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diff --git a/old/50548-0.txt b/old/50548-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 04a0429..0000000 --- a/old/50548-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,20703 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Beginner's History, by William H. Mace - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: A Beginner's History - -Author: William H. Mace - -Release Date: November 25, 2015 [EBook #50548] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A BEGINNER'S HISTORY *** - - - - -Produced by Richard Tonsing, Richard Hulse and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -[Illustration: THE WORLD showing the UNITED STATES and its Outlying -Possessions - - _Copyright, 1909, by Rand, McNally & Company._] - -[Illustration: THE SURRENDER OF CORNWALLIS] - - - - - - _A_ - - Beginner's History - - - _by_ - - WILLIAM H. MACE - - _Formerly Professor of History in Syracuse University, Author of - "Method in History," "A Working Manual of American - History," "A School History of the United - States," "Lincoln: The Man of the - People," and "Washington: - A Virginia Cavalier"_ - - _Illustrated by_ - HOMER W. COLBY - - _Portraits by_ - JACQUES REICH, P. R. AUDIBERT, - _and_ B. F. WILLIAMSON - - [Illustration] - - RAND McNALLY & COMPANY - - _Chicago_ _New York_ _London_ - - Mace's Primary History - _Copyright, 1909_, - By WILLIAM H. MACE - _All rights reserved_ - Mace's Elementary History - _Copyright, 1914_, - By WILLIAM H. MACE - Mace's Beginner's History - _Copyright, 1914_, - By WILLIAM H. MACE - _Copyright, 1916_, - By WILLIAM H. MACE - _Copyright, 1921_, - By WILLIAM H. MACE - -[Illustration] - - The Rand-McNally Press - _Chicago_ - - - - -THE PREFACE - - -The material out of which the child pictures history lies all about -him. When he learns to handle objects or observes men and other beings -act, he is gathering material to form images for the stories you -tell him, or those he reads. So supple and vigorous is the child's -imagination that he can put this store of material to use in picturing -a fairy story, a legend, or a myth. - -From this same source--his observation of the people and things about -him--he gathers simple meanings and ideas of his own. He weaves these -meanings and ideas, in part, into the stories he reads or is told. From -the cradle to the grave he should exercise this habit of testing the -men and institutions he studies by a comparison with those he has seen. - -The teacher should use the stories in this book to impress upon the -pupil's mind the idea that life is a constant struggle against opposing -difficulties. The pupil should be able to see that the great men of -American history spent their lives in a ceaseless effort to conquer -obstacles. For everywhere men find opponents. What a struggle Lincoln -had against the twin difficulties of poverty and ignorance! What a -battle Roosevelt waged with timidity and a sickly boyhood! And what a -tremendously courageous and vigorous man he became! - -In the fight which men wage for noble or ignoble ends the pupil finds -his greatest source of interest. Here he forms his ideas of right and -wrong, and deals out praise and blame among the characters. Hence the -need of presenting true Americans--patriotic Americans--for his study. - -This book of American history includes the stirring scenes of the -world's greatest war. It shows how a vast nation, loving peace and -hating war, worked to get ready to fight, how it trained its soldiers -and planned a great navy, and how, when all was ready, it hurled two -million men against the Germans and helped our brave allies to crush -the cruelest foe that war ever let loose. - -With the knowledge of American men and events which the study of our -history should give him, the pupil is ready to ask where the first -Americans came from. To answer that question, and many others, we -must go to European history. We must look at the great peoples of -the world's earlier history, and see how their civilization finally -developed into that which those colonists who pushed across the -Atlantic to America brought with them. - -But the civilization brought to this country by earlier or by later -comers must not cease to grow. America has her part to add to its -development. With the close of the World War we must not forget one -fact which that conflict brought out--the vast number of people in the -United States almost untouched by the spirit of American institutions. -Teachers of history, the subject-matter of which is the story of -American institutions and American leaders, can do much to change such -conditions. This need for more thorough Americanization they can help -to fill by teaching in their classes not a mechanical patriotism but a -loyal understanding of American ideals. - - WILLIAM H. MACE - - _Syracuse University_ - - - - -THE TABLE OF CONTENTS - - - PAGE - - THE NORTHMEN DISCOVER THE NEW WORLD - - Leif Ericson, Who Discovered Vinland 1 - - - EARLY EXPLORERS IN AMERICA - - Christopher Columbus, the First Great Man in American - History 2 - - Ponce de Leon, Who Sought a Marvelous Land and Was - Disappointed 17 - - Cortés, Who Found the Rich City of Mexico 18 - - Pizarro, Who Found the Richest City in the World 23 - - Coronado, Who Penetrated Southwestern United States but - Found Nothing but Beautiful Scenery 24 - - De Soto, the Discoverer of the Mississippi 24 - - Magellan, Who Proved that the World Is Round 28 - - - THE MEN WHO MADE AMERICA KNOWN TO ENGLAND AND WHO - CHECKED THE PROGRESS OF SPAIN - - John Cabot also Searches for a Shorter Route to India and - Finds the Mainland of North America 34 - - Sir Francis Drake, the English "Dragon," Who Sailed the - Spanish Main and Who "Singed the King of Spain's - Beard" 37 - - Sir Walter Raleigh, the Friend of Elizabeth, Plants a Colony - in America to Check the Power of Spain 42 - - - THE MEN WHO PLANTED NEW FRANCE IN AMERICA, FOUNDED - QUEBEC, EXPLORED THE GREAT LAKE REGION, AND - PENETRATED THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY - - Samuel de Champlain, the Father of New France 49 - - Joliet and Marquette, Fur Trader and Missionary, Explore - the Mississippi Valley for New France 53 - - - WHAT THE DUTCH ACCOMPLISHED IN THE COLONIZATION OF THE - NEW WORLD - - Henry Hudson, Whose Discoveries Led Dutch Traders to - Colonize New Netherland 54 - - - FAMOUS PEOPLE IN EARLY VIRGINIA - - John Smith the Savior of Virginia, and Pocahontas its Good - Angel 60 - - Lord Baltimore, in a Part of Virginia, Founds Maryland as a - Home for Persecuted Catholics and Welcomes Protestants 68 - - Industries, Manners, and Customs of First Settlers of Virginia 71 - - - PILGRIMS AND PURITANS IN NEW ENGLAND - - Miles Standish, the Pilgrim Soldier, and the Story of "Plymouth - Rock" 73 - - John Winthrop, the Founder of Boston; John Eliot, the - Great English Missionary; and King Philip, an Indian - Chief the Equal of the White Man 81 - - Industries, Manners, and Customs 85 - - - THE MEN WHO PLANTED COLONIES FOR MANY KINDS OF PEOPLE - - Peter Stuyvesant, the Great Dutch Governor 87 - - Manners and Customs of New Netherland 91 - - William Penn, the Quaker, Who Founded the City of - Brotherly Love 92 - - Quaker Ways in Old Pennsylvania 98 - - James Oglethorpe, the Founder of Georgia as a Home for - English Debtors, as a Place for Persecuted Protestants, - and as a Barrier against the Spaniards 100 - - Industries, Manners, and Customs of the Southern Planters 103 - - - ROBERT CAVELIER DE LA SALLE, WHO FOLLOWED THE FATHER OF - WATERS TO ITS MOUTH, AND ESTABLISHED NEW FRANCE - FROM CANADA TO THE GULF OF MEXICO - - La Salle Pushed Forward the Work Begun by Joliet and - Marquette 106 - - The Men of New France 113 - - - GEORGE WASHINGTON, THE FIRST GENERAL AND FIRST PRESIDENT - OF THE UNITED STATES - - The "Father of His Country" 115 - - - THE MAN WHO HELPED WIN INDEPENDENCE BY WINNING THE - HEARTS OF FRENCHMEN FOR AMERICA - - Benjamin Franklin, the Wisest American of His Time 147 - - - PATRICK HENRY AND SAMUEL ADAMS, FAMOUS MEN OF THE REVOLUTION, - WHO DEFENDED AMERICA WITH TONGUE AND PEN - - Patrick Henry, the Orator of the Revolution 158 - - Samuel Adams, the Firebrand of the Revolution 167 - - - THE MEN WHO FOUGHT FOR AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE WITH GUN - AND SWORD - - Nathan Hale 179 - - Generals Greene, Morgan, and Marion, the Men Who Helped - Win the South from the British 182 - - - THE MEN WHO HELPED WIN INDEPENDENCE BY FIGHTING ENGLAND - ON THE SEA - - John Paul Jones, a Scotchman, Who Won the Great Victory - in the French Ship, _Bon Homme Richard_ 194 - - John Barry, Who Won More Sea Fights in the Revolution - than Any Other Captain 199 - - - THE MEN WHO CROSSED THE MOUNTAINS, DEFEATED THE INDIANS - AND BRITISH, AND MADE THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER THE - WESTERN BOUNDARY OF THE UNITED STATES - - Daniel Boone, the Hunter and Pioneer of Kentucky 202 - - John Sevier, "Nolichucky Jack" 210 - - George Rogers Clark, the Hero of Vincennes 216 - - - DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW REPUBLIC - - Eli Whitney, Who Invented the Cotton Gin and Changed - the History of the South 226 - - Thomas Jefferson, Who Wrote the Declaration of Independence, - Founded the Democratic Party, and Purchased the - Louisiana Territory 229 - - Lewis and Clark, American Explorers in the Oregon Country 238 - - Oliver Hazard Perry, Victor in the Battle of Lake Erie 244 - - Andrew Jackson, the Victor of New Orleans 245 - - - THE MEN WHO MADE THE NATION GREAT BY THEIR INVENTIONS - AND DISCOVERIES - - Robert Fulton, the Inventor of the Steamboat 257 - - Samuel F. B. Morse, Inventor of the Telegraph 264 - - Cyrus West Field, Who Laid the Atlantic Cable between - America and Europe 268 - - Cyrus McCormick, Inventor of the Reaper 272 - - Elias Howe, Inventor of the Sewing Machine 274 - - - THE MEN WHO WON TEXAS, THE OREGON COUNTRY, AND CALIFORNIA - - Sam Houston, Hero of San Jacinto 277 - - David Crockett, Great Hunter and Hero of the Alamo 282 - - John C. Fremont, the Pathfinder of the Rocky Mountains 283 - - Spanish Missions in the Southwest 290 - - - THE THREE GREATEST STATESMEN OF THE MIDDLE PERIOD - - Henry Clay, the Founder of the Whig Party and the Great - Pacificator 294 - - Daniel Webster, the Defender of the Constitution 300 - - John C. Calhoun, the Champion of Nullification 306 - - - ABRAHAM LINCOLN, THE LIBERATOR AND MARTYR - - A Poor Boy Becomes a Great Man 313 - - Andrew Johnson and the Progress of Reconstruction 328 - - - TWO FAMOUS GENERALS - - Ulysses S. Grant, the Great General of the Union Armies 331 - - Robert Edward Lee, the Man Who Led the Confederate - Armies 337 - - - MEN WHO HELPED DETERMINE NEW POLITICAL POLICIES - - Rutherford B. Hayes 342 - - James A. Garfield 345 - - Chester A. Arthur 346 - - Grover Cleveland 347 - - Benjamin Harrison 349 - - - THE BEGINNING OF EXPANSION ABROAD - - William McKinley and the Spanish-American War 352 - - - THE MAN WHO WAS THE CHAMPION OF DEMOCRACY - - Theodore Roosevelt, the Typical American 360 - - William Howard Taft 369 - - - WESTWARD EXPANSION AND DEVELOPMENT - - The Westward Movement of Population and the Development - of Transportation 372 - - George Washington Goethals, Chief Engineer of the Panama - Canal 376 - - - MEN OF RECENT TIMES WHO MADE GREAT INVENTIONS - - Thomas A. Edison, the Greatest Inventor of Electrical - Machinery in the World 380 - - Two Inventions Widely Used in Business 386 - - Automobile Making in the United States 388 - - Wilbur and Orville Wright, the Men Who Gave Humanity - Wings 390 - - John P. Holland, Who Taught Men to Sail Under the Sea 395 - - - HEROINES OF NATIONAL PROGRESS - - Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony, Who Were - the first to Struggle for the Rights of Women 400 - - Julia Ward Howe, Author of "The Battle Hymn of the - Republic," and Harriet Beecher Stowe, Who Wrote _Uncle - Tom's Cabin_ 404 - - Frances E. Willard, the Great Temperance Crusader; Clara - Barton, Who Founded the Red Cross Society in America; - and Jane Addams, the Founder of Hull House Social - Settlement in Chicago 408 - - - RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES OF OUR COUNTRY - - How Farm and Factory Helped Build the Nation 416 - - Mines, Mining, and Manufactures 421 - - - AMERICA AND THE WORLD WAR - - Early Years of the War 424 - - America Enters to Win 431 - - The Conclusion of the War 437 - - - WHERE THE AMERICAN PEOPLE AND THEIR CIVILIZATION CAME FROM - - Introduction 445 - - The Oldest Nations 446 - - Greece, the Land of Art and Freedom 450 - - How the Greeks Taught Men to be Free 456 - - Spread of Greek Civilization 461 - - When Rome Ruled the World 464 - - Hannibal Tries to Conquer Rome 467 - - Rome Conquers the World, but Grows Wicked 469 - - The Roman Republic Becomes the Roman Empire 471 - - What Rome Gave to the World 473 - - The Downfall of Rome 476 - - The Angles and Saxons in Great Britain 478 - - Charles the Great, Ruler of the Franks 479 - - The Coming of the Northmen 483 - - Alfred the Great 484 - - The Norman Conquest 488 - - The Struggle for the Great Charter 490 - - - _A Pronouncing Index_ xi - - - _The Index_ xv - -MACE'S BEGINNER'S HISTORY - - - - -THE NORTHMEN DISCOVER THE NEW WORLD - - - - -LEIF ERICSON, WHO DISCOVERED VINLAND - - -[Sidenote: =The Northmen discover Iceland and Greenland=] - - -=1. The Voyages of the Northmen.= The Northmen were a bold seafaring -people who lived in northern Europe hundreds of years ago. Some of -the very boldest once sailed so far to the west that they reached the -shores of Iceland and Greenland, where many of them settled. Among -these were Eric the Red and his son Leif Ericson. - -Now Leif had heard of a land to the south of Greenland from some -Northmen who had been driven far south in a great storm. He determined -to set out in search of it. After sailing for many days he reached the -shore of this New World (A. D. 1000). There he found vines with grapes -on them growing so abundantly that he called the new land Vinland, a -country of grapes. - -Leif's discovery caused great excitement among his people. Some of -them could hardly wait until the winter was over, and the snow and ice -broken up, so as to let their ships go out to this new land. - -This time Thorvald, one of Leif's brothers, led the expedition. On -reaching land, as they stepped ashore, he exclaimed: "It is a fair -region and here I should like to make my home." But Thorvald was -killed in a battle with the Indians and was buried where he had wanted -to build his home. The Northmen continued to visit the new land, but -finally the Indians became so unfriendly that the Northmen went away -and never came again. - - -SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL - - =The Leading Facts.= _1._ The Northmen, bold sailors, settled - Iceland and Greenland. _2._ Leif Ericson reached the shores of - North America and called the country Vinland. _3._ The Northmen - continued to visit the new land, but finally ceased to come on - account of the Indians. - - =Study Questions.= _1._ In what new countries did the Northmen - settle? _2._ Tell the story of Leif Ericson's voyage. _3._ What did - he call the new land, and why? - - =Suggested Readings.= THE NORTHMEN: Glascock, _Stories of - Columbia_, 7-9; Higginson, _American Explorers_, 3-15; _Old South - Leaflets_, NO. 31. - - - - -EARLY EXPLORERS IN AMERICA - - - - -CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS, THE FIRST GREAT MAN IN AMERICAN HISTORY - - -[Sidenote: =Boyhood of Columbus=] - - -=2. Old Trade Routes to Asia.= More than four hundred fifty years ago -Christopher Columbus spent his boyhood in the queer old Italian town -of Genoa on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea. Even in that far-away -time the Mediterranean was dotted with the white sails of ships busy in -carrying the richest trade in the world. But no merchants were richer -or had bolder sailors than those of Columbus' own town. - -Genoa had her own trading routes to India, China, and Japan. Her -vessels sailed eastward and crossed the Black Sea to the very shores of -Asia. There they found stores of rich shawls and silks and of costly -spices and jewels, which had already come on the backs of horses and -camels from the Far East. As fast as winds and oars could carry them, -these merchant ships hastened back to Genoa, where other ships and -sailors were waiting to carry their goods to all parts of Europe. - -[Sidenote: =Why Columbus learned to like the sea=] - -Every day the boys of Genoa, as they played along the wharves, could -see the ships from different countries and could hear the stories of -adventure told by the sailors. No wonder Christopher found it hard to -work at his father's trade of combing wool; he liked to hear stories -of the sea and to make maps and to study geography far better than he -liked to comb wool or study arithmetic or grammar. He was eager to go -to sea and while but a boy he made his first voyage. He often sailed -with a kinsman, who was an old sea captain. These trips were full -of danger, not only from storms but from sea robbers, with whom the -sailors often had hard fights. - -[Sidenote: =Prince Henry's work=] - -While Columbus was growing to be a man, the wise and noble Prince Henry -of Portugal was sending his sailors to brave the unknown dangers of -the western coast of Africa to find a new way to India. The Turks, by -capturing Constantinople, had destroyed Genoa's overland trade routes. - -[Illustration: THE BOY COLUMBUS - -_After the statue by Giulio Montverde in the Museum of Fine Arts, -Boston_] - -[Sidenote: =Columbus goes to Lisbon=] - -The bold deeds of Henry's sailors drew many seamen to Lisbon, the -capital of Portugal. Columbus went, too, where he was made welcome by -his brother and other friends. Here he soon earned enough by making -maps to send money home to aid his parents, who were very poor. - -[Illustration: A SEA FIGHT BETWEEN GENOESE AND TURKS - -_The Genoese were great seamen and traders. When the Turks tried to -ruin their trade with the Far East by destroying their routes many -fierce sea fights took place_] - -[Sidenote: =Sailors hope to reach India=] - -Columbus was now a large, fine-looking young man with ruddy face and -bright eyes, so that he soon won the heart and the hand of a beautiful -lady, the daughter of one of Prince Henry's old seamen. Columbus was in -the midst of exciting scenes. Lisbon was full of learned men, and of -sailors longing to go on voyages. Year after year new voyages were made -in the hope of reaching India, but after many trials, the sailors of -Portugal had explored only halfway down the African coast. - -[Sidenote: =Columbus' new idea=] - -It is said that one day while looking over his father-in-law's maps, -Columbus was startled by the idea of reaching India by sailing -directly west. He thought that this could be done, because he believed -the world to be round, although all people, except the most educated, -then thought the world flat. Columbus also believed that the world was -much smaller than it really is. - -[Illustration: THE HOME OF COLUMBUS, GENOA] - -The best map of that time located India, China, and Japan about -where America is. For once, a mistake in geography turned out well. -Columbus, believing his route to be the shortest, spent several years -in gathering proof that India was directly west. He went on long -voyages and talked with many old sailors about the signs of land to the -westward. - -[Sidenote: =A tricky king=] - -Finally Columbus laid his plans before the new King of Portugal, John -II. The king secretly sent out a ship to test the plan. His sailors, -however, became frightened and returned before going very far. Columbus -was indignant at this mean trick and immediately started for Spain -(1484), taking with him his little son, Diego. - -[Sidenote: =What the Spaniards thought of Columbus=] - - -=3. Columbus at the Court of Spain.= The King and Queen of Spain, -Ferdinand and Isabella, received him kindly; but some of their wise men -did not believe the world is round, and declared Columbus foolish for -thinking that countries to the eastward could be reached by sailing to -the westward. He was not discouraged at first, because other wise men -spoke in his favor to the king and queen. - -[Illustration: COLUMBUS SOLICITING AID FROM ISABELLA - -_From the painting by the Bohemian artist, Vaczlav Brozik, now in the -Metropolitan Museum, New York_] - -[Sidenote: =Some thought him crazy=] - -It was hard for these rulers to aid him now because a long and costly -war had used up all of Spain's money. Columbus was very poor and his -clothes became threadbare. Some good people took pity on him and gave -him money but others made sport of the homeless stranger and insulted -him. The very boys in the street, it is said, knowingly tapped their -heads when he went by to show that they thought him a bit crazy. - -[Illustration: LA RABIDA CONVENT NEAR PALOS - -_At this monastery, on his way to France, Columbus met the good prior_] - -[Sidenote: =Begs bread for his son=] - - -=4. New Friends of America.