANCIS BACON WAITING AN AUDIENCE OF BUCKINGHAM. (_See -p._ 470.)] - -Sir Walter next turned his attention to history, and commenced a History -of the World, a gigantic undertaking, but no doubt one that offered great -consolation to the mind of a prisoner for life, from the very fact of -its immensity, thus promising to him a constant forgetfulness of his -captivity, and a busy discursiveness amid the peoples of the whole globe. -Such men as Burchill, who was not only a great classical scholar but a -distinguished Latin poet, could furnish him with books and translations, -by which means he has displayed so vast an acquaintance with Greek and -Rabbinical writers. Raleigh commenced his History for the instruction of -Prince Henry, who had a high regard for the author, but the death of that -prince in 1612, gave a check to the undertaking, and all that Raleigh has -completed extends from the Creation to about a century and a half before -the Christian era. - -The fall of Somerset and the rise of Buckingham awoke new hopes of -liberty in Raleigh. His friends made zealous applications to the -favourite, which for a time produced little effect because the true -persuasive with the greedy Villiers family was not applied. In the -meantime, however, Raleigh managed to interest Secretary Winwood in -a grand scheme which he had for discovering and working gold mines -in Guiana. Raleigh, as our readers are aware, was of a romantic and -adventurous turn. The Admirals Drake, Hawkins, and Frobisher, with -whom he had had the honour of defeating the Grand Armada, had brought -home immense treasures from the Spanish and Portuguese territories -of South America. Raleigh himself had been engaged in the scheme of -settling Virginia in North America, in the year 1584, when he procured -a patent from Elizabeth--a copy of one granted still earlier to his -half-brother, Sir Humphrey Gilbert--with full power to discover and -settle any heathen lands not already in the possession of any Christian -prince. In consequence, he had equipped various expeditions to the -coast of Virginia, which, however, had all proved failures, and Sir -Humphrey Gilbert, who conducted one of them, lost his life at sea. Sir -Walter's enterprises, which had cost him much money, were immediate -failures--failures to himself and his associates, but ultimate successes -to the country, for they led to the settlement of that great Federated -Republic of Northern America. - -But still earlier, in 1595, he had made a voyage to Guiana. The glories -of Drake and the other piratical admirals, and the wondrous legend of -the golden empire of Guiana, with its inconceivable affluence, and the -reported splendours of its capital, Manoa, called by the Spaniards -El Dorado, or the golden city, inflamed his imagination. He sailed -thither, touching at Trinidad, as if on his way to Virginia; and the -Spaniards, deluded by this belief, entered into friendly relations and -bartered various commodities with him. But suddenly Raleigh, watching -his opportunity, fell on the garrison, killed the guard, and secured the -person of Berrio the governor, whom he carried away as guide to Guiana, -Berrio having already settled a colony there. This transaction, which -was in the true spirit of Drake and the rest, who acted in those regions -as if the Spaniards were at war, though they were at entire peace with -England, was one of the charges afterwards brought against him. To this -Raleigh replied that Berrio, at Trinidad, had formerly made prisoners of -eight Englishmen, and that to leave him at his back when he was about -to ascend the Orinoco, was to have been an ass. Whether the story of -the eight Englishmen was true or not, it was clearly no business of -Raleigh's, and the real motive was partly the last assigned--to secure -so dangerous a person as Berrio, and at the same time so valuable a -guide. In fact, Raleigh, with all his genius, was never renowned for very -scrupulous ideas of right and wrong, and shared in all the loose maritime -notions of the age. - -Thus provided, he sailed for the Orinoco and advanced up it three hundred -miles in boats. He seemed to have heard many wonderful rumours of gold -mines, and cities built of gold and silver and embossed with precious -stones; but he discovered no magnificent Manoa, with pinnacles blazing -with diamonds and rubies, nor any gold mines, only signs of gold in the -mountains beyond the Spanish town of St. Thomas. He gave out to the -natives that he was come to relieve them of the Spaniards, and by their -assistance explored the country for a month, when the waters of the -mighty Orinoco rose so suddenly and with such impetuosity, that they were -carried down at the peril of their lives to their ships. - -On his return, Raleigh, although he brought no riches, brought marvellous -descriptions of them. Though he had seen nothing but a pleasant country -and friendly natives, he did not hesitate to publish the most amazing -stories to draw fresh colleagues to the enterprise. He described the -country and the climate in colours of heaven, and as for its riches, "the -common soldier," he said--detailing the discovery of the large, rich, and -beautiful empire of Guiana, with relations of the great and golden city, -Manoa--"shall here fight for gold, and pay himself, instead of pence, -with plates of half a foot broad, whereas he breaks his bones in other -wars for provant and penury. Those commanders and chieftains that shoot -at honour and abundance, shall find here more rich and beautiful cities, -more temples adorned with golden images, more sepulchres filled with -treasure, than either Cortez found in Mexico, or Pizarro in Peru." - -Probably Raleigh believed all this himself, on the faith of the -natives; but though several expeditions went out nothing of the kind -was discovered. Yet these failures in no degree abated the enthusiasm -of Raleigh. He represented to objectors that the adventurers sent out -were ignorant alike of the locality and of the art of conciliating the -natives. Were _he_ permitted to go, he would make Guiana to England what -Peru was to Spain. - -His glowing descriptions at length captivated the imagination of Winwood, -who did his best to excite the cupidity of James on the subject, and -not without effect, for he began to speak of Raleigh as a very clever -and gallant fellow. The scheme suited James extremely well, as he was -always in want of money, and Raleigh asked for nothing, not even a ship -to accomplish the enterprise, but guaranteed to the king one-fifth of the -gold. Still there was one obstacle; James dared not issue the desired -commission without the approbation of the favourite, and this Raleigh -and his friends were obliged to purchase by a present of fifteen hundred -pounds to Buckingham's uncles, Sir Edward Villiers and Sir William St. -John. - -In the month of August, 1616, Sir Walter issued from his thirteen years' -captivity in the Tower, and commenced preparations for the voyage. Plenty -of adventurers and co-operators were found: the Countess of Bedford -advanced eight thousand pounds, and Lady Raleigh sold her estate at -Mitcham for two thousand five hundred pounds. A fleet of fourteen sail -was equipped and manned. But before Raleigh could get out to sea, the -Spanish ambassador, Gondomar, had caught wind of the real destination of -the squadron. The Spaniard was a deep politician, who assumed an air of -gaiety and freedom which won on the courtiers, and not less on James, -whose vanity he flattered to the utmost; often speaking false Latin, that -James might correct him, he would reply, "Ah, your majesty speaks Latin -like a pedant, but I only speak it like a gentleman." - -On making the discovery, Gondomar rushed into the presence of the king, -exclaiming, "Pirates! pirates! pirates!" James, who was always paralysed -at the very idea of war, sent in a hurry for Raleigh, took back the -patent which he had granted him, and altered it with his own hand. He -strictly prohibited the adventurers from invading any territories in -possession of his allies, especially of the King of Spain, but commanded -that they should confine their enterprise to countries still in the hands -of the heathen. They were allowed to trade and to defend themselves if -attacked, but not to act on the offensive. He moreover demanded from -Raleigh a memorandum under his own hand, of the places with which he -meant to trade, and the force he proposed to take out. All this James is -said to have shown to Gondomar, so that, fully forewarned, the Spanish -ambassador despatched a squadron with troops to St. Thomas, of which his -brother was governor. - -In all this, it is clear that Raleigh was imposing on the king. This -Raleigh himself admits in his address to Lord Carew:--"I acquainted his -majesty with my intention to land in Guiana, yet I never made it known to -his majesty that the Spaniards had any footing there. Neither had I any -authority from my patent to remove them thence." But this was a point on -which Gondomar could and probably did enlighten James. - -After the guarantees given by Raleigh, Gondomar appears to have ceased -his opposition; having, moreover, taken measures to guard against any -attack in Guiana. On the 28th of March, 1617, the fleet set sail, but -owing to bad weather was obliged to put into Cork, where they lay till -August, and did not reach the coast of Guiana till November 12th, after -a troublesome voyage of four months. On arriving, two of his ships were -missing: disease had reduced his men to a state of miserable weakness, -forty-two on board Raleigh's own vessel having died. He himself was -disabled for active service, and to his mortification he learned that -a Spanish fleet was cruising near in order to intercept them. He wrote -to his wife, that reduced as they were, he deemed himself in sufficient -force to accomplish the enterprise if the care taken at home to let the -Spaniards know of their numbers, had not caused all approaches to be -fortified against them. - -[Illustration: THE DEPARTURE OF THE MAYFLOWER. - -FROM AN ENGRAVING AFTER THE PICTURE BY A. W. BAYES.] - -Being unable to proceed immediately, he sent Captain Keymis up the river -in boats to discover the mine, while he lay at its mouth to ward off -the Spanish squadron. Keymis was said to have been at the mine they -were in search of in the expedition of 1595. He began the ascent of -the river on the 10th of December, under orders to make straight for -the mine, and if he found it rich to fix himself there; if but poor, -to bring away a basket of the ore to convince the king that they had -gone out after a reality. The exploring force landed near St. Thomas, -but found the Spaniards prepared for them; a battle ensued, in which -the governor, the brother of Gondomar, was killed, but at the same time -also fell the eldest son of Sir Walter, Captain Walter Raleigh. This -enraged the soldiers, who carried the town of St. Thomas by storm and set -fire to it. They expected to find in it great wealth, but all that they -discovered was two ingots of gold and four refining houses, whence any -ore that there might have been was carried off. The Spaniards entrenched -themselves in formidable positions amongst the hills--as the invaders -supposed, between them and the mines; but Keymis was so much discouraged -by the death of young Raleigh, and the violent discontent of the men -on discovering the emptiness of the place, and the preparations of the -enemy, who again fired upon and killed several of them, that he gave up -the enterprise and dropped down the river again. - -When Keymis reached the ships with the news of their ill success and of -the death of Raleigh's son, Sir Walter was beside himself. Though Keymis -had been a faithful officer and friend of his for many years, sharing the -dangers and hardships of his former adventures, he upbraided him bitterly -with his ruin. Keymis replied that when the young captain was dead, the -men set him at defiance, and that to have attempted to reach the mines -with them would have been an act of madness; had it succeeded even, -it would only have enriched these murderous villains; had it failed, -both himself, and probably Sir Walter, would have fallen their victims. -Recollecting the feeble condition of his commander-in-chief, he deemed it -his duty to return to him. - -All was lost on Raleigh, who, feeling the acutest grief for the death -of his son, and seeing nothing but destruction await him at home from -the wrath of the Spaniards and the disappointed cupidity of the king, -raved against Keymis like a madman. The unfortunate officer drew up -a statement of the real facts of the case, addressed to the Earl of -Arundel, and asked Raleigh to sign it in justice to him: he peremptorily -refused. Some days passed on, but instead of moderating his bitterness -when Keymis again urged him to sign the statement, he refused, heaping -upon him reproaches of imbecility or cowardice. Stung by this ungenerous -conduct, the unhappy officer retired to his cabin, and shot himself with -a pocket-pistol, and as that had not killed him, finished the bloody deed -by a stab with a long knife. - -Horror took possession of the fleet at the news of Keymis's suicide, and -discord and mutiny broke out on all sides. The officers and men alike -expressed their indignation. Captain Whitney, in whom Raleigh reposed -the most confidence, and who was under great obligations to him, sailed -for England. Others followed his example, and Raleigh soon found himself -with only five ships. Yet still he had a larger fleet, manned with a -stronger force of daring fellows than the brave crews who had done -amazing things under Drake, Hawkins, and others, had Raleigh been in a -mood to lead them. Death and disgrace awaited his return home; death or -the acquisition of wealth capable of appeasing the royal resentment, was -the alternative which attended a bold onslaught on the Spanish shores. -But Raleigh's spirit was crushed. In a letter to his wife he declared -that "his brains were broken;" and he sailed away to Newfoundland, where -he refitted his ships. - -He now contemplated the chance of intercepting one of the Spanish -treasure-ships, which he felt assured would set all right with James; but -fresh mutinies arose and he took his course homewards. In the month of -June, 1618, after much hesitation, he entered the harbour of Plymouth, -where he was met with the news that a royal warrant was out for his -apprehension. Gondomar, furious at the fate of his brother, demanded -condign punishment for Raleigh's outrages on the subjects of his most -Catholic majesty in Guiana. There were many reasons why the Spanish -Court should long for the destruction of Raleigh. He was by far the -ablest naval commander that James possessed. He had been one of those who -led the English fleet to the triumph over the Armada. He had committed -terrible depredations in the Azores and Canary Isles when he sailed with -Essex, besides his seizure of the Governor of Trinidad. - -Sir Walter was advised by his friends to fly instantly to France, a -vessel lying ready to carry him over. But he seemed to have lost all -power of self-direction, or it might be that, as his younger son Carew -relates, the Earls of Arundel and Pembroke were sureties for his return, -and it was a point of honour to keep faith with them. He landed, and was -arrested by his near kinsman, Sir Lewis Stukeley, Vice-Admiral of Devon, -who conducted him to the house of Sir Christopher Harris, near the port, -where he detained him for nearly a week, till he received the royal order -for his disposal. No sooner was it announced at Court that Raleigh was -secured, than Buckingham wrote, by direction of the king, to inform the -Spanish ambassador of the fact, and to assure him that he would give him -up to him to be sent to Spain, and dealt with as his royal master should -see fit, unless his most Catholic majesty preferred that he should suffer -the penalty of his crimes here. Gondomar sent off a special messenger -to learn the decision of the King of Spain, and meantime Stukeley was -ordered to proceed to London with his prisoner. - -[Illustration: SIR WALTER RALEIGH RE-ARRESTED BY STUKELEY. (_See p._ -477.)] - -Struck now with awe at the prospect of once more being immured in the -Tower, and with only the most gloomy prospect of his exit thence, Sir -Walter procured some drugs from Manourie a Frenchman, with which he -brought on violent sickness, and aquafortis, with which he produced -blisters and excoriations on his face, arms, breast, and legs. He was -found in his shirt on all fours, gnawing the rushes on the floor and -affecting madness; the physicians pronounced him to be in considerable -danger, and James, who was then at Salisbury, ordered him to be conveyed -for a short time to his own house in London, lest he should convey some -infection into the Tower. - -This was Raleigh's object, and he now employed the time afforded him to -effect his escape in earnest. He despatched his faithful friend, Captain -King, to provide a ship for his purpose. This was arranged, but Raleigh, -not aware that Manourie was a spy upon him, confided the secret to him, -and it was immediately communicated to Stukeley. Raleigh, observing the -strict watch which Stukeley kept over him, and deeming him worthy of his -confidence, gave him a valuable jewel and a bond for one thousand pounds, -on condition that he allowed him to escape. Stukeley took the bribe, but -while pretending to be now his sworn friend, only the more effectually -played the traitor. He was commissioned to procure all possible evidence -of Raleigh's connection with France, and circumstances favoured him. At -Brentford Raleigh received a visit from De Chesne, the secretary of the -French Envoy in London, offering him, from Le Clerk, his master, the -use of a French barque and a safe-conduct to the Governor of Calais. -On arriving in London, Le Clerk himself waited on him and renewed the -offer. Raleigh expressed his gratitude, but concluded to take the vessel -engaged by Captain King, and lying near Tilbury Fort. All this Stukeley -communicated daily to the Council. - -At the time fixed, Raleigh in disguise, and accompanied by King and -Stukeley, who expressed much interest in seeing his relative safely off, -took a boat and dropped down the river to reach the vessel at Gravesend. -But from the moment that they were on the water, the quick eye of Raleigh -noticed a wherry which kept steadily in their wake; and the tide failing, -it was judged useless to proceed to Gravesend. They went, therefore, into -Greenwich; the wherry also lay to there, and Sir Walter found himself -immediately re-arrested by the traitor Stukeley, whose men were in the -wherry. King also was arrested, and Sir Walter was conveyed next morning -to the Tower. The French Envoy was forbidden the Court and soon after -ordered to leave the country. - -[Illustration: SIR WALTER RALEIGH BEFORE THE JUDGES. (_See p._ 478.)] - -The answer from the King of Spain did not arrive for five weeks. It -stated that in his opinion the punishment of Raleigh's offences should -take place where his commission--which he had violated--was issued. It -was, therefore, necessary to bring him to trial in London. Meanwhile, -he had been subjected to close and repeated interrogations before a -commission appointed for the purpose, composed of Lord Chancellor -Bacon, the Archbishop of Canterbury, Sir Edward Coke, and several other -members of Council. He was charged with having imposed upon the king, by -representing that his object was to discover a gold mine, when he only -wanted to get out of prison and commence piracy; that he had endeavoured -to provoke a war with Spain; that he had barbarously deserted his ships' -companies, and pushed them into unnecessary danger; that he had ridiculed -and maligned the king; that he had feigned madness to deceive his -majesty; and that he had attempted to escape in defiance of his authority. - -Raleigh denied the charge of treating the name of the king -disrespectfully; asserted that nothing proved his sincerity in expecting -to reach mines so completely, as his having expended two thousand pounds -in the necessary apparatus for refining the ore; that he had never -exposed his men to any danger that he did not share himself, except when -illness incapacitated him; and that as to feigning madness and trying to -escape, the charges were true, but they were, under the circumstances, -perfectly natural and pardonable. - -The commissioners, finding that they could establish no real case -against him of sufficient gravity to implicate his life, resorted to -the usual stratagem of Government in those times, as well as in times -long after--and set a spy upon him under the colour of a friend. The -individual who accepted this dirty office--such villains are always -plentifully at hand--was one Sir Thomas Wilson, Keeper of the State Paper -Office. He appeared to be hit upon because he had as much learning and -ingenuity as he had little principle, and could therefore easily draw -out Raleigh to talk by assuming a kindly interest in him. Sir Walter -appeared to talk freely, and related his adventures, and also what daily -took place before the commission; yet this government pump could bring up -nothing very criminating. Raleigh declared that had he fallen in with one -of the Spanish galleons, he would have seized it with the same freedom -that Drake had done; but his mere intention to do what had won so much -fame and favour for other commanders, was not a charge likely to go down -with the public. Raleigh remarked that when he made that avowal before -the commission, Bacon said, "Why, you would have been a pirate!" and that -he had replied, "Oh, my lord, did you ever know of any that were pirates -for millions? They that work for small things are pirates." - -Finding that there was nothing in Raleigh's proceedings on this occasion -which had not been done, and far more than done, with high public -approbation, by the greatest commanders of the British Navy, they dared -not attempt to condemn him on that score, and therefore James demanded -of his Council what other mode they could suggest to take his life. Coke -and Bacon proposed that they should fall back simply on the plea of his -old sentence, and the king sent to the Tower an order for his execution. -The judges, therefore, received an order to issue a warrant for his -immediate beheading, but they wisely shrank from such a responsibility, -declaring that after such a lapse of time neither a writ of privy seal -nor a warrant under the Great Seal would be legal without calling on the -party to show cause against it. They accordingly summoned him before -them by _habeas corpus_, and Raleigh, who was suffering from fever and -ague, real enough this time, was the next day brought before them at the -King's Bench, Westminster. Yelverton, the Attorney General, reminded the -Court that Sir Walter had been sentenced to death for high treason, -fifteen years before; that the king, in his clemency, had deferred the -execution of the prisoner, but now deemed it necessary to call for it. -He observed that Sir Walter had been a statesman, and a man who, in -respect to his talents, was to be pitied, and that he had been as a star -at which the world had gazed; but "stars," he continued, "may fall; nay, -they must fall when they trouble the spheres wherein they abide." He -called, therefore, at the command of his majesty, for their order for his -execution. On being asked what he had to say against it, Raleigh replied -that the judgment given against him so many years ago could not with any -reason be brought against him then, for he had since borne his majesty's -commission, which was equivalent to a pardon; and that no other charge -was made against him. The Chief Justice told him that this pleading would -not avail him; that in cases of treason nothing but a pardon in express -words was sufficient. Raleigh then said, if that were the case, he could -only throw himself on the king's mercy; but that he was certain that, had -the king not been afresh exasperated against him, he might have lived a -thousand years, if nature enabled him, without hearing anything more of -the old sentence. - -Montague, the Chief Justice, admitted this by saying that "new offences -had stirred up his majesty's justice to revive what the law had formerly -decreed;" and he ended with the fatal words--"Execution is granted." - -Thus Raleigh was put to death to oblige the King of Spain, with whom -James was anxious to form an alliance by his son's marriage to the -Infanta. The old sentence was but the stalking-horse for the occasion, -the Court not daring to allege as the true offence that he died for -having invaded the territories of the King of Spain. The public having -a strong repugnance to both Spain and any matrimonial alliance with it, -which must introduce a Popish queen, would have gloried in the real -chastisement of that nation and the capture of its treasure-ships. Sir -Walter was executed on the 29th of October, 1618. - -Hitherto James had contrived to avoid war for sixteen years. He now saw -himself dragged into a hopeless contest by the folly of his son-in-law, -Frederick, the Elector of the Palatinate. Frederick was a Calvinistic -Protestant, and the Protestants of Bohemia, anxious to prevent the -Catholic Emperor of Austria from acquiring their Crown, offered it to -him, and the Elector was imprudent enough to accept it. James was -thunderstruck by the news, and instantly avowed that the Elector had -entered on an enterprise which would involve him in utter ruin. To enable -the reader, however, to understand the question, we must take a brief -review of the antecedents of the case. Bohemia, a country inhabited by -a branch of the great Sclavonic race called Czechs, had early imbibed -the doctrines of Protestantism. The people resisted the imposition of -the Papal yoke by the Austrian princes, and insurrection and carnage -were the consequences. At length the Emperor Rudolph was obliged to -cede to the sturdy Bohemians the right of enjoying their own religious -faith, and it was stipulated that they should be at liberty to erect -churches on the Crown lands. The Calvinists, the most resolute sect of -the Bohemian Protestants--for they were divided into Calvinists and -Lutherans--declared the Church lands were in fact Crown lands, and began -to build churches on estates belonging to the Archbishop of Prague and -the Abbot of Braunau. These prelates appealed to the Emperor Matthias, -who decided against the Protestants; and an order was issued to pull down -again the churches both at Prague and Braunau. At Braunau the people -made resistance, and some of their leaders were thrown into prison. This -created a great excitement, and Count Thurm, the head of the Evangelical -Church, called an assembly of the Protestants at Prague, on the 6th of -March, 1618, to take measures for the maintenance of their privileges; -but the enthusiasm with which this step was attended, from all parts of -the country, much alarming the Austrians, menaces of punishment were -issued by Imperial brief against those who took part in it. This roused -the wrath of the people, who, headed by Count Thurm, on the 23rd of May, -1618, marched to the royal palace, seized two obnoxious councillors, -and hurled them out of the window of the council chamber, which was -eighty feet from the ground. These men had been the servile tools of the -Austrian Court, and had thereby excited the hatred of the people. They -refused the rites of marriage, baptism, and burial to all who would not -consent to become Catholics; they were accused of having drawn up the -threatening letter which came signed by the Emperor, and of hunting the -Protestants into the Catholic churches with dogs. Luckily for them there -was plenty of mud in the palace ditch, and they escaped with their lives -to scourge the people at a later date. - -This bold deed kindled a flame throughout all Bohemia, Moravia, Lusatia, -and Silesia. Thurm sent forth a proclamation assuring the Protestants -that the die was cast; that they had nothing but vengeance and oppression -to expect from Austria; and therefore the time was come to throw off the -Austrian yoke, to resume the independence of Bohemia, and make common -cause with the Protestants of Germany and the Netherlands. The people -flocked to Prague; the palace was occupied by the troops of the different -provinces; an oath was taken from the magistrates and officials to -obey the States alone; the taxes were ordered to be paid only to those -appointed by them; the Jesuits were chased from the country; a council of -thirty members was elected to assume the government, and Thurm placed at -their head. All this passed with lightning rapidity and caused the utmost -consternation in Vienna. - -Matthias was sickly and feeble both in body and mind, but his cousin -Ferdinand--who had already assumed the title of King of Bohemia, a bigot -of the very first water, and whose name soon became the rallying cry of -all bigotry in Europe--caught at the opportunity as one sent by Heaven, -to enable him to exterminate Protestantism in Austria. He sent off to -the Spanish Court in the Netherlands demands for co-operation in this -great work, and armies were prepared in Austria; whilst Thurm and the -Bohemians, on their part, mustered with all eagerness their forces. -Matthias proposed to settle the difference by arbitration, but Ferdinand -rejected any such means, seized Cardinal Klesel the Emperor's adviser, -and sent him prisoner into the Tyrol, so that the poor invalid Matthias -remained a puppet in their hands. He died in March, 1619. Ferdinand, the -prince of bigots, to whom whole nations of lives were only as so much -dust in comparison with the sacredness of his dogmas, mounted the throne, -being elected emperor in August of that year. Now all Europe stood in -expectation of the bloody decision of this quarrel,--a quarrel which -was destined to spread over all Germany, draw into its vortex Sweden, -Denmark, Holland, France, and England, and to be for ever remembered in -the world as the most terrible of contests, the "Thirty Years' War." - -At this moment, when the Protestants of Germany were joined in a Union -for the maintenance of their principles, but were opposed by the far -more powerful League of the Catholic princes; when Ferdinand, Emperor of -Austria, supported by the Elector Maximilian of Bavaria, the head of -the League in Germany, was promised the co-operation of Spain; at this -moment the Crown of Bohemia was offered to Frederick, the palsgrave, -and he foolishly accepted it. He was a mere youth of twenty, with more -ambition than ability; but he was spurred on by his wife, Elizabeth of -England, who told him he had courage enough to aspire to the hand of a -king's daughter, but not to grasp a crown when offered, and who, when -reminded by him of the electoral province which they possessed in safety, -exclaimed, "Better a crown with a crust, than a petty electorate with -abundance." - -This fatal crown, which Elizabeth came to wear, and to have the crust -speedily afterwards, had been already offered to John George, Elector -of Saxony, who was too shrewd to accept it. Count Thurm had for a time -carried all before him, and had even marched into Austria and besieged -the Emperor in Vienna; but this success was soon over. The Catholic -princes had armed in defence of the Emperor; the students of Vienna and -fifteen hundred citizens volunteered in his cause; the distinguished -Spanish General Spinola was already on his march to invade the -palsgrave's hereditary State, so despised by the Princess Elizabeth; and -Count Mansfeld, the general of the German Protestants, was defeated on -the Bohemian soil, when Frederick the Elector was crowned king of that -country in Prague, on the 25th of October, 1619. He reigned only till -the 8th of November of the following year, when he was expelled from his -capital by the Austrian and Bavarian forces under Maximilian and General -Bucquoi. They had defeated the Protestant generals in Upper Austria and -Bohemia, while Frederick--who obtained the name of the "Winter King," -because he only reigned one winter--had lost the confidence of his -subjects by his luxurious effeminacy, his inattention to government, his -impolitic treatment of the native nobles and generals, and his bigoted -partiality to the Calvinistic party. Even the Protestant Elector of -Saxony, who had refused the crown, allied himself to the Catholic Emperor -against him. He was roused from table only by the news of the battle -before his walls, rushed out only to see his army scattered, and fled. -The Counts Thurm and Hohenlohe counselled him still to make a stand in -Glatz, but he was no hero to fight, even for a kingdom; he continued his -flight to Breslau, thence to Berlin, and did not stop till he reached -Holland. Elizabeth, his queen, now reduced to the crust, far advanced -in pregnancy, and deeply pitied by all generous and chivalric minds, -accompanied him in his ignominious flight. - -Meanwhile, James had been a prey to the most conflicting interests. His -Protestant subjects, as ill informed of the state of parties on the -Continent as the unfortunate Frederick himself, had received with an -outburst of joy the news of the palsgrave being crowned King of Bohemia; -and Archbishop Abbot gave the very text from the Apocalypse in which -this event, so favourable to the Reformed faith, was predicted. James -was urged to send an army to his son-in-law's support, but he saw no -chance of keeping him on the Bohemian throne. The Bohemians were divided -into three violent parties--Calvinists, Lutherans, and Catholics. -The Protestants of Germany were equally divided; some of them had -voluntarily offered their aid to the Emperor, and others had submitted -to his victorious generals. Spinola was marching on the Palatinate, and -James was distracted by the fear of his daughter and son-in-law being -reduced to beggary. Yet if he attempted to prop the King of Bohemia on -his tottering throne, he should offend the Catholic King of Spain, the -sworn ally of the Emperor, and with whom he was at this very time seeking -an alliance. Without being able to save his Protestant son-in-law, he -should thus lose a Catholic daughter-in-law. If he lay still, all men -would call him an unnatural father, all Protestants would declare him -an apostate to his religion. Never was man in such a strait. One moment -he declared to the Spanish ambassador that the Elector was a fool and a -villain, and that he would abandon him to his fate; at another he assured -the Protestant envoys from Germany that he would support him to the -utmost. At length he hit upon the only rational course; which was, not to -attempt an impossibility--the support of Frederick on the baseless throne -of Bohemia--but to send a force to defend his patrimonial territories -from the Spaniards. The first enterprise was, in fact, soon out of the -question: Prague had fallen, his son-in-law and daughter were fugitives; -but the second object was still possible, and more necessary than ever. - -He sent an army of four thousand men under the Earls of Oxford and Essex -to the rescue of the Palatinate. This force was altogether inadequate -to cope with the numerous army of the able Spinola; and yet James had -exhausted all his means and all his efforts in raising it. Money he had -none, and had been compelled to seek a loan and a voluntary subscription. -By the autumn the Lower Palatinate was overrun by the Spaniards, and -Bohemia had sought and received pardon from the Imperial Court. James's -real hope was that Spain would join him in mediating a peace. - -[Illustration: THE FRANZENSRING, VIENNA.] - -In this state of affairs James was compelled to summon a Parliament. It -assembled on the 30th of January, 1621, the king having used all the -unconstitutional means in his power to influence the return of members. -In his opening speech he now admitted what he had so stoutly denied -before, the presence of Undertakers in the last Parliament, "a strange -kind of beasts which had done mischief." In that shallow, wheedling -tone, that rather showed the hollowness of the man than conciliated, -as it was meant to do, he even enlarged his confessions and admitted -that he had been swayed by evil counsellors. He then demanded liberal -supplies to carry on the war in the Palatinate, for which the people -had indeed loudly called. The Commons expressed their readiness, but -first demanded that the king should enforce the penalties against the -Papists with additional rigour, observing that they were the Papists in -Germany who had deprived the Elector Palatine of his crown, and were -now seeking to deprive him of his hereditary domains. They recommended -that no recusants should be allowed to come within ten miles of London, -that they should not be permitted to attend Mass in their own houses or -in the chapels of ambassadors; and they offered to pass a Bill, giving -to the Crown two-thirds of the property of recusants. They then granted -him two subsidies, but no tenths or fifteenths--a sum wholly inadequate -to the necessities of the war, much less of his expenditure in general. -Yet James, to keep them in good humour--hoping to obtain more before the -close of the Session--professed to be more satisfied with it than if it -had been millions, because it was so freely granted. - -The Commons showed more alacrity in complaining of the breach of their -privileges. They reminded the king of the four members of their House -whom he had imprisoned after the last Session of Parliament, and insisted -that such a practice rendered the liberty of speech amongst them a mere -fiction. As it was James's policy to remain on good terms with them, -he made a solemn assurance that he would respect their freedom in that -matter. Yet, the next day, the House, as if to show that they themselves -were ready to destroy the liberty within, which they so warmly contended -against being infringed from without, expelled one of their members named -Shepherd, for declaring, in a speech against a Bill for restraining the -abuses of the Sabbath, that the Sabbath was Saturday, and not Sunday; -that the Scriptures recommended dancing on the Sabbath day; and that this -Bill was in direct opposition to the king's ordinances for the keeping of -Sunday. - -From their own members they next extended their prosecutions to public -officers. They had appointed a committee of inquiry into public abuses, -and now summoned witnesses. The conduct of public officers, judges, -and their dependents, was subjected to a severe scrutiny. They first -examined into the abuses of patents, and three of these incurred -particular censure: the one for the licensing of ale-houses, another for -the inspection of inns and hostelries, and the third for the exclusive -manufacture of gold and silver thread. Patents, to secure to inventors -the fruits of their discoveries in arts and manufactures, are beneficial, -stimulating to improvement and extending traffic. But these patents were -of a directly contrary nature, being grants, for money or through Court -favour, to individuals to monopolise some particular business; thus -checking competition, and defrauding the fair trader of his legitimate -profits. The inquiry laid open a scene of the most extraordinary fraud, -corruption, and oppression. The three patents just mentioned were -denounced as national injuries, and Sir Giles Mompesson and Sir Francis -Michell, a justice of the peace, his partner in them, were arrested -as offenders. The culprits sought protection from the Government, -Buckingham having sold them the patents and divided the profits with his -half-brother, Sir Edward Villiers. The Court was in great tremor, and it -was proposed to dissolve Parliament to save the patentees. But Williams, -Dean of Westminster, represented this as a very imprudent measure, and -another course was adopted at his recommendation. Buckingham affected -a patriotic air, as if he himself had been no way concerned in it, and -said if his brother had shared the emolument, let him also share the -punishment. But this was safely said, for Villiers was already abroad -out of the reach of Parliament; and means were not long wanting to let -Mompesson escape out of the custody of the Serjeant-at-Arms. Michell was -not so fortunate; he was secured and lodged in the Tower. - -In these prosecutions Coke was extremely active, for he saw a prospect -of taking a signal revenge on Bacon, who had not only supplanted him, -but insulted him in his fall. Bacon was notoriously mixed up with the -corruptions of the Court of Chancery; and Coke informed the Commons that -it was not within their jurisdiction to punish offenders not of their -own House, but that they could punish all offences against the State in -co-operation with the Lords. Accordingly they invited the Upper House to -take cognisance of these offences, with which they readily complied, and -sentenced Mompesson and Michell to be degraded from their knighthood, -fined, and imprisoned. James, who had done his best to screen the -offenders, then in a fit of affected patriotism expressed his indignation -at having had his credulity imposed on by these men, and by an illegal -stretch of prerogative converted Mompesson's sentence into perpetual -banishment. Buckingham, the guiltiest party of all, did not quite -escape observation. Yelverton, the Attorney-General, who was accused of -participation in these illegal practices, and who was condemned to severe -fines and imprisonment for life, boldly accused Buckingham, before the -House of Lords, of his master share in them. But that favourite was too -strongly fortified by the royal favour, and by those who must have fallen -with him, to be seriously endangered. But lesser men did not escape so -well. Sir John Bennet, Judge of the Prerogative Court, was impeached, -as well as Dr. Field, Bishop of Llandaff, for bribery and corruption. -Bennet was charged with having granted administration of wills for money, -contrary to law; but he escaped his punishment by obtaining time to -prepare his defence, during which Parliament was prorogued; but he was -afterwards fined twenty thousand pounds in the Star Chamber, for which, -however, he obtained a pardon. Field of Llandaff had bound a suitor in -Chancery to pay him over six thousand pounds, if he obtained his suit -for him, through Buckingham. At the entreaty of the archbishop, however, -he, too, escaped, under the pretence of being left to the dealing of the -Church. - -But the great offender, at whom Coke and others were directing their main -efforts, was the Lord Chancellor Bacon. Bacon had managed to make his way -from a moderate position to the highest honours of the State. He was -not only Lord Chancellor of the kingdom, and a baron, but in January, -1621, became Viscount St. Albans. Besides this elevation, he possessed -a far higher one in the fame of his philosophical works; and had he -possessed as much real greatness of mind as talent, might have stood in -the admiration of posterity as Milton does--poor, but glorious beyond -the tinsel glory of Courts; and it might have been said of him as of the -great poet-- - - "His soul was like a star and dwelt apart." - -But Bacon, who had placed his name high on the scroll of immortality by -his genius, was destined, like Lucifer, to become more notorious by his -fall than by his standing. Brilliant as were his powers, superb as were -his accomplishments, he had not hesitated to trail his finest qualities -through the mire of Courts and corruption, in the eager quest of worldly -distinction. He had risen, perhaps, more by his base flatteries, and his -calumnious envy of his contemporaries, than by his abilities; and he had -continued, whilst rising, to make enemies on all sides. The king and -Buckingham had both conceived a deep dislike to him. James hated all men -of genius with the jealousy of a pedant, and was only rendered tolerant -of Bacon by his abject adulation, and his services in punishing Coke and -carrying out relentlessly the fiats of prerogative. Buckingham probably -never forgot what he had done in the matter of Coke's daughter. The Lords -hated him for his upstart vanity and ostentation, and the Commons for his -desertion of the public cause for that of the despotic king. But perhaps -not all these causes together would have availed to pull him down, if -Buckingham had not wanted the Great Seal for his creature Williams, now -Bishop of Lincoln. - -The Parliamentary Committee inquiring into the abuses of office, -recommended the House of Commons to impeach the Lord Chancellor for -bribery and corruption in the court over which he presided; and the -Commons accordingly presented to the Upper House a Bill of Impeachment -against him, consisting of two-and-twenty instances of bribery and -corruption in his own person, and of allowing the same in his officers. -The corruption of the Chancellor was notorious; and out of doors it -was asserted that he had received in presents no less than one hundred -thousand pounds in the three years of his Chancellorship. This he denied -in a letter to Buckingham; but the charges brought against him by the -Commons, who were prepared to support them, were so formidable that they -completely struck down the guilty man. He felt that his ruin was at hand, -and either feeling or feigning sickness, he took to his bed. If he had -not perceived sufficient indications of his impending fate from other -quarters, the conduct of the king left him in no doubt. James informed -the Lords that he trusted the Chancellor might clear himself, but that if -he did not, he would punish him with the utmost severity. - -It must not be supposed, however, that Bacon was the first to introduce -bribery into the Court of Chancery; it was an old and well-known -practice, which had been both familiar to Elizabeth and sanctioned by -her. But Bacon ought to have had a soul above it, whereas he had indulged -in the villainous custom the more profusely because his mode of living -was so extravagant and ostentatious, that he saved not a penny of his -enormous gain, but was always in need. - -Bacon, on the presentation of the Bill of Impeachment, on the 21st of -March, prayed for time to prepare his defence, and this was granted him, -the House adjourning till the 17th of April. On the 24th of that month, -the humbled statesman drew up a general confession of his guilt, which -was presented by Prince Charles. In this letter he threw himself on the -mercy of the House and the king, and pleaded, with a strange mixture -of humility and ingenuity, his very crimes as meritorious, since their -punishment would deter others from them. He represented his spirit as -broken, his mind as overwhelmed by his calamities; but he added that he -found a certain gladness in the fact that "hereafter the greatness of a -judge or magistrate shall be no sanctuary or protection to him against -guiltiness; which is the beginning of a golden work--the purgation of -the courts of justice. And," he added, "in these two points, God is my -witness, though it be my fortune to be the anvil upon which these two -effects are broken and wrought, I take no small comfort." After this -edifying spectacle of exhibiting his punishment as a public benefit, he -proceeded to apply that unctuous adulation to the Sovereign and to the -Peers in which he was so unabashed a master. He implored mercy at the -hands of the king--"a king of incomparable clemency, whose heart was -inscrutable for wisdom and goodness--a prince whose like had not been -seen these hundred years!" And then the Lords were equally bepraised, -"compassion ever beating in the veins of noble blood;" nor were the -bishops forgotten, "the servants of Him who would not break the bruised -reed, nor quench the smoking flax." - -[Illustration: INTERVIEW BETWEEN BACON AND THE DEPUTATION FROM THE LORDS. -(_See p._ 484.)] - -But all this cringing to the Crown, the coronet, and the mitre, did not -serve him: he was required by the Peers to make a separate and distinct -answer to each charge. He complied fully with the demand, confessing -everything; and when a deputation from the Lords waited on him to -know whether this was his own voluntary act--for they excused him the -humiliation of appearing at the bar of the House--he replied with tears, -"It is my act--my hand--my heart. Oh, my lords, spare a broken reed!" -This full and explicit confession being read in the House, on the 3rd of -May the Commons, headed by their Speaker, attended to demand judgment, -which the Lord Chief Justice, acting as Speaker of the Upper House, -declared to this effect:--That the Lord Chancellor being found guilty of -many acts of bribery and corruption, both by his own confession and the -evidence of witnesses, he was condemned to pay a fine of forty thousand -pounds, to be imprisoned in the Tower during the king's pleasure, to be -dismissed from all his offices, and deemed incapable of either holding -office again or sitting in Parliament, and to be prohibited from coming -within twelve miles of the seat of Parliament. - -The king remitted the fine, for the best of reasons--that Bacon had -nothing to pay it with; he also liberated him from the Tower after a mere -_pro forma_ imprisonment of a few days, and Bacon retired to hide his -dishonour at his house at Gorhambury, near St. Albans. Nor had his fall -extinguished all admiration for him as a great lawyer and philosopher. -Even in the House Sir Robert Philips, Sir Edward Sackville, and others, -reminded the public of the Lord Chancellor's wonderful genius and -acquirements; and as Prince Charles returned from hunting one day, he -beheld "a coach accompanied by a goodly troop of horsemen," escorting the -ex-Lord Chancellor to his house at Gorhambury. - -In that beautiful retreat, it was in Bacon's power to have so lived and -so written, that his disgrace as a statesman would have been soon lost -in the splendour of his genius and the dignified wisdom of his latter -years. But unfortunately Bacon was steeped to the core in the love of -worldly greatness, and the five years that he lived were rendered still -more miserable and still more contemptible by his incessant hankering -after restoration to place and honour, and his persevering and cringing -importunities to the king and Buckingham for these objects. To such a -length did the wretched man proceed, that his letters became actually -impious. He told the prince that as the king, his father, had been his -creator, he had hoped that he would be his redeemer. The works which -he completed after his disgrace were only such as could result from -so miserable a condition of mind. They were suggested to him by the -king, but were not executed with the zest of his own inclination. They -consisted chiefly of a life of Henry VII., a revision of his former -works, and the superintendence of a Latin translation of them. At length, -finding all his efforts vain to move the king towards his restoration, -his health and temper gave way, and he died on the 9th of April, 1626, -the melancholy victim of an unworthy ambition. - -[Illustration: GEORGE VILLIERS, DUKE OF BUCKINGHAM. - -(_After the Portrait by Van Dyck._)] - -The Commons had rendered a very valuable service by these impeachments -of public men, and one which has since then operated as a precedent -in the hands of Parliament to check and punish on a large scale the -too daring and unprincipled servants of the Crown. But, as if carried -beyond themselves by their success, they now fell into a grievous error, -and displayed a spirit as aggressive in themselves, as it was cruel, -bigoted, and unconstitutional. One Edward Floyd, a Catholic barrister, -a prisoner in the Fleet, was reported to have exulted in the success of -the Catholics in Germany over the Elector Palatine. This being mentioned -in the Commons, that august body took immediately such violent offence, -that it was proposed by members to nail him by the ears, bore him through -the tongue, set him in the pillory, and so forth. On inquiry, all that -could be substantiated against him was, that he had said "that goodman -Palsgrave and goodwife Palsgrave had been driven from Prague." - -For this paltry offence--which would not now attract a passing notice in -a newspaper--the Commons adjudged Floyd to pay a fine of one thousand -pounds, to stand in the pillory in three different places, and to be -carried from place to place on a horse without a saddle, and with -his face to the tail. The Commons had clearly stepped out of their -jurisdiction to adjudge a man who was no member of their House, and Floyd -instantly appealed to the king against the proceeding. James, who had so -often been checked in his prerogative by the Commons, did not neglect -this grand opportunity of rebuking their error. He sent the very next -morning to demand by what authority they condemned one who did not belong -to them, nor had committed any breach of their privileges; and still -more, by what right they sentenced him without evidence taken on oath? - -This was a posing inquiry. The House was greatly disconcerted, for they -were clearly in the wrong, and the king in the right. It was a hard -matter, however, to confess their fault: the case was debated warmly for -several days; but at length it was agreed to confer with the Peers, who -asserted that the Commons had invaded their privilege of pronouncing -judgment in such cases. The Commons still contended that they had a right -to administer an oath, and therefore to pass judgment. But the Lords -would not admit this, and it was agreed that the Lords should sentence -Floyd, which they proceeded to do, as exercising their own exclusive -right, the Commons contending that the Lords now judged him by a similar -right by which they had already judged him. The sentence was severe -enough to satisfy the Commons. The fine was increased from one to five -thousand pounds, Floyd was to be flogged at the cart's tail from the -Fleet to Westminster Hall, to sit in the pillory, to be degraded from the -rank of a gentleman, to be held infamous, and to be imprisoned in Newgate -for life. - -Perhaps so atrocious a sentence was never pronounced for so trivial an -offence. It showed how little either the Lords or Commons were yet to be -trusted with the lives and liberties of the subject, and how ill-defined -were still their functions. The public expressed its abhorrence of the -barbarous proceeding, and Prince Charles exerted himself to procure a -mitigation of the punishment, but could only succeed in obtaining the -remission of the flogging. The Commons having executed so much justice -and so much injustice, but making no approach to a vote of further -supplies, James adjourned Parliament on the 4th of June to November. -Vehement as had been the wrath of the Commons against a disrespectful -allusion to the Palsgrave, they had done nothing towards the defence of -his territory. As the public were by no means so indifferent on this -point, the fear of their constituents suddenly flashed on the Commons, -and they then made a declaration that if nothing effectual was done -during the recess for the restoration of the Elector Palatine and the -Protestant religion, they would sacrifice their lives and fortunes in the -cause. This was not only carried by acclamation, but Coke, falling on his -knees, with many tears and signs of deep emotion, read aloud the collect -for the king and royal family from the Book of Common Prayer. - -Parliament being adjourned, James proceeded to appoint a new Lord -Chancellor in the place of Bacon. There were three public candidates for -the office--Ley and Hobart, the two Chief Justices, and Lord Cranfield, -the Treasurer, who had been originally a city merchant, but had risen -by marrying a relative of Buckingham's. But there was another and still -more extraordinary competitor determined on by Buckingham and James for -the Chancellorship--no other than a clergyman--Williams, late Dean of -Westminster, now Bishop of Lincoln. That a clergyman should be placed -at the head of the Court of Chancery instead of a lawyer, was enough to -astonish not only the members of the legal profession, but the whole -public. Williams himself was openly professing to support the claims of -Cranfield, and expressed astonishment when the post was offered to him. -He declared so strongly his sense of his incapacity for the office, being -inexperienced in matters of law, that he would only accept of it on trial -for eighteen months, and on condition that two judges should sit with -him to assist him. Yet this truly scandalous appointment was actually -made, the real cause out of doors being assigned that "his too grate -familiarity with Buckingham's mother procured him these grate favours and -preferments one a suddaine." It was some time ere the barristers would -plead before him. - -But not the less did another event confound the dignitaries of the -Church. Abbot, the Archbishop of Canterbury, hunting with Lord Zouch in -Bramshill Park, in Hampshire, accidentally shot the keeper of the Park in -aiming at a buck. The verdict of the coroner's inquest was unintentional -homicide; but still the clergy contended that by the canon law the -shedding of blood had disqualified him for discharging any ecclesiastical -functions. Much censure was also expressed on his engaging in hunting -at all; and as there were just then four bishops-elect who awaited -consecration, they refused to receive it at his hands. Amongst these were -Williams, the Lord Keeper, and Laud, Bishop of St. David's, who were -supposed to be partly influenced by a hope of securing the primacy, if -Abbot were pronounced disqualified. A commission, however, of prelates -and canonists proposed that the archbishop should be absolved from all -irregularity, and James, as head of the Church, granted him a pardon -and appointed eight bishops to give him absolution; but from this time -forward he seldom appeared at Court. - -During the recess the king performed an act calculated to conciliate the -Commons. By the advice, as it was said, of Williams, the Lord Keeper, -he had abolished thirty-seven of the most oppressive of the patents and -monopolies, of which the Commons had so long complained. But the effect -of this was totally neutralised by other measures of a contrary tendency. -Complaints had been made of the growing audacity of the Algerine -pirates, who had not only seized several English merchant ships in the -Mediterranean, but even on the British coast. James requested Spain, -which also was a sufferer from these robbers, to join in an expedition -to burn all their ships and destroy Algiers itself. Sir Robert Monsell -was sent with a squadron for this purpose, but the Spaniards did not join -him, and he was said to have a royal order not to risk his ships. Under -such circumstances, nothing very vigorous was to be expected, yet on -the 24th of May Monsell sailed up to the fort, and the sailors set fire -to the ships and then retired. No attack was made on the town, and the -firing of the vessels was so imperfectly done, that the Algerines soon -put out the flames, and threw booms across the harbour to prevent the -re-entrance of the English. Only two of the pirate vessels were consumed, -and the Algerines, like a swarm of hornets irritated in their nest but -not injured, rushed forth soon afterwards in such force and fury, that -they speedily captured no less than five-and-thirty English merchantmen. -Loud and bitter were the complaints in the country of this worse than -useless proceeding. - -To add to the ill-humour generated by this imbecile transaction, -the public had been greatly incensed by the arrest of a number of -liberal-minded men--the Earls of Oxford and Southampton, Sutcliffe, Dean -of Exeter, Brise, a Puritan preacher, Sir Christopher Neville, Sir Edward -Sandys, and Selden, the great lawyer and antiquary; and a prosecution had -been commenced against Sir Edward Coke, on no less than eleven charges of -misdemeanour during the time that he was a judge. Coke, unlike Bacon, had -amassed great wealth during his official life, and it was understood that -these charges of peculation and bribery had been got up at the suggestion -of Bacon and Coke's own wife, Lady Hatton. - -The Commons took up zealously the cause of their members, Sandys and -Coke. Sandys had been examined on some secret charge before the Council, -and after a month's detention was discharged. Being confined to his bed -at the commencement of the Session, two members were appointed to wait on -him and learn the cause of his arrest, notwithstanding the assurance of -the Secretary of State that it had no connection with his conduct in the -House. They also ordered the Serjeant-at-Arms to take into custody the -accusers of Coke, and appointed a committee to examine witnesses. They -felt assured that the proceedings against these gentlemen originated with -their popular conduct in Parliament. - -At the same time, Coke, in the Commons, proposed a petition to the king -against the increase of Popery and the marriage of the Prince of Wales -to a Catholic. It represented that the success in Germany against the -Elector Palatine had so encouraged the Papists, that they flocked in -crowds to the chapels of the foreign ambassadors; sent their children -abroad for education, and were treated with so much lenity that, if -not prevented, they would soon again be in the ascendant. Spain was -represented, without directly naming it, as the worst enemy of England, -and the king was implored to recall all the children of Catholic noblemen -and gentlemen from abroad, to marry his son to a Protestant princess, and -to enforce the laws with rigour against the Papists. - -James received a private copy of this petition, and was thrown into a -paroxysm of rage at its perusal. To dictate to him how he should marry -his son; to recommend that he should invade the territories of Spain, and -to reflect on the honour of his ally, the Spanish king, were examples of -intolerable interference with his dearly valued prerogative. He wrote at -once to the Speaker, denouncing certain "fiery, popular, and turbulent -spirits" in the House, and desiring them not to concern themselves about -such matters as were included in the petition. Adverting to Sandys, he -denied that his offence was connected with the House of Commons, but -at the same time declared that the Crown possessed a right to punish -subjects, whether members of Parliament or not, and would not fail to -exercise it. - -The House received this missive with much dissatisfaction, but with -dignity, and vindicated their right of liberty of speech in a firm -memorial. James replied that though their privileges were no undoubted -right, but were derived from the grace of his ancestors on the throne, -yet so long as they kept them within the limits of duty, he should -not exercise his prerogative and withdraw those privileges. The House -declared its high resentment at this language, which reduced their -right into mere matter of royal favour, and the expression of feeling -ran so high that James became alarmed, and wrote to Secretary Calvert, -instructing him to qualify his assertions a little. But the House was -not thus to be satisfied where the question of its privileges was -directly raised, and on the 18th of December it drew up the following -protest:--"That the liberties and jurisdictions of Parliament are the -most ancient and undoubted birthright and inheritance of the subjects of -England; that arduous and urgent affairs concerning the king, the State, -and defence of the realm, and the Church of England, the making and -maintenance of laws, and the redress of grievances, are proper subjects -of counsel and debate in Parliament; that in the handling of these -businesses every member hath and ought to have freedom of speech; that -the Commons in Parliament have like liberty to treat of these matters in -such order as they think proper; that every member hath like freedom from -all impeachment, imprisonment, and molestation, other than by the censure -of the House itself, concerning any Bill, speaking or reasoning touching -Parliament matters; and that if any be complained of for anything said or -done in Parliament, the same is to be showed to the king by assent of the -Commons before the king give evidence to any private information." - -This was speaking out; the Parliament threw down the gage and James, in -his wrath, took it up. Forgetting that he was represented as ill, he rode -up to London in a fury and ordered the clerk of the Commons to bring -him the Journals of the House. According to Rushworth, he tore out the -obnoxious protest with his own hands, in full Council, and in presence of -the judges; at all events he cancelled it; had what he had done entered -in the Council-book; and on the 6th of January, 1622, by an insulting -proclamation, dissolved Parliament, assuring the public that it was on -account of its evil temper that he had dissolved the House of Commons, -and not with any intention of doing without one; that he should soon call -another; and in the meantime the country might rest assured that he would -endeavour to govern well. - -The first proof of his notions of governing well was the summoning of -the Earls of Oxford and Southampton from the House of Peers, of Coke, -Philip, Pym, and Mallory from the Commons, and of Sir John Selden, to -appear before the Council. Some were committed to the Tower, some to the -Fleet, and others to the custody of private individuals. Though nothing -in either House could have occasioned these arrests, various reasons were -assigned for them. Moreover, Selden was not a member of the Commons, and -he therefore could have incurred no blame there. But he was the legal -adviser of Sandys and others, who had made themselves prominent in the -popular cause, and he was known as one of the ablest legal advocates of -Parliamentary and public rights. The two Peers were also at the head of -a popular party which had sprung up in the Lords, and the whole matter -was too palpable for mistake. Nothing could, however, be fixed on any -of the prisoners which the Government dared to charge as a crime, and -after a sharp rebuke they were liberated. There were still other members -whose conduct had excited the anger of the Court, but against whom no -specific charge could be established. These were Sir Dudley Digges, Sir -James Parrott, Sir Nathaniel Rich, and Sir Thomas Carew. To punish them a -singular mode was devised. They were appointed to a commission in Ireland -to inquire into the state of the army and navy, into the condition of -the Church and of public schools, into the abuses in the collection of -revenue and in the settlement of the plantations, and into the existence -of illegal and mischievous patents. As it was extremely inconvenient for -these gentlemen to absent themselves on such business, they protested -decidedly against it; but they were told that the king had a right to the -services of his subjects, in any way that he pleased; and though these -gentlemen had stood boldly with their fellows in a collective capacity -for the rights of the subject, they were not sufficiently screwed up to -the pitch of martyrdom to stand upon their individual freedom, and refuse -at all costs. Coke, who had now taken the lead in the popular cause, -because the Court had repelled and dismissed him, offered to accompany -them, and assist them with his legal advice and experience, but his offer -was declined. The subjects of inquiry, of themselves, were of a nature -to furnish much strength and information to the reformers, and the mode -of punishing these men was as short-sighted as it was arbitrary. But the -great contest was now fully begun, in which the blindness and tyranny of -the Stuarts, and the firm intelligence of the people, were to fight out -the grand question of constitutional government. Those who regard this as -a matter only of Charles I.'s reign have strangely overlooked the doings -and doctrines of James, who was the real author of the conflict, and -opened it himself with all the dogmatism which distinguished the royal -side to the end. This very session Prince Charles had been a diligent -attender of the House of Lords, but seems to have had no perception -whatever of the spirit which was dominant in the House of Commons, and -rapidly diffusing its electric fire through the nation. The names of Pym, -Coke, Wentworth, and Laud, were already in men's mouths, the heralds -of that mighty host, which, for good or for evil, was soon to engage -in terrible combat; the issue of which was to be the morning-star of -governmental science to the nations, determining the true powers, uses, -and limitations of governments, as well as the liberty of the people -protected, by its own popular safeguards, from licence and anarchy. - -[Illustration: THE FLEET PRISON.] - -In foreign affairs James was placed in particular difficulties. The two -objects which he had more than all others at heart, were the marriage -of his son, the Prince of Wales, to the Infanta of Spain, and the -restoration of the Elector Palatine to his hereditary possessions. He -had tried too late to secure the Princess Christine of France. She was -already affianced to Philip of Spain. He had since negotiated for the -hand of Donna Maria of Spain. If he could accomplish this marriage, -he should be at once able to secure by it his other grand desire--the -restoration of the Palsgrave,--for Spain would then be induced to -withdraw its forces from the assistance of the Emperor against the -Palatinate, and to add its earnest co-operation in arranging for the -Palsgrave's re-instatement. - -But against this project of marriage--the stepping-stone to these -measures in Germany--stood the aversion of the people in England to a -match with so pronouncedly Catholic a country as Spain, and so bigoted -a family as that of its Sovereign. Just as adverse were the Spaniards, -and especially the priests, to the young Infanta coming into a heretical -country, and to any impediment thrown in the way of the Emperor of -Germany exterminating the Protestants there. During the life of Philip -III., the father of Donna Maria, little progress was made in these -negotiations, but on the accession of his son Philip IV., in 1621, the -prospect brightened. Both James and Charles wrote to the new king and his -favourite Olivarez. In England Gondomar, the Spanish minister, was warmly -in favour of the alliance, seeing in it a guarantee for the relief of -the Catholics and of increased strength against France. Lord Digby, now -Earl of Bristol, late ambassador at Madrid, was equally zealous for the -marriage; and James was the more eager for it as he saw no hope of aid in -his German project from France. There the feeble monarch, Louis XIII., -was wholly in the hands of a despicable favourite, De Luynes, who was -insolently opposed to the English interests, though the French people, -from the hereditary hatred of the house of Austria, would have gladly -marched against the invaders of the Palatinate. - -The affairs of Frederick, the Elector Palatine, were desperate. The -Palatinate, in fact, was already lost. Count Mansfeldt--the ablest -general who had fought for the Elector's interests--and the Prince -Christian of Brunswick, had evacuated the Palatinate; Heidelberg and -Mannheim were in the hands of the enemy; and these generals had entered -the service of the Dutch. The Emperor, in reward for the successful -services of Maximilian of Bavaria, had conferred on him the Electorate of -the Palatinate with the greater part of the territory. - -James himself, to get rid of the maintenance of the garrison, had given -up Frankenthal to the Spaniards, on condition that if, within eighteen -months, a satisfactory peace were not made, it should be returned. -Everything, therefore, was lost, and James fondly hoped that the Spanish -match might yet recover everything. - -Circumstances appeared to favour his hopes. The young King of Spain and -his minister, Olivarez, responded cordially to James's proposal; Gondomar -hastened on to Madrid to promote the object, and was soon followed by the -Earl of Bristol, equally earnest for the accomplishment of the marriage. -It was, however, necessary to procure a dispensation for this union from -the Pope, and this the King of Spain undertook to procure through his -ambassador at Rome. James was not to appear at all in the affair, but -with the unconquerable propensity to be meddling personally in every -negotiation, he could not help despatching George Gage, a Catholic, -with letters to the Pontiff, as well as to the Cardinals Ludovisio and -Bandini; and Buckingham, to complete the intercession, sent Bennet, a -Catholic priest, on the same errand. - -The Pope was not likely to grant the favour to James without a _quid -pro quo_, and therefore, as might have been expected, replied that the -canons of the Church could only be suspended for the benefit of the -Church; that the King of England had been very liberal of his promises -to the late King of Spain, but had performed nothing; he must now give -proof of his sincerity by relieving the English Catholics from the -pressure of his penal laws, and the request would be accorded. This was -a demand _in limine_ which would have shown to any prudent monarch the -dangerous path he was entering upon; but James trusted to his tortuous -art of king-craft, and rashly set to work to undo all that he had done -throughout his reign against the Catholics. He caused an order under the -Great Seal to be issued, granting pardons to all recusants who should -apply for them within five years; and the judges were commanded to -discharge from prison those who gave security for their compliance with -these terms. - -There was a glad and universal acceptance of the proffered lenity by -the Catholics. The doors of the prisons were opened, and the astonished -Puritans saw thousands on thousands of the dreaded Papists once more -coming abroad. There was instantly a cry of terror and indignation -from John O'Groat's to the Land's End. The pulpits resounded with the -execrations of enthusiastic preachers on the traitorous dealing of the -Court, and the depicted horrors of Catholic and Spanish ascendency. James -trembled, but ordered the Lord Keeper Williams and the Bishop of London -to assure the public that he was only seeking to gain better treatment -for the Protestants abroad, whom the Continental princes declared they -would punish with the same rigour as James had punished the Catholics in -England, unless the British severity was somewhat mitigated; and that, -moreover, there was no danger; for the recusants, though out of prison, -had still the shackles about their heels, and could at any moment be -remanded. This, without satisfying the Puritans, undid all confidence -amongst the Catholics. They recalled the habitual duplicity of James and -felt no longer any security; and when Gondomar boasted in Spain that four -thousand Catholics had been released in England, those Catholics only -remarked, "Yes; but we have still the shackles about our heels, and may -at any moment be thrust again into our dungeons." - -His only consolation was that the Spanish match now seemed really to -progress. On the 5th of January, 1623, the twenty articles securing -the freedom of her worship to the Infanta in England, the cessation of -persecution of the Catholics, and the exercise of their religious rites -in their own houses, were signed by James and Prince Charles. The dower -of the princess was to be two millions of ducats. The espousals were to -take place at Madrid by proxy, within forty days from the receipt of the -dispensation; and the princess was to set out for England within three -weeks. The time for the final consummation of the marriage, and the -intervals between the several payments of the dower, were all fixed, and -Gondomar and Bristol congratulated themselves on the completion of their -arduous negotiation. - -At this crisis, however, arrived two Englishmen at the Earl of Bristol's -residence at Madrid, under the names of John and Thomas Smith. To the -ambassador's astonishment and chagrin, on appearing before him, they -turned out to be no other than the Prince of Wales and Buckingham, who -had arrived in disguise, and with only three attendants. But how this -extraordinary and imprudent journey had come about requires to be told -with some detail. It was said to have originated with Gondomar; it had -been planned on his visit to London the preceding summer, and had since -been stimulated by his letters. He is declared to have represented to the -prince, who complained of delay, that all obstacles would vanish at once -if he were to suddenly appear and press his own suit. The idea caught -the imagination of the prince, and was warmly seconded by Buckingham, who -not only longed to seek adventures among the beauties of Madrid, but also -hoped to snatch the achievement of the match out of the hands of Bristol, -whom he hated. If it were really the scheme of the wily Spaniard, he must -have prided himself greatly on its success; a success, however, which -produced its own ruin. - -When the plan was first opened to James by Charles and Buckingham, -he gave in to them without hesitation so much did he desire to have -the affair settled. But on thinking it over alone, he was immediately -sensible of the danger and the impolitic character of the enterprise. He -therefore begged the prince and the favourite to give it up, pointing -out, with great justice, how much they would put themselves in the power -of the Spaniards, what advantages they would give them over them, and -what a storm of anger and alarm would break out at home as soon as it -became known. The two knights-errant bade him dismiss his fears, saying -that all would go well and that they had selected Sir Francis Cottington -and Sir Endymion Porter to attend them. James approved their choice, -but commanded Cottington to tell him plainly what he thought of the -project. Cottington, who did not seem yet to have been let into the -secret, on hearing it, was much agitated and declared that it was a rash -and perilous adventure; whereupon James threw himself upon his bed in an -agony, crying--"I told you so; I told you so before. I shall be undone, -and lose baby Charles." The prince and Buckingham were furious at the -behaviour of Cottington, and handled him severely; but after all, James, -with his usual weakness, gave his consent, and the travellers set forward -on the 17th of February, 1623, and after an adventurous journey arrived -at their destination. - -Lord Bristol had despatched a messenger immediately on the prince -reaching his house, informing the king that his son and friend were -safe in Madrid, after a journey of sixteen days. Meanwhile, strange -rumours began to run about the Spanish capital that some great man from -England had arrived, supposed to be the king himself; and it was deemed -best to make the fact known to the Court. Accordingly they sent for -Gondomar, who hurried off to Court with the welcome news. There were -first private but stately interviews, and then a public reception. The -prince was first privately conducted to the Monastery of St. Jerome, -from which the Spanish kings proceed to their coronation, and was then -brought back publicly by the king, his two brothers, and the _elite_ -of the Spanish nobility. Charles rode at the king's right hand through -the whole city to the palace, when he was conducted to the apartments -appropriated to him. He had then a formal introduction to the queen and -Infanta. Charles had two keys of gold given him, by which he could pass -into the royal apartments at all hours, yet Spanish etiquette did not -allow him to converse with the Infanta except in public. Tired of this -restraint, Charles determined to break through the Court formality, and -speak unceremoniously with his proposed wife; wherefore, hearing that -Donna Maria used to go to the Casa de Campo on the other side of the -river to gather Maydew, he rose early and went thither also. He passed -through the house and garden, but found that the princess was in the -orchard, and between him and her a high wall, and the door strongly -bolted. Without further ceremony he got over the wall, dropped down, -and seeing the princess at a distance, hastened towards her. But the -princess, on perceiving him, gave a shriek and ran off; and the old -marquis, her guardian, falling on his knees before the prince, entreated -him to retire, as he should lose his head if he permitted the interview. -Accordingly he let him out and rebolted the door. - -Great were the public rejoicings, however, on account of this chivalric -visit. The king professed to feel himself much complimented by the -reliance of the English prince on the Spanish honour, on the earnestness -it evinced in the prosecution of his suit; and the people as firmly -calculated on his conversion to the Catholic faith. The prisons were -thrown open; presents and favours were heaped upon him, the king insisted -on his taking precedence of himself, and assured him that any petition -which he presented to him for a whole month should be granted. There -were bull-fights, tournaments, fencing matches, feasts, and religious -processions, held in his honour and for his amusement. - -But at home, dire was the consternation when it was known that Charles -had gone off with slight attendance to Spain. It was stoutly declared -that he would never escape alive from amongst the inquisitions and -monks of that priest-ridden country, or if he did, it would only be as -a Papist. The freedom of comment on the occasion in the pulpits caused -James to issue an order through the Bishop of London that the clergy -should not in their prayers "prejudicate the prince's journey, but only -pray to God to return him home in safety again to us, and no more." -Whereupon a preacher, with an air of great simplicity, prayed that the -prince might return in safety again, and _no more_--that is, as it was -understood, without a Catholic wife. Yet to pacify his subjects, the -king informed them that he had sent after them two Protestant chaplains, -together with all the stuff and ornaments fit for the service of God. And -he added, "I have fully instructed them, so as all their behaviour and -service shall, I hope, prove decent and agreeable to the purity of the -primitive Church, and yet so near the Roman form as can lawfully be done. -For," says this stern persecutor of Catholicism, "it hath ever been my -way to go with the Church of Rome _usque ad aras_." - -In so very complying a mood was James at this moment, that when these -chaplains asked him what they were to do if they met the Host in the -streets, he replied they must avoid meeting it whenever they could; when -they could not, they must do as the people did there. And poor James soon -found that he had need of all his moral pliability. The Spanish Court, -as might have been foreseen, once having the prince in their power, -resolved to benefit by it. They soon let the prince and Buckingham know -that the Pope made grave difficulty about the dispensation, and the -Papal nuncio was sternly set against it, and it was inquired how far the -prince could go in concession. Buckingham wrote, therefore, to the king -in these ominous words:--"We would gladly have your directions how far we -may engage you in the acknowledgment of the Pope's special power, for we -almost find, if you will be contented to acknowledge the Pope chief head -under Christ, that the match will be made without him." - -This was asking everything and James was brought to a stand. He wrote in -reply that he did not know what they meant by acknowledging the Pope's -spiritual supremacy. He was sure they would not have him renounce his -religion for all the world. "Perhaps," he wrote, "you allude to a passage -in my book against Cardinal Bellarmine, where I say that if the Pope -would quit his godhead and usurping over kings, I would acknowledge him -for chief bishop, to whom all appeals of Churchmen ought to lie _en -dernier ressort_. That is the farthest my conscience would permit me to -go; for I am not a monsieur who can shift his religion as easily as he -can shift his shirt when he cometh from tennis." - -[Illustration: PUBLIC RECEPTION OF PRINCE CHARLES IN MADRID. (_See p._ -492.)] - -That Buckingham would have advised Charles to abandon his religion for -the achievement of his object, had he dared, there is little question, -for his mother was an avowed Papist and was his constant prompter in -his policy. Before leaving London, the two adventurers had obtained the -king's solemn promise in writing, that whatever they agreed to with the -Spanish monarch he would ratify; so that James might well be alarmed -at their suggestion. Charles, in fact, did not hesitate, in reply to -a letter from the Pope, to pledge himself to abstain from every act -hostile to the Catholic religion, and to seek every opportunity of -accomplishing the reunion of the Church of England with that of Rome. -The letter--which, Lord Clarendon truly says, "is, by your favour, -more than a compliment"--may be seen in the Hardwicke papers. Charles -afterwards said that it was only a promise that he never meant to keep; -we may therefore see that already his father's notions of king-craft -had taken full possession of him, which, with his large self-esteem -and a persevering disposition, produced in him that fatal mixture of -determination and unscrupulous insincerity which ruined him. Instead of -a firm resistance to the palpable schemes of the Pope and the Spaniard, -and a truthful candour which would have convinced them that they had -no chance of moving him, he led them by his apparent acquiescence to -believe that they could win him over; and when they had carried him -beyond the bounds of prudence, and much beyond those of honesty, he had -no alternative but to steal away and repudiate his own solemn words and -acts. Is it at all to be wondered at that neither foreign nations nor -his own could ever after put faith in him? The sophistry and absolutism -of the father had already destroyed the son, by perverting his moral -constitution. It is probable that Charles also acquired a strong taste -for ecclesiastical pomp and circumstance during this visit and its -religious shows and ceremonies, which falling in afterwards with the -ambitious taste of Laud, also tended to direct him towards the same -"_facilis descensus Averni_." - -James had despatched after the prince a great number of people, to form -a becoming attendance on the heir of England. Others flocked thither of -their own accord and especially Catholic refugees, who swarmed in the -prince's court, and particularly about Buckingham. The Jesuits did their -best to convert them, and were encouraged by every appearance of success. -Though James had sent what he called the "stuff and ornaments" for -public Protestant worship, we are informed that these were never used; -for though the Prince had the Earl of Carlisle, and the Lords Mountjoy, -Holland, Rochfort, Andover, Denbigh, Vaughan, and Kensington, besides -a number of other courtiers and their dependents around him, they had -no public worship, as if they were ashamed of their heretical faith, -or feared to offend their Catholic friends. Charles contented himself -with bed-chamber prayers. The consequence was, as Howell, who was there, -wrote, that the Spaniards, hardly believing the English Christians and -seeing no evidence of worship, set them down as little better than -infidels. This occasioned great discontent amongst the more conscientious -of the retinue, and they did not hesitate to avow their religious belief, -and their contempt of the mummery which they saw around them, which led -to much scandal and anger. Archie, or Archibald, Armstrong, the famous -Court fool, whom oddly enough James had sent as well as the Church plate -and vestments, seemed to think himself privileged by his office to say -what he pleased, and he did not hesitate to laugh at the religious -ceremonies, and argue on religious points with all the zeal of a Scottish -Presbyterian, as he was. Others even proceeded to blows. Sir Edward -Varney, finding a priest at the bedside of a sick Englishman, struck him -under the ear and they fell to fighting till they were thrust asunder. - -This state of things would not have been tolerated so near the -Inquisition except for the great end in view--the belief that -Charles would become a Catholic. Gregory XV. had written to the -Inquisitor-General to this effect:--"We understand that the Prince of -Wales, the King of Great Britain's son, is lately arrived there, carried -with a hope of Catholic marriage. Our desire is that he should not -stay in vain in the courts of those to whom the defence of the Pope's -authority, and care of advancing religion, hath procured the renowned -name of Catholic. Wherefore, by apostolic letters, we exhort his Catholic -majesty that he would gently endeavour sweetly to reduce the prince to -the obedience of the Roman Church, to which the ancient kings of Great -Britain, with Heaven's approbation, submitted their crowns and sceptres. -Now, to the attaining of this victory, which to the conquered promiseth -triumphs and principalities of heavenly felicity, we need not exhaust the -king's treasures, nor levy armies of furious soldiers, but we must fetch -from heaven the armour of light, whose divine splendour may allure the -prince's eye, and gently expel all errors from his mind. Now, in the -managing of these businesses, what power and art you have, we have well -known long ago; wherefore, we wish you to go like a religious counsellor -to the Catholic king, and to try all ways which, by this present -occasion, may benefit the kingdom of Britain and the Church of Rome. The -matter is of great weight and moment, and therefore not to be amplified -with words. Whoever shall inflame the mind of this royal youth with a -love of the Catholic religion, and breed a hate in him of heretical -impiety, shall begin to open the kingdom of heaven to the Prince of -Britain, and to gain the kingdom of Britain to the Apostolic See." - -It was easy to foresee that this absurd journey would lead to these -determined attempts to regain the rich islands of Great Britain to -the Catholic Church. The Catholics everywhere regarded the rupture to -have been occasioned by Henry VIII.'s Protestant marriage, and nothing -appeared so likely as that a Catholic marriage would heal it. It was not -so easy to foresee that Charles, at the age of twenty-three, should so -consummately act the hypocrite. He wrote to the Pope, in reply to a most -gracious and paternal letter from his holiness, calling him "Most Holy -Father," telling him how much he deplored the division of the Churches -and longed to restore union. Gregory was dead before this extraordinary -epistle arrived at Rome, but Urban VIII., the new Pope, lifted up his -hands in joyful astonishment on reading it, and "gave thanks to the -Father of Mercies, that on the very entrance of his reign a British -prince performed this kind of obeisance to the Pope of Rome." Having -apparently so favourable a subject to operate upon, Olivarez now told -Charles that the treaty entered into through the Earl of Bristol had -been rather for show than use, and that now, as the prince and his able -adviser were there themselves, they should make a real and effective -compact. Accordingly, in spite of the strenuous remonstrances of the two -British ambassadors against re-opening the question already settled, -Charles and Buckingham permitted it; and the Spanish minister found -little difficulty in introducing several new and more favourable clauses. -There was, in fact, a public and a private treaty agreed to. By the -public one the marriage was to be celebrated in Spain and afterwards in -England; the children were to remain in the care of their mother till ten -years of age; the Infanta, was to have an open church and chapel for the -free exercise of her religion, and her chaplains were to be Spaniards -under the control of their own bishops. By the private treaty it was -engaged that the penal laws against Catholics should be suspended; that -Catholic worship should be freely performed in private houses; that no -attempts should be made to entice the princess to abandon her hereditary -faith; and that the king should swear to obtain the repeal of the penal -Statutes by Parliament. - -When this treaty was sent home, James was struck with consternation. He -had pledged himself to Charles and Buckingham not to communicate any of -their proceedings to the Council; but the present responsibility was -overwhelming and he therefore opened his difficulty to the Council. After -making what the Secretary of the Council calls "a most sad, fatherly, -kind, wise, pious, manly, stout speech as ever was heard," the lords of -the Council came to the conclusion, though reluctantly and with fear, -that the prince's honour must be maintained and the oath to keep the -treaty taken. This, however, was only the public treaty; James kept the -private one to himself and swore to it separately. - -Having got the English Court, as they supposed, thus secured, both the -Pope and the Spaniard raised their heads still higher and showed that -they meant to exact the utmost possible concession. In Spain the Papal -dispensation for the marriage was already in the hands of the nuncio, -but he refused to deliver it till the King of England, according to his -oath, had obtained the repeal of the penal Statutes by Parliament; while -in England James refused to go a step farther till the marriage was -celebrated and the first instalment of the dower paid. When the king's -resolve was known, it was conceded that the marriage should at once take -place, but that the princess and the dower should remain in Spain till -the stipulated indulgence to the English Catholics was obtained from -Parliament. James refused this, and sent word that the marriage must -be celebrated and the prince bring home his bride, or come without the -wedding: this brought the Spaniards down a little. The ambassadors in -London assured James that a royal proclamation would satisfy them, but he -replied that a proclamation without the added sanction of Parliament was -no law; that, however, he would issue an order for Catholic indulgence -under the Great Seal. This they were obliged to be satisfied with; but -when it came, to the Lord Keeper Williams, he refused to put the Great -Seal to it, as a most dangerous act, without precedent. - -As there was no prospect of a speedy settlement, Charles, who had -probably grown tired of a princess surrounded by such a hedge of -difficulties and delays, desired his father to send him an order for his -recall. It would appear as if the prince had planned the mode of his -retreat, for the preparations for the marriage of the Infanta proceeded, -on the understanding that she was to continue in Spain till spring. -James was apparently occupied in preparing grand wedding presents for -the bride, and a small fleet to bring her home. This, if carried out, -must have been very onerous to him; for he had already made doleful -representations to Charles and Buckingham, of the exhaustion of his -treasury by his remittance of five thousand pounds, and three thousand -pounds for their "tilting stuff," &c. At Madrid the marriage articles -were signed and confirmed by oath, the Infanta assumed the title of -Princess of England, and had a Court formed of corresponding importance. - -Never was the marriage so far off. Charles and Buckingham had resolved -to steal away and abandon the whole affair. They felt that they were -regularly entrapped through their folly; and other causes rendered a -speedy exit necessary. Buckingham--vain, empty, and sensual--had given -way without caution or control to his licentiousness and love of parade. -To make him more fitting for the companion of his son, James had raised -him to the rank of duke since his departure. His extravagance, his -amours, his haughty bearing, and unceremonious treatment of both his own -prince and the grandees of Spain, astonished all Madrid. He introduced -the very worst people, men and women, into the palace, and would sit -with his hat on when the prince himself was uncovered. His behaviour -in the presence of the King of Spain was just as irreverent, and the -minister Olivarez was so incensed at his insolence that he detested him. -He had the soul of an upstart lackey under the title of a duke, and was -never easy unless he could outshine all the grandees at the Spanish -Court. He was perpetually importuning the king to supply orders, jewels, -and money. Georges and garters were sent over in numbers to confer on -different courtiers, and the constant cry of Buckingham's letters was -"Jewels, jewels, jewels." He represented how rich the Spaniards were in -jewels, and how poor those looked which they themselves already had. He -described the prince as quite mean in his appearance, compared with -the Spanish splendour. "Sir, he hath neither chain nor hatband, and I -beseech you consider first how rich they are in jewels here; then in -what a poor equipage he came in; how he hath no other means to appear -like a king's son; how they are usefullest at such a time as this, when -you may do yourself, your son, and the nation honour; and lastly, how it -will neither cost nor hazard you anything. These reasons, I hope, since -you have already ventured your chiefest jewel, your son, will serve -to persuade you to let loose these more after him:--first, your best -hatband, the Portugal diamond, the rest of the pendent diamonds to make -up a necklace to give his mistress, and the best rope of pearl, with -a rich chain or two for himself to wear, or else your dog must want a -collar, which is the ready way to put him into it. There are many other -jewels, which are of so mean quality as deserve not that name, but will -save much in your purse, and serve very well for presents." - -The prince quite aware that he had entangled himself in engagements that -he could only keep at the risk of his father's crown, and Buckingham -equally aware of the hatred which he had excited in a proud and vengeful -nation, the two agreed to put the most honest possible face on the -matter, and get away. Charles, therefore, presented his father's order -for their return, and pledging himself to fulfil the marriage according -to the articles; nay, appearing most eager for its accomplishment before -Christmas, they were permitted to take their leave, loaded with valuable -presents. The king gave the prince a set of fine Barbary horses, a number -of the finest pictures by Titian and Correggio, a diamond-hilted sword -and dagger, and various other arms of the richest fashion and ornament. -The queen gave him a great many bags of amber, dressed kid-skins, and -other articles; and Olivarez also presented him with a number of fine -Italian pictures and costly articles of furniture. In return, Charles -gave the king diamond-studded hilts for a sword and dagger, to the -queen a pair of rich earrings, and to the Infanta the string of pearls -recommended by Buckingham, to which was attached a diamond anchor, as an -_emblem of his constancy_. He affected the utmost distress at leaving his -bride even for a short time only, and the princess ordered a Mass for his -safe journey home. - -Never did appearances look more real, never were they more hollow. The -Spaniards had endeavoured by every act, into which the sacred name of -religion had been dragged, to make the most of their advantage in the -presence of the prince, and to extort terms beyond the original contract; -they were, therefore, properly punished. But nothing could justify -the deep and deliberate falsehood, and repeated perjury of a young -Protestant prince, whose conduct stamped a deep stain on his country and -on Protestantism itself. The Protestants had long and loudly denounced -the jesuitry of the Catholics, and asserted that no faith could be put in -their most solemn engagements. Here, however, was a voluntary surrender -of the pure and lofty morality of Protestantism, a willing abasement of -its honour to the level of the worst Catholic duplicity. We shall see -that the whole of Charles's conduct was lamentably in keeping with this -unprincipled beginning. - -[Illustration: PRINCE CHARLES'S FAREWELL OF THE INFANTA. (_See p._ 496.)] - -Buckingham was impatient to be in England, from news which he had -received that certain courtiers were busily at work in endeavouring -to undermine his credit with the king. Behind him he left nothing but -detestation, which Olivarez, the chief minister, took no pains to -conceal. When the prince and he set out they were attended by the king -himself, and a brilliant assemblage of the nobles, who added to the -prince's presents a number of fine Andalusian horses and mules. They -halted for several days at the Escurial, where they were splendidly -entertained, and then the king rode on with them as far as Campillo. The -parting of the affianced brothers-in-law was of the most affectionate -kind, and the king ordered a column to be erected on the spot, as a -lasting monument of it. So Charles rode on, attended by several nobles -and entertained most honourably at their castles. He visited the cell -of a celebrated nun at Carrion, who was held to be a saint, and to whom -Donna Maria had given him a letter. - -Arrived at the port where the English fleet was waiting for him, he -no sooner stepped on board than he laughed at the credulity of the -Spaniards, called them fools, and wondered at his easy escape from them. -They landed at Portsmouth on the 5th of October, and there and all the -way to and through London their reception was one piece of exultation at -the safe return of the prince from the clutches of the dreaded Spaniards. -The country resounded with the ringing of bells, the firing of cannon, -the whizzing of fireworks, and the shouts of the people. The clergy, -without waiting for royal orders, put up thanksgiving in the churches for -the prince's happy arrival. - -Meanwhile, the prince's perfidy was awaking the Spaniards from a trance -of astonishment to a tempest of rage. From Segovia, he had sent back -Clerk, a creature of Buckingham's, to the Earl of Bristol. Calculating -that the Papal dispensation would by that time have arrived, Clerk was to -hand to Bristol an order from the prince not to present the proxies left -in his hands--which were to be given up immediately after the delivery -of the dispensation--till he received further orders from home. The -reason alleged by Charles was that he feared on the marriage by proxy -the Infanta would retire into a convent. The idea was so absurd that -Bristol saw at once that it was a mere pretence to break off the match. -As his honour as well as the honour of the nation was implicated, he at -once hastened to the king and laid the doubts of the prince before him. -The astonishment of the king may be conceived. He had fixed the 29th -of November for the espousals, the 29th of December for the marriage: -orders for public rejoicings were already issued, a platform covered -with tapestry was erected from the palace to the church, and the -nobility had been summoned to attend. He gave Bristol every assurance -that the princess should be delivered to the English without delay, and -Bristol despatched these assurances in all haste to James. Meanwhile, -the Countess Olivarez communicated privately to the Infanta the prince's -message, at which she laughed heartily, saying that she never, in all her -life, had a mind to be a nun, and thought she should hardly turn one now -merely to avoid the Prince of Wales. - -Only four days before the one appointed for the espousals, three couriers -on the heels of each other arrived from England, bearing from James the -message that he was perfectly willing for the marriage to proceed, on -condition that the King of Spain pledged himself, under his own hand, to -take up arms for the restoration of the Palatine and to fix the day for -hostilities to commence. At an early period of the negotiation, Philip -had declared that on the completion of the agreement for the marriage, he -would give James a _carte blanche_ regarding the affairs of the Elector -Palatine, and whatever terms James required, he pledged himself to accede -to. Now he repeated that although he could not in honour proclaim war -against his nephew the Emperor--being engaged as mediator between him -and the Palsgrave, at the instance of James--yet he would pledge himself -in writing never to cease, by intercession or by warfare, till he had -restored the Palatine to his hereditary dominion. Bristol and his fellow -ambassador thought this assurance amply satisfactory; they sent off -a messenger in hot haste, bearing their assurances that all possible -difficulty was removed; and they went on putting their households into -velvet and silver lace, to do honour to the marriage ceremony, as if -it were really to take place. Bristol wrote more earnestly to the -king, reminding him that the honour of king, prince, and ambassadors -was most solemnly pledged; that the matters of the Palsgrave had been -treated of separately, and that his majesty had always represented to -Bristol himself that he regarded the marriage as a certain pledge of the -Palatine's restoration. He added that the prince and my lord duke had -also acted entirely on that opinion during their stay there. Charles and -Buckingham, in fact, seem to have taken very little trouble about the -ex-King and Queen of Bohemia. - -But all was in vain; the prince had determined not to complete the -marriage. It was believed that the view which he had had of the Princess -Henrietta at Paris had, even before his reaching Spain, changed his -intentions; and a courier brought from James an order for Bristol not to -deliver the proxy till Christmas, "because that holy and joyful time was -best fitting so notable and blessed an action as the marriage." When we -add that the proxy was well known to the king and prince to expire before -Christmas, we can duly estimate this awful language of hypocrisy. The -King of Spain saw at once that he had been imposed upon; he gave instant -orders to stop the preparations for the marriage, for the Infanta to drop -the title of Princess of England, which she is said to have done with -tears, and to return to her usual state. The fury of indignation against -the English in Spain may readily be conceived. - -The Earl of Bristol had acted too much the part of a faithful and -honourable servant of the Crown to escape the censure of such a Court, -and the vengeance of such a man as Buckingham. He had not hesitated, in -spite of the remonstrances of the prince, to represent to James, during -their sojourn in Madrid, the disgraceful conduct of that despicable -libertine. James had the folly or the wickedness to show to the favourite -these letters, and Bristol received his recall. The ambassador wrote to -James requesting a remittance sufficient to bear him home, having pledged -all his lady's jewels, and incurred a debt of fifty thousand crowns for -Prince Charles, so that he had not funds even for his journey. - -It does not appear that James or Charles took any notice of this most -reasonable appeal; but Philip not only exonerated Bristol from any -share in the disgraceful proceedings, but warned him of the danger -which threatened him at home, and offered to make him one of the most -distinguished men of his own realm, if he would take up his abode in -Spain. Bristol, however, declined the noble offer, saying that he would -rather lose his head in England, conscious as he was of innocence, than -live a duke or Infantado in Spain with the imputation of treason, which -was sure in such a case to be cast on him. Though he was ordered to -quit Spain without delay, he was instructed to travel slowly, and on -his landing he was commanded to retire to his house in the country, and -consider himself a prisoner. The malicious Buckingham did his best to -have him committed to the Tower, but the Duke of Richmond and the Earl of -Pembroke opposed this injustice with effect. - -James had got his baby Charles and his dog Steenie home again, but he -soon found that they had involved him in troubles and debts, which very -much abated the pleasure of their company. They had brought home neither -wife nor her much desired money; on the contrary, they had spent his -last shilling, increased his debts, thrown away the greater part of his -jewels, had left the cause of his daughter and son-in-law in a worse -position than before, and now were vehement to engage him in a war with -Spain. Under the gloomy oppression of these embarrassments, he lost even -his appetite for hunting and hawking, shut himself up alone at Newmarket, -and wrote to the Palatine, recommending him to make his submission to -the Emperor; to offer his eldest son, who was to be educated in England, -to him for his daughter; to accept the administration of his hereditary -territory, and to allow the Duke of Bavaria the title of Elector for -life. Under the advice of Charles and Buckingham the Palsgrave positively -declined any such arrangement. - -The only resource now was to call a Parliament, but this was a step -which had rarely brought him satisfaction. Before doing this he took -the opinion of the Privy Council during the Christmas holidays on -these points:--Whether the King of Spain had acted sincerely in the -negotiations for the marriage? and whether he had given sufficient -provocation to call for war? The Council unanimously supported the idea -of the King of Spain's sincere dealing, and a majority declared that -there was no just cause for war. - -This result, so hostile to the wishes of Buckingham, filled him with -chagrin, and his wrath fell with especial weight on Williams the Lord -Keeper, and Cranfield the Treasurer. These men had been his most servile -creatures; they were, in fact, altogether his creatures; but during his -absence they had seen such evidence of displeasure in the king towards -him, that they imagined his power was about at an end and they were -emboldened to oppose him. But his fierce displeasure and the symptoms of -even growing popularity which showed themselves round him, terrified them -and they made the most humble submission. - -On the 2nd of February, 1624, Williams wrote a most abject letter to -Buckingham, begging him to forgive his past conduct, "to receive his -soul in gage and pawn:" they were reconciled. People who before hated -Buckingham now looked upon him as a patriot, for having broken off the -Papist match, and for seeking to punish Spain by war. The heads of the -Opposition in the House of Commons, the Earl of Southampton, the Lord -Say and Sele, and others came over to him; and through Preston, a Puritan -minister and chaplain to the prince, he was brought in favour with many -other members of the country party. Buckingham and Charles assured James -that the demand of war with Spain was the only cry for him, as nothing -would so readily draw money from the Commons. Accordingly, though -trembling and reluctant, James summoned Parliament, which met on the 19th -of February. - -[Illustration: THE ROYAL PALACE, MADRID. (_From a photograph by Frith, -Reigate._)] - -He opened it in much humbler tones than ever before. He expressed a great -desire to manifest his love for his people. He then informed them that he -had long been engaged in treaties with different countries for the public -good, and had actually sent his son and the man whom he most trusted to -Spain, and all that had passed there should be laid before them; and he -asked them to judge him charitably, and to give him their advice on the -whole matter. One thing he begged to assure them of, that in everything, -public and private, he had always made a reservation for the cause of -religion; and though he had occasionally relaxed the penal statutes -against Catholics a little, yet as to suspending or altering any of them, -"I never," he exclaimed, "promised or yielded; I never thought it with my -heart or spoke it with my mouth!" And this notwithstanding that on the -20th of July previous, he had sworn in the Spanish treaty to procure the -abolition of all those laws from Parliament; a fact notorious not only to -Charles, Buckingham, and Bristol, but to all the Lords of the Council, -and the Spanish ambassadors still in London. He concluded by begging them -to remember that time was precious, and to avoid all impertinent and -irritating inquiries. - -On the 24th of February, a conference of both Houses was held at -Whitehall, at which Buckingham went into the detail of the journey of -the prince and himself to Spain. Bristol was prohibited from attending -Parliament, and the duke gave his own version of the affair. According -to him--for he produced only such despatches as had been in a private -conference with the Lord Keeper Williams deemed safe; "his highness -wishing," says Williams, "to draw on a breach with Spain without ripping -up of private despatches"--the Spaniards behaved in a most treacherous -manner. He asserted that after long years of negotiation the king could -bring the court of Spain to nothing; that the Earl of Bristol had merely -got from them professions and declarations; that though the prince -had gone himself to test their sincerity, he had met with nothing but -falsehood and deceit; and that as to the restitution of the Palatinate, -he had found it hopeless from that quarter. - -Perhaps no minister bronzed in impudence by years of crooked dealing ever -presented such a tissue of base and arrant fictions to the Commons of -England. The despatches, had they been produced, would have covered the -king, the prince, and the favourite, with confusion. Bristol could have -proved, had he been allowed, that he had actually completed the treaty -when the prince and Buckingham came and put an end to it. So indignant -were the Spanish ambassadors at this shameful misrepresentation of the -real facts, that they protested vehemently against the whole of the -statement, and declared that had any nobleman in Spain spoken thus of the -King of England, he should have paid with his head for the slander. - -Buckingham was not only defended but applauded. The prince during the -whole time stood at his elbow, and aided his memory or his ingenuity. -Coke declared that Buckingham was the saviour of his country; and out of -doors the people kindled bonfires in his honour, sung songs to his glory, -and insulted the Spanish ambassadors. The two Houses, in an address to -the Throne, declared that neither the treaty with Spain for the marriage, -nor that for the restitution of the Palatinate, could be continued with -honour or safety. - -Of all things James dreaded war: he complained of his poverty, his debts, -of his desire of quietness at his years; but he had not the resolution -to resist the importunities of Buckingham and the prince, backed by a -strong cry from the deluded people, especially as he saw no other mode -of obtaining the money so necessary to him. In addressing Parliament, -he stated candidly the many reasons against the war; the emptiness of -his exchequer and the impoverished condition of his allies; that Ireland -would demand large sums, and the repairs of the navy more; and then he -put to them these questions--whether he could with honour engage in a war -which concerned his own family exclusively? and whether the means would -be found for prosecuting it vigorously? - -A deputation from both Houses answered these queries by calling for war, -and offering to support him in it with their persons and fortunes. This -address was read by Abbot, the Archbishop of Canterbury, who but six -months before had most reluctantly sworn to the Spanish treaty. This was, -indeed, a triumph to the archbishop, but did not make the singularity the -less of putting an address for war into the hands of a clergyman; and -one, moreover, who had so lately fallen into great difficulty on account -of his own accidental shedding of blood. When the archbishop came to the -passage where James was congratulated on "his having become sensible of -the insincerity of the Spaniards--" "Hold!" exclaimed the king; "you -insinuate what I have never spoken. Give me leave to tell you that I have -not expressed myself to be either sensible or insensible of their good -or bad dealing. Buckingham hath made you a relation on which you are to -judge, but I never yet declared my mind upon it." - -James, indeed, knew very well to the contrary; the Spaniards had been too -grasping, and had thus overshot themselves, but they meant to complete -the marriage; and it was a most unjustifiable thing in James to go to -war with them on the ground of their insincerity, if he did not believe -in its existence. But James was desirous that as Buckingham had so -strenuously called for war to avenge his own petty, private piques, he -should bear the blame of it. - -James told them plainly that if he went to war he should demand ample -advances, and when five days afterwards the question of supplies came -on, he demanded seven hundred thousand pounds to commence the war with, -and an annual sum of one hundred and fifty thousand pounds towards the -liquidation of his debts. The amount startled the Commons, in spite -of their magniloquent offer to support him with life and fortune; but -Buckingham and the prince, who were as mad for war as they had before -been for their foolish adventure, let the Commons know that a much less -sum would be accepted, and they voted three hundred thousand pounds -for the year, which the king consented should be put into the hands -of the treasurers appointed by the House, who were to pay money only -on a warrant from the Council of War. James also agreed that he would -not end the war without their consent. The vote was accompanied by -another address, vindicating Buckingham from the censures of the Spanish -ambassadors, and then the king issued a proclamation announcing that both -the treaties with Spain were at an end. - -Thus was James, after twenty years of peace, except in the character of -an ally of his son-in-law, launched into a war. The Spaniards ridiculed -the idea; for on the authority of Gondomar, they had conceived not only a -very contemptible idea of James, but that the kingdom was poor, torn with -religious factions, and feeble from the timid and vacillating character -of the king. Only one peer, the Earl of Rutland, had the good sense to -oppose the vote for the war. - -The restraint of the desire to please Spain during the negotiations for -the marriage being removed, the Houses of Parliament indulged their old -hatred of the Catholics by uniting in a petition to the king to renew -their persecution. James again protested that he never intended to -abolish those laws, and would never consent to the insertion of a clause -in any treaty whatever, binding him to an indulgence of Catholics. And -Charles also bound himself by an oath, that "whenever it should please -God to bestow upon him any lady that were Popish, she should have no -further liberty but for her own family, and no advantage to any recusants -at home." - -Accordingly a proclamation was issued, ordering all missionaries to -quit the kingdom by a certain day under penalty of death; judges and -magistrates were ordered to enforce the laws as aforetime; the Lord Mayor -was enjoined to arrest all persons coming from Mass in the houses of the -ambassadors, and the bishops were called upon to advise the king how the -children of the Papists might be brought up Protestants. The Commons -called on every member to name all Catholics holding office in his town -or county, and prepared a list of them, which they sent to the Lords; -but the Lords declared that before they could unite in a prayer for the -dismissal of any one, they must have evidence of his guilt; and thus the -vindictive scheme fell to the ground. - -The Commons, checked in this quarter, turned their attention to their -more legitimate prosecution of jobbers and holders of injurious patents. -They presented a list of eleven such grievances to the king, who replied -that he had his grievances too: they had encroached on his prerogatives; -they had condemned patents of unquestionable usefulness; and had been -guided in their quest after them by lawyers, who, he would say it to -their faces, were in the whole kingdom the greatest grievances of all; -for where a suit was of no benefit to either litigant, they made it so -to themselves. But this did not prevent them from flying at high game. -Buckingham had never forgiven Cranfield, Earl of Middlesex and Lord -Treasurer, for turning against him in his absence; and the Opposition -party, with whom the duke was now connected, took the lead in prosecuting -him on a charge of bribery, oppression, and neglect of duty. James was -indignant at this attack, but had not resolution enough to ward it off; -though he told Buckingham that he was a fool, and making a rod for his -own breech, and Charles that he would live to have his bellyful of -impeachments. Cranfield was condemned to a fine of fifty thousand pounds, -to be imprisoned during his majesty's pleasure, and for ever excluded -from office, from Parliament, and the verge of the Court. Williams, the -Lord Keeper, had also a narrow escape. Notwithstanding his cringing at -the feet of Buckingham, the favourite had by no means forgiven him; -petitions against him were presented to the Committee of Inquiry, but he -again sued humbly to Buckingham, and having had the opportunity during -the Session of doing him a service, the duke let him off with the proud -remark, "I shall not seek your ruin, but I shall cease to study your -fortune." - -Buckingham and Charles now persuaded the king to change his foreign -policy. They sent envoys all over Europe to engage the different powers -by any argument and by rich presents to co-operate in the war against -Spain and Austria for the restitution of the Palatinate. To Sweden, -Denmark, and the Protestant States of Germany, they urged the necessity -of reducing the power of the Catholic princes on the Continent. Promises -of liberal subsidies were added, and the concurrence of these States -was pledged. It was a more difficult matter to influence the Catholic -countries of France, Venice, and Savoy to a war which was actually aimed -at the existence of their own religion. But the ancient enmity of these -States against Austria prevailed over their religious scruples, and they -undertook to assist indirectly, by making a show of hostilities against -Spain, so as to prevent her from giving effectual aid to Austria, and by -allowing soldiers to be raised within their territories, as well as by -furnishing money. - -With Holland they had effected a league, and undertaken to send troops to -resist the invasion of Spain and Austria, when the news of a frightful -tragedy, perpetrated by the Dutch in the East, upon the English there, -arrived in England. This was what has become so well known in history as -the massacre of Amboyna. - -Since the Dutch had enjoyed their long truce with Spain, they had been -zealously colonising and trading to the East. Besides Batavia, they laid -claim to all the Spice Islands in the Indian Archipelago, from which -they had expelled the Portuguese. On one of these islands, Amboyna, the -English East India Company had, in 1612, established a small settlement, -to trade with the natives for cloves. The Dutch compelled them to retire, -but in consequence of a treaty in 1619, the English had returned thither, -and established a settlement at Cambello. In the whole population there -were only about twenty English and about thirty Japanese, whilst there -were two hundred Dutch soldiers besides other Dutchmen in the Civil -Service. Yet on pretence of a conspiracy between the English and Japanese -to surprise the garrison and expel the Dutch, in 1623 the latter seized -Captain Towerson and nine other Englishmen, nine Japanese, and one -Portuguese, and after torturing them into a confession, cut off their -heads. - -The horror with which the news of this atrocious deed was received, -threatened to ruin Buckingham's plans. But the English minister made a -strong complaint on the subject; the States made humble apologies and -promises of ample redress, and thus it was contrived for the moment to -smooth over the difficulty. It was the more readily done because the -unpopular Spaniards had already laid siege to Breda; and six thousand -troops were despatched from England to enable Prince Maurice of Orange -to cope with the able Spanish general Spinola. Spinola carried Breda in -defiance of the Dutch and English; and the Prince of Orange, hearing that -Antwerp had been left without a sufficient garrison, marched thither to -surprise it but with equally ill success. To obtain fresh men and money, -Count Mansfeldt, the Palatine's old auxiliary general, came over to -England in the autumn. He was promised twenty thousand pounds a month, -and twelve thousand Englishmen were pressed into his service. With these -he set sail, to reach as soon as possible his army of French and German -mercenaries on the borders of the Palatinate. But the French, who had -agreed to allow this force to pass through their territory, refused, on -account of their disorderly character; for they were the scum of their -own country, and several, on their march through it, had been hanged for -their outrages. Mansfeldt conducted them to the island of Zealand, but -there also the authorities were averse from their landing; and while -remaining cooped up in small miserable transports, in bad weather, and on -a swampy shore, they began to perish of fever. Five thousand of them had -died before they reached the borders of the Palatinate, and the united -force was still too feeble to accomplish anything. Maurice of Orange, -meanwhile, having done nothing at Antwerp, retired into winter quarters, -and soon after died at the Hague; whereupon the Earl of Southampton and -other English officers returned home. Such was the miserable result of -the campaign into which James had been hurried by the folly of Charles -and Buckingham. - -The melancholy thoughts of James were diverted from dwelling on these -wretched affairs by the prospect of the marriage of Charles and Henrietta -Maria, the youngest sister of the King of France. - -It was a curious fact that at the time of Charles's looking out for a -wife from one of the principal houses of Europe, the prospect of an -English royal marriage was made gloomy by the most awful reflections to -both France and Spain. The last Spanish Queen of England was Catherine of -Aragon, who had found such a tyrant in the sanguinary Henry VIII., and -suffered divorce and severe usage; the last French queen was Margaret -of Anjou, who had been driven from the country after the most heroic -endeavours to maintain her husband on the throne. Besides these sombre -memories, the question presented formidable difficulties from the temper -of the English people regarding Popery. Politically the alliance was -attractive, and this is generally all-sufficient in regal matrimony. -But it was singular that the present marriage with a French princess -was followed by similar and even more fearful results than the former. -Henrietta Maria married Charles only to engage in a similar contest for -the retention of the throne as Margaret of Anjou, and not only to see her -husband deposed but put to death. - -Charles is supposed by many to have been struck by the young Princess -of France at his visit to the French Court on his way to Spain, and to -have gone there prepared to break off the match. It is probable, however, -that the thought of Henrietta came back more strongly upon him after he -found himself disappointed in Donna Maria of Spain; for independently -of the other difficulties already related attending Charles's Spanish -courtship, it is very likely that he was not extremely fascinated by -the Infanta. On the way to Spain, Henrietta, as seen by him, was merely -a girl of little more than fourteen years of age, of short stature, and -visible but for a brief space. The impression which she left could not -be very vivid; but the Queen of France, the elder sister of Donna Maria, -was extremely beautiful and, as Charles himself said in his letters to -his father at the time, had so much struck him as to inspire him "with a -greater desire to see her sister." There can be little doubt that Charles -was disappointed in his expectation, for he was of that romantic turn -that had he been strongly fascinated by the lady, he would have broken -through all difficulties for her sake. But at the Court of Spain he met -with another queen, the sister of Louis of France and of Henrietta, who -not only cast the Infanta into the shade by her beauty and grace, but -actually suggested to Charles the more desirable union with her sister -of France. The rigid etiquette of the Spanish Court prevented much -intercourse between Charles and the queen; she dared not even converse -with him in French without express permission, and one opportunity to -do so having been obtained, she begged him never to speak to her again, -for that it was the custom in Spain to poison all gentlemen who were -very marked in their attentions to the queen. But she seized that one -opportunity to say that "she wished he would marry her sister Henrietta, -which indeed he would be able to do, because his engagement with the -Infanta would be certainly broken." - -[Illustration: THE LADIES OF THE FRENCH COURT AND THE PORTRAIT OF PRINCE -CHARLES. (_See p._ 506.)] - -On the other hand, there was a decided desire in the French Court for -this alliance, despite past experience. Mary de Medici, the queen-mother -of France, had acquired a predominating influence in the government of -her son, Louis XIII., by means of her clever and intriguing almoner -Richelieu, who soon mounted into vast power in the State. She entertained -a strong hope of effecting a marriage for her daughter with the heir -of England, and was no doubt early informed of the probability of the -failure of the Spanish courtship. It was soon conveyed to Charles by -the English ambassador at Paris, that Henrietta had said, "The Prince -of Wales need not have gone so far as Madrid to look for a wife." -This following the suggestion of the Queen of Spain, left no doubt -of the wishes of the Court of France, and the bait seems to have been -soon taken. Buckingham would certainly promote the idea to spite the -Spaniards; and Henry Rich, Lord Kensington, appeared in Paris before -the Spanish match was formally broken off, to open the subject to the -queen-mother. - -[Illustration: HENRIETTA MARIA.] - -Mary de Medici, though extremely anxious for the marriage, played -the part of the politician well under Richelieu, and gave no decided -encouragement to the hints of the English envoy, till he assured her -plainly that the match with Spain was positively broken off. Even -then, she told Lord Kensington that "she could not consider the matter -seriously, as she had received no intimation of such proposal from the -King of England, and that the princess could not make advances; she must -be sought." On this, Kensington spoke out with authority, and received -a favourable answer. It is asserted that a great sensation was excited -at the French Court, and the ladies crowded round Lord Kensington to -have a view of the prince's portrait, which he carried in a locket; and -the locket was soon privately borrowed by the princess and kept for a -good long observation, she expressing her satisfaction with the looks of -her royal lover. Kensington, by his courtly assiduity at Paris and his -letters to Charles, endeavoured to create a strong personal interest in -the prince and princess towards each other. Hay, Earl of Carlisle, one of -James's favourites, a handsome, empty fop, who prided himself on adorning -his person with lace and jewels to the amount of forty thousand pounds, -was sent as a formal ambassador for the marriage negotiation, the real -conductor of it still being Kensington. A miniature portrait of Henrietta -was sent to Charles, who appeared to be enraptured with it. - -So far all went well. But notwithstanding the anxious desire for the -marriage on the part of the French Court, it was not likely that so -crafty a diplomatist as Richelieu would make an easy bargain for the -English. The portion of the princess was settled at eight hundred -thousand crowns. She was pledged to renounce all claims for herself -and her descendants on the crown of France. Then came the question of -religion. James and Charles had lately bound themselves by the most -solemn oaths that a Catholic wife of the prince should have indulgence -in that respect only for her own private worship; and that no toleration -whatever should be extended to the English Catholics on account of such a -marriage. But this was not likely to pass. The Pope Urban, in the first -place, was extremely unfriendly to the match. He expected little good -from a prince who had shown such duplicity in the Spanish courtship; and -he predicted that the alliance, if effected, would be disastrous; being -fully informed by the seminary priests who were in England, secretly -prosecuting the support of Catholicism, of the determined temper of the -people on that score, and assured by them that if the king dared to relax -the penal laws he would not be king long; and if he did not soften their -rigour, the Pope argued, what prospect of happiness could there be for a -Catholic queen? He was, therefore, averse from granting a dispensation. - -Under these circumstances the negotiation appeared for some time at a -stand. On the part of the English people, the opposition was scarcely -perceptible. They saw that they were pretty certain to have a Catholic -queen; the Stuart family did not incline to stoop to the alliance of any -further petty Protestant princes; the experiment of the Palatinate was -not encouraging. The people, therefore, were far more disposed to receive -a daughter of great Henry IV., who had been a Protestant at heart even -when he had yielded the profession of his faith to political necessity, -than a grand-daughter of Philip II., who had rendered his memory so -odious in England and all over the world by bloody persecutions of the -Protestants. On the part of the French, however, the proceedings every -day seemed involved in growing difficulties. - -Richelieu, who, up to the time of the breaking off the Spanish match, was -most compliant, now insisted on the concession to the Catholics of all -the advantages stipulated for by Spain. He declared that it would be an -affront to his sovereign to offer less. James, despite his recent oath, -signed a paper, promising indulgence to the Catholics, which Kensington -and Carlisle assured Richelieu was quite sufficient; but it had no effect -on the astute French minister. "We did sing a song to the deaf," wrote -the ambassadors, "for he would not endure to hear of it." In vain did -they remind him that the French Court had promised that if they gave -toleration to the Catholics, it would send soldiers to the Palatinate, -and unite their interests with those of England entirely. Richelieu -did not deny this, but contended that the security was not sufficient; -they must have an actual treaty. Meanwhile Lord Nithsdale, a Catholic, -was sent post haste to Rome, to make promises of favour to the English -Catholics in order to procure the dispensation. - -At length the French Court agreed to accept the secret agreement of -James, which was to the effect that the English Catholics should enjoy -a greater freedom of religion than had been guaranteed by the Spanish -contract. This was signed by James, Charles, and the Secretary of State, -on the 8th of November, and Louis placed his signature on the 12th to the -treaty of marriage. By this treaty it was provided, not indeed expressly, -as many historians have asserted, that the children of the marriage -should be brought up Roman Catholics till their thirteenth year, and that -they should remain under the queen's care till that age; a stipulation -amounting very much to the same thing; for though Charles chose to -construe the article in his own way, the mother used her opportunity thus -guaranteed to fix the Catholic faith firmly in the hearts of her sons, -as was too well and too disastrously shown in the end. - -If the English Court thought the difficulties all surmounted, they were -vastly mistaken; for the French ministers now expressed themselves as -not satisfied with James's secret engagement. It was, they contended, -too vague, and they called upon him to specify precisely the indulgences -which he intended towards the Catholics. At this proposition Carlisle -expressed his astonishment, and wrote to James in a tone of unequivocal -indignation. He advised the king to make no further concessions; feeling -sure that if he were firm, the French would give way rather than hazard -the failure of the match. But to preach firmness to James was to expect -solidity from a mist. He was alarmed at the obstinacy of the Pope; at -the declaration of Philip of Spain, that he held the marriage contract -with Charles as still valid, from a private agreement between the prince -and himself; and at the strenuous efforts made by Philip to bring the -Court of France to this persuasion. To complete his dismay, the Huguenots -of France, just at this moment, made a rising under the leadership of -Soubise. They demanded a better observance of the edicts in favour of -the Protestants, seized the Isle of Rhe, near La Rochelle, placed it in -a state of defence, sent out a fleet to range the coast, and vowed not -to lay down their arms till their demands were granted. James consented -to add these express stipulations to his secret bond--That all Catholics -imprisoned on account of their religion, since the rising of Parliament, -should be liberated; that all fines levied on recusants since that -period should be repaid; and that for the future they should suffer no -interruption to the free exercise of their religious faith. - -All obstacles on the part of the French Court were now removed, and -the young princess prepared for her journey to England. But the -Pope continued his opposition, still presaging misfortune from the -marriage, and refusing to deliver the dispensation. The patience of the -queen-mother was exhausted; the ministers of France proposed to proceed -on a dispensation from the ecclesiastic authorities in their own realm; -but to this James demurred, lest the validity of the marriage might -hereafter be called in question. At length the Pope was satisfied by -an oath taken by Louis, binding himself and his successors to compel -James and his son, by all the power of France if necessary, to keep -their engagement. The dispensation was delivered by Spada, the Papal -Nuncio; the Duke of Chevreuse, a prince of the House of Guise, and a near -relative of James and Charles, through the Queen of Scots, was appointed -proxy by Charles, and Buckingham was ordered to go over and receive the -bride. But James was destined not to see the completion of the marriage, -after all his trouble through nine years of matrimonial negotiations. - -On the 13th of March, 1625, he returned to Theobalds from the hunt -with an illness upon him, which was regarded as the tertian ague, but -which soon developed itself as gout in the stomach. He had long been -so thoroughly undermined in constitution by his habits of eating and -drinking, that it required no fierce attack of sickness to carry him off. -He had always had a strong repugnance to doctors and physic, but now the -Court physicians were hurried to his bedside. At this moment appeared -the mother of Buckingham with an infallible specific--a plaster and a -posset obtained from an Essex quack. These were pronounced marvellous -in the cure of ague, and though the physicians protested against their -use, they were applied. They did not delay, if they did not accelerate -the catastrophe. On the eleventh day of his illness, James received the -Sacrament. Williams, bishop and Lord Keeper, preached his funeral sermon, -and said that, having told the king "that holy men in holy orders in the -Church of England doe challenge a power as inherent in their functions, -and not in their person, to pronounce and declare remission of sins to -such as being penitent doe call for the same, he had answered suddenly, -'I have ever believed there was that power in you that be in orders in -the Church of England, and therefore I, a miserable sinner, doe humbly -desire Almighty God to absolve me my sinnes, and you, that are His -servant in that high place, to affoard me this heavenly comfort.' And -after the absolution read and pronounced, he received the sacrament -with that zeal and devotion, as if he had not been a fraile man, but a -Christian cloathed with flesh and blood." - -On Sunday, the 27th of March, the fourteenth day of his illness, Charles -was hastily called before daylight to go to him, but before he reached -the chamber the king had lost the power of speech. He appeared extremely -anxious to communicate something to him but could not, and soon after -expired. He was in the fifty-ninth year of his age, and the twenty-third -of his reign. Two only of his seven children, three sons and four -daughters, Charles and the ex-queen of Bohemia, survived him. - - - - -CHAPTER XIX. - -REIGN OF CHARLES I. - - Accession of Charles--His Marriage--Meeting of Parliament--Loan - of Ships to Richelieu--Dissolution of Parliament--Failure of - the Spanish Expedition--Persecution of the Catholics--The - Second Parliament--It appoints three Committees--Impeachment - of Buckingham--Parliament dissolved to save him--Illegal - Government--High Church Doctrines--Rupture with France--Disastrous - Expedition to Rhe--The Third Parliament--The Petition of - Right--Resistance and Final Surrender of Charles--Parliament - Prorogued--Assassination of Buckingham--Fall of La - Rochelle--Parliament Reassembles and is dissolved--Imprisonment - of Offending Members--Government without Parliament--Peace - with France and Spain--Gustavus Adolphus in Germany--Despotic - Proceedings of Charles and Laud. - - -Within a quarter of an hour after the decease of James, Charles was -proclaimed by the Knight-Marshal, Sir Edward Zouch, at the court-gate -at Theobalds. He was in his twenty-fifth year, and so far as the -admission of his title and the substantial prosperity of the kingdom were -concerned, few monarchs have mounted the throne with more favourable -auspices. But though there was entire submission to his right to reign, -and the state of parties was such that no immediate change of executive -was needed, yet there were at work feelings and principles which required -the nicest wisdom to estimate their nature and their force, and the -most able policy to deal with them. The battle between prerogative and -popular rights had to be fought out, and it depended on the capacity of -the monarch to perceive what was capable of modulation, and what was -immovable, whether the result should be success or ruin. Charles was -equally prepared by his father's maxims, his father's practice, and his -habit of favouritism, to convert one of the grandest opportunities in -history into one of the most terrible of its catastrophes. The first -thing which augured ill for him was his continuing in the post of chief -favourite and chief counsellor, the vain, incapable, and licentious -Buckingham. The next matter to which Charles turned his attention was -his marriage with the Princess Henrietta Maria, sister of Louis XIII. -of France, the contract for which was already signed. The third day -after his accession, he ratified the treaty as king which he had signed -as prince. The Pope Urban, as we have stated, seeing that he could not -prevail on the royal family of France to give up the marriage with the -heretic prince of England, at length had, through his nuncio, delivered -the breve of dispensation. - -Louis of France, the queen-mother, the bride, Gaston Duke of Orleans, -and the Duke of Chevreuse, Charles's proxy, signed the document with the -English ambassadors, on the 8th of May, 1625, and the marriage took -place on a platform in front of the ancient cathedral of Notre Dame on -the 11th. The Duke of Buckingham arrived to conduct the young queen to -England, attended by a numerous and splendid retinue of English nobility. -The showy and extravagant upstart appeared at the French Court in a style -which threw even the monarch into the shade. He wore "a rich white satin -uncut velvet suit, set all over, suit and cloak, with diamonds, the value -whereof," say the Hardwicke Papers, "is thought to be worth fourscore -thousand pounds; besides a feather made with great diamonds, with sword, -girdle, hatband, and spurs with diamonds, and he had twenty-seven other -suits, all rich as invention could frame or art fashion." His conduct was -as devoid of modesty as his dress, and threw discredit on the king who -could entrust his honour and his counsels to such a man. - -The king, queen, and queen-mother, accompanied by the whole Court, -set out to conduct the young _fiancee_ to the port where she should -embark for England. The procession was made as gorgeous and imposing as -possible, and at each halting place the Court was amused by a variety of -pageants and entertainments drawn from a past age. One alone of these -deserves remark, being afterwards deemed ominous--a representation of all -the French princesses who had become queens of England. They presented -a group distinguished by their misfortunes, the only one necessary -to complete the number being herself yet a spectator, the girlish -Henrietta, little more than fifteen years of age, who was destined to -exceed them all in calamity. The king was, however, seized with an -illness, which compelled him to discontinue the journey, and at Compiegne -the queen-mother was also taken so ill as to detain the procession a -fortnight at Amiens. There the queen and queen-mother took leave of -Henrietta. Charles, during the delay at Amiens, had been awaiting his -Buckingham. No sooner did that most impudent of libertines reach the -French Court than he had the audacity to fall in love with the Queen -of France, the beautiful Anne of Austria. He lost no opportunity of -pressing his insolent suit on the way in the absence of the king, and -had the presumption to imagine that his daring passion was returned. No -sooner did he reach Boulogne, than pretending that he had received some -despatches of the utmost importance, he hurried back to Amiens, where -the French procession yet remained, and rushing into the bed-chamber of -the queen, threw himself on his knees before her, and, regardless of the -presence of two maids of honour, poured out the infamous protestations of -his polluted passion. The queen repulsed him with an air of deep anger, -and bade him begone in a tone of cutting severity, the reality of which, -however, was doubted by Madame de Motteville, who recorded the occurrence. - -[Illustration: GREAT SEAL OF CHARLES I.] - -The sensation excited by this unparalleled circumstance in the French -Court was intense. The king ordered the arrest of a number of the queen's -attendants, and dismissed several of them. Yet Buckingham, on reaching -England, does not appear to have received any serious censure from his -infatuated master, for this breach of all ambassadorial decency and -etiquette; and in spite of the resentment of the French king and Court, -continued to maintain all the character of a devoted lover of the French -queen. - -On the 23rd of June the report of ordnance wafted over from Boulogne -announced the embarkation; and on Sunday evening the queen landed -at Dover, after a stormy passage. Mr. Tyrwhitt, a gentleman of the -household, rode post haste to Canterbury to inform Charles, who was -at Dover Castle by ten o'clock the next morning to greet his bride. -Henrietta Maria was at breakfast when the king was announced, and -instantly rose, and hastened downstairs to meet him. On seeing him, -she attempted to kneel and kiss his hand, but he prevented her, by -folding her in his arms and kissing her. She had studied a little set -speech to address him with, but could only get out so much of it as, -"_Sire, je suis venue en ce pays de votre majeste, pour etre commandee -de vous_"--"Sire, I am come into your majesty's country to be at your -command"--but at that point she