= Disappointed and discouraged, after -several years of weary waiting, Columbus set out on foot to try his -fortunes in France. One day while passing along the road, he came to a -convent or monastery. Here he begged a drink of water and some bread -for his tired and hungry son, Diego, who was then about twelve years of -age. The good prior of the monastery was struck by the fine face and -the noble bearing of the stranger, and began to talk with him. When -Columbus explained his bold plan of finding a shorter route to India, -the prior sent in haste to the little port of Palos, near by, for some -old seamen, among them a great sailor, named Pinzón. These men agreed -with Columbus, for they had seen proofs of land to the westward. - -[Illustration: COLUMBUS AT THE CONVENT OF LA RABIDA - -_Columbus explaining his plan for reaching India to the prior and to -Pinzón, the great sailor_] - -[Sidenote: =The prior goes to Queen Isabella=] - -The prior himself hastened with all speed to his good friend, Queen -Isabella, and begged her not to allow Columbus to go to France, for the -honor of such a discovery ought to belong to Isabella and to Spain. How -happy was the prior when the queen gave him money to pay the expenses -for Columbus to visit her in proper style! With a heart full of hope, -once more Columbus hastened to the Spanish Court, only to find both -king and queen busy in getting ready for the last great battle of the -long war. Spain won a great victory, and while the people were still -rejoicing, the queen's officers met Columbus to make plans for the -long-thought-of voyage. But because the queen refused to make him -governor over all the lands he might discover, Columbus mounted his -mule and rode away, once more bent on seeking aid from France. - -[Illustration: CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS - -_From the portrait by Antonis van Moor, painted in 1542, from two -miniatures in the Palace of Pardo. Reproduced by permission of C. F. -Gunther, Chicago_] - -[Sidenote: =Why Columbus did not go to France=] - -Some of the queen's men hastened to her and begged her to recall -Columbus. Isabella hesitated, for she had but little money in her -treasury. Finally, it is said, she declared that she would pledge her -jewels, if necessary, to raise the money for a fleet. A swift horseman -overtook Columbus, and brought him back. The great man cried with joy -when Isabella told him that she would fit out an expedition and make -him governor over all the lands he might discover. - -[Illustration: COLUMBUS BIDDING FAREWELL TO THE PRIOR - -_From the painting by Ricardo Balaca_] - -[Sidenote: =Columbus' unselfish vow=] - -Columbus now took a solemn vow to use the riches obtained by his -discovery in fitting out a great army which should drive out of the -holy city of Jerusalem those very Turks who had destroyed the greatness -of his native city. - -[Sidenote: =First voyage begun=] - - -=5. The First Voyage.= Columbus hastened to Palos. What a sad time in -that town when the good queen commanded her ships and sailors to go -with Columbus on a voyage where the bravest seamen had never sailed! -When all things were ready for the voyage, Columbus' friend, the good -prior, held a solemn religious service, the sailors said good-by to -sorrowing friends, and the little fleet of three vessels and ninety -stout-hearted men sailed bravely out of the harbor, August 3, 1492. - -[Sidenote: =The stop at the Canary Islands=] - -Columbus commanded the _Santa Maria_, the largest vessel, only about -ninety feet long. Pinzón was captain of the _Pinta_, the fastest -vessel, and Pinzón's brother of the _Niña_, the smallest vessel. The -expedition stopped at the Canary Islands to make the last preparations -for the long and dangerous voyage. The sailors were in no hurry to go -farther, and many of them broke down and cried as the western shores of -the Canaries faded slowly from their sight. - -[Illustration: THE SANTA MARIA, THE FLAGSHIP OF COLUMBUS - -_From a recent reconstruction approved by the Spanish Minister of -Marine_] - -After many days, the ships sailed into an ocean filled with seaweed, -and so wide that no sailor could see the end. Would the ships stick -fast or were they about to run aground on some hidden island and their -crews be left to perish? The little fleet was already in the region -of the trade winds whose gentle but steady breezes were carrying them -farther and farther from home. If these winds never changed, they -thought, how could the ships ever make their way back? - -[Sidenote: =The sailors lost heart, but Columbus grew hopeful=] - -The sailors begged Columbus to turn back, but he encouraged them by -pointing out signs of land, such as flocks of birds, and green branches -floating in the sea. He told them that according to the maps they -were near Japan, and offered a prize to the one who should first see -land. One day, not long after, Pinzón shouted, "Land! Land! I claim -my prize." But he had seen only a dark bank of clouds far away on the -horizon. The sailors, thinking land near, grew cheerful and climbed -into the rigging and kept watch for several days. But no land came into -view and they grew more downhearted than ever. Because Columbus would -not turn back, they threatened to throw him into the sea, and declared -that he was a madman leading them on to certain death. - -[Illustration: THE ARMOR OF COLUMBUS - -_Now in the Royal Palace, Madrid_] - -[Sidenote: =Land at last discovered=] - - -=6. Columbus the Real Discoverer.= One beautiful evening, after the -sailors sang their vesper hymn, Columbus made a speech, pointing out -how God had favored them with clear skies and gentle winds for their -voyage, and said that since they were so near land the ships must not -sail any more after midnight. That very night Columbus saw, far across -the dark waters, the glimmering light of a torch. A few hours later the -_Pinta_ fired a joyful gun to tell that land had been surely found. -All was excitement on board the ships, and not an eye was closed that -night. Overcome with joy, some of the sailors threw their arms around -Columbus' neck, others kissed his hands, and those who had opposed him -most, fell upon their knees, begged his pardon, and promised faithful -obedience in the future. - -[Sidenote: =Taking possession of the country for Spain=] - -On Friday morning, October 12, 1492, Columbus, dressed in a robe of -bright red and carrying the royal flag of Spain, stepped upon the -shores of the New World. Around him were gathered his officers and -sailors, dressed in their best clothes and carrying flags, banners, and -crosses. They fell upon their knees, kissed the earth, and with tears -of joy, gave thanks. Columbus then drew his sword and declared that -the land belonged to the King and Queen of Spain. - -[Illustration: THE LANDING OF COLUMBUS - -_From the painting by Dioscoro Puebla, now in the National Museum, -Madrid_] - - -=7. How the People Came to be Called "Indians."= When the people of -this land first saw the ships of Columbus, they imagined that the -Spaniards had come up from the sea or down from the sky and that they -were beings from Heaven. They, therefore, at first ran frightened into -the woods. Afterwards, as they came back, they fell upon their knees as -if to worship the white men. - -[Sidenote: =Columbus and his men disappointed=] - -Columbus called the island on which he landed San Salvador and named -the people Indians because he believed he had discovered an island -of East India, although he had really discovered one of the Bahama -Islands, and, as we suppose, the one known to-day as San Salvador. He -and his men were greatly disappointed at the appearance of these new -people, for instead of seeing them dressed in rich clothes, wearing -ornaments of gold and silver, and living in great cities, as they had -expected, they saw only half-naked, painted savages living in rude huts. - -[Sidenote: =First Spanish colony planted in the New World=] - - -=8. Discovery of Cuba.= After a few days Columbus sailed farther on -and found the land now called Cuba, which he believed was Japan. Here -his own ship was wrecked, leaving him only the _Niña_, for the _Pinta_ -had gone, he knew not where. He was now greatly alarmed, for if the -_Niña_ should be wrecked he and his men would be lost and no one -would ever hear of his great discovery. He decided to return to Spain -at once, but some of the sailors were so in love with the beautiful -islands and the kindly people that they resolved to stay and plant the -first Spanish colony in the New World. After collecting some gold and -silver articles, plants, animals, birds, Indians, and other proofs of -his discovery, Columbus spread the sails of the little _Niña_ for the -homeward voyage, January 4, 1493. - -[Sidenote: =The homeward voyage=] - - -=9. Columbus Returns to Spain.= On the way home a great storm knocked -the little vessel about for four days. All gave up hope, and Columbus -wrote two accounts of his discovery, sealed them in barrels, and set -them adrift. A second storm drove the _Niña_ to Lisbon, in Portugal, -where Columbus told the story of his great voyage. Some of the -Portuguese wished to imprison Columbus, but the king would not, and in -the middle of March the _Niña_ sailed into the harbor of Palos. - -[Sidenote: =The joy of Palos=] - -What joy in that little town! The bells were set ringing and the people -ran shouting through the streets to the wharf, for they had long given -up Columbus and his crew as lost. To add to their joy, that very night -when the streets were bright with torches, the _Pinta_, believed to -have been lost, also sailed into the harbor. - -Columbus immediately wrote a letter to the king and queen, who bade -him hasten to them in Barcelona. All along his way, even the villages -and the country roads swarmed with people anxious to see the great -discoverer and to look upon the strange people and the queer products -which he had brought from India, as they thought. - -[Illustration: THE RECEPTION OF COLUMBUS AT BARCELONA - -_From the celebrated painting by the distinguished Spanish artist, -Ricardo Balaca_] - -[Sidenote: =The people's reception=] - -As he came near the city, a large company of fine people rode out to -give him welcome. He entered the city like a hero. The streets, the -balconies, the doors, the windows, the very housetops were crowded with -happy people eager to catch sight of the great hero. - -[Sidenote: =Reception by the king and queen=] - -In a great room of the palace, Ferdinand and Isabella had placed their -throne. Into this room marched Columbus surrounded by the noblest -people of Spain, but none more noble looking than the hero. The king -and queen arose and Columbus fell upon his knees and kissed their -hands. They gave him a seat near them and bade him tell the strange -story of his wonderful voyage. - -[Illustration: COLUMBUS IN CHAINS - -_After the clay model by the Spanish sculptor, Vallmitjiana, at Havana_] - -When he finished, the king and queen fell upon their knees and raised -their hands in thanksgiving. All the people did the same, and a great -choir filled the room with a song of praise. The reception was now over -and the people, shouting and cheering, followed Columbus to his home. -How like a dream it must have seemed to Columbus, who only a year or so -before, in threadbare clothes, was begging bread at the monastery near -Palos! - -[Sidenote: =Fails to find rich cities=] - - -=10. The Second Voyage.= But all Spain was on fire for another -expedition. Every seaport was now anxious to furnish ships, and every -bold sailor was eager to go. In a few months a fleet of seventeen fine -ships and fifteen hundred people sailed away under the command of -Columbus (1493) to search for the rich cities of their dreams. After -four years of exploration and discovery among the islands that soon -after began to be called the West Indies, Columbus sailed back to Spain -greatly disappointed. He had found no rich cities or mines of gold and -silver. - -[Sidenote: =Death of Columbus=] - - -=11. The Third and Fourth Voyages.= On his third voyage (1498) Columbus -sailed along the northern shores of South America, but when he reached -the West Indies the Spaniards who had settled there refused to obey -him, seized him, put him in chains, and sent him back to Spain. But -the good queen set Columbus free and sent him on his fourth voyage -(1502). He explored the coast of what is now Central America, but -afterward met shipwreck on the island of Jamaica. He returned to Spain -a broken-hearted man because he had failed to find the fabled riches of -India. He died soon afterward, not knowing that he had discovered a new -world. - -[Illustration: THE HOUSE IN WHICH COLUMBUS DIED - -_This house is in Valladolid, Spain, and stands in a street named after -the great discoverer_] - -[Sidenote: =Naming the country=] - -In 1501 Amerigo Vespucci made a voyage to South America. He was -sent out by Portugal. It was thought that Vespucci had discovered a -different land than that seen by Columbus. Without intending to wrong -Columbus, the country he saw, and afterward all land to the northward, -was called America. - -[Sidenote: =Honor to his memory=] - -Spain was too busy exploring the new lands to give proper heed to the -death of the man whose discoveries would, after a few years, make the -kingdom richer even than India. But it was left to the greatest nation -in all the western world to do full honor to the memory of Columbus in -the World's Columbian Exposition at Chicago (1892-1893). - - - - -PONCE DE LEON, WHO SOUGHT A MARVELOUS LAND AND WAS DISAPPOINTED - - -[Sidenote: =A magic fountain=] - - -=12. Ponce de Leon.= When the Spaniards came to America they were -told many strange stories by the Indians about many marvelous places. -Perhaps most wonderful of all was the story of Bimini, where every day -was perfect and every one was happy. Here was also the magic fountain -which would make old men young once more, and keep young men from -growing old. - -When Columbus sailed to America for the second time he brought with him -a brave and able soldier, named Ponce de Leon. De Leon spent many years -on the new continent fighting for his king against the Indians. After -a while he was made governor of Porto Rico. While thus serving his -country he too heard the story of this wonderful land which no white -man had explored. Like most Spaniards, he loved adventure. Also he was -weary of the cares of his office, and soon resolved to find this land -and to explore it. - -[Sidenote: =De Leon sets out to find Bimini=] - -In the spring of 1513 De Leon set sail with three ships from Porto -Rico. Somewhere to the north lay this land of perfect days. Northward -he steered for many days, past lovely tropical islands. At last, on -Easter Sunday, an unknown shore appeared. On its banks were splendid -trees. Flowers bloomed everywhere, and clear streams came gently down -to the sea. De Leon named the new land Florida and took possession of -it for the King of Spain. - -[Sidenote: =The first settlement in America founded=] - -Various duties kept him away from the new land for eight years after -its discovery. In 1521 he again set out from Porto Rico, with priests -and soldiers, and amply provided with cattle and horses and goods. He -wrote to the King of Spain: "Now I return to that island, if it please -God's will, to settle it." He was an old man then and hoped to found -a peaceful and prosperous colony of which he was to be governor. But -Indians attacked his settlement and sickness laid low many of his men. -He had been in Florida only a short time when he himself was wounded in -a fight with the Indians. Feeling that he would soon die, he hastily -set sail with all his men for Cuba, where he died shortly after. - -De Leon had failed to find the wonderful things of which the Indians -had told him. He had failed even to establish the colony of which he -was to be governor. But De Leon did discover a new and great land which -now forms one of the states of the Union. To him also goes the honor of -having been the first man to make a settlement in what is now a part of -the United States. - - - - -CORTÉS, WHO FOUND THE RICH CITY OF MEXICO - - -[Sidenote: =Cortés sank his ships=] - -[Sidenote: =Spaniards saw signs of riches=] - - -=13. Cortés Invades Mexico.= Columbus died disappointed because he had -not found the rich cities which everybody believed were somewhere in -India. Foremost among Spanish soldiers was Hernando Cortés, who, in -1519, sailed with twelve ships from Cuba to the coast of what is now -Mexico. His soldiers and sailors were hardly on land before he sank -every one of his ships. His men now had to fight. They wore coats of -iron, were armed with swords and guns, and they had a few cannon and -horses. Every few miles they saw villages and now and then cities. The -Indians wore cotton clothes, and in their ears and around their necks -and their ankles they had gold and silver ornaments. The Spaniards -could hardly keep their hands off these ornaments, they were so eager -for gold. They were now sure that the rich cities were near at hand, -which Columbus had hoped to find, and which every Spaniard fully -believed would be found. - -[Sidenote: =Difference in Spanish and Indian ways of fighting=] - -[Illustration: THE ARMOR OF CORTÉS - -_Now in the museum at Madrid_] - -The people of Mexico had neither guns nor swords, but they were brave. -Near the first large city, thousands upon thousands of fiercely painted -warriors wearing leather shields rushed upon the little band of -Spaniards. For two days the fighting went on, but not a single Spaniard -was killed. The arrows of the Indians could not pierce iron coats, but -the sharp Spanish swords could easily cut leather shields. The simple -natives thought they must be fighting against gods instead of men, and -gave up the battle. - -[Illustration: HOUSE OF CORTÉS, COYOACAN, MEXICO - -_Over the main doorway are graven the arms of the Conqueror, who lived -here while the building of Coyoacan, which is older than the City of -Mexico, went on_] - -Day after day Cortés marched on until a beautiful valley broke upon his -view. His men now saw a wonderful sight: cities built over lakes, where -canals took the place of streets and where canoes carried people from -place to place. It all seemed like a dream. But they hastened forward -to the great capital city. It, too, was built over a lake, larger than -any seen before, and it could be reached only along three great roads -of solid mason work. - -[Sidenote: =A great Indian City=] - -These roads ran to the center of the city where stood, in a great -square, a wonderful temple. The top of this temple could be reached by -one hundred fourteen stone steps running around the outside. The city -contained sixty thousand people, and there were many stone buildings, -on the flat roofs of which the natives had beautiful flower gardens. - -[Illustration: GUATEMOTZIN - -_The nephew of Montezuma and the last Indian emperor of Mexico. After -the statue by Don Francisco Jimenes_] - -[Sidenote: =Cortés makes Montezuma a prisoner=] - -Montezuma, the Indian ruler, received Cortés and his men very politely -and gave the officers a house near the great temple. But Cortés was -in danger. What if the Indians should rise against him? To guard -against this danger, Cortés compelled Montezuma to live in the Spanish -quarters. The people did not like to see their beloved ruler a prisoner -in his own city. - -[Illustration: AN INDIAN CORN BIN, TLAXCALA - -_These are community or public bins, stand in the open roadway, and are -still fashioned as in the days of Cortés_] - -[Sidenote: =The Spaniards driven out of the city=] - -But no outbreak came until the Spaniards, fearing an attack, fell upon -the Indians, who were holding a religious festival, and killed hundreds -of them. The Indian council immediately chose Montezuma's brother to be -their ruler and the whole city rose in great fury to drive out the now -hated Spaniards. The streets and even the housetops were filled with -angry warriors. Cortés compelled Montezuma to stand upon the roof of -the Spanish fort and command his people to stop fighting. - -But he was ruler no longer. He was struck down by his own warriors, -and died in a few days, a broken-hearted man. After several days of -hard fighting, Cortés and his men tried to get out of the city, but -the Indians fell on the little army and killed more than half of the -Spanish soldiers before they could get away. - -[Illustration: HERNANDO CORTÉS - -_From the portrait painted by Charles Wilson Peale, now in Independence -Hall, Philadelphia_] - -[Sidenote: =The great Indian city almost destroyed=] - - -=14. Cortés Conquers Mexico.