burst into tears. - -Charles was delighted with the beauty and vivacity of the young queen. -They set out for Canterbury, and on their way thither were met on Barham -Downs by the English nobility; pavilions being pitched there for the -purpose of the refreshment of the royal pair, and the introduction of the -queen to her court. After the wedding, at which the celebrated English -composer, Orlando Gibbons, performed on the organ, the royal cavalcade -took its way to Gravesend, and thence ascended the Thames, so as to avoid -the city, in which the plague was then raging. - -On the 28th of June, the day after the arrival of the queen in London, -Charles met his first Parliament. The king had not yet been crowned, -but he appeared on the throne with his crown on his head. He ordered -one of the bishops to read prayers before proceeding to business, and -this was done so adroitly, that the Catholic members were compelled to -remain during the heretical service. They betrayed great uneasiness, some -kneeling, some standing upright, and one unhappy individual continuing to -cross himself the whole time. - -Charles was not an eloquent speaker, and, moreover, was afflicted with -stammering; but he plunged boldly into a statement which it was very -easy for the two Houses to understand. He informed them that his father -had left debts to the amount of seven hundred thousand pounds; that the -money voted for the war against Spain and Austria was expended, and -he therefore called upon them for liberal supplies. He declared his -resolution to prosecute the wars which they had so loudly called for with -vigour, but it was for them to furnish the means. - -As he was beginning his reign, and had not plunged himself into -very heavy debt, or preached up, like his father, the claims of the -prerogative, he had a right to expect a more generous treatment than -James. But, notwithstanding the _eclat_ of a new reign, and the usual -desire on such occasions to stand well with the throne, the Commons -displayed no enthusiasm in voting their money. There were many causes, -even under a new king, to produce this coolness. Charles had won their -popularity by abandoning the Spanish match, but he had now neutralised -that merit by taking a Catholic queen from France. To please the -Commons and the public generally, he should have selected a wife from -one of the Protestant houses of Germany or the Netherlands; but for -this he had displayed no desire. In the second place, he had retained -the hated Buckingham in all his former eminence, both as a minister of -the Crown, and as his own associate. Besides, they had no faith in his -abilities, either as a commander or a statesman, and beheld with disgust -his reckless extravagance and the unconcealed infamy of his life at -home. No talent whatever had been shown in the war in Germany for the -restoration of the Palatinate; and, therefore, the Commons, instead of -voting money to defray the late king's debts and to carry on the war -efficiently, restricted their advances to two subsidies, amounting to -about one hundred and forty thousand pounds, and to the grant of tonnage -and poundage, not for life as aforetime, but merely for the space of one -year. - -But still more apprehensive were they on the subject of religion. -The breach with Spain had naturally removed any delicacy on the part -of the Spaniards to conceal the treacherous concessions, in perfect -contradiction to the public professions of both the late and the present -king, which had been made on that head. It was now freely whispered -that the like had been made to France, and the sight of the crowd of -priests and Catholic courtiers who had flocked over with the queen, and -the performance of the Mass in the king's own house, led the zealous -Reformers to believe that there was a tacit intention on the part of the -king to restore the Catholic religion. - -What rendered the Commons more sensitive on this point were the writings -of Dr. Montague, one of the king's chaplains and editor of his father's -works. In a controversy with a Catholic missionary, he had disowned -the Calvinistic doctrines of the Puritans with which his church was -charged, and declared for the Arminian tenets of which Laud was the great -champion. This gave much offence; he was accused of being a concealed -Papist, and two Puritan ministers, Yates and Ward, prepared a charge -against him and laid it before Parliament. Montague denied that he was -amenable to Parliament and "appealed unto Caesar." Charles informed the -Commons that the cognisance of his chaplains belonged to him, and not -to them. But they asserted their right to deal with all such cases, and -summoned him to appear at the bar of the House, where they bound him in -a bond of two thousand pounds to appear when called for. - -Charles endeavoured to direct their attention to the state of the -finances, showing them the inadequacy of their votes, the fitting out of -the navy amounting alone to three hundred thousand pounds. He was beyond -all indignant at the grant of tonnage and poundage for only one year, -seeing that his predecessors from the time of Henry VI. had enjoyed it -for life; and the Lords threw out that part of the vote for this reason, -so that he had no Parliamentary right to collect it at all. To make -matters worse, instead of attending to the pleading of Lord Conway, the -Chief Secretary, for further grants, they presented to the king, after -listening to four sermons one day and taking the Sacrament the next, -a "pious petition" praying him--as he valued the maintenance of true -religion and would discourage superstition and idolatry--to put in force -the penal Statutes against Catholics. - -To this demand Charles could only return an evasive answer. He had -recently bound himself by the most solemn oaths to do nothing of the -kind; and under the sanction of the marriage treaty with France, the -Mass was every day celebrated under his own roof, and his palace and its -immediate vicinity swarmed with Catholics and their priests. Nay, he had, -just before summoning Parliament, been called on by France to send a -fleet in virtue of this treaty to assist in putting down the Huguenots. -Soubise, the General of the Huguenots, still retained possession of La -Rochelle and the island of Rhe, and their fleet scoured the coasts in -such force that the French fleet dared not attempt to cope with it. -Richelieu, therefore, requested Charles to give Louis assistance. Charles -delayed until he received news, which proved to be premature, that peace -had been concluded with the Huguenots. Thereupon he concluded that the -ships might be sent without danger. Accordingly, though the affairs of -the English fleet had been wofully misconducted ever since Buckingham had -been Lord Admiral, he mustered seven merchant vessels, and sent them with -the _Vanguard_, the only ship of the line that was fit for sea, under the -command of Admiral Pennington, to La Rochelle. The destination of the -fleet was declared to be Genoa, but on reaching Dieppe, the officers and -crew were astonished to receive orders to take on board French soldiers -and sailors, and proceed to La Rochelle to fight against the Protestants. -They refused to a man, and notwithstanding the imperative commands of the -Duke of Montmorency the Lord Admiral of France, they compelled their own -admiral to put back to the Downs. - -On this ignominious return, Pennington requested to be permitted -to decline this service, and his desire was much favoured by the -remonstrances of the Huguenots, who sent over an envoy, entreating -the king not to give such a triumph to Popery as to fight against the -Protestants. Charles, with that fatal duplicity which he had learned so -early under his father, sent fair words to Soubise, the Duke of Rohan, -and the other leaders of the Huguenots; but Buckingham, by speaking -out more plainly, exposed the hollowness of his master. He assured the -navy that they were bound by treaty, and fight they must for the king -of France. Both officers and owners of the ships declared that as they -were chartered for the service of the king of England, they should not -be handed over to the French without an order from the king himself. -Thereupon Buckingham hastened down to Rochester, accompanied by the -French ambassador, who offered to charter the vessels for his Government. -Men, owners, and officers, refused positively any such service. - -Disappointed by this display of true English spirit, Charles ordered -Secretary Conway to write to Vice-Admiral Pennington in his name, -commanding him that he should proceed to Dieppe and take on board as -many men as the French Government desired, for which this letter was -his warrant. At the same time Pennington received an autographic letter -from Charles, commanding him to make over the _Vanguard_ to the French -admiral at Dieppe, and to order the commanders of the seven merchant -ships to do the same, and in case of refusal to compel them by force. All -this appears to have been imposed on Pennington as a matter of strict -secrecy; and that officer had not the virtue to refuse so degrading a -service. The fleet again sailed to Dieppe: the men must have more than -suspected the object; and when Pennington made over the _Vanguard_, -and delivered the royal order to the captains of the seven merchant -vessels, they declined to obey, and weighed anchor to return home. On -this Pennington, who proved himself the fitting tool of such a king, -fired into them, and overawed all of them except Sir Ferdinand Gore, in -the _Neptune_, who kept on his way, disdaining to disgrace himself by -such a deed. The French were taken on board and conveyed to La Rochelle. -But that was all that was accomplished; for the English seamen instantly -deserted on reaching land, and many of them hastened to join the ranks of -the Huguenots, the rest returning home overflowing with indignation and -spreading everywhere the disgrace of the royal conduct. - -In the whole of this transaction the headstrong fatality of Charles was -conspicuous, and foreboded the miseries that were to follow. In the midst -of the public excitement from this cause, the Parliament met at Oxford -on the 1st of August. The result was as might have been expected. On -the king demanding the restoration of the vote of tonnage and poundage, -negatived by the Lords, or that other subsidies should be granted in lieu -of it, the Commons refused both. In reply to the king's inquiry how the -war was to be carried on, they replied that they must first be satisfied -against whom the war was really to be directed. They complained that the -penal statutes against the Papists were not enforced as promised, and -proceeded to their favourite avocation of attacking public grievances. -On this topic Coke came forward with an eloquence and a boldness which -astonished the Court. With an unsparing vigour worthy of his earlier -years--but in a much better cause than that in which his abilities -were then often exercised--he denounced the new offices created, the -monopolies granted, and the lavish waste of the public money, all for the -benefit of Buckingham and his relations. He insisted that the useless -pensions which had been recently granted should be stopped till the late -king's debts were paid, and that a system of strict economy should be -substituted for the now extravagant expenditure of the royal household. -Others followed in the same strain, denouncing the odious practice of -selling offices, of which Buckingham and his mother were the chief -vendors. - -[Illustration: CHARLES WELCOMING HIS QUEEN TO ENGLAND. (_See p._ 509.)] - -A third party showed that they were armed with dangerous matter by the -still disgraced and restrained Earl of Bristol. They charged Buckingham -with his mal-administration of affairs, with his incompetency as Lord -High Admiral, and with having involved this country in an unnecessary -war with Spain, merely in revenge of a private quarrel with the Spanish -minister, Olivarez. They demanded an inquiry into that affair. One of the -members of the House venturing to defend the Government, and condemning -the licence of speech against the Crown, was speedily brought upon his -knees and compelled to implore pardon at the Bar. Sir Robert Cotton, the -founder of the Cottonian Library, applauded the wisdom and spirit of the -House in thus summarily dealing with this unworthy member; and after -giving a description of the conduct of the late favourite, Somerset, -and of the follies and crimes of favourites of former reigns, as the -Spencers, the Gavestons, the Poles, and others, pronounced Buckingham as -far more insolent, mischievous, and incompetent than any of them. - -The favourite, thus rudely handled, was quietly enjoying himself at -Woodstock; but the king made him aware of the necessity of defending -himself. He hastened to town, and delivered in his place in the Peers, a -statement of the accounts of the navy, and a stout denial of any personal -motives in the quarrel with Spain. He clearly showed that he felt whence -the danger came, and alluding to the Earl of Bristol, said, "I am minded -to leave that business asleep, but if it should awake, it will prove a -lion to devour him who co-operated with Olivarez." - -[Illustration: - - _From the Froissart MS. in the British Museum._ - - _Reproduced by Andre & Sleigh, Ld., Bushey, Herts._ - -ILLUMINATED PAGE, WITH BORDERING. - -THE ILLUMINATION SHOWS THE EMPEROR OF GERMANY, WENCESLAUS, AND CHARLES -VI OF FRANCE SITTING IN COUNCIL (PROBABLY IN THE CATHEDRAL OF RHEIMS) -TO DEVISE MEANS FOR TERMINATING THE SCHISM IN THE ROMAN CHURCH IN THE -FOURTEENTH CENTURY.] - -[Illustration: CHARLES I.] - -To cut short these awkward debates, the king sent word to the Commons -that as the plague was already in Oxford, it was necessary to make quick -work, and that they should finish the grant of supplies. He offered to -accept for the present forty thousand pounds; but the House refused even -this, saying that if that was all that was necessary, it might readily be -raised by a loan to the Crown. This put the king beyond his patience, and -he menaced them with a speedy dissolution; adding if they were not afraid -of their health, he would take care of it for them, by releasing them -from the plague-invaded city, and find some means of helping himself. -The Commons were not in a temper to be intimidated; on the contrary, -they went into a most warm and spirited debate on the king's message, -and appointed a committee to prepare a reply. In this they thanked him -for his care of their health, and of the religion of the nation, and -promised supplies when the abuses of the Government were redressed; and -they called upon him not to suffer himself to be prejudiced against the -greatest safeguard that a king could have--the faithful and dutiful -Commons--by interested persons. Before they had time, however, to present -this address, Charles dissolved the Parliament, which had only sat in -this Oxford Session twelve days. - -Thus deprived of all the necessary funds for a war, none but so -infatuated a monarch as Charles would have persisted in plunging into it. -War had not yet been proclaimed against Spain; it was neither necessary -nor expedient; on the contrary, every motive of political wisdom warned -him to peace in that quarter, if he really wished to be at liberty to -prosecute the interests of the Elector and the Protestant cause. But led -by the splenetic imbecility of Buckingham, so far was he from seeing -the folly of a war with Spain, that he was soon pushed into one with -France. In fact, he took every step which would have been avoided by a -wise prince, and speedily involved himself in a labyrinth of inextricable -difficulties. Spain quieted and even soothed; France cultivated with -the object of obtaining its influence and aid in the recovery of the -Palatinate; and the Protestants of Germany sympathised with, if not aided -substantially in their severe struggle against Austrian bigotry, Charles -might have eventually restored his sister and her husband to their old -estate, and have won a place in the European world superior to any king -of his time. Instead of this, he took the surest means to exasperate his -own people and his most powerful neighbour that his worst enemies could -have suggested. - -To raise money for the prosecution of the war against Spain, he ordered -the duties of tonnage and poundage to be levied, notwithstanding they -were not voted by the Peers. He issued writs of Privy Seal to the -nobility, gentry, and clergy, for loans of money, and menaced vengeance -if they were not complied with. All salaries and fees were suspended, -and to such a strait was he reduced by his efforts to man and supply -the fleet, that he was obliged to borrow three thousand pounds from the -corporations of Southampton and Salisbury to enable him to meet the -expenses of his own table. - -At length the fleet was ready to sail with a force of ten thousand -men; the English fleet consisted of eighty sail, and the Dutch sent an -addition of sixteen sail. In weight and armament of ships such a force -had scarcely ever before left an English port. But formidable as was -this naval power, it was rendered perfectly inert by the same utter want -of judgment and genius which marked all the measures of Buckingham. Its -destination was to have been kept secret, so that it might take the -Spaniards by surprise; but it was well known, not only to that nation, -but to the whole Continent. In spite of this, such a force, in the hands -of a Drake or a Nottingham, might have struck a ruinous blow at the -Spanish navy and seaports; but Buckingham, for his own selfish purposes, -appointed to the command Sir Edward Cecil, now created Viscount -Wimbledon, a man who had, indeed, grown grey in the service of the States -of Holland, but only to make himself known as most incompetent to such -an enterprise. He was, moreover, a land officer, whilst the admiral to -whom the command regularly fell, in case the Lord High Admiral himself -did not take it--Sir Robert Mansell, Vice-Admiral of England--had a high -reputation and the confidence of the men as an experienced officer. - -On the 3rd of October this noble but ill-used fleet sailed from Plymouth, -and took its way across the Bay of Biscay, where it encountered one of -its storms, and received considerable damage, one vessel foundering with -a hundred and seventy men. The admiral had instructions to intercept the -treasure ships from America, to scour the coasts of Spain, and destroy -the shipping in its harbours. But instead of doing that first which -must be done then if at all--attack the ships in the ports--he called -a council, and was completely bewildered by the conflicting opinions -given. The conclusion was to make for Cadiz and seize its ships, but -the Spaniards were already aware of and prepared for them. Instead of -keeping, moreover, a sharp watch for the Plate ships, Wimbledon let -several of them escape into port, which of themselves were thought, says -Howell, rich enough to have paid all the expenses of the expedition. -There was still nothing to prevent a brave admiral from attacking the -vessels in harbour; but more accustomed to land service, the commander -landed his forces, and took the Fort of Puntal. Making next a rapid march -towards the bridge of Suazzo, in order to cut off the communication -between the Isle de Leon and the mainland, his soldiers discovered -some wine cellars by the way and became intoxicated and incapable of -preserving order. Alarmed at this circumstance, their incapable leader -conducted them back to the ships. Not daring to attack the port, he -determined to look out for the treasure ships. But while cruising for -this purpose, a fever broke out on board the vessel of Lord Delaware; and -as if it were his intention to diffuse the contagion through the whole -fleet, the admiral had the sick men distributed among the healthy ships. -A dreadful mortality accordingly raged through the whole fleet. No Plate -ships could be seen, for they appear to have been aware of their enemies -and held away towards the Barbary coast; and after waiting fruitlessly -for eighteen days, Wimbledon made sail again for England. No sooner did -this imbecile quit the coast than fifty richly laden vessels entered the -port of Lisbon. On landing at Plymouth, with the loss of a thousand men -in this most ignominious voyage, the people received the admiral with -hisses and execrations. - -Meanwhile Charles, who was in straits with his Parliament and subjects, -was compelled to try again the more than dubious resort to Parliament -for money. To prepare the way for any success with the Commons, he was -obliged to do that which must certainly embroil him with his French -allies, and add fresh fuel to the fire of domestic discord which consumed -him. Certainly never had any man a more arduous part to play, and the -king had rendered his position all the harder by the imprudence of -his measures; for nothing is easier than for men, by their folly or -absurd resentments, to knit themselves up into a web of difficulties. -He now resolved to break his marriage oath to France, and persecute the -Catholics to conciliate the Protestants. Orders were accordingly issued -to all magistrates to put the penal laws in force, and a commission -was appointed to levy the fines on the recusants. All Catholic priests -and missionaries were warned to quit the kingdom immediately, and all -parents and guardians to recall their children from Catholic schools, -and young men from Catholic colleges on the Continent. But worse than -all, because personally insulting and irritating to the higher classes, -who constituted the House of Peers, and who hitherto had exhibited much -forbearance, he accepted the advice of his Council that the Catholic -aristocracy should be disarmed. - -Certainly no proceedings could indispose the House of Peers to the king -more than such as these; but meanwhile Charles was active in endeavouring -by other measures to win a party there. The Earl of Pembroke had for some -time made himself head of the Opposition, and on great occasions brought -with him on a vote no less than ten proxies, Buckingham himself being -only able to command thirteen. He prevailed on Pembroke to be reconciled -to the favourite; and at the same time in order to punish the Lord Keeper -Williams who had quarrelled with Buckingham and had told him that he -should go over to Pembroke, and labour for the redress of the grievances -of the people--he dismissed him and gave the Great Seal to Sir Thomas -Coventry, the Attorney-General. - -To manage the Commons, and to prevent the threatened impeachment of -Buckingham, when the judges presented to him the lists of sheriffs -Charles struck out seven names and wrote in their places seven of the -most able and active of the leaders of Opposition in the Commons, the -most determined enemies of the favourite:--Sir Edward Coke, Sir Thomas -Wentworth, Sir Francis Seymour, Sir Robert Philips, Sir Grey Palmer, Sir -William Fleetwood, and Edward Alford. As this office disqualified them -from sitting in Parliament, the king thus got rid of them for that year; -but Coke contended that though a sheriff could not sit for his own county -he could for another, and got himself elected for the county of Norfolk, -but did not venture to take his seat. - -All these measures, it will be seen, were dictated not by a desire to -conciliate, but to override the Parliament, and therefore could not -promise much good to a mind of any depth of penetration. Parliament was -summoned for the 6th of February, 1626, and the 2nd was appointed for the -coronation. With the knowledge of a discontented people, Charles went to -meet his Parliament, and this consciousness would, in a monarch capable -of taking a solemn warning, have operated to produce conciliation, at -least of tone; but Charles was one of that class of men who illustrated -the striking words of the Latin fatalist "Whom God intends to destroy He -first drives mad." Accordingly, he opened the sitting with a curt speech, -referring them to that of the new Lord Keeper Coventry, which was in -the worst possible taste. He said, "If we consider aright, and think of -the incomparable distance between the supreme height and majesty of a -mighty monarch, and the submissive awe and lowliness of loyal subjects, -we cannot but receive exceeding comfort and contentment in the frame and -constitution of this highest Court, wherein not only prelates, nobles, -and grandees, but the commons of all degrees have their part; and wherein -that high majesty doth descend to admit, or rather to invite, the -humblest of his subjects to conference and council with him." - -Of all language this was, in the temper of the Commons, the most adapted -to incense them. Such talk of the condescension of the Crown, at the -moment when they were entering on a desperate conflict against its abuse -of the prerogative, only the more stimulated their resolution to their -task. They immediately formed themselves into three committees: one of -religion, a second of grievances, and a third of evils. They again, by -the Committee of Religion, canvassed the subject of Popery; resolving to -enact still severer laws against it, as the origin of many of the worst -evils that afflicted the nation. They summoned schoolmasters from various -and remote parts of the kingdom, and put searching questions to them, as -to the doctrines which they held and taught to their scholars; and every -member of the House was called upon in turn to denounce all persons in -authority or office, known to them as holding the tenets of the ancient -faith. In fact, in their vehement zeal for religious liberty, the zealots -of the House were on the highway to extinguish every spark of toleration, -and to convert the House of Commons into an inquisition, instead of the -bulwark of popular right. - -[Illustration: RECEPTION OF VISCOUNT WIMBLEDON AT PLYMOUTH. (_See p._ -515.)] - -They again summoned Dr. Montague to redeem his bail, and receive -punishment on account of his book, in which they charged him with -having admitted that the Church of Rome was the true Church, and that -the articles on which the two churches did not agree were of minor -importance. Laud advocated the cause of Montague at Court, for he was of -precisely the same opinions, and urged the king and Buckingham to protect -him. But both Charles and the favourite saw too many difficulties in -their own way to care to interfere in defence of the chaplain. They left -him to his fate, and he would have been no doubt severely dealt with, -had not higher matters seized the attention of the House, and caused the -offending Churchman to be overlooked. - -This was the impeachment of Buckingham. The Committee of Grievances had -drawn up, after a tedious investigation, a list of sixteen grievances, -consisting of such as had so often been warmly debated in the last -reign. Of these the most prominent, in their opinion, were the practice -of purveyance, by which the officers of the household still collected -provisions at a fixed price for sixty miles round the Court, and the -illegal conduct of the Lord Treasurer, who went on collecting tonnage and -poundage though unsanctioned by Parliament. They charged the maintenance -of these evils to the advice and influence of a "great delinquent" at -Court; who had, moreover, occasioned all the disgraces to the national -flag, both by land and sea, which had for some years occurred, and who -ought to be punished accordingly. - -The time was now actually arriving of which James had warned his son and -Buckingham, when they urged the impeachment of the Earl of Middlesex, -but choosing to forget all that, Charles sent down word to the House -that he did not allow any of his servants to be called in question by -them, especially such as were of eminence and near unto his person. He -remarked that of old the desire of subjects had been to know what they -should do with him whom the king delighted to honour, but their desire -now appeared to be to do what they could against him whom the king -honoured. That they aimed at the Duke of Buckingham, he said, he saw -clearly, and he wondered much what had produced such a change since the -former Parliament; assuring them that the duke had taken no step but by -his order and consent; and he concluded by requesting them to hasten the -question of Supply, "or it would be worse for them." - -[Illustration: YORK HOUSE (THE DUKE OF BUCKINGHAM'S MANSION).] - -On the 29th of March he repeated the menace; but the Commons went on -preparing their charges against Buckingham, declaring that it was the -undoubted right of Parliament to inquire into the proceedings of persons -of any estate whatever, who had been found dangerous to the Commonwealth, -and had abused the confidence reposed in them by the Crown. - -Seeing them bent on proceeding, Charles sent down to the House the Lord -Keeper to acquaint them with his majesty's express command that they -should cease this inquiry, or that he would dissolve them; and Sir Dudley -Carleton, who had been much employed as ambassador to foreign states, -and had recently returned from France, warned them not to make the king -out of love with parliaments, and then drew a most deplorable picture of -the state of those countries where such had come to be the case. In all -Christian countries, he said, there were formerly parliaments; but the -monarchs, weary of their turbulence, had broken them up, except in this -kingdom; and now he represented the miserable subjects as resembling -spectres rather than men, miserably clad, meagre of body, and wearing -wooden shoes. - -This caricature of foreigners, had it been true, was the very thing to -make the Commons cling to their freedom, and keep their affairs in their -own hands; and as such arguments had no effect. Charles summoned the -House to the bar of the Lords, and there addressed to them a most royal -reproof, letting them know that it depended entirely on him whether he -would call and when he would dismiss Parliament, and, therefore, as they -conducted themselves so should he act. Their very existence depended, he -assured them, on his will. - -This was language which might have done in the mouth of Henry VIII., who -by the possession of the vast plunder of the Church had made himself -independent of parliaments and trod on them at his pleasure; but the -times and circumstances were entirely changed. The Commons had learned -their power and the king's weakness, and would no longer tolerate the -insolence of despotism. They returned to their own House, and, to show -that they were about to discuss the king's speech in a spirit which -admitted of no interruption or interference, they locked the door and -put the key in the hands of Sir John Finch, their Speaker. This ominous -proceeding struck terror into the king, and a conference with the Upper -House was proposed and accepted. There Buckingham endeavoured to smooth -down the royal speeches and messages into something like a bearable and -constitutional shape, and to defend his own conduct. But by this time the -Committee of Evils, Causes and Remedies, had come to the conclusion that -the only mode of preventing the recurrence of such mal-administration as -Buckingham had been guilty of was to impeach and punish him. The House -accordingly passed a resolution to that effect on the 8th of May. - -As if Charles were actually inspired by madness, at this moment, when he -needed all the assistance of the Peers to screen his favourite from the -impeachment of the Commons, he made a direct attack on their privileges. -Lord Arundel, the Earl Marshal, had given some offence to Buckingham, -and was well known to be decidedly hostile to him. As he possessed six -proxies, it was thought a grand stroke of policy to get him out of the -House at the approaching impeachment; and a plea was not long wanting. -Arundel's son, Lord Maltravers, had married a daughter of the Duke of -Lennox without consent of the king, and as Lennox was of blood-royal, -this was deemed offence enough to involve Arundel himself. He was charged -with not having prevented it, but he replied that the match had been made -unknown to him; that it had been secretly planned between the mothers -of the young people. This was not admitted, and Arundel was arrested by -a royal warrant and lodged in the Tower. The real offender, if real -offence there were, was Maltravers, but it was Arundel's absence which -was wanted. The Lords, however, took up the matter as an infringement of -their privileges; they passed a resolution that "no lord of Parliament, -the Parliament sitting, or within the usual times of privilege of -Parliament, is to be imprisoned or restrained, without sentence or order -of the House, unless it be for treason or felony, or for refusing to give -surety for the peace." - -They sent an address to Charles demanding Arundel's immediate liberation; -he returned an evasive answer: they sent a second address; Charles -then ordered the Attorney-General to plead the royal prerogative, and -to declare the Earl Marshal as personally offensive to the king and as -dangerous to the State. The Peers would not admit the plea, but passed -a resolution to suspend business till their colleague was set at large; -and after a contest of three months the king was forced to yield, and the -Earl Marshal resumed his seat in the House amid cheers and acclamations. - -But this most imprudent conflict with the Peers had another and still -more damaging result. The Earl of Bristol, who had been so unjustly and -ungraciously received, or rather, not received, on his return from his -Spanish embassy, to enable Buckingham and Charles to maintain their -charge against Spain, had remained an exile from Court and Parliament, -but not without keeping a watchful eye on the progress of events. He was -not a man to sit down quietly under misrepresentation and injury; and -now, seeing that the Peers had roused themselves from their subserviency, -and were prepared to take vengeance on the common enemy, he complained -to the House of Peers that, as one of their order and possessed of all -their privileges, his writ of summons to Parliament had been wrongfully -withheld. To have withstood this demand at this moment might have led to -a dangerous excitement. The writ was therefore immediately issued, but -Bristol at the same time received a private letter, charging him on pain -of the king's high displeasure not to attempt to take his place. The -earl at once forwarded the letter to the Peers, requesting their advice -upon it, on the ground that it affected their rights, being a case which -might reach any other of them, and demanding that he might be permitted -to take his seat in order to accuse the man who, to screen his own high -crimes and misdemeanours, had for years deprived a peer of the realm of -his liberty and right. - -This alarming claim of the earl's struck both the king and Buckingham -with terror; and to prevent, if possible, the menaced charge, the -Attorney-General was instantly despatched to the Lords to prefer a plea -of high treason against Bristol. But the Peers were not thus to be -circumvented. They replied that Bristol's accusation was first laid and -must be first heard; and that without the counter-charge being held to -prejudice his testimony. Bristol, thus at liberty to speak out, proceeded -to town and to the House of Peers in triumph, his coach drawn by eight -horses, caparisoned in cloth of gold or tissue; and Buckingham, as if -to present a contrast of modesty, a quality wholly alien to his nature, -drove thither in an old carriage with only three footmen and no retinue. - -Bristol charged him with having concerted with Gondomar to inveigle -the Prince of Wales into Spain, in order to procure his conversion to -Popery prior to his marriage with the Infanta; with having complied with -Popish ceremonies himself; with having, whilst at Madrid, disgraced the -king, his country, and himself, by his contempt of all decency and the -vileness of his profligacy. He stated that "As for the scandal given by -his behaviour, as also his employing his power with the King of Spain -for the procuring of favours and offices, which he conferred on base and -unworthy persons, for the recompense and hire of his lust--these things, -as neither fit for the Earl of Bristol to speak, nor, indeed, for the -House to hear, he leaveth to your lordships' wisdoms how far it will -please you to have them examined." He went on to charge him with breaking -off the treaty of marriage solely through resentment, because the Spanish -ministers, disgusted with his conduct, refused any negotiation with so -infamous a person; and declared that, on his return, he had deceived both -king and Parliament by a most false statement. All this the earl pledged -himself to prove by written documents and other most undeniable evidence. - -Instead of Buckingham attempting to clear himself as an innocent man -so blackened by terrible charges would, it was sought to deprive the -testimony of Bristol of all value by making him a criminal and a traitor -to the king whilst his representative in Spain. Charles went so far as -to send the Lord Keeper Coventry, a most pliant courtier, to inform the -Lords that he would of his own knowledge clear the duke, the duke himself -reserving his defence till after the impeachment by the Commons. Charles -not only guaranteed to vindicate Buckingham, but accused Bristol of -making a direct charge against himself, inasmuch as he himself had been -with Buckingham all the time in Spain, and had verified his narrative -on his return. The Peers passed this royal charge courageously by; and -Charles then ordered the cause between Bristol and Buckingham to be -removed from the Peers to the court of King's Bench; but the Lords would -not permit such an infringement of their privileges. They put these -questions themselves to the judges--"Whether the king could be a witness -in a case of treason? And whether, in Bristol's case, he could be a -witness at all, admitting the treason done with his privity?" The king -sent the judges an order not to answer these questions, and in the midst -of these proceedings the charges against Bristol were heard, and answered -by him with a spirit and clearness which were perfectly satisfactory -to the House. The charges against him amounted to this:--That he had -falsely assured James of the sincerity of the Spanish Cabinet; had -concurred in a plan for inducing the prince to change his religion; that -he had endeavoured to force the marriage on Charles by delivering the -procuration; and had given the lie to his present sovereign by declaring -false what he had vouched in Buckingham's statement to be true. These -were so palpably untenable positions that the House ordered Bristol's -answer to be entered on the journals, and there left the matter. - -But now the impeachment of Buckingham by the Commons was brought up to -the Lords. It consisted of thirteen articles; the principal of which were -that he had not only enriched himself with several of the highest offices -of the State which had never before been held by one and the same person, -but had purchased for money those of High Admiral and Warden of the -Cinque Ports; that he had in those offices neglected the trade and the -security of the coasts of the country; that he had perverted to his own -use the revenues of the Crown; had filled the Court and dignities of the -land with his poor relations; had put a squadron of English ships into -the hands of the French, and on the other hand, by detaining for his own -use a vessel belonging to the King of France, had provoked him to make -reprisals on British merchants; that he had extorted ten thousand pounds -from the East India Company; and even charged him with being accessory to -the late king's death, by administering medicine contrary to the advice -of the royal physicians. - -Eight Managers were appointed by the Commons to conduct the -impeachment--Sir Dudley Digges, Sir John Eliot, Serjeant Glanville, -Selden, Whitelock, Pym, Herbert, and Wandsford. Digges opened the case, -and was followed by Glanville, Selden, and Pym. While these gentlemen -were speaking and detailing the main charges against him, Buckingham, -confident in the power and will of the king to protect him, displayed -the most impudent recklessness, laughing and jesting at the orators and -their arguments. Serjeant Glanville, on one occasion, turned brusquely -on him, and exclaimed, "My lord, do you jeer at me? Are these things to -be jeered at? My lord, I can show you when a man of a greater blood than -your lordship, as high in place and power, and as deep in the favour of -the king as you, hath been hanged for as small a crime as the least of -these articles contain." - -Sir John Eliot wound up the charge, and compared Buckingham to Sejanus; -as proud, insolent, rapacious, an accuser of others, a base adulator -and tyrant by turns, and one who conferred commands and offices on his -dependants. "Ask England, Scotland, and Ireland," exclaimed Sir John, -"and they will tell you whether this man doth not the like. Sejanus's -pride was so excessive, as Tacitus saith, that he neglected all counsel, -mixed his business and service with the prince, and was often styled -_Imperatoris laborum socius_. My lords," he said, "I have done. You see -the man: by him came all evils; in him we find the cause; on him we -expect the remedies." - -The direct inference that if Buckingham was a Sejanus the king was a -Tiberius, and a rumour that Eliot and Digges had hinted that in the -death of the late king there was a greater than Buckingham behind, -transported Charles with rage, and urged him on to another of those acts -of aggression which ultimately brought him to actual battle with his -Parliament. He had the two offending members called out of the House -as if the king required their presence, when they were seized and sent -to the Tower. This outrage on the persons of their fellow members and -delegated prosecutors came like a thunder-clap on the House. There was -instantly a vehement cry of "Rise! rise! rise!" The House was in a state -of the highest ferment. - -Charles hurried to the House of Lords to denounce the imputations -cast upon him, and to defend Buckingham; and Buckingham stood by his -side whilst he spoke. He declared that he had punished some insolent -speeches, and that it was high time, for that he had been too lenient. -He would give his evidence to clear Buckingham, he said, in every one of -the articles, and he would suffer no one with impunity to charge himself -with having any concern in the death of his father. But all this bravado -was wasted on the Commons: again with closed doors they discussed the -violation of their privileges, and resolved to proceed with no further -business till their members should be discharged. In a few days this was -done, and the House passed a resolution that the two members had only -fulfilled their bounden duty. - -On the 8th of June, Buckingham opened his defence in the House of Lords. -In this he had been assisted by Sir Nicholas Hyde. He divided the charges -against him into three classes: such as were unfounded in fact; such as -might be true, but did not affect _him_; and lastly, those in which he -had merely been the servant of the king or of the Executive. In all the -circumstances which could be proved, he simply acted in obedience to the -late or the present king, with one exception, the purchase of the office -of Warden of the Cinque Ports, which he admitted that he had bought, but -which he thought might be excused on the ground of public utility. As -to the grave charge of the delivery of the king's ships to the French -admiral, he did not mean to go into it, not but that he could prove his -own innocence in the affair, but that he was bound not to reveal the -secrets of the State; and he pleaded a pardon which had been granted by -the king on the 10th of February, that is, four days after the opening of -the present Parliament. - -Thus Charles had kept his word: he had allowed the duke to throw the -total responsibility of his deeds on himself, and he had granted him -a pardon by anticipation to forestall the conclusions of Parliament. -This defence by no means satisfied the Commons, and they proceeded to -reply; but in this they were stopped short by the king, who the very -next day sent a message to the Speaker, desiring the House to hasten -and come at once to the subject of Supply, or that he would "take other -resolutions." The Commons set themselves, without loss of time, to -prepare a remonstrance in strong terms, praying for the dismissal of the -favourite; but whilst employed upon it, they were suddenly summoned to -the Upper House, where they found Commissioners appointed to pronounce -the dissolution of Parliament. Anticipating this movement, the Speaker -had carried the resolutions of remonstrance in his hand, and before the -Commissioners could declare Parliament dissolved, the Speaker held up -the paper and declared its contents. The Lords, on this, apprehending -unpleasant consequences, sent to implore Charles to a short delay, but -received the king's energetic answer--"No, not for one minute!" - -[Illustration: TRIAL OF BUCKINGHAM. (_See p._ 520.)] - -Charles was left by his own wild devices to try how his fancied right -divine would furnish him funds to discharge his debts at home and his -obligations abroad. That he was not insensible to his danger, or to -the price which he had paid for the support of his favourite, is made -plain to us by Meade, the careful chronicler of the time. "The duke," -he says, "being in the bed-chamber private with the king, his majesty -was overheard, as they say, to use these words: 'What can I do more? I -have engaged mine honour to mine uncle of Denmark and other princes. I -have, in a manner, lost the love of my subjects, and what wouldst thou -have me do?' Whence some think the duke meant the king to dissolve the -Parliament." But however he might feel this, he was in no disposition -to take warning; the spirit and the inculcations of his father worked -in him victorious over any better instincts. No sooner had he dismissed -Parliament, than he seized the Earl of Bristol, and Arundel, the Earl -Marshal, and thrust Bristol into the Tower. This bit of petty spite -enacted, he set about boldly to do everything that the Commons had been -striving against. The Commons had published their remonstrance; he -published a counter-declaration, and commanded all persons having that -of the Commons to burn it, or expect his resentment. He then issued a -warrant, levying duties on all exports and imports; ordered the fines -from the Catholics to be rigorously enforced, but offering to compound -with rich recusants for an annual sum, so as to procure a fixed income -from that source. A Commission was issued to inquire into the proceeds of -the Crown lands, and to grant leases, remit feudal services, and convert -copyholds into freeholds, on certain charges. Privy seals were again -issued to noblemen, gentlemen, and merchants, for the advance of loans, -and London was called on to furnish one hundred and twenty thousand -pounds; and as if the king already feared that his arbitrary acts might -produce disturbance, he ordered the different seaports, under the plea -of protecting the coasts, to provide and maintain during three months a -certain number of armed vessels, and the lord-lieutenants of counties to -muster the people, and train troops to arms to prevent internal riot or -foreign invasion. - -At the moment that the king was thus daringly setting both Parliament and -the country at defiance, came the news that a terrible battle had been -fought at Lutter between the Austrians under Tilly, and the Protestant -allies under Charles's uncle, the King of Denmark; that the allies were -defeated and driven across the Elbe; all their baggage and ammunition -lost, and the whole circle of Lower Saxony left exposed to the soldiers -of Ferdinand. This was the death-blow to the cause of the Elector -Palatine. But Charles seized the occasion to raise money by a fresh -forced loan on a large scale, on pretence of the necessity of aiding -Protestantism, and as if to make the lawless demand the more intolerable, -the Commissioners were armed with the most arbitrary powers. All who -refused to comply with this illegal demand, this body was authorised to -interrogate on oath, as to their reasons, and who were their advisers, -and they were bound by oath never to divulge what passed between them and -the Commissioners. - -Charles issued a proclamation, excusing his conduct by alleging that the -necessities of the State did not admit of waiting for the reassembling -of Parliament, and assuring his loving subjects that whatever was now -paid would be remitted in the collection of the next subsidy. He also -addressed a letter to the clergy, calling on them to exhort their -parishioners from the pulpit to obedience and liberality. But such were -the relative positions of king and Parliament, that people were not -very confident of any speedy grant from that body, and the good faith -of both Charles and his favourite had become so dubious, that many -refused to pay. The names of these were transmitted to the Council, -and the vengeance of the Court was let loose upon them. The rich were -fined and imprisoned, the poor were forcibly enrolled in the army or -navy, that "they might serve with their bodies, since they refused to -serve with their purses." In vain were appeals made to the king against -this intolerable tyranny; he would listen to no one. Amongst the names -of those who suffered on this occasion, stand those of Sir John Eliot -and John Hampden, as well as of Wentworth, soon to become the staunch -upholder of Absolutism. - -In towns the people did not conceal their indignation at these -proceedings. "Six poor tradesmen at Chelmsford stood out stiffly, -notwithstanding the many threats and promises made them;" and the -Londoners loudly shouted, "A Parliament! a Parliament! No Parliament no -money!" Still Charles went on in his mad course; no voice, mortal or -immortal, could even for a moment break the spell of his delusion. Those -judges and magistrates who were averse from enforcing the detestable -orders were summarily dismissed. Sir Randolph Carew, the Chief Justice -of the King's Bench, must give way to the more pliant Sir Nicholas -Hyde, the adviser of Buckingham. But the lawyers in general were ready -enough to break the laws by order of the Court, and the clergy were -still more so. Laud was now advanced, for his Absolutist and Popish -predilections, to the see of Bath and Wells, and sent forth a circular -to the clergy enjoining them to preach up zealously the advance of -money to the Crown, as a work meriting salvation. He openly advocated -a strict league and confederacy between the Church and State, by which -they might trample upon all schism, heresy, and disloyalty. There was -no lack of time-servers to second his efforts. Roger Mainwaring, one -of the king's chaplains, a true high-priest to the golden calf, with -the most shameless prostitution of the pulpit, declared before the king -and Court at Whitehall, that the power of the king was above all courts -and parliaments; that parliament was but an inferior kind of council, -entirely at the king's will; that the king's order was sufficient -authority for the raising of money, and that all who refused it were -guilty of unutterable sin and liable to damnation. He insulted the -Scriptures by dragging them in to prove all this, and would have sold, -not his own soul only, but the souls of the whole nation to obtain -a bishopric. He had his desire; and the success of such religious -toadyism inflamed the clergy in the country with a like abjectness. -One Robert Sibthorpe, vicar of Brackley, in an assize sermon preached -at Northampton, declared that even if the king commanded people to -resist the Law of God, they were to obey him, to show no resistance, no -railing, no reviling, to be all passive obedience. To demonstrate the -Scriptural soundness of his doctrine, he quoted this verse of the Book of -Ecclesiastes (viii. 4.): "Where the word of a king is, there is power: -and who may say unto him, What doest thou?" - -Abbot, the Archbishop, was applied to, to license the printing of this -sermon; but the old man, who had always had a Puritan leaning, which his -high post alone prevented him from more fully demonstrating, declined -to do it. In vain the king insisted: the archbishop was suspended -and sent to his country house; and Laud, who was hankering earnestly -after the Primacy, licensed the sermon. Sibthorpe did not fail of his -reward; he was appointed chaplain in ordinary, and received a prebend in -Peterborough, and the goodly living of Burton Latimer. Andrew Marvell -designated these model Churchmen as "exceedingly pragmatical, intolerably -ambitious, and so desperately proud that scarcely any gentleman might -come near the tails of their mules." The subserviency of the clergy was -not one of the least evils which a tyrannic court fostered. The people -saw more clearly than ever that the Church under such circumstances would -become the staunch ally of despotism; and many even of its own honourable -members, in the higher walks of life, shrank away from it and joined the -ranks of the Puritans, for no other reason than that they were resolute -for the liberty of the subject. - -The state of feeling on both sides of the Channel meanwhile hastened -an open rupture. The French were highly incensed at the treatment of -the queen's retinue, who, having become an intense nuisance, were -packed off to Paris. Thereupon the most sinister reports were spread -among the people, who eagerly imbibed the idea that their princess was -a victim in the hands of her heretic husband; and they were ready to -avenge themselves on England or on the Protestants of their own country. -On the other hand, Charles ascribed his disasters, the defeat of his -brother-in-law's allies in Germany, and his consequent unpopularity -at home, to the failure of Louis of France in giving the aid which he -had promised. Through this default Charles considered that he had sunk -a million of money, ten thousand soldiers, and lost the favour of his -people. In these ideas he was strengthened by the emissaries of the -French Protestants; and very soon Devic and Montague were despatched by -Charles to concert measures with the Huguenots, and Soubise and Brancard -were received at London as their envoys. It was finally determined that -Charles should send a fleet and army to La Rochelle, which the Duke de -Rohan should join with four thousand men. It was rumoured that it was -planned for a Protestant state to be established between the Loire and -Garonne, at the head of which Buckingham should be placed. That there -was some great scheme of the kind is certain, for Charles, in dismissing -ambassadors from his uncle the King of Denmark, said that he kept his -full design from them; "for," he remarked, "I think it needless, or -rather hurtful, to discover my main intent in this business, because -divulging it, in my mind, must needs hazard it." - -Meanwhile France, on its side, had not been inactive. Richelieu had -listened not only to the discontent of the French at the concessions -made by Bassompierre, the French ambassador, in the matter of the number -of the queen's religious advisers, but to the urgent entreaties of the -Pope's nuncio, who had never ceased, since the expulsion of Henrietta's -priests, to call on Louis to avenge that insult to the Church, and had -concluded a treaty with Spain, for mutual defence and for the punishment -of England. They regarded the fleet preparing in the English ports, on -the pretence of chastising the Algerines and giving aid to the Palsgrave, -as really destined against France and Spain, and they planned not only -a defence of their own coasts but a descent on the shores of England. -It was agreed that Spanish ships should be received in French ports and -French ones in those of Spain. - -The English, on their part, swept the ships of all nations from the sea, -on the plea that they might contain Spanish goods. Letters of mark were -issued, and no nations were spared by the cruisers, not even those in -alliance with England. The Hanse Towns, the Dutch States, and even the -King of Denmark, had to make zealous remonstrances. Louis of France had -not confined himself to remonstrances even before signing the treaty with -Spain, but had laid an embargo on all English ships in French harbours. -But now orders were issued by both the French and English Courts for the -suspension of commercial intercourse between the two nations. - -On the 27th of June, 1627, the English fleet sailed out of Portsmouth. -It consisted of forty-two ships of war, thirty-four transports, and -carried seven regiments of infantry, of nine hundred men each, a squadron -of cavalry, and a numerous body of French Protestants, altogether about -seven or eight thousand men. That it might this time succeed, the Duke -of Buckingham took command of it, for in his self-conceit he attributed -former failures to his not being on the spot in person, to give the -troops the advantage of his consummate genius and experience; the whole -of his military genius, if he had any, being yet to be discovered, and -the whole of his experience amounting to having seen soldiers on parade. -His plans were kept so secret--even from the friends with whom he was -to co-operate--that arriving on the 11th of July before La Rochelle, -the inhabitants refused to permit him to land. It was in vain that Sir -William Beecher and their own envoy Soubise entreated them to receive -those who were come as their allies and defenders: the people distrusted -Buckingham, and declared that they would make no hostile demonstration -against Louis till they had consulted the other churches and got in their -harvest. This displayed a dreadful want of management on the part of the -English; and Buckingham, thus shut out by those whom he came to support, -turned his attention to the neighbouring isles of Rhe and Oleron, which -the Huguenots had some time ago surrendered to their king. He decided to -invade Rhe, and made his descent the very next day, on the 12th of July. -His sudden diversion in this direction took Toyras, the governor of the -island, by surprise; the small force with which he attempted to prevent -their landing was defeated; but Buckingham, loitering on the shore for -four or five days, in landing the remainder of his troops, allowed Toyras -to convey the provisions, wine, and ammunition on the island into the -strong citadel of the town of St. Martin. A small fort called La Pree -lay in Buckingham's path, but he did not stay to take that, but pushed -on to St. Martin. The castle stood on a rock overlooking the town and -bay, and experienced officers were struck with great misgivings at the -sight of it. Buckingham talked of taking it by a _coup de main_, but -Sir John Burroughs, an officer who had acquired a real knowledge of war -and sieges in the Netherlands, shook his head and pronounced the place -next to impregnable, and that an attempt to storm it would be a useless -waste of lives. It was then determined to invest the place in force; but -Burroughs was equally dissatisfied with the unscientific construction of -the trenches and batteries which were prepared. Buckingham, instead of -benefiting by the counsels of this experienced officer, reprimanded him -with a sternness which silenced more compliant men. In a few days a shot -silenced altogether the honestly officious Burroughs, and the duke went -on with his siege only to find that, as that officer had predicted, the -fort defied all his efforts. - -The news of this attack on France spread consternation amongst the allies -of the Palsgrave; the prince himself, the States of Holland, and the King -of Denmark, all hastened to express their astonishment and dismay at -this rupture between the two great powers who should have enabled them -by their united efforts to re-conquer the Palatinate. They would not -admit Charles's representation of his obligation to support the French -Protestants as of sufficient moment to induce him to destroy the hopes of -Protestantism in Germany, and of his own sister and brother-in-law. They -begged to be permitted to mediate between the two crowns: Denmark sent -ambassadors instantly to Paris, to use its influence for that purpose -with the French Court; and the Dutch deprived of their commissions all -English officers in their service, who had joined the expedition to La -Rochelle. - -[Illustration: INTERIOR OF THE BANQUETING HOUSE, WHITEHALL.] - -But they could not move Charles. He wrote to Buckingham, congratulating -him on the success of his attempt on Rhe, which was yet no success at -all; promising him fresh reinforcements and provisions, and exhorting him -to prosecute the war with vigour and to listen to no proposals of peace. -He applauded a proclamation which Buckingham had prepared, to assure the -French Protestants that the King of England had no intention of conquest, -his sole object being to compel the King of France to fulfil his -engagements towards the French Protestants into which he had entered with -them; that, despite these engagements, he had not dismantled Fort Louis, -in the vicinity of La Rochelle; but, on the contrary, had endeavoured to -surprise the town and reduce it by force to comply with his own religious -demands. Charles, however, ordered Buckingham to make an alteration in -the manifesto, so that instead of the defence of the Protestants being -the sole cause of his coming, it should be the chief cause, and allow -him to put forward other reasons for his hostilities as occasion might -require. - -With this proclamation in his hand, the Duke de Rohan made a tour amongst -the Huguenot churches in the south of France, where the people listened -to him with enthusiasm, and all who dissented from the vow to live and -die with the English liberators were denounced as traitors. Rohan was -empowered to raise forces and advance to the support of La Rochelle; but -La Rochelle was in no haste to declare itself, for Richelieu had marched -an army into the neighbourhood, and kept it in check. It was the last to -hoist the flag of revolt, and it was for the last time. - -But all this time Buckingham was experiencing the truth of the warnings -of Burroughs: no impression whatever was made on the citadel of St. -Martin. Charles's promised reinforcements did not arrive. He wrote to -explain the causes of the delay--being the difficulty of obtaining -mariners, and the slowness of the Commissioners of the Navy; but he -assured him that the Earl of Holland was preparing to bring out fresh -forces. On the 12th of August there was a rumour of an attempt to -assassinate Buckingham by a Jesuit, with a thick three-edged knife; but a -real wound was inflicted on his reputation by a French flotilla bursting -the boom which he had drawn across the harbour, despite his fleet, and -throwing provisions into Fort St. Martin, in spite of himself. This -disaster produced violent altercations between his ill-managed army and -fleet. The army charged the misfortune to the sheer negligence of the -fleet, and the fleet only answered by loud clamours for pay, having, it -appeared, received nothing the whole time. - -Under these circumstances Buckingham displayed all the wavering confusion -of mind which characterises an inefficient commander. One day he was -ready to comply with the written requisition of the officers of the army -to abandon the siege; the next, he determined to stay and assault the -place. This miserable vacillation was ended by the arrival of the Earl -of Holland on the 27th of October, with fifteen hundred men; and the -La Rochelle folk sending eight hundred more, it was resolved to make -a general assault on the place. On the 6th of November this assault -began, but the cannonade produced no effect on the adamantine works -and solid walls of the fort; the slaughter of the troops on all sides -was terrible, and the attempt was abandoned. Buckingham then wished -himself safe on board his fleet; but unfortunately for him and his -army, Marshal Schomberg had now posted himself with a strong force on -the island between him and his vessels. He had occupied and garrisoned -Fort la Pree, which Buckingham had so imprudently left in his rear, and -compelled him now to defile his army along a narrow causeway across the -marshes, connecting the small island of Oie with that of Rhe. Nothing -could demonstrate more forcibly the utter incompetence of Buckingham -for military command than thus suffering the enemy to land and lodge -in the line of his retreat. Schomberg now attacked the defiling troops -in the rear with his ordnance, and the cavalry. The cavalry was thrown -into confusion, and the pressure and disorder on the causeway became -frightful; the artillery played upon them with dreadful effect, and -numbers were pushed off into the bordering bogs and salt pits and -suffocated. The destruction soon amounted to twelve hundred men, and -twenty pairs of colours were taken. There was no want of bravery -exhibited by either Buckingham or his men. Courage, it has been well -said, was the sole qualification for a general which he possessed; he was -the last to leave the beach; and the men once off the causeway, turned -resolutely and offered battle to Schomberg. But that prudent general -was satisfied to let them go away, which they prepared to do, to the -consternation of the people of La Rochelle, who had risen on the strength -of their promises, and were now exposed to a formidable army under the -command of Gaston, Duke of Orleans, and Schomberg. - -A really good general, though he had suffered serious loss, would still -have thrown himself into La Rochelle and, with the sea kept open by his -fleet for supplies, might have done signal service in defence of the -place. But Buckingham was no such general. He determined to withdraw, -contemplating another enterprise equally impossible to him as the taking -of the citadel of St. Martin. He had an idea of the glory and popularity -of recovering Calais, and communicated this notable project to the king. -Charles was charmed with the project, and as he had assured Buckingham -that he had done wonders, and almost impossibilities on the island of -Rhe, so he anticipated an equally splendid result: this in any other -man, except Charles, would have looked like bitter irony. In the eyes -of the more sensible officers of the fleet and army, the notion of -attempting the surprise of Calais with a reduced and defeated force, -and under such a general, was scouted as madness. Buckingham turned the -prows of his fleet homewards, and arrived towards the end of November. -The fleet and army were indignant at the disgraceful management of the -campaign; the people at home were equally so at the waste of public -money, and the ruin of national honour; but Charles received Buckingham -with undiminished affection, and took to himself the blame of the failure -of the expedition, because he had not been able to send sufficient -reinforcements and provisions. But he speedily received an impressive -reminder of the consequences of this scandalously managed attempt. -The people of La Rochelle sent over envoys to represent to him their -condition, in consequence of listening to his promises; the French were -beleaguering their town, and the most terrible fate awaited them if they -were thus deceived and abandoned. Charles gave them comfortable words, -and entered into a solemn engagement to stand by them so long as their -forts could resist the enemy, and to make no peace without the guarantee -of all their ancient liberties. - -But how were these grandiloquent words to be redeemed? He had exhausted -all the resources of his arbitrary exactions, and had incurred an -additional amount of unpopularity by seizing and imprisoning numbers of -those who refused to submit to a forced loan; and when they demanded a -fair hearing through the exercise of the _Habeas corpus_, they were told -that the king's command superseded that. The Crown lawyers, in fact, -vaunted the royal will as the supreme law, whilst Selden, Coke, and the -constitutional lawyers referred them to Magna Charta, which had been -thirty times confirmed by the kings, and thus aroused a wonderful feeling -of popular right in the kingdom. - -Whilst such was the state of public feeling, the usual pressure for -money rendered it necessary to adopt some means of raising it. Besides -the requirements of the home government, the proposed aid to the people -of La Rochelle made immediate funds necessary. To attempt extorting -supplies by the modes which had so exasperated the public, was a course -which all reasonable men regarded with repugnance and apprehension. -Charles himself would have braved any danger rather than that of meeting -Parliament, with all its remonstrances and demands of redress of public -grievances; but his Council urged him to make another trial of the -Commons, and he consented. The writs were issued on the 29th of January, -1628, for the assembling of Parliament on the 17th of March. Yet in the -course of that very week the king proceeded to repeat the conduct which -Parliament had so strongly condemned, and which must render its meeting -the more formidable. He required one hundred and seventy-three thousand -four hundred and eleven pounds for the outfit of the expedition to La -Rochelle, and instead of waiting for a grant from Parliament, he ordered -the money to be raised by a Commission from the counties, and that within -three weeks. With that irritating habit which he had inherited from his -father, he added a menace, saying that if they paid this tax cheerfully, -he would meet his Parliament; if not, "he would think of some more speedy -way." - -Conduct so restless and insulting on the very eve of the opening of -Parliament raised the wildest ferment in the public: the Commissioners -shrank in terror from their task, and Charles hastened to revoke the -Commission, saying that "he would rely on the love of his people in -Parliament." This was on the 16th of February, but like Pharaoh, Charles -repented himself of his momentary concession, and on the 28th he issued -an order to raise the money which the counties had refused, by a duty -on merchandise. The merchants were, however, not a whit more willing to -submit to an illegal imposition, nor more timid than the counties. The -ministers trembled before the storm, and anticipated certain impeachment; -the judges pronounced the duty illegal, and once more Charles recalled -his order. - -What rendered the public more sensitive to these acts of royal licence -was, that a number of foreign troops were about to be brought into the -kingdom, on the plea of employing them against France, but which the -people saw might be turned against themselves or their representatives. -They were, therefore, worked up to a pitch of extreme excitement, and -bestirred themselves to send up to the House of Commons a body of such -men as should not be readily intimidated. Never before had Parliament -assembled under such favourable circumstances. Daring as had been the -king's assaults on the public liberties, this had only served to rouse -the nation to a resolute resolve to withstand his contempt of Magna -Charta at all hazards. Westminster elected one Bradshaw, a brewer, and -Maurice, a grocer. Huntingdon sent up a far more remarkable man, one -Oliver Cromwell, the first time that he had been returned to Parliament -by any place. There was a general enthusiasm to turn out all such members -as had been inert, indifferent, or ready to betray their trusts out of -terror or a leaning towards the Court. When the members assembled the -House was crowded; there were four hundred such men as had rarely sat in -any English Parliament before. Both county and town had selected such -brave, patriotic, and substantial freeholders, merchants, and traders, as -made sycophants and time-servers tremble. They were no longer the timid -Commons who had formerly scarcely dared to look the lords or even the -knights in the face; they were well aware of their power, and in wealth -itself they were said to be three times superior to the House of Peers. -In running his eye over them, a spectator would see such men as Cromwell, -Hampden, Selden, Pym, Hollis, Eliot, Dudley Digges, Coke, Wentworth (soon -to apostatise), and others, with intellects illumined by the study of -the orators, lawgivers, and philosophers of republican Greece, animated -with the great principles of Christianity, and with resolutions like -iron. Many of these men had been attended to London by trains of their -neighbours, sturdy freeholders and substantial shopkeepers, more numerous -than the retinues of any lords, such was the intense expectation of what -might ensue, and the prompt resolve to stand by their representatives. -And they were not deceived, for this third Parliament of Charles I. -marked itself out as one of the grand land-marks of English history. - -The king was conscious that if he hoped to gain his chief object from -them--money--he must curb his haughty temper and assume a conciliating -manner. He therefore, just before the opening of the Session, liberated -seventy-eight gentlemen who had been imprisoned for refusing to pay -the forced loan; he let the Earl of Bristol out of the Tower, though -he lay under an impeachment for high treason; accorded the same favour -to Bishop Williams, whom Buckingham had caused to be lodged there; -and restored Archbishop Abbot, who had been suspended for refusing to -license Sibthorpe's base sermon. But when he had made these concessions -to popular opinion, Charles could not command his inveterate habit of -threatening, and so spoilt all. In his opening speech he said:--"I have -called you together, judging a Parliament to be the ancient, speediest, -and best way to give such supply as to secure ourselves and save our -friends from imminent ruin. Every man must now do according to his -conscience; wherefore, if you, which God forbid, should not do your -duties in contributing what this State at this time needs, I must, in -discharge of my conscience, use those other means which God hath put -into my hands, to save that which the follies of other men may otherwise -hazard to lose. Take not this as threatening--I scorn to threaten any but -my equals--but as an admonition from him that, both out of nature and -duty, hath most care of your preservation and properties." - -This was followed by an equally impolitic speech from the Lord Keeper -Coventry, who informed the Commons that the king had come to Parliament, -not because it was at all necessary, not because he was destitute of -other means, but because it was more agreeable to the goodness of his -most gracious disposition. And then he unwisely enough added, "If this be -deferred, necessity and the sword may make way for others. Remember his -majesty's admonition; I say, remember it." - -Surely if the veriest novices in government had been set to talk to -Parliament, they could not have done it in a more insane, blundering -style. If the Commons had had as little tact as the king and his -minister, there would have been hard words hurled back again, and -the Parliament would have not been many days ere it ceased to exist. -But the Commons had men as profound as these were shallow. They took -all patiently, and set about quietly to determine on the question of -Supplies. They came to the resolution to offer ample ones--no less than -five subsidies, the whole to be paid within one year--but they tagged -this simple condition to them, that the king should give them a guarantee -against any further invasion of their rights. - -As we have already stated, during the past year many gentlemen had been -imprisoned for refusing to pay the demands of the king made without -sanction of Parliament. Five of them had been, at their own request, -brought before the King's Bench by writ of _Habeas corpus_, and their -counsel demanded that, as they were charged with no particular offence, -but merely committed at the particular command of the king, they should -be discharged or admitted to bail; but both were refused. The question -was now discussed by the House, and it was resolved that no subsidy -should pass without a remedy granted against this royal licence. "It -will in us be wrong done to ourselves," said Sir Francis Seymour, "to -our posterity, to our consciences, if we forego this just claim and -pretension." - -"We must vindicate what?" demanded Wentworth; "new things? No; our -ancient, legal, and vital liberties, by enforcing the laws enacted by -our ancestors; by setting such a stamp upon them that no licentious -spirit shall dare henceforth to invade them." In the repeated debates -which followed, Sir Edward Coke particularly distinguished himself, old -as he was, by his powerful and undaunted speeches. He called upon the -members to stand by the ancient laws, and was seconded by other members, -who narrated the breaking of those laws by the abuses of raising money -by loans, by benevolences, and privy seals; by billeting soldiers, -by imprisonment of men for refusing these illegal demands, and by -withholding from them the benefit of _Habeas corpus_. In vain were the -speakers warned by the Court party to beware of distrusting the king, -who had been driven to these measures by necessity, and by others, who -declared that such was the king's goodness that it was next only to that -of God. But Coke cried out, "Let us work whilst we have time! I am -absolutely for giving supply to his majesty, but yet with some caution. -Let us not flatter ourselves. Who will give subsidies if the king may -impose what he will? I know he is a religious king, free from personal -vices, but he deals with other men's hands, and sees with other men's -eyes." - -[Illustration: SIR JOHN ELIOT. (_From the Port Eliot Portrait._)] - -This was approaching the subject of the favourite, which even the boldest -were afraid of touching, but which Coke soon after entered upon plainly, -and with all courage. - -On the 8th of May the House passed the four following resolutions, -without a dissentient voice even from the courtiers--1st, That no freeman -ought to be restrained or imprisoned, unless some lawful cause of such -restraint or imprisonment be expressed; 2nd, That the writ of _Habeas -Corpus_ ought to be granted to every man imprisoned or restrained, though -it be at the command of the king or Privy Council, if he pray for the -same; 3rd, That when the return expresses no cause of commitment or -restraint, the party ought to be delivered or bailed; 4th, That it is -the ancient and undoubted right of every free man, that he hath a full -and absolute property in his goods and estates, and that no tax, loan, -or benevolence ought to be levied by the king or his ministers, without -common consent by Act of Parliament. - -It was clear, from these resolutions, that unless Charles chose to forego -his illegal practices of raising money without consent of Parliament, -and of imprisoning subjects without any warrant but his own will, he -must abandon all idea of the five subsidies; but his necessities were -too great, and the difficulties in the way of continuing to plunder -people at his pleasure too formidable to allow him lightly to give up -the tempting offer. The Lords were less determined than the Commons, and -this gave him some encouragement. The matter was argued in the Commons -on his behalf by the Attorney-General and the King's Counsel, but they -found the leading members of the House too strong in their knowledge of -constitutional law to be moved from their grand propositions. In the -course of the debate the interference of Buckingham was felt, and the -brave Sir John Eliot did not let that pass without criticism. "I know -not," he said, "by what fatality or importunity it has crept in, but -I observe in the close of Mr. Secretary's relation, mention made of -_another_ in addition to his majesty, and that which hath been formerly -a matter of complaint, I find here still--a mixture with his majesty, -not only in business, but in name. Let me beseech you, sir, let no man -hereafter within these walls take this boldness to introduce it." - -On the 28th of May the Commons presented to his majesty their celebrated -Petition of Right; a document destined to become celebrated, a -confirmation of Magna Charta, and the origin of the Bill of Rights -secured in 1688, on which rests all the fabric of our present liberties. -This Petition was based on the four resolutions. It commenced by -reminding the monarch of the great statutes passed by some of the -most illustrious of his ancestors, which he had been so long and -pertinaciously outraging; that the statute _De Tallagio non concedendo_, -made in the reign of Edward I., provided that no tallage nor aid could -be levied by the king without consent of Parliament; that by another -statute of the 25th year of Edward III., no person could be compelled to -make any loan to the king without such sanction; such loans being against -reason and the charters of the land. There could be no dispute here--the -king stood palpably convicted, and had he acted in ignorance, could do -so no longer. It then went on: "And by other laws of this realm, it is -provided that none shall be charged by any charge or imposition called a -benevolence, nor by such like charge; by which statutes before mentioned, -and the other good laws and statutes of the realm, your subjects have -inherited this freedom, that they should not be compelled to contribute -to any tax, tallage, aid, or other like charge, not set by common -consent in Parliament: yet, nevertheless, of late, divers commissions, -directed to sundry commissioners, in several counties, with instructions, -have issued, by pretext whereof your people have been in divers places -assembled, and required to lend certain sums of money unto your majesty; -and many of them, upon their refusal to do so, have had an unlawful oath -administered unto them, not warrantable by the laws and statutes of this -realm, and have been constrained to become bound to make appearance and -give attendance before your Privy Council in other places; and others -of them have therefore been imprisoned, confined, and sundry other -ways molested and disquieted; and divers other charges have been laid -and levied upon your people in several counties, by lords-lieutenant, -commissioners for musters, justices of peace, and others, by command or -direction from your majesty or your Privy Council, against the laws and -free customs of this realm." - -The Petition next set forth that divers persons refusing to pay these -impositions had been imprisoned without cause shown, and on being brought -up by _Habeas Corpus_ to have their cause examined, had been sent back to -prison without such fair trial and examination. From this it proceeded to -the fact that numbers of soldiers had been billeted in private houses, -contrary to the law, and persons tried by martial law in cases where -they were only amenable to the common law of the land; and moreover, -officers and ministers of the king had screened soldiers and sailors who -had committed robberies, murders, and other felonies, on the plea that -they were only responsible to military tribunals. All these breaches of -the statutes, the Petition prayed the king to cause to cease, as being -contrary to the rights and liberties of the subject, as secured by the -laws of the land. - -The Petition was so clear, and the statutes quoted were so undeniable, -that Charles was puzzled what to do. To refuse the prayer of the Commons -was to forfeit the five tempting subsidies; to admit it simply and fully -was to confess that he had hitherto been altogether wrong, and to leave -himself no loop-hole of excuse for the future. Instead, therefore, of -adopting the established form of saying, in the old Norman words, "_Soit -droit fait comme il est desire_," he wrote at the foot of the petition -this loose and most absurd assent--"The king willeth that right be done -according to the laws and customs of the realm; and that the statutes be -put in due execution, that his subjects may have no cause to complain of -any wrongs or oppressions, contrary to their just rights and liberties, -to the preservation whereof he holds himself in conscience as well -obliged as of his own prerogative." - -This left the matter precisely where it was, for the king had always -contended that he did nothing but what was warranted by his prerogative. -The House felt this, and at once expressed their grievous disappointment. -To add to their chagrin, Charles sent a message to them, informing -them that he should dissolve Parliament on the 11th of June, it now -being the 5th. A deep and melancholy silence pervaded the House, which -locked the doors to prevent interruption, and debated the matter in all -earnestness. A second message from his majesty, commanding them not to -cast or lay aspersions on any minister of his majesty, added greatly -to the concern of the House. On the day but one before Sir John Eliot -had urged the necessity of a "declaration" to his majesty, showing the -decay and contempt of religion, and the insufficiency of his ministers, -the Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster had styled Sir John's speech -"strange language," and had declared that if Sir John went on, he would -go out; upon which the House told him plainly to take himself off. This -had brought down the king's second message. The debate went on amid tears -and deep emotion from strong and long-practised men; as if they perceived -that the great crisis of the nation was come, and foresaw the bloodshed -and misery which were to follow if they stood firm to their knowledge of -the right; the slavery and degradation of England if they did not. - -Sir Robert Philips, interrupted by sobs and weeping, said:--"I perceive -that towards God and towards man there is little hope, after our humble -and careful endeavours, seeing our sins are many and so great. I consider -my own infirmities, and if ever my passions were wrought upon, it is now. -This message stirs me up, especially when I remember with what moderation -we have proceeded." These earnest and religious men feared that God was -hardening the heart of the king as he had done that of Pharaoh, in order -to punish the nation for its backslidings and wickedness. "Our sins," -said Sir John Eliot, "are so exceeding great, that unless we speedily -turn to God, God will remove Himself farther from us. You know with what -affection and integrity we have proceeded hitherto, to gain his majesty's -heart; and, out of the necessity of our duty, were brought to that -course we were in: I doubt a misrepresentation to his majesty hath drawn -this mark of his displeasure upon us. I observe in the message, amongst -other sad particulars, it is conceived that we were about to lay some -aspersions upon the Government. Give me leave to protest that so clear -were our intentions, that we desire only to vindicate these dishonours -to our king and country. It is said also as if we cast some aspersions -on his majesty's ministers; I am confident no minister, how dear soever, -can----" - -Eliot was interrupted by Sir John Finch, the Speaker, who had for some -time been more and more sidling away to the favour of the king, starting -up and exclaiming, "There is a command laid upon me, to interrupt any -that shall go about to lay an aspersion on the ministers of State." This -was a clear infringement of the privilege of Parliament, which the House -was not disposed to pass by. Sir John, thus snubbed, sat down, and there -remained a significant silence for some minutes. Then Sir Dudley Digges -rose and said, "Unless we may speak of these things, let us arise, and -begone, or sit still and do nothing." There was another deep silence, at -length broken by Sir Nathaniel Rich, who said, "We must now speak, or -for ever hold our peace. For us to be silent when king and kingdom are -in this calamity, is not fit. The question is, whether we shall secure -ourselves by our silence--yea or no? Let us go to the Lords and show our -dangers, that we may then go to the king together with our representation -thereof." Prynne, Coke, and others, spoke to the same effect, and Coke -was so overwhelmed with his feelings, grown old as he was, at the Bar, on -the Bench and in the House, that he was obliged to resume his seat. - -The House resolved itself into a committee for more freedom of -discussion, and put Mr. Whitly into the chair. Finch, the Speaker, -begged leave, as he was quitting the chair, for half an hour's absence. -The House knew very well that he only wanted to run off and tell the -king what was going on, but they let him go, and away he bustled to -Whitehall. The House then passed an order, declaring that no man should -leave the House under penalty of being committed to the Tower. Then Mr. -Kirton rose, and declaring that the king in himself was as good a prince -as ever reigned, said "it was high time to find out the enemies of the -Commonwealth, who had so prevailed with him, and then he doubted not but -God would send them hearts, hands, and swords, to cut all their throats." -He added that the Speaker to desire to leave the House as he had done, -was unprecedented, and to his mind ominous. Sir Edward Coke once more -endeavoured to say what he had not been able to say before, but which -must be said, and none so proper as this veteran statesman to say it. "I -now see," he observed, "that God has not accepted our humble and moderate -carriages and fair proceedings; and I fear the reason is that we have -not dealt sincerely with the king, and made a true representation of the -causes of all these miseries. Let us take this to heart. In the time of -Edward III. had Parliament any doubt as to naming men that misled the -king? They accused John of Gaunt, the king's son, Lord Latimer, and Lord -Neville, for misadvising the king; and they went to the Tower for it. -And now, when there is such a downfall of the State, shall we hold our -tongues? Why," continued he, "may we not name those who are the cause of -all our evils?" And he added, "Let us palliate no longer; if we do, God -will not prosper us. I think the Duke of Buckingham is the cause, and -till the duke be informed thereof, we shall never go out with honour, nor -sit with honour here. That man is the grievance of grievances! Let us -set down the causes of all our disasters, and they will all reflect upon -him. As to going to the Lords, that is not _via regia_; our liberties are -now impeached; we are deeply concerned; it is not _via regia_, for the -Lords are not participant with our liberties. It is not the king but the -duke that saith, 'We require you not to meddle with state affairs, or the -ministers thereof.' Did not his majesty, when prince, attend the Upper -House in our prosecution of Lord Chancellor Bacon and the Lord Treasurer -Middlesex?" - -The secret was out; the word was spoken! The name at which Charles and -the duke had trembled, lest it should come into discussion, was, in spite -of threats and messages, named; and the naming, and the charging with all -the disgraces and miseries of the nation, were received with sudden and -general acclamation of "Yea! yea! 'Tis he! 'tis he!" The day was come -that James had so solemnly warned both Charles and Buckingham of--when -they should have their bellyful of impeachments; having, as Coke now -reminded them, themselves set the ball rolling. Aldred, in the letter -just quoted, says:--"As when one good hound recovers the scent, the rest -come in with full cry, so one pursued it, and every one came home and -laid the blame where he thought the fault was, on the Duke of Buckingham, -to wit." The duke was speedily accused of treachery and incapacity, both -as High Admiral and Commander-in-Chief. All the disgraceful failures, at -Cadiz, at La Rochelle, on the Isle of Rhe, and even in Germany, were -charged upon his evil counsels or worse management. - -Selden proposed a declaration to his majesty under four heads, expressive -of the dutiful devotion of the House, of the violation of the nation's -liberties, of the intentions of the House, and of the interference of -the duke to prevent inquiry. He declared that all this time they had -been casting a mantle over the accusation made against Buckingham, and -that it was time to revert to that. "At this moment," says Aldred, "as -we were putting the question, the Speaker, having been, not half an -hour, but three hours absent, and with the king, returned, bringing -this message--that the House should then rise--being about eleven -o'clock--adjourn till the morrow morning, and no committees to sit, or -other business to go on in the interim." - -The next day the House met, when Finch apologised for his absence, -and his going to the king, declaring that he had communicated nothing -but what was to the honour of the House; and wishing that his tongue -might cleave to the roof of his mouth before he spoke a word to the -disparagement of any member. He informed them that his majesty had no -desire to fetter their deliberations, so that they did not interfere with -his ministers, and added words of courtesy from the king. The Commons -observed that they had no intention of charging anything on the king, -but must insist on inquiring when necessary into the conduct of his -ministers; and the words of Mr. Kirton being found fault with, which -intimated a hope that all those found guilty might have their throats -cut, the House resolved that "he had said nothing beyond the bounds of -duty and allegiance, and that they all concurred with him therein." - -On the following day they went into committee, and commenced their -labours of inquiry into the proceedings of the executive. They examined -Burlemachi, a foreign speculator, as to a commission which he was alleged -to have, for engaging and bringing into this kingdom troops of German -horse. He confessed to such warrant, and to having received thirty -thousand pounds for this purpose; one thousand of these horse being, -as he admitted, already raised and armed, and waiting their passage in -Holland. "And the intention of bringing over these mercenaries," said -one of the members, "is to cut our throats, or to keep us in obedience!" -Another member declared that twelve of the commanders were already -arrived, and had been seen in St. Paul's. The House next fell upon a -new scheme of excise, which it was proposed to levy without consent of -Parliament, and voted that any member who had any information regarding -this new imposition and did not disclose it, was an enemy to the State, -and no true Englishman. - -[Illustration: ASSASSINATION OF THE DUKE OF BUCKINGHAM. (_See p._ 535.)] - -The danger which was obviously approaching Buckingham in the proceedings -of this Committee alarmed the king; and the same day, the 7th of June, -he commanded the Commons to meet him in the House of Lords, and then -observing that he thought he had given a full and specific answer to -their Petition of Right, but as they were not satisfied, he desired -them to read the Petition again, and he would give them an answer which -should satisfy them. Taking his seat on the throne, this was done, and -he then ordered the former answer to be cut off, and the following, in -the established form, to be inscribed--"Let right be done as is desired." -"Now," he added, "I have performed my part; wherefore, if this Parliament -have not a happy issue, the sin is yours. I am free of it." - -Thus was passed the Petition of Right, the most important document -since the acquirement of Magna Charta. The rejoicing for this conquest, -this assurance of quieter days and secure firesides, sped through the -City, and thence over the kingdom, and was everywhere demonstrated by -acclamations, ringing of bells, and bonfires. On the 10th of June, three -days afterwards, the king, as if pleased with this public expression of -satisfaction, sent Sir Humphrey May to inform the House of Commons that -he was graciously pleased that their Petition of Right, with his answer, -should be recorded not only on the journals of Parliament, but in those -of the courts of Westminster, and should, moreover, be printed for his -honour and the content of the people. On the 12th the Commons showed -their content by voting the king the five subsidies, and hastening to -pass the Bill for five other subsidies granted by the clergy. - -But the exultation over this great triumph did not prevent the Commons -from pursuing their labours of inquiry into abuses. They obtained a -judgment from the Lords against Dr. Mainwaring for his encouragement -of kingly absolutism in his sermons, and censured Laud and Neale of -Winchester, for licensing similar sermons; they then came to Buckingham -himself, and voted a strong remonstrance against his undue influence and -unconstitutional doings, which was presented by the Speaker to the king. -The House felt itself highly aggrieved by a speech which the favourite -was reported to have made at his own table--"Tush! it makes no matter -what the Commons or Parliament doth; for without my leave and authority, -they shall not be able to touch the hair of a dog." Buckingham protested -that he had never uttered such words, and called upon the House of Lords -to demand that the members of the Commons who had thus reported it should -be called in to prove it; but the duke was forced to content himself with -entering his protest on the journals of the Lords. - -The Commons not having voted the tonnage and poundage, calculated that -the king would not hastily dissolve the House, and therefore prayed -him to remove Buckingham from his counsels, as the author of so many -calamities; and they took the opportunity to remind him that tonnage -and poundage could not be collected without their consent, as the -king's concession of the Petition of Right testified. This called forth -Charles again as hotly as ever. Though he had admitted, in granting -this Petition, that no kind of duty could be imposed without consent of -Parliament, he now sought to except the tonnage and poundage from this -condition. He therefore, on the 26th of June, suddenly went to the House -of Lords, and summoned the attendance of the Commons. The action had -been so impromptu, that the Lords had no notice of it, and neither he -nor they had time to robe themselves, when the Commons at nine o'clock -in the morning made their appearance. All unrobed as he was, Charles -seated himself on the throne, and lectured the Commons on their already -beginning to put false constructions on his passing the Petition of -Right. "As for the tonnage and poundage, it is a thing I cannot want, -and was never intended by you to ask, nor meant by me, I am sure, to -grant." And he called on them, but more especially the Lords, who were -the judges, to take notice of what he declared his meaning to be when he -granted the Petition. - -The mischief had been done by former Parliaments granting this impost, -now called customs duties, for life; and though Parliament had never -altogether surrendered the power of voting it, nor had voted it for -life to Charles, he had come to consider it as merged into a matter of -prerogative, and not to be affected by his general concession just made. -The Commons, however, meant nothing less than that this, as well as -every other grant of taxes on the subject, should be void without their -assent. Here, therefore, as so often afterwards, they found themselves -just where they were with the king as matter of dispute, though they -had settled the question as matter of right. No man was ever so hard as -Charles I. to be made to see what he did not like. He therefore gave -his assent to the subsidies, and prorogued the Parliament till October; -and, as if to mark how far he was from intending to submit to what he -had thus so solemnly in the face of the whole nation bound himself to, -he proceeded to reward the men who had so shamefully advocated absolute -power in him. He made bishops of both Montague and Mainwaring, and -promoted Sibthorpe to coveted livings. - -The king's attention was soon drawn from the battle with the Commons -to the demands of the unfortunate people of La Rochelle upon him. He -had solemnly pledged his honour to assist them, and they now sorely -needed it. Since Buckingham left them to their fate, La Rochelle had -been invested by the French army under the king and Richelieu, and the -besieged loudly called on the King of England to succour them according -to his promise. The Earl of Denbigh was despatched thither with a -numerous fleet, yet had done nothing; but having shown himself before -the town for seven days, returned, to the great mortification of the -Rochellais. Denbigh had been raised to his rank and title simply for -marrying a sister of Buckingham's, and the people murmured loudly at the -fleet being put into such incompetent hands. The hatred of the duke rose -higher and higher, and on the same day that he was pronounced by the -Commons the cause of all these national calamities, his physician, Dr. -Lambe, was murdered by a mob in London, and a placard was affixed on the -walls in these words:--"Who rules the kingdom?--The king. Who rules the -king?--The duke. Who rules the duke?--The devil. Let the duke look to it, -or he will be served as his doctor was served." A doggerel rhyme was in -the mouths of the common people:-- - - "Let Charles and George do what they can, - The duke shall die like Dr. Lambe." - -The king was extremely concerned when the placard was shown him, and -added double guard at night; but the duke treated the whole with -contempt, and prepared to proceed himself with the fleet to relieve La -Rochelle. Charles went with him to Deptford to see the ships, and is -reported to have said to Buckingham on beholding them, "George, there are -those who wish that both these and thou may perish; but we will both -perish together, if thou dost." Buckingham proceeded to Portsmouth, where -he was to embark. Clarendon relates that the ghost of Buckingham's father -had appeared to an officer of the king's wardrobe three times, urging -him to go to his son and warn him to do something to abate the hatred -of the people, or that he would not be allowed to live long. Since the -demonstrations in London, it needed no ghost to show his danger. But he -was never gayer than on the eve of the verification of the omens and the -menaces. - -The duke, on the 23rd of August, rose in high spirits, even dancing in -his gaiety, and went to breakfast with a great number of his officers. -Whilst he was at breakfast, M. Soubise, the envoy of the people of La -Rochelle, went to him, and was seen in earnest private conversation. -It is supposed that Soubise had come to the knowledge of certain -negotiations between England and France, in which, though both monarchs -showed every tendency to listen to an accommodation, neither had yet -ventured to propose it; but that it was the object of Buckingham rather -to treat than to fight when he got to La Rochelle. At that very moment -Mr. Secretary Carleton had arrived from the king with instructions to -Buckingham to open by some means a communication with Richelieu, and -thus, as it were, accidentally to bring about a treaty. Probably Soubise -had acquired hints of these things, for both he and many other Frenchmen -about Buckingham appeared greatly discontented, and vociferated and -gesticulated energetically. The duke, it is said, had been endeavouring -to persuade Soubise that La Rochelle was already relieved, which he was -too well informed to credit. - -The duke now prepared to go out to his carriage, which was waiting at -the door, and as he went through the hall, still followed by the French -gentlemen, Colonel Friar whispered something in his ear. He turned to -listen, and at the same moment a knife was plunged into his heart, and -there left sticking. Plucking it out, with the word "Villain!" he fell, -covered with blood. His servants, who caught him as he was falling, -thought it was a stroke of apoplexy, but the blood, both from the wound -and his mouth, quickly undeceived them. Then an alarm was raised; some -ran to close the gates, and others rushed forth to spread the news. The -Duchess of Buckingham and her sister, the Countess of Anglesea, heard the -noise in their chamber, and ran into the gallery of the lobby, where -they saw the duke lying in his gore. He was only in his six-and-thirtieth -year. - -The first suspicion fell upon the French, and they were in great danger -from the duke's people; but when a number of officers came rushing in, -crying out, "Where is the villain? Where is the butcher?" a man stepped -calmly forward, saying, "I am the man--here I am!" He had quietly -withdrawn into the kitchen as soon as he had done the deed, and might -have escaped had he so willed. On hearing him avow the murder the -officers drew their swords, and would have despatched him, but were -prevented by the Secretary Carleton, Sir Thomas Morton, and others, who -stood guard over him till a detachment of soldiers arrived and conveyed -him to the Governor's house. - -The assassin turned out to be John Felton, a gentleman by birth and -education, who had been a lieutenant in the army during the expedition -to the Isle of Rhe. He had thrown up his commission because he could not -obtain the arrears of his pay, and had seen another at the same time -promoted over his head. He had, therefore, most likely, a personal grudge -against the duke, but had also been led on by religious fanaticism. He -was a stout, dark, military-looking man, from Suffolk; but according -to his own account, was first excited to the deed by reading the -remonstrance of the Parliament against the duke, when it seemed to him -that that remonstrance was a sufficient warrant for the act, and that -by ridding the country of him he should render a real service to it. -He described himself as walking in London on Tower Hill, when he saw a -broad hunting-knife on a cutler's stall, and that it was suggested to him -instantly to buy it for this purpose. - -At Portsmouth one of the royal chaplains was sent to him in his dungeon, -where he lay heavily ironed; but Felton, supposing the chaplain sent to -draw something from him, rather than for his consolation, said, "Sir, -I shall be brief with you; I killed him for the cause of God and my -country!" The chaplain, to mislead him, told him what was not true, that -the surgeons gave hopes of his life; but Felton promptly replied, "That -is impossible! I had the power of forty men, assisted by Him who guided -my hand." On being removed to London, the people crowded to see him, -showering blessings on him as the deliverer of his country; and one old -woman at Kingston said, "Now, God bless thee, little David!" meaning that -he had killed Goliath. Felton was lodged in the Tower, and threatened -with the rack to make him confess his accomplices, but he steadfastly -replied that he had no accomplices or abettors but the remonstrance -of the Commons. The Earl of Dorset went to see him, accompanied, as -reported, by Laud, and menaced him with the rack if he would not reveal -his colleagues. Felton replied, "I am ready, but I must tell you that -I will then accuse you my lord of Dorset, and no one but you." Charles -urged his being racked, but the judges, who saw better than he did the -spirit that was abroad, refused to sanction it, declaring that torture, -however used, had always been contrary to the law of England. Felton -gloried in his deed, but at length, through the exertions of the clergy, -came to confess that he had been misled by a bad spirit; yet it has been -doubted whether he ever really abandoned inwardly the persuasion of -having done a great and patriotic deed. When the Attorney-General on the -trial lauded the virtues, the abilities, wisdom, and public services of -Buckingham to the skies, Felton, on being asked what he had to say why -judgment should not be passed on him, replied that if he had deprived his -majesty of so faithful a servant as Mr. Attorney-General described, he -was sorry, and extending his arm exclaimed, "This is the instrument that -did the deed, let it be cut off for it!" He was hanged at Tyburn, and -then gibbeted at Portsmouth, the scene of his crime. - -In place of the duke, the Earl of Lindsay was ordered to take command of -the expedition for the relief of La Rochelle, and he was accompanied by -Walter Montague, the second son of the Earl of Manchester, who was to -open a negotiation with Richelieu. Montague was already a Catholic at -heart, and afterwards became so avowedly, and was made commendatory Abbot -of Pontoise, and a member of the Council of Anne of Austria. No doubt it -was from this known tendency that he had been chosen for this mission. -For five days the fleet manoeuvred before La Rochelle, and after two -ineffectual, and probably rather pretended than actual, endeavours to -force an entrance, returned to Spithead. Montague, meanwhile, had been -introduced to Louis, had hurried back to London, and was on the point -of returning, when the news came of the surrender of La Rochelle. This -event put an end to the dreams of a Protestant State in France, and -greatly consolidated the power of that country. To the Rochellais it was -a terrible lesson against putting faith in English kings. When they were -prevailed upon to surrender their peace and prosperity to the promises -of protection and religious liberty, the town contained fifteen thousand -souls; when they opened their gates to their own sovereign, they were -reduced to four thousand. All this misery was the work of Charles and -Buckingham. - -[Illustration: TYBURN IN THE TIME OF CHARLES I.] - -This event had greatly grieved the Protestants in England, and it was -whilst the public was brooding over these matters, and over fresh acts of -arbitrary oppression in the Star Chamber and Court of High Commission, as -well as by the continued levy of tonnage and poundage and other duties, -that Charles called together Parliament. It had been prorogued to the -20th of October, but met on the 20th of January, 1629. The king sent -the Commons a message, desiring them to proceed to vote the tonnage and -poundage without delay, this having been neglected by the Parliament -in the last Session; but the House insisted on going first into the -grievances. These were two-fold--such as related to the constitution, and -such as affected the faith of the nation. Charles had not only persisted -in the enforcement of revenue without Parliament, and dared to tamper -even with the Petition of Rights after he had granted it, but had issued -a new edition of the Articles of the Church, into which he had introduced -a clause to suit the intentions of himself and his great ecclesiastical -adviser, Laud. The Commons agreed to take the religious question first, -declaring that the business of the kings of this earth should give place -to the business of the King of Heaven. - -Popery and Arminianism were the things which the Puritans held in almost -equal horror. In reference to Popery they inquired what was the reason -that the laws regarding it were relaxed? and why out of ten individuals -who had been arraigned for receiving ordination in the Church of Rome, -only one had been condemned, and the execution of that one respited? Two -Committees were appointed to inquire of the judges on what grounds they -had refused to receive evidence tendered against the recusants at their -trial, and of the Attorney-General by what authority he had discharged -the persons in question, on their giving bail for their re-appearance. -Every member was bound to give all the information to the House in his -power regarding the relaxation of the penal laws, and all attempts or -warrants to stay proceedings against the Papists. - -But the growth and favour of Arminianism in high places was the most -absorbing subject of animadversion. Laud, now Bishop of London, was bent -not only on introducing Arminianism to its fullest extent, but ceremonies -and rites merging fast into Catholicism. Therefore the Puritans declared -the heresy of Arminianism to be the spawn of Popery. Laud had notions of -Church government as absolute as Charles had of civil government. All the -promotions by him were of Arminian clergymen. Montague was become Bishop -of Chichester, Mainwaring was a bishop, and all those who meant to get -preferment saw plainly that they must profess Arminianism, and the love -of gorgeous ceremonies and plenty of surplices. - -There were difficulties, however, for the Articles drawn up in 1562, -under Elizabeth, stated:--"The Church hath power to decree rites and -ceremonies, and hath authority in matters of faith." Mr. Pym called upon -the House to take a covenant for the maintenance of their religious -rites, which were in danger; and both he and others denounced the -introduction of idolatrous ceremonies into the Church by Charles and -others. Sir John Eliot protested vehemently against the introduction of -the new clause into the Articles. He called on the House to enter not a -mere resolution but a "vow" on its Journals against it, which was done; -namely, "that the Commons of England claimed, professed, and avowed for -truth, that sense of the Articles of Religion which were established in -Parliament in the thirteenth year of Queen Elizabeth, which by the public -acts of the Church of England, and by the general and current exposition -of the writers of that Church, had been declared unto them, and that they -rejected the sense of the Jesuits, Arminians, and all others wherein they -differed from it." - -The king sent the House a message, desiring them to leave matters of -religion, and proceed to pass the vote for tonnage and poundage. This -led to a sharp debate between the Court party and the Opposition. The -courtiers lauded the goodness of the king, and the enlargement of their -liberties which he had granted; but Mr. Coriton replied bluntly, "When -men speak here of neglect of duty towards his majesty, let them know -we know no such thing, nor what they mean. I see not how we neglect -the same. I see it is all our heart's desire to expedite the Bill of -tonnage and poundage in due time. Our business is still put back by their -messages, and the business in hand is God's. And his majesty's things are -certainly amiss, and every one sees it; but woe be unto us if we present -not the same to his majesty!" On the 2nd of February the House, instead -of the vote of tonnage and poundage, presented to the king "an apology" -for delaying that Bill, and containing a complaint of his majesty's -encroaching on the orders and privileges of their House by three messages -in two days, urging them to change inconveniently the orders of their -proceedings. Charles replied by a message through Secretary Coke that -he was as zealous for the faith as they were, but must again think it -strange that the business of religion should be an obstruction to his -business. He once more desired them to pass the vote for the tonnage and -poundage, adding one of his mischievous and most impolitic threats, of -quickening them by other means if they did not. - -The House, resenting this ill-advised message, went on discussing the -affairs of the Church. Mr. Kirton, who had in the last Session talked -of cutting the throats of all traitorous Ministers, now declared Laud -and Neale, Bishop of Winchester, to be at the bottom of all the troubles -that were now come upon them and their religion. On the 11th of February, -in the Committee on Religion, Oliver Cromwell made his first appearance -as a speaker in that House, a circumstance of great mark, seeing what -the honourable member afterwards grew into. He said, "He had heard -by relation from one Dr. Beard that Dr. Alabaster had preached flat -Popery at Paul's Cross, and that the Bishop of Winchester had commanded -him, as his diocesan, that he should preach nothing to the contrary. -Mainwaring, so justly censured in this House for his sermons, was by the -same bishop's means preferred to a rich living. If these are the steps -to Church preferment, what are we to expect?" Whereupon the Committee -ordered Dr. Beard to be written to by Mr. Speaker, to come up and testify -against the bishop; "the order for Dr. Beard to be delivered to Mr. -Cromwell." After severe animadversions on Neale, who, Mr. Kirton said, -had leaped through many bishoprics, but always left Popery behind him, -the House passed to the consideration of the Petition of Right. - -Selden called the attention of the House to this subject, and showed -that though Charles had promised that the Petition of Right should be -printed, and that the king's printer had struck off fifteen hundred -copies of that document, the king had sent for and destroyed them, -and had then had printed and circulated another copy, from which the -king's assent was removed, his first evasive answer restored, and his -sophistical explanation at the close of the Session, that it did not -apply to tonnage and poundage, introduced. This flagrant violation of -his word and of all the forms of Parliament, struck the House with -ominous doubts of ever binding the king by any law or by any principle. -They summoned the king's printer to their bar, and demanded by what -authority he had thus substituted a false for the true Petition. He -replied that the day after the Session the Attorney-General had sent for -him, and forbade him to publish the copy printed, as did also the Earl -of Worcester, Lord Privy Seal; and that he was sent for again to Court, -furnished with the new copy, and ordered to print and publish it in that -form. - -The House was in the highest state of indignation and astonishment. Such -a deliberate falsification of a document passed by the House and ratified -by himself, branded the king as capable of any act of duplicity, and went -to destroy all confidence in not merely his word but his most solemn -legislative act. The chief speakers of the Commons expressed their horror -and disgust at the deed in no measured terms. Selden exclaimed, "For this -Petition of Right, we see how it has been invaded since our last meeting. -Our liberties of life, person, and freehold have been invaded; men have -been committed contrary to that Petition. No man ought to lose life or -limb but by the law, and hath not one lately lost his ears by order of -the Star Chamber? Next, they will take away our arms, and then our legs, -and so our lives. Let all see we are sensible of this. Evil customs creep -in upon us: let us make a just representation thereof to his majesty." - -The case of a merchant and member of the House, Mr. Rolles, was then -related. His goods had been seized by the officers of the Customs for -refusing to pay the rates demanded, though he told them that whatever was -declared due by law, he would discharge. This case, amongst a multitude -of others, threw the House into a great ferment. "They knew the party was -a Parliament man," said Sir Robert Philips; "nay, they said if all the -Parliament was with him, or concerned in the goods, they would seize them -just the same." - -The king, perceiving the storm he had raised, sent word by Secretary -Coke to stay further debate on that case till three o'clock the next -day, when he would speak with both Houses at Whitehall. Accordingly, -meeting them there, Charles, after complimenting the Lords at the expense -of the Commons, then said, addressing the members of the Lower House, -"The complaint of staying men's goods for tonnage and poundage may have -a short and easy conclusion. By passing the Bill as my ancestors have -had it, my past actions will be concluded, and my future proceedings -authorised. I take not these duties as appertaining to my hereditary -prerogative. It ever was, and still is, my meaning, by the gift of my -subjects to enjoy the same. In my speech of last Session I did not -challenge them as right, but showed you the necessity by which I was to -take them, till you had granted them, assuring myself that you wanted -only time, and not good will. So make good your professions, and put an -end to all questions arising from the subject." - -These assertions were in direct contradiction to his declaration in that -very speech which we have already quoted, that the tonnage and poundage -was a thing that Parliament had nothing to do with. But the concession -gratified the Commons; still they did not grant the Customs duties, but -employed themselves strenuously in calling to account those who had been -concerned in furthering or executing the king's illegal orders. They -summoned to their bar Acton, the Sheriff of London, who had seized the -goods of Rolles and other merchants, and sent him to the Tower. They -summoned also the officers of the Customs who made the seizure, who -pleaded the king's warrant, and also his own express command; and the -king declared, through Secretary Coke, that he would defend them. This -caused loud outcries in the House, but did not check their proceedings, -for they sent messages to the Chancellor and Barons of the Exchequer, who -excused themselves by saying all those aggrieved had their remedy at law. -Thus they did not attempt to justify their proceedings. - -On the 25th of February, two days later than these determined -inquisitions, showing that the Commons were assuming high and most -ominous ground, the Committee of Religion presented to the House a -report, entitled "Heads of Articles agreed upon, and to be insisted on by -the House." In these they complained that the bishops licensed books in -favour of Popery, and suppressed books opposed to Popery; that such books -as those of Mainwaring and Montague should be burnt, and some better -order taken for the licensing of books. They demanded that candlesticks -should be removed from the communion-tables, which were now impiously -styled high altars; that pictures, lights, images, should be taken away; -and crossing and praying towards the East forbidden; that more learned, -pious, and orthodox men should be put into livings, and that better -provision should be made for a good minister in every parish. - -[Illustration: BROAD OF CHARLES I.] - -Again Charles sent them an order to adjourn to the 2nd of March, -which they did, but only to assemble on that day in the same resolute -and unbending spirit. Sir John Eliot immediately denounced Neale of -Winchester, as a rank abettor of Arminianism, and thence passed on to -the Lord Treasurer Weston, whom he declared to be his grand supporter -in it. This Sir Richard Weston had been seeking his fortune at Court -many years, and had nearly spent a private fortune of his own before he -obtained any promotion. At last he got employed as ambassador to Archduke -Albert in Flanders, and afterwards to the court of Germany, in which he -discharged his trust so well that on his return he was made Chancellor of -the Exchequer, and a few months before the death of Buckingham, Charles -had removed the Earl of Marlborough from the office of Lord Treasurer, -and given it to him. Weston was highly elated, and devoted himself with -all his ardour to succeed to the place of favourite which Buckingham had -held. But though Charles showed him much favour, and eventually made him -Earl of Portland, he allowed Weston to succeed to the arbitrary offices -and public odium of the duke, but not to the ascendency which Buckingham -had possessed over him. - -[Illustration: THREE POUND PIECE OF CHARLES I.] - -Sir John Eliot now pointed out Weston's criminal subservience to the -worst designs of the king. "In his person," he said, "all evil is -concentrated, both for the innovation of religion, and the invasion of -our liberties. He is now the great enemy of the Commonwealth. I have -traced him in all his actions, and I find him building on those grounds -laid by his master, the great duke. He secretly is moving for this -interruption; and from this fear they go about to break Parliament, lest -Parliament should break them." - -[Illustration: BRIOT SHILLING OF CHARLES I.] - -This was tender ground, and Sir John Finch the Speaker, who was a regular -courtier, immediately said he had a command from his majesty to adjourn -the House till the following Tuesday week. Several members declared the -message to be vexatious and out of order, for that adjournment was a -function of their own; but since the Speaker had delivered the message -and that was sufficient, they would settle a few matters, and do as his -majesty desired. Sir John Eliot produced a remonstrance addressed to -the king against levying tonnage and poundage, and desired the Speaker -to read it; but he refused, saying the House was adjourned by the king. -Eliot then desired the Clerk of the House to read it, but he also -refused, and so Sir John read it himself; but the Speaker refused to put -it to the vote. Selden then told the Speaker that if he would not put -the question to the vote, they would all continue sitting still. The -Speaker, however, declared that he had his majesty's command immediately -to rise when he had delivered the message; whereupon he was rising, but -Holles, the son of the Earl of Clare, and Valentine, who had placed -themselves on each side of him for the purpose, held him down in his -chair. He made a great outcry and resistance: several of the courtiers -rushed to his assistance, but Holles swore that he should sit as long as -they pleased. The doors were locked, and there was a scuffle and blows, -but the Opposition members compelled the Speaker to continue sitting, -notwithstanding his struggles, tears, and entreaties. - -[Illustration: JOHN SELDEN. (_From the Portrait by the Elder Mytens._)] - -Selden delivered an address to the imprisoned Speaker on his duties and -his obedience owed to the House which sat under the Great Seal, and had -power of adjournment as the king had that of prorogation. Sir Peter -Hayman told him that he blushed at being his kinsman, that he was a blot -on his family, and would be held in scorn and contempt by posterity; and -concluded by recommending that if he would not do his duty, he should be -brought to the bar of the House, dismissed, and another chosen at once in -his place. Mr. Holles proceeded to read the following set of resolutions, -which were loudly cheered, and assented to by the House, namely:--1, That -whoever shall seek to bring in Popery, Arminianism, or other opinions, -disagreeing from the true and orthodox Church, shall be reputed a capital -enemy to this kingdom and Commonwealth; 2, Whoever shall advise the -taking of tonnage and poundage, not being granted by Parliament, or shall -be an actor or instrument therein, shall be reputed a capital enemy to -this kingdom and Parliament; 3, Whatever merchant or other person shall -pay tonnage and poundage, not being granted by Parliament, shall be -reputed a betrayer of the liberties of England, and an enemy to the same. - -Whilst these extraordinary scenes were acting, the king had come down to -the House of Lords, but not finding the Speaker there as he expected, -sent a messenger to bring away the sergeant with his mace, without which -there could be no House. The doors were locked, and the messenger could -get no admittance. Charles then sent the Usher of the Black Rod to summon -the Commons to his presence, but he could no more obtain an entrance than -the messenger. On hearing this, in a transport of rage, the king ordered -the Captain of the Guard to break open the door; but this catastrophe -was prevented by the House just then adjourning to the 10th of March, -according to the king's message. - -On the 10th of March the king went to the House of Lords, and, without -summoning the Commons, proceeded to dissolve Parliament. He then -addressed the Lords, complaining grievously of the conduct of the -Commons, which compelled him at that time to dissolve Parliament. He -expressed much comfort in the Lords, and conceded that there were in -the Commons many who were as dutiful and loyal subjects as any in the -world, but that they had some "vipers" amongst them that created all this -trouble. He intimated that these evil-disposed persons would meet with -their rewards, and bade the Lord Keeper do as he had commanded. Then the -Lord Keeper said, "My lords, and gentlemen of the Commons, the king's -majesty doth dissolve this Parliament;" though the Commons, with the -exception of a few individuals, were not there, nor represented by their -Speaker. - -This question of the right of the Commons to determine their own -adjournment, and to deny to the king the right of preventing the Speaker -from putting any question from the Chair, was a vital one, and hitherto -undetermined. If the king could at any moment adjourn the Commons as well -as prorogue Parliament altogether, and could decide what topics should -be entertained by the House, there was an end of the existence of the -Commons as an independent branch of the Legislature: it sunk at once into -the mere creature of the Crown. There was a great battle for this as for -other popular rights, and the determined conduct of the members showed -that things were coming fast to a crisis. But at this moment Charles -was as resolved to conquer the Parliament, as Parliament was not to be -conquered. - -No sooner did this unprecedented scene with the Speaker take place, than -he adopted measures to punish those most prominently concerned in it. -The compulsory detention of the Speaker took place on the 2nd of March; -on the 5th he issued warrants to arrest the "vipers"--Eliot, Selden, -Holles, Valentine, Hobart, Hayman, Coriton, Long, and Stroud--and commit -them to the Tower or other prisons. Stroud and Long were not immediately -caught, but on the issue of a proclamation for their apprehension they -surrendered. The houses of Eliot, Holles, Selden, Long, and Valentine -were forcibly entered, their desks broken open, and their papers seized. -On the first day of Michaelmas term they were brought into court, and -ordered to find bail, and also to give security for their good behaviour. -They were all ready to give bail, but all positively refused to give -security for good behaviour, as that implied the commission of some -crime, which they denied. They were then put upon their trial, but -excepted to the jurisdiction of the court, being amenable only to their -own high court of Parliament for what was done therein. But they were -told that their conduct had not been parliamentary, and that the common -law could deal with all offences there by word or deed, as well as -anywhere else. This was another attack on the privileges of Parliament, -which, if allowed, would have finished its independence; and these were -not the men to surrender any of the outworks and defences of Parliament. -They were then sentenced as follows:--Sir John Eliot to be imprisoned -in the Tower, the others in other prisons at the king's pleasure. None -of them were to be delivered out of prison till they had given security -for their good behaviour, acknowledged their offence, and paid the -following fines:--Sir John Eliot, as the ring-leader and chief offender, -two thousand pounds; Holles, one thousand marks; Valentine, five hundred -pounds. Long was not included in this trial, but was prosecuted in the -Star Chamber, on the plea that he had no business in Parliament, being -pricked for sheriff of his county, and by his oath was bound to have been -there. He was fined one thousand marks. This, however, deceived nobody: -every one knew that the offence for which he suffered was for his conduct -in Parliament. The prisoners lay in gaol for eighteen months. Sir John -Eliot never came out again. His noble conduct had made deadly enemies -of the king and his courtiers, and even when he was dying, in 1632, -after three years' confinement, they rejoiced in his melancholy fate and -refused all petitions for his release. - -Charles called no more Parliaments till 1640, but went on for eleven -years fighting his way towards the block, through the most maniacal -attempts on the constitution and temper of the nation. Laud was in the -ascendant, and Wentworth, lately a member of the Opposition, who had -now changed sides from motives that it would be absurd not to call -conscientious, gave his great talents to the Court party. Laud was as -much a stickler for the power of the Church as Charles was of the State; -their views coincided, and Charles, Laud, and Wentworth, worked shoulder -to shoulder in governing without a Parliament. They invented a cant term -between them to express what they aimed at, and the means by which they -pursued it. It was "Thorough." - -Laud had introduced a passage into the ceremonial even of the coronation, -which astonished the hearers, and showed even then that he aimed at an -ecclesiastical despotism: "Stand and hold fast from henceforth the place -to which you have been heir by the succession of your forefathers, being -now delivered to you by the authority of God Almighty, and by the hands -of us all, and all the bishops and servants of God. And as you see the -clergy to come nearer the altar than others, so remember that, in all -places convenient, you give them greater honour," etc. This haughty -prelate now promulgated such absolute doctrines of divine right of king -and priest, and began to run in ceremonies and Church splendour so fast -towards actual Popery, that the daughter of the Earl of Devonshire being -asked by him why she had turned Catholic replied, "Because I hate to -travel in a crowd. I perceive your Grace and many others are making haste -to Rome, and therefore, in order to prevent being crowded, I have gone -before you." - -Under this undaunted leader, the pulpits now resounded with the most -flaming advocacy of divine right. A pamphlet was discovered by the -Reformers, which had been written for King James, and was now printed, -urging the king to do as Louis XI. of France had done--dispense with -Parliaments altogether, and secure his predominance by a standing army. -The queen's advice was precisely of this character: often crying up the -infinite superiority of the kings of her own country and family, whom -she styled real kings, while the English were only sham ones. But though -Charles was greatly soothed by these doctrines, and strengthened in his -resolve to trouble himself no more with Parliaments, he was careful to -strengthen his Government by inducing as many of the ablest men of the -Opposition as he could to join him. The first with whom he succeeded were -Wentworth and Sir John Savile. They were both from Yorkshire, and both -men of considerable property. Savile had been persuaded by Cottington the -Lord Chancellor, to desert his patriotic friends and professions at the -close of the second Parliament for a place in the Privy Council and the -office of Comptroller of the Household. - -Sir Thomas Wentworth was a much more considerable man. He claimed -to be descended from the royal line of the Plantagenets, and had no -superior in ability in the House. The position which he had assumed -in the Parliamentary resistance to the royal encroachments had been -uncompromising and most effective. So much were his eloquence and -influence dreaded, that he had been, amongst others, appointed sheriff to -keep him out of the House. For his continual opposition he was deprived -of the office of Custos Rotulorum and thrown into prison. Yet, when -tempted by the offer of rank and power, he fell suddenly, utterly, and -hopelessly, and became one of the most unflinching advocates and actors -of absolutism that ever lived. On the 21st of July, 1628, Savile was -created a baron, and on the morrow Wentworth was raised to the same -dignity, as Baron Wentworth; and before the end of the year he was made -a viscount and Lord President of the Council of the North. From the -moment that Wentworth put his hand to the plough of despotism he never -looked back. He became as prominent and as resolute in the destruction of -liberty and the prosecution of his former colleagues as he had been for -its advancement and for their friendship. - -The contagion of this conversion spread. Sir Dudley Digges had taken -a conspicuous part in the contests which we have described, and had -distinguished himself by his abilities in debate, sufficient to render -him worth purchasing. His colleagues had long felt, notwithstanding his -zeal, that he would not be proof to temptation. He was offered the post -of Master of the Rolls, and he at once accepted it. Noye and Littleton, -both lawyers, were as ready to advocate despotism as liberty, and the -offer of the Attorney-Generalship to Noye, and the Solicitor-Generalship -to Littleton, convinced them instantly that the Court was right, and -their old cause and companions were wrong. They testified their capacity -for seeing both sides of an argument, by persecuting their old opinions -and associates with the red hot zeal of proselytes. - -The rest of Charles's ministers were the Lord Keeper Coventry, who, -though he appeared on several occasions as the instrument of Charles's -arbitrary measures, was thought not to approve very much of them, and -who therefore kept himself as much as possible from mixing in political -matters. The Earls of Holland and Carlisle, the pusillanimous Earl of -Montgomery, his brother the Earl of Pembroke, and the Earl of Dorset -were rather men of pleasure than of business, and attended the Council -without caring for office. The Earl of Arundel was Earl Marshal, a proud -and empty man, whom Clarendon the historian describes as living much -abroad, because the manners of foreign nations suited him better than -his own, and who "resorted sometimes to Court, because there only was a -greater man than himself, and went thither the seldomer because there -was a greater man than himself." He was careless of pleasing favourites, -and was therefore almost always in disgrace. Lord Weston, already -mentioned, was Lord Treasurer, and the Earl of Manchester Privy Seal. -Weston was an able lawyer, who succeeded Coke as Lord Chief Justice, -and then purchased the office of Lord Treasurer for twenty thousand -pounds, only to have it wrested from him again by Buckingham in about -twelve months; but he was courtier enough to suppress his resentment, -and had now again ascended to his present office, in which he was a very -pliant servant of the king. Besides these, Sir John Coke or Cooke, and -Sir Dudley Carleton, were Secretaries of State. Carleton had spent too -much time in foreign embassies to understand well the state of parties -at home, but he understood the will of the king, and took good care to -obey and promote it. Coke was "of narrow education, and narrower nature," -says Clarendon, who adds that "his cardinal perfection was industry, -his most eminent infirmity covetousness." He knew as little of foreign -relations as Carleton did of domestic ones; but their office was one of -far less rank and importance than such office is now, their real business -being to enter the minutes and write the despatches of the Council, not -to participate in its discussions. Such were the instruments by which -Charles trusted to render Parliaments superfluous. By their aid, but far -more so by that of Laud and Wentworth, he soon raised the nation to a -state of exasperation, which was only appeased by the blood of all three. - -During the violent transactions with his Parliament at home, Charles -had made peace with France. In fact, neither France nor Spain had shown -a disposition to prosecute the disputes which the King of England had -entered into with them. Louis sent home the prisoners he had taken in the -La Rochelle expedition, under the name of a present to his sister, and -Philip also released those who had been captured at Cadiz. Buckingham had -been at the bottom of both wars, and now that he was gone all differences -were soon arranged. Louis of France made a demand for the restoration -of a man-of-war, the _St. Esprit_, which had been illegally captured by -Sir Sackville Trevor; but he gave up the claim, and Charles was not very -importunate in his demands of protection for the French Protestants. -Richelieu, however, treated them far better than Charles treated the -Puritans in England. He took measures to prevent the possibility of -another coalition, by destroying the castles of the nobles and the -fortifications of the towns, prohibited the convention of deputies from -the churches, and abolished the military organisation of the Huguenots in -the South of France; but he left them the exercise of their worship, and -attached no disability to a profession of it. This peace was concluded in -the spring of 1629, and in the following year that with Spain was also -accomplished. The Queen Henrietta was violently opposed to this peace -with Spain, because France was still at war with that country and the -kindred House of Austria. When she found that she could not prevail on -Charles, she is said to have shed tears of vexation. - -It is curious that the first overtures to this peace were made through -two Flemish painters; the celebrated Sir Peter Paul Rubens, and Gerbier, -a native of Antwerp, who had been Master of the Horse to Buckingham. -Cottington was despatched to Spain, in spite of the strenuous endeavours -of the queen and the French ambassador; and in November, 1630, Coloma -arrived as ambassador from Madrid. Philip accepted the same terms as -were proposed in 1604, pledging himself to restore such parts of the -Palsgrave's territory as were occupied by the troops of Spain--no very -important extent--and never to cease his endeavours to procure from the -Emperor the restitution of the whole. In consideration of this, Charles -once more agreed to that mysterious treaty against Holland which had -been in negotiation during the visit of Charles and Buckingham to Spain. -This was no other than to assist Philip to regain possession of the seven -United States of the Netherlands, which had cost Elizabeth so much to aid -in the establishment of their independence, and which had always been, as -Protestant States, so much regarded by the English public; with which a -great trade was, moreover, carried on. The knowledge of such a piece of -treachery on the part of Charles would have excited a terrible commotion -amongst the people. For his share of the booty he was to receive a -certain portion of the provinces, including the Island of Zealand. -Luckily for the king, his treason to Protestantism remained a profound -secret, and at length himself perceiving the difficulties and dilemmas -in which it would involve him, after Olivarez and Cottington had signed -the treaty he withheld his ratification. By this prudent act, however, he -forfeited all right to demand from Philip aid in regaining the patrimony -of the Prince Palatine. - -[Illustration: SCENE IN THE HOUSE OF COMMONS: THE SPEAKER COERCED. (_See -p._ 541.)] - -Whether prudence, a rare virtue in Charles, or other more congenial -motives, determined him in withdrawing from the compact with Spain -regarding Holland is doubtful, for in the very next year he was found -busily engaged with the Catholic States of Flanders and Brabant in a -project to drive thence his new ally Philip of Spain. France and Holland -were equally eager to assist in this design; but the people of Flanders -were suspicious of them, dreading to find in such powerful allies only -fresh masters. They therefore applied to the King of England, and a -correspondence took place in which Secretary Coke was at great pains to -show how much more to the advantage of the people of Flanders and Brabant -would be the alliance of England, than that of the ambitious French, or -of the Calvinistic farmers of Holland. In religion Coke was zealous to -prove that the Catholic and Anglican Churches were almost identical; -but his efforts ended, not in offering support in the coming struggle, -but in promising to protect them against everyone except the King of -Spain. Charles having recently made peace with the Spanish sovereign, -"it would be against honour and conscience to debauch his subjects from -their allegiance." But if what Coke proposed were not that very fact -of tampering with them, it would be difficult to imagine what could be; -and, moreover, it was just the King of Spain against whom they required -protection. Coke advised them to declare their independence, and then the -King of England, he told them, could help them as an independent State; -and Philip would not then have cause of offence from Charles, but ought -rather to be obliged to him for endeavouring to prevent the States from -falling into the hands of France, or some other of his powerful enemies. -This duplicity, however, was not by any means encouraging to revolt, and -in the meantime Philip, learning what was going on, settled the question -by sending into the Provinces an overwhelming force of soldiers. - -But the war which ought to have excited the deepest interest in Charles -as a Protestant prince, and as the brother-in-law of the Protestant -Prince Palatine, was the great war--since called the Thirty Years' -War--which was raging in Germany. It was a war expressly of Catholicism -for the utter extirpation of Protestantism. The resistance had begun -in Bohemia: the Protestants had invited Frederick of the Palatinate to -become their king and defend them against the power of Austria and the -exterminating Catholic emperor. We have seen that Frederick had, without -weighing the hazards of the enterprise sufficiently, accepted the crown, -lost it immediately, together with his hereditary dominions; and that -all the efforts of England, Denmark, and of an allied host in Germany, -had failed to make head against Austria, Spain, and Bavaria. Germany was -overrun with the victorious troops of Austria, led on by the ruthless -and victorious Generals Wallenstein, Piccolomini, Tilly, and Pappenheim. -Horrible desolation had followed the march of their armies all over -Germany; the most important of its cities were sacked or plundered; its -fields were laid waste; its cultivation was stopped; its people were -destroyed or starving; and, with the exception of Saxony and Bavaria, the -power of the princes was prostrated, and they were thoroughly divided -amongst themselves, and therefore the more readily trodden upon by their -oppressors. - -But at this moment relief came out of an unexpected quarter. Christian -IV. of Denmark had attempted a diversion in favour of the German -Protestant princes, and had not only been repulsed, but had drawn the -Austrian generals into his own kingdom with fire and sword. But in -Sweden had risen up a king, able, pious, earnestly desirous of the -restoration of Protestantism, and qualified by long military experience, -though yet a young man, to cope with any general of the age. Gustavus -Adolphus had mounted the Swedish throne at the age of eighteen, and was -now only seven-and-thirty; yet he had already maintained a seventeen -years' war against Poland, backed by the power of Austria. But now an -armistice of six years was settled with Poland. Wallenstein, the ablest -general of Austria, had been removed from the command, in consequence -of the universal outcry of the German princes, in an Imperial Council -at Ratisbon, against his cruelties and exactions; and the far-seeing -Richelieu, who was attacking the Spaniards in Italy and the Netherlands, -perceiving the immense advantage of such division in Germany, had offered -to make an alliance with the Swede. - -On the 23rd of June, 1630, Gustavus embarked fifteen thousand of his -veteran troops, and crossed into Pomerania. On the 17th of September -the Swedish king gave battle to Tilly and Pappenheim before Leipsic, -and routed them with great slaughter. This turned the scale of war: -the cowed German princes once more raised their heads and entered into -league with Gustavus, who soon drove the Austrians from the larger part -of the country, took Hanau and Frankfort-on-the-Main, when Frederick -the Palsgrave joined him, hoping to be established by Gustavus in his -patrimony. But the brave Swedish king, who was highly incensed against -Charles for not joining at his earnest entreaty in this enterprise, in -which he himself was hazarding life, crown, and everything, of putting -down the Catholic intolerance, and placing a Protestant emperor on the -throne, though he received the Palsgrave kindly, gave him no immediate -hope of restoration. The English ambassador was there, pressing this -vehemently on Gustavus; but the Swede told him he regarded him only as -a Spaniard in disguise, and said bluntly, "Let the King of England make -a league with me against Spain. Let him send me twelve thousand men, to -be maintained at his own cost, and which shall be placed entirely at my -command, and I will engage to compel from both Spain and Bavaria full -restoration of the Palsgrave's rights." - -Gustavus was perfectly right. Had Charles dealt honourably and wisely -with his Parliament and people, and husbanded his resources, here was the -great opportunity to have re-established his sister and brother-in-law, -and have had a glorious share in the victory of Protestantism on the -Continent. Gustavus recovered Darmstadt, Oppenheim, and Mainz, and -then took up his winter quarters. Meanwhile, the Saxon field-marshal, -Von Arnim, invaded Bohemia and took Prague; whilst the Landgrave of -Hesse-Cassel, and Duke Bernhard of Weimar, defeated several bodies of -Tilly's troops in Westphalia and the Upper Rhine lands. - -This sweeping reverse compelled the Emperor to recall Wallenstein to -the chief command. Assembling forty thousand men at Znaim in Bohemia, -he marched on Prague, and drove the Saxons not only thence but out of -Bohemia altogether. Meanwhile Gustavus, issuing from his winter quarters -on the Rhine, directed his course to Nuremberg, and so to Donauwoerth, -and at Rain on the Lech fought with Tilly and the Duke of Bavaria. Tilly -was killed (April 30, 1632); and Gustavus advanced and took Augsburg in -April, Munich on the 27th of May, and after in vain attacking Wallenstein -before Nuremberg, he encountered him at Luetzen, in Saxony, and beat -him, but fell himself in the hour of victory (November 16, 1632). He -had, however, saved Protestantism. Wallenstein lost favour after his -defeat, was suspected by the emperor, and finally assassinated by his own -officers (February 25, 1634). The generals of Gustavus, under the orders -of Gustavus's great Minister Oxenstierna, continued the contest, and -enabled the German Protestant princes to establish their power and the -exercise of their religion, at the peace of Westphalia in 1648. - -Charles, shamed into some degree of co-operation, had despatched the -Marquis of Hamilton with six thousand men to the assistance of Gustavus; -but the whole affair was so badly managed, the commissariat and general -care of the men were so miserable, that the little army speedily became -decimated by disease and was of no service. Hamilton returned home, -and the remains of his forces under the command of the Prince Charles -Louis, son of the Elector Frederick, were routed in Westphalia. Frederick -himself, deprived of all hope by the fall of Gustavus, only survived him -about a fortnight; and thus ended the dream of the restoration of the -Palatinate. - -At home Charles had determined to rule without a Parliament, but this -necessarily drove him upon all those means of raising an income which -Parliament had protested against, and which must, therefore, continue to -exasperate the people. Between the dissolution of the Parliament in 1629, -and the summons of another in 1640, these proceedings had apparently -advanced the cause of despotism, but in reality they promoted the cause -of liberty; the nation had been scourged into a temper which left no -means but the sword of appeasing it. The first unceremonious violation -of his pledge to the public conveyed in the granting of the Petition of -Right was levying as unscrupulously as ever the duties of tonnage and -poundage; and the goods of all such as refused the illegal payment were -immediately distrained upon and sold. - -The king next appointed a Committee to inquire into the encroachments on -the royal forests, a legitimate and laudable object if conducted in a -spirit of fairness and liberality. In every age gross encroachments have -been made on these Crown lands, and especially in the reckless reign of -James. But it would seem that the Commissioners proceeded in an arbitrary -spirit, and, relying on the power of the Crown, often ruined those who -resisted their decisions by the costs of law. The Earl of Holland--a -noted creature of the king's--was made head of this Commission, and -presided in a court established for the purpose. Under its operations -vast tracts were recovered to the Crown, and heavy fines for trespasses -levied. Rockingham Forest was enlarged from a circuit of six miles to one -of sixty, and the Earl of Southampton was nearly ruined by the king's -resumption of a large estate adjoining the New Forest. Even where these -recoveries were made with right, they exasperated the aristocracy, who -had been the chief encroachers, and injured the king in their goodwill. -Clarendon says, "To recompense the damage the Crown sustained by the -sale of old lands, and by the grant of new pensions, the old laws of -the forest are revived; by which not only great fines are imposed, but -great annual rents intended, and like to be settled by way of contract, -which burden lighted most upon persons of quality and honour, who thought -themselves above ordinary oppressions, and therefore like to remember it -with more sharpness." - -Besides the tonnage and poundage, obsolete laws were revived, and other -duties imposed on merchants' goods; and all who resisted were prosecuted, -fined, and imprisoned. But a still more plausible scheme was hit upon -for extorting money. The old feudal practice, introduced by Henry III. -and Edward I., of compelling persons holding lands under the Crown worth -twenty pounds per annum, to receive knighthood, or to compound by a fine, -had been enforced by Elizabeth and James, and was not likely to be passed -over in this general inquisition after the means of income independent of -Parliament. All landed proprietors worth forty pounds a year were called -on to accept the title of knight and pay the fees, or were fined, and -in default of payment thrown into prison. "By this ill-husbandry," says -Clarendon, "which, though it was founded in right, was most grievous from -the mode of proceeding, vast sums were drawn from the subject. And no -less unjust projects of all kinds--many ridiculous, many scandalous, all -very grievous--were set on foot, the damage and reproach of which came to -the king, the profit to other men; inasmuch as of twenty thousand pounds -a year, scarcely one thousand five hundred pounds came to the king's use -or account." - -A great commotion was raised by the king depriving many freeholders -arbitrarily of their lands to enlarge Richmond Park, and he saw the -necessity of making some compensation. - -Another mode of raising money was by undoing in a great measure what the -Parliament had done by abolishing monopolies. True, Charles took care not -to grant these monopolies to individuals, but to companies; but this, -whilst it arrested the odium of seeing them in the hands of courtiers and -favourites, increased their mischief by augmenting the number and power -of the oppressors. These companies were enabled to dictate to the public -the price of the articles included in their patent, and restrain at their -pleasure their manufacture or sale. One of the most flagrant cases was -that of the Company of Soap-boilers, who purchased a monopoly of the -manufacture of soap for ten thousand pounds, and a duty of eight pounds -per ton on all the soap they made. The scheme was that of the renegade -Noye; and all who presumed to make soap for themselves, regardless of the -monopoly, were fined, the company being authorised to search the premises -of all soap-boilers, seize any made without a licence, and prosecute the -offender in the Star Chamber. There was a similar monopoly granted to -starch-makers. - -King James had formed the idea that London was become too large, and that -its size was the cause of the prevalence of the plague and contagious -fevers. He had not penetrated the fact that the real cause lay in the -want of drainage and cleanliness, and he issued repeated proclamations -forbidding any more building of houses in the Metropolis. The judges -declared the proclamations illegal, and building went on as fast as -ever. Here was a splendid opportunity for putting on the screw. Charles -therefore appointed a Commission to inquire into the extent of building -done in defiance of his father's orders. Such persons who were willing to -compound for their offences, got off by paying a fine amounting to three -years' rental of the premises. Those who refused, pleaded in vain the -decision of the judges, for Charles had a court independent of all judges -but himself, namely, the Star Chamber; and those who escaped this fell -into another inquisition as detestable--the Court of the Earl Marshal. -Sturdy resisters, therefore, had their houses actually demolished, and -were then fleeced in those infamous courts to complete their ruin. A -Mr. Moore had erected forty-two houses of an expensive class, with -coach-houses and stables, near St. Martin's-in-the-Fields. He was fined -one thousand pounds, and ordered to pull them down before Easter, under -penalty of another thousand pounds, but refusing, the sheriffs demolished -the houses, and levied the money by distress. This terrified others, who -submitted to a composition, and by these iniquitous means one hundred -thousand pounds were brought into the Treasury. - -Simultaneously with these proceedings, Laud, Bishop of London, pursued -the same course in the Church. He had long been the most abject flatterer -of the royal power, and now, supported by Wentworth, went on boldly to -reduce all England to the most complete slavery to Church and State. He -was supposed to have the intention of restoring the Papal power; but such -was far from his design. Neither Laud nor Charles dreamt for a moment -of returning to the union with Rome, for the simple reason that they -loved too well themselves the enjoyment of absolute power. Like Henry -VIII., they could tolerate no Pope but one disguised under the name of -an English king. Never did the Church more egregiously deceive itself -than by suspecting Laud or Charles of any design to put on again the yoke -of the Roman Pontiff. That spiritual potentate, deluded by such empty -imagination, offered Laud a cardinal's hat, which was rejected with scorn. - -On the 29th of May, 1630, the queen gave birth to a son, afterwards -Charles II., who was baptised on the 2nd of July, the ceremony being -performed by Laud, who composed a prayer for the occasion. - -Charles had issued a proclamation forbidding any one to introduce into -the pulpit any remarks bearing on the great Arminian controversy which -was raging in the kingdom--Laud and his party in the Church on one side, -the zealous Puritans on the other. Both sides were summoned with an air -of impartiality into the Star Chamber or High Commission Court, but came -out with this difference--that the orthodox divines generally confessed -their fault, and were dismissed with a reprimand; but the Puritan -ministers could not bend in that manner and sacrifice conscience to fear, -so they were fined, imprisoned, and deprived without mercy. Davenant -(Bishop of Salisbury), Dr. Burgess, Dr. Prideaux, Dr. Hall (Bishop of -Norwich, whose poetry and liberality of spirit will long be held in -honourable remembrance), and many others, were harassed because they did -not preach exactly to the mind of Charles and Laud; but the treatment -of Dr. Alexander Leighton, a Scottish Puritan preacher, was brutality -itself. He had published a pamphlet called "An Appeal to Parliament, or -Zion's Plea against Prelacy." It attracted the notice of the Government, -which in June, 1630, had him dragged before the Star Chamber, where -he was condemned to the following horrible punishment, than which the -records of the Inquisition preserve nothing more infernal:--That he -should be imprisoned for life, should pay a fine of ten thousand pounds, -be degraded from his ministry, whipped, set in the pillory, have one -of his ears cut off, one side of his nose slit, and be branded on the -forehead with a double S.S., as a "sower of sedition." He was then to -be carried back to prison, and after a few days to be pilloried again, -whipped, have the other side of his nose slit, the other ear cut off, and -shut up in his dungeon, to be released only by death. - -[Illustration: INTERIOR OF OLD ST. PAUL'S.] - - - - -CHAPTER XX. - -THE REIGN OF CHARLES I. (_continued_). - - Visit of Charles to Scotland--Laud and the Papal See--His - Ecclesiastical Measures--Punishment of Prynne, Bastwick, and - Burton--Disgrace of Williams--Ship-money--Resistance of John - Hampden--Wentworth in the North--Recall of Falkland from - Ireland--Wentworth's Measures--Inquiry into Titles--Prelacy - Riots in Edinburgh--Jenny Geddes's Stool--The Tables--Renewal - of the Covenant--Charles makes Concessions--The General - Assembly--Preparations for War--Charles at York--Leslie at - Dunse Hill--A Conference held--Treaty of Berwick--Arrest of - Loudon--Insult from the Dutch--Wentworth in England--The Short - Parliament--Riots in London--Preparations of the Scots--Mutiny in - the English Army--Invasion of England--Treaty of Ripon--Meeting of - the Long Parliament--Impeachment of Strafford--His Trial--He is - Abandoned by Charles--His Execution--The King's Visit to Scotland. - - -Having reduced the refractory members of the Church and of Parliament in -England to silence for the present, Charles determined to make a journey -into Scotland, there to be crowned, to raise revenue, and to establish -the Anglican hierarchy in that part of his dominions. For the latter -purpose he took Laud with him. He reached Edinburgh on the 12th of June, -1633, where he was received by the inhabitants with demonstrations of -lively rejoicing, as if they were neither aware of the character and -views of the monarch, nor remembered the consequences of the visit of his -father. On the 18th he was crowned in Edinburgh by the Archbishop of St. -Andrews; but Laud did not let that opportunity pass without giving them -a foretaste of what was coming. "It was observed," says Rushworth, "that -Dr. Laud was high in his carriage, taking upon him the order and managing -of the ceremonies; and, for instance, Spotswood, Archbishop of St. -Andrews, being placed at the king's right hand, and Lindsey, Archbishop -of Glasgow, at his left, Bishop Laud took Glasgow and thrust him from the -king with these words:--'Are you a Churchman, and want the coat of your -order?'--which was an embroidered coat, which he scrupled to wear, being -a moderate Churchman--and in place of him put in the Bishop of Ross at -the king's right hand." - -This question of the embroidered robes of the Roman hierarchy, with the -high altar, the tapers, chalices, genuflections, and oil of unction, -was introduced into Parliament, and forced on the reluctant Scots. They -had voted supplies with a most liberal spirit, and laid on a land tax -of four hundred thousand pounds Scots for six years; but when the king -proposed to pass a Bill authorising the robes, ceremonies, and rites just -mentioned, there was a stout opposition. Lord Melville said plainly to -Charles, "I have sworn with your father and the whole kingdom to the -confession of faith in which the innovations intended by these Articles -were solemnly abjured." And the Bishop of the Isles told him at dinner -that it was said amongst the people that his entrance into the city had -been with hosannas, but that it would be changed, like that of the Jews -to our Saviour, into, "Away with him, crucify him!" Charles is said -to have turned thoughtful, and eaten no more. Yet the next day he as -positively as ever insisted on the Parliament passing the Articles, and, -pointing to a paper in his hand, said, "Your names are here; I shall know -to-day who will do me service and who will not." - -Notwithstanding this, the House voted against it by a considerable -majority, there being opposed to it fifteen Peers and forty-five -Commoners; yet the Lord Register, under influence of the Court, -audaciously declared that the Articles were accepted by Parliament. The -Earl of Rothes had the boldness to deny this and to demand a scrutiny -of the votes; but Charles intimidated both him and all dissentients by -refusing any scrutiny unless Rothes would arraign the Lord Register -of the capital crime of falsifying the votes. This was a course too -perilous for any individual under the circumstances. Rothes was silent, -the Articles were ratified by the Crown, and Parliament was forthwith -dissolved on the 28th of June. - -Having thus carried his point with the Parliament, Charles took -every means, except that which had brought upon him so much odium in -England--namely, imprisoning and prosecuting the members who opposed -him--to express his dissatisfaction with them. He distributed lands and -honours upon those who had fallen in with his wishes, and treated the -dissentients with sullen looks, and even severe words, when they came -in his way. They were openly ridiculed by his courtiers, and dubbed -schismatics and seditious. Lord Balmerino was even condemned to death -for a pamphlet being found in his possession complaining of the king's -arbitrary conduct in these concerns; but the sentence was too atrocious -to be executed. - -Charles and Laud erected Edinburgh into a bishopric, with a diocese -extending even to Berwick, and richly endowed with old Church lands, -which were obtained from the noblemen who held them. A set of singing -men was also appointed for Holyrood Chapel; and Laud, who had been made -a Privy Councillor, preached there in full pontificals, to the great -scandal of the Presbyterians. Thence Charles and his apostle made a -tour to St. Andrews, Dundee, Falkland, Dunblane, etc., to the singular -discomfort of Laud amongst the rough fastnesses of the Highlands. - -Immediately after this, Charles posted to London in four days, leaving -Laud to travel more at leisure. No doubt both master and man thought -they had made a very fine piece of work in this forcing of the Scottish -consciences: they were destined in a while to feel what it actually was, -in rebellion and the sharp edge of the axe. - -Scarcely had they reached London, when they heard the news of the death -of Archbishop Abbot, and Charles was thus enabled to reward Laud for -all his services in building up despotism and superstition by making -him Primate, which he did on the 6th of August, 1633. It was a curious -coincidence that about the same time Laud received a second offer of a -cardinal's hat, and he seems to have been greatly tempted by it. He says -that he acquainted his majesty with the offer, and that the king rescued -him from the trouble and danger; for, he adds, there was something -dwelling in him which would not suffer him to accept the offer till Rome -was other than she was. To have accepted a cardinal's hat was to have -gone over to the Church of Rome, and the Church of England was for him a -much better thing now he was Primate. - -There undoubtedly did at this precise time take place an active private -negotiation between the courts of Rome and England on this topic. -The queen was anxious to have the dignity of cardinal conferred on a -British subject. Probably she thought that the residence of the English -cardinal at London would be a stepping-stone to the full restoration -of Catholicism. Towards the end of August, immediately after Laud's -elevation to the Primacy, Sir Robert Douglas was sent to Rome as envoy -from the queen, with a letter of credence, signed by the Earl of -Stirling, Secretary of State for Scotland. His mission was this proposal -of an English cardinal, as a measure which would contribute greatly to -the conversion of the king. To carry out this negotiation, Leander, an -English Benedictine monk, was despatched to England, followed soon after -by Panzani an Italian priest. - -From the despatches of Panzani we find that there existed a strong party -at the English court for the return to the allegiance of Rome, amongst -whom were Secretary Windebank; Lord Chancellor Cottington; Goodman, -Bishop of Gloucester; and Montague, Bishop of Chichester. He was informed -that none of the bishops except three--those of Durham, Salisbury, and -Exeter--would object to a purely spiritual supremacy of the Pope, and -very few of the clergy. - -Douglas was followed to Rome by Sir William Hamilton, to prosecute -this secret business, but it all came to nothing, for the king, who -was sincere in his attachment to the English Church, was not likely to -listen to any proposal for submitting again to the yoke of Rome; and the -Pope, on his part, would not comply with Charles's request to exert his -influence with Catholic Austria for the restoration of his sister and -her son in the Palatinate so long as they continued Protestants. Laud -was therefore relieved from his temptation to receive the cardinal's -hat by the resolve of the king to yield not one jot of his spiritual or -political power; and a Scottish Catholic named Conn being at Rome, was -mentioned as candidate for the purple instead. He came to England and was -graciously received, not only by the queen, but the king too. He resided -in England three years, but without the cardinal's hat, and was succeeded -by Count Rossetti as the Pope's envoy. The rumours of the offers of the -scarlet hat to Laud, and the residence of these Papal envoys in London, -excited the jealousy of the people and added immensely to Charles's -unpopularity; for no one felt sure of his real faith. - -As Laud, however, could not array himself in scarlet as a cardinal, -he determined to make the Anglican Church as Popish, and himself as -much of a Pope, as possible. Before reaching the Primacy he had gone a -good way. The spoliation of the Church by Henry VIII. and Edward VI., -and their greedy nobility, had deprived it of the means of keeping the -ecclesiastical buildings in repair. The Catholic Church in England had -devoted the property of the Establishment to three objects: one, to -the maintenance of the clergy and religious orders; the second, to -the maintenance of the buildings of the churches and cathedrals; and -the third to the support of the poor. Thus the patrimony of the poor -was swallowed up by the aristocracy, and the maintenance of the poor -thrown upon the country; and fixed there by the 43rd of Elizabeth. The -patrimony of the public for the maintenance of Church buildings being -equally shared by the Russells, Villierses, Seymours, Dudleys, and a -thousand other Court leeches, neither Charles nor Laud, with all their -stickling for the Church, dared to call upon them to disgorge their prey; -but a proclamation was issued to the bishops for the repairs of all the -churches and chapels, and they were to levy the necessary rates on the -parishioners at large, and to exert the powers of the ecclesiastical -courts against all such as resisted. - -[Illustration: DUNBLANE IN THE 17TH CENTURY.] - -This excited a serious ferment amongst the people, which was greatly -increased by the general opinion that these repairs should be done out -of the tithes which they paid either to lay or clerical personages. Laud -carried matters with far too high a hand to pay the slightest regard to -these complaints, and he proceeded to consecrate such churches as were -thus repaired, with all the splendid ceremony of Catholicism, as if they -had been desecrated by their neglect. - -He obtained a commission under the Great Seal for the repair of St. -Paul's Cathedral. The judges of the prerogative courts, and their -officials throughout England and Wales, were ordered to pay into the -chamber in London all moneys derived from persons dying intestate, to be -applied to the restoration of this church. The clergy were called on by -the bishops in their several dioceses to furnish an annual subsidy for -this object. The king contributed at various times ten thousand pounds, -Sir Paul Pindar four thousand pounds, and Laud gave one hundred pounds -a year. He was bent on making St. Paul's a rival of St. Peter's; and as -more money became necessary, he summoned wealthy people into the High -Commission Court on all possible pleas, and fined them heavily; so that -there was a plentiful crop of money and of murmurs against the Primate, -who was said to be building the church out of the sins of the people. - -Laud had obtained for his devoted adherents Windebank and Juxon, Dean -of Westminster, the posts of Secretary of State and of Clerk of the -King's Closet respectively; thus, as Heylin observes, the king was so -well watched by his staunch friends that it was not easy for any one to -insinuate anything to Laud's disadvantage; and the Primate went on most -sweepingly in his own way. He put down all evening lecturing, evening -meetings, and extemporary praying. He re-introduced in the churches -painted glass, pictures, and surplices, lawn-sleeves, and embroidered -caps; had the communion-tables removed, and altars placed instead, and -railed in; and he carried his innovations with such an arbitrary hand -that many who might have approved of them in themselves were set against -them. The stricter reformers complained of the looseness with which the -Sabbath was kept, and the Lord Chief Justice Richardson and Baron Denham -issued an order in the western circuit to put an end to the disorders -attending church-ales, bid-ales, clerk-ales, and the like. But no sooner -did Laud hear of it than he had the Lord Chief Justice summoned before -the Council and severely reprimanded as interfering with the commands of -King James for the practice of such Sunday sports, as recommended in his -Book of Sports, and since confirmed by Charles. - -[Illustration: ARCHBISHOP LAUD.] - -The country magistrates, who had seen the demoralisation consequent on -these sports and Sunday gatherings at the ale-houses, petitioned the king -to put them down; and the petition was signed by Lord Paulet, Sir William -Portman, Sir Ralph Hopeton, and many other gentlemen of distinction. But -they were forestalled by the agility of Laud, who procured from the king -a declaration sanctioning all the Sunday amusements to be found in the -Book of Sports, and commanding all judges on circuit, and all justices -of the peace, to see that no man was molested on that account. This -declaration was ordered to be read in all parish churches by the clergy. -Many conscientious clergy, who had seen too much of the dissolute riots -resulting from these rude gatherings on Sundays, refused to read the -declaration, and were suspended from their duties, and prosecuted to such -a degree that they had no alternative but to emigrate to America. - -This dictation of Laud extended over the whole kingdom, into Wales, -Scotland, and Ireland. Charles was urged to issue proclamation after -proclamation interfering in things entirely beyond the range of his -episcopal jurisdiction, such as regulating the price of poultry and the -retailing of tobacco. In Ireland, Wentworth, now made Lord Deputy, went -hand-in-hand with him. That he might the better interfere in all kinds of -matters Laud was appointed in 1634 Chief of the Board of Commissioners -of the Exchequer, and--on the death of Weston, Lord Portland--the Lord -High Treasurer. He then got his friend Juxon made Bishop of London, and -in about a year surrendered to him the Treasurership, to the surprise and -murmuring of many, for Juxon, till the primate brought him forward, was a -man of no mark whatever. Lord Chancellor Cottington, who had been a fast -friend of Laud's, and calculated on the white staff of the Treasurer, now -fell away from Laud, and many noblemen who had had an eye to it began -to prophesy what the end of his career would be. But the University of -Oxford, going the whole way with him in his advances towards Popery, -styled him "His Holiness _Summus Pontifex, Spiritu Sancto effusissime -plenus, Archangelus et nequid minus_!" And Laud accepted all this base -adulation, and declared that these revolting titles were quite proper, -because they had been applied to the popes and fathers of the Romish -Church. In fact, he desired to be the pope of England. - -And in this great Papal authority he was fain to stretch his coercing -hand over the churches wherever they were. He procured an order in -Council to shut the English factories in Holland, and compel the troops -serving there to conform to the Liturgy of the Church of England. Most -of the merchants and many of these soldiers had gone thither expressly -to enjoy their own forms of religion; but no matter, they must conform. -And says Heylin, "The like course was prescribed for our factories -in Hamburg, and those farther off, that is to say in Turkey, in the -Mogul's dominions, the Indian islands, the plantations in Virginia, -the Barbadoes, and all other places where the English had any standing -residence in the way of trade." This order was to be carried into the -houses and establishments of all ambassadors and consuls abroad. - -William Prynne was a young graduate of Oxford, originally from Painswick, -near Bath, but now an outer barrister of Lincoln's Inn. He was a thorough -Puritan, grave, stern in his ideas, and rigid in his morals, a man who -was ready to sacrifice reputation, life, and everything, for his high -ideal of religious truth. He was persuaded that much of the dissoluteness -of the young men around him arose from the debasing effect of frequenting -the theatres; and in that he was probably correct, for the theatres -were not in that age, nor for long after, fitting schools for youth. He -therefore wrote (1632) a volume of a thousand pages against the stage, -called "Histriomastix." He stated that forty thousand copies of plays -had been exposed for sale within two years, and were eagerly bought up; -that the theatres were the chapels of Satan, the players his ministers, -and their frequenters were rushing headlong into hell. Dancing was, in -his opinion, an equally diabolical amusement, and every pace was a step -nearer to Tophet. Dancing made the ladies of England "frizzled madams," -polluted their modesty, and would destroy them as it had done Nero, -and led three Romans to assassinate Gallienus. He went on to attack -everything that Laud had been supporting--Maypoles, public festivals, -church-ales, music, and Christmas carols: the cringings and duckings at -the altar which Laud had so much fostered, and all the silk and satin -divines, their pluralities, and their bellowing chants in the Church. - -Laud had made two vain attempts to lay hold on this pestilent satirist, -but the lawyers had defeated him by injunctions from Westminster Hall. -But the third time, by accusing him more exclusively of reflecting on the -king and queen by his strictures on dancing, he obtained an order for -the Attorney-General Noye to indict him in the Star Chamber. There he -was condemned to be excluded from the bar and from Lincoln's Inn, to be -deprived of his University degree, to pay a fine of five thousand pounds, -to have his book burnt before his face by the hangman, to stand in the -pillory at Westminster and in Cheapside, at each place to lose an ear, -and afterwards to be imprisoned for life. This most detestable sentence -was carried into effect in May, 1634, with brutal ferocity, although the -queen interceded earnestly in his favour, and the nation denounced the -barbarity in no equivocal language. - -Prynne, undaunted, nay, exasperated to greater daring by this cruelty, -resumed the subject in his prison, whence he issued a tract (1637) styled -"News from Ipswich," in which he charged the prelates with being the -bishops of Lucifer, devouring wolves, and execrable traitors, who had -overthrown the simplicity of the Gospel to introduce the superstitions -of Popery. He had found in prison a congenial soul, Dr. Bastwick, a -physician, who had written a treatise against the bishops, called -"_Elenchus papismi et flagellum episcoporum Latialium_," for which he had -been condemned to pay a fine of one thousand pounds to the king, to be -imprisoned two years, and to make recantation. He now, that is in 1636, -wrote a fresh tract: "_Apologeticus ad praesules Anglicanos_," and (in -1637) the "Litanie of John Bastwick, doctor of physic, lying in _Limbo -patrum_," in which he attacked both the bishops' and Laud's service books. - -A third person was Henry Burton, who had been chaplain to Charles when -on his journey to Spain; but being now incumbent of St. Matthew's, in -London, he had preached against the bishops as "blind watchmen, dumb -dogs, ravening wolves, anti-Christian mushrooms, robbers of souls, limbs -of the beast, and factors of antichrist." - -These zealous religionists, whom the cruelties and follies of Laud and -his bishops had driven almost beside themselves, were condemned in the -Star Chamber to be each fined five thousand pounds, to stand two hours in -the pillory, where they were to have their ears cut off, to be branded -on both cheeks with the letters S.L., for "seditious libeller," and then -imprisoned for life. - -This sentence, than which the Spanish Inquisition has nothing worse to -show, was fully executed in Old Palace Yard, on the 30th of June, 1637. -Prynne from the pillory defied all Lambeth, with the Pope at its back, -to prove to him that such doings were according to the law of England; -and if he failed to prove them violators of that law and the law of God, -they were at liberty to hang him at the door of the Gate House prison. On -hearing this the people gave a great shout; but the executioner, as if -incited to more cruelty, cut off their ears as barbarously as possible, -rather sawing than cutting them. Prynne, who is said to have had his -ears sewed on again on the former occasion, had them now gouged out, as -it were; yet as the hangman sawed at them he cried out, "Cut me, tear -me, I fear thee not. I fear the fire of hell, but not thee!" Burton, -too, harangued the people for a long time most eloquently; but the sun -blazing hotly in their faces all the time, he was near fainting, when he -was carried into a house in King Street, saying, "It is too hot! Too hot, -indeed!" - -This most disgraceful exhibition made a terrible impression on the -spectators, of whom the king was informed that there were one hundred -thousand; whilst the executioner sawed at the ears of the prisoners they -assailed him with curses, hisses, and groans. Both Charles and Laud -were unpleasantly surprised at the effect produced; and to remove the -sufferers from public sympathy, they determined to send them to distant -and solitary prisons, far separate from each other--to Launceston, -Carnarvon, and Lancaster. But the king and his high priest were still -more amazed and alarmed when they found on the removal of the prisoners -the crowds were equally immense, and that they went along from place -to place in a kind of triumph. To attend Burton from Smithfield to two -miles beyond Highgate, there were again at least one hundred thousand -people, who testified their deep sympathy, and threw money into the coach -to his wife as she drove along. Money and presents were also offered to -Prynne, but he refused them. Gentlemen of wealth and station pressed to -see and condole with the prisoners, whom they honoured and applauded as -martyrs. When Prynne reached Chester, on his way to Carnarvon, one of the -sheriffs, attended by a number of gentle men, met him, invited him to a -good dinner, discharged the cost, and gave him some hangings to furnish -his dungeon with in Carnarvon Castle. - -This popular demonstration still more startled Laud, who summoned the -sheriff, as well as the other gentlemen, before the High Commission Court -at York, where they were fined in sums varying from two hundred and fifty -pounds to five hundred pounds, and condemned to acknowledge their offence -before the congregation in the cathedral and the Corporation in the town -hall of Chester. The prisoners themselves were ordered to be removed -farther still, and accordingly Bastwick was sent to the Isle of Scilly, -Burton to the Castle of Cornet in Guernsey, and Prynne to that of Mount -Orgueil in Jersey. But the king and archbishop had now roused a spirit, -by their cutting off of ears, which would be satisfied ere long with -nothing less than their whole heads. - -To stop the outcry against their cruelties, they next determined to -gag the press. An order was therefore issued by the Star Chamber, -forbidding all importation of foreign books, and the printing of any -at home without licence. All books on religion, physic, literature, and -poetry must be licensed by the bishops, so that all truths unpleasant -to the Church would thus be suppressed. There were to be allowed only -twenty master printers in the kingdom, except those of his majesty and -the universities; no printer was to have more than two presses nor two -apprentices, except the warden of the Company. There were to be only four -letter-founders; and whoever presumed to print without licence was to be -whipped through London and set in the pillory. All this time the High -Commission Court kept pace with the Star Chamber in its prosecutions and -arbitrary fines, under pretence of protecting public morals. - -Laud soon had delinquents against the atrocious order for gagging the -press. In about six months after the infliction of the sentence on Prynne -and his associates, he cited into the Star Chamber John Lilburne and John -Warton, for printing Prynne's "News from Ipswich" and other books called -libellous (1638). The accused refused to take the oath proposed to them, -protesting against the lawfulness of the court. Being called up several -times, and still obstinately refusing, they were condemned to be fined -five hundred pounds apiece, Lilburne to be whipped from the Fleet to the -pillory, and both to be bound to their good behaviour. Lilburne was one -of the most determined of men. He continued to declaim violently against -the tyranny of Laud and his bishops whilst he was standing in the pillory -and undergoing his whipping. He drew from his pockets a number of the -very pamphlets he was punished for printing, and scattered them from the -pillory amongst the crowd. The court of Star Chamber being informed of -his conduct, sent and had him gagged; but he then stamped with his feet -to intimate that he would still speak if he could. He was then thrown -into the Fleet, heavily ironed and in solitude. - -To complete Laud's attacks on all persons and parties, there lacked -only an onslaught on the episcopal bench, and there he found Williams, -formerly Lord Keeper, and still Bishop of Lincoln, for a victim. -Williams, with all his faults, had been a true friend of Laud's at a time -when he had very few, and the wily upstart had declared that his very -life would be too short to demonstrate his gratitude: but he took full -occasion to display towards him his ingratitude. From the moment that -Laud was introduced to the king, Williams could ill conceal his disgust -at the clerical adventurer's base adulation. But Laud continued to -ascend and Williams to descend. Williams having lost the seals, retired -to his diocese, where he made himself very popular by his talents, his -agreeable manners, his hospitality, and still more by his being regarded -as a victim of the arbitrary spirit of the king and of Laud. Williams, -who had a stinging wit, launched a tract at the head of the Primate, -called the "Holy Table," in which he unmercifully satirised Laud's parade -of high altars and Popish ceremonies. The Primate very speedily had him -in the Star Chamber, where he received private information that if he -would give up to Laud his deanery of Westminster, that disinterested -prelate would let the prosecution slip. Williams refused, and then -commenced one of the most disgraceful scenes in history. Laud, Windebank, -and the king were determined to force the deanery and a heavy fine from -him. They browbeat his witnesses; threw them into prison to compel them -to swear falsely; removed Chief Justice Heath to put in a more pliant -man; and at length, through the medium of Lord Cottington, induced -Williams, from terror of worse, to give up the deanery and pay a fine of -ten thousand pounds. His servants and agents, Walker, Catlin, and Lunn, -were fined three hundred pounds apiece, and Powell two hundred pounds. - -This being done, Laud uttered a most hypocritical speech, professing -high admiration of the talents, wisdom, learning, and various endowments -of Williams, and his sorrow to see him thus punished, declaring that he -had gone five times on his knees to the king to sue for his pardon. But -even so Williams was not destined to escape. The officers who went to -take possession of his effects, found amongst his papers two letters from -Osbaldeston, master of Westminster School, in one of which he said that -the great leviathan--the late Lord Treasurer, Portland--and the little -urchin--Laud--were in a storm; and in the other, that "there was great -jealousy between the leviathan and the little meddling hocus-pocus." - -This, which was no crime of Williams, but of Osbaldeston, was, however, -made a crime of both. Williams was condemned on the charge of concealing -a libel on a public officer, and fined eight thousand pounds more, and -to suffer imprisonment during the king's pleasure. The chief offender, -Osbaldeston, could not be found; he had left a note saying he was "gone -beyond Canterbury;" but he was sentenced to deprivation of his office, to -be branded, and stand opposite to his own school in the pillory, with -his ears nailed to it. He took good care, however, not to fall into such -merciless hands. - -[Illustration: JOHN LILBURNE ON THE PILLORY. (_See p._ 556.)] - -Besides those means of raising a permanent revenue for the Crown, -independent of Parliament, which we have already detailed--as tonnage -and poundage, the fees on compulsory knighthood, and the resumption -of forest lands,--there was discovered another which was owing to -the ingenuity of Attorney-General Noye. The landed proprietors had -been much alarmed by the rumours that the king would lay claim to the -greater part of every county in England except Kent, Sussex, and Surrey, -but the whole public was struck with consternation at the additional -project of the Attorney-General. As he had been always of a surly and -morose disposition, he carried this ungracious manner with him into his -apostacy. Formerly he had acted like a rude ill-tempered patriot, now -he was the more odious from being at once obsequious to the Crown, and -coarsely insolent to those whose rights he had invaded. - -In the Records of the Tower he discovered writs compelling the ports and -maritime counties to provide a certain number of ships during war, or for -protecting the coasts from pirates. It was now declared that the seas -were greatly infested with Turkish corsairs, who not only intercepted our -merchantmen at sea, but made descents on the coast of Ireland and carried -off the inhabitants into slavery. The French and Dutch mariners, it was -added, were continually interrupting our trade, and making prizes of our -trading vessels. It was necessary to assert our right to the sovereignty -of the narrow seas, which, it was contended, "our progenitors, Kings -of England, had always possessed, and that it would be very irksome to -us if that princely honour in our time should be lost, or in anything -diminished." - -But the real cause was that Charles was at that time, 1634, engaged -in the treaty with Spain to assist it against the United Provinces of -Holland, on condition that Philip engaged to restore the Palsgrave. -Noye's scheme was highly approved and supported by the Lord Keeper -Coventry. On the 20th of October, 1634, a writ was issued by the Lords of -the Council, signed by the king, to the city of London, commanding it to -furnish before the 1st of March next, seven ships, with all the requisite -arms, stores, and tackling, and wages for the men for twenty-six weeks. -One ship was to be of nine hundred tons, and to carry three hundred and -fifty men; another of eight hundred tons, with two hundred and sixty -men; four ships of five hundred tons, with two hundred men each; and -one of three hundred tons, with one hundred and fifty men. The Common -Council and citizens humbly remonstrated against the demand as one from -which they were exempt by their charters, but the Council treated their -objections with contempt, and compelled them to submit. - -In the spring of 1635 similar writs were issued to the maritime -counties, and even sent into the interior, a most unheard-of demand; -and instructions were forwarded to all parts, signed by Laud, Coventry, -Juxon, Cottington, and the rest of the Privy Council, ordering the -sheriffs to collect the money which was to be levied instead of ships, at -the rate of three thousand three hundred pounds for every ship. They were -to distrain on all who refused, and take care that no arrears were left -to their successors. The demand occasioned both murmuring and resistance. -The deputy-lieutenants of some inland counties wrote to the Council, -begging that the inhabitants might be excused this unprecedented tax; but -they were speedily called before the Council, and severely reprimanded. -The people on the coasts of Sussex absolutely refused to pay, but they -were soon forced by the sheriffs to submit. Noye died before this took -place, and squibs regarding him were publicly placarded, saying that -his body being opened, a bundle of proclamations was found in his head, -worm-eaten records were discovered in his stomach, and a barrel of soap, -alluding to the enforcement of the monopoly on that article, was found in -his paunch. - -To put an end to all murmurs or resistance, Charles determined to -have the sanction of the judges, knowing that he could not have that -of Parliament. He therefore removed Chief Justice Heath on this and -other accounts, and put in his place the supple Sir John Finch, lately -conspicuous as Speaker of the Commons. The questions submitted to the -judges were whether, when the good and safety of the realm demanded it, -the king could not levy this ship-money, and whether he was not the -proper and sole judge of the danger and the necessity. Finch canvassed -his brethren of the Bench individually and privately. The judges met -in Serjeant's Inn on the 12th of February, 1636, when they were all -perfectly unanimous except Croke and Hutton, who, however, subscribed, on -the ground that the opinion of a majority settled the matter. - -To obtain this opinion, Charles had let the judges know through Finch, -that he only required their decision for his private satisfaction; but -they were startled to find their sanction immediately proclaimed by the -Lord Keeper Coventry in the Star Chamber, order given that it should -be enrolled in all the courts at Westminster, and themselves required -to make it known from the Bench on their circuits through the country. -Nor was this all, for Wentworth, now become a full-fledged agent of -despotism, contended that "since it is lawful for the king to impose a -tax towards the equipment of the navy, it must be equally so for the levy -of an army; and the same reason which authorises him to levy an army to -resist, will authorise him to carry that army abroad, that he may prevent -invasion. Moreover, what is law in England is also law in Ireland and -Scotland. This decision of the judges will, therefore, make the king -absolute at home, and formidable abroad. Let him," he observed, "only -abstain from war a few years, that he may habituate his subjects to the -payment of this tax, and in the end he will find himself more powerful -and respected than any of his predecessors." - -Such were the principles of Wentworth, ready on the smallest concession -to grant a dozen other assumptions upon it, and such the counsellors, -himself and Laud, who encouraged the already too fatally despotic king to -his destruction. The judges were, for the most part, equally traitorous -to the nation, and preached the most absolute doctrines and passed the -most absolute sentences. Richard Chambers, the London merchant, who had -already suffered so severely for resisting the king's illegal demands, -also refused payment of this, and brought an action against the Lord -Mayor for imprisoning him for his refusal. But Judge Berkeley would not -hear the counsel of Chambers in his defence; and afterwards, in his -charge to the grand jury at York, described ship-money as the inseparable -flower of the Crown. But they were not so easily to override the rights -of the people of England. There were numbers of stout hearts only waiting -a fitting opportunity to unite and crush the spirit of despotism now -growing so rampant. One of the most distinguished of these patriots was -John Hampden, a gentleman of Buckinghamshire, whose name has become a -world-wide synonym for sturdy constitutional independence. He determined -not only to resist the payment of ship-money, but to try the question, -so as to make known far and wide its illegality. He consulted his legal -friends, Holborne, St. John, Whitelock, and others, on the best means of -dealing with it, and encouraged by his example, thirty freeholders of -his parish of Great Kimble, in Buckinghamshire, also refused payment. No -sooner, therefore, had Charles obtained the opinion of the judges, than -he determined to proceed against Hampden in the Court of Exchequer. The -case was conducted for the Crown by the Attorney-General, Sir John Banks, -and the Solicitor-General, Sir Edward Littleton. The sum at which Hampden -was assessed was only twenty shillings: the trial lasted for twelve days -before the twelve judges, that is, from the 6th to the 18th of December, -1637. - -It was argued on the part of the Crown that the practice was sanctioned -by the annual tax of Dane-gelt, imposed by the Saxons; by former monarchs -having pressed ships into their service, and compelled the maritime -counties to equip them; and that the claim on the part of the king was -reasonable and patriotic, for if he did not exercise this right of the -Crown, in cases of danger, before the Parliament could be assembled -serious damage might accrue. The Crown lawyers ridiculed the refusal of -a man of Mr. Hampden's great estates to pay so paltry a sum as twenty -shillings; and declared that the sheriffs of Bucks ought to be fined -for not putting upon him twenty pounds. But it was replied upon the -part of Hampden, that the amount of the assessment was not in question, -it was the principle of it. Nor could the Dane-gelt give evidence in -the case, the imperfect accounts to be drawn on the subject from our -ancient writers being too vague and uncertain. Moreover, the practice -of monarchs before or after Magna Charta could not establish any law on -the subject, for Magna Charta abrogated any arbitrary customs that had -gone before, and strictly and clearly forbade them afterwards. No breach -of that great Charter could be pleaded against it, for it was paramount -and perpetual in its authority. Again, various statutes since, and last -of all the Petition of Right, assented to by the king himself, made any -such taxation without consent of Parliament illegal and void; while -the very asking of loans and benevolences by different monarchs was -sufficient proof of this, for if they had the right to tax, they would -have taxed, and not borrowed. The most arbitrary prince that ever sat -on the English throne--Henry VIII.,--when he had borrowed, and was not -disposed to repay, did not consider his own fiat sufficient to cancel -the debt, but called in Parliament to release him from the obligation. -They reminded the judges of Edward I.'s confirmation of the charters, and -of the statute _De Tallagio non concedendo_. As to the plea of imminent -danger from foreign invasion, as in the case of the great Armada, as -the Crown lawyers had mentioned, such cases, they argued, were next to -impossible; notices of danger, as in the instance of the Armada itself, -being obtained in ample time to call together Parliament. In this case -there was no urgency whatever to forestall the measures of Parliament; -for neither the insolence of a few Turkish pirates, nor even the threats -of neighbouring States, were of consequence enough to warrant the -forestalling of the constitutional functions of Parliament. - -The Crown lawyers, baffled by this unanswerable statement, then -unblushingly took their stand on the doctrine that the king was bound -by no laws, but all laws proceeded from the grace of the king, and that -this was a right which all monarchs had reserved from time immemorial. -Justice Crawley declared that the right of such impositions resided _ipso -facto_ in the king as king, that you could not have a king without these -rights--no, not by Act of Parliament. "The law," said Judge Berkeley, -"knows no such king-yoking policy. The law is an old and trusty servant -of the king's; it is his instrument or means which he useth to govern -his people by. I never read or heard that _Lex_ was _Rex_, but it is -common and most true that _Rex_ is _Lex_." The pliable Finch said, "Acts -of Parliament are void to bind the king not to command the subjects, -their persons, and goods, and, I say, their money, too, for no Acts of -Parliament make any difference." Certainly they made no difference to -him; and if these base lawyers could have talked away the rights of -the people of England, they would have done it for their own selfish -interests. When Holborne contended that it was not only for themselves, -but for posterity, that they were bound to preserve the constitution -intact, Finch testily exclaimed, "It belongs not to the Bar to talk of -future governments; it is not agreeable to duty to have you bandy what is -the hope of succeeding princes, when the king hath a blessed issue so -hopeful to succeed him in his crown and virtues." But Holborne replied, -"My lord, for that whereof I speak, I look far off--many ages off; five -hundred years hence!" - -But all the judges were not of like stamp. Hutton and Croke, who had -dissented when the opinion of the judges was first taken, now made a bold -stand against the illegal practice. As the ruin of a judge who thus dared -to act in upright independence was pretty certain at that time, we may -estimate the degree of virtue necessary to such decision, and the noble -self-sacrifice of Lady Croke, who bade her husband give no thought to -the consequences of discharging his duty, for that she would be content -to suffer want, or any misery with him, rather than he should do or say -anything against his judgment and conscience. - -The case was not decided till the Trinity Term, the third term from the -commencement of the trial, when, on the 12th of June, 1638, judgment was -entered against Hampden in the Court of Exchequer. But even then five -of the judges had the courage to decide for Hampden, though three of -them did this only on technical grounds, conceding the main and vital -question. The decision of this most important trial was apparently in -favour of the king, and there was, accordingly, much triumphing at Court; -but in reality, it was in favour of the people, for it had been so -long before the public, and the arguments of Hampden's counsel were so -undeniable, those of the Crown so absolutely untenable, and opposed to -all the history of the nation, that the matter was everywhere discussed, -and men's opinions made up that, without a positive resistance to such -claims and such doctrines as had here been advanced, the country was a -place of serfdom, and the bloodshed and the labour of all past patriots -had been in vain. It was accordingly found that people were more averse -than ever from paying these demands; and even the courtly Clarendon -confesses that "the pressure was borne with much more cheerfulness before -the judgment for the king than ever it was after." Lord Say made a -determined stand against it in Warwickshire, and would fain have brought -on another trial like that of John Hampden; but the king would not allow -another damaging experiment; and events came crowding after it of such a -nature, as showed how deep the matter had sunk into the public mind. - -The course which matters were taking was exceedingly disgusting to the -ministers of King Charles--Laud and Wentworth. The latter had been -appointed Lord President of the North, where he had ruled with all -the overbearing self-will of a king. The Council of the North had been -appointed by Henry VIII., to try and punish the insurgents concerned -in the Pilgrimage of Grace, and it had been continued ever since on as -lawless a basis as that of the Star Chamber itself. In fact, it was the -Star Chamber of the five most northern counties of England, summoning and -judging the subjects without any jury, but at the will of the Council -itself. Wentworth had risen from a simple baronet to be Privy Councillor, -baron and viscount, and President of the North, with more rapidity than -Buckingham himself had done. On accepting this last office, his power -and jurisdiction were enlarged, and he displayed such an unflinching -spirit in exercising the most despotic will, that on difficulties arising -in Ireland, he was, without resigning his Presidency of the North, -transferred thither, where Charles had resolved to introduce the same -subjection to his sole will as in England and Scotland. - -When the unfortunate expedition to Cadiz had been made, and the king -feared the Spaniards would retaliate by making a descent on Ireland, he -ordered the Lord-Deputy, Lord Falkland, to raise the Irish army to five -thousand foot and five hundred horse. There was no great difficulty in -that, but the question how they were to be maintained was not so easy. -Lord Falkland, who was one of the most honourable and conscientious of -men, called together the great landed proprietors, and submitted the -matter to their judgment. These, who were chiefly Catholics, offered to -advance the necessary funds on condition that certain concessions should -be made to the people of Ireland. These were, that, besides the removal -of many minor grievances, the recusants should be allowed to practise -in the courts of law, and to sue the livery of their lands out of the -court of wards on their taking the oath of Allegiance without that of -Supremacy; that the Undertakers on the several plantations should have -time to fulfil the conditions of their leases; that the claims of the -Crown should be confined to the last sixty years, the inhabitants of -Connaught being allowed a new enrolment of their estates; and finally, -that a parliament should be held to confirm these graces, as they were -called. - -Delegates were sent to London to lay these proposals before the king, -and on the agreement to pay one hundred and twenty thousand pounds by -instalments in three years, Charles readily granted these articles -of grace, amounting to fifty-one. But meanwhile, a rumour of these -concessions having got out, the Irish Established Church had made a -great opposition, and though the parliament was called, nothing was done, -nor did Charles intend to do more than get the money. As Lord Falkland -was the last man in the world to be a party to anything so dishonourable, -he was recalled, and Wentworth was sent over, in the July of 1632, to do -the work. - -[Illustration: THE BIRMINGHAM TOWER, DUBLIN CASTLE.] - -Wentworth's arrival in Ireland was tantamount to a revolution there. -He introduced all the regulations of the English Court at the Castle, -assumed a guard like the king, which no Deputy before him had done, and -carried himself with a haughty demeanour which made the Irish lords stand -amazed. The only good which he effected was in putting down the multitude -of minor tyrants, but then he combined all their tyranny and oppressions -in himself. He was ready to bear any amount of odium, because he trusted -to the king's support. His object was to raise a large permanent revenue, -and Wentworth soon informed Charles that if this was to be done, there -must be an end to making grants to needy English nobles, who absorbed -what should flow to the Crown. Charles had promised such grants to -the Duke of Lennox, the Earl of Arundel, and others; but on learning -Wentworth's views, Secretary Windebank wrote, at the king's command, that -Wentworth was at liberty to refuse them these grants, provided that he -took "the refusing part" on himself. - -As a first measure to raise money, he informed Charles that it would -be necessary to call a Parliament. The king, who had found Parliaments -too much for him, and was endeavouring to live without them, heard -the proposal with consternation, and warned Wentworth against such an -attempt; but the Lord Deputy informed him that he had a plan by which -he could manage them, and Charles wrote to him, consenting, but still -warning. "As for that hydra, take good heed, for you know that here I -have found it as well cunning as malicious. It is true that your grounds -are well laid, and I assure you that I have a great trust in your care -and judgment; yet my opinion is, that it will not be the worse for my -service though their obstinacy make you to break them, for I fear they -have some ground to demand more than it is fit for me to give." - -Wentworth knew that very well, but meant to grant nothing of the kind. -He sent out a hundred letters of recommendation in favour of the return -of candidates on whom he could rely, and procured a royal order for the -absent peers to send blank proxies, which he might fill up as he pleased. -These were considerable in number, and consisted chiefly of Englishmen -who had obtained their estates or titles from Charles or his father. Thus -he secured a majority; and on opening Parliament he informed the members -that he meant to hold two Sessions--one for the benefit of the king, the -other for redressing the grievances of the people. Had the Irish noticed -what had been going forward in England, they would have augured no good -from such an arrangement, and might have followed the example of the -English Commons, who would always insist on stating their grievances -before parting with their money. But the unfortunate Irish listened to -the dulcet tones of the Lord-Deputy, who assured them that if they put -their trust in him and the king they would have the happiest Parliament -that had ever sat in that kingdom. He talked of the misfortunes which -had happened to the English Parliament through distrusting the king--he -himself having been one of the chief actors in these distrusts--and on -his assuring them that he was anxious to hasten to the second Session and -the removal of all their grievances they voted him out of the fulness -of their confidence six subsidies of larger amount than had ever been -granted before. - -But when they came to the second Session, awful was the astonishment, and -terrible the consternation, of the liberal granters of subsidies. The -shameless trickster coolly informed them that of the fifty-one graces -promised them by the king, very few were of a kind which he, who knew -the circumstances of the country, could grant. In vain they reminded him -of his promises, and called on him to fulfil them. He gave them menaces -instead of promises, launched at them the most biting sarcasms, and -made them appear a set of criminals rather than deceived and insulted -legislators. His majority carried everything as he pleased, and after -passing a few insignificant graces, he negatived the bulk of them, -including all the important ones, and dismissed the Parliament. - -He had been equally successful with the Convocation. He obtained from -it eight subsidies of three thousand pounds each, but he then refused -to grant the conditions promised. It was the settled plan of the king, -supported by Laud, to conform both the Scottish and Irish Churches to -the English, and Wentworth was the most unscrupulous agent in such a -work that they could have. The Irish prelates informed him that their -Church was wholly independent of that of England, had its own Articles, -of the Calvinistic class, and owed no obedience to the See of Canterbury. -He insisted, however, that they must admit the Thirty-nine Articles of -England; it was not necessary to parade them before the people, but they -must be admitted, and the old Irish Articles might quietly die out. The -prelates set about to frame a new code of ecclesiastical discipline; but -to his surprise, he learned that they had rejected the English Articles -and retained their own. He sent for the Archbishop and the Committee, -upbraided the Chairman with suffering such a proceeding, took possession -of the minutes, and ordered Archbishop Ussher himself to frame a canon -authorising the English Articles. Ussher's production, however, did -not satisfy him; he therefore drew up a form himself, and sent it to -the Convocation, commanding that no debate should take place, but the -Articles should be at once adopted, and informing them that every one's -vote should be reported to him. Only one member of the whole Convocation -dared to vote against his will; the rest submitted, but with the utmost -indignation. - -Having thus with a high hand carried his measures--refused the -confirmation of the graces, conformed the Irish to the English Church -in one Session, and obtained such an amount of money as would not only -pay off the debts of the Crown, but would supply for some years the -extraordinary demands of the Government, he wrote exultingly to England, -declaring that the king was as absolute in Ireland as any king in the -world, and might be the same in England if they did their duty there. -He boldly demanded an earl's coronet, on account of these services, -which, however, Charles deferred for awhile, thinking that he should -hold such a man to his work rather by the hope than the possession of -high preferment. Wentworth was so delighted with his overruling the -Irish Parliament, that he proposed to the king to merely prorogue and -not dissolve it, as being the most convenient instrument for effecting -his further designs on the country. But Charles would not listen to it, -remarking that parliaments were like cats, they ever grew cursed with -age, and it was better to put an end to them early, young ones being most -tractable. He thanked him for what he had done, and especially for saving -him from the odium of breaking his promise about the graces. - -How little did this bold bad man see that, whilst he was serving the -king's worst purposes, he was preparing his own destruction. In fact, -though he had stunned the Irish for a moment by the audacity of his -bearing, he had struck deep into their souls a resentment that no man, -however powerful or subtle, could withstand. He was, however, only on -the threshold of the sweeping changes which he contemplated in that -country, for he was resolved to reduce it to a condition of absolute -dependence on the Crown. He was not content with forcing the English -Articles on the Irish Church, but he refused to the Catholics every -relief that Charles had pledged himself to in order to get their money. -Instead of abolishing, as promised, the oppressive power of the court -of wards, he gave them a more virulent activity. The Catholic heir was -still obliged to sue out the livery of his lands, and before he could -obtain them, to take the oaths of Allegiance and Supremacy. To obtain his -rightful property, he was thus compelled to abjure his religion. But he -entertained a still more gigantic design, which was to seize on the fee -simple of the greater part of Ireland, on pretence of defective title. - -We have seen that in the reigns of Elizabeth and James the titles of the -great landed proprietors both in Connaught and Ulster had been called in -question, and those monarchs had pretended to renew them on condition -of certain payments. These conditions had been repeatedly fulfilled -by the proprietors, but not by the Crown. Charles, in 1628, amongst -the other benefits promised, had engaged to ratify these titles; but -Wentworth showed him the folly of doing that while by alarming them on -the point he might draw immense sums from them, or get possession of the -lands. To this proposal Charles consented, and the experiment was begun -with Connaught. Wentworth proceeded (1635) at the head of a commission, -to hold an inquisition in every county of Connaught. He opened his -proceedings at Roscommon, where he summoned a jury of "gentlemen of -the best estates and understandings," that more weight might attach to -their decisions if favourable, or that, if adverse, he might levy heavy -fines upon them. He assured the jury that his majesty merely meant to -ascertain the condition of all titles, in order that if defective he -might render them legal. It was on this plea that the freeholders had -been wheedled into the surrender of their deeds and patents by Elizabeth -and James; but Wentworth added another alarming fiction. He contended -that Henry III., reserving only five cantreds to himself, had given the -remainder to Richard de Burgh, to be holden of him and his heirs of the -Crown, and that those tenures had now descended to the present king, by -the marriage of the heirs of De Burgh with the royal line. According to -this the king was the rightful owner of every acre of land in Ireland. -He assured the jury, therefore, that it was their best interest to -give a general verdict for the king, as he could without their consent -establish his right, and if compelled to do that in opposition to them, -the result might be much worse for them. By these means he induced -the juries in Roscommon, Sligo, Mayo, Clare, and Limerick, to return -a verdict in favour of the Crown, but the people of Galway stoutly -resisted. They declared that the title of the king, through Edward IV., -from Richard de Burgh, could not be proved; there was a hiatus in the -genealogy. They were all Catholics, and were the more resolute from -having been so shamefully deluded in the matter of wardship. Wentworth -was rather glad to be able to make an example of them, and he therefore -fined the sheriff one thousand pounds for returning so obstinate and -perverse a jury, and dragged the jury into his Star Chamber, the chamber -of the Castle, and fined them four thousand pounds apiece. He fell -with especial vindictiveness on the old Earl of Clanricarde, and other -great landowners of Galway, and set about to seize the fort of Galway, -march a body of troops into the country, and compel it to submit to -the king's will. The proprietors, disbelieving that the king could know -of or sanction such infamous breaches of faith and acts of oppression, -sent over a deputation to Charles to lay the matter before him. But the -king received them with reproaches, declared his full approval of the -proceedings of the Lord-Deputy, and sent them back to Ireland as State -prisoners. The old Earl of Clanricarde, whose son had been the head of -the deputation, died soon after receiving the news of this conduct of the -monarch, and Wentworth wrote to Charles that he was accused of being the -cause of his death. "They might as well," he remarked haughtily, "impute -to me the crime of his being threescore and ten." He was still busily -pursuing other noblemen with the same rancour--the Earl of Cork, Lord -Wilmot, and others--when the Catholic party in England, who had a friend -in Queen Henrietta, made their complaints heard at Whitehall. Laud, who -was acting as outrageously himself in England, informed Wentworth of -it, and even hinted more caution, observing that if he could find a way -to do all those great services without raising so many storms, it would -be excellently well thought of. But Wentworth was as little disposed to -avoid storms as his adviser himself. He proceeded in the same autocratic -style both towards the public and individuals. It had been the original -intention to return to the proprietors three-fourths of their lands, -and retain one-fourth for the Crown, amounting to about one hundred and -twenty thousand acres, which were to be planted with Englishmen, on -condition of yielding a large annual income to the Crown. But now it -was resolved to retain a full half of Galway as a punishment of its -obstinacy, and Wentworth was proceeding with the necessary measurements, -when his career proved at an end. - -[Illustration: SIR THOMAS WENTWORTH (EARL OF STRAFFORD). - -(_After the Portrait by Vandyke._)] - -The individual acts of injustice which he perpetrated were done at the -suggestion of his profligate desires or personal revenge, with the most -unabashed hardihood. He had seduced the daughter of Loftus, the Lord -Chancellor of Ireland, wife of Sir John Gifford, and wanted to confer -a good post on her relative Sir Adam Loftus. Such an opportunity soon -occurred by an inadvertent expression of Lord Mountnorris, Vice-Treasurer -of Ireland. It happened one day that Annesley, a lieutenant in the army, -accidentally set a stool on the foot of the Lord-Deputy, when he was -suffering from the gout. This Lieutenant Annesley had some time before -been caned by Wentworth in a paroxysm of passion, and Mountnorris hearing -the incident of the stool mentioned at the table of Chancellor Loftus, -said, "Perhaps Annesley did it as his revenge, but he has a brother who -would not have taken such a revenge." This being repeated to Wentworth, -he treated the observation as a suggestion to Annesley to perpetrate -a more bloody revenge; and though he dissembled his resentment for -some time, he then accused Mountnorris, who was also an officer in the -army, of mutiny, founded on this expression. Wentworth attended the -court-martial to overawe its proceedings, and obtained a sentence of -death against Mountnorris. The sentence was too atrocious to be carried -into execution, but it served Wentworth's purpose, for he cashiered -Mountnorris and gave his office to Loftus. Much as the Irish had suffered -before, this most lawless act excited a loud murmur of indignation -throughout the land; but Wentworth had secured himself from any censure -from the king by handing him six thousand pounds as the price of the -transfer of Mountnorris's treasurership to Sir Adam Loftus. - -The resentment of the Irish was becoming so strong against Wentworth, -that the king thought it safest for him to come to England for a time; -but