= Because of jealousy a Spanish army was -sent to bring Cortés back to Cuba. By capturing this army Cortés -secured more soldiers. Once more he marched against the city. What -could bows and arrows and spears and stones do against the terrible -horsemen and their great swords, or against the Spanish foot soldiers -with their muskets and cannon? At length the great Indian city was -almost destroyed, but thousands of its brave defenders were killed -before the fighting ceased (1521). From this time on, the country -gradually filled with Spanish settlers. - - -=15. Cortés Visits Spain.= After several years, Cortés longed to see -his native land once more. He set sail, and reached the little port of -Palos from which, many years before, the great Columbus had sailed -in search of the rich cities of the Far East. Here, now, was the very -man who had found the splendid cities and had returned to tell the -wonderful story to his king and countrymen. All along the journey to -the king the people now crowded to see Cortés as they had once crowded -to see Columbus. - -[Illustration: CORTÉS BEFORE MONTEZUMA - -_After the original painting by the Mexican artist, J. Ortega; now in -the National Gallery of San Carlos, Mexico_] - -[Sidenote: =Cortés shares Columbus' fate=] - -Cortés afterwards returned to Mexico, where he spent a large part -of his fortune in trying to improve the country. The Spanish king -permitted great wrong to be done to Cortés and, like Columbus the -discoverer, Cortés the conqueror died neglected by the king whom he -had made so rich. For three hundred years the mines of Mexico poured a -constant stream of gold and silver into the lap of Spain. - - - - -PIZARRO, WHO FOUND THE RICHEST CITY IN THE WORLD - - -[Sidenote: =Pizarro finds great riches in Peru=] - -[Illustration: ROUTES OF THE CONQUERORS, CORTÉS AND PIZARRO - -_Their conquests of Mexico and of Peru brought untold stores of riches -to Spain_] - - -=16. Pizarro's Voyages.= Another Spaniard, Francisco Pizarro, dreamed -of finding riches greater than De Leon or Cortés had ever heard of. -He set out for Peru with an army of two hundred men. Reaching the -coast, he started inland and in a few days came to the foot of the -Andes. They crossed the mountains and, marching down the eastern side, -the Spaniards came upon the Inca, the native ruler, and his army. By -trickery they made the Inca a prisoner, put him to death, and then -subdued the army. The Spaniards then marched on to Cuzco, the capital -of Peru, where they found enormous quantities of gold and silver. Never -before in the history of the world had so many riches been found. This -great wealth was divided among the Spaniards according to rank. But the -greedy Spaniards fell to quarreling and fighting among themselves, and -Pizarro fell by the hand of one of his own men. - - - - -CORONADO, WHO PENETRATED SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES BUT FOUND NOTHING -BUT BEAUTIFUL SCENERY - - -=17. Coronado's Search for Rich Cities.= Stories of rich cities to the -north of Mexico led Francisco Coronado with a thousand men into the -rocky regions now known as New Mexico and Arizona. They looked with -wonder at the Grand Cañon of the Colorado, but they found no wealthy -cities or temples ornamented with gold and silver. - -They pushed farther north into what is now Kansas and Nebraska, into -the great western prairies with their vast seas of waving grass and -herds of countless buffalo. "Crooked-back oxen" the Spaniards named the -buffalo. - -[Sidenote: =Coronado finds no gold or silver=] - -But Coronado was after gold and silver, and cared nothing for beautiful -and interesting scenes. Disappointed, he turned southward and in 1542, -after three years of wandering, reached home in Mexico. He reported to -the King of Spain that the region he had explored was too poor a place -for him to plant colonies. - - - - -DE SOTO, THE DISCOVERER OF THE MISSISSIPPI - - -=18. The Expedition to Florida.= While Coronado and his men were -searching in vain for hidden cities with golden temples, another band -of men was wandering through the forests farther to the eastward. -Hernando de Soto had been one of Pizarro's bravest soldiers. The news -that this bold adventurer was to lead an expedition to Florida stirred -all Spain. Many nobles sold their lands to fit out their sons to fight -under so great a leader. - -The Spanish settlers of Cuba gave a joyful welcome to De Soto and -to the brave men from the homeland. After many festivals and solemn -religious ceremonies, nine vessels, carrying many soldiers, twelve -priests, six hundred horses, and a herd of swine, sailed for Florida -(1539). - -[Sidenote: =The settlers of Cuba welcome De Soto=] - -[Illustration: HERNANDO DE SOTO - -_After an engraving to be found in the works of the great Spanish -historian, Herrera_] - -What a grand sight to the Indians as the men and horses clad in steel -armor landed! There were richly colored banners, beautiful crucifixes, -and many things never before seen by the Indians. But this was by far -the most cruel expedition yet planned. - -[Sidenote: =The Spaniards' cruelty to the Indians=] - -Wherever the Spaniards marched Indians were seized as slaves and -made to carry the baggage and do the hard work. If the Indian guides -were false, they were burned at the stake or were torn to pieces by -bloodhounds. Hence the Indians feared the Spaniards, and Indian guides -often misled the Spanish soldiers on purpose to save the guides' own -tribes from harm. - -De Soto fought his way through forests and swamps to the head of -Apalachee Bay, where he spent the winter. In the spring a guide led the -army into what is now Georgia, in search of a country supposed to be -rich in gold and ruled by a woman. The soldiers suffered and grumbled, -but De Soto only turned the march farther northward. - -[Sidenote: =Attacked by Indians=] - -The Appalachian Mountains caused them to turn south again until they -reached the village of Mavilla (Mobile), where the Indians rushed on -them in great numbers and tried to crush the army. But Spanish swords -and Spanish guns won the day against Indian arrows and Indian clubs. De -Soto lost a number of men, at least a dozen horses, and the baggage of -his entire army, yet he boldly refused to send to the coast for the men -and supplies waiting for him there. - - -=19. The Discovery of the Mississippi.= Again De Soto's men followed -him northward, this time into what we know as northern Mississippi, -where the adventuring army spent the second winter in a deserted Indian -village. In the spring, in 1541, De Soto demanded two hundred Indians -to carry baggage, but the chief and his men one night stole into camp, -set fire to their own rude houses, gave the war whoop, frightened many -horses into running away, and killed a number of the Spaniards. - -[Illustration: THE ROUTES OF CORONADO AND DE SOTO - -_Following these pathways, the soldier-explorers discovered the Grand -Cañon of the Colorado and the great Mississippi River_] - -[Sidenote: =They reached a great river=] - -[Illustration: DE SOTO DISCOVERS THE MIGHTY MISSISSIPPI] - -The army then marched westward for many days, wading swamps and -wandering through forests so dense that at times they could not see the -sun. At last, a river was reached greater than any the Spaniards had -ever seen. It was the Mississippi, more than a mile wide, rushing on at -full flood toward the Gulf. - -On barges made by their own hands, De Soto and his men crossed to the -west bank of the broad stream. There they marched northward, probably -as far as the region now known as Missouri, and then westward two -hundred miles. Nothing but hardships met them on every hand. In the -spring of 1542, the little army came upon the Mississippi again. - -[Sidenote: =Burial of De Soto=] - -De Soto was tiring out. He grew sad and asked the Indians how far it -was to the sea. But it was too far for the bold leader. A fever seized -him, and after a few days he died. At dead of night his companions -buried him in the bosom of the great river he had discovered. - - -=20. Only Half the Army Returns to Cuba.= There were bold leaders -still left in the army. They turned westward again, but after finding -neither gold nor silver, they returned to the Mississippi and spent the -winter on its banks. There they built boats, and then floated down to -the Gulf. Only one half of the army returned to tell the sad tales of -hardships, battles, and poverty. - -[Sidenote: =What Coronado and De Soto proved to the King of Spain=] - -Thus it came about that Coronado and De Soto proved that northward from -Mexico there were no rich cities, such as Columbus had dreamed about, -and such as Cortés and Pizarro had really found. Hence it was that the -King of Spain and his brave adventurers took less interest in that part -of North America which is now the United States, and more in Mexico and -in South America. - - - - -MAGELLAN, WHO PROVED THAT THE WORLD IS ROUND - - -=21. Magellan's Task.= Columbus died believing that he had discovered -a part of India. But he had not proved that the earth is round by -sailing around it. This great task was left for Ferdinand Magellan, -a Portuguese sailor. Columbus' great voyage had stirred up the -Portuguese. One of their boldest sailors, Vasco da Gama, had reached -India in 1498 by rounding Africa, and Magellan had made voyages for -seven years among the islands of the East. - -[Illustration: FERDINAND MAGELLAN - -_From the portrait designed and engraved by Ferdinand Selma in 1788_] - -[Sidenote: =Magellan, too, goes to Spain=] - -After returning to Portugal, Magellan sought the king's aid, but -without success; then, like Columbus, he went to Spain, and in less -than two years his fleet of five vessels sailed for the coast of South -America (1519). Severe storms tossed the vessels about for nearly -a month. Food and water grew scarce. The sailors threatened to kill -Magellan, but the brave captain, like Columbus, kept boldly on until he -reached cold and stormy Patagonia. - -[Sidenote: =His sailors rebel=] - -It was Easter time, and the long, hard winter was already setting in. -Finding a safe harbor and plenty of fish, Magellan decided to winter -there. But the captains of three ships refused to obey, and decided -to kill Magellan and lead the fleet back to Spain. Magellan was too -quick for them. He captured one of the ships, turned the cannon on the -others, and soon forced them to surrender. - -There were no more outbreaks that winter. One of the ships was wrecked. -How glad the sailors were when, late in August, they saw the first -signs of spring! But they were not so happy when Magellan commanded -the ships to sail still farther south in search of a passage to the -westward. - -[Illustration: MAGELLAN'S FIRST VIEW OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN - -_Beyond the stormy strait he found the waters of the ocean smooth and -quiet; hence its name Pacific, meaning peaceful_] - -In October, his little fleet entered a wide, deep channel and found -rugged, snow-clad mountains rising high on both sides of them. Many of -the sailors believed they had at last found the westward passage, and -that it was now time to turn homeward. - -[Sidenote: =Magellan's bold resolution=] - -But Magellan declared that he would "eat the leather off the ship's -yards" rather than turn back. The sailors on one ship seized and bound -the captain and sailed back to Spain. Magellan with but three ships -sailed bravely on until a broad, quiet ocean broke upon his sight. He -wept for joy, for he believed that now the western route to India had -indeed been found. This new ocean, so calm, so smooth and peaceful, -he named the Pacific, and all the world now calls the channel he -discovered the Strait of Magellan. - -[Sidenote: =The first voyage across the Pacific begins=] - -No man had yet sailed across the Pacific, and no man knew the distance. -Magellan was as bold a sailor as ever sailed the main, and he had brave -men with him. In November (1520) the three little ships boldly turned -their prows toward India. On and on they sailed. Many of the crew, as -they looked out upon a little island, saw land for the last time. Many -thousand miles had yet to be sailed before land would again be seen. -After long weeks their food supply gave out and starvation stared them -in the face. Many grew sick and died. The others had to eat leather -taken from the ship's yards like so many hungry beasts. - -How big the world seemed to these poor, starving sailors! But the -captain never lost courage. Finally they beheld land. It was the group -of islands now known as the Marianas (Ladrones). Here the sailors -rested and feasted to their hearts' content. - -[Sidenote: =Visits the Philippines=] - -Then Magellan pressed on to another group of islands which were -afterwards called the Philippines, from King Philip of Spain. - -[Sidenote: =Magellan loses his life for his men=] - -Here in a battle with the inhabitants, while bravely defending his -sailors, Magellan was killed. Their great commander was gone and they -were still far from Spain. Sadly his sailors continued the voyage, but -only one of the vessels, with about twenty men, ever reached home to -tell the story of that wonderful first voyage around the world. - -[Illustration: MAGELLAN'S ROUTE AROUND THE WORLD - -_Magellan, the bold Portuguese sailor, discovered the strait that bears -his name and planned the first successful trip made around the world_] - -[Sidenote: =What the voyage proved=] - -Thus Magellan proved that Columbus was right in thinking the world -round and that India could be reached by sailing west, while other -men like Cortés and Pizarro found rich cities like those Columbus had -dreamed of finding. - - -SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL - - =The Leading Facts.= _1._ Columbus was born near the shores of the - Mediterranean and trained for the sea by study and by experience. - _2._ The people of Europe traded with the Far East, but the Turks - destroyed their trade routes. _3._ Columbus was drawn to Portugal - because of Prince Henry's great work. _4._ Columbus thought he - could reach the rich cities of the East by sailing west. _5._ After - many discouragements he won aid from Isabella and discovered the - Bahama Islands, Cuba, and Haiti. _6._ The king and queen of Spain - received Columbus with great ceremony. _7._ Columbus made three - more voyages, but was disappointed in not finding the rich cities - of India. _8._ Ponce de Leon sailed from Porto Rico to find a land - of which strange stories had been told of riches and of a fountain - of eternal youth. _9._ He reached Florida on Easter Sunday, 1513. - _10._ Eight years later he returned to found a settlement. _11._ He - was attacked by the Indians, wounded, and forced to return to Porto - Rico, where he died of his wounds. _12._ His is the distinction - of being the first white man to plant a settlement in the United - States after the discovery of America by Columbus. _13._ Cortés - marched against a rich city, afterward called Mexico, captured - the ruler, and fought great battles with the people. _14._ Cortés - captured the city and ruled it for several years. _15._ From this - time on Mexico gradually filled with Spanish settlers. _16._ - Pizarro invaded Peru, the richest of all countries, and captured - and put to death the ruler. _17._ Pizarro was killed by his own - men. _18._ Coronado marched north from Mexico into Arizona and - New Mexico, but found no rich cities. _19._ He wandered into the - great prairies and the rocky country of Colorado but finally turned - back in disappointment. _20._ De Soto wandered over the country - east of the Rocky Mountains in search of rich cities, but found a - great river, the Mississippi, and later was buried in its waters. - _21._ Hence the Spaniards, eager for gold, went to Mexico and South - America rather than farther to the north. _22._ Columbus thought - the world was round, but Magellan proved it. _23._ Magellan sailed - around South America into the Pacific Ocean, and across this new - sea to the Philippine Islands, where he was killed. _24._ His ship - reached Spain--the first to sail around the world. - - =Study Questions.= _1._ Make a list of articles which the caravans - (camels and horses) of the East brought to the Black Sea. _2._ - What studies fitted Columbus for the sea? _3._ Why were there so - many sailors in Lisbon? _4._ How did Columbus get his idea of the - earth's shape? _5._ What did men in Portugal and Spain think of - this idea? _6._ Tell the story of Columbus in Spain. _7._ What is - the meaning of the vow taken by him? _8._ Make a picture in your - mind of the first voyage of Columbus. Read the poem "Columbus," by - Joaquin Miller. _9._ Shut your eyes and imagine you see Columbus - land and take possession of the country. _10._ Why was Columbus so - disappointed? _11._ How did the people of Palos act when Columbus - returned? _12._ Picture the reception of Columbus by the people, - and by the king and queen. _13._ Why was Columbus disappointed - in the second expedition? _14._ What did Columbus believe he had - accomplished? _15._ What had he failed to do that he hoped to do? - _16._ Why did Ponce de Leon go in search of the new land? _17._ - What was the strange tradition about the country? _18._ What did - Ponce de Leon set out to do on his second trip? _19._ Did he - succeed? _20._ What is his distinction? _21._ Why did Cortés sink - his ships? _22._ How were Spaniards armed and how were Indians - armed? _23._ Describe the city of Mexico. _24._ Who began the war, - and what does that show about the Spaniards? _25._ How did Cortés - get more soldiers? _26._ How did the people and king receive Cortés - in Spain? _27._ How was he treated on his return to Mexico? _28._ - What did Pizarro find in Peru? _29._ How did he treat the Inca? - _30._ What was Pizarro's fate? _31._ What was Coronado searching - for, and why were the Spaniards disappointed? _32._ What things - did the Spaniards see that they never before had seen? _33._ What - report did Coronado make? _34._ Why were De Soto's Indian guides - false? _35._ Show that De Soto was a brave man. _36._ How far north - did the Spaniards go both east and west of the Mississippi? _37._ - Tell the story of De Soto's death and burial. _38._ What proof can - you give to show that the Spaniards were more cruel than necessary? - _39._ What part of the problem of Columbus did Magellan solve? - _40._ What was Magellan's preparation? _41._ Where is Patagonia, - and how could there be signs of spring late in August? _42._ What - did Magellan's voyage prove, and what remained of Columbus' plans - yet to be accomplished? _43._ Who accomplished this? - - =Suggested Readings.= COLUMBUS: Hart, _Colonial Children_, 4-6; - Pratt, _Exploration and Discovery_, 17-32; Wright, _Children's - Stories in American History_, 38-60; Higginson, _American - Explorers_, 19-52; Glascock, _Stories of Columbia_, 10-35; McMurry, - _Pioneers on Land and Sea_, 122-160; Brooks, _The True Story of - Christopher Columbus_, 1-103, 112-172. - - PONCE DE LEON: Pratt, _Explorations and Discoveries_, 17-23. - - CORTÉS: McMurry, _Pioneers on Land and Sea_, 186-225; Hale, - _Stories of Adventure_, 101-126; Ober, _Hernando Cortés_, 24-80, - 82-291. - - PIZARRO: Hart, _Colonial Children_, 12-16: Towle, _Pizarro_, - 27-327. - - CORONADO: Griffis, _Romance of Discovery_, 168-182; Hale, _Stories - of Adventure_, 136-140. - - DE SOTO: Hart, _Colonial Children_, 16-19; Higginson, _American - Explorers_, 121-140. - - MAGELLAN: McMurry, _Pioneers on Land and Sea_, 186-225; - Butterworth, _Story of Magellan_, 52-143; Ober, _Ferdinand - Magellan_, 108-244. - - - - -THE MEN WHO MADE AMERICA KNOWN TO ENGLAND AND WHO CHECKED THE PROGRESS -OF SPAIN - - - - -JOHN CABOT ALSO SEARCHES FOR A SHORTER ROUTE TO INDIA AND FINDS THE -MAINLAND OF NORTH AMERICA - - -[Illustration: CABOT TAKING POSSESSION OF NORTH AMERICA FOR THE KING OF -ENGLAND - -_On the spot where he landed Cabot planted a large cross and beside it -flags of England and of St. Mark_] - -[Sidenote: =The effect in England of Columbus' discovery=] - - -=22. Cabot's Voyages.= When the news of Columbus' great discovery -reached England, the king was sorry, no doubt, that he had not helped -him. The story is that Columbus had gone to Henry VII, King of England, -for aid to make his voyage. But England had a brave sailor of her own, -John Cabot, an Italian, born in Columbus' own town of Genoa, who also -had learned his lessons in voyages on the Mediterranean. Cabot had gone -to live in the old town of Venice. Afterward he made England his home -and lived in the old seaport town of Bristol, the home of many English -sailors. - -He, too, believed the world to be round, and that India could be -reached by sailing westward. King Henry VII gave Cabot permission to -try, providing he would give the king one fifth of all the gold and -silver which everybody believed he would find in India. - -[Illustration: JOHN CABOT AND HIS SON SEBASTIAN - -_From the statue modeled by John Cassidy, Manchester, England_] - -[Sidenote: =What John Cabot discovered=] - -Accordingly, John Cabot, and it may be his son, Sebastian, set out on -a voyage in May, 1497. After many weeks, Cabot discovered land, now -supposed to be either a part of Labrador or of Cape Breton Island. He -landed and planted the flag of England, and by its side set up that of -Venice, which had been his early home. - -Later, he probably saw parts of Newfoundland, but nowhere did he see -a single inhabitant. He did, however, find signs that the country was -inhabited, but he found no proof of rich cities or of gold and silver. -In the seas all around Cabot saw such vast swarms of fish that he told -the people of England they would not need to go any more to cold and -snowy Iceland to catch fish. - -[Sidenote: =The king and people pay honor to Cabot=] - -How John Cabot was treated by the king and people of England when he -came back is seen in an old letter written from England by a citizen -of Venice to his friends at home. "The king has promised that in the -spring our countryman shall have ten ships, armed to his order. The -king has also given him money wherewith to amuse himself till then, and -he is now at Bristol with his wife, who is also a Venetian, and with -his sons. His name is John Cabot, and he is called the great admiral. -Vast honor is paid to him; he dresses in silk, and the English run -after him like mad people, so that he can enlist as many of them as -he pleases, and a number of our own rogues besides. The discoverer of -these places planted on his new-found land a large cross, with one flag -of England and another of St. Mark, by reason of his being a Venetian." - -[Illustration: THE FINDING OF AMERICA - -_The first voyages of Columbus, the discoverer of the New World, and of -Cabot, the first man to reach the mainland of North America_] - -[Sidenote: =Cabot's second voyage=] - -Again, in May, 1498, John Cabot started for India by sailing toward -the northwest. This time the fleet was larger, and filled with eager -English sailors. But Cabot could not find a way to India, so he altered -his course and coasted southward as far as the region now called North -Carolina. - -Now because of these two voyages of Cabot, England later claimed a -large part of North America, for he had really seen the mainland of -America before Columbus. Spain also claimed the same region, but we -have seen how Mexico and Peru drew Spaniards to those countries. - -[Sidenote: =Why England was slow in settling America=] - -If England had been quick to act and had made settlements where Cabot -explored, she would have had little trouble in getting a hold in North -America. But she did not do so. Henry VII was old and stingy. Cabot had -twice failed to find India with its treasures of gold and silver, so -little attention was given to the new lands. - - - - -SIR FRANCIS DRAKE, THE ENGLISH "DRAGON," WHO SAILED THE SPANISH MAIN -AND WHO "SINGED THE KING OF SPAIN'S BEARD" - - -=23. The Quarrel between Spain and England.= After John Cabot failed to -find a new way to India, King Henry did nothing more to help English -discovery. His son, Henry VIII, got into a great quarrel with the -King of Spain. He was too busy with this quarrel to think much about -America. But during this very time, Cortés and Pizarro were doing their -wonderful deeds. Spain grew bold, seized English seamen, threw them -into dungeons, and even burned them at the stake. Englishmen robbed -Spanish ships and killed Spanish sailors in revenge. - -[Sidenote: =Their sailors take up the quarrel=] - -[Sidenote: =Why Drake hated the Spaniards=] - - -=24. Sir Francis Drake.= A most daring English seaman was Sir Francis -Drake. From boyhood days he had been a sailor. His cousin, Captain -Hawkins, gave him command of a ship against Mexico, but the Spaniards -fell upon it, killed many of the sailors, and took all they had. Drake -came back ruined, and eager to take revenge. Besides, he hated the -Spaniards because he thought they were plotting to kill Elizabeth, the -Queen of England. - -In 1573 Drake returned to England with his ship loaded with gold and -precious stones, captured from the Spaniards on the Isthmus of Panama. - -[Sidenote: =Begins his most famous voyage=] - - -=25. Drake's Voyage around the World.= After four years Drake, with -four small but fast vessels, sailed direct for the Strait of Magellan. -He was determined to sail the Pacific, which he had seen while on the -Isthmus of Panama. In June his fleet entered the harbor of Patagonia -where Magellan had spent the winter more than fifty years before. - -After destroying his smallest vessel, which was leaky, Drake sailed -to the entrance of the Strait. Here he changed the name of his ship -from the _Pelican_ to the _Golden Hind_, with ceremonies fitting the -occasion. - -The fleet passed safely through the Strait, but as it sailed out into -the Pacific a terrible storm scattered the ships. One went down, and -one returned to England, believing that Drake's ship, the _Golden -Hind_, had been destroyed. - -[Illustration: SIR FRANCIS DRAKE - -_From the original portrait attributed to Sir Antonis van Moor, in the -possession of Viscount Dillon, at Ditchly Park, England_] - -But Drake had a bold heart, good sailors, and a stout ship. After the -storm he sailed north to Valparaiso, where his men saw the first great -treasure ship. The Spanish sailors jumped overboard, and left four -hundred pounds of gold to Drake and his men. Week after week Drake -sailed northward until he reached Peru, the land conquered by Pizarro. - -[Sidenote: =Capturing treasure ships on the Pacific coast=] - -Another great treasure ship had just sailed for Panama. Away sped -the _Golden Hind_ in swift pursuit. For a thousand miles, day and -night, the chase went on. One evening, just at dark, the little ship -rushed upon the great vessel, and captured her. What a rich haul! More -than twenty tons of silver bars, thirteen chests of silver coin, one -hundredweight of gold, besides a great store of precious stones. - -[Illustration: DRAKE'S CHAIR, OXFORD UNIVERSITY - -_It was made from the timbers of the "Golden Hind"_] - -[Sidenote: =The "Golden Hind" winters in California=] - -The little ship continued northward. Hoping for a northeast passage -to the Atlantic, Drake sailed along the coast as far as what was -afterward known as the Oregon country. But the increasing cold and fog -and the strong northwest winds made him turn southward again. Sailing -close inshore, he found a small harbor, just north of the great bay -of San Francisco. Here his stout little ship came to anchor. The -natives believed that Drake and his men were gods, and begged them to -remain with them always. Drake named the country New Albion and took -possession in the name of the queen, Elizabeth. When he had refitted -his ship for the long voyage home, Drake set sail, to the great sorrow -of the natives. - -[Sidenote: =Drake crosses the Pacific and Indian oceans=] - -Week after week went by, until he saw the very islands where Magellan -had been. He made his way among the islands and across the Indian Ocean -until the Cape of Good Hope was rounded, and the _Golden Hind_ spread -her sails northward toward England. - -[Sidenote: =Drake given a title by Queen Elizabeth=] - -Drake reached home in 1580, the first Englishman to sail around the -world. The people, who had given him up as lost, shouted for joy when -they heard he was safe. Queen Elizabeth visited his ship in person, and -there gave him a title, so that now he was Sir Francis Drake. Years -after, a chair was made from the timbers of the famous _Golden Hind_ -and presented to Oxford University, where it can now be seen. - -[Illustration: QUEEN ELIZABETH MAKING DRAKE A NOBLEMAN - -_After the drawing by Sir John Gilbert. It pictures the scene that took -place on board the "Golden Hind" at the close of the great voyage. -Queen Elizabeth visited Drake in his ship and conferred knighthood on -him for his great services to England_] - -[Sidenote: =He goes to find the Gold Fleet=] - - -=26. Drake Again Goes to Fight the Spaniards.= Drake soon took command -of a fleet of twenty-five vessels and two thousand five hundred men, -all eager to fight the Spaniards (1585). He sailed boldly for the coast -of Spain, frightened the people, and then went in search of the Gold -Fleet, which was bringing shipload after shipload of treasure from -America to the King of Spain. - -[Illustration: THE SPANISH ARMADA - -_More than one hundred twenty-five vessels sailed from Lisbon to -conquer England, but only about fifty returned to the home port_] - -[Sidenote: =In the West Indies=] - -No sooner had Drake missed the fleet than he made direct for the West -Indies, where he spread terror among the islands. The Spaniards had -heard of Drake, the "Dragon." He attacked and destroyed three important -towns, and intended to seize Panama itself, but the yellow fever began -to cut down his men, so he sailed to Roanoke Island, and carried back -to England the starving and homesick colony which Raleigh had planted -there. - -[Sidenote: =Singeing the King of Spain's beard=] - -The Spanish king was angry. He resolved to crush England. More than -one hundred ships, manned by thousands of sailors, were to carry a -great army to the hated island. Drake heard about it, and quickly -gathered thirty fast ships manned by sailors as bold as himself. His -fleet sailed right into the harbor of Cadiz, past cannon and forts, and -burned so many Spanish ships that it took Spain another year to get -the great fleet ready. Drake declared that he had "singed the King of -Spain's beard." - -[Sidenote: =Spain aims to crush England, but is badly defeated=] - - -=27. The Spanish Armada.= The King of Spain was bound to crush England -at one mighty blow. In 1588 the Spanish Armada, as the great fleet was -called, sailed for England. There were scores of war vessels manned -by more than seven thousand sailors, carrying nearly twenty thousand -soldiers. Almost every noble family in Spain sent one or more of its -sons to fight against England. - -When this mighty fleet reached the English Channel, Drake and other sea -captains as daring as himself dashed at the Spanish ships, and by the -help of a great storm that came up, succeeded in destroying almost the -whole fleet. No such blow had ever before fallen upon the great and -powerful Spanish nation. - -From that time on her power grew less and less, while England's power -on the sea grew greater and greater. Englishmen could now go to America -without much thought of danger from Spaniards. - - - - -SIR WALTER RALEIGH, THE FRIEND OF ELIZABETH, PLANTS A COLONY IN AMERICA -TO CHECK THE POWER OF SPAIN - - -[Sidenote: =Raleigh, student, soldier, seaman=] - - -=28. Sir Walter Raleigh.= Born (1552) near the sea, Raleigh fed his -young imagination with stories of the wild doings of English seamen. He -went to college at Oxford at the age of fourteen, and made a good name -as a student. - -In a few years young Raleigh went to France to take part in the -religious wars of that unhappy country. At the time he returned home -all England was rejoicing over Drake's first shipload of gold. When -Queen Elizabeth sent an army to aid the people of Holland against the -Spaniards, young Raleigh was only too glad to go. - -On his return from this war he went with his half-brother, Sir Humphrey -Gilbert, on two voyages to America, at the very same time Drake was -plundering the Spanish treasure ships in the Pacific Ocean. Afterward -Raleigh turned soldier again and, as captain, went to Ireland, where -Spain had sent soldiers to stir up rebellion. Thus, before he was -thirty years old, he had been a seaman and a soldier, and had been in -France, Holland, America, and Ireland. - -[Illustration: THE BOYHOOD OF RALEIGH - -_After the painting by Sir John E. Millais_] - -[Sidenote: =Raleigh when thirty years old=] - -At this time Raleigh was a fine-looking man, about six feet tall, with -dark hair and a handsome face. He had plenty of wit and good sense, -although he was fond, indeed, of fine clothes. He was just the very one -to catch the favor of Queen Elizabeth. - -One day Elizabeth and her train of lords and ladies were going down the -roadway from the royal castle to the river. The people crowded both -sides of the road to see their beloved queen and her beautiful ladies -go by. Raleigh pressed his way to the front. - -[Sidenote: =How he won the favor of the queen=] - -As Elizabeth drew near, she hesitated about passing over a muddy place. -In a moment the feeling that every true gentleman has in the presence -of ladies told Raleigh what to do, and the queen suddenly saw his -beautiful red velvet cloak lying in the mud at her feet. She stepped -upon it, nodded to its gallant owner, and passed on. From this time -forward Raleigh was a great favorite at the court of Queen Elizabeth. - -[Sidenote: =Raleigh's plan for checking the power of Spain=] - - -=29. Trying to Plant English Colonies.= In 1584 Raleigh caused a friend -to write a letter to the queen, explaining that English colonies -planted on the coast of North America would not only check the power -of Spain but would also increase the power of England. That very year -the queen gave him permission to plant colonies. Thus a better way of -opposing Spain was found than by robbing treasure ships and burning -towns. - -[Illustration: SIR WALTER RALEIGH - -_From the original portrait painted by Federigo Zuccaro_] - -[Sidenote: =The Indians welcome the English=] - -[Sidenote: =Why the land was named Virginia=] - -Raleigh immediately sent a ship to explore. The captain landed on what -is now Roanoke Island. The Indians came with a fleet of forty canoes -to give them a friendly welcome. After a few days an Indian queen with -her maidens came to entertain the English. "We found the people most -gentle, loving, and faithful, void of all guile and treason," said -Captain Barlow. His glowing account of the land and people so pleased -Elizabeth that she named the country Virginia, in honor of her own -virgin life. - -Raleigh next sent out a kinsman, Sir Richard Grenville, with a fleet of -seven vessels and one hundred settlers, under Ralph Lane as governor. -But the settlers were bent on finding gold and silver, instead of -making friends with the Indians. - -[Sidenote: =Why the Indians became hostile=] - -An Indian stole a silver cup from the English. Because of this theft -Lane and his men fell upon the Indian village, drove out men, women, -and children, burned their homes, and destroyed their crops. This was -not only cruel but also foolish, for the story of his cruelty spread to -other tribes, and after that wherever the English went they were always -in danger from the Indians. - -[Sidenote: =Indian corn and the white potato taken to England=] - -When Drake came along the next spring with his great fleet, the -settlers were only too glad to get back to England, and be once more -among friends. They took home from America the turkey and two food -plants, the white potato and Indian corn--worth more to the world than -all the gold and silver found in the mines of Mexico and Peru! - -[Illustration: INDIAN CORN] - -[Sidenote: =Raleigh tries again=] - -Although Raleigh had already spent thousands of dollars, he would -not give up. He immediately sent out a second colony of one hundred -fifty settlers, a number of whom were women. John White was governor. -Roanoke was occupied once more, and there, shortly afterwards, was -born Virginia Dare, the first white child of English parents in North -America. Before a year went by, the governor had to go to England for -aid. - -But Raleigh and all England had little time to think of America. The -Armada was coming, and every English ship and sailor was needed to -fight the Spaniards. Two years went by before Governor White reached -America with supplies. When he did reach there practically no trace of -the colony could be found. Not a settler was left to tell the tale. - -[Illustration: A WILD TURKEY] - -[Sidenote: =The "lost colony"=] - -The only trace of Raleigh's "lost colony" was the word "Croatoan" cut -in large letters on a post. Croatoan was the name of an island near -by. White returned home, but Raleigh sent out an old seaman, Samuel -Mace, to search for the lost colony. It was all in vain. Many years -later news reached England that a tribe of Indians had a band of white -slaves, but the mystery of the lost colony never was cleared up. - -[Illustration: POTATO PLANT AND TUBERS] - -[Sidenote: =Raleigh's money gives out, but not his hope=] - -Raleigh had now spent his great fortune. But he did not lose heart, -for he said that he would live to see Virginia a nation. He was right. -Before he died a great colony had been planted in Virginia, and a ship -loaded with the products of Virginia had sailed into London port and an -Indian "princess" had married a Virginian and had been received with -honor by the King and Queen of England. - - -=30. The Death of Raleigh.= But the great Elizabeth was dead, and an -unfriendly king, James I, was on the throne. He threw Raleigh into -prison, and kept him there thirteen years. The Spaniards urged the king -to put Raleigh to death. He had been a life-long enemy of Spain and -they knew they were not safe if he lived. - -[Sidenote: =Raleigh bravely meets death=] - -At last Spanish influence was too strong, and Sir Walter faced death on -the scaffold as bravely as he had faced the Spaniards in battle. - -[Illustration: EARLY SETTLEMENTS IN VIRGINIA AND MARYLAND] - - -Thus died a noble man who gave both his fortune and his life for the -purpose of planting an English colony in America. - - -SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL - - =The Leading Facts.= _1._ John Cabot, trying for a short route to - India, discovered what is supposed to be Labrador, or Cape Breton. - _2._ On a second voyage he coasted along eastern North America as - far south as the Carolinas. _3._ Later, England claimed all North - America. _4._ Francis Drake sailed to the Pacific in the _Pelican_ - and then turned northward after the Spanish gold ships. _5._ He - wintered in California, and then started across the Pacific--the - first Englishman to cross. _6._ Drake reached England, and was - received with great joy. _7._ Once more Drake went to fight the - Spaniards, until the Great Armada attacked England. _8._ Walter - Raleigh, a student, a soldier, and a seaman, won the favor of the - queen. _9._ He hated the Spaniards, and planted settlements in what - is now North Carolina. _10._ What was Raleigh's prophecy? - - =Study Questions.= _1._ Tell the story of John Cabot before he came - to England. _2._ What did Cabot want to find when he sailed away - and what did he find? _3._ How was Cabot treated by King Henry VII, - according to a "Citizen of Venice," after he returned? _4._ Why was - little attention given to the new lands by the English? - - _5._ Prove that Spanish and English sailors did not like each - other. _6._ Who was Francis Drake? _7._ What was Magellan after - and what was Drake after? _8._ Find out why Drake renamed his ship - the _Golden Hind_. _9._ Tell the story of Drake's voyage from - Valparaiso to Oregon. _10._ Tell the story of the voyage across the - Pacific and how he was received at home. _11._ What did Drake do - when he missed the "Gold Fleet"? _12._ What did Drake mean when he - said he had "singed the King of Spain's beard"? _13._ What became - of the Spanish Armada, and what effects did its failure produce? - - _14._ What other brave man went to America before the Armada was - destroyed? _15._ Give the early experiences of Raleigh before he - was thirty. _16._ Make a mental picture of the cloak episode. _17._ - Explain how kind the Indians were; how did the English repay the - Indians? _18._ What did the colonists take home with them? _19._ - Who was the first white child of English parents born in America? - _20._ How did the destruction of the Armada affect Englishmen who - wanted to go to America? _21._ Read in other books about Raleigh's - death. _22._ How did the English treatment of the Indians compare - with that of the Spaniards? - - =Suggested Readings.