he soon returned thither, with the additional favour of the monarch, -where he remained till summoned by Charles to assist him by his counsels -against the Scots. But the fatal and memorable year 1640 was at hand, -to close the story of his tyrannies. We must now retrace our steps, and -bring up the conflicts of Scotland with the same blind and determined -despots to that period. - -The storm against the despotism of Charles had broken out in that -country. From the moment of his visit to Edinburgh with his great apostle -Laud, he had never ceased pushing forward his scheme of conforming the -Presbyterian Church to Anglican episcopacy. He had restored the bishops -on that occasion, given them lands, erected deans and chapters, and -Laud had consecrated St. Giles's Church as a Cathedral. As he could not -persuade the Scottish Peers to submit to the liturgy as used in England, -which his father had attempted in vain before him, he consented that a -liturgy should be drawn up by four Scottish bishops, who were also to -form a code of ecclesiastical canons. They were to introduce into the -latter some of the acts of the Scottish assemblies, and some more ancient -canons, to make the whole more palatable. These laws and the liturgy -were afterwards revised by the Archbishop of Canterbury and the Bishops -of London and Norwich, and Charles ordered the amended copies to be -published and preserved. - -None but a monarch so foolhardy as Charles would have dared such an -experiment on the Scots who had resisted so stoutly his father, and had -driven his grandmother from the country for her adhesion to Popery. The -people received the publication of the canon with unequivocal indications -of their temper; and when, therefore, the first introduction, of the -liturgy was fixed for the 23rd of July, 1637, in St. Giles's Church, -they went thither in crowds, to give a characteristic reception. The -archbishops and bishops, the Lords of Session, and the magistrates went -in procession, and appeared there in all their official splendour. This -display, however, so far from imposing on the people of Edinburgh, only -excited their wrath and contempt, as the trumpery finery of the woman of -Babylon. A considerable riot ensued, during which a woman named Jenny -Geddes is said to have thrown a stool at the bishop's head. The story is, -however, supported by indifferent evidence. - -But it was not merely the base multitude, the nobility were as violent -against the new Liturgy as the people, and came to high words with the -bishops and their favourers amongst the clergy. Four ministers--Alexander -Henderson, of Leuchars; John Hamilton, of Newburn; James Bruce, of -Kingsbarns, and another--petitioned the Council on the 23rd of August, -to give them time to show the anti-Christian and idolatrous nature of -this ritual, and how near it came to the Popish mass, reminding them that -the people of Scotland had established the independence of their own -Church at the Reformation, which had been confirmed by Parliament and -General Assemblies, and that the people, instructed in their religion -from the pulpit, were not likely to adopt what their fathers had rejected -as contrary to the simplicity of the Gospel. But the Bishop of Ross, -Laud's right-hand man, replied for the Council that the liturgy was -neither superstitious nor idolatrous, but according to the formula of -the ancient Churches, and they must submit to that or to "horning," that -is, banishment. Still the Council delayed, and the people were pretty -quiet during the harvest time, but that over, the news having arrived of -a peremptory message from the king, commanding the enforcement of the -liturgy, and the removal of the Council from Edinburgh to Linlithgow, -thence in the following term to Stirling, and for the next to Dundee, -the people flocked into Edinburgh, and, incensed at the idea of their -ancient capital being deprived of its honours as the seat of government, -they became extremely irritated, attacked the bishops when they could see -them, and nearly tore the clothes from the back of the Bishop of Galway. -He escaped into the Council House, and the members of the Council in -their turn sent to demand protection from the magistrates, who could not -even protect themselves. - -For greater security the Council removed to Dalkeith, and the Marquis of -Hamilton recommended to Charles to make some concessions; but far from -giving way, a more positive order for the enforcement of the obnoxious -liturgy arrived from the king. But it was found impossible to enforce it: -the Earl of Traquair was summoned up to London, sharply questioned as to -the causes of the delay, and was sent back with more arbitrary commands. -On the 18th of October these were made known, and fresh riots took place, -Traquair and two of the bishops nearly losing their lives. The king then -consented to the petitioners above mentioned being represented by a -deputation personally resident in Edinburgh. The object was to induce the -crowds of strangers to withdraw to their homes, when it was thought the -people of Edinburgh alone might be better dealt with; but the advocates -of the people seized on the plan, and converted it into one of the most -powerful engines of opposition imaginable. - -At the head of these able politicians, and the contrivers of this -profoundly sagacious scheme, were the Lords Rothes, Balmerino, Lindsay, -Lothian, Loudon, Yester, and Cranstoun. Balmerino had been severely -treated by Charles, and had thus become hardened into the most positive -opponent of the episcopal movement. In his possession in 1634 was a copy -of a petition to the Scottish Parliament, too strong in its language -even for the Scottish dissentients to present. He had, under pledge of -strictest secrecy, lent this to a friend. For this he was committed to -prison, and at the instigation of Spottiswood, Archbishop of St. Andrews, -it was resolved to prosecute him for high treason, and a verdict was -procured against him. But the people were so enraged that they assembled -in vast crowds, vowing to murder both the jurors who had given the -verdict and the judges who had accepted it. Government was alarmed, and -the king was reluctantly induced to grant Balmerino a pardon. From that -moment he became the champion of the people. - -He and his colleagues the nobles, the gentry, the Presbyterian clergy, -and the inhabitants of the burghs, formed themselves into four "Tables" -or Committees, each of four persons, and each Table sent a representative -to a fifth Table, a Committee of superintendence and government. Thus -in the capital there were sitting five Tables or Committees, to receive -complaints and information from the people, and decide on all these -matters. Throughout the country were speedily established similar Tables, -with whom they corresponded. Thus, instead of that mere representation of -the petitioners which the king contemplated as an expedient for getting -rid of the immediate pressure of the people, one of the most perfect and -most powerful systems of popular agitation was organised that the world -had ever seen. There was the most instant attention to the suggestions of -the people by the provincial Tables, and the most prompt and respectful -consideration of their reports by the Tables in the capital. A permanent -government of the people was, in fact, erected, to which the public -looked with the utmost confidence, and by which step its whole weight was -brought to bear on the unpopular government of the king. - -The formidable nature of this novel engine of the popular will was -quickly perceived by the Court; and Traquair was ordered to issue a -proclamation declaring the Tables to be unlawful, commanding all people -to withdraw to their own homes, and menacing the penalties of treason -against all who disobeyed. This proclamation was made by Traquair at -Stirling, on the 19th of February, 1638; but it was disregarded. The -Tables had procured early information of the forthcoming proclamation, -and had summoned the provincial Tables from all parts to assemble in -Edinburgh and Stirling. These cities were thus crowded with the very life -and soul of the whole agitation. They had already risen in their demands -as they perceived their strength, and had ceased to petition for time -and some trifling alterations in "the buke." They demanded the formal -revocation of the liturgy, the canons, and the Court of High Commission. -Now, no sooner had the herald read the royal proclamation than the Lords -Hume and Lindsay read a counter proclamation, saw it affixed to the -market cross, and copies sent to Edinburgh and Linlithgow, to be read and -publicly placarded there. - -Traquair, who had clearly foreseen these consequences, and in vain warned -the king to avoid them by timely concession, wrote to Hamilton, informing -him of what had taken place, and that there was no power in the kingdom -capable of forcing the liturgy down the people's throats; that they would -receive the Mass as soon. His words received a speedy confirmation. The -Tables determined to publish a Solemn Covenant between the people and -the Almighty to stand by their religion to the death. Their fathers, at -the time of the Reformation, had adopted such an instrument. The great -nobles of the time had sworn to maintain the principles of Wishart -and Knox, and to defend the preachers of those doctrines against the -powers of Antichrist and the monarchy. James had sworn to adhere to -this confession of faith, with all their households and all classes of -people, in the years 1580, 1581, and 1590. The name of Covenant was thus -become a watchword to the whole nation, which roused them like a trumpet. -This document had been composed by Alexander Henderson, one of the four -ministers who had petitioned, and Archibald Johnstone, an advocate, the -legal adviser of the party; and had been revised by Balmerino, Loudon, -and Rothes. - -This famous document began by a clear exposition of the tenets of -the Reformed Scottish Church, and as solemn an abjuration of all the -errors and doctrines of the Pope, with his "vain allegories, rites, -signs, and traditions." It enumerated the anti-Christian tenets of -Popery--the denial of salvation to infants dying without baptism; the -receiving the Sacrament from men of scandalous lives; the devilish Mass; -the canonisation of men; the invocation of saints; the worshipping of -imaginary relics and crosses; the speaking and praying in a strange -language; auricular confession; the shaveling monks; bloody persecutions; -and a hundred other abominations. All these were made as great offences -against the Anglican hierarchy, which was fast running back into those -"days of bygone idolatry." The various classes--"noblemen, barons, -gentlemen, burgesses, ministers, and commons"--bound themselves by the -Covenant to defend and maintain the reformed faith before God, His -angels, and the world, till it was again established by free Assemblies -and Parliaments, in the same full purity and liberty of the Gospel as it -had been heretofore. - -On the 1st of March, 1638, the church of St. Giles, which had witnessed -so lately the hasty flight of the bishops, was thronged with the -Covenanters of all ranks and from all parts of the country. The business -was opened by a fervent prayer from Henderson, and then the people were -addressed in a stirring harangue by the Earl of Loudon, the most eloquent -man in Scotland. The effect was such that the whole assembly rose -simultaneously, and with outstretched arms, amid torrents of tears, swore -to the contents of the Covenant. That done, they turned and embraced each -other, wept, and shouted aloud their exultation over this great victory, -for such they felt it, in the united energy and religious dedication of -the nation. - -Dispersing to their various homes, the delegates carried the fire of -this grand enthusiasm with them. Over moor and mountain it flew, across -the green pastoral hills of the South, through the dark defiles of the -Highlands, and to the sea-swept isles. Thousands continued to pour into -the capital to add their signatures to the Covenant; and in every parish -on the Sunday the people streamed to listen to the fiery harangues from -the pulpits, and to give in their names, with the same tears, emotions, -and embraces as in Edinburgh. It was soon found that, except in the -county of Aberdeen, the Covenanters outnumbered their opponents in the -proportion of one hundred to one. - -Nor did these determined reformers readily admit of any dissent or -lukewarmness. Where they found any opposed or inert, they roused them by -threats, and often by blows and coercion. Some they threw into prison, -and some they set in the stocks for refusing to sign. The Catholics were -those who principally stood aloof; but these were not calculated at a -thousand in all Scotland. Of such they entered the names in a list, and -made calculations of their property, with a view to confiscation. In -Lanark and other places the contending factions came to blows before -the lists were filled up. Active subscriptions were levied for the -maintenance of the Cause, and before the end of April there was scarcely -a single Protestant who had not signed the Covenant. The bishops had fled -to England, and all Scotland stood ready to fight for its faith. - -[Illustration: THE PEOPLE SIGNING THE COVENANT IN ST. GILES'S CHURCH, -EDINBURGH. (_See p._ 567.)] - -Here was a spectacle which would have shown the folly of his career -to any other monarch; but all reason or representation was wasted on -Charles. Traquair entreated him, before plunging into war, to listen to -the counsels of his most experienced Scottish Ministers; but Charles -seldom listened to anything except his own self-will, or any person -except his fatal counsellors, Laud and Wentworth. He is said on this -occasion to have consulted with a small council of Scotsmen living in -England, which had been formed by James on his accession to the English -throne, and in accordance with their advice and in opposition to that of -the Council in Scotland, he resolved on suppressing the Covenant by force. - -In May he sent the Marquis of Hamilton to Scotland, with orders to -endeavour to soothe the people by assuring them that the liturgy and -canons should only be exercised in a fair and gentle manner, and that -the High Commission Court should be so remodelled as to be no grievance. -If these promises did not satisfy them, as Hamilton must have known they -would not, for Charles's promises were too notorious to be of any value, -he was to resort to any exercise of force that he thought necessary. - -On the 3rd of June he arrived at Berwick, and sent to the nobility to -meet him at Haddington; but no one appeared except the Earl of Roxburgh, -who assured him that anything but a full revocation of the canons and -liturgy was hopeless. On reaching Dalkeith he was waited on by Lord -Rothes, who, on the part of the Covenanters, invited him to take up his -abode in Holyrood as more convenient for discussion. - -Hamilton objected to enter a city swarming with Covenanters, where the -castle was already invested by their guards. These, it was promised him, -should be removed and the city kept quiet, on which he consented; and on -the 8th of June he set forward. But he found the whole of the way, from -Musselburgh to Leith and from Leith to Edinburgh, lined with Covenanters, -fifty thousand in number. There were from five to seven hundred clergymen -collected; and all the nobility and gentry assembled in the capital, -amounting to five thousand, came out to meet and escort him in. All this -he was informed was to do him honour, but he felt that its real design -was to impress him with the strength of the Covenant party. - -[Illustration: ST. GILES'S CHURCH, EDINBURGH, IN THE 17TH CENTURY.] - -Being settled in Holyrood, Hamilton received a deputation of the heads -of the League, and asked them what they required to induce them to -surrender opposition. They replied that in the first place they demanded -the summons of a General Assembly and a Parliament. They then renewed the -guard at the castle, and doubled the guards and watches of the city. The -preachers warned the people to be on their guard against propositions. -They informed the marquis that no English Service Book must be used in -the royal chapel, and they nailed up the organ as an "abomination to the -Lord." They then waited on Hamilton, requesting him and his officers -to sign the Covenant, as they hoped to be regarded as patriots and -Christians. The ministers whom the oppressions of Wentworth had chased -out of Ulster to make way for the Anglican service were in Edinburgh, -inflaming the people by their details of the cruelties and broken -promises of Charles and his Lord-Lieutenant in Ireland. - -Hamilton saw that it was useless to publish Charles's proclamation, but -wrote advising him to grant them their demands, or to lose no time in -appearing with a powerful army. Charles replied desiring him to amuse the -Covenanters with any promises that he pleased, so that he did not commit -the king himself. He was to avoid granting an Assembly or Parliament, but -he added, "Your chief end being now to win time, they may commit public -follies until I be ready to suppress them." The marquis, therefore, -endeavoured to spin out the time by coaxing and deluding the Covenanters. -He promised to call a General Assembly and a Parliament, and redress all -their grievances. When pressed too closely, he declared that he would go -to London himself and endeavour to set all right with the king; but this -was part only of the plan of gaining time whilst Charles was preparing a -fleet and army. But the Scots were too wary to be thus deceived. They had -information that troops were being raised in England, and they too made -preparations. At the same time they waited on the marquis, professing -the most unabated loyalty, but resolute to have free exercise of their -religion. Hamilton promised to present their address to the king, and -set out on the 4th of July for England. He informed Charles of the real -state of the country, and that the very members of the Privy Council were -so infected by the Covenant that he had not dared to call them together. -But Charles was not to be induced to take any effective measures for -pacifying the public mind of Scotland. His instructions to the marquis -were to amuse the people with hopes, and to allow of the sitting of -a General Assembly, but not before the 1st of November. He was even -to publish the order for discharging the use of the Service Book, the -canons, and the High Commission Court, but was to forbid the abolition -of bishops, though the bishops were for the present not to intrude -themselves into the Assembly. They were, however, to be privately held to -be essentially members of the Assembly, and were to be one way or other -provided for till better times. - -These half measures were not likely to be accepted, but they would serve -Charles's grand object of gaining time, and the marquis arrived with -them in Edinburgh on the 10th of August. Three days after his arrival -the Covenanters waited upon him to learn how the king had received their -explanations, and the marquis assured them with much grace and goodness; -but when they heard that the bishops were not to be abolished, they -treated his other offers with contempt, and Hamilton once more proposed -to journey to England to endeavour to obtain a full and free recall -of all the offensive ordinances. Before taking his leave, as a proof -of his earnestness, he joined with the Earls of Traquair, Roxburgh, -and Southesk, in a written solicitation to his Majesty to remove all -innovations in religion which had disturbed the peace of the country. -By the 17th of September Hamilton was again at Holyrood. On the 21st -he received the Covenanters and informed them that he had succeeded; -that the king gave up everything; that an Assembly was to be called -immediately, and a Parliament in the month of May next; and that the -king revoked the Service Book, the Book of Canons, the five Articles of -Perth, and the High Commission. The Covenanters were about to express -their unbounded satisfaction and loyal gratitude, when the marquis added -that his Majesty only required them to sign the old confession of faith -as adopted by King James in 1580 and 1590. This single reservation broke -the whole charm; their countenances fell, and they declared that they -looked upon this as an artifice merely to set aside their new bond of the -Covenant. - -In all Charles's most solemn acts the cloven foot showed itself. Even -when seeming most honest, there was something which awoke a distrust in -him. He was not sincere, and he had not the art to look so. In any other -monarch the positive assurance that the innovations on the religion of -Scotland should be abandoned, would have settled the matter at once; -but Charles had so utterly lost character for truth and good faith that -it was believed throughout the country that he was still only deluding -them, and seeking time ultimately to come down resistlessly upon them. -And we know from his own correspondence preserved in the Strafford Papers -that it was so. These words addressed to Hamilton, "Your chief end is -to win time, that they may commit public follies, until I be ready to -suppress them," are an everlasting proof of it. Besides, they had ample -information from friends about the Court in England that this was the -case, and that in a few months the king meant to visit them with an -irresistible force. The people of England were suffering too much from -the same species of oppression not to sympathise warmly with the Scottish -patriots, and keep them well informed of what was going on there. We find -it asserted in the Hardwicke State Papers that the Government was very -jealous of the number of people who went about England selling Scottish -linen, and it was recommended to open all letters going between the -countries at Berwick. - -The Covenanters therefore determined to hold together and be prepared. -On the 22nd of September, 1638, the Marquis of Hamilton caused the royal -proclamation to be read at the market-cross at Edinburgh, abandoning -the Anglican Service and the High Commission Court; but as it required -subscription to the old confession of faith, there was no rejoicing on -the occasion. There were two particulars in this proclamation which fully -justified the Scots in refusing to comply with it. It stated that the vow -of the Covenant was unauthorised by Government, and therefore illegal; -and it professed to grant a pardon for that act to all who signed the -confession, which would have acknowledged that the nation had been guilty -of a crime in accepting the Covenant, a thing they were not likely to -admit, for in that case they could not have refused the re-admission -of the very liturgy against which they were at war. They therefore -published a protest against the proclamation, founded on these reasons. - -The marquis having obtained the signature of the Lords of the Secret -Council to the new bond, which Charles had previously signed, though it -contained many clauses repugnant to Arminianism, issued the proclamation -for the meeting of the Assembly in Glasgow on the 21st of November, -1638, and for that of the Parliament on the 17th of May, 1639. In a few -days afterwards, the Council published an act discharging the Book of -Common Prayer, the Book of Canons, etc., and called for the subscription -of all his Majesty's subjects. The municipal bodies, the ministers, and -the people hastened to thank the Council, and to express their joy at -the revocation of the obnoxious orders, but they refused to sign the -confession. - -The marquis wrote to Charles, informing him of the determined spirit of -the people, and advising him to hasten his military preparations. He also -represented to him the protests of the bishops against the holding of the -Assembly; but the king bade him persist in holding it, so that he might -not appear to break faith with the public and thus precipitate matters, -but to counteract the effect of the Assembly by sowing discord amongst -the members, and protesting against their tumultuary proceedings. - -But the Scots did not give Hamilton much time for such machinations -before the meeting of the Assembly. They were warned by a trusty -correspondent--notwithstanding the waylaying of the post was carried -into effect--that vigorous preparations were being made to invade -Scotland. There were arms for twenty thousand men, including forty -pieces of ordnance and forty carriages; but the writer did not believe -they would get two hundred men for the service, such was the desire of -all parties--nobles, gentry, and people--for their success, which if -obtained, he said, would lead many of all ranks to settle in Scotland for -freedom of conscience. He added that Wentworth had made large offers of -assistance to the king from Ireland, but that the Irish were themselves -so injured that he doubted whether any considerable help would be had -from Wentworth against them; yet if Charles could muster sufficient -force, they might expect no terms from him but such as they would get at -the cannon's mouth. - -At the end of October the Earl of Rothes demanded from Hamilton a -warrant citing the bishops as guilty of heresy, perjury, simony, and -gross immorality, to appear before the approaching Assembly. The marquis -refused, on which the Presbytery of Edinburgh cited them. Charles had -ordered, as a sign of his favour, the restoration of the Lords of Session -of Edinburgh, but on condition of their signing the confession of faith. -Nine out of the fifteen were induced with much difficulty to sign, but -from that moment they were in terror of their lives from the exasperation -of the people. - -When Hamilton arrived on the 17th of November in Glasgow to open the -Assembly, he found the town thronged with people from all quarters, -evidently in intense excitement. The Tables had secured the most popular -elections of representatives to the Assembly, sending one lay elder and -four lay assessors from every Presbytery. The marquis therefore found -himself overruled on all points. In his opening speech he read them the -king's letter, in which Charles complained of having been misrepresented, -as though he desired innovations in laws and religion; and to prove how -groundless this was, he had granted this free Assembly, for settling all -such matters to the satisfaction of his good subjects. He then of himself -protested against the foul and devilish calumnies against his sacred -Majesty, purporting that even this grant of the Assembly was but to gain -time whilst he was preparing arms to force on the nation the abhorred -ritual. The marquis, whilst he was making these solemn asseverations, -being well assured, as were most of his hearers, that the king was all -the while casting cannon and ball, and mustering soldiers for this "foul -and devilish purpose," the Assembly must have been perfectly satisfied -that no good was to be expected but from their own firmness. They at once -proceeded to elect Alexander Henderson as their Moderator, and Hamilton -protested as vigorously against it, but in vain. They next elected as -clerk-register Archibald Johnstone, the clerk of the Edinburgh Tables, -against which Hamilton again protested with as little effect, Johnstone -declaring that he would do his best to "defend the prerogative of the Son -of God." - -Defeated on these important points, the marquis the next day entered -a protest against the return of lay members to the Assembly; and the -proctor on behalf of the bishops added their protest, declining the -authority of the Assembly, which he contended ought to be purely -ecclesiastical. James had, in fact, put the lay members out of the -Assembly, and the king therefore treated this original constitution of -the Assembly, as settled at the Reformation, as an innovation, turning -the charge of innovation on the Covenanters. The marquis would then -have read the protests of the bishops with which he was furnished; but -the Assembly declined to hear them, and repeated that they would pursue -the charges against the bishops so long as they had lives and fortunes. -On this Hamilton dissolved the Assembly, and the same day wrote a most -remarkable letter to Charles, which appears to leave little ground for -the suspicions of the royal party that he was secretly inclined to the -Covenant. He informed the king that he had done his utmost, but to no -purpose, with that rebellious nation. He seemed to apprehend danger to -his life, and that this might be the last letter he should ever write to -his Majesty. He blamed the bishops for persuading the king to bring in -the English liturgy and canons in so abrupt and violent a manner; that -their pride was great, their folly greater. He gives the king his opinion -of the character and degrees of the trustworthiness of the different -Ministers, and bids him beware of the Earl of Argyle, whom he declares to -be the most dangerous man in the State; so far from favouring episcopacy, -as had been supposed, that nobleman wished it abolished with all his -soul. This was immediately afterwards, as we shall see, made clear by -Argyle himself. Hamilton then proceeded to instruct the king how best to -proceed to quell what he deemed not merely a contest for religion, but an -incipient rebellion. It was to blockade the ports, and thus cut off all -trade, by which the burghs, the chief seats of the agitation, lived. As -fast as these burghs felt their folly and returned to their allegiance, -they should be restored to favour, and their ports opened, which would -make the rest anxious to follow. He said he had done his best to garrison -the castle of Edinburgh, though it was in a precarious state, but that -the castle of Dumbarton might be readily garrisoned by troops from -Ireland. If he preserved his life, which he seemed to doubt, he would -defend his post to the utmost, though "he hated the place like hell," and -as soon as he was free of it would forswear the country. He recommended -his brother to the king's favour and his children to his protection if -they lived; and to these, if they did not prove loyal, he left his curse. -His daughters, he desired, might never marry into Scotland. - -The marquis clearly saw the dreadful conflict which was approaching, -and his tears and emotion on dismissing the Assembly struck every one -with that impression. But the Assembly had no intention of dispersing. -Like the Commons of England, they entertained too high an estimate of -their right, and of their duty in such a crisis. They therefore passed a -resolution declaring the Kirk independent of the civil powers, and the -dissolution of the Assembly by the Royal Commissioner illegal and void. -They said that if the Commissioner should see fit to quit the country, -and leave the Church and kingdom in that disorder, it was their duty to -sit; and that they would continue to sit till they had settled all the -evils which came within their lawful and undoubted jurisdiction. - -Laud, in reply to Hamilton, lamented that fear of giving umbrage to -the Covenanters too soon had too long delayed the means to crush them. -He thanked him for having conveyed the bishops to Hamilton Castle to -protect them, and trusted that his own life would yet be preserved -from the diabolical fury of the Scots. What Hamilton had foreseen in -the meantime had come to pass. The Earl of Argyle declared plainly in -the Council that he would take the Covenant and sanction the Assembly. -Accordingly, though not a member of it, he took his place in the Assembly -as their chief director; and thus encouraged, they proceeded to abolish -episcopacy for ever, to deprive all the bishops, and to excommunicate -the greater part of them and all their abettors. Charles, and James -before him, had completely conferred all the power of Parliament on the -bishops, making eight of them the Lords of the Articles, with authority -to choose eight of the nobles, and these sixteen having power to choose -all the rest, so that all depended on the bishops, and they, again, on -the king. This effectually ranged the nobles against them. The Marquis of -Hamilton, notwithstanding his fears, was permitted quietly to withdraw -to England, whence he was soon to return against them at the head of the -fleet. The people received the news of the proceedings of the Assembly -with transports of joy, and celebrated the downfall of episcopacy by a -day of thanksgiving. Charles, on the other hand, issued a proclamation -declaring all its acts void, and hastened his preparations for marching -into Scotland. - -But the Covenanters were not the less active on their part, and -everything tended to a civil war, the result of Charles's incessant -attacks on the liberties of the nation. They made collections of arms, -and as early as December they received six thousand muskets from Holland. -These had been stopped by the Government of that country, but Cardinal -Richelieu had suddenly shown himself a friend, by ordering the muskets -as if for his own use, receiving them into a French port, and thence -forwarding them to Scotland. However impolitic it might appear for France -to assist subjects against their prince, it must be remembered that -Charles had managed to create nearly as strong a feeling against him in -Louis and his minister Richelieu as in his own subjects. He had set the -example by assisting the Huguenots against their prince, and had provoked -France by defeating its plan of dividing the Spanish Netherlands between -that country and Holland. The present opportunity, therefore, was eagerly -seized to make Charles feel the error he had committed. Richelieu, -moreover, ordered the French Ambassador in London to pay over to General -Leslie, one of Gustavus Adolphus's old officers, who had been engaged -by the Assembly, one hundred thousand crowns. This last transaction, -however, was kept a profound secret, for the Scots, when advised to seek -the assistance of France and Germany, had indignantly refused, saying the -Lutherans of Germany were heretics, and the people of France Papistical -idolaters; that it became them to seek support from God alone, and not -from the broken reed of Egypt. The preachers thundered from the pulpits -against the bishops, and the determination of the king still to force -them on the country; and they refused the Communion to all who had not -signed the Covenant. The Tables called on the young men in every quarter -of the country to come forward and be trained to arms, and the Scottish -officers who had been engaged in the wars in Germany flocked over and -offered their services for the support of the popular cause. The nobles -contributed plate to be melted down, the merchants in the towns sent in -money, and an army of determined men was fast forming. - -[Illustration: THE OLD COLLEGE, GLASGOW, IN THE 17TH CENTURY.] - -Charles, on his part, was not the less busy preparing for the campaign, -and he was persuaded by many of the courtiers that he had only to appear, -to pacify the Scots. If we are to believe Clarendon, the Treasury was in -a flourishing condition, a most unlikely circumstance, considering the -unpopular mode of raising funds without a Parliament; and we are assured -of the contrary by a letter of the Earl of Northumberland, addressed -to Wentworth in January, 1639. He says, "I assure your lordship, to my -understanding, to my sorrow I speak it, we are altogether in as ill a -posture to invade others or to defend ourselves as we were a twelve-month -since, which is more than any one can imagine that is not an eye-witness -of it. The discontents here at home do rather increase than lessen, -there being no course taken to give any kind of satisfaction. The king's -coffers were never emptier than at this time, and to us that have the -honour to be near about him, no way is yet known how he will find means -either to maintain or begin a war without the help of his people." -Cottington wrote to Wentworth in the same strain. - -So far from consulting Parliament, Charles had not even opened his -difficulties to his Council. He was now compelled to do the latter, and -on this occasion Laud was found entreating for peaceful measures. It is -probable that he had taken a more rational view of the belligerent temper -of the Scots, and saw more danger in the king's attempt to coerce them, -than he generally discerned in pushing on arbitrary counsels. His advice -was rejected, and the rest of the Council acquiesced in the determination -of the king. By the beginning of the year 1639, Charles had named his -generals and officers, had issued orders to the Lords-Lieutenant to -muster the trained bands of their several counties, and the nobles to -meet him at York on the 1st of April with such retinues as belonged to -their rank and fortune. To procure money he suspended the payment of -all pensions, borrowed where he could, and judges, lawyers, and the -clergy were called upon to contribute from their salaries and livings -in lieu of their personal service. The clergy were in general extremely -liberal. They considered that the cause was their own, and that if the -Presbyterians of Scotland became triumphant, the Puritans of England -might deal in similar fashion with the Church of England. Laud, moreover, -ordered the names of all clergymen who refused to be returned to him. The -queen also lent her aid by calling on the Catholics to assist, reminding -them that aid given to the king in this emergency was the most likely -means to securing future advantages to themselves. When the knowledge -of the queen's circular letter to the Catholics became known to the -Puritans, they were greatly scandalised; and the Catholics responding -readily to the call, and holding a meeting in London presided over by the -Pope's Nuncio, tended to strengthen their opinion of the papistical bias -of Charles and his Church. - -The king, on his part, sought to take advantage of the ancient -antipathies between the two kingdoms, and issued proclamations calling -on all good subjects to resist the attempts of the Scots, who were -contemplating, he asserted, the invasion and plunder of the kingdom and -the destruction of the monarchy. But he found this was an empty alarm. -The reformers of England knew too well that the cause of the Scots and -their own were identical; that the purpose of the king was to destroy -the constitutional rights and freedom of religion in both kingdoms -alike. The Scottish nobles, as well as the English public, rejected all -attempts to divide them in this Cause. There was a time when they could -be bought by the money of England, which had been freely and successfully -employed by the Tudors. But Charles had little money to give; and to the -honour of the Scottish peers, when other temptations were tried, for the -most part the sacred cause of their religion triumphed over them. They -exhorted one another to stand fast by the Covenant. The most intimate -communication between the Scottish and English reformers was maintained -by pamphlets secretly circulated, by emissaries traversing all classes -and all quarters. The earliest information of the movements of the Court -was transmitted; and before Charles commenced his march towards York, -General Leslie, the elected Commander-in-Chief, took the initiative, and -surprised the castle of Edinburgh, on the 21st of March, at the head of -a thousand musketeers, and without losing a single man. The next day, -Saturday, the castle of Dalkeith was given over by Traquair, with all the -regalia and a large quantity of ammunition and arms. It was thought that -Traquair had shown great timidity, to surrender so strong a castle almost -without a blow; but he complained of having been left alone, without -countenance or advice. The Earls of Rothes and Balmerino took the castle, -and conveyed the regalia safely to the castle of Edinburgh. The following -day, Sunday, did not prevent even Scotsmen and Covenanters from seizing -the castle of Dumbarton. The governor was surprised on his return from -church, and threatened with instant death if he did not surrender the -keys to the provost of the town, a zealous Covenanter. Stirling was in -the hands of the Earl of Mar, who had taken the Covenant; and of all the -royal fortresses, only Carlaverock, the least important, remained in the -hands of the Crown. The Marquis of Huntly, who had undertaken to hold -the Highlands for the king, was overpowered or entrapped by Leslie and -Montrose, who at the head of seven thousand men compelled the reluctant -professors of Aberdeen to accept the Covenant, when Leslie returned to -Edinburgh, carrying Huntly with him. The Earl of Antrim, who was to have -invaded the domains of Argyle from Ireland, was unable to fulfil his -engagement, and thus every day brought the news of rapid disasters to -Charles on his march towards York. Hamilton, who had been despatched with -a fleet, appeared in the Forth on the 13th of April. He had five thousand -troops on board, and was expected to secure Leith, the port of Edinburgh, -and overawe if he could not take the capital; but he found the place -strongly fortified, and twenty thousand men were posted on the shores to -hinder his landing. All classes, from the noble to the peasant, had been -labouring industriously to repair fortifications and throw up batteries, -and ladies had carried materials for them. The marquis saw no chance of -effecting a landing, and therefore disembarked his men on the islands -in the Forth, to prevent them from perishing in the ships, for they -were landsmen, and had been hastily pressed into the service, and were -both sickly and mutinous. No prospect was ever more discouraging; even -Wentworth could not send him the small aid of five hundred musketeers -in time, and strongly advised Charles to avoid coming to an engagement -with his raw levies against the enthusiastic Scots and their practical -generals, but to garrison Berwick and Carlisle to prevent incursions, and -wait till the next year if necessary. - -Charles arrived at York on the 19th of April, and proceeded to administer -to the lords who there awaited him with their followers, an oath of -allegiance, binding them to oppose all conspiracies and seditions, -even if they were veiled under the pretence of religion. The Lords -Say and Brooke declined to take the oath, saying they were willing to -accompany their sovereign from loyalty and affection; but that, as -they were ignorant of the laws and customs of Scotland, they could not -undertake to say that the Scots were rebels, or the war was just. Charles -with indignation ordered them to be arrested, but the Attorney and -Solicitor-Generals on being consulted declaring that there was no ground -for their prosecution, they were dismissed with the royal displeasure -and desired to return home. Nor had the king much more satisfaction with -the lords who had taken the oath, for they qualified it by signing a -paper stating in what sense they took it. To perform an act calculated -to please the people whom he was leaving behind, at York he issued a -proclamation, revoking no less than thirty-one monopolies and patents, -pretending that he had not discovered before how grievous they were to -his subjects; but the real fact was, that most of them had been granted -to Scotsmen who had now forfeited his favour. - -On leaving York he complimented the Recorder, who had paid him the most -fulsome flattery, and the municipal authorities, by telling them that he -had there experienced more love than he ever had in London on which he -had showered so many benefits. At Durham by the bishop and clergy, and -at Newcastle by the corporation, he was magnificently entertained, and -at every halting-place fresh quotas of horse and foot came in. "But," -remarks Clarendon, "if there had been none in the march but soldiers, -it is most probable that a noble peace would have quickly ensued, even -without fighting; but the progress was more illustrious than the march, -and the soldiers were the least part of the army, and the least consulted -with. For," he adds, "the king more intended the pomp of his preparations -than the strength of them." The certain proof, he might have added, of a -very foolish king, as Charles was. But the "ifs" which Clarendon summons -up on this occasion to explain the want of success are amusing. "If the -war had been vigorously pursued, it had been as soon ended as begun." "If -he had been duly informed of what was going on in Scotland," of course -he would have known. "If the whole nation of Scotchmen had been entirely -united in the rebellion, and all who stayed in the Court had marched in -their army, the king or kingdom could have sustained no damage by them; -but the monument of their presumption and their shame would have been -razed together, and no other memory preserved of their rebellion but in -their memorable and infamous defeat." That is, there would have been no -Scottish traitors about him to keep him misinformed. This is just as -true as the treasury being well furnished, for we know that Hamilton -and Traquair kept the king punctually informed of everything the whole -time. "If," however, Charles had more wisely chosen his generals,--but -Arundel, his general, was a man, says this veracious historian, "who -had nothing martial about him but his presence and his looks, and -therefore was thought to be made choice of for his negative qualities. -He did not love the Scots; he did not love the Puritans; which good -qualities were allayed by another negative--he did love nobody else." The -lieutenant-general, the Earl of Essex, was too proud and uncompromising, -and the Earl of Holland, general of the horse, was just no general at -all, "a man fitter for a show than a field." Yet, says Clarendon, "If the -king himself had stayed at London, or, which had been the next best, kept -his court and resided at York, and sent the army on its proper errand, -and left the matter of the war solely to them, in all human reason his -enemies had been speedily subdued." With such generals as Arundel and -Holland--for Essex was a brave commander, though, as afterwards appeared, -no great tactician--it is not so easy to see that. But Clarendon might -have safely reduced all his "ifs" into one--if Charles had been a wise -king he would not have got into a quarrel with his subjects at all. - -With such generals, and an army of raw levies, hastily dragged -reluctantly from the plough and the mattock, to fight in a cause with -which they had no sympathy, and encumbered by heaps of useless nobles -and gentry, Charles marched on to Berwick, and encamped his forces on an -open field called the Birks. He had besides the garrison of Berwick three -thousand two hundred and sixty horse, and nineteen thousand six hundred -and fourteen foot. But, on the other hand, Leslie, says Clarendon, had -drawn up his forces on the side of a hill at Dunse, so as to make a great -show. "The front only could be seen, but it was reported that Leslie and -the whole army were there; and it was very true, they were all there -indeed--but it was as true that all did not exceed the number of nine -thousand men, very ill armed, and mostly country fellows, who were on -the sudden got together to make that show." Leslie, he informs us, had -so dispersed his knot of ragamuffins, with great herds of cattle on the -hills around, that it was naturally supposed that there was a large army, -the bulk of it concealed behind the hill; and he assures us that had the -royal army pushed forward the whole illusion would have vanished. - -This account is as thoroughly opposed to all the credible historians -of the time, Rushworth, Nalson, Burnet, Baillie, and the letters of -distinguished persons engaged, as the whole array of "ifs." We are -assured that Leslie had pitched his camp at Dunglas, and twelve thousand -volunteers had crowded to his standard. The preachers everywhere called -on their hearers to advance the cause of God and the Kirk. Those in the -camp wrote and disseminated letters to the same effect. One demanded that -every true Scot should go forward to extort a reasonable peace from the -king, or to do battle with his and their common enemies, the prelates -and papists of England. Another denounced the curse of Meroz on all who -did not come to the help of the Lord, and of His champions. Another -ironically bade those who would not fight for God and their country to -bring spades and bury the saints whom they had abandoned to the swords -of the Amalekites. They had chosen for the motto on their banners the -words, "For Christ's Crown and the Covenant," and over every captain's -tent waved the arms of Scotland and these words. Soldiers therefore -flocked in on all sides to the sacred standard, and by the time that -Leslie marched for Dunse Hill his army numbered nearly twenty thousand -men, many of them new to arms, but all enthusiastic patriots. Twice a day -they were summoned by sound of drum to drill and to sermon; and when they -were not listening to the exciting harangues of the ministers, they were -solacing themselves with singing psalms and reading the Scriptures, or -with extempore prayer. "Had you lent your ear," says one of them, "and -heard in the tents the sounds of some singing psalms, some praying, some -reading Scripture, you would have been refreshed. For myself, I never -found my mind in better temper than it was. I was as a man who had taken -leave from the world, and was resolved to die in that service without -return. I found the favour of God shining upon me, and a sweet, meek, -humble, yet strong and vehement spirit leading me all along." - -Leslie was joined by the Earl of Montrose, who had been posted at Kelso, -and the first of their proceedings was to issue proclamations, declaring -that they had no intention to invade England if their reasonable demands -were granted; and that their only object was to obtain from the king the -confirmation of his promises for the free enjoyment of their religion. -Whatever was done in the Scottish camp was freely circulated in the -royal camp, for they had plenty of friends there, and the strength, the -spirits, and resolution of their army were abundantly set forth daily. - -It was the fortune of the Earl of Holland to lead the way first against -them. He passed the Tweed near Twizel, where the English army had crossed -to the battle of Flodden, and advanced towards the detachment of the -army near Kelso. He had with him the bulk of the horse and about three -thousand infantry. As if no enemy had been in the country, he trotted on -with his horse, till he found himself on the hill of Maxwellhaugh, above -Kelso, and not only saw the tents of the enemy, but his way barred by -an advanced post of one hundred and fifty horse and five or six thousand -foot. He then discovered that his foot and artillery were three or four -miles behind. On this he sent a trumpet to the enemy, commanding them -not to cross the Border, to which they replied by asking whose trumpet -that was, and being told the Earl of Holland's, they said the earl had -better take himself off; which it appears he lost no time in doing, and -rode back to the general camp without striking a blow. The Scots, when -they saw him retreating, sent after him a number of squibs and letters of -ridicule, which were speedily circulated through the English army. The -generals wrote letters to Essex, Holland, and Arundel, entreating them -to intercede with the king that matters might be accommodated without -bloodshed. Essex is said to have sent on their letters to the king -without a word of reply to their messengers. Arundel and Holland were -more gracious. - -[Illustration: CHARLES AND THE SCOTTISH COMMISSIONERS. (_See p._ 578.)] - -During this marching and countermarching it was that Leslie had posted -his army on Dunse Hill, opposite Charles's camp, and the king, who had -hitherto despised the Scottish force, now felt alarmed at their close -proximity, and the hasty retreat of Holland. He blamed Lord Arundel -for giving him no notice of the approach of the rebels, Arundel blamed -the scout-master, and the scout-master blamed the scouts. There were -earthworks suddenly thrown up to protect his camp and intimation given -that overtures would be listened to. Accordingly, on the 6th of June, -1639, the Earl of Dunfermline, attended by a trumpet, arrived in the -royal camp, bearing a humble petition to his majesty, entreating him -to appoint a few suitable persons to confer with a deputation from the -Scots, so that all misunderstandings might be removed, and the peace -of the kingdom preserved. The petition was received, for besides the -ill-success of Holland, the ill-success of Hamilton and his fleet was -notorious; and it was, moreover, rumoured that the mother of Hamilton, -a most zealous covenanter, had paid him a visit on board his vessel, -and that he was much disinclined by her persuasions to press the Scots -closely. There were daily rumours of a descent from Ireland, on the -other hand and of a rising of the Royalists in the Highlands under -Lord Aboyne, son of the Earl of Huntly, which rendered the Covenanters -more desirous of an accommodation. On the part of the Crown the Earls -of Essex, Holland, Salisbury, and Berkshire, Sir Henry Vane, and Mr. -Secretary Coke, were appointed commissioners; on that of the Covenanters -the Earls of Rothes and Dunfermline, the Lord Loudon, and Sir William -Douglas, sheriff of Teviotdale. To these afterwards, much to the -displeasure of the king, were added Alexander Henderson, late moderator -of the assembly, and Johnstone, the clerk-register. They met in Arundel's -tent; but before they could proceed to business, the king suddenly -entered, and telling the Scottish commissioners that as he understood -they complained that they could not be heard, he had determined to hear -them himself, and he demanded what it was they wanted. The Earl of Rothes -replied simply, to be secured in their religion and liberty. Loudon -made some apology for the boldness of the proceedings of the Scots, but -Charles cut him short, telling him that he could admit of no apologies -for what was past, but that if they came to implore pardon, they must put -down what they had to say in writing, and in writing he would answer them. - -This was Charles's peculiar style, by which the negotiation appeared -likely to come to a speedy end; but the Scots were firm, and adhered to -their old sound principle, declaring that they had sought nothing but -their own native rights, and the advancement of his majesty's service, -and desired to have those severely punished who had misrepresented them -to the king. Some historians assert that Hamilton at this juncture came -into the camp from the Forth, and strongly advised the king to close with -the Scots; though Clarendon affirms that he did not arrive till after -the agreement was signed, and found much fault with it. However this -may be, after much debate, and several attempts to overreach the Scots, -which their caution defeated, it was agreed that the king should ratify -all that had been done by his commissioner, which was next to nothing, -though he would not recognise the acts of what he called the pretended -General Assembly. But the main and only important concession was that -all disputes should be settled by another Assembly, to be held on the -6th of August, and by a Parliament which should ratify its proceedings, -to be held on the 20th of August, when an act of oblivion should be -passed. Both parties were to disband their armies; the king's forts were -to be restored, with all the ammunition; the fleet was to be withdrawn; -Scottish merchant vessels and goods were to be returned; and the honours -and privileges of the subjects replaced. The king resisted, however, -any mention of episcopacy in the agreement; for he was as resolved as -ever to reinstate the bishops. And indeed, that same duplicity guided -him in this as in other actions of his life, being determined to break -the whole agreement on the first possible opportunity. The Covenanters -strongly suspected as much; and when Charles, before returning, invited -fourteen of the leaders to meet him in Berwick, they had the fear of -the Tower before their eyes, and declined the honour, and sent as their -commissioners the Earls of Loudon, Lothian, and Montrose. Charles -represented that it had been his intention to proceed to Edinburgh, and -hold the Parliament in person, but that fresh instances of "the valyance -of the godly females" deterred him; his chief officers not being able to -show themselves in the streets of Berwick without insult from these good -women. - -What Charles had failed to do in the Convention at large, he managed to -effect to a certain degree with the nobles. Loudon and Lothian were said -to be greatly softened by the king's conversation, but Montrose was won -over altogether. - -The two armies were disbanded on the 24th of June, and the Earl of -Traquair was appointed the king's commissioner in Scotland, Hamilton -firmly declining to return thither. Charles reached London on the 1st -of August, and one of the first things which he did was to write to the -Scottish bishops, telling them that he would never abandon the idea of -reinstating them, and would in the meantime provide for their support. -He forbade them to present themselves at the approaching Assembly or -Parliament, as that would ruin everything; but he advised them to send in -a protest against the infringement of their rights, and get it presented -by some mean person, so as to create not too much notice. Such was -Charles's perfidious conduct, at the very moment that he was promising -the Covenanters the contrary. Accordingly the bishops fixed themselves in -the vicinity of the borders, some at Morpeth, some in Holy Island, some -in Berwick itself, keeping up a correspondence with their adherents in -the Scottish capital, and ready to rush in again on the first favourable -chance. - -If we are to believe Clarendon, however, "The king was very melancholy, -and quickly discovered that he had lost reputation at home and abroad, -and those counsellors who had been most faulty either through want of -courage or wisdom--for at that time few of them wanted fidelity--never -afterwards recovered spirit enough to do their duty, but gave themselves -up to those who so much had outwitted them, every man shifting the -fault from himself." On the contrary, he says, "The Scots got so -much benefit and advantage by it, that they brought all their other -mischievous devices to pass with ease, and a prosperous gale in all -they went about." They declared that "they did not intend by anything -contained in the treaty, to vacate any of the proceedings which had -been in the late General Assembly at Glasgow, by which all the bishops -were excommunicated, and renewed all their menaces against them by -proclamation, and imposed grievous penalties on all who should presume -to harbour any of them, so that by the time the king came to London, it -appeared plainly that the army was disbanded without a peace being made, -and the Scots in more reputation and equal inclination to affront his -majesty than ever." The fact was, that whilst Charles was pretending -to concede, meaning to revoke when he had the power, the Scots were -conscious of their advantage and did not mean to allow him to do so. -They were earnest and outspoken in their resolves, and therefore Charles -seized a paper in which they published what had really been promised in -the treaty, and had it burned by the common hangman. - -The Assembly was opened on the 12th of August in Edinburgh, and in spite -of what Charles had assured the bishops, they were given up in the -instructions to Traquair, for he meant to resist the abolition of the -bishops, and to restore them when he had the power, but endeavoured to -make political capital out of this concession. Traquair was to obtain, if -possible, the admission of fourteen ministers into Parliament instead of -the bishops, or, if that were not possible, as many lay members whom the -king was to appoint, and who were to choose the lords of the articles. -By these perpetual finesses, Charles continually sought to withdraw the -concessions that he made, as though those whom he tried to overreach were -not as wide awake as himself. He thought, if he could select the Lords -of the Articles, and fourteen others devoted to him, he could revoke in -the Parliament what he gave up in the Assembly--the characteristic of -short-sighted cunning. - -The bishops presented their protest to the Commissioner, which, without -being read, was to serve as a proof of their not having yielded up their -claims; and the commissioner, finding the Covenanters firm to all their -demands--for every member of the Assembly before entering it had sworn to -support all the acts of the Assembly of Glasgow--gave the royal assent -to all the proceedings, and the news of the overthrow of episcopacy was -received with shouts of acclamation by the people. - -The Parliament of Scotland met on the day appointed, the 20th of August. -There the Covenanters displayed their determination not to stickle for -small matters, but to destroy the scheme by which that body had been -made dependent on the royal will. They would no longer admit the bishops -nor the Lords of the Articles whom the bishops had chosen, and who -selected the topics, under the direction of the Crown, which should or -should not come before the House. They proposed that the lesser barons, -the commissioners of the shires, should take the place of the bishops, -and that the Lords of the Articles should be selected from men of each -estate, by those estates themselves. In order not to appear obstinate, -they permitted the Commissioner to name the Lords of the Articles for -this once, not as an act of right, but of grace, from themselves. They -then decreed that all acts in favour of episcopacy should be rescinded; -that patents of peerage should for the future be granted to none but -such as possessed a rental of ten thousand marks from land in Scotland; -that proxies should never again be admitted; and that the fortresses -of Edinburgh, Stirling, and Dumbarton, should be entrusted to none but -Scotsmen. - -These measures would have completely enfranchised Scotland from the -shackles of the Crown, and Traquair, unable to avoid the necessity of -ratifying them, prorogued the Parliament to the 14th of November, so that -he could receive the instructions of the king. Charles, to get rid of -the demands of the Covenanters altogether, prorogued it for six months. -The members, who saw the intention, protested against the prorogation -under circumstances so vital to the country, but obeyed after naming a -deputation to go to the king on the subject. This deputation, headed by -the Lords Loudon and Dunfermline, on arriving at Whitehall were refused -audience, because they had not come with the sanction of the royal -Commissioner; and Traquair was immediately summoned to court to answer -for having conceded so much to the Scots. He had, indeed, conceded -nothing but what Charles himself had instructed him to do but the king -was angry because he had not been able to recover in Parliament, as he -had vainly hoped, what was lost in the Assembly. - -Traquair, who was aware that having implicitly followed these -instructions would avail him little with the king in his mortification, -thought of an expedient to divert Charles's anger into another channel. -He had discovered a letter addressed by the Covenanters to the King of -France, complaining of the miserable condition of Scotland through the -attempts of the king to root out the religion of the people; of his -having violated the late treaty at Berwick, and dissolved Parliament -contrary to the will of the states and to all national precedent, and -entreating him to mediate in their favour. This letter was signed by -seven lords, and addressed _Au Roi_. The letter had been publicly -declined by Louis, but privately answered, though in very cautious terms. - -The production of this letter had all the effect that Traquair hoped for. -The wrath of the king was immediately turned on the Covenanters, and -Traquair deepened the impression by assuring the king that nothing but -war would pacify the Covenanters, and declaring this discovery to be a -perfect justification. - -The Scots demanded an opportunity of vindicating themselves, and -requested leave to send up deputies for that purpose. It was granted, -and Dunfermline and Loudon were sent up. No sooner did they arrive than -Loudon, whose name was one of those appended to the intercepted letter, -was instantly seized and brought before the Council. The letter being -addressed simply _Au Roi_, which was the manner from subjects to their -own sovereign, and not as from foreigners, it was deemed treasonable on -that ground, if on no other. Loudon asserted that the letter had been -written before the pacification at Berwick, and, not being approved, -had never been sent, but the contents contradicted that statement; and, -moreover, William Colvill, who had carried it to the French court, was -in London, and was taken prisoner. Loudon thereupon insisted on his safe -conduct, and demanded liberty to return, contending that, if he had done -anything wrong, it was in Scotland and not there that he ought to be -interrogated. But the king sent both him and Colvill to the Tower. - -The Covenanters were greatly incensed at the seizure of their envoy, and -demanded his release, but Charles signed a warrant for his execution and -was prevented from putting him to death only by the solemn declaration -that if he did Scotland was lost for ever. After this it became plain -that nothing could avert a conflict between the infatuated king and -the Scottish people. Charles's object was to obtain funds; that of the -Scots to divide the king's attention by exciting discontent nearer home. -England itself had abundant causes of dissatisfaction. The disuse of -Parliaments, the continued illegal levying of taxes by the king's own -will, the rigorous and ruinous prosecutions in the Star Chamber and the -High Commission Court, the brandings, scourgings, and mutilations of such -as dared to dispute the awful tyranny of the Government, portended a -storm at home ere long, and the Scots found many well-wishers and friends -amongst the English patriots. These were everyday drawing into their -ranks men of the highest position and the most distinguished talents. The -Earls of Essex, Bedford, and Holland were secretly connected with them; -the Lord Say, Hampden, Pym, Cromwell, and other men of iron nerve and -indomitable will, were watching with deep interest movements in the North -so congenial to their own. - -Whilst the king was pondering on the means of raising money, an -event took place which for the moment promised to present him with a -considerable sum. A Spanish fleet of seventy sail was discovered by the -Dutch admiral, De Witt, off the Land's End. As it was bearing troops -from Spain to Flanders, which were hard pressed by the Dutch, De Witt -followed it up the Channel, firing guns to harass its rear, but still -more to awake the attention of Van Tromp, who was lying off Dunkirk. The -two celebrated Dutch admirals were soon in full chase of the Spaniards. -Sixteen of the ships, having four thousand troops on board, bore away -with all speed for the coast of Flanders, but the rest fled for shelter -into the Downs. Charles sent the Earl of Arundel to inquire of Oquendo -the Spanish admiral, what was his destination, being apprehensive lest -the fleet might be intended for a descent on Ireland, or in aid of his -disaffected subjects of Scotland. - -Oquendo satisfied Arundel that they were really on their way to Flanders, -and demanded the protection of Charles as a friendly king. Charles was -willing to grant it for a consideration, and the sum of one hundred and -fifty thousand pounds was the price named in ready cash. For this Charles -was to send the Spanish fleet under protection of his own to Flanders; -but the two Dutch admirals, having now no less than one hundred sail, -from continued fresh arrivals, attacked the Spaniards in the English -roads, sank and burned five of the largest vessels, drove twenty-three -more on shore, and pursued the rest across the Channel, suffering only -ten of them to escape. All this time the English admiral lay near at -hand, but made no movement in protection of the Spaniards. The English -people on shore beheld the destruction of the Spanish fleet with the -utmost exultation, the memory of the great Armada being yet so strong -amongst them; but Charles had lost his much desired money, and with the -loss had acquired an immense amount of foreign odium. To have suffered -the vessels of a friendly Power, which had fled to him for shelter, to -be attacked and chased from his own harbour, lowered him greatly in the -estimation of Continental nations. - -[Illustration: JOHN HAMPDEN. (_From an Engraving by Houbraken._)] - -At the time of this untoward occurrence Charles had sent for Wentworth -from Ireland, to assist him by his counsels as to the best mode of -dealing with his difficulties at home, and the Scots in the North. -Wentworth had overridden all obstacles in Ireland, and had forced an -income out of the reluctant people there; he was thought, therefore, -by Charles the only man whose wisdom and resolution were equal to the -crisis. Wentworth had strongly advised Charles not to march against the -Scots, knowing that the king's raw levies would have no chance against -them; and he had gone on actively drilling ten thousand men, to prepare -them for the campaign, which he felt must come, even after all seemed -settled at Berwick. - -Clarendon, who is a regular Royalist and inclined to see more virtues in -Wentworth than other historians of the time, is yet obliged to sketch -this picture of the enmities which he justly provoked:--"He was a man of -too high and severe deportment, and too great a contemner of ceremony, -to have many friends at court, and therefore could not but have enemies -enough. He had two that professed it, the Earl of Holland and Sir Henry -Vane." Besides having said that "the king would do well to cut off -Holland's head," he had insulted the Earl in various ways. He had done -all he could to prevent Sir Henry Vane from being made secretary in place -of Sir John Coke, whom the king removed on his return from Scotland; -but, worse still, Charles now creating him Earl of Strafford, nothing -would satisfy him but that he must be also made Baron of Proby, Vane's -own estate, from which he himself hoped to derive that title. "That," -continues Clarendon, "was an act of the most unnecessary provocation that -I have known, and though he contemned the man with marvellous scorn, I -believe it was the loss of his head. To these a third adversary, like -to be more pertinacious than the other two, was the Earl of Essex, -naturally enough disinclined to his person, his power, and his parts." -This enmity in Essex, we are told, was increased by Wentworth's insolent -conduct to Lord Bacon, for whom Essex had a friendship; and he openly -vowed vengeance. "Lastly, he had an enemy more terrible than all the -others, and like to be more fatal, the whole Scottish nation, provoked by -the declaration he had procured of Ireland, and some high carriage and -expressions of his against them in that kingdom." Moreover, Wentworth had -no friend in the queen, from his persecution of the Catholics in Ireland, -and was continually thwarted by her. - -But all these councillors could devise no way to raise funds but by the -old and irritating mode of ship-money, for which writs to the amount of -two hundred thousand pounds were immediately issued, and this bearing -no proportion to the requirements of a campaign against the Scots, they -advised Charles to call together a Parliament. To this he demurred; but -when they persisted in that advice, he ordered a full Council to be -called, and put to it this question:--"If this Parliament should prove -as untoward as some have lately been, will you then assist me in such -extraordinary ways as in that extremity should be thought fit?" - -Charles was thus bent on extraordinary ways, and the Council promised -him its support. Wentworth returned to Ireland, being not only created -Earl of Strafford, but made Lord-lieutenant of that country. He promised -to obtain a liberal vote from the Irish Parliament, which it was thought -might act as a salutary example for England. Accordingly, no one daring -to oppose his wishes, he obtained four subsidies, with a promise of -more if found necessary. The English Parliament was delayed till this -was effected, and was then summoned for the 13th of April. To assist the -king and council in what was felt to be a critical emergency, Wentworth, -now Strafford, returned, though suffering from a painful complaint. He -left orders for the immediate levy of an army of eight thousand men, and -Charles took measures for the raising in England of fifteen thousand -foot and four thousand horse, which he thought would serve to overawe -Parliament; and, what is singular, the order for the raising of these -troops and providing artillery and ammunition was signed by Laud, so -little had he an idea of an archbishop being a minister of the Prince -of Peace. Before the arrival of Strafford, Charles read to the Council -the account of the liberal subsidies and the loyal expressions which -Strafford had put into the mouths of the enslaved Irish Commons. This he -did at the request of Strafford himself, to prove not only the loyalty of -the Irish, but his own popularity there, in spite of the assertions of -his being hated in that country. - -When the king met the Parliament on the 13th of April he had not abated -one jot of his high-flown notions of his divine right, and of the slavish -obedience due from Parliament. The Lord Keeper Finch formerly Speaker -of the House but now more truly in his element as a courtier, made a -most fulsome speech, describing the king as "the most just, the most -pious, the most gracious king that ever was." He informed them that for -many years in his piety towards them he had taken all the annoyances of -government from them, and raised the condition and reputation of the -country to a wonderful splendour; that, notwithstanding such exemplary -virtues and exhibitions of goodness, some sons of Belial had blown the -trumpet of rebellion in Scotland, and that it was now necessary to -chastise that stiff-necked people; that they must therefore lay aside all -other subjects, and imitate the loyal Parliament of Ireland in furnishing -liberal supplies; that had not the king, upon the credit of his servants -and out of his own estate, raised three hundred thousand pounds, he could -not have made the preparations already in progress; and that they must -therefore grant him tonnage and poundage from the beginning of his reign, -and vote the subsidies at once, when his Majesty would pledge his royal -word that he would take into his gracious consideration their grievances. -And all this attempt to get the supplies before the discussion of -grievances, from sturdy commoners who had never yet given way to force or -flattery! - -[Illustration: VISIT OF CHARLES I. TO THE GUILDHALL. - -FROM THE WALL PAINTING IN THE ROYAL EXCHANGE, BY SOLOMON J. SOLOMON, -A.R.A] - -Charles then produced the intercepted letters of the Scottish lords to -the King of France, to show the treason of the Scots and the necessity -of taking decisive measures with them. But the Commons were not likely -to be moved from their settled purpose by any such arguments. They -elected Serjeant Glanvil as Speaker, and proceeded first and foremost -to the discussion of the grievances of the nation. Amongst their old -members--though the brave Sir John Eliot had perished in prison, and -Sir Edward Coke, who by his later years of patriotism had effaced the -memory of the arbitrary spirit of his earlier ones, was also dead--there -were Oliver Cromwell, now sitting for Cambridge, Pym, Hampden, Denzil -Holles, Maynard, Oliver St. John, Strode, Corriton, Hayman, and Haselrig. -There were amongst the new ones, Harbottle Grimston, Edmund Waller, the -poet, Lord George Digby, the son of the Earl of Bristol, a young man of -eminent talent, and other men destined to become prominent. Sir Benjamin -Rudyard and Grimston delivered speeches recommending at once courtesy and -respect towards the Crown, but unflinching support of the rights of the -people. Harbottle Grimston described the commonwealth as miserably torn -and massacred, all property and liberty shaken, the Church distracted, -the Gospel and professors of it persecuted, Parliament suspended, and -the laws made void. Sir Benjamin Rudyard protested that he desired -nothing so much as that they might proceed with moderation, but that -if Parliaments were gone, they were lost. A remarkable feature of this -Parliament was the number of petitions sent in by the people. These were -poured in against ship-money and other abuses, as the Star Chamber and -High Commission Court, from the counties of Hertford, Essex, and Sussex. -After these matters had been warmly debated for four days, for the king -had many advocates in the House, on the 17th Mr. Pym delivered a most -eloquent and impressive speech, in which he narrated the many attacks on -the privileges of Parliament and the liberty of the subject, and laid -down the constitutional doctrine "that the king can do no wrong," thus -bringing the conduct and counsels of his ministers under the direct -censure of the House, and loading them with the solemn responsibility--an -awful foreshadowing of the judgments to come on Laud and Wentworth. From -that point the debate turned on the arbitrary treatment of the members -of the Commons, and orders were issued for a report of the proceedings of -the Star Chamber and the Court of King's Bench against Sir John Eliot, -Mr. Holles, and Mr. Hampden, to be laid on the table of the House. The -conduct of the late Speaker Finch, in adjourning the House at the command -of the king, was declared unconstitutional. - -The king could no longer restrain his impatience, and summoned both -Houses before him in the Banqueting Hall. There the Lord Keeper Finch, -in the presence of Charles, recalled their attention to the necessity of -voting the supplies, and repeated the king's promises. He endeavoured -to excuse the raising of ship-money as a necessity for chastising the -Algerine pirates who infested the seas, and again recommended the liberal -example of the Irish Parliament. The only effect produced by this was -a most vivid and trenchant speech the next day by Waller, in which -he told the House that the king was personally beloved, but that his -mode of extorting his subjects' money was detested; and that neither -the admiration of his majesty's natural disposition, nor the pretended -consent of the judges, could ever induce them to consent to such -unconstitutional demands. He then severely castigated the conduct of the -bishops and clergy who preached the divine right of monarchs to plunder -the public at their own pleasure. "But," said he, "they gain preferment -by it, and then it is no matter, though they neither believe themselves -nor are believed by others. But since they are so ready to let loose the -consciences of their kings, we are bound the more carefully to provide -against this pulpit law, by declaring and enforcing the municipal laws of -this kingdom." - -This again roused the king, who went down to the Lords, and read them -a sharp lesson on their not supporting him in his just demands of -supplies from the Commons. Thereupon the Lords sent for the Commons to -a conference on the 29th of April, and recommended them to pass the -votes and take the king's word for the redress of grievances; but the -Commons resented their intruding their advice about money matters as an -infringement of the privileges of the House; and on the 1st of May, the -Lords, through the Lord Keeper, disclaimed any intention of encroaching -on any of the well-known rights of the Commons, but that the Lords had -felt bound to comply with the request of the king. The Commons returned -to their debate on ship-money, and on Saturday, the 2nd of May, Charles -sent a message by Sir Henry Vane, now Secretary of State and Treasurer -of the Household, desiring an immediate answer regarding the supplies. -Lord Digby reminded the House that the demand was that of a hasty and -immediate answer to a call for funds to involve the nation in a civil war -with the Scots, a people holding the same religion and subjects of the -same king as themselves. The debate was continued for two days, Clarendon -accusing Vane of deliberately keeping from the House the fact entrusted -to him, that the king, though asking for twelve subsidies, would consent -to take eight. - -But it was not so much the amount as the principle involved in the -subsidies which was the question; for, on the 4th of May, Charles sent -Vane again with the remarkable offer to abolish ship-money for ever, and -by any means that they should think fit, on condition that they granted -him twelve subsidies, valued at eight hundred and fifty thousand pounds, -to be paid in three years, with an assurance that the House should not be -prorogued till next Michaelmas. This was a mighty temptation: here was -the direct offer of at once getting rid of one of the monster grievances -for ever; but it did not escape the attention of the more sagacious that, -by accepting the bargain, they were conceding the king's right to set -aside the most established laws, to force his own notions of religion on -his subjects, and to make war on them if they refused. They rejected the -snare, and maintained the debate for some hours against all the arguments -of the Court party. On rising, they informed Vane that they would resume -the debate the next morning at eight o'clock; but Sir Henry, seeing very -well how it would terminate, assured the king in Council that he was -certain that the House would not grant him a penny for the war against -the Scots. - -On this Charles adopted one of his stratagems. Early in the morning he -sent for Glanvil the Speaker, before the Commons had assembled, and -detained him at Whitehall, so that the Commons without him could not vote -against the supplies, nor protest against the war; and suddenly hastening -to the House of Lords, he sent for the Commons and dismissed them. In -doing this, he praised the peers at the expense of the Commons, and -declared that as to the liberties of the people which the Commons made so -much talk of, they had not more regard for them than he had. - -This was the last Parliament which Charles was ever to dissolve, and the -folly of his conduct became speedily palpable. The Parliament had only -sat about three weeks, having met on the 13th of April, and being now -dissolved on May 5th. By this hasty act the king had put himself wholly -on the army. Had he allowed the Commons to vote against the supplies, -many would have sympathised with him; now he had only himself to blame. -His enemies rejoiced, exceedingly, and his friends deplored the deed with -gloomy auguries. - -The king was made to feel his mistake, on applying to the City of -London for a loan and receiving a cool and evasive answer. The Scots -were greatly elated. They had their agents in close though secret -communication with the leaders of the opposition, and now saw the king -deprived of the means of effectually contending with them, and felt -that they had numerous friends of their cause in England. The passion -of the king only increased their advantages. He issued a proclamation -declaring why he had dismissed the Parliament, charging the Commons -with malice and disaffection to the State, and with designing to bring -government and magistracy into contempt; and he gave fresh proofs of his -vindictive feeling by arresting a number of the members the day after the -dissolution. The public had not forgotten the cruelty practised on their -faithful servant Sir John Eliot, and they now saw Sir John Hotham and Mr. -Bellasis committed to the Fleet, Mr. Crew, afterwards Lord Crew, to the -Tower, and the house of Lord Brooke forced, and his study and cabinets -broken open in a search for papers. - -To add to the general exasperation, Laud, who had summoned Convocation -previous to the meeting of Parliament, continued its sessions after the -dissolution, contrary to all custom; and its sitting was employed to -pass a series of seventeen new canons of the most offensive and slavish -kind. The public excitement was so great against the innovation that -the Lord Keeper Finch and some of the judges had to furnish a written -opinion declaring the right of Convocation to sit after the close of -Parliament, and a new commission was issued with the usual words, -"during the Parliament," altered to "during our pleasure." But a guard -of soldiers was deemed necessary to protect the sittings, in which -the clergy first voted six subsidies to the king, and then passed to -the canons, one of which ordered that every clergyman once a quarter -should instruct his parishioners in the divine right of kings, and the -damnable sin of resisting authority. Others fulminated the most flaming -intolerance of Catholics, Socinians, and Separatists. All clergymen and -graduates of the universities were called on to take an oath declaring -the sufficiency of the doctrines and discipline of the Church of England, -in opposition to Presbyterianism and Popery. - -[Illustration: GUILDHALL, LONDON, IN THE TIME OF CHARLES I.] - -On the publication of these canons, great was the ferment in the country, -and petitions and remonstrances from Northampton, Kent, Devon, and -other counties, were sent up against them. The code was most ungracious -as regarded the Catholics, who had just presented to the king, at the -suggestion of the queen, fourteen thousand pounds. The queen remonstrated -against it, and the king gave orders to Laud to desist from further -annoyance in that direction. But anger and discontent were spreading -throughout the country, from the outrageous measures to raise money. -Fresh writs of ship-money were issued, and many victims were dragged into -the Star Chamber for refusal to pay, and fined, so that their money was -obtained by one process or the other. The names of the richest citizens -were picked out in order to demand loans from them. Bullion, the property -of foreign merchants, was seized at the Mint, and forty thousand pounds -were extorted for its release; and bags of pepper on the Exchange were -sold at whatever they would fetch. It was next proposed to coin four -hundred thousand pounds' worth of bad money; but the merchants and other -intelligent men came forward and drew such a picture of the ruin and -confusion that such an act would produce, that the king was alarmed, -and gave the project up. The Council, however, hit upon the scheme of -purchasing goods at long credit, and selling them at a low price for -ready money. All this time large sums of money were levied throughout -the land by violence, for the support of the troops collected for the -campaign against the Scots. Carts, horses, and forage were seized at the -sword's point; and whoever dared to represent these outrages to the king -was branded as an enemy to the Government. The Corporation of London was -dealt with severely, because it showed no fondness for enforcing the -king's arbitrary demands. The Lord Mayor and sheriffs were cited into the -Star Chamber for remissness in levying the ship-money; and several of -the aldermen were committed to prison for refusing to furnish the names -of such persons in their wards as were able to contribute to Charles's -forced loans. Strafford said things would never go right till a few fat -London aldermen were hanged. - -These desperate measures inflamed the public mind beyond expression, and -greatly strengthened the league of the discontented with the Scots. All -except the insane tyrants who were thus forcing the nation to rebellion, -could see tempests ahead; and the Earl of Northumberland, writing to -a friend, said, "It is impossible that all things can long remain in -the condition they are now in: so general a defection in this kingdom -hath not been known in the memory of man." The disaffection began to -find expression, and, according to Clarendon, inflammatory placards -were scattered about the City and affixed on gates and public places, -denouncing the king's chief advisers. Laud, Strafford, and Hamilton, -were the marks of the most intense hatred, and the London apprentices -were invited, by a bill posted on the Royal Exchange, to demolish the -episcopal palace at Lambeth and "haul out William the fox." - -The train-bands assembled and kept the peace by day, but at night a mob -of five hundred assembled and attacked Lambeth Palace, and demolished -the windows, vowing that they would tear the archbishop to pieces. In a -couple of hours the train-bands arrived, fired on them, and dispersed -the multitude. Laud got away to Whitehall, where he remained some days, -till the damages were repaired and the house was fortified with cannon. -Another crowd, said to be two thousand in number, entered St. Paul's, -where the High Commission Court sat, tore down the benches, and cried -out, "No bishop! no High Commission!" A number of rioters were seized by -the train-bands and lodged in the White Lion Prison; but the prison was -forced open by the insurgents, and their associates released all but two, -a sailor and a drummer, who were executed, according to some authorities; -according to others, only one was thus disposed of. - -The king was greatly alarmed at this outbreak. He removed the queen to -Greenwich, as she was near her confinement, and placed a strong guard -over the palace with sixteen pieces of cannon; nor was he easy till he -saw a force of six thousand men at hand. - -The time for the meeting of the Scottish Parliament had now arrived, and -Charles sought to prevent it by another prorogation; but the Scots were -not to be put off in any such manner. The king had for some time been -treating them like a nation at war; he had prohibited all trade with -Scotland, and his men-of-war had been ordered to seize its merchantmen, -wherever found. The Scots therefore met on the 2nd of January, set -aside the king's warrant of prorogation on the plea of informality, and -the members took their seats, elected a president, an officer hitherto -unknown, and passed the new Acts. They then voted a tax of ten per -cent. on all rents, and five per cent. on interest of money to open the -inevitable campaign; and, before rising, appointed a Committee of Estates -for the government of the kingdom till the next meeting of Parliament. -This Committee was to sit either at Edinburgh or at the place where -the headquarters of the army should be, and a bond was entered into to -support the authority of Parliament, and to give to the statutes which -it had passed or should pass the same force as if they had received the -royal assent. - -But they had not waited for Parliament to take the necessary steps for -organisation of the army. They had retained in full pay the experienced -officers whom they had invited from Germany, and the soldiers who had -disbanded at the pacification of Berwick returned with alacrity to their -colours in March and April. Leslie was still commander-in-chief, and -determined to reduce the castle of Edinburgh before marching south. It -was in vain that Charles issued his proclamations, warning them of the -treasonable nature of their proceedings; they went on as if animated -by one spirit, and determined not only to strike the first blow, but to -advance into England instead of waiting to be attacked at home. - -Charles, on his part, was far from being so early ready or so well -served. His plans for the campaign were grand. He proposed to attack -Scotland on three sides at once--with twenty thousand men from England, -with ten thousand from the Highlands under the Marquis of Hamilton, and -with the same number from Ireland under Strafford. But his total want of -funds prevented his progress, and the resort to the lawless practices -which we have related for raising them, was alienating the hearts of his -English subjects from him in an equal degree. It was not till the month -of July, and the loan of three hundred thousand pounds by the Lords, that -he dared to issue writs for the number of forces. Thus the Scots were -ready for action when the king was only mobilising an army. - -In the appointment of commanders gross blunders were committed. The Earls -of Essex, Holland, and Arundel were set aside, and this, with personal -affronts to Essex, tended to throw these officers into the interest -of the opposition. Essex and Holland were at undisguised hostility -with Strafford, and as he was to take a leading part in the campaign, -they were kept out of it to oblige him. The Earl of Northumberland was -appointed commander-in-chief instead of Arundel, but was prevented by a -severe illness from acting; and Strafford was desired to leave Ireland -in the charge of the Earl of Ormond, and take the chief command, which -he consented to do, but nominally only as lieutenant to Northumberland. -Lord Conway was made general of the horse, partly because he had -been born a soldier in his father's garrison of Brell, and had held -several subordinate commands; but still more from the causes which put -incompetent generals at the head of our armies in later times--Court -influence. - -On the 29th of June Leslie collected his army at Chouseley Wood, near -Dunse, his former camp, and drilled them there three weeks. He had -entrusted the siege of the castle of Edinburgh to a select party, and -had the pleasure soon after this period to hear of its surrender to -his officers. Meanwhile, Conway was advancing northward, and soon gave -evidence of his gross incapacity, by writing in all his despatches to -Windebank, the Secretary of State, "that the Scotch had not advanced -their preparations to that degree, that they would be able to march that -year." But the king, Clarendon says, had much better information, and -ought to have distrusted the vigilance of such a commander. Moreover, -his soldiers displayed a most decided aversion to the service. They were -evidently leavened with the same leaven of reform as the Parliament. -They wanted to know whether their officers were Papists, and would -not be satisfied till they saw them take the Sacrament. "They laid -violent hands," says May, "on divers of their commanders, and killed -some, uttering in bold speeches their distaste to the cause, to the -astonishment of many, that common people should be sensible of public -interest and religion, when lords and gentlemen seemed not to be." - -Strafford was so well aware of the readiness of the Scots, and the -unreadiness and disaffection of the English soldiery, that he issued -strict injunctions to Conway not to attempt to cross the Tyne, and expose -his raw and wavering recruits in the open country between that river -and the Trent, but to fortify the passage of the Tyne at Newburn, and -prevent the Scots from crossing. The Scots, however, did not leave him -time for his defences. On the 20th of August, Leslie crossed the Tweed -with twenty thousand infantry and three thousand cavalry. He had been -strongly advised to this step by the leaders of the English opposition -themselves, and "the Earls of Essex, Bedford, Holland, the Lord Say, -Hampden, and Pym," says Whitelock, "were deeply in with them." No sooner -were the Scots on English ground, than the preachers advanced to the -front of the army with their Bibles in their hands, and led the way. -The soldiers followed with reversed arms, and a proclamation was issued -by Leslie that the Scots had undertaken this expedition at the call of -Divine Providence, not against the people of England, but against the -"Canterbury faction of Papists, Atheists, Arminians, and Prelates." -God and their consciences bore them witness that they sought only the -peace of both kingdoms by putting down the "troublers of Israel, the -fire-brands of hell, the Korahs, the Balaams, the Doegs, the Rhabshakehs, -the Hamans, the Tobiahs, the Sanballats of the times," and that done, -they would return with satisfaction to their own country. - -On the 27th of August they arrived at Heddon-law, near Newburn, on the -left bank of the Tyne, and found Conway posted on the opposite side, -between Newburnhaugh and Stellahaugh. The Scots kindled that night great -fires round their camp, thus giving the English an imposing idea of its -great extent; and we are told that numbers of the English soldiers went -over during the night amongst them, and were well received by them, for -they assured them that they only came to demand justice from the king -against the men who were the pest of both nations. The next day the Scots -attempted to ford the river, but were driven back by a charge of six -troops of horse; these horse were, however, in their turn repulsed by the -discharge of artillery, and a second attempt of the Scots succeeded. "As -for Conway," says Clarendon, "he soon afterwards turned his face towards -the army, nor did anything like a commander, though his troops were -quickly brought together again, without the loss of a dozen men [the real -loss was about sixty], and were so ashamed of their flight, that they -were very willing, as well as able, to have taken what revenge they could -upon the enemy." - -This was not true, for though "our whole army made the most shameful -and confounding flight that was ever heard of," they had no chance of -taking revenge with such a commander, being only about four thousand -five hundred altogether, horse and foot, while the Scots were twenty-six -thousand strong. Moreover, the English had no heart for the work, while -the Scots were resolute as one man, and commanded by officers who had -grown grey in the service of the victorious Swede, the great Gustavus -Adolphus. When the English forces reached Newcastle, they did not feel -able to defend it against such an army, and they fled on to Durham. -The Scots could scarcely believe their eyes when they found Newcastle -evacuated. - -The retreating English army, under the panic-stricken Conway, meantime -dared not even stop at Durham, but continued their flight to Darlington, -where they met Strafford coming up with reinforcements. He was suffering -from gout and stone, and in a marvellously bad humour at the late -scandalous disaster; and he must have seen enough of the demoralisation -of Conway's troops, for he turned back with him to Northallerton, where -Charles was lying with the bulk of his army. Altogether, Charles had -now twenty thousand men and sixty pieces of cannon wherewith to face -the Scots; but the disaffection became so manifest, the desertions so -frequent, and the whole condition of the force so unsatisfactory, that -though Strafford professed to speak with contempt of the Scots, he -assured Charles that it would require two months to put his army into -fighting order. They therefore fell back upon York, intending to entrench -a camp under its walls, and to send the cavalry to Richmond or Cleveland -to guard the passes of the Tees. - -The Scots had meanwhile taken unopposed possession of Newcastle, Durham, -Shields, Tynemouth, and other towns, and were masters of the four -northern counties of England, without having lost twenty men. In this -position it has been matter of wonder that they did not still advance, -and drive the king before them; but those writers who have thus imagined -have greatly mistaken the whole business. The object of the Scots was -not, as of old, to annoy and devastate, much less to conquer England; it -was simply to force from the king and his evil ministers the recognition -and the guarantee of their just national rights. They had advanced into -England with this plain declaration; they had attempted not to fight -except so far as to force their way to the king's presence. To this they -were, in fact, now come. They had achieved a vantage-ground from which to -treat, and, though strongly posted, and possessed of the whole country -north of the Tees, they had refrained from all ravages and impositions -on the people with whom they had no quarrel, paying for whatever they -needed. To have done otherwise, would have broken faith with the -people of England, who were seeking the same redress of grievances as -themselves, and have at once roused the jealousy of the English public, -who would have regarded them as invaders instead of friends, and thus -strengthened the hands of the king. The Scots knew perfectly well what -they were about, and how best to obtain their just demands. They now -therefore sent Lord Lanark, Secretary of State for Scotland, and brother -of the Marquis of Hamilton, to present the petition of the Covenanters to -the king, who was plainly in a strait and therefore compelled to listen -to it. They respectfully repeated their pacific designs, and implored -the king to assemble a Parliament, and by its wisdom to settle peace -between the two kingdoms. This was precisely what the people of England -were earnestly seeking, and demonstrates the perfect concert between the -leaders of the two nations. To assemble a Parliament was of all things -the last which Charles was disposed to consent to, but he was in no -condition to refuse altogether. He therefore took three days to consider -their request, and on the 5th of September returned to Lord Lanark the -answer, that he would assemble a great council of English Peers in York -to settle the matters in dispute between them, and that he had already -summoned this Assembly for the 24th of that month. By this means Charles -endeavoured to escape the necessity of calling a Parliament, but his -hesitation did not avail him. All parties were too much interested to let -this opportunity slip. Twelve peers--Bedford, Essex, Hertford, Warwick, -Bristol, Mulgrave, Say and Sele, Howard, Bolingbroke, Mandeville, Brooke, -and Paget--presented a petition, urgently representing the necessity -of a Parliament, and describing the sufferings of the nation from the -lawlessness of the soldiers, the damage done to trade by the arbitrary -levies on merchants, and the danger of bringing in wild Irish troops. -The citizens of London prepared a similar one, which Laud endeavoured to -quash, but in vain; they obtained ten thousand signatures, and despatched -some of the Aldermen and members of the Common Council to present it -at York. The gentry of Yorkshire presented another, detailing their -sufferings from the support of the army, and their cry, too, was for a -Parliament. Strafford, who was desired to present it, endeavoured to -persuade them to leave the prayer for a Parliament out, on pretence that -he knew the king meant to call one; but they would on no account omit it. -Thus pressed on all sides, Charles was reluctantly compelled to promise, -and on the meeting of the great council of Peers on the 24th, announced -to them that he had issued the writs for the meeting of a Parliament on -the 3rd of November. - -[Illustration: ADVANCE OF THE COVENANTERS ACROSS THE BORDER INTO ENGLAND. -(_See p._ 587.)] - -The Scots had comprised their demands under seven heads, the chief of -which were the full and free exercise of their religion; the total -abolition of episcopacy; the restoration of their ships and goods; the -recall of the offensive epithet of traitors; and the punishment of the -evil counsellors who had created all these troubles. The Lords, delighted -at the prospect of a Parliament, saw no difficulty in coming to terms -with the Scots. They named sixteen of their own body to meet with eight -Commissioners of the Covenanters at Ripon, to negotiate the terms of a -peace, and sent a deputation of six other lords to London, to raise for -the king a loan of two hundred thousand pounds, on their own securities. -Charles would have drawn the Conference from Ripon to York, where his -army lay, but the Scots were too cautious to be caught in such a snare. -They represented the danger of their putting their Commissioners into the -power of an army commanded by Strafford, one of the very incendiaries -against whom they were complaining, and who termed them rebels and -traitors in the Parliament in Ireland, and had recommended the king to -subdue and destroy them. The Conference was opened at Ripon, but got no -further from the 1st to the 16th of October, than the settlement of the -question of the maintenance of the Scottish army till all was concluded. -Charles offered to leave them at liberty to make assessments for -themselves, but this they declined, as looking too much like plundering; -and it was finally agreed that they should retain their position in the -four northern counties, and receive eight hundred and eighty pounds for -two months, binding themselves to commit no depredations on any party; -and the time for the meeting of Parliament approaching, the Conference -was adjourned to London on the 24th. - -The last Parliament had been called the Short Parliament; this was -destined to acquire the name of the Long Parliament, never to be -dissolved till it had dissolved the monarchy--the most memorable -Parliament that ever sat. "The Parliament," says Clarendon, "met on the -3rd of November, 1640. It had a sad and a melancholie aspect upon the -first entrance, which presaged some unusual and unnatural events. The -king himself did not ride with his accustomed equipages, nor in his usual -majesty to Westminster, but went privately in his barge to the Parliament -stairs, and so to the church, as if it had been a return of a prorogued -or adjourned Parliament. There was likewise an untoward, and, in truth, -an unheard of accident, which broke many of the king's measures, and -infinitely disordered his service beyond a capacity of reparation." - -This was the defeat in the City of the man on whom he had fixed as -Speaker of the Commons, Sir Thomas Gardiner, the Recorder of London, a -lawyer on whom Charles greatly calculated for managing the House. But -that very morning he learned that Gardiner had been thrown out as one of -the four members, and he was so confounded that it was afternoon before -he could go to the House. There Lenthall, a bencher of Lincoln's Inn, was -immediately elected Speaker, and Charles, believing him well affected -to the Church and State, when two days afterwards he was, according to -custom, presented to him, confirmed the choice, which he afterwards most -bitterly repented. But it was not only in the case of the Speaker that -the king was doomed to see himself disappointed. The whole body of the -House was of a new character and spirit. "There was," says Clarendon, -"observed a marvellous elated countenance in most of the members of -Parliament before they met together in the House. The same men, who six -months before were observed to be of very moderate tempers, and to wish -that gentle remedies might be applied without opening the wound too -wide and exposing it to the air, and rather to excuse what was amiss -than too strictly make inquisition into the causes and origin of the -malady, talked now in another dialect both of things and persons. Mr. -Hyde, who was returned to serve for a borough in Cornwall, met Mr. Pym in -Westminster Hall some days before the Parliament, and conferring together -on the state of affairs, Pym told Hyde that 'they now must be of another -temper than they were the last Parliament; that they must not only sweep -the house clean below, but must pull down the cobwebs which hung on the -tops and corners, that they might not breed dust, and so make a foul -house hereafter. That they had now an opportunity to make their country -happy by removing all grievances, and pulling up the causes of them by -the roots, if all men would do their duties;' and used much other sharp -discourse to the same purpose, by which it was discerned that the warmest -and boldest counsels and overtures would find a much better reception -than those of a more temperate allay, which fell out accordingly." - -Charles opened Parliament, as usual, by promising freely redress of -grievances on the granting of the necessary subsidies, and called on the -two Houses to abandon all suspicions, and put confidence in him; but, -after fifteen years of constant struggle and constant breaches of faith, -this was impossible. The Commons saw the certainty at length of achieving -their objects, not from any goodwill towards constitutional freedom -in the king, but from the stringent necessity in which he had placed -himself. His creeping into Parliament, as it were, by the back door, -instead of coming there in the usual state, showed that he was anxious -and depressed, and his advisers were in an equal state of terror. His -latest hope--the selection of the Speaker--had failed him, and he saw the -Commons commence their work by passing altogether over the question of -supplies, and falling in ominous earnestness on the grievances. - -On the fourth day of their session they proceeded from acts to deeds. -They passed an order that those victims of the Star Chamber, Prynne, -Bastwick, and Burton, whose horrible mutilations had revolted the whole -civilised world, putting the Reformed Church of England on a par with -persecuting and murdering Rome in her worst days, should be sent for -from their distant prisons, and called on to state by whose authority -they had been thus mutilated, branded, and imprisoned. This order spread -a wonderful joy amongst the Reformers everywhere. The three lopped and -tortured men were welcomed with acclamations at all places on their -journey, and on the 28th of November they entered London attended by -hundreds of carriages, and by five thousand people on horseback, both -men and women, all wearing in their hats and caps bays and rosemary, -and followed by great multitudes, with boughs and flowers, and strewing -flowers and herbs as they passed. This was a change from the day when -Laud pulled off his cap at the passing of Prynne's horrible sentence, and -thanked God for it. The House of Commons, after hearing their statement, -voted them damages to the amount of six thousand pounds to Burton, and -five thousand pounds each to Prynne and Bastwick, which was to be paid -by Archbishop Laud and his associates in the High Commission and Star -Chamber. - -But they did not stop there; from compensating the sufferers they passed -on to the punishment of the oppressors. The Committee of Religion -proceeded to inquire into the loose lives of the clergy, their cruelties -towards the Puritans, and their introduction of papistical ceremonies. -"Their first care," says May in his "History of Parliament," "was to -vindicate distressed ministers, who had been imprisoned or deprived -by the bishops, and all others who in the cause of religion had been -persecuted by them. Many of those ministers were released from durance -and restored to their livings, with damages from their oppressors. -Many doctors and divines that had been most busy in promoting the late -church innovations about altars and other ceremonies, and therefore -most gracious and flourishing in the State, were then questioned and -committed, inasmuch as the change, and the suddenness of it, seemed -wonderful to own, and may serve worthily as a document to all posterity, -_quam fragili loco starent superbi_--how insecure are the proud." On the -18th of December, Denzil Holles was sent to the Upper House to demand -the impeachment of Laud. On hearing this the Archbishop rose, and, with -his usual warmth declaring his own innocence, was proceeding to charge -his accusers with various offences, when he was promptly called to order -by the Earl of Essex and the Lord Say, and was stopped by the House and -consigned to the Usher of the Black Rod. He apologised, and obtained -leave, under surveillance of the gentleman usher, to fetch some papers -from his house, necessary to his defence; and after remaining in the -custody of the Black Rod for ten weeks he was committed to the Tower -(February 24, 1641). - -[Illustration: JOHN PYM. (_From an Engraving by Houbraken._)] - -But the Commons had been all this time more deeply engaged in securing -the most daring and dangerous offender of all, the Earl of Strafford. -Laud, who was generally in London, was more safely within their power -at any moment; but Strafford was left in the North, where he was -lieutenant-general of the army, Lord President of the Council of the -North, and could at any instant slip away to Ireland, where he had still -more authority, and a considerable army. Laud, once caged, could wait; -but Strafford must be both secured and promptly dealt with. His own -friends in London, and his own sagacity, sufficiently apprised Strafford -of the danger which awaited him if he came to town. He represented to the -king that it were much better on all accounts that he should remain where -he was; that in London he should by his presence remind the opposition of -their enmity towards him; and that he would only further embarrass the -king's affairs if he came, whilst he could be of service with the army, -and, if necessary, escape to Ireland, where he might do the king real -service. But Charles, who felt his weakness without Strafford, in whose -judgment and power of overruling men he had the highest faith, would not -hear of it, but insisted on his coming to London: and pledged himself -to guarantee his safety, reminding him that he was King of England, and -that Parliament should not touch a hair of his head. Strafford was rather -bound to obey as a subject and servant of the Crown, than assured of -his safety by those solemn pledges. He went to town, and on the third -day after his arrival he was arrested, and placed in the custody of the -Keeper of the Black Rod. - -[Illustration: ARREST OF THE EARL OF STRAFFORD. (_See p._ 593.)] - -On the 11th of November, 1640, assuming an outward air of unconcern, -Strafford went to take his seat in the House of Lords. The Earl of -Northumberland, writing to the Earl of Leicester on the 13th, declared -that "a greater and more universal hatred was never contracted by any -person than he has drawn upon himself, yet he is not at all dejected." -Before he appeared in the House, the impeachment had been carried thither -from the Commons. Strafford at once hastened to meet his enemies. -Baillie, who was one of the Scottish commissioners, gives this striking -account of his arrest:--"He calls rudely at the door: James Maxwell, -Keeper of the Black Rod, opens. His lordship, with a proud, gloomy -countenance, makes towards his place at the board head; but at once many -bid him avoid the House, so he is forced in confusion to go back till -he is called. After consultation, being called in, he stands, but is -commanded to kneel, and on his knees to hear the sentence. Being on his -knees he is delivered to the Keeper of the Black Rod, to be prisoner, -till he was cleared of these crimes the House of Commons had charged him -with. He offered to speak, but was commanded to be gone without a word. -In the outer room James Maxwell, required him, as prisoner, to deliver -his sword. When he had got it, he cries with a loud voice for his man to -carry my Lord-lieutenant's sword. This done, he makes through a number of -people towards his coach, all gazing, no man capping him, before whom, -that morning, the greatest of England would have stood uncovered, all -crying, 'What is the matter?' He said, 'A small matter, I warrant you.' -They replied, 'Yes, indeed, high treason is a small matter.' Coming to -his place where he expected his coach, it was not there, so he behoved to -return the same way, through a crowd of gazing people. When at last he -found his coach, and was entering, James Maxwell told him, 'Your lordship -is my prisoner, and must go in my coach;' so he behoved to do." In a few -days he was committed to the Tower, and the Commons proceeded to deal -with those next in degree. But Windebank, Secretary of State, and Finch -the Lord Keeper, fled from the reach of their vengeance. - -This, then, was the marvellous state of affairs at this moment. "Within -less than six weeks," says Clarendon, "these terrible Reformers had -caused the two greatest councillors of the kingdom--Laud and Strafford, -whom they most feared, and so hated--to be removed from the king, and -imprisoned under an accusation of high treason; and frightened away -the Lord Keeper of the Great Seal of England and one of the principal -Secretaries of State into foreign kingdoms for fear of the like, -besides preparing all the Lords of the Council, and very many of the -principal gentlemen throughout England, who had been sheriffs and -deputy-lieutenants, to expect such measure of punishment from their -general votes and resolutions as their future demeanour should draw upon -them for their past offences." And thus ended the ever memorable year -1640, in which the Parliament had secured the ascendency after fifteen -years' determined struggle with the present king, and many more with his -father; had humbled the proud and obstinate monarch; imprisoned his two -arch-counsellors; impressed a salutary terror on the whole royal party; -and initiated changes of the most stupendous kind. - -The House of Commons commenced the year 1641 with an endeavour to secure -annual Parliaments, and succeeded in obtaining triennial ones. They -proposed that the issuing of the writs should take place at a fixed time, -and to prevent the Crown from defeating this intention, they demanded, in -case the king did not order the writs at the regular time, it should be -imperative on the Lord Keeper or Lord Chancellor to do it; in case they -neglected it, it should become the duty of the House of Lords to do so; -if the Lords failed, then the sheriffs, and if the sheriffs neglected or -refused, the people should proceed to elect their own representatives -without any writs at all. To frustrate in future any hasty prorogations, -by which the House of Commons was liable at any moment to be stopped by -the Crown, they proposed that the king should not have power to prorogue -or dissolve Parliament within fifty days of its meeting without its own -consent. - -At one time Charles would have resented so bold a measure most -indignantly, and would have dissolved the audacious body at once; but now -he condescended to reason with them in a far different tone. He protested -against the measure as a direct encroachment on his prerogative, by which -sheriffs and constables were to be endowed with powers that hitherto had -been only kingly; but he was fain at last to give way, and the Bill, so -far as regarded triennial Parliaments, was passed, and a Bill securing -the Houses from hasty prorogation followed in May. By that act Charles -tied up his hands from dissolving Parliament at all without its own -consent, so that he could no longer defeat its measures as he had done. -Thus a real and most momentous infringement on the prerogative was made, -being brought about by the king's resistance to the cession of just -rights. In obstinately claiming the people's privileges, he was driven to -forfeit his own. He was now in a dilemma. The army of the Scots still lay -in the North, and both the English Commons and the Scottish Commissioners -in London were in no hurry to have it disbanded. Whilst it lay there -well supported by Parliamentary allowance, the king and his friends were -overawed and powerless, and both parties, the Commons of England and the -Covenanters of Scotland, were the better able to press their claims and -support each other. Both parties were bent on abolishing or reducing -episcopacy. - -The Scottish Commissioners exerted themselves with the leaders of the -English Commons to move for the total abolition of episcopacy in England, -and the establishment of Presbyterianism; but this led only to the -development of a variety of views in the Commons. Some of the members -favoured the Scottish proposal, and of these were the supporters of the -petition with fifteen thousand signatures, brought in from London by -Alderman Pennington, called the "root and branch petition." Others, as -the Lords Wharton, Say, and Brooke, preferred the still more levelling -system of the Independents. On the other hand, some of the most prominent -Reformers--the Lords Digby and Falkland, and Selden and Rudyard--were -opposed to the extinction of the bishops. Digby compared the London -petition to a comet portending nothing but anarchy, and with its tail -pointing to the North, meaning that it was a Scottish comet; and Lord -Falkland was for relieving the bishops of their temporal cares, but not -removing them from the Church altogether. The question was warmly debated -for two days, but the fate of the bishops was deferred awhile by that of -Strafford. - -All being prepared, Strafford was brought from the Tower on the 22nd -of March, 1641, and placed before the tribunal appointed to try him -in Westminster Hall. He had been about three months in prison, and -meanwhile a deputation had arrived from Ireland. They brought a -petition, calling on the Commons of England to join them in obtaining -his condign punishment. They enumerated their grievances and sufferings -from his lawless violence under sixteen heads. The Commons welcomed -the deputation, as may be supposed, and to obtain full evidence of -Strafford's doings in Ireland, not only accused his most active -instrument--Sir George Ratcliffe--of high treason, too, but almost every -one of his willing subordinates, and secured all of them that they -could, and kept them in readiness to be questioned, by which means they -also prevented them from doing mischief with the army. The Scottish -Commissioners were equally vehement in demanding justice against him for -having counselled the king to put down their religion and government by -force, and for offering to supply an army of Irish for the purpose. Thus -all three kingdoms were arrayed against the common enemy. - -After much debate, it had been concluded that the trial should take place -in Westminster Hall, before the Lords and Commons. The Earl of Arundel -was appointed to preside as Lord High Steward. On each side of the throne -was erected a cabinet, where the king, queen, and Prince of Wales could -sit without being seen, these cabinets having trellis work in front, -and being hung with arras. Before the throne ran lines of seats for the -peers, and woolsacks for the judges, and on each side of the peers were -ranged seats for the Commons, who consented to sit uncovered there. Near -them were the Scottish and Irish deputies, and there was a desk or dock -enclosed for the prisoner and his counsel. One-third of the Hall was -left open to the public, the rest being defended by a bar; and there was -a gallery near for ladies, which was crowded by those of highest rank. -There was an intense interest, indeed, felt by all classes, and the hall -was daily so crowded, that Mr. Principal Baillie, minister of Kilwinning, -whom we have already mentioned, says in the quaint manner of his time, -"We always behoved to be there before five in the morning: the house was -full before seven." - -Strafford was brought from the Tower guarded by a hundred soldiers, who -filled, with the officers, six barges; and on landing at Westminster he -was received and conducted forward by two hundred of the train-band. All -cross streets and entries were occupied by a strong force of constables -and watchmen, placed there as early as four in the morning. The king, -queen, and prince arrived about nine o'clock, and about the same time -the prisoner was conducted into the Hall. On his appearance the porter -demanded of the Usher of the Black Rod whether the axe should be borne -before him; but the Usher said no, the king had expressly forbidden it. - -The bishops did not appear amongst the lords, for their presence had -been strongly objected to by the House of Commons, on the plea that -the canons forbade their taking part in any trial which involved -bloodshed--"_clericus non debet interesse sanguini_." But the real fact -was that they were supporters of Laud, and Williams, of Lincoln, very -adroitly volunteered a motion as from the prelates themselves, that -they should be excused. The Commons had objected to those who had been -made peers since Strafford had been impeached, as they were his avowed -friends. All, except Lord Lyttelton, who had been made a baron and Lord -Keeper in the place of the fugitive Finch, refused to comply and took -their seats; and so says Clarendon, might the bishops, too, had they had -the same spirit. - -All being ready, the impeachment was read, consisting of twenty-eight -capital articles, and then Strafford's reply to it, which filled two -hundred sheets of paper. This occupied the first day. The court rose -about two o'clock, and the prisoner was reconducted to the Tower. This -was the routine of each day during the trial, which lasted eighteen -days. On entering the court at nine o'clock, Strafford made three -obeisances to the Earl of Arundel, the High Steward, two of which might -be interpreted as intended for the king and queen, though they were not -at first visible, nor during the whole time were supposed to be so; but -the interest of the proceedings quickly made the king impatient of the -trellis work, and, according to Baillie, he pulled it down with his own -hands. "It was daily the most glorious assembly," continues Baillie, -"that the isle could afford; yet the gravity was not such as I expected. -After ten, much public eating, not only of confections, but of flesh and -bread; bottles of beer and wine going thick from mouth to mouth without -cups, and all this in the king's eye.... There was no outgoing to return, -and often the sitting was till two, three, or four o'clock at night." - -As Strafford went and came, the crowd conducted themselves towards -him with forbearance and courtesy, and he returned their greetings -with humility and politeness. Few of the lords at first returned his -obeisances, and the managers, thirteen in number, showed him no favour. -When the Lord Steward ordered the Committee of Management to proceed -on the second morning, Pym opened the case with an eloquent charge, -commencing with these words:--"My lords, we stand here by the commandment -of the knights, citizens, and burgesses, now assembled for the Commons -in Parliament, and we are ready to make good that impeachment whereby -Thomas, Earl of Strafford, stands charged in their name, and in the -name of all the Commons of England, with high treason. This, my lords, -is a great cause, and we might sink under the weight of it, and be -astonished with the lustre of this noble assembly, if there were not in -the cause strength and vigour to support itself, and to encourage us. -It is the cause of the king; it concerns his majesty in the honour of -his government, in the safety of his person, in the stability of his -crown. It is the cause of the kingdom: it concerns not only the peace -and prosperity, but even the being of the kingdom. We have that piercing -eloquence, the cries, and groans, and tears of all the subjects assisting -us. We have the three kingdoms, England, and Scotland, and Ireland, in -travail and agitation with us, bowing themselves, like the hinds spoken -of in Job, to cast out their sorrows. Truth and goodness, my lords, -they are the beauty of the soul, they are the perfection of all created -natures, they are the image and character of God upon the creatures. -This beauty, evil spirits and evil men have lost; but yet there are none -so wicked, but they desire to march under the show and shadow of it, -though they hate the reality of it. This unhappy earl, now the object -of your lordships' justice, hath taken as much care, hath used as much -cunning, to set a face and countenance of honesty in the performance of -all these actions. My lords, it is the greatest baseness of wickedness, -that it dares not look in its own colours, nor be seen in its natural -countenance. But virtue, as it is amiable in all aspects, so the least is -not this, that it puts a nobleness, it puts a bravery upon the mind, and -lifts it above hopes and fears, above favour and displeasure: it makes it -always uniform and constant to itself. The service commanded to me and my -colleagues, is to take off those vizards of truth and uprightness, which -hath been sought to be put upon this cause, and to show you his actions -and intentions in their own natural blackness and deformity." - -Pym, after this passage, went one by one through the pleas of Strafford -in his reply, and rent away ruthlessly the arguments by which he -endeavoured to veil the flagrancy of his actions; but he dwelt for -this time more especially on his conduct in Ireland, representing him -there as treading on all the rights, privileges, and property of the -people in a manner utterly regardless of any constitution or compacts. -He then produced as witnesses Sir Pierce Crosby, Sir John Clotworthy, -Lord Ranelagh, Lord Mountnorris, and Mr. Barnwell, who had suffered -insult, loss of office and honour from the Lord-Lieutenant's overbearing -despotism. To this Strafford replied in a long and able speech. The -subject of Ireland was resumed the next day, and then from day to day. - -After the Managers had gone through some particular charge, and produced -their witnesses, the court adjourned for half an hour, when Strafford -made his defence and produced his witnesses; the Managers then commented -on the evidence, and the court closed for the day. Thus it went on -for thirteen days. "All the hasty and proud expressions that he had -uttered at any time," says Clarendon, "since he was first made a privy -councillor; all the acts of passion or power that he had exercised in -Yorkshire, from the time that he was first President there; his engaging -himself in projects in Ireland, as the sole making of flax and selling -tobacco in that kingdom; his extraordinary proceedings against Lord -Mountnorris and the Lord Chancellor Loftus; his assuming a power of -judicature at the Council table to determine private interest, and matter -of inheritance; some rigorous and extrajudicial determinations in cases -of Plantations; some high discourses at the Council table in Ireland; and -some casual and light discourses at his own table and at public meetings; -and, lastly, some words spoken in secret Council in this kingdom, after -the dissolution of the last Parliament, were urged and pressed against -him to make good the general charge of an endeavour to overthrow the -fundamental government of the kingdom, and to introduce an arbitrary -power." "In his defence," continues the same historian, "the earl behaved -himself with great show of humility and submission, but yet with such -a kind of courage, as would lose no advantage; and, in truth, made his -defence with all imaginable dexterity, answering this and evading that -with all possible skill and eloquence; and though he knew not till he -came to the bar upon what parts of his charge they would proceed against -him, or what evidence they would produce, he took very little time to -recollect himself, and left nothing unsaid that might make for his own -justification." - -Though this is the language of the royalist historian, it is borne out -by all accounts of this extraordinary trial. Strafford was one of the -most eloquent, able, and imposing men of any age. His commanding person, -and persuasive and impressive manner, had made his influence paramount -wherever he had appeared. He had the faculty vastly developed of making -the worse appear the better reason; and never had his splendid talents -been so successfully displayed as on this great occasion, when all the -ability, the patriotism, and the elocution of the time were arrayed -against him. The very weight and vastness of the opposition bearing upon -him acted in his favour. There he stood, alone, as it were, against the -three kingdoms, dauntless, and unsubdued; laden with growing infirmities, -and the deadly hatred of innumerable hosts, yet disdaining to succumb to -them; and with a readiness of wit, a promptness of reply, an adroitness -of application or of evasion, a keenness of ridicule, a weight of reason, -and a rich eloquence, that raised admiration even in those who most -loathed him. The sympathies of the ladies were every day more and more -enlisted in his cause. They were seen--those of the highest rank--taking -notes, discussing the proceedings, and discovering their vivid interest -in him by a thousand signs. The courtiers were enraptured; the lords, -even the sternest, rapidly relaxed, and at length were almost all on -his side. The clergy were unanimous in their plaudits of him, and the -Managers saw with dismay a change which threatened their defeat. - -[Illustration: WESTMINSTER HALL AND PALACE YARD, IN THE TIME OF CHARLES -I.] - -Maynard and Glynne, two acute lawyers, were the Managers who chiefly -brought forward the accusations, and directed the evidence against him; -but they appeared no match for Strafford's intellect and address. They -endeavoured to establish a charge of constructive treason, that is, of -treason not founded on one clear and palpable act, but on accumulated -evidence, the aggregate of many offences; but the prisoner's answer to -this was triumphant. They had not his letters, which we have; and though -they could point to a long course of arbitrary and unconstitutional -conduct, amounting to high misdemeanours, they could not lay their -fingers on the damning proofs of his avowed intentions under his own -hand, as we now can in the Strafford Papers. But even had they possessed -these, it would still have been technically impossible to establish a -charge of high treason according to any definition of law, or idea of -treason then existing. All the statutes of high treason had heretofore -been directed against designs or attempts to injure or remove the king, -or any of his family; to subvert the Government, or change the possession -of the Crown. That there might be such a thing as treason against the -people and their rights had never entered into governing heads. - -In vain would Pym or Selden then search Coke upon Littleton, or the -statutes at large, for any definition of a treason that would serve them. -The statute of 25 Edward III. c. 2 was the great landmark of English -history in those matters, and amongst the seven distinct declarations of -treasonable offences, they would look in vain for one to fit Wentworth, -for most assuredly against none of them had Strafford offended. He was -working with the king and his officers; his acts and intentions pointed -in a totally different direction. His object was to strengthen the king's -government beyond all precedent; to make him, as we now have it under -his own hand, the most absolute and independent monarch that ever lived. -True, from the reign of Henry IV. to that of Queen Mary, many other -species of high treason had been created by the Crown, and especially by -Henry VIII. But in none of these reigns, when almost every imaginable -or unimaginable thing affecting kingship was made treason, had it ever -entered the royal or legal head to conceive of the possibility of treason -against the people. Therefore, had all these descriptions of treason been -yet existent, none of them would have availed against Strafford, who was -most loyal to the king and his government. - -The matter was too palpable to be denied, but at this crisis an event -occurred which gave fresh hope to the accusers. The younger Sir Henry -Vane communicated to Pym a paper which he had discovered in the cabinet -of his father, the Secretary of State. The account which he gave of the -occurrence, according to Whitelock, was this:--His father being out of -town, had sent him the key of his study, desiring him to search for some -papers which he wanted. In this search he came upon one paper of such -extraordinary contents, that he held himself bound in duty to secure -it. The paper was a minute of what had passed in the Privy Council on -the morning of the day on which the last Parliament had been dissolved. -The question before the Council was offensive or defensive war with the -Scots. The king said, "How can I undertake a war without money?" And -Strafford was made to reply, "Borrow one hundred thousand pounds of the -City. Go rigorously on to levy ship-money. Your majesty having tried the -affections of your people, you are absolved and loosed from all rules of -government, and may do what power will admit. Having tried all ways, you -shall be acquitted before God and man. You have an army in Ireland, which -you may employ to reduce this kingdom to obedience, for I am confident -the Scots cannot hold out five months." Laud and Cottington declared with -similar vehemence that the king was absolved from all law. - -Pym, having obtained from young Vane a copy of this paper, on the 10th of -April informed the Commons of the fact. After hearing it read, Vane the -younger rose and confirmed the relation, excusing himself on the ground -that it had appeared his bounden duty to make the matter known, and that -Mr. Pym had confirmed him in this opinion. After giving Mr. Pym the copy, -he had returned the original paper to its proper place in the cabinet. -Sir Henry Vane, the father, here rose, and remarked, with much sign of -resentment against his son, that he now saw whence all this mischief -came, and that he could give no further particulars of the matter but -found himself in an ill condition from its testimony. - -On the 12th, charge was made against Strafford in court, who replied -that old Vane was his most inveterate enemy; that, as was most probable, -if he had delivered this paper to his son, he had been guilty of an -unpardonable breach of his oath as a Privy Councillor, to preserve the -king's secrets, and was therefore totally unworthy of credit; that he -had been strictly examined on what passed at that Council, and at first -denied all memory of any such words spoken by him, Strafford, on that -occasion; and even on his third examination, after having been shown -this paper, he had only recollected he had spoken these words, or some -like them; that such words and such counsel were not likely to be soon -forgotten; yet, of eight Privy Councillors then present, none of those -whose evidence could be obtained could remember any such words, except -the Earl of Northumberland, who thought he recollected such words as -those--"of being absolved from all rules of government." The Archbishop -of Canterbury and Windebank were not present to give their evidence; -but the Marquis of Hamilton, Bishop Juxon, and Lord Cottington, could -remember no such words. Even had he used the words, it depended much -on whether the phrase "this kingdom" meant England or Scotland; that -the country under debate was Scotland, and he had demanded of Vane, -whether the word used was really "this" or "that." And further, could the -authority of this paper be established, it would not establish a charge -of treason, for the law demanded the evidence of two witnesses, and this -was but the evidence of one. - -Pym therefore put in the verified copy of the paper, for the paper itself -having been laid on the table of the Committee of Commons, had been -purloined, and was never afterwards recovered. That in the possession -of Charles was in the handwriting of Digby, which brought him under -suspicion. Pym contended that the evidence of the minute itself, and that -of Sir Henry Vane, amounted to the required proofs of the law, being -two witnesses against the earl. The Lord Steward, Arundel, then called -on Strafford to say whether he had any observations to make on this -additional proof, and he replied most eloquently:-- - -"Where has this species of guilt lain so long concealed? Where has this -fire been so long buried during so many centuries, that no smoke should -appear till it burst out at once, to consume me and my children? Better -it were to live under no law at all, than to fancy we have a law on which -we can rely, and find at last that this law preceded its promulgation, -and try us by maxims unheard of till the moment of the prosecution. If I -sail on the Thames, and split my vessel on an anchor, in case there be no -buoy to give warning, the party shall pay me damages; but if the anchor -be marked out, then is the striking on it at my own peril. But where is -the mark set upon this crime? Where the token by which I should discover -it? - -"It is now full two hundred and forty years since treasons were defined, -and so long has it been since any man was touched to this extent upon -this crime before myself. We have lived, my lords, happily to ourselves -at home; we have lived gloriously abroad in the world; let us be content -with what our fathers have left us; let not an ambition carry us to -be more learned than they were in these killing and destructive acts. -My lords, be pleased to give that regard to the peerage of England, -as never to expose yourselves to such moot points, such constructive -interpretations of law. If there must be a trial of wits, let the -subject matter be of somewhat else than the lives and honours of peers. -It will be wisdom for yourselves, for your posterity, and for the whole -kingdom, to cast into the fire these bloody and mysterious volumes of -constructive and arbitrary treason, as the primitive Christians did their -books of curious arts, and betake yourselves to the plain letter of the -statute, which tells you where the crime is, and points out the path by -which you may avoid it.... - -"My lords, I have now troubled your lordships a great deal longer than -I should have done, were it not for the interest of these pledges which -a saint in heaven left me. I should be loth----" here he pointed to -his children, and his weeping stopped him. "What I forfeit for myself -is nothing, but that my indiscretion should extend to my posterity, -I confess, wounds me very deeply. You will be pleased to pardon my -importunity. Something I should have said, but I see I shall not be able, -and therefore I shall leave it. And now, my lords, I thank God that I -have been by His blessing sufficiently instructed in the vanity of all -temporary enjoyments, compared to the importance of an eternal duration. -And so, my lords, even so with all tranquillity of mind, I submit clearly -and freely to your judgment; and whether that righteous doom shall be -life or death, I shall repose myself, full of gratitude and confidence, -in the arms of the great Author of my existence--'_In te Domine confido: -non confundar in aeternum_.'" - -What the effect of this address must have been, may be inferred from -the observations of Whitelock, the chairman of the Committee which was -conducting the prosecution:--"Certainly, never any man acted such a part -on such a theatre, with more wisdom, constancy, and eloquence; with -greater reason, judgment, and temper; and with a better grace in all his -words and actions, than did this great and excellent person, so that he -moved the hearts of all his auditors, some few excepted, to remorse and -pity." - -The Commons were alarmed at the effect of the trial. The production of -Vane's paper had been a blow enough to have sunk another man, but the -extraordinary eloquence and address of Strafford seemed to have effaced -even that; they had little faith in procuring a verdict from the Lords -in their present course, and they resolved to change their plan, and -proceed against the offender by a Bill of Attainder. They have been -accused of adopting the arbitrary measures of Henry VIII. in so doing, -and of depriving Strafford of the fair influence of his trial; but we, -who enjoy the benefit of their deed, ought not to join in that cry. -Strafford was guilty, if ever man was, of the most atrocious attempt that -a man can entertain--that of destroying the liberties of his country. -The laws had been so framed, from royal bias, as not duly to designate -his crime; but not for that, nor for any temporary feeling of pity raised -by his admirable defence, did these patriots mean to allow of his escape. -But in the House of Commons the Bill of Attainder met with unexpected -opposition from one of the most zealous of the Reformers, Lord Digby. He -saw, like the rest, that technically they could not condemn Strafford -for high treason as the law then stood, and he feared the precedent of -condemning men under a show of law that did not exist. It was, in fact, -too much imitating the king. It was a real difficulty, which the patriots -had not sufficiently foreseen. Instead of charging him with treason, -as it was then defined, they should first have remodelled the law, or -have charged Strafford with the violation of the national guarantee of -Magna Charta, on which there could be no doubt, and for which he was -well worthy of death; but it was too late to retrace their steps, and -they were obliged to condemn him for the unquestionable crime of treason -against the nation, making the act of the Legislature in all its branches -an extension of the law. Digby himself did not question his guilt. He -said "he believed him still that grand apostate to the commonwealth, -who must not expect to be pardoned in this world till he be despatched -to the other;" but he pleaded that on the ground of law he should have -his life spared. But the Commons knew that while he lived there was no -security. On the first occasion the king would pardon and restore him, -and all their labour would be thrown away. They sought, therefore, to -erect Parliament in so great an emergency into a court of equity as well -as of law, believing that what was decreed by both Houses, and had the -sanction of the Crown, was and would be a law of itself. They did not, -like the Tudors and the Stuarts, seek to condemn him by setting aside the -established courts and trial by jury; they gave him the highest court -in the realm, and a full trial by his peers, and by their Bill they now -called for a verdict. - -But that verdict was not obtained without a great struggle. In the -Commons it was warmly debated, and it was not till the eleventh day, the -21st of April, that it was carried by a vast majority. Only fifty-four, -or, according to Whitelock, fifty-nine members voted against the Bill, -and the next morning the names of these were placarded in the streets -as "Straffordians," who, to allow a traitor to escape, would betray -their country. The Lords, who had been greatly influenced by Strafford's -speeches, and his confident exposition of the law, displayed no alacrity -to pass the Bill of Attainder through their House; but they soon found -themselves exposed to the pressure from without. The nation had made up -its mind to the punishment of the man who had advised the king to reduce -them to the condition of serfs; and the Lords could not appear anywhere -without being pursued by cries of "Justice! justice on the traitor!" -Vast crowds surrounded the Parliament House, uttering the same demands, -and a petition was carried up from the City, signed by many thousands. -The country was terrified by rumours of insurrections and invasions, -which were made plausible by the lately discovered plot for marching -the army of York on London, and the Court preparations for rescuing and -getting away Strafford. There is also clear evidence from the despatches -of Rosetti, who was in the confidence of the queen, that the king had -ordered the fortifications of Portsmouth to be strengthened; and the -command of the fortress was given to Goring, that Charles might have a -place of retreat if he was obliged to quit London, and an opening for the -landing of troops from France or Holland, whom he might prevail on to -come to his assistance. - -In carrying up the Bill to the Lords, the Attorney-General, St. John, had -endeavoured to get rid of the legal objections to the death of Strafford, -by saying that laws were made for the protection of the peaceable and -the innocent, not for those who broke all law for the destruction of -the people. This was a dangerous doctrine, and did not at all mend the -matter; he did not see that the real strength and justification of the -case lay in the three branches of the Legislature interpreting the law as -extending to the State and Constitution altogether, and by their united -act rendering it law. - -In the meantime, the anxiety and perplexity of the king became -excruciating. He had clearly, by his confident assertions of protection, -drawn Strafford into the snare, and if the Lords passed the Bill, how -was he, by his own decayed authority, to defend him? He had previously -sought the aid of the Earl of Bedford, who was the most influential of -the peers, and promised him the disposal of all the great offices of -State, on condition that Strafford's life should be spared. Bedford had -accepted it, but just at this crisis he fell sick and died. Clarendon -says, of his own knowledge, that it was the plan of Bedford to give the -king the excise as a settled source of income, and thus extricate him -out of all his troubles,--the very thing which was afterwards granted -to his son, Charles II. On Bedford's death, Lord Say accepted the same -position on the same terms; and it is asserted by Clarendon that it was -by his advice that Charles now took a step that proved very fatal. He -proceeded to the House of Lords on the 1st of May, whilst the Bill of -Attainder was still before it, and calling for the Commons, informed -them that having, as they knew, been constantly present at the trial of -Strafford, he was perfectly familiar with all that had been advanced on -both sides, and that the serious conclusion at which he had arrived was -that he was not guilty of treason, and, therefore, in his conscience, he -could not condemn him if the Bill were passed and came to him. "It was -not," he said, "for him to argue the matter with them; his place was to -utter a single decision. But," he continued, "I must tell you three great -truths:--First, I never had any intention of bringing over the Irish -army into England, nor ever was advised by any one to do so. Second, -there never was any debate before me, either in public council or private -committee, of the disloyalty or disaffection of my English subjects. -Third, I was never counselled by any to alter the least of any of the -laws of England, much less alter all the laws." - -[Illustration: CHARLES SIGNING THE COMMISSION OF ASSENT TO STRAFFORD'S -ATTAINDER. (_See p._ 603.)] - -After the long breach of the law that the king shall not levy taxes -without consent of Parliament; after the long exercise of the arbitrary -power of the Star Chamber and the High Commission Court, where Magna -Charta was utterly set aside; after the brandings, the lopping off -of ears, the slitting of noses, and the fining and imprisonment of -the subject at the king's pleasure, these assertions show how utterly -regardless of truth this king was. He then admitted that Strafford was -guilty of great misdemeanours. "Therefore," he said, "I hope you may -find some middle way to satisfy justice and your own fears, and not to -press upon my conscience. My lords, I hope you know what a tender thing -conscience is. To satisfy my people I would do great matters, but in -this of conscience, no fear, no respect whatever, shall ever make me go -against it. Certainly, I have not so ill-deserved of the Parliament this -time that they should press me on this tender point." He proposed that -Strafford should be rendered incapable hereafter of holding any place of -trust or honour under the Crown. - -But the very declarations which he had made in this address were so -untrue, that every one must have felt that as long as Strafford lived -there was no security against his return to power. The Commons, however, -took up the matter in another manner. On their return to their own -House--the king had not recognised their presence by a single observation -in the other--they instantly passed a resolution, declaring the king's -interference with any bill before either House of Parliament, a most -flagrant abuse of their privileges. This was Saturday, and the next -day the ministers, Scottish and Puritan, took up the subject in their -pulpits, and roused their hearers to a sense of their danger, only to be -averted by the death of the arch-traitor. On Monday the population poured -out in a vast concourse, and directed their steps towards Westminster. -Six thousand infuriated people surrounded the Houses of Parliament, armed -with clubs and staves, crying out for justice on the prisoner. - -At this moment Pym was haranguing the House of Commons on the discovery -of the plot to debauch the army, and informing them, moreover, that there -was already a strong body of French troops assembled on the opposite -coast, and that it was declared to be their intention to take possession -of Jersey and Guernsey, and to land at Portsmouth. This was so far true -that Montague, a favourite of the queen's, had been despatched to the -French court, a fleet had assembled on the coast of Brittany, and an -army in Flanders. Montreuil had endeavoured to convince the popular -leaders, through the Earl of Holland, that the army was destined for the -war in the Netherlands, and the fleet to protect the coasts of Portugal. -Their being so near this country, however, was sufficient to justify -the popular suspicion, and the public excitement continued to increase. -Montague was advised to seek his safety by flight, and the queen was -so terrified that she ordered her carriages to Whitehall to flee to -Portsmouth. The Lords, however, prevented this by a remonstrance to the -king, and thereby probably saved the queen's life from the enraged mob; -for it was now that the disclosures of Colonel Goring of the Army Plot -became public. - -Pym seized the opportunity of this occurrence to press on the Commons a -resolution to the effect that the seaports should be closed, and that the -king should command that neither the queen, the prince, nor any person -attending upon his majesty, should leave London without the permission of -the king, acting on the advice of his Parliament. This was passed, and -Pym then called on them to make a solemn Protestation, after the manner -of the Scottish Covenant, which should be taken by the whole House, -binding them by a vow, in the presence of God, to maintain and defend his -majesty's royal person and estate, as well as the power and privileges -of Parliament, the lawful rights and liberties of the subject, the peace -and union of the three kingdoms against all plots, conspiracies, and evil -practices, and that neither hope, fear, nor any other respect, should -induce them to relinquish this promise, vow, and protestation. It was -instantly signed by the Speaker, and by every member present. - -The Commons next addressed a letter to the army in the North, assuring -them that, notwithstanding the attempts to corrupt them, Parliament -relied on their fidelity, and would take care to furnish their pay. -They ordered the forces in Wiltshire and Hampshire to advance nearer -to Portsmouth, and those in Kent and Sussex to draw towards Dover, and -declared any man advising the introduction of foreign troops to be -an enemy to his country. These resolutions they despatched with the -Protestation to the Upper House by Denzil Holles, calling on the whole -House to subscribe to the Protestation. The next morning, being the 4th -of May, the Lords desired a conference with the Commons, and informed -them of a message from the king, desiring that the intimidation of -the mobs might be withdrawn, that the deliberation of the Parliament -might be free; and as the peers proposed to take the Protestation -unanimously, Dr. Burgess, a popular preacher, was sent out to inform -the people of this, and to desire that they would peaceably withdraw to -their own homes. The crowds, on this assurance, melted rapidly away. The -Protestation was then sent out to be subscribed by the whole nation, as -the Covenant had been in Scotland, and with the intimation that any one -declining to adopt it should be looked upon as an enemy to his country. -To complete their security, the Commons passed a Bill that Parliament -should on no account be dissolved without the consent of both Houses. - -The next day, on a false alarm that the House of Commons was in danger, -the train-bands, headed by Colonel Mainwaring, marched with beat of -drum to Westminster; it proved an unnecessary caution, but one that -convinced the peers and the king that any resistance to the Commons, -backed by the public, was useless. The very next day the news was -circulated in Parliament that six or eight dangerous conspirators had -fled, amongst them Jermyn, the queen's favourite, and Percy, both members -of the Commons, and that the queen was still bent, if opportunity could -be found, of escaping too. On the following day, May 7th, the peers -voted by a majority that the fifteenth and nineteenth charges against -Strafford were proved, namely, that he had quartered soldiers on the -peaceable inhabitants of Ireland contrary to law, and had imposed -on his own authority an illegal oath on all Scotsmen living in that -country. Thereupon they consulted the judges, who unanimously decided -that Strafford deserved to suffer the pains and penalties of treason. -The Catholics kept away from the House because they would not take the -Protestation, and therefore bore no part in Strafford's condemnation. The -Bill was passed by a majority of twenty-six to nineteen. The following -morning, May 8th, the Bill of Attainder was read a third time and passed; -and, at the same time, the Lords also passed the Bill of the Commons -against the dissolution of Parliament. - -Charles was now reduced to a pitiable condition. On the one hand, he had -solemnly pledged himself, both to Strafford and to Parliament, never -to consent to the earl's death; but, on the other hand, the two Houses -had pronounced against him, and the public was waiting with impatience -for his ratification of the sentence. He had lately seen the ominous -assemblage of the people, and the march of the City bands to support -Parliament; the Scots still lay in the North, waiting with fierce desire -for the fall of their enemy; one signal, and the whole country would be -in a blaze. The Bill was passed on Saturday, and perhaps never was a -Sunday spent by any man, or any house, in so dreadful a state as that -passed by Charles and his family. The only alternative left him was to -summon his Privy Council, and submit to them his difficulty. But from -them he derived very little comfort. The members in general urged on him -the necessity of complying with the demand of both Houses of Parliament, -and the manifest desire of the public, who were again loudly declaring -that they would have either the head of Strafford or the king's. The -bishops strongly urged the same arguments; the terror of the Parliament -and the people was upon them. - -Williams, the old bishop of Lincoln, who had been treated with stern -severity by both Strafford and Laud, told the king, when he talked of -his conscience, that there was a public as well as a private conscience; -that he had discharged his private conscience by doing all in his power -to save the earl, and he might now exercise his public conscience by -conceding to the decision of his Parliament; that the question now was -not about saving Strafford, but about saving himself, his queen, and -family. Juxon, Bishop of London, alone had the courage to tell him -boldly not to consent to the shedding of the blood of a man whom in his -conscience he felt to be innocent. Ussher of Armagh, Morton of Durham, -and another bishop, advised him to be guided by the opinion of the -judges. The judges being then asked, repeated their judgment that the -case, as put to them by the Lords, amounted to treason. Thus borne down -by all parties, Charles reluctantly gave way, and late in the evening, -though he would not directly sign his assent to the Bill, he signed a -commission to several lords to give the assent. Even in this last act -his friends endeavoured to console him with the assurance that "his own -hand was not in it." It was a miserable subterfuge, for the deed was -equally valid, and he executed it with tears, declaring the condition of -Strafford happier than his own. - -The day of execution was fixed for Wednesday, the 12th of May, and on -Monday, the 10th, the commission to this effect passed the Great Seal. -But still Charles could not give up the hope of saving the unhappy -man. He sent to the two Houses to inform them that he would instantly -disband the Irish army; and the next morning, having appeared to have -made a favourable impression on the Commons, who had returned a very -flattering message, he sent the Prince of Wales to the Lords with a -letter once more imploring them to consult with the Commons, and grant -him "the unspeakable contentment" of changing the sentence of the earl -to perpetual imprisonment, with a pledge never to interfere in his -behalf; and if the earl should ever seek his liberty, especially by -any application to himself, his life should be forfeited. If, however, -it could not be done with satisfaction to the people, he said "_Fiat -justitia_." In a postscript, stated to have been added at the suggestion -of the queen, he appended the fatal words, "If he must die, it were -charity to reprieve him till Saturday;" words which seemed to imply that, -though he asked, he really did not hope to save him. Nothing, however, -could have saved him. The House, after reading the letter twice, and -after "sad and serious consideration," sent a deputation to inform him -that neither of the requests could be complied with. - -[Illustration: THE OLD PARLIAMENT HOUSE, EDINBURGH.] - -Strafford, on the previous Tuesday, hearing of the king's extreme -agitation and trouble on his account, had sent him a letter which was -full of magnanimity. He informed him that the hearing of the king's -unwillingness to pass the Bill, on the ground that he did not believe -him guilty, and of the excitement of the people against him on that -account, had brought him into a great strait; that the ruin of his -family on the one side, and fear of injury to the king on the other, had -greatly troubled him; that to say that there had not been a great strife -in him, would be to say that he was not made of flesh and blood; yet -considering that the chief thing was the prosperity of the realm and the -king, he had, with a natural sadness, come to the conclusion to desire -the king to let matters take their course rather than incur the ill that -refusing to sign the Bill might bring on his sacred majesty. Whitelock -assures us that the king sent Carleton to him, to inform him that he had -been compelled to pass the Bill, and adding that he had been the more -reconciled to it by his willingness to die. On hearing this, Strafford -started up from his chair, lifted up his eyes to heaven, laid his hand -upon his heart, and said, "Put not your trust in princes, nor in the sons -of men, for in them there is no salvation." - -The night before the day fixed for his execution, Archbishop Ussher -visited the prisoner, who begged him to go to his fellow-prisoner, -Archbishop Laud, and beg his prayers for him that night, and his blessing -when he should go forth in the morning. He had in vain endeavoured to -persuade the Lieutenant Balfour to permit him to have an interview -with the fallen prelate. In the morning, when led out to the scaffold, -on approaching the window of the archbishop's prison, he begged the -lieutenant to allow him to make his obeisance towards the prelate's room, -though he could not see him himself. - -[Illustration: STRAFFORD ON HIS WAY TO EXECUTION. - -AFTER THE PAINTING BY PAUL DELAROCHE, IN THE POSSESSION OF THE DUKE OF -SUTHERLAND.] - -[Illustration: THE MARQUIS OF MONTROSE. (_From a contemporary print by -Faithorne.)_] - -Laud, however, was on the watch, and putting forth his hands from his -window, bestowed his blessing. That was all that his weakness and his -emotion permitted. He sank, overcome with his grief, to the floor. -Strafford made a profound obeisance, and the procession moved on. But -after a few steps the earl turned round again, bowed to the ground once -more, saying, "Farewell, my lord! God protect your innocence!" Then -proceeding again, he assumed a lofty and dignified air, more even than -was usual to him. At the Tower gate the lieutenant requested him to -enter a coach, lest the people should wreak their hatred upon him; but -he declined, saying, "No, Master lieutenant, I dare look death in the -face, and I hope the people, too. Have you a care that I do not escape, -and I care not how I die, whether by the executioner, or the madness -of the people. If that give them better satisfaction, it is all one to -me." He was accompanied to the scaffold by Archbishop Ussher, the Earl -of Cleveland, and his brother, Sir George Wentworth, and others of his -friends were there to take their leave of him. The crowd assembled to see -their great enemy depart was immense, and he made a speech from notes -which he had prepared, still protesting his innocence; declaring that so -far from wishing to put an end to Parliaments, he had always regarded -them, under God, as the best means to make the king and his people -happy. His head fell at a single blow, and the astonished people could -scarcely believe that they had seen the last of their foe. They retired -in quietness, as if overcome by the greatness of the satisfaction; but -they testified their joy in the evening by bonfires in the streets (May -12, 1641). - -The fall of Strafford carried terror through the Court. Many began -to think of flying. Cottington had given up his office of Master of -the Wards, and Lord Say and other noblemen of the popular party were -introduced into the Ministry. The Marquis of Hertford was made Governor -to the Prince, the Earl of Essex Lord Chamberlain, the Earl of Leicester -the Lord-lieutenant of Ireland. The king was wholly averse from the new -ministers, but hoped to win upon them as he had done upon Strafford, -Loudon, and Montrose; and indeed, after their appointment, a bolder and -more independent spirit seemed to awaken in the Lords. They threw out -several Bills sent up from the Commons, amongst others, one for excluding -the bishops from their House. Essex, though a reformer, was by no means -hostile to the hierarchy, and always obliged his servants to accompany -him to church, and kept a chaplain who was a thorough conformist. The -Lords did not object to the bishops and clergy in general being excluded -from the Star Chamber, the Privy Council, and the Commissions of the -Peace; but they contended that bishops had always formed a part of their -body, and that the Commons might next take it into their heads to exclude -barons. - -The Commons, however, pressed on the Lords Bills for the abolition of -the two greatest engines of tyranny in the country, the Star Chamber -and the High Commission Court. These, with another for a poll-tax for -the maintenance of the armies, the Lords passed; but Charles hesitated. -He had given up much this Session: the right of prorogation without -consent of Parliament, thus making Parliament perpetual if it pleased; -the right to demand tonnage and poundage without the same consent; he had -limited the forest laws; granted to the judges their places during good -behaviour; and withdrawn the commission for the Presidency of the North -as illegal. But to give up the civil and ecclesiastical inquisitions, -those ready and terrible torture houses of the Crown, went hard with -him. The poll-tax he passed at once, because he thought it would be -unpopular, but he refused to sanction the others. The Commons came to a -resolution that he should pass all three or none; and the tone of both -Parliament and the people was so menacing, that on the 5th of July he -gave his consent, and put an end to those un-English abominations. - -The Commons having granted the king six subsidies, and tonnage and -poundage for the year, he now proposed to proceed to Scotland to hold -a Parliament. He was aware that a reaction had taken place there. The -Marquis of Montrose had exerted himself to form a party amongst such -noblemen and gentlemen as had grown to regard the popular leaders both -in Scotland and England as bearing too insolently on the prerogatives of -the Crown. He had prevailed on nineteen noblemen to subscribe a bond, -pledging themselves "to oppose the particular and indirect practices of -a few, and to study all public ends which might tend to the safety of -religion, laws, and liberty." They were careful that the language of this -bond should not clash openly with that of the Covenant; but the real -design did not escape the vigilance of the Committee of Estates. They -called on Montrose and his associates to clear themselves, and obtaining -the bond, burn it publicly. Notwithstanding this, the confederates -opened a secret correspondence with the king, and assured him of their -confidence of victory over the Covenanters, if he would honour the -Parliament with his presence, confirm his former concessions, and delay -the distribution of offices and honours to the end of the session. But -this correspondence also was discovered. Walter Stuart, the messenger -of Montrose to the king, was seized near Haddington, and the letter of -the marquis to the king, with various other suspicious papers, was found -concealed in the pommel of his saddle. Montrose, Lord Napier, Sir George -Stirling, and Sir Archibald Stuart, were arrested, examined, and sent to -the castle of Edinburgh. - -These events rendered Charles still more impatient for his northern -journey. Not only Traquair, and the other four of his officers who had -been excepted from pardon as incendiaries, but these, his new allies, -demanded his assistance. By the beginning of August the treaty of -pacification was signed by the Scots. They had received an engagement -from the English Parliament for the payment of a balance of two hundred -and twenty thousand pounds of "the brotherly assistance." Charles had -granted an amnesty and an act of oblivion of all that was past, having -cost the kingdom about one million one hundred thousand pounds, and both -armies were ordered to be disbanded. The Parliament, however, looked on -this journey with no friendly eye. Even amongst his own friends, the wily -old Bishop of Lincoln, Williams, whom the king, in the absence of Laud, -and the loss of Strafford, had taken into favour, and who was soon to -be Archbishop of York, advised Charles to keep away from the Scots. He -assured him that they would ferret out any secret negotiations that might -pass between himself and the royal party, and make the English Commons -acquainted with them; and that he would do much better to remain, and -employ himself in corrupting and winning over as many as he could of the -Parliamentary leaders. The Commons insisted on his appointing a Regency, -if he should go, to act during his absence; but he consented only to the -naming of a Commission. It was not till the 10th of August that he got -permission for his journey, and he was not destined to depart without -having another proof of the animus of the House of Commons. On the 4th, -Serjeant Wild presented to the Lords a Bill of Impeachment against -thirteen of the bishops--Laud's name being put among them--for their -recent manufacturing of canons and constitutions contrary to law. Their -grant of a benevolence to the king was made an offence under the name of -a bribe, and by this means, though they had not been able to exclude all -the bishops from the Upper House for ever, they excluded these thirteen -for a time. - -At length Charles was enabled to set out. He had made the Earl of Holland -commander-in-chief of the Forces, much to the disgust of the friends of -Essex, who was appointed commander only of those south of the Trent. -He was attended in his coach by his nephew, Charles Louis, the nominal -Elector Palatine, the Duke of Lennox, now Duke of Richmond, and the -Marquis of Hamilton--rather ominous associates. The king had not been -gone a week, however, when Holland having quarrelled with the queen, and -the king having refused to make a baron at his suggestion, by which he -would have got ten thousand pounds, sent a letter to the House of Lords, -obscurely intimating some new practices and designs against Parliament. -The Lords communicated to the Commons this letter, and the two Houses -immediately appointed a commission to proceed to Scotland, ostensibly to -procure the ratification of the late treaty, but really to keep watch -over the king and his partisans. To this duty were named the Earl of -Bedford, Lord Edward Howard, Sir William Almayne, Sir Philip Stapleton, -Mr. Hampden, and Nathaniel Fiennes. The king endeavoured to get rid of -this unwelcome commission, declaring it needless, and refused to sign the -commission when sent to him; but the Parliament still pressing it, he -allowed the commissioners to proceed to Scotland to attend him; all of -whom did so except the Earl of Bedford. - -Charles had set out with the resolve to win over as many of his enemies -as possible, and to please the Scots at large, thereby to raise up a -counter influence to that at home. At the northern camp, which was not -yet broken up, he did all that he could to corrupt the officers, went -to dine with old Leslie, the Scottish general, and soon after ennobled -him. At Edinburgh he flattered the Covenanters by attending their -preachings, and went so far as to appoint Alexander Henderson, the stout -champion of the Covenant, his chaplain, appearing to take especial -delight in his conversation, and having him constantly about him. He -ratified all the acts of the last Session of the Scottish Parliament. -As regarded the incendiaries, as they were called--that is, Charles's -former ministers--who had been imprisoned for executing his commands, -he promised on their release to give their offices to such persons as -had pleased the Parliament. He submitted to them a list of forty-two -councillors, and nine great officers of State. The Parliament conceded -so far as to release all the incendiaries but five, and these were to be -referred to a committee for trial, and their sentence to be pronounced by -the king. So far, all promised well, but the Covenanters were desirous -to have the Earl of Argyll, who had so openly espoused their cause in -the General Assembly, appointed to the chief post in the ministry, that -of Chancellor; but Charles conferred it on Loudon. Argyll strove for the -next, that of Treasurer, a post of great emolument, but Charles gave it -to Lord Ormond; but the Parliament would not consent, and the contest for -this appointment had gone on ten days, when the feud thus commenced was -rent still wider by what is known in Scottish history as the "Incident." - -Since Charles had come to Edinburgh, he had continued to keep up his -correspondence with the Marquis of Montrose, who was still prisoner -in the castle, and who, notwithstanding his known intrigue with the -king, had by concert with him kept up a pretence of being a zealous -Covenanter. A letter from Montrose, revealing the progress of this -correspondence, had been found by some traitorous person about the king, -supposed, indeed, to have been taken from his pocket, and had been sent -by the Marquis of Hamilton to the Covenanters. Montrose found means to -convey to the king his ideas about it, and to warn him especially of the -treasonable proceedings and intentions of Hamilton and Argyll. Hamilton, -since his having, at Charles's request, assumed the part of a favourer -of the Covenanters, had become suspected of being more really of that -party than he pretended. The king had grown cool in his manner to him: -the letters of Montrose, conveyed through William Murray, a groom of the -bed-chamber, urged the king to make away with the traitors Hamilton and -Argyll. At this juncture young Lord Kerr sent by the Earl of Crawford -a challenge of treason to Hamilton, who appealed to Parliament in his -justification, and Kerr was compelled to make an apology. But if we are -to believe Hamilton himself, this did not prevent the prosecution of -the plot to assassinate or carry them off to some place of concealment. -He says, in a letter to his brother, Lord Lanark, that he was sent for -suddenly by his brother and Argyll, as he was engaged with some company, -desiring him to go to them on matters of the utmost consequence. When -he went he was told by them that they had been desired to go to General -Leslie, at his house, who informed them of a plot to kill or carry them -away. On this being confirmed to Hamilton by Colonel Hurrie and Captain -Stuart, the three lost no time in escaping from the city to Hamilton -House, at Kinneil; whilst the rumour of the plot spreading, the burghers -of Edinburgh had closed their gates, and armed themselves for the defence -of the Parliament. - -As this was a direct charge of a most black and murderous design on the -part of the king, he lost no time, on receiving letters from the fugitive -noblemen stating why they had fled, in marching to the Parliament House -at the head of five hundred soldiers, to demand an explanation. The -Parliament was justly alarmed at this menacing movement, and insisted -that a commission should immediately be given to Leslie to guard -Parliament with all the city bands, the regiments of foot near at hand, -and some troops of horse. - -Charles was loud in his complaints of the scandal cast upon him by the -needless flight of the three noblemen and the arming of the citizens, -and demanded an instant examination before Parliament for his clearance. -The Parliament would not consent to a trial before the whole House; but -in spite of the king's remonstrances, referred it to a committee, and -ordered the immediate arrest of the Earl of Crawford, Colonel Cochrane, -William Murray, and others. What the committee discovered is not known, -for its proceedings were conducted with the profoundest secrecy; and -they finally came to the conclusion that there was nothing which touched -the king personally; and yet that the noblemen did not flee without -sufficient cause, and were falsely accused by Montrose. Montrose himself, -when examined regarding the letter to the king, declared that he meant -to accuse nobody in particular; and Crawford, Murray, and the rest, gave -confused and disordered answers. All was involved in mystery, and this -was no little increased by Hamilton and Argyll returning to Edinburgh -in the course of a few weeks, and Hamilton declaring that there was -nothing in the affair which reflected any dishonour on the king. Still -more to confound all reasoning on the matter, the plotters not only were -liberated on bail, but Argyll was placed at the head of the Treasury, was -created a marquis, Hamilton a duke, and Leslie an earl, with the title of -Leven. - -The news of the plot had been despatched with all speed to the Parliament -in England, and had created great alarm in London, many being of opinion -that a conspiracy was on foot to get rid of all the king's opponents. -Parliament, which had adjourned to the 20th of October, had just met -again, and the Council sent urgent requests for the return of the king to -the capital. - -The king, however, appeared in no haste. He remained entertaining all -parties in great festivity, distributing the forfeited church lands -amongst influential persons, not excepting his covenanting chaplain, -Henderson. Honours were as freely bestowed. It was found that Charles -had carried the Crown jewels with him: it was now well known that the -great collar of rubies was pawned in Holland, and it was believed that -Charles was buying up his enemies with others of the jewels, afterwards -to be exchanged for money. These unpleasant suspicions were greatly -increased by the fact that five companies of foot had, by the king's -especial command, been detained at Berwick, notwithstanding the order for -disbandment. The Council sent six ships to fetch away the artillery and -ammunition from Berwick and Holy Isle, and again represented to Charles -the necessity of his presence in London. - -His departure, however, was at length determined by startling news out of -another quarter, namely, of rebellion in Ireland. - - - - -INDEX - - - Abbott Bishop, Primate, 464. - - "Addled Parliament," The, 453. - - Albany, Duke of, assumes title of Alexander, King of Scotland, 44. - - Albany, Duke of, proclaimed joint king with Mary of Scotland, - assassination of Rizzio, 264; - flees to Dunbar with Mary, 266; - unpopularity among the nobles, 267; - plot against him, 268; - murdered, 269. - (_See_ also Darnley, Lord.) - - Amboise, Peace of, 258. - - Amiens, Truce of, 39. - - Archery, Decay of, 16th century, 388. - - Architecture, 15th century, 67; - 16th century, decline of Gothic, 380; - old Tudor, 381. - - Argyle, Earl of, chief director of the Assembly, 572. - - Armada, The Spanish, preparation by Philip, 315; - English fleet, 316; - strength of Armada, preparation for defence, 318; - sets sail, driven back by storm, sails up Channel, chased by - English, 319; - fight renewed, 320; - fire ships, 322; - retreat of Armada, English land forces, 323. - - Arms and Armour, 16th century, 387. - - Arran, Earl of, Regent, 191; - relations with England, 193; - with France, 194; - reconciled to Beaton, 194. - - Arthur, Prince, married to Catherine of Aragon, 97; - death and character, 98. - - Ascham, Roger, 363. - - Aske, Robert, executed, 172. - - Askew, Anne, tortured and burnt, 202. - - Audley, Lord, the Cornish rising, 90. - - - Babington, Anthony, plot against Elizabeth, 306; - execution, 307. - - Bacon, Sir Francis, scheme for managing Commons, 452; - Attorney General, 453; - undignified conduct on fall of Coke, Lord Keeper, 459; - Buckingham and Coke's daughter, 468; - Lord Chancellor, Baron Verulam, 470. - (_See_ also Verulam, Baron.) - - Bacon, Sir Nicholas, first Baronet created, 452. - - Bancroft, Bishop of London, Archbishop of Canterbury, 415; - animosity to Catholic and Protestant Nonconformists, 419; - supports James's claim to Royal Prerogative, 439; - death, 441. - - Bankruptcy, Statute of, 347. - - Barnet, Battle of, 34. - - Baronet, new title created by James I.: its abuse, 452. - - "Basilicon Doron," 413. - - Bastwick, Dr., 555, 591. - - Beaton, Cardinal, sent to Rome, 190; - claims regency, solicits aid from France, imprisonment, 191; - escape, 192; - plot to assassinate, 196; - burns Wishart, 199; - assassinated, 200. - - "Benevolences," 453. - - "Black Saturday," 206. - - Blackwater, Battle of, 334. - - "Bloody Statute," The, 175. - - Boleyn, Anne, 146; - created Marchioness of Pembroke, married privately to Henry VIII., - crowned, 156; - plot against, 164; - indicted for high treason, 166; - her defence, 167; - beheaded, 168. - - Bonner, Bishop of London, imprisoned by Ecclesiastical Commission, 207; - deprived of his see, 216; - restoration of Catholicism, inhumanity, 236; - chief inquisitor, 238; - treated coldly by Elizabeth, 246. - - Bosworth, Battle of, 63. - - Bothwell, Earl of, murder of Darnley, mock trial and acquittal, 270; - divorce from his wife, created Duke of Orkney and Shetland, - marriage with Mary, 271; - rising of nobility, flight and death, 272. - - Bothwell, Lord, intrigues to capture Scottish king, 89; - spy in Scottish camp, 90. - - Brackenbury, Sir Robert, 54. - - Brandon, Sir Charles, Lord Lisle. (_See_ Suffolk, Duke of.) - - Buckingham, Duke of, 47; - harangues citizens of London in favour of Gloucester, offers crown - to him, 54; - instigates revolt to set Edward V. on the throne: his descent, 54; - proclaimed traitor by Richard III., 56; - marches to join Richmond, 57; - executed at Salisbury, 58. - - Buckingham, Duke of, executed on charge of practising astrology, 124. - - Buckingham, George Villiers, Duke of, 470; - his power, 471; - in Spain, 491; - at conference of Houses, 500; - impeachment, 519; - French expedition, 524; - assassinated, 536. - - "Buckingham's Flood," 58. - - Bulmer, Lady, burnt at Smithfield, 172. - - Burleigh, Lord, Norfolk's execution, 289; - urges death of Mary, 290; - Mendoza, 303; - Lord Treasurer, 308; - Mary's death-warrant, 311; - counsels assistance to Henry of Navarre, 327; - death, 332. - - "Bye Plot," The, 408. - - - Carr, Robert, 44. - (_See_ Rochester, Viscount.) - - Casket Letters, The, 278. - - Cateau-Cambresis, Treaty of, 250. - - Catesby, Robert, Gunpowder Plot, 419. - - Catherine of Aragon, married to Prince Arthur, 97; - betrothed to Prince Henry, 98; - married, 102; - regent during Henry's absence in France, 107; - treatment by the King, 146; - trial, 151; - divorce, 156. - - Cavendish, Thomas, successful expedition to Spanish Main, 315. - - Caxton, William, 66. - - Cecil, Sir Robert, assembles council to proclaim James King, 404; - enmity to Raleigh, Cobham, and Gray, 406; - created Lord Cecil, Viscount Cranbourne, Earl of Salisbury, 406; - conspiracy against, 408; - Catesby's conspiracy, 423; - Lord Treasurer, 438; - death, 441. - - Cecil, Sir William, confidential counsellor of Elizabeth, Secretary - of State, 246; - policy to Scottish reformers, 252; - Cecil and Elizabeth's relations to Leicester, 259; - Cecil and Murray, 277; - hostility to Mary Stuart's friends, 278; - Cecil and Knox, 283; - Scottish policy, 285; - Duke of Norfolk and Ridolfi plot, 288. - (_See_ also Burleigh, Lord.) - - Charles, Prince, Spanish match, 491; - Henrietta of France, 503. - - Charles I., First Parliament, 509; - tonnage and poundage, 514; - scheme to prevent Buckingham's impeachment, Second Parliament, 315; - illegal government, 522; - failure of expedition to Rhe, 524; - Third Parliament, 527; - the subsidies, 528; - Petition of Right, resistance of Charles, 531; - passed, 534; - force sent under Buckingham to aid the Rochellais, 535; - crowned at Edinburgh, 550; - adherence to Anglican Church, 551; - Bishop Williams, 556; - ship money, treaty with Spain against Holland, 557; - treatment of Irish, 564; - renewal of the covenant, temporises, 570; - letter to general assembly, 572; - conference, 578; - Wentworth, 581; - the Short Parliament, 584; - illegal extortions, 585; - Scottish Parliament, 586; - the Long Parliament, 590; - trial of Strafford, 595; - visits Scotland, 606. - - Charolais, Count of, 38. - - Chimneys, Introduction of, 382. - - Clarence, Duke of, marries Isabel of Warwick, retires to Calais, 26; - at Olney, 27; - secret agreement with Edward to desert Warwick, 30; - joined in regency with Warwick, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, 31; - deserts to Edward on eve of Barnet, 33; - quarrel with Gloucester, 36; - act of resumption, death of Isabel, 40; - suitor of Mary of Burgundy, 41; - at feud with Edward, charged with treason, death in the Tower, 42. - - Cleves, Anne of, 178; - her reception by, and marriage to Henry VIII., 179; - divorced, retires to her estates, 183. - - Coins and coinage, 15th century, 75; - 16th century, their debasement, 392; - restitution of value by Elizabeth, 393. - - Coke, Lord, indicts Raleigh, 410; - trial of Somerset, 453; - supports royal prerogative, 458; - disgrace, 459; - restored, 469; - popular leader, 489; - speeches in Parliament, 528. - - Colonies, 395. - - Commerce, 16th century, 394. - - "Complaints of the Commons of Kent," 2. - - Congregationalists, 356. - - Costumes, 16th century, 388. - - Courtenay, Earl of Devon, plot to marry Elizabeth and dethrone - Mary, 238. - - Coverdale, Miles, 237. - - Cranmer, Thomas, plan for settlement of King's divorce, 155; - Archbishop of Canterbury, 156; - Chancellor of the Exchequer, 157; - introduces bill for the supremacy and the succession, 158; - confesses Anne Boleyn, 167; - head of reforming party, 170; - conforms outwardly to statute of Six Articles, 175; - Anne of Cleves, 179; - fall of Cromwell, 182; - Catherine Howard, 184; - catechism, 207; - frames articles and canons, 219; - attainted, 227; - trial at St. Mary's, Oxford, 238; - cited to appear at Rome, renouncement and recantation, 239; - burnt at Oxford, 240. - - Cromwell, Oliver, 538. - - Cromwell, Thomas, successful advice on divorce to Henry VIII., - Privy Councillor, 155; - Archbishop of Canterbury, pronounces Henry's marriage with - Anne Boleyn valid, 156; - Vicar General, 163; - Lord Cromwell, 170; - proposes royal marriage with Anne of Cleves, 178; - Earl of Essex and Lord Chamberlain, 180; - bill of attainder, execution, character, 182. - - Culpepper, Thomas, alleged intrigue with his cousin, Catherine - Howard, 184; - attainted and executed, 185. - - - Darnley, Lord, 261; - marries Mary Queen of Scots, created Duke of Albany, 263. - (_See_ Albany, Duke of.) - - Daubeny, Lord, suppresses Cornish rising, 91; - commands Royal forces against Warbeck, 94. - - "De Tallagio non concedendo," 530, 559. - - Desmond, Earl of, rebellion, 296. - - Digby, Sir Everard, Gunpowder Plot, 424. - - Dighton, John, murders Princes in the Tower, 54. - - Douglas, Archibald, Earl of Angus, "Bell the Cat," puts to death - Earl of Mar, 44. - - Drake, Sir Francis, sent by Elizabeth to harass Spanish settlements, - special favours from the Queen, 305; - exploits against the Spaniards, circumnavigates the globe, - knighted, 314; - destruction of ships in Cadiz harbour, 315; - fights against the Armada, 319; - expedition to Portugal, 326; - failure of expedition against Spanish settlements, death, 328. - - Dudley, Sir Henry, plots to set Princess Elizabeth on the throne, 242; - plan to betray Hammes and Guines to the French, 243. - - Dudley, Robert, 242; - Master of Ordnance, 243; - announces loss of Rouen to Elizabeth, 258; - her attachment to him, special favours, 259. - (_See_ Leicester, Earl of.) - - Dymoke, Sir Thomas, 28. - - - East India Company chartered, 398. - - Ecclesiastical History under Tudors, 351. - - Edgecote, Battle of, 27. - - Edward, Prince of Wales, 6; - attainted, 19; - saved by an outlaw, 22; - marries Anne of Warwick, 30; - crown settled on by Warwick's Parliament, 31; - death at Tewkesbury, 35. - - Edward IV. crowned, 19; - secret marriage with Elizabeth Woodville, 23; - alliance of his sister Margaret and embassy to France, 24; - insurrection against him, 26; - unpopularity of the Woodvilles, 27; - taken prisoner at Olney by Warwick, 27; - marriage of daughter to George Neville, 27; - escapes from the Moor to Windsor, insurrections in Lincolnshire, 28; - detaches Clarence from Warwick, 30; - escapes to Court of Burgundy, 31; - lands at Ravenspur, 32; - defeats Warwick at Barnet, 33; - triumphant return to London, 36; - alliance with Burgundy against France, 38; - Treaty of Amiens, 39; - dissatisfaction of English, 40; - projected alliances, 43; - anger against Louis, 44; - death, burial at Westminster, character, 45; - children, 46. - - Edward V., 46; - proposal for his coronation by Queen Mother, 47; - seized by Gloucester, conducted in state to London and removed to - the Tower, 48; - murder in the Tower, 54; - Sir Thomas More's account, 55. - - Edward VI., 204; - repeal of Penal Acts of Henry, changes in doctrines and Church - discipline, 207; - Catechism and Liturgy, Book of Common Prayer, war with Scotland, 208; - public discontent and risings, 210; - Fall of Somerset, surrender of Boulogne, Church reform, 215; - new law of treason, revision of Prayer-Book, Act for compulsory - attendance at church, 218; - Cranmer's Articles of Religion and Code, failing health, 219; - change in the succession, death, 220. - - Eliot, Sir John, 520; - speech in Parliament, 531; - imprisoned, 542. - - Elizabeth, ecclesiastical legislation, 247; - Philip's proposed marriage, 248; - assumes title of Queen of France, 248; - relations with Mary Queen of Scots, 250; - indignation at Peace of Amboise, 258; - imprisons Mary, 274; - Commission of Inquiry, 275; - aids Protestants of France and Belgium, 279; - anger at proposed marriage of Duke of Norfolk, 280; - religious persecutions, 287; - Ridolfi plot, 289; - Duke of Anjou, 294; - religious conformity, 297; - relations with James VI., 303; - treaty with Protestants of the Netherlands, 305; - hesitation to sign death-warrant of Mary, 310; - sends Drake to harass Spanish Armada, betrays parsimony, 315; - negotiations with Philip's commissioners, 318; - reviews troops at Tilbury, 324; - persecution of Catholics and Puritans, 325; - sends Drake to Portugal, 326; - assists Henry IV. against Catholic League, 327; - rupture with Essex, 332; - death, 241. - - Empson and Dudley, agents of Henry VII.'s avarice, 109. - - Erpingham, Battle of, 28. - - Essex, Earl of, created Marquis of Northampton, 207. - - Essex, Earl of, Walter Devereux, plan to subjugate and colonise - Ireland, 295; - appointed Earl Marshal of Ireland, 296. - - Essex, Earl of, favourite of Elizabeth, gallant conduct at - Peniche, 326; - at Cadiz, 329; - hostility of Cecils, commands Spanish expedition, 330; - Earl Marshal, 331; - quarrel with the queen, 332; - Lord-Deputy in Ireland, failure, 334; - trial, 335; - conspiracy, 336; - tried and executed, 338. - - Etaples, Treaty of, 84. - - - Falkland, Lord, Lord-Deputy of Ireland, recalled, 560. - - Fawkes, Guido, 420; - gunpowder plot, 422; - arrested, 427; - executed, 430. - - Felton, John, 536. - - Ferrybridge, Battle of, 18. - - Field of the Cloth of Gold, 124. - - Finch, Sir John, Speaker of the Commons, Chief Justice, 558; - speech at opening of Short Parliament, 582. - - Firearms, 16th century, 388. - - Fisher, Bishop of Rochester, refuses to take new oath of - allegiance, 152; - attainted and beheaded, 162. - - Fitzgerald, Lord Thomas, 187; - surrenders to Lord Gray, 188. - - Fitzhugh, Lord, 26. - - Fitzwilliam, Sir William, created Earl of Southampton and Lord - High Admiral, 173; - receives Catherine Howard's confession of infidelity, 185. - - "Five Articles," The, 463. - - Flodden Field, Battle of, 112. - - Forest, Miles, murders princes in the Tower, 54; - rewarded by Richard III., 55. - - Fox, Bishop, 78. - - France, Louis XI., 19; - invaded by Edward IV., 39; - expedition against Charles VIII. by Henry VII., 84; - invasion by Henry VIII., 107; - marriage of Princess Mary and Louis, 115; - alliance sought by Francis, 123; - war with England, 129; - treaty with Henry VIII., 143; - advantageous peace, 215; - Calais regained, 244. - - Frobisher, Martin, 316; - bravery against Armada, 319. - - Furniture and Decoration, 16th century, 386. - - - Gardiner, 147; - preaches at St. Paul's Cross against Lutheran doctrines, 180; - growing influence, 186; - impolitic conduct, 202; - disgrace and banishment from Court, 203; - imprisoned by Ecclesiastical Commission, 207; - liberated by Mary, 223; - patriotic caution, 226; - Chancellor, 227; - proposes reconciliation with Rome, 235; - President of Commission to try heretics, 236; - withdraws from the office, 238; - death, 242. - - Garnet (Gunpowder plot) hanged, 430. - - Gloucester, Richard, Duke of, accompanies Edward IV. in his flight - to the Continent, 31; - visits his brother Clarence the night before Barnet, 33; - quarrel with Clarence over Warwick estates, 36; - marries Anne of Warwick, 37; - pays court to Louis XI., 39; - hostile conduct towards Clarence, 42; - commands army against Scotch, enters Edinburgh, 44; - pledges support to Edward V., 46; - arrests Lords Grey and Rivers and others, 47; - seizes the king, 48; - and his brother, 49; - holds London in subjection, 50; - accepts Crown at Baynard's Castle, proclaims amnesty, 51; - crowned, 52. - (_See_ also Richard III.) - - Gondamar, Spanish Ambassador, 474. - - Gordon, Lady Catherine, marries Warbeck, 88; - attached to Queen's Court, 94. - - Gowrie Conspiracy, The, 406. - - Gresham, Sir Thomas, 395. - - Grey, Lady Jane, 202; - marries Lord Guildford Dudley, and is made Queen, 220; - beheaded, 232. - - Grindal, Archbishop of Canterbury, 298. - - Guinegate, Battle of. (_See_ "Spurs," 110.) - - Guise, Duke of, head of Catholic League, 304; - assassinated, 313. - - Gunpowder Plot, The, 419-430. - - - Hamilton, Marquis of, sent by Charles to Covenanters, 568; - concessions, 570; - opens General Assembly, 571; - letter to Charles, 572; - ill-success of fleet, 577. - - Hamilton of Bothwellhaugh, 283; - assassinates Murray, 284. - - Hampden, John, 552; - ship money, 560. - - Hampton Court Conference, 414. - - Hastings, Lord, confidant of Gloucester, 47. - - Hawkins, Sir John, 313; - originates slave trade, 314. - - Hedgeley Moor, Battle of, 21. - - Henry VI., his imbecility, 6; - York appointed Protector, 7; - defeated at St. Albans, 8; - Great Council of Coventry, 9; - Conference at London, 10; - at Ludiford, 11; - defeated at Northampton, Parliament for redress of grievances, 13; - assents to bill of succession, 14; - attainted by Parliament, 19; - at Harlech Castle, 20; - captured and imprisoned, 22; - restored to throne by Warwick, 31; - defeat of Barnet, 34; - death in the Tower, burial at Chertsey Abbey, body removed by - Richard III. to Windsor, 36. - - Henry VII., defective title, Parliament and attainted members, 76; - claims acknowledged by Parliament, 77; - marriage, Lord Lovel's rising, Lambert Simnel, 78; - failure of rebellion, 79; - battle of Lincoln Stoke, 81; - coronation of Elizabeth, 82; - origin of Star Chamber, 82; - his avarice, 82; - discontent in England, invasion of France, 83; - Treaty of Etaples, 84; - Perkin Warbeck, 85; - Scottish affairs, 89; - Cornish revolt, 90; - fresh invasion of the Scots, 91; - visits France, affiance of daughter Margaret to James - of Scotland, 96; - marriage of Prince Arthur to Catherine of Aragon, 97; - matrimonial schemes, death of Elizabeth, 98; - exactions, 99; - Philip of Flanders and his wife Joanna at Windsor, 99; - proposes marriage to Joanna when widow, 99; - death, 101. - - Henry VIII., marries Catherine of Aragon, 102; - meets Maximilian, 108; - Wolsey, 116; - meets Charles V. at Dover and Field of the Cloth of Gold, 124; - secret treaty with Charles, 136; - "Defender of the Faith," seeks divorce, 145; - refers question to Clement VII., 147; - claims supremacy as head of the Church, 156; - suppresses the monasteries, 163; - execution of Anne Boleyn, 168; - marries Jane Seymour, 169; - Statute of the Six Articles, 175; - execution of relatives of Cardinal Pole, 176; - marries Anne of Cleves, 179; - disgraces Cromwell, 181; - marries Catherine Howard, 183; - Royal progress in the North, 184; - publishes Bishops' Book and the King's Book, 186; - claims Crown of Scotland, 190; - marries Catherine Parr, 195; - death, children, succession, 204. - - Henry of Navarre, 304; - assisted by Elizabeth against Catholic League, abjures - Protestant faith, 327; - league with Elizabeth against Spain, 328; - assassinated, 445. - - Henry, Prince, son of James I., popularity and character, 446; - proposed alliance with Princess Christine of France, illness - and death, 447. - - Herbert, Lord, besieges Terouenne, 107; - created Earl of Somerset, 114. - - Hertford, Earl of, takes title of Lord Protector and Duke of - Somerset, 205. - (_See_ Somerset.) - - Hewett, Andrew, burnt at Smithfield, 160. - - Hexham, Battle of, 21. - - High Commission, Court of, 350, 606. - - Holbein, Hans, 383. - - Holles imprisoned, 540; - demands impeachment of Laud, 591. - - "Holy Maid of Kent," 158. - - Hooper, Bishop of Gloucester, burnt, 236. - - Howard, Lord, Earl Marshal, and Duke of Norfolk, 53; - falls at Bosworth, 64. - - Howard, Lord, of Effingham, Lord High Admiral, 316; - created Earl of Nottingham, 331. - - Howard, Lord Thomas, Lord Admiral, 107; - at Flodden, 111; - Earl of Surrey, 114; - war with France, 130; - sentenced to death, but escapes execution, 203. - - Howard, Sir Edward, Lord Admiral, commands fleet against French, 105; - blockades Brest, brave death, 107. - - Huguenots and Elizabeth, 257; - rise under Conde, 279; - massacre of St. Bartholomew, 289; - horror excited by, Elizabeth assists the Rochellais, 290; - expedition to Isle of Rhe, 507. - - - Independents, 356. - - Ireland, Simnel in, 79; - Warbeck in, 86; - insurrection, 187; - made a kingdom, 189; - plantation of Ulster, 295; - Desmond's rebellion, 296; - Essex in, 333; - Tyrone's revolt, 334; - inquiry into titles, 464; - oppression of Catholics, 467; - Wentworth, 561; - his "Thorough" policy, 563. - - - Jack Cade, 2; - takes possession of London, - slain by Iden, 3. - - Jacquetta of Luxembourg, 22. - - James I., wholesale creation of peers and knights, 405; - "Main" and "Bye" plots, 408; - Hampton Court conference, 414; - abuse of royal prerogative at elections, 416; - Gunpowder Plot, 419; - royal treatise, Cardinal Bellarmine, 432; - collisions with Parliament, 434; - extravagance and impecuniosity, 436; - exaction of duties, 438; - Lady Arabella Stuart, 442; - Prince Henry, 446; - marriage of daughter Elizabeth, 447; - reign of favourites, 448; - venality at Court, 451; - George Villiers, fall of Somerset, 454; - episcopacy in Scotland, 462; - plantation of Ulster, 466; - execution of Raleigh, 478; - thirty years' war, 479; - his indecision, 480; - inquiry by Parliament into abuse of patents, 482; - "governing well," 488; - the Spanish match, 489; - negotiations with the Pope, 492; - public and private treaty with Spain, 495; - match between Henrietta and Prince Charles, 503; - secret arrangement with France, 506; - death, 507. - - James II. of Scotland, slain at Roxburgh, 18. - - James III. of Scotland, 43. - - James IV. of Scotland, slain at Flodden, 114. - - Jane Shore, 36. - - Jesuits, Campian and Parsons, Elizabeth's proclamation against, 298; - their schemes and plots, 303. - - "John Amend All," 2. - - Juxon, Dean of Westminster, Bishop of London, Lord High Treasurer, 554. - - - Ket, Robert, rising in Norfolk, 211; - repulses royal troops, burns Norwich, 212; - defeat at Dussingdale, hanged, 213. - - "King's Book," The, 186. - - Knox, John, arrives from France, promotes the Reformation in - Scotland, 251; - urges on Cecil death of Mary Stuart, 283. - - - Lambert, John, reformer, put to death, 175. - - Latimer, Bishop, sent to Tower, 227; - tried at Oxford and burnt, 238. - - Laud, 464; - Bishop of Bath and Wells, 523; - chief ecclesiastical adviser, 537; - Bishop of London, 538; - "Thorough," 543; - offered Cardinal's hat by Pope, 548; - Arminian controversy, 549; - visits Scotland with Charles, erects Edinburgh into a bishopric, - Primate of England, relations with Papal see, 551; - ecclesiastical measures, 552; - Lord High Treasurer, 554; - cruel treatment of Prynne, Bastwick, Burton, Lilburne, and Williams, - Bishop of Lincoln, 556; - admonishes Wentworth, 564; - counsels peaceful measure in Scotland, 574; - publishes new canons, 584; - Lambeth Palace attacked by mob, 586; - impeachment demanded by Commons, 591. - - Learning, Revival of, 359. - - Leicester, Earl of, scandal, 259; - supports scheme for marriage of Mary Stuart to Duke of Norfolk, 280; - expedition to Netherlands, 306; - commands forces at Tilbury, proposed honours, death, 324; - (_See_ also Dudley, Robert.) - - Lenthall, Speaker of Long Parliament, 590. - - Leslie, General, surprises Edinburgh, 574; - Dunse Hill, 576; - crosses the Tweed, 587; - ennobled by Charles, 607. - - "Levellers," The, 435. - - Lilburne, sentence of Star Chamber, 556. - - Lincoln Stoke, Battle of, 81. - - Literature and science, 16th century, 358. - - Long Parliament, The, 590; - temper of the new House, awards compensation to Prynne, Burton, - and Bastwick, demands impeachment of Laud, 591; - impeachment of Strafford, 593; - reforms demanded, "root and branch" petition, 594; - trial of Strafford, 595; - Pym's indictment, 596; - passes Bill of Attainder, 600; - intervention of Charles, 601; - Star Chamber and High Commission Court abolished, 606. - - Lovel, Lord, 78. - - Ludiford, Battle of, 11. - - Luther, Martin, 145. - - - "Main" Plot, The, 408. - - Maintenance, Act of, 82. - - Maitland of Lethington, Secretary of State to Mary Stuart, 255; - conspiracy against Rizzio, flees, reinstated, 266; - scheme for marriage of Mary Stuart with Norfolk, 280; - betrayed by Murray, 281. - - "Malevolences," 60. - - Mar, Earl of, hostilities with Earl of Huntley and the Gordons, 256; - exchanges his title for Earl of Murray, 256. - - March, Edward, Earl of, declared king by Great Council of Yorkists, 16. - (_See_ also Edward IV.) - - Margaret of Anjou, wife of Henry VI., queen's party, 4; - machinations against York, 8; - flees with son to Scotland, 13; - gains victory at Wakefield, 15; - struggle with Edward IV., 17; - her efforts to regain the throne, 19; - sails for England, 20; - defeat at Hexham, 21; - flees to Scotland with Prince Edward, 22; - reconciliation with Warwick, 29; - Battle of Tewkesbury ransomed by Louis, retires to Castle of - Recule, 36. - - "Martin Marprelate," 325. - - Mary, Princess, treatment by Warwick's party, interposition of - Charles V., 216; - claims the crown from the Privy Council, 221; - rising in her favour, 222; - Council in Northumberland's absence declares for Mary, 223. - (_See_ also Mary, Queen.) - - Mary, Queen, triumphal entry into London, appeals to Charles V. - for guidance, 223; - her clemency, 224; - Papal See, 225; - restoration of Roman Church, 227; - persecution of the reformed clergy, 226; - opposition of Council and Protestant party, 227; - terms of marriage treaty, 228; - insurrections, 228; - Elizabeth, 234; - Mary's marriage with Philip, repeal of penal statutes against - Catholics, 235; - persecution of Protestants, 236; - false report of birth of a prince, 238; - Philip's departure, 241; - conspiracy to place Elizabeth on throne, 242; - conspiracy under Stafford, 243; - war against France, 243; - loss of Calais, 244; - death, character, 246. - - Mary Queen of Scots, marries Dauphin, 250; - death of Francis II., 254; - returns to Scotland, person and character, 255; - marries Darnley, 262; - asserts her prerogative as queen, connection with Rizzio, 263; - birth of James, 266; - murder of Darnley, 269; - her unpopularity, 270; - seizure by Bothwell and marriage, insurrection of nobles, 271; - captured, 272; - imprisoned in Lochleven Castle, resigns throne in favour of - James, 273; - flight to England, 274; - conference at York, 275; - at Westminster, 276; - removed by Elizabeth from Scottish border, Act against her, 304; - Babington's plot, 306; - trial, 308; - hesitation of Elizabeth, 310; - execution, 311. - - Mechlin, League of, 106. - - Medina Sidonia, Duke of, commands Spanish Armada, 319. - - Melville, Andrew, succeeds Knox, refuses to conform, committed to - Tower, dies in banishment at Sedan, 462. - - Mercantile Marine, 16th century, 394. - - Merchant Adventurers of London, The, 395. - - Monteagle, Lord, 114. - - Montrose, Marquis of, joins Leslie at Dunse Hill, 576; - won over to Royal party, 578; - arrested, 606. - - More, Sir Thomas, Speaker House of Commons, 134; - question of Henry's divorce submitted to him, 147; - Lord Chancellor, 154; - beheaded, 163; - his "Utopia," 362. - - Mortimer's Cross, Battle of, 16. - - Morton, Archbishop, 78. - - Morton, Regent of Scotland, ordered to resign, regains power, 299; - charged with murder of Darnley, intercession of Elizabeth, 300; - trial and execution, 301. - - Mountjoy, Lord-Deputy of Ireland, 338. - - Murray, Earl of, threatened forfeiture, 263; - Bothwell, 267; - retires to France, 270; - Regent, 273; - Commission of Inquiry on Mary Stuart, 275; - entrapped by Cecil, 277; - party to scheme for marriage of Mary Stuart with Duke of - Norfolk, 280; - betrays Maitland, 281; - negotiations with Elizabeth for surrender of Mary, 283; - assassinated, 284. - - Music of the 16th century, 378. - - "My Lord of Misrule," Stubbs quoted, 399. - - - Nantes, Edict of, 331. - - Navy office, founded by Henry VIII., 394. - - Navy, The Royal, 16th century, 393. - - Netherlands, Protestant revolt, 279; - Elizabeth's aid to, 292. - - Nonconformists, The, 356. - - Norfolk, Duke of, president of the council, 154; - condemned for treason, 203; - miraculous escape, 204. - - Norfolk, Duke of, a commissioner to try Mary Stuart, 275; - secret design to marry Mary, 276; - hostility to Cecil, 278; - displeasure of Elizabeth, 280; - tried for treason, 288; - executed, 289. - - Northampton, Battle of, 13. - - Northumberland, Duke of, Dudley, disgraceful peace with France, 216; - avarice, 219; - scheme for changing the succession, 220; - insurrection in favour of Mary, 222; - trial with chief associates on the council, beheaded, 224. - (_See_ also Warwick, Dudley, Earl of.) - - "Novum Organum," The, 378. - - Noye, Attorney General, proposes ship-money, 557; - death, 558. - - - O'Neill, created Earl of Tyrone, 189. - - Overbury, Sir Thomas, connection and influence with Carr, 448; - committed to Tower, 449; - death, 451. - - - Parker, Archbishop of Canterbury, 248. - - Parma, Prince of, opposes army under Leicester, 306; - private mission from Elizabeth, 313; - preparations to invade England, 315. - - Parr, Catherine, wife of Henry VIII., her Protestant sympathies, 195; - her narrow escape, 202; - marries privately Baron Seymour, 208; - death, 209. - - Pavia, Battle of, 140. - - Petition of Right, 531, 534. - - Philip of Spain, marries Mary, his unpopularity, 235; - Act constituting him Regent, 236; - succeeds Charles V., 241; - quits England, revisits it to urge war against France, 242; - incursions of English ships on Spanish Main, 313; - makes preparation to invade England, 313; - dispersion of his Armada, 323; - death, 332. - - Pilgrimage of Grace, The, 171. - - Poets, Tudor Period, 366. - - Pinkie, Battle of, 206. - - Plagues in London, 96, 259, 406. - - Pole, Cardinal, 175; - Papal legate to Queen Mary, 225; - addresses Parliament and grants Papal absolution, 235; - endeavours to check persecutions, 238; - Primate, 240; - opposes war with France, 242. - - Poor Law Act, 43, 403. - - Presbyterians, persecution of, 279; - conference with, 414; - their resistance, 419; - James I. and, 460. - - Printing, Origin and progress of, 65. - - Prose Writers, Elizabethan, 362. - - Prynne, William, barrister, writes "Histriomastix," indicted - by Laud, cruel sentence on, 554; - publishes "News from Ipswich," increased severity of sentence, - popular demonstrations of sympathy, 555; - awarded compensation by Long Parliament, 591. - - Puritans, The, 355. - - Pym, John, speech at opening of Short Parliament, 582; - opens case against Strafford, 596. - - - Raleigh, Sir Walter, serves in Grey's army, 296; - Armada, 316; - sails under Lord Howard in Spanish expedition, quarrel - with Essex, 330; - monopolies, 338; - Cecil's animosity, the "Bye" conspiracy, 409; - trial, committed to Tower, 411; - life in Tower, writes "History of the World," 471; - voyages, 474; - return and arrest, 475; - Gondamar, 476; - attempted escape, betrayed by Stukeley, trial, executed on old - charge of treason, 478. - - Reformation in England, events in, 163, 174, - 186, 207, 215, 236, 247, 356. - - Reformation in Scotland, 356. - - "Requests," The, 2. - - Reynolds, Dr., Puritan delegate at Hampton - Court. Conference, 414. - - Richard III., coronation repeated at York, 53; - murder of princes in the Tower, 54; - counter movement to Richmond's plot, 56; - proclaims Duke of Buckingham and others, 56; - Parliament proclaims him king and entails Crown on issue; - wholesale attainders, 58; - designs on Queen Dowager, 59; - armistice with Scottish king, 60; - death of Anne of Warwick, proposes to marry Elizabeth of York, - public execration, 60; - defection of adherents, 62; - battle of Bosworth, and death, 63; - buried at Grey Friars Church, 64. - (_See_ also Gloucester.) - - Richmond, Earl of, at court of Duke of Brittany, 53; - risings in his favour, 57; - descent, 58; - raises army in France, 60; - lands at Milford Haven, 62; - conquers at Bosworth, 63; - enters Leicester in state as Henry VII. - (_See_ Henry VII.) - - Ridolfi Plot, The, 287. - - Ridley, Bishop of London, 216; - sent to Tower, 227; - tried at Oxford and burnt, 238. - - Rivers, Lord, rival to Clarence for Mary of Burgundy, 41; - welcomes Gloucester at Northampton, 47; - executed at Pontefract Castle, 50; - patron of learning, 66. - - Rizzio, 263; - his murder, 264. - - Robsart, Amy, 259. - - Rochester, Viscount, further honours, Lord Chamberlain, 449; - marriage with divorced wife of Essex, 451. - (_See_ also Somerset, Earl of.) - - Rogers, John, Prebendary of St. Paul's, burnt at Smithfield, 236. - - "Root and Branch" Petition, 594. - - Roses, War of, origin of rival badges, 18. - - Russell, Sir John, first historical notice of the Russells, 137; - created Lord Russell, Duke of Bedford, 173. - - - Scotland, Berwick ceded, 19; - attacked by Edward IV., 44; - Warbeck at court, 88; - war with England, 89; - invasion by Henry VII., 90; - inroads on England, 91; - faction rule, 119; - Albany and Henry VIII., 131; - Papist party, 189; - war with England, 206; - first covenant, 251; - treaty with England, 254; - Mary's reign, 299; - James VI. and Presbyterians, 460; - introduction of Episcopacy, 565; - the Tables, 566; - civil war, 574; - march into England, 587; - Charles in Edinburgh, 607. - - Scottish poets, 16th century, 375. - - Scottish coins, 393. - - Selden, Sir John, 488; - opposes Arminian doctrine, 538; - imprisoned, 542. - - Seton, Lord, 192. - - Seymour, Edward, created Lord Beauchamp, and Earl of Hertford, 173. - - Seymour, Jane, 164; - marries Henry VIII., 169; - birth of son, and death, 172. - - Seymour, Sir Thomas, created Baron Seymour of Sudeley and Lord High - Admiral, 205; - private marriage with Queen Dowager, 208; - seeks hand of Elizabeth, 209; - attainted and executed, 210. - - Shakespeare, 358; - his works, 373-4. - - Ship money, 557; - protests against writs, sanction of judges, 558; - Richard Chambers and John Hampden resist payment, 558; - Hampden's case tried in Court of Exchequer, 559; - judgment against him, 560. - - Ships, 15th century, 75; - 16th century, 393. - - Short Parliament, The, its members, numerous petitions, speech of - Pym, Star Chamber and Queen's Bench, 583; - conflict with Charles over supply, 584. - - Sidney, Sir Philip, falls at Zutphen, 306; - "Arcadia," 364. - - Simnel, Lambert, 79. - - Six Articles, The statute of, 175. - - Solemn League and Covenant, 567. - - Solway Moss, Battle of, 191. - - Somerset, Duke of, 5; - attainted by Commons, challenge to York, 6; - committed by Parliament to Tower, reinstated, 7; - joins Queen Margaret at York, commands at Wakefield, 15; - at Towton, 18; - attainted second time, unsuccessful embassage for Margaret - to Louis XI., 19; - death, 22. - - Somerset, Duke of, lack of statesmanship, reform in the Church, - ecclesiastical commission, the "Royal injunctions," 207; - his avarice, Somerset House, defection of council, 214; - disgrace, 215; - trial and execution, 218. - - Somerset, Earl of, 451; - changed manner, supplanted by Villiers, 454; - charge of poisoning Sir Thomas Overbury, 455; - condemned, pardoned by king, 548. - (_See_ also Rochester.) - - Spain, treaty with England, 106; - hostilities against England, 315; - capture of Cadiz, 329; - descent on Ireland, 338; - intrigues against England, 407; - Spanish match, 490; - treaty with Charles I., 557. - - Spenser, Edmund, poet, serves in army of Lord Grey, 296; - receives forfeited Irish estate, 297; - "Faerie Queen," 371. - - "Sports, Book of," The, 464. - - Spurs, Battle of, 110. - - St. Albans, Battle of, 8; - second battle, 16. - - Stanley, Lord, 49; - imprisoned in Tower by Gloucester, 50; - constable of England, 52; - secret treaty with Elizabeth of York, deserts Richard at - Bosworth, 63; - places crown on Henry's head, 64. - - Star Chamber, the, Origin of, 82; - why named, 346; - abuse of, 453; - abolition of, 606. - - St. Bartholomew, Massacre of, 289. - - St. Quentin, Battle of, 243. - - Strafford, Earl of, public indignation against, 586; - Lieutenant General of the army, 592; - impeachment, 593; - trial, 595; - reply to indictment, 597; - letter to king, 604; - execution, 606. - (_See_ also Wentworth.) - - Stuart, Lady Arabella, history, marriage with Seymour, 442; - Seymour sent to Tower, stolen interviews, flight and capture, - lodged in Tower, 443; - insanity, death, 444. - - Stuart, Lord James, half-brother to Mary Queen of Scots, Prior of - St. Andrews, his treachery, 254; - chief minister, 255. - (_See_ Mar, Earl of.) - - Suffolk, Charles Brandon, Duke of, 114; - marries Mary, widow of Louis of France, 116; - commands English troops, 137; - Lord Marshal, 154; - sent to suppress Catholic insurrections, 170; - receives Catherine Howard's confession, 185. - - Suffolk, Duke of, father of Lady Jane Grey, 222; - his rebellion, 228; - beheaded, 231. - - Sully, Duke of, Envoy Extraordinary to James I., bribes courtiers - and makes treaty with James, 407. - - Sunday Sports, Petition of magistrates against, declaration of - Charles, 553. - - Supremacy, Act of, 248. - - - Tewkesbury, Battle of, 35. - - Thirty Years War, 479. - - Throgmorton, Sir Nicholas, tried for treason and acquitted, 232. - - Throgmorton, Thomas, plots against queen, hanged, 303. - - Towton, Battle of, 18. - - Trinity House, Corporation of, 394. - - Tudor, Jasper, Earl of Pembroke, 16. - - Tudor, Owen, ancestor of Tudor line, beheaded at Hereford, 16. - - Tyrone, Hugh, Earl of, rebellion of, 333. - - - Uniformity, Act of, 248. - - Uses, Statute of, 347. - - Usury, Laws against, 395. - - - Vane, Sir Henry, sent by Charles to Commons, 584; - at Strafford's trial, 598. - - Vauclerc, Lieutenant of Calais, 28. - - Verulam, Baron, 470; - trial of Raleigh, 477; - Viscount St. Albans, his genius, impeachment, 483; - retires to Gorhambury, 484; - death, 485. - (_See_ also Bacon, Sir Francis.) - - Villiers, George, 454. - (_See_ also Buckingham, Duke of.) - - - Wakefield, Battle of, 15. - - Wales incorporated with England, 187. - - Warbeck, Perkin, origin, 85; - adventures in France, Ireland, and Burgundy, 86; - in Scotland, marries Lady Gordon, 88; - lands at Cork, 91; - in Cornwall, 92; - defeated, takes sanctuary in monastery of Beaulieu, at the - Royal Court, 94; - escapes to Sheen Priory, placed in stocks in London, and - imprisoned in Tower, 94; - plots with Warwick, hanged at Tyburn, 95. - - Warwick, Earl of, battle of St. Albans, 7; - Governor of Calais, 8; - retires to Calais, 9; - attacks fleet of Luebeck merchantmen in Channel, 10; - Attainted, 11; - lands in Kent with Cospini the Pope's legate, Northampton, 12; - defeated at St. Albans, 16; - at Ferrybridge, and Towton, commands the North, 18; - Ambassador at the Scottish Court, 19; - Ambassador to France for Bona of Savoy, 23; - his chagrin at marriage of Edward to Elizabeth Woodville, 23; - visits France to negotiate marriage of Margaret the king's sister - with son of Louis XI. of France, 24; - indignation at rejection of the proposed alliance, accused of - secret partisanship with Lancastrians, restored to royal - favour, 25; - retires to Calais, 26; - takes the king prisoner at Olney, defeats Lancastrian insurgents - under Sir Humphrey Neville, 27; - meets Edward at the Moor, flees to Calais after failure of - insurrection of Sir Robert Wells, 28; - received by Louis XI., alliance with the Lancastrian party and - Queen Margaret, 29; - Anne, his daughter, married to the Prince of Wales, 30; - proclaims Henry king, 30; - summons Parliament, 31; - battle of Barnet and death, 34. - - Warwick, son of Duke of Clarence, heir apparent of York, imprisoned - in the Tower, 76; - exhibited to the people as the real earl by Henry VII., plot with - Warbeck, 95; - tried and beheaded, 96. - - Warwick, Dudley, Earl of, rivalry with Somerset, 214; - ungenerous conduct of party to Princess Mary, 216; - warden of the Scottish Marches, 216. - - Wentworth, arbitrary action in Ireland, 554; - Lord President of the North, 560; - dishonourable treatment of Irish Parliament and Convocation, 562; - inquiry into Irish titles, 563; - Mountnorris, 565; - recalled from Ireland to advise Charles, 581; - returns as Earl of Strafford and Lord Lieutenant, 582. - (_See_ also Strafford, Earl of.) - - William the Silent, assassination of, 294. - - Williams, Bishop, Lord Chancellor, 486. - - Wishart, George, Scottish Reformer, 198; - burnt, 199. - - Wolsey, Cardinal, receives bishopric of Tournay, 110; - Bishop of Lincoln, 114; - origin and rise, 116; - Archbishop of York, 117; - Cardinal, Papal Legate, and Chancellor, favours learning and the - arts, 118; - conduct of foreign affairs, 122; - power and magnificence, 126; - conference with the emperor, 127; - candidature for the Papacy, 128; - forced loans for king, 130; - disappointed of Popedom a second time, legatine and increased - powers granted for life by Clement VII., suppresses - monasteries, 138; - unpopularity, 142; - treaty with French envoys, 143; - seeks to dissuade Henry from marriage with Anne Boleyn, 147; - joined in Commission with Papal legate to try divorce, 148; - fall of, 153; - death, 154. - - Woodvilles, The, their unpopularity, and aggrandisement of the - family, 24; - their influence, 46. - - Wyatt, Sir Thomas, revolt under, 229. - - - York, Battle of, 26. - - York, Archbishop of, Edward Neville, peacemaker between Woodvilles - and Nevilles, 25; - invites king to the Moor to meet Warwick and Duke of Clarence, 28; - confirmed in Chancellorship by Warwick, 31. - - York, Richard, Duke of, lineal descent, 4; - in Ireland, 5; - proposed as successor to Crown, Protector, rupture with king, - battle of St. Albans, 7; - Protector again, resigns, 8; - Council of Coventry, 9; - Conference in London, 10; - attainted, 11; - claims the Crown at Westminster, 14; - slain at Wakefield, 15. - - - Zutphen, Battle of, 306. - - -PRINTED BY CASSELL & COMPANY, LIMITED, LA BELLE SAUVAGE, LONDON, E.C. - - - - - * * * * * - - - - - +----------------------------------------------------------+ - | Transcriber's note: | - | | - | P.12. 'perferment' changed to 'preferment'. | - | P.44. 'peithet' changed to 'epeithet'. | - | P.295. 'Campion' changed to 'Campian'. | - | P.326. 'slily' changed to 'slyly'. | - | P.342. 'Bastile' changed to 'Bastille'. | - | P.348. 'Arragon' changed to 'Aragon'. | - | P.417. 'eing' changed to 'being'. | - | P.490. 'negociations' changed to 'negotiations'. | - | P.549. 'nothi' changed to 'nothing'. | - | P.611. 'Campion' changed to 'Campian'. | - | P.612. 'bishopric o' changed to 'bishopric of'. | - | Corrected various punctuation errors. | - +----------------------------------------------------------+ - - - -***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CASSELL'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND, VOL. -II (OF 8)*** - - -******* This file should be named 50710.txt or 50710.zip ******* - - -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: -http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/5/0/7/1/50710 - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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