= CABOT: Hart, _Colonial Children_, 7-8; - Griffis, _Romance of Discovery_, 105-111. - - DRAKE: Hart, _Source Book of American History_, 9-11; Hale, - _Stories of Discovery_, 86-106; Frothingham, _Sea Fighters_, 3-44. - - RALEIGH: Hart, _Colonial Children_, 165-170; Pratt, _Early - Colonies_, 33-40; Wright, _Children's Stories in American History_, - 254-258; Higginson, _American Explorers_, 177-200; Bolton, _Famous - Voyagers_, 154-234. - - - - -THE MEN WHO PLANTED NEW FRANCE IN AMERICA, FOUNDED QUEBEC, EXPLORED THE -GREAT LAKE REGION, AND PENETRATED THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY - - - - -SAMUEL DE CHAMPLAIN, THE FATHER OF NEW FRANCE - - -[Sidenote: =Cartier, 1534=] - - -=31. The French in North America.= France was the slowest of the great -nations in the race for North America. Not until 1534 did Jacques -Cartier, a French sea captain searching for a shorter route to India, -sail into the mouth of the St. Lawrence River. He reached an Indian -village where Montreal now stands and took possession of the country -for his king. - -[Sidenote: =Champlain founded Quebec, 1608=] - -One year after Jamestown was settled, and one year before the _Half -Moon_ sailed up the Hudson, Samuel de Champlain laid the foundations of -Quebec (1608). Champlain was of noble birth, and had been a soldier in -the French army. He had already helped found Port Royal in Nova Scotia. - -[Illustration: SAMUEL DE CHAMPLAIN - -_From the portrait painting in Independence Hall, Philadelphia, -Pennsylvania_] - -[Sidenote: =Made friends and foes among the Indians=] - -Wherever he went, Champlain made fast friends with the Algonquin -Indians, who lived along the St. Lawrence. He gave them presents and -bought their skins of beaver and of other animals. In the fur trade -he saw a golden stream flowing into the king's treasury. Champlain -certainly made a good beginning in winning over these Indians, but he -also made one great blunder out of which grew many bitter enemies among -other Indian tribes. - -[Illustration: THE SITE OF QUEBEC - -_Here, 1608, on a narrow belt of land at the foot of the high bluff, -Champlain laid out the city of Quebec_] - -[Sidenote: =An Indian war party=] - - -=32. Champlain and the Indians.= The Algonquins were bitter foes of -the Iroquois or Five Nations. One time they begged Champlain and his -men, clad in steel and armed with the deadly musket, to join their war -party (1609). This he did. They made their way up the St. Lawrence to -the mouth of the Richelieu, and up that river to the falls. The Indians -then carried the canoes and the baggage around the falls. - -[Sidenote: =Discovery of Lake Champlain=] - -What must have been Champlain's feelings when they glided out of the -narrow river into the lake now bearing his name! A lake no white man -had ever seen, and greater than any in his beloved France! On the left -he saw the ridges of the Green Mountains, on the right the pine-clad -slopes of the Adirondacks, the hunting grounds of the hated Iroquois. - -One evening, near where the ruins of Ticonderoga now stand, they saw -the war canoes of their enemies. That night the hostile tribes taunted -each other and boasted of their bravery. On the shores of the lake the -next day they drew up in battle array. The Iroquois chiefs wore tall -plumes on their heads, and their warriors carried shields of wood or -hide. - -[Sidenote: =Why the Iroquois came to hate the French=] - -All at once the Algonquins opened their ranks and Champlain, in full -armor, walked forth. The Iroquois gazed in wonder on the first European -soldier they had ever seen. Champlain leveled his musket and fired. -Two chiefs fell. Then another report rang through the woods, and the -boldest warriors in North America broke and fled in confusion. The -Algonquins, yelling like demons, ran after them, killing and capturing -as many as possible. - -There was great rejoicing among the victors, and Champlain was their -hero. But there must have been great sorrow and vows of revenge among -the Iroquois. - -[Illustration: THE ROUTES FOLLOWED BY CHAMPLAIN] - -[Sidenote: =Champlain and the Algonquins invade the Iroquois country=] - -The next year Champlain joined another Algonquin war party, and helped -win another victory from the Iroquois. Again, in 1615, he joined -a party of more than five hundred fiercely painted warriors. They -traveled to the shore of Lake Ontario and boldly crossed to the other -side in their bark canoes. They hid their boats and then silently -marched into the country of the Iroquois. - -Some miles south of Oneida Lake they came upon a fortified Indian town. -For several days Champlain and his Indians tried to break into or burn -the fort, but had to give it up. These campaigns made the Iroquois hate -the French almost as much as they did the Algonquins. - -[Illustration: THE DEFEAT OF THE IROQUOIS AT LAKE CHAMPLAIN - -_After an engraving of Champlain's published in 1613_] - -[Sidenote: =Iroquois make St. Lawrence unsafe for French=] - -For this reason Frenchmen found it safer to go west by traveling up the -Ottawa River and crossing over to Lake Huron than by paddling up the -St. Lawrence and through lakes Ontario and Erie. The result was that -the French discovered Lake Michigan and Lake Superior long before they -ever saw Lake Erie. On the other hand, we are soon to see how the Dutch -made friends with the Iroquois. - -[Illustration: A FRENCH FUR TRADER ON SNOWSHOES] - -[Sidenote: =Champlain true to king and country=] - -Champlain remained many years in Canada, always working for the good -of New France, as the country was called. He helped on the work of -the missionaries, made peace between hostile tribes of Indians, and -encouraged the fur trade and the coming of new settlers. Worn out with -toil and travel, far away from kindred and native land, Champlain died -at Quebec on Christmas Day, 1635. - - - - -JOLIET AND MARQUETTE, FUR TRADER AND MISSIONARY, EXPLORE THE -MISSISSIPPI VALLEY FOR NEW FRANCE - - -[Sidenote: =Stories of a new country=] - - -=33. French Explorers in the Northwest.= Year after year, traders and -missionaries, returning to Montreal and Quebec from the west, told -strange stories of a great river larger than any the French had yet -seen. In May, 1673, Joliet, a fur trader, and Marquette, a missionary, -were sent out by Count Frontenac, governor of the French settlements in -Canada, to explore this river. - -[Sidenote: =Joliet and Marquette find the Mississippi=] - -With five others they paddled in canoes along the north shore of -Lake Michigan, through Green Bay, up the Fox River, and then crossed -overland to the beautiful Wisconsin. Quietly and rapidly their boats -passed down the Wisconsin until they reached a great valley several -miles in width and a great river. - -Following the current, they passed the mouth of the gently flowing -Illinois, then the rushing and muddy Missouri, the slow and clear Ohio, -and finally, in July, they reached the mouth of the Arkansas. Convinced -that the Mississippi flowed into the Gulf of Mexico, they set out on -the return trip of two thousand miles. - -Joliet reached Quebec in safety, but Marquette fell ill and remained -among the Indians. The next spring while preaching in Illinois near -where Ottawa now stands, he fell ill again, and died. The Indians -showed their love and respect by bearing his remains by canoe to -Mackinac, where he was buried beneath the chapel floor of his own -mission house. - - -SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL - - =The Leading Facts.= _1._ Champlain laid the foundations of New - France at Quebec, and made a treaty with the Indians on the St. - Lawrence. _2._ Joliet and Marquette were sent out from Canada to - explore the Mississippi River. _3._ Joliet returned to tell the - story of their discoveries and Marquette remained among the Indians - in Illinois. - - =Study Questions.= _1._ What part of North America did France - first settle? _2._ Who was Champlain? _3._ Tell the story of his - first battle with the Iroquois. _4._ What things in New France did - Champlain help? _5._ What was Champlain's blunder? _6._ Who were - Joliet and Marquette? _7._ Tell the story of Joliet and Marquette. - _8._ How did they get back to Canada? Near what place in Illinois - did Marquette preach? - - =Suggested Readings.= CHAMPLAIN: Wright, _Children's Stories in - American History_, 269-280; McMurry, _Pioneers on Land and Sea_, - 1-34. - - JOLIET and MARQUETTE: McMurry, _Pioneers of the Mississippi - Valley_, 1-15; Thwaites, _Father Marquette_. - - - - -WHAT THE DUTCH ACCOMPLISHED IN THE COLONIZATION OF THE NEW WORLD - - - - -HENRY HUDSON, WHOSE DISCOVERIES LED DUTCH TRADERS TO COLONIZE NEW -NETHERLAND - - -=34. Hudson's Explorations.= One year after the men of New France had -founded the city of Quebec the Dutch began the colony which became the -Empire State. About the time John Smith was working hard for Jamestown, -his friend Henry Hudson was sailing for some Dutch merchants in search -of a northern sea route to India (1609). - -[Sidenote: =The discovery of the Hudson by the Dutch=] - -One bright fall day Hudson sailed into the mouth of the great river -which now bears his name. He hoped that he had entered the arm of the -sea which might carry him to India. He turned the prow of his vessel, -the _Half Moon_, up stream. - -[Sidenote: =What Hudson and his men saw=] - -Soon the beauty of the river, the rich colors of the great forests, the -steep sides of the palisades, the slopes of the highlands, the strange -Indians in their bark canoes, so took the attention of Hudson and his -crew that, for a time, they forgot all about a route to India. - -[Illustration: HENRY HUDSON - -_From the painting by Count Pulaski in the Aldermanic Chamber of the -City Hall, New York_] - -What a flutter of excitement the _Half Moon_ must have caused among the -Indians! They came on board to give welcome and presents to Hudson and -his men. - -On the return, probably near the present city of Hudson, an old chief -came on board and invited Hudson to visit the little village of wigwams -located on the river. There these Dutchmen saw beautiful meadows, -fields of corn, and gardens of pumpkins, grapes, and plums. - -The chief showed Hudson his palace of bark, and spread a feast of -roasted pigeons and other Indian food before him. In spite of such kind -treatment, Hudson would not stay over night with the Indians, who even -broke their bows and arrows and then threw them into the fire to prove -that they meant no harm to the white man, but Hudson and his men were -still afraid. - -[Sidenote: =Indians kind but Hudson cruel=] - -Indeed, Hudson had every reason to fear the Indians, for he had treated -them badly and his men had even murdered some. In less than a month, -Indian friendship had been turned into Indian hatred. - -The next year Hudson sailed in an English vessel in search of the -long-wished-for passage. On he went, far to the northward, past Iceland -and Greenland, into the great bay which bears his name. In this -desolate region, surrounded by fields of ice and snow, Hudson and his -men spent a fearful winter. - -[Illustration: INDIANS WELCOMING THE "HALF MOON," HUDSON'S SHIP] - -[Sidenote: =Fate of Hudson and his men=] - -In the spring his angry sailors threw him and a few faithful friends -into a boat and sent them adrift. Nothing more was ever heard of them. -In Irving's "Rip Van Winkle" the story tells of nightly scenes in the -Catskills in which the ghosts of Hudson and his friends were the actors. - -[Sidenote: =A trading post on Manhattan=] - - -=35. Dutch Traders and the Indians.= Just as soon as the news of -Hudson's first voyage reached Holland, the Dutch merchants claimed all -the region explored by Hudson and his men and hastened to open up trade -with the Indians. As early as 1614 a trading post was established on -Manhattan Island--the beginning of a great city, New York. - -Other posts were soon located: one up the Hudson became Fort Orange, -another on the Delaware was named Fort Nassau, and a fourth was placed -where Jersey City now stands. Later the Dutch traders went as far east -as the Connecticut Valley. - -[Sidenote: =A lasting Indian treaty=] - -The Dutchmen treated the Indians kindly and early made a great treaty -with the Iroquois, or Five Nations. The chiefs of many tribes came to -Fort Orange dressed for the event. Their bows and arrows and tomahawks -were decorated, their garments tasseled and fringed, and on their -heads they wore nodding plumes of many sorts, while their faces were -hideous with paint. A peace belt of deer skin covered with beads was -held at one end by the chiefs and at the other by the Dutch traders. -They "smoked the pipe of peace, buried the tomahawk," and made vows of -everlasting friendship. - -[Sidenote: =The Indians liked the Dutch=] - -[Sidenote: =The fur trade=] - -The Indians liked the Dutch, who often visited them in their wigwams -and sat around their camp fires. The fur trade grew rapidly. The -Indians hunted and trapped as never before. They paddled up the Hudson, -and crossed over to lakes George and Champlain. They went up the Mohawk -far beyond where Schenectady now is, plunged deeper into the unbroken -forests, and even climbed the mountains in search of fur-coated -animals. The favorite fur-bearing animal was the beaver. Besides, the -otter, mink, and weasel were hunted. - -[Illustration: THE TREATY BETWEEN THE DUTCH AND THE INDIANS AT FORT -ORANGE] - - -When the fur pack was made up the dusky hunters from every direction -made their way to the nearest trading post. There they traded their -furs for guns, powder, and ball, and for whatever else the white trader -had that pleased Indian fancy. Great Dutch ships came every year to -carry to Amsterdam and other Dutch cities rich cargoes of furs. - -[Sidenote: =Peter Minuit bought Manhattan Island for twenty-four -dollars=] - - -=36. The Settlement of New Netherland.= Already a great company of -Amsterdam merchants were sending settlers, as well as fur traders, to -the new colony, which now was called New Netherland. Peter Minuit, the -first governor, bought the island of Manhattan from the Indians for -twenty-four dollars' worth of glass beads and other trinkets, built a -town of log cabins on the end of the island, and named it New Amsterdam. - -[Illustration: THE HOME OF A PATROON - -_The old Van Rensselaer House at Greenbush, New York_] - -But settlers did not come rapidly enough, so the company offered its -members large tracts of land and the title of "patroon" or "patron," -on the condition that they plant colonies at their own expense. Each -patroon was to govern the people on his own land. - -[Illustration: THE SALE OF MANHATTAN TO THE DUTCH - -_Peter Minuit, who made the trade with the Indians, is known as the -founder of New York City_] - -[Sidenote: =The patroons and their way of living=] - -The greatest of the patroons was Van Rensselaer, whose plantation -in the region of Fort Orange included one thousand square miles. The -farmers and servants on these plantations looked upon the patroon as -being much above them in authority and social position. - -[Illustration: CHILD'S CHAIR AND CRADLE - -_Furniture used by the patroons_] - -Every year the farmers and their families came with their wagons filled -with what they had raised to pay the patroon for the use of the land. -He set them a great feast, and there was merrymaking all day long. - -[Sidenote: =A wicked Indian war=] - -The growth of New Netherland attracted bad men as well as good men. -Some mean traders robbed and murdered a number of Indians not of the -Five Nations. The Indians robbed and murdered in return. War broke out, -and before it ended many settlements were broken up, and hundreds of -settlers killed. - -Parties of Indians roved day and night over Manhattan Island, killing -the Dutch even in sight of Fort Amsterdam. The people blamed their -governor, Kieft, and threatened to arrest him and send him to Holland. -He finally made peace with the Indians just before the new governor -arrived. - - -SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL - - =The Leading Facts.= _1._ Henry Hudson, searching for a shorter - route to India, discovered the river which now bears his name. _2._ - Dutch traders built trading posts throughout the region, made a - treaty with the Indians, purchased Manhattan Island, and built the - town of New Amsterdam. - - =Study Questions.= _1._ Tell the story of Henry Hudson and the - _Half Moon_. _2._ What was the fate of Hudson? _3._ When was a - trading post planted on Manhattan? _4._ Make a mental picture of - the treaty with the Indians. _5._ How did the Dutch treatment of - the Indians compare with the Spanish? _6._ What three things did - Peter Minuit do? _7._ Who were the patroons? - - =Suggested Readings.= HUDSON: Williams, _Stories from Early New - York History_, 1-4, 32-36; Wright, _Children's Stories in American - History_, 292-299; Griffis, _Romance of Discovery_, 233-245. - - - - -FAMOUS PEOPLE IN EARLY VIRGINIA - - - - -JOHN SMITH THE SAVIOR OF VIRGINIA, AND POCAHONTAS ITS GOOD ANGEL - - -=37. The First Permanent English Settlement.= Raleigh had made it -impossible for Englishmen to forget America. They sent out ships every -year to trade with the Indians. In 1606 a great company was formed of -London merchants and other rich men to plant a colony in Virginia. - -[Illustration: THE SITE OF JAMESTOWN - -_After a drawing made early in the nineteenth century by an English -traveler, Catherine C. Hopley_] - -[Sidenote: =Raleigh's wish comes true=] - -King James gave them a charter, ministers preached sermons about -Virginia, and poets sang her praises. At Christmas time one of -Raleigh's old sea captains, Newport, sailed with a colony of more than -one hundred settlers. They went by way of the West Indies, and the -Spaniards, although watching, did not dare to attack them. - -[Illustration: JOHN SMITH - -_From an engraving made by Simon van Pass, in 1614, on the margin of -Smith's map of "New England" in "A Description of New England." This -shows him at the age of thirty-seven_] - -[Sidenote: =Jamestown settled, 1607=] - -In the spring, when Virginia is in her gayest dress, the ships sailed -up Chesapeake Bay into the James River, and landed on a peninsula. Here -they began to plant Jamestown, named in honor of their king, the first -permanent English settlement in the New World. - -[Sidenote: =Settlers still hunt for gold=] - -They first built a fort to protect them from any attacks of Indians -and Spaniards. But most of the settlers wanted to get rich quick, go -back to England, and spend the rest of their days in ease. Therefore, -instead of building comfortable houses and raising something to eat, -they spent their time in searching for gold. - -The result was that most of them fell sick and food grew scarce. -Within a few months more than half of the settlers were dead, and the -others were discouraged and homesick. Would this colony fail, too, as -Raleigh's colony had? - - -=38. John Smith.= There was one man, however, in the colony who could -make Jamestown a success. He bore the plain name of John Smith. But he -was no common man. John Smith had already had as wonderful adventures -as the knights of old. - -[Sidenote: =John Smith, a soldier=] - -While yet a young man he went to the land of dikes and windmills to -help the brave Hollanders fight against the Spaniards. But he grew -tired of seeing Christians fighting one another, and resolved to go -and fight the Turks. On his way he was robbed in France and left half -dead in a great forest, but was rescued and made his way to the sea. -Then he sailed with a colony of pilgrims going to the Holy Land. After -many adventures John Smith found himself in eastern Europe. He was made -captain of a troop of cavalry and was soon fighting the Turks. In three -hand-to-hand combats, Captain Smith slew his enemies, cut off their -heads, and presented them to his commander. - -[Sidenote: =Smith wins a queer coat of arms=] - -The Christian army looked on Smith as a hero, and the ruler of the land -gave him a shield with three Turks' heads painted on it as a coat of -arms. The Turks afterwards captured Smith and made a slave of him. His -master's cruelty was so great that Smith slew him, mounted his horse, -and rode away to Russia. He finally returned to England in time to -talk with Captain Newport about America. Just such a man was needed in -founding Jamestown. - -[Sidenote: =Fails to gain his position but works instead of sulking=] - -The king had made Smith an officer of the new colony, but the other -officers would not permit him to take part in governing Virginia. John -Smith was not a man to sulk and idle his time away, but resolved to do -something useful, by visiting the Indians and gathering food for the -colony. - -[Sidenote: =Taken prisoner by the Indians=] - -While on an expedition up the Chickahominy, Smith's party was attacked -by two hundred Indians. Smith seized his Indian guide, tied him in -front for a shield, and with his gun was able to hold the Indians at -bay until he fell into a swamp and had to surrender. - -He immediately showed the red men his ivory pocket compass. They saw -the little needle tremble on its pivot, but could not touch it. He -wrote a letter to Jamestown. An Indian took it and returned with the -articles asked for in the letter. This was still more mysterious than -the compass. - -[Illustration: SMITH SHOWING HIS POCKET COMPASS TO THE INDIANS] - -[Sidenote: =Smith learns how Indians live=] - -The Indians marched him from one village to another to show off their -prisoner. This gave Smith a chance to learn a great deal about the -Indians. Some of them lived in houses made of the bark and branches of -trees; others had rude huts to shelter them. Now and then a wigwam was -seen large enough to hold several families. - -The Indian warriors painted their bodies to make themselves look -fierce. They carried bows and arrows and clubs as weapons, for they -had no guns at that time. The men did the hunting and fighting, but -in other things they were lazy. The Indian women not only cared for -the children, did the cooking, and made the clothes, but also gathered -wood, tilled the soil, and built the wigwams. The Indian wife was the -warrior's drudge. - -[Sidenote: =An Indian council tries Smith=] - -Smith saw a more wonderful sight still, when he was led to the village -where lived Powhatan. The old chief had prepared a real surprise for -this Englishman. Powhatan, tall, gaunt, and grim, was wrapped in a robe -of raccoon skins. He sat upon a bench before the wigwam fire. His -wives sat at his side. Along the walls stood a row of women with faces -and shoulders painted bright red, and with chains of white shells about -their necks. In front of the women stood Powhatan's fierce warriors. -This council of Indians was to decide the fate of Smith. - -[Illustration: AN INDIAN WARRIOR] - -[Sidenote: =Smith's rescue by Pocahontas=] - -Two big stones were rolled in front of Powhatan, and a number of -powerful warriors sprang upon Smith, dragged him to the stones, and -forced his head upon one of them. As the warriors stood, clubs in hand, -ready to slay Smith, Pocahontas, the beautiful twelve-year-old daughter -of Powhatan, rushed forward, threw her arms around the prisoner, and -begged for his life. - -Pocahontas had her way. Powhatan adopted Smith as a son and set him to -making toys for the little maid. This was strange work for the man who -had fought the Spaniards and slain the Turks, and who was to save a -colony. This story is doubted by some people, but is believed by many -good historians. - -[Sidenote: =Pocahontas proves a friend in need=] - -After a time Smith returned to Jamestown only to find the settlers -facing starvation, and the officers planning to escape to England -in the colony's only vessels. He promptly arrested the leaders and -restored order. In a few days a band of Indians, led by Pocahontas, -entered the fort. They were loaded down with baskets of corn. - -The fear of starvation was now gone, because every few days the little -maiden came with food for the settlers. Ever afterwards they called her -"the dear blessed Pocahontas." She was the good angel of the colony. - -[Sidenote: =Powhatan refuses to give any more corn=] - -When winter came on, Smith resolved to secure another supply of corn. -But Powhatan had noticed the increase of settlers and the building -of more houses. He feared that his people might be driven from their -hunting grounds. Smith knew that Powhatan's women had raised plenty of -corn, so immediately sailed up the river to the old chief's village. - -[Sidenote: =Pocahontas shows her friendship=] - -Powhatan bluntly told Smith he could have no corn unless he would give -a good English sword for each basketful. Smith promptly refused, and -compelled the Indians to carry the corn on board his boat. That very -night, at the risk of her life, Pocahontas stole through the woods to -tell Smith of her father's plot to kill his men. They kept close watch -all night, and next morning sailed safely away. - -But Smith needed still more corn, and stopped at another Indian town. -Suddenly he found himself and his men surrounded by several hundred -Indian warriors. A moment's delay, and all would have been over. Smith -rushed into the chief's wigwam, seized him by the scalp-lock, dragged -him out before his astonished warriors, pointed a pistol at his breast, -and demanded corn. He got it; and the English sailed back to Jamestown -with three hundred bushels of corn on board. - -[Sidenote: =Smith induces the settlers to go to work=] - -[Sidenote: =Industry brings contentment=] - -When spring came Smith resolved that the settlers must go to work. He -called them together and made a speech declaring that "he that will not -work shall not eat. You shall not only gather for yourself, but for -those that are sick. They shall not starve." The people in the colony -not only planted more grain, but repaired the fort and built more and -better houses. Thus they grew happier and more contented with their -home in the Virginia woods. - -[Sidenote: =Smith returns to England=] - -Unfortunately for the colony, Smith was wounded so badly by an -explosion of gunpowder that he had to return to England for medical -treatment. The settlers again fell into idleness after he left, and -many of them died. Still the colony had gained such a foothold that it -was strong enough to live. - -Some years later, Smith sailed to America again, explored the coast -from Penobscot Bay to Cape Cod, drew a map of it, and named the region -New England. This was his last visit to America. - - -=39. Pocahontas.= After John Smith left, Pocahontas did not visit the -English any more. One time she was seized by an Englishman, put on -board a vessel, and carried weeping to Jamestown. - -Before long an English settler, John Rolfe, fell in love with her and -she with him. What should they do? Did not this beautiful maiden of -eighteen years have a strange religion? But she was anxious to learn -about the white man's religion, so the minister at Jamestown baptized -her and gave her the Christian name of Rebecca. - -[Illustration: JAMESTOWN BAPTISMAL FONT - -_From this font, now in Bruton Parish Church, Va., it is said -Pocahontas was baptized_] - -The wedding took place in the little wooden church. No doubt it was -made bright with the wild flowers of Virginia and that all the settlers -crowded to see the strange event. Powhatan gave his consent, but would -not come to the wedding himself. But we may be sure that the sisters -and brothers and the Indian friends of Pocahontas were there. - -[Sidenote: =Pocahontas marries John Rolfe=] - -[Illustration: THE MARRIAGE OF ROLFE AND POCAHONTAS - -_After the painting by Henry Brueckner_] - -[Sidenote: =Settlers and Indians become good friends=] - -It was a happy day in Jamestown, for all the people, white and red, -loved Pocahontas. The marriage of Pocahontas and John Rolfe was taken -to mean the uniting of the Indians and settlers by ties of peace and -friendship. For several years white men and red men lived as good -neighbors. Rolfe took Pocahontas to England, where she was received -"as the daughter of a king." The fine people, lords and ladies, called -on her; and the king and queen received her at court as if she were a -princess of the royal blood. - -[Sidenote: =Lady Rebecca treated like a princess=] - -How different the rich clothes, the carriages, and the high feasting -from her simple life in the woods of Virginia! Here, too, she met her -old friend, John Smith. He called her "Lady Rebecca," as did everybody. -But the memory of other days and other scenes came before her mind. She -covered her face with her hands for a moment, and then said he must -call her "child," and that she would call him "father." Smith must have -thought of the days when she brought corn to Jamestown to feed his -starving people. - -[Sidenote: =Pocahontas dies in England=] - -When about to sail for her native land, Pocahontas became ill and died -(1617). Her son, Thomas Rolfe, was educated in England by his father's -brother, but later he returned to the land of his mother. He became the -ancestor of many noted Virginians; among these the best known was the -famous orator and statesman, John Randolph of Roanoke. - -[Illustration: POCAHONTAS - -_After the engraved portrait by Simon van Pass, known as the Bootan -Hall portrait and now at Scalthorpe Hall, Norfolk_] - -So ended the life of one who had indeed been a good and true friend -of the people of Virginia. Her name, Pocahontas, meant "Bright Stream -between Two Hills." - - - - -LORD BALTIMORE, IN A PART OF VIRGINIA, FOUNDS MARYLAND AS A HOME FOR -PERSECUTED CATHOLICS (1634) AND WELCOMES PROTESTANTS - - -[Sidenote: =Religious disputes drove people to America=] - - -=40. A Colony of Catholics and Protestants.= When the people of England -began to change their religion, some became Puritans, others members of -the English Church, and still others Catholics. Great disputes arose -among the religious sects. There was much persecution. To escape this, -many English people fled to the New World. The Puritans settled in New -England, and the Cavalier members of the English Church found new -homes in Virginia. - -George Calvert desired to find a home for his people, the Catholics. -He had studied at Oxford University, and had been secretary to one of -Queen Elizabeth's great statesmen. When James I became king, he made -Calvert Baron of Baltimore. - -[Sidenote: =Charles I gives Baltimore a part of Virginia=] - -His successor, Charles I, was also Baltimore's friend, and when the -latter asked the king for permission to found a colony of Catholics in -America, Charles gave him the whole of what is now Maryland. He also -declared that the colony should bear the name of Maryland in honor of -his queen, Henrietta Maria. - -[Sidenote: =All permitted to worship as they pleased=] - -Lord Baltimore immediately began to gather a colony of emigrants. He -welcomed Protestants as well as Catholics, for it was decided that in -the colony of Maryland all Christians were to have the same rights. -Very few nations in the world at that time permitted people to worship -as they pleased. - -Lord Baltimore died before the expedition was ready, and according to -the custom of England, Cecil Calvert, his eldest son, fell heir to his -estate and titles. The new Lord Baltimore sent more than three hundred -persons in two ships, the _Ark_ and the _Dove_. The long voyage had a -happy ending; the immigrants reached the mouth of the Potomac in the -springtime, when Maryland is at the height of its beauty (1634). - -[Sidenote: =The Indians are friendly=] - -Governor Calvert, in the _Dove_, sailed up the Potomac. He decided to -locate his little village, which was to be called St. Mary's, on land -occupied by the Indians. He paid for the land on which the wigwams and -cornfields stood, and the Indians invited the settlers to live with -them until their log cabins could be built. This good feeling lasted a -long time, and these settlers escaped the savage wars from which many -of the colonists suffered in the early days. - -[Sidenote: =Annapolis founded=] - -Many Puritans came into Maryland and settled a town afterwards named -Annapolis. A number of interesting events took place there in the early -days. Later the city became the home of the famous training school for -the American navy, the United States Naval Academy. - -[Illustration: GOVERNOR CALVERT LOCATING THE VILLAGE OF ST. MARY'S] - -Once Baltimore's authority was taken away because there were some -disputes with a Virginian high in authority. The Puritans joined him -and overthrew Baltimore's rule. Later, however, his authority was -restored and religious freedom reëstablished. - -[Sidenote: =Baltimore settled=] - -Baltimore, named after the founder of the colony, and afterward the -most important town of Maryland, was settled in 1720. - - - - -INDUSTRIES, MANNERS, AND CUSTOMS OF FIRST SETTLERS OF VIRGINIA - - -[Sidenote: =The Jamestown colony prospers=] - - -=41. How the Virginia Colonists Lived.= After the first hardships the -colony grew and prospered. Ships continued to bring settlers from -England and other countries of Europe. In a few years the little -settlement at Jamestown was surrounded on all sides by newly cleared -farms. - -[Sidenote: =The planters grow rich=] - -To any one living to-day the old colony would seem strange indeed. -There were practically no towns; almost every one lived on a large -farm, called a plantation. On these plantations were great fields of -tobacco, whose broad leaves in summer almost concealed the ground. Here -and there a field of corn could be seen, but little else was grown. -After a time the owners, or planters, built themselves great houses -and kept an army of servants to grow the crops and do the work about -the house. The planters did no work with their hands, but looked after -their estates and enjoyed such pleasures as hunting and horseback -riding. Many of these old places were the scenes of brilliant dinners -and balls at which the fine ladies and gentlemen of the colony gathered. - -[Sidenote: =Negro slaves are brought to Virginia=] - -Many poor people in England wanted to come to America, but had no -money. To pay for the cost of bringing them over, these people were -forced to work for the planters, often for six years or more. During -this time they were almost slaves, but at the end of their service they -became free. Then negroes were brought from Africa, and soon most of -the work was done by black slaves. - -Tobacco supported the colony and made the planters wealthy. It bought -the food, clothes, and luxuries, and paid the taxes. It was even used -as money, and people reckoned the value of an article in pounds of -tobacco, as we do in dollars and cents. Most of the crop was shipped -to England. The plantations lay along creeks or rivers up which boats -could sail from the sea. When the tobacco was cured, it was packed in -hogsheads, which were then rolled on board ship. - -[Sidenote: =A famous robber and trader=] - - -=42. Blackbeard the Pirate.= The streams on which the planters shipped -their goods also served as hiding places for pirates. When these sea -robbers had plundered a ship on the open sea, they would hide away in a -bend of one of the wooded streams. Most famous of these lawless men was -Blackbeard. For years his very name was a terror to sailors along the -coast. He plundered scores of merchant ships before he was run down and -captured. - - -SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL - - =The Leading Facts.= _1._ London merchants carried out Raleigh's - idea by planting a colony in Virginia. _2._ John Smith saved - the colony by putting the settlers to work, by trading with - the Indians, and by winning the friendship of Pocahontas. _3._ - Lord Baltimore, a Catholic, got permission to plant a colony in - Virginia; he named it Maryland, and the first settlement, St. - Mary's. _4._ Protestants as well as Catholics were welcomed in the - new colony. _5._ Negroes were brought to Virginia as slaves. - - =Study Questions.= _1._ How long did it take Captain Newport to - reach Virginia? _2._ How long does it take a ship to cross the - Atlantic now? _3._ Why were the settlers afraid of the Indians and - Spaniards? _4._ Why did the Virginia settlers hunt for gold instead - of raising something to eat? _5._ What did Smith learn about the - Indians? _6._ Show how Pocahontas was a friend of the colony. _7._ - Tell the story of George Calvert, Lord Baltimore. _8._ How was the - colony different from that at Jamestown? _9._ Picture the settlers - at St. Mary's. _10._ What town did the Puritans establish? _11._ - When was the richest and most important town in Maryland settled, - and after whom was it named? _12._ Why were slaves brought to - Virginia? _13._ Tell the story of Blackbeard. - - =Suggested Readings.= SMITH: McMurry, _Pioneers on Land and - Sea_, 68-102; Hart, _Source Book_, 33-37; Higginson, _American - Explorers_, 231-246. - - BALTIMORE: Pratt, _Early Colonies_, 132-137; Smith and Dutton, _The - Colonies_, 39-50; Sparks, _American Biography_, 5-229. - - - - -PILGRIMS AND PURITANS IN NEW ENGLAND - - - - -MILES STANDISH, THE PILGRIM SOLDIER, AND THE STORY OF "PLYMOUTH ROCK" - - -[Sidenote: =They board the "Speedwell"=] - -[Sidenote: =The Pilgrims' dearest country=] - - -=43. The Pilgrims.= Persecuted for their religion in England, the -Pilgrims first went to Holland. There they wandered from place to -place, finally settling in the city of Leiden. But they saw that they -could not keep their own language and customs among the Dutch, so they -decided to go to America and found a colony of their own. John Carver, -William Bradford, William Brewster, and Edward Winslow were the leaders -of the little band that had chosen to go on the long and dangerous -journey. The parting was sad. Eyes were wet with weeping and voices -were choked with sorrow as the last words were spoken before going on -board the _Speedwell_. Even the Dutch bystanders were moved to tears. -Listen to the words of Bradford: "So they left that goodly and pleasant -city which had been their resting place nearly twelve years; but they -knew they were Pilgrims, and looked not much on those things, but -lifted up their eyes to the heavens, their dearest country, and quieted -their spirits." - -The _Speedwell_ carried them across to England, where they found the -_Mayflower_. - -[Sidenote: =The "Mayflower" carried the Pilgrims to America=] - -In August, 1620, the two ships spread their sails for America. Twice -they were forced to return--once after they had sailed three hundred -miles--because the _Speedwell_ was leaking, and her captain declared -she would sink before reaching America. - -[Sidenote: =Storms did not drive them back=] - -Finally the _Mayflower_, with one hundred two Pilgrims on board, -started alone. Not many days passed before great storms overtook her. -The waves rolled over her deck and threatened to swallow her. For many -days the passengers had to spend nearly all the time below deck, not -knowing what moment would be their last. Strained by the storm, the -_Mayflower_ also began to leak, but the stout-hearted Pilgrims would -not turn back. - -[Illustration: EMBARKATION OF THE PILGRIM FATHERS - -_After the original painting by Charles West Cope_] - -[Sidenote: =How they missed the Hudson=] - -[Sidenote: =Signing the compact=] - - -=44. Landing of the Pilgrims in America.= For days at a time, during -the storm, the ship could not use her sails and was driven far out of -her course, to the northward. The Pilgrims had intended to land near -the mouth of the Hudson, but on November 20, 1620, the little band of -exiles found themselves looking with glad hearts upon the sandy but -heavily-wooded shores of Cape Cod. How they poured out their hearts in -gratitude that they had crossed the stormy sea in safety! The men all -gathered in the little cabin of the _Mayflower_ to sign a compact or an -agreement in regard to the government of the colony. Then they elected -John Carver their first governor. - -[Illustration: THE "MAYFLOWER" AND THE "SPEEDWELL" IN DARTMOUTH HARBOR - -_It was to this harbor the Pilgrims returned to repair the leak in the -"Speedwell"_] - -Everybody was now anxious to get on shore. Captain Miles Standish, with -an exploring party of sixteen men, each armed with a sword and a musket -and equipped with a corselet, waded ashore through the ice-cold water -and disappeared in the dark forest in search of a good place to plant -the colony. - -[Sidenote: =Miles Standish and his men explore the region=] - -For three days they tramped through forests, up and down hills, and -along the sandy coast, but found no suitable place. They found springs, -however, and ponds of fresh water, and some Indian mounds containing -stores of corn. What should they do, take the corn, or leave it and run -the risk of starvation? They decided to take only enough to plant in -the spring. They afterwards paid the owners double for what they had -taken. - -[Sidenote: =They learn to set snares=] - -Everywhere they saw flocks of wild fowl, good for food, and the tracks -of wild deer. While Bradford was examining an Indian snare set for game -he found himself suddenly swinging by one leg in the air. They had a -hearty laugh, and learned a new lesson in the art of catching game! - -[Illustration: READING THE COMPACT ON BOARD THE "MAYFLOWER"] - -[Sidenote: =Their first Indian battle=] - -Twice again Standish led his little company to search out a place. On -the third trip, as they were at breakfast, their ears were suddenly -filled with the most fearful shouts. A shower of arrows fell near them. -It was an Indian attack. Captain Standish and his men seized their guns -and fired at the red men as fast as they could. Happily, the Indians, -frightened by the roar and smoke of English muskets, ran away before -any one was killed on either side. - -[Sidenote: =Plymouth Harbor chosen=] - -[Sidenote: ="Plymouth Rock"=] - -On this trip they found the harbor of Plymouth, which John Smith had -explored and named several years before. Its shore was now to become -their home. They immediately hastened back to the ship to tell the -good news, and in a few days the _Mayflower_ carried the Pilgrims into -Plymouth Harbor. The little party landed on December 21, 1620, and -that day is still celebrated as "Forefathers' Day." The story is that -when they landed they stepped on a large stone--a bowlder, itself a -"pilgrim"--brought there by the mighty ice sheet ages ago. This bowlder -is called "Plymouth Rock," and may still be seen in Plymouth. - - -=45. Their Home in the Forest.= Although it was winter, the men -immediately began to chop down trees and build a great log storehouse -which could be used for a hospital and for worship. - -[Sidenote: =Building a town in the woods=] - -Then they began building their own homes. They cut down the trees, -sawed off the logs, hewed them roughly, and then dragged them by hand -to the place where the house was to stand. When the logs were ready the -men lifted them up by hand, or when the walls grew too high for lifting -they slid them up "skids." - -The roof was made of boards which had been split from logs of wood. -These were held in place by smaller logs. The wind and rain were kept -out by "chinking" or daubing the cracks between the logs with mortar. -The windows were few and small, for they had no glass and used oiled -skins instead. - -This first winter in America was the saddest the Pilgrims had ever -seen. Their storehouse was turned into a hospital. They had been used -to the gentler winters of England and Holland. Before the warm days -of spring came, one half of the little band had perished, among them -Governor Carver. But the Pilgrims bore brave hearts, and not a man or -woman among those left went back to England when the _Mayflower_ sailed. - -[Sidenote: =True courage=] - - -=46. Friendship with the Indians.= Brave Miles Standish kept his little -army--what was left of it--ready for any danger. He built a fort on a -hill, and mounted the cannon brought over in the _Mayflower_. - -[Illustration: MILES STANDISH - -_From a portrait now in possession of Mrs. A. M. Harrison, Plymouth_] - -[Sidenote: =Samoset introduces them to the Indians=] - -But the Indians were not so bad after all, for had it not been for -them, the Pilgrims would have had a much harder time. One day while the -leaders were talking over military affairs, they saw a fine-looking -Indian coming toward them. He called out in the English language, -"Welcome! Welcome!" This was a double surprise. The Indian was Samoset, -who had already saved the lives of two white men taken by the Indians. - -In a few days Samoset brought other Indians, dressed in deer and -panther skins. They made the Pilgrims think of gypsies seen in Holland. -Their long black hair was braided and ornamented with feathers and -foxtails. They sang and danced for the Pilgrims. - -[Sidenote: =Massasoit visits the Pilgrims=] - -When Samoset came again, he brought Squanto, an Indian who had been -captured and carried to London, and who could speak English. They gave -the news that the great Indian chief, Massasoit, was coming to visit -his strange neighbors. - -A messenger was sent to welcome him and to give him presents. -Massasoit, and twenty other Indians without bows and arrows, were met -by Captain Standish, and escorted into the presence of Bradford, the -longtime governor of Plymouth. They agreed not to harm each other, and -to be friends forever. - -[Sidenote: =What the Pilgrims learned from Squanto=] - -Squanto taught the Pilgrims many new things. He showed them how to -raise corn by putting dead fish in the hill when planting corn, how to -hoe the corn while growing, and how to pound the corn to make meal. -Indian corn proved to be the Pilgrims' best food crop. - -[Illustration: POUNDING CORN TO MAKE MEAL] - -They had no means of fishing, but Squanto taught them how to catch eels -by wading into shallow water, and treading them out with their feet. -From the Indians the white men also learned how to make Indian shoes or -moccasins, and snowshoes, birch-bark canoes, and other useful things. - -[Illustration: INDIANS TEACHING THE PILGRIMS HOW TO CATCH EELS] - - -The first summer was now over and the Pilgrims' first harvest had -been gathered. Their houses had been repaired, and the health of the -settlers was good. Fish and wild game were plentiful. They decided that -the time for rejoicing and thanksgiving had also come, and invited -Massasoit and his warriors to join them in the celebration. - -[Illustration: GOVERNOR CARVER'S LAMP] - -[Sidenote: =The first American Thanksgiving=] - -For three days the games, military movements, feastings, and rejoicing -went on, and at the end the Pilgrims and Indians were better friends -than before. This was the beginning of our custom of having a day of -thanksgiving each year. - -[Sidenote: =More Pilgrims from Holland and England=] - -For a whole year the Pilgrims had not heard a word from the great world -across the sea. How eager they must have been for just one word from -their old homes! One day the Indians sent runners to tell them that a -ship was in sight. The cannon boomed on the hilltop. Captain Standish -and his men ran for their guns and stood ready to defend the colony -against Spaniards or French. But it was a ship with news and friends -from Leiden and England. - -After a few weeks this ship returned to England loaded with furs, -clapboards, and sassafras to pay those English merchants who had -furnished the Pilgrims the _Mayflower_ to bring them to America. - -[Illustration: WEDDING SLIPPER WORN BY A MAYFLOWER BRIDE] - -[Sidenote: =An Indian's challenge to war=] - -An Indian chief, not far away, decided that he would rather fight with -the Englishmen than be friendly with them. So he sent a bundle of -arrows, wrapped in a rattlesnake's skin, to the governor of Plymouth. -Squanto told the Pilgrims that this was an Indian's challenge to war. - -[Sidenote: =Bradford's answer=] - -The Pilgrims were men of peace, but they were not cowards. Governor -Bradford filled the skin with powder and shot and sent it back to the -hostile chief. But the Indians would not touch it and the chief would -not permit it to be left in his wigwam an hour, but sent it from place -to place, until it again reached Plymouth. - -Thus the Pilgrims went on year by year, living in peace when they -could, but fighting when they must. Every year or so new settlers came -from their old homes, and the colony grew slowly, but steadily. - -[Sidenote: =The Pilgrims the most famous of all the Puritans in -America=] - -After a few years the new King of England was so hard upon the Puritans -in England that thousands of them followed the example of the Pilgrims -and came to America, and planted many other colonies in New England. -But none have held so warm a place in the hearts of Americans as the -little band brought to the New World by the _Mayflower_. - - - - -JOHN WINTHROP, THE FOUNDER OF BOSTON; JOHN ELIOT, THE GREAT ENGLISH -MISSIONARY; AND KING PHILIP, AN INDIAN CHIEF THE EQUAL OF THE WHITE MAN - - -[Sidenote: =Colony at Salem=] - - -=47. The Puritans.= While the Pilgrims were planting their home on -the lonely American shore, the Puritans in England were being cruelly -persecuted by Charles I. So great became their sufferings and dangers -that the Puritan leaders decided to go to America, where they could -worship as they pleased. Charles I, fortunately, gave them a very good -charter. But even before this, some of the Puritans had already planted -a colony at Salem. - -[Sidenote: =John Winthrop founded Boston, 1630=] - - -=48. John Winthrop.= The Puritan leaders elected John Winthrop governor -of the new colony. In the spring of 1630, nearly ten years after the -_Mayflower_ sailed, more than seven hundred Puritans, in eleven ships, -bade good-by to their beautiful English homes, crossed the ocean, and -settled in what is now Boston. - -John Winthrop, the leader and governor of the Colony of Massachusetts -Bay, the name given to the Salem and Boston settlements, was then about -forty years old, and had been in college at Cambridge, in England. He -was a man of high social position. - -[Illustration: JOHN WINTHROP - -_From a portrait painted by John Singleton Copley; reproduced by -permission of the trustees of Harvard University_] - -[Sidenote: =What the Puritans gave up=] - -The Puritans who came with Winthrop were people of property, and -not only parted from friends and kindred when they came to the wild -shores of America, but both men and women gave up lives of comfort and -pleasure for lives of suffering and hardship. In America, the men had -to cut down trees, work in the fields, and fight Indians. Only brave -men and women act in this way. But no one among them gave up more or -was willing to suffer more than their leader. The people elected him -governor almost every year until his death, in 1649. - -[Sidenote: =Character of Winthrop=] - -John Winthrop was a firm man with many noble qualities, and not once, -while governor, did he do anything merely to please the people if he -thought it wrong. - -When a leading man in the colony sent him a bitter letter, he returned -it saying that he did not wish to keep near him so great a cause of -ill feeling. This answer made the writer Winthrop's friend. When food -was scarce in the colony, Winthrop divided his last bit of bread with -the poor, and worked with his laborers in the fields. - -[Sidenote: =Many new towns in Massachusetts=] - -While Winthrop was ruling the colony, hundreds of settlers came and -settled many other towns around Boston, and the Massachusetts Bay -Colony grew large in the number of its people. Later the old Plymouth -Colony was united with it to form one colony. But these settlers did -not always agree, especially in regard to religion and government. - -[Illustration: THE NEW ENGLAND SETTLEMENTS] - - - - -JOHN ELIOT, A SUCCESSFUL MISSIONARY TO THE INDIANS - - -[Sidenote: =Eliot translates the Bible=] - - -=49. John Eliot.= The treatment of the Indians by the colonists was -generally just and kind. Trading with the white man had brought the -Indians better food and clothing. Schools were being set up to give -them some of the white man's education, and many preachers tried to -teach them to become Christians. One man who spent his whole life in -this work was John Eliot. His first care was to learn the language of -the Indians of Massachusetts. He succeeded so well that he was able to -translate the entire Bible into the Indian language and to preach to -the Indians in their native tongue. - -The converts that he made he gathered together into communities which -settled near the English towns. These converts were taught how to build -themselves log cabins and to live and dress like the English. The -principal village established by Eliot was at Natick, Massachusetts. -Others quickly followed Eliot's example, and several other Christian -Indian villages sprang up. These communities flourished, and in a few -years Eliot could count as many as four thousand converts among the -Indians of Massachusetts. - -Eliot continued to preach until his death in 1690. Even the fierce King -Philip's War could not check his success. - - - - -KING PHILIP, INDIAN CHIEF AND HATER OF WHITE MEN - - -[Sidenote: =The Indians are persecuted=] - - -=50. King Philip.= After the death of old Massasoit the friendship -between Pilgrims and Indians soon came to an end. More and more white -settlers came in and built homes. The Indians began to fear that they -would be crowded out of the country which belonged to them and to their -fathers before them. No longer were they treated with respect as at -first. They were a proud people, and grew bitter because they saw that -they were despised. - -One of the proudest of the race was Philip, son of Massasoit and ruler -of his people. Several times the governor of Plymouth forced him to -do things against his will. This hurt the pride of Philip, and he -began to hate the English. His own people also came to him frequently -with complaints against the white men. Philip grew surly, while the -colonists began to distrust him. - -The bad feeling grew on both sides, and gradually both Indians and -colonists came to believe all the evil stories that were told of each -other. Both sides collected arms, powder, and lead. After a short while -war with all its horrors began. The Indians burned many villages and -massacred hundreds of white men, women, and children. - -[Sidenote: =Philip is defeated and killed=] - -There was much fighting, and finally the Indians were completely -defeated. Most of the braves were killed; those who were captured were -sold as slaves. Philip's family was killed or captured. He himself fled -to a swamp, where he met death at the hands of one of his own people. - - - - -INDUSTRIES, MANNERS, AND CUSTOMS - - -[Sidenote: =The Pilgrims have a hard struggle=] - - -=51. How the New England Colonists Lived.= The Puritans and the -Pilgrims had a hard struggle in their new homes. The winters were long -and colder than in England. For the cold weather they had to build -warm houses and barns, and store up much grain, hay, and provisions. -The summers were cool and short; tobacco and even corn did not ripen -so well as in Virginia. Most of the land was hilly and stony and hard -to cultivate. But these things did not discourage the settlers, who -merely worked so much harder. Soon they raised all the corn, wheat, -cattle, and sheep they needed, and even had some left to sell. Where -the streams had waterfalls they built mills with big water wheels. In -these they ground their flour and meal and sawed their lumber. - -While the men farmed the land, or ran mills, or fished, the women also -did their share of the work. They made butter and cheese, spun and wove -the wool into cloth, and made many other things which now we buy from -stores. - -[Sidenote: =The Pilgrims build towns and villages=] - -Unlike the Virginia colonists, many people of New England lived in -towns and villages. They built churches, schools, and town halls. -All the people went to church. Most of the children attended school. -Whenever any question arose in which every one was interested, they -talked it over at the town meeting. In these ways the New England -colonists differed from the Virginians. - - -SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL - - =The Leading Facts.= _1._ The Puritans first migrated to Holland to - gain religious freedom. _2._ Later they decided to go to America, - where they planted the colony of Plymouth, made peace with the - Indians, and began to worship in their own way. _3._ John Winthrop - founded the Massachusetts Bay Colony of 700 Puritans. _4._ He was - such a good governor that he was elected almost every year until - his death. _5._ John Eliot converted many Indians and established - several Christian Indian communities. _6._ King Philip was goaded - into a war with the whites of Massachusetts. _7._ He was defeated - and treacherously killed. - - =Study Questions.= _1._ Why did the Pilgrims decide to leave - England? _2._ What new danger threatened them in Holland? _3._ - Picture the _Mayflower_ in a storm at sea. _4._ Tell the story of - Miles Standish and his little army. _5._ What useful things did the - Pilgrims learn from the Indians? _6._ Why would putting dead fish - in the hill help the corn to grow? _7._ Why have Americans loved - the Pilgrims so well? _8._ How did the Pilgrims' treatment of the - Indians compare with that of the Spaniards? _9._ Tell the story of - John Winthrop and the Puritans. _10._ Tell the story of John Eliot. - _11._ What did he do before he began to teach the Indians? _12._ - Tell the story of King Philip. - - =Suggested Readings.= PILGRIMS AND PURITANS: Pumphrey, _Pilgrim - Stories_; Warren, _The Little Pioneers_; Hart, _Colonial Children_, - 136-140, 177-182; Glascock, _Stories of Columbia_, 69-81; Pratt, - _Early Colonies_, 113-123; Drake, _Making of New England_, - 67-87, 149-186; Hart, _Source Book_, 45-48; Higginson, _American - Explorers_, 341-361. - - JOHN ELIOT: Tappan, _American Hero Stories_, 59-72, 84-96. - - - - -THE MEN WHO PLANTED COLONIES FOR MANY KINDS OF PEOPLE - - - - -PETER STUYVESANT, THE GREAT DUTCH GOVERNOR - - -[Sidenote: =Young Peter Stuyvesant=] - - -=52. Peter Stuyvesant.= This sturdy son of Holland was born at a time -when his country was fighting hard against Spain for independence. His -father was a minister, who, it may be supposed, brought up young Peter -after the strict manner common to Dutch boys. - -Peter early began to study Latin. He was vain of his knowledge, and -later took pride in showing it off to the settlers of New Amsterdam. - -[Illustration: THE DUTCH SETTLEMENTS] - -[Sidenote: =Becomes a soldier=] - -When he left school young Peter joined the army. He found plenty of -hard work; but he performed his duties as a soldier more quickly and -better than some of his comrades, and before many years was given -command over a Dutch colony in the West Indies. - -[Sidenote: =Goes to New Netherland=] - -In an attack on a Portuguese fort Stuyvesant lost a leg and had to -return to Holland. As soon as he was well the Dutch West India Company -sent him to New Netherland (1647) to save that colony from the Indians. - -[Illustration: PETER STUYVESANT - -_From a seventeenth-century portrait at present in the collection of -the New York Historical Society_] - -[Sidenote: =What Stuyvesant said to the settlers=] - -The arrival of Stuyvesant, with his little army and fleet of four -vessels, brought great joy to the discouraged settlers and fur traders. -He said to the people: "I shall reign over you as a father over his -children." But he ruled the colony far more like a king than a father. -He was not only commander in chief of the army, but was also lawmaker, -judge, and governor, all in one. - -[Sidenote: =Strict order in New Amsterdam=] - -The new laws made by Stuyvesant showed that he intended to keep order -in the colony. He forbade Sabbath-breaking, drunkenness, the sale of -drink to the Indians or to any one else after the nine o'clock bell -had rung. He ordered the owners of all vacant lots in New Amsterdam to -improve them, and tried to fix the location of all new buildings. He -taxed traders, whether they shipped goods to Europe or brought goods -into New Netherland. - -Stuyvesant did, indeed, restore order to the colony, but he stirred up -the people until they demanded a voice in the government. He finally -agreed that they might select nine of their wisest men to advise -with him. They were called the council. He had no idea of following -anybody's advice unless it agreed with his own notions, but the people -had gained something. - -[Sidenote: =Stuyvesant and his neighbors=] - -At the same time Stuyvesant was just as busy with his neighbors' -affairs. He quarreled with the English in New England, as well as with -the patroons in his own colony. - -Stuyvesant claimed all the region now included in New Jersey, a large -part of that in the states of New York, Delaware, and Pennsylvania, and -also a part of the territory of New England. - -[Sidenote: =Government by the people demanded=] - -The colony grew in numbers. New towns sprang up along the Hudson and on -Long Island. But the increase in the number of the towns only made the -call for a government by the people still louder. - -For several years the dispute between the people and the governor -went on until, one day in 1664, news came that a fleet of English war -vessels was in sight. Although England and Holland were at peace, the -English king had given New Netherland to his brother, the Duke of York, -and the English fleet had come to take it for the duke. - -[Illustration: A VIEW OF THE CITY AND HARBOR OF NEW AMSTERDAM (NEW -YORK), 1656] - -Governor Stuyvesant was resolved to defend the colony to the last. But -he was surprised to find that his people were not willing to fight for -a governor who had given them so little share in governing themselves. - -[Sidenote: =What Stuyvesant learned after it was too late=] - -[Sidenote: =Brave to the last=] - -The commander of the fleet sent a letter to Stuyvesant offering very -favorable terms of surrender. The council wanted the governor to -surrender, but he grew angry, tore the letter to pieces, and declared -he would never give up. The council put the pieces of the letter -together and read it to the people. The minister of his own church -begged the governor not to fight, and leading citizens, and mothers -with their children, pleaded with Stuyvesant to surrender. Now what -could the brave old Dutchman do? He could not fight a whole fleet -alone. He turned sadly away, saying, "I would rather go to my grave -than to surrender the city." - -[Illustration: A DUTCH COTTAGE AND STREET SCENE IN NEW YORK, 1679] - -[Sidenote: =New Netherland becomes New York=] - - -=53. The Dutch Surrender to the English.= The English took possession, -and the colony of New Netherland became the colony of New York, and at -the same time the town of New Amsterdam became the town of New York. -Fort Orange became Albany. English governors came to rule instead -of Dutch governors. A few years later a Dutch fleet recaptured the -colony; but, by a treaty at the close of the war, Holland returned it -to England. When William and Mary came to the throne of England (1689) -they gave New York a representative assembly. - -[Sidenote: =Dutch ideas and customs remain=] - -Although Dutch rule was gone forever, the Dutch people and Dutch ideas -and customs remained. They were given no cause to regret the change. -Peter Stuyvesant himself had become so attached to the colony that he -came back from Holland and spent his last years on his great farm, or -bowery, as the Dutch called it. - -[Illustration: A DUTCH SOLDIER] - - - - -MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF NEW NETHERLAND - - -=54. Life in New Netherland.= The Dutch colonists brought with them the -quaint and simple ways of their old home in Holland--the land of dikes -and windmills. Even long years after the colony had passed into the -hands of the English, many places in New York remained Dutch in customs -and appearance. - -[Sidenote: =The colonists built houses like those in Holland=] - -New Amsterdam looked for all the world like a city back in Holland. The -houses were built solidly. They stood close to the street and had high, -steep roofs with gable ends that were like series of steps. On the -front of each house large iron numerals told the year in which it was -built. On the roof were curious weathervanes. - -About the fireplace the family gathered in the evening. The burgher -would tell jovial stories to the children as he smoked his long pipe. -The good wife, resting from her day's work, found some needlework to -busy her fingers. - -The Dutch wives were famous housekeepers and prided themselves on -their spotless homes. They scoured and scrubbed from morning to night. -But they also knew how to make doughnuts and crullers and to cook -good dishes that made their husbands round and good-natured and their -children rosy and plump. - -[Sidenote: =The Dutch liked merrymaking=] - -The Dutch liked merrymaking and good times far better than did their -Puritan neighbors. The big brass knocker on the door--shaped generally -like the head of some animal--was kept busy in the afternoon by people -coming to drink tea or coffee. A great copper kettle, hung in the -fireplace, furnished enough to drink for every one, and sweet cookies -were always on hand. They celebrated many holidays. At Christmas we -still look for old Santa Claus, whom the Dutch first brought to this -country. - -In Holland the burghers had been good farmers and shrewd merchants. -When they came to this country they continued to make their living -chiefly in these two ways. On Long Island and along the Hudson River -were fine farms with well-kept fields and large gardens. The merchants -mostly lived at New Amsterdam, which soon became a busy seaport. Here -many sailing vessels lay at anchor and exchanged their cargoes for the -products of the Dutch farms and of the Indian trade. From the small -beginnings made by these Dutch merchants has grown the largest city of -the western world. - - - - -WILLIAM PENN, THE QUAKER, WHO FOUNDED THE CITY OF BROTHERLY LOVE - - -=55. William Penn.= One day Thomas Loe, a Quaker preacher, ventured -into the old university town of Oxford. He talked with the students and -explained to them the beliefs of the Quakers. He declared that all men -were equal, and he refused to recognize rank or title. He taught men to -live and worship in simplicity. - -[Sidenote: =William Penn converted=] - -A few students believed his teachings and resolved to become members of -the hated sect of Quakers. Among them was William Penn, the son of a -great naval officer, Admiral Penn. What a buzzing there was in that old -college town when the news spread that William Penn, the fine scholar, -the skilled oarsman, the all-round athlete, had become a Quaker! - -[Sidenote: =Why Penn was expelled from college=] - -Some of his comrades would not believe it. But when they saw him put -off the cap and gown of his college, which some of the greatest men -in English history had worn with pride, and put on the plain garb of -the Quakers, they gave up! The college officers were also convinced -when Penn and other Quakers tore off the gowns of fellow students. The -authorities promptly expelled these young and over-enthusiastic Friends. - -[Sidenote: =What Penn's family and friends thought=] - -What more disgraceful thing could happen to the family of Admiral -Penn? To have a son expelled from Oxford was bad enough, but to -have him become a Quaker was a disgrace not to be borne--so thought -his family. The stern old admiral promptly drove him from home. But -William resolutely refused to give up his Quaker views, and the admiral -decided to try the plan of sending him to Paris, where life was as -un-Quaker-like as it could be. - -William Penn himself looked little like a Quaker. He was then eighteen -years old, fine looking, with large eyes and long, dark, curly hair -reaching to his shoulders. - -[Sidenote: =Penn in Paris=] - -Young Penn, however, did not entirely waste his time in the gay life -of Paris. He attended school and traveled in Italy. At the end of two -years he came back. - -[Sidenote: =Returns more of a Quaker than ever=] - -It was not long before the admiral again saw Quaker signs in his son -and hastened him off to Ireland to cure him entirely. But who should -be preaching in Ireland but Thomas Loe. William went to hear his old -preacher, and this time became a Quaker forever. No suffering was great -enough to cause him ever to waver again, although fines were heaped on -him and at four different times he was thrown into foul jails to be the -companion of criminals. - -[Sidenote: =Penn refuses to lift his hat=] - -Penn's family now felt the disgrace very keenly, but his father -promised to forgive him if he would take off his hat to the king, to -the king's brother, and to his father. One day, the story goes, King -Charles, the merry monarch, met William Penn and others. All hats were -promptly removed except the king's and Penn's. Presently the king, -too, removed his hat. Whereupon, Penn said: "Friend Charles, why dost -thou remove thy hat?" The king replied: "Because, wherever I am, it is -customary for but one to remain covered." - -[Illustration: WILLIAM PENN - -_At the age of 22, from a painting in the rooms of the Historical -Society of Pennsylvania, presented by his grandson, Granville Penn of -Stoke Poges_] - -Penn's father would not permit such conduct toward his royal friends. -He therefore drove his son from his home a second time. - -[Illustration: THE MEETING BETWEEN WILLIAM PENN AND KING CHARLES] - -[Sidenote: =William Penn makes a noble choice=] - -But Penn's mother finally made peace between the father and the son -before the admiral died. William Penn, then but twenty-six years old, -came into possession of a fortune. Once more he stood "where the roads -parted." He could now be a great man and play the part of a fine -English gentleman who would always be welcome at court, or he could -remain a Quaker. - -[Sidenote: =Turns to America=] - -We do not know that he even thought of forsaking his Quaker comrades. -On the contrary, he resolved to devote his fortune and his life to -giving them relief. Like Winthrop for the Puritans and Baltimore for -the Catholics, Penn thought of America for his persecuted Friends. With -other Quaker leaders, he became an owner of West Jersey, part of New -Jersey. - -[Sidenote: =The king pays an old debt=] - -[Sidenote: =Penn's Woods=] - - -=56. The Founding of Pennsylvania.= King Charles II owed Penn's -father about eighty thousand dollars. William Penn asked him to pay -it in American land. Charles was only too glad to grant this request -of the son of his old sea captain. The land he gave to Penn is the -present great state of Pennsylvania. Penn wanted the colony called -Sylvania, meaning woodland, but the king declared it should be called -Pennsylvania in memory of Admiral Penn. - -[Illustration: A WEATHER VANE - -_Set above their mill by Penn and two partners in 1699, to show which -way the wind might blow_] - -By means of letters and pamphlets Penn sent word to the Quakers -throughout England, Scotland, and Ireland. He told them of Quaker homes -across the sea, where jails would not trouble them. - -There was great rejoicing among them over Penn's "Holy Experiment," as -his plan was called. - -[Sidenote: =Penn invited all persecuted people=] - -Penn even visited Europe, especially the country along the Rhine, and -told the persecuted and oppressed about the new colony where every sort -of Christian was to find a hearty welcome, and where no one was to be -punished for religion's sake. - -[Illustration: A QUAKER] - -Hundreds of settlers hastened to the new colony. When Penn reached -Newcastle on the Delaware in the fall of 1682 he met a hearty -welcome from scores of happy people who were already enjoying their -long-wished-for religious freedom. - -One of Penn's first acts was to call a meeting of the colonists to talk -over their government. This pleased the people greatly, for although -the land was Penn's he not only gave them land for their houses and -farms, but he also gave them the right to choose their own rulers and -to make their own laws. - -[Illustration: WILLIAM PENN'S TREATY WITH THE INDIANS - -_After the painting by Benjamin West, which hangs in Independence Hall, -Philadelphia_] - -[Sidenote: =The founding of Philadelphia=] - -Penn next turned his attention to founding the great Quaker city to -which he gave the name Philadelphia, signifying brotherly love--a name -truly expressing Penn's feeling toward other men. He marked off the -streets right in the midst of a great forest, and called them Walnut, -Mulberry, Chestnut, and so on, after the trees that grew there. Some of -the streets in Philadelphia are still so named. - -[Sidenote: =Some settlers lived in caves=] - -But the settlers came faster than houses could be built, and some -families had to live in caves dug in the banks along the river. -Philadelphia grew faster than the other colonial towns, and soon led -them all. - -[Sidenote: =Penn visits the Indians=] - -William Penn won the love and the respect of the Indians of -Pennsylvania. He visited them in their own towns and ate with them. He -even took part in their athletic games and outran them all. Like Roger -Williams, he believed that the Indians should be paid for their lands. -Accordingly, he made them rich gifts and entered into solemn treaties -with the chiefs. - -[Sidenote: =Kind treatment produced kind treatment=] - -At a treaty under a great elm tree on the banks of the Delaware, Penn -said to the Indians: "We are the same as if one man's body were divided -into two parts: We are all one flesh and one blood." In return the -Indians said: "We will live in love with William Penn and his children -as long as the moon and the sun shall endure." If the Indians admired a -white man they said: "He is like William Penn." - -[Sidenote: =The coming of the "Pennsylvania Dutch"=] - -The news of the establishment of free government and free religious -worship brought crowds of settlers from Germany. Hundreds of German -families in the valleys of the Rhine and the Neckar escaped to "Penn's -Woods," and there their children's children are to be found to-day -under the name of the "Pennsylvania Dutch." Without boasting, William -Penn could say that no other one man, at his own expense, had planted -so great a colony in the wilds of America as he had. Few nobler men -ever lived than William Penn. He died July 30, 1718. - - - - -QUAKER WAYS IN OLD PENNSYLVANIA - - -[Sidenote: =Believed in simple things=] - - -=57. How Quakers Differed from other Colonists.= The people who formed -Penn's colony were unlike those of any of the other settlements. They -did not wear gorgeous clothes and jewelry like the Virginia cavaliers. -The men carried no swords or pistols. They were not stern like the -Puritans. Games and social pleasures were not to be seen among them as -in Dutch New Netherland. - -[Sidenote: =Quakers called themselves the Society of Friends=] - -These people wore clothes of the plainest cut, made from dull gray or -brown cloth. They were gentle and soft-spoken, and did not fight or -quarrel among themselves. People who did not understand or like them -called them Quakers, because some of them were so carried away at -religious meetings that they fell to quaking. They themselves took the -name of the Society of Friends. And Friends is a much better name, for -they were friends to every man. - -[Sidenote: =All religions welcomed by the Friends=] - -The customs of the Quakers grew out of their religious views. Above -all, they believed that every one should be free to do as his own -conscience taught him. Their religious meetings were as simple as -their own lives. They did not think it necessary to have ministers or -priests. The men sat in one part of the church, the women in another. -All was silence until some Friend felt called to speak. Some days no -one spoke, and then they all sat in silence until the meeting was over. -As a rule, not even a hymn was sung. - -[Sidenote: =Opposed war and slavery=] - -The Quakers have always believed that war is unnecessary and wrong, -and only a few of them have ever carried arms. Because Friends speak -only the truth, they do not take an oath. In the courts of law their -simple word is as good as an oath. They have always been quick to help -the poor and oppressed. The Quakers were the first to oppose slavery, -and they did much to end it both in this country and in the English -colonies. It is strange that these kind, gentle people should ever -have been so cruelly persecuted. - -[Sidenote: =The colony prospered=] - -While the Quakers were strongly religious, they also took good heed of -the things of this world. At first they cleared and planted farms in -the fertile Schuylkill and Delaware valleys. Soon groups of them took -up townships of five thousand acres each and built villages at their -centers. The swift streams which tumbled down the mountain slopes they -used to turn mills. In these they ground flour, sawed lumber, made -paper, and wove woolen cloth. - -The rich land and good climate of Pennsylvania and its liberal -government attracted many people from outside. After a short time the -Quakers were outnumbered by the other settlers, and to-day the Quakers -are but a handful in that great state. - - - - -JAMES OGLETHORPE, THE FOUNDER OF GEORGIA AS A HOME FOR ENGLISH DEBTORS, -AS A PLACE FOR PERSECUTED PROTESTANTS, AND AS A BARRIER AGAINST THE -SPANIARDS - - -[Sidenote: =Oglethorpe a soldier=] - - -=58. A Friend of the Unfortunate.= James Oglethorpe was an Englishman. -At an early age he went to Oxford to study, but he was drawn away from -college by the clash of arms. Oglethorpe was a soldier for many years. -Later he became a member of Parliament. - -[Sidenote: =English jails and jailers=] - -A friend of Oglethorpe's died in a debtor's prison, which aroused his -sympathies for the poor. He examined English jails, and found them so -dirty and dark and damp that strong-bodied men, to say nothing of women -and children, soon sickened and died in them. Besides, he found that -the jailers were often bad men, who whipped the prisoners on their -bare backs and stole their food. - -The prison was a poor place for a man in debt, anyway. How could a man -pay his debts while he was shut up in prison? - -[Sidenote: =King George II grants a charter=] - -Oglethorpe, like many other noble men before him, thought of America -as a place of refuge for the unfortunate. King George II gave him a -charter for the land between the Savannah and the Altamaha, and made -his heart glad by declaring that all Protestants should be tolerated -there. - -[Illustration: JAMES EDWARD OGLETHORPE - -_From an original portrait painted by Simon Francois Ravenet, from a -mezzotint by Burford in the print room at the British Museum_] - -[Sidenote: =A select body of emigrants=] - -When the debtors heard the news that Oglethorpe was to plant a colony -for them there was great excitement among them. But he carefully -selected his settlers, so that no lazy man might be found among them. -Arms and tools with which to work on the farms were given to the -settlers. - -[Sidenote: =At Charleston=] - -When the time came, thirty families were ready to sail. Oglethorpe -carried them direct to Charleston, South Carolina. When they landed, -in 1733, the people of Charleston were only too glad to have a colony -south of them as a "buffer" against the Spaniards who occupied Florida, -and who had already attacked South Carolina. - -[Sidenote: =Savannah laid out=] - -Therefore, the people of Charleston, to give the new colony a good -start, presented the settlers with one hundred head of cattle, a drove -of hogs, and fifteen or twenty barrels of rice. Rejoicing in their new -supplies, the colony sailed to the Savannah River, and not far from its -mouth, on a beautiful bluff, Oglethorpe marked out the streets of the -new city. The settlers went to work with a will, cutting down trees and -making them into cabins. They soon had comfortable homes, although very -different from what they had known in England. - -[Sidenote: =Italians=] - -Soon other colonists came to Savannah. Among these was a company of -Italians who had come to raise the silkworm and to manufacture silk. - -[Sidenote: =German Protestants=] - -In the next year after Oglethorpe planted the settlement a band of -sturdy German Protestants arrived. These settlers built their homes -to the north of Savannah, and called the colony "Ebenezer," which -means "the Lord hath helped us." Between these two settlements a band -of pious Moravian immigrants founded a colony. Then followed the -settlement of Augusta, far up the Savannah River and well out among the -Indians, which served as a sort of outpost. - -[Illustration: OGLETHORPE SURVEYING THE SITE OF SAVANNAH] - -[Sidenote: =Highlanders=] - -To these were added a colony on the Altamaha River. This colony was -settled by a company of brave Highlanders from Scotland. - -[Sidenote: =The Wesleys come=] - -In the meantime, Oglethorpe had gone to England, but he soon returned -with more than two hundred English and German immigrants, who came to -Georgia to better their condition. With these immigrants came John and -Charles Wesley, who were soon to awake all England with a revival of -religion. - -[Illustration: OGLETHORPE'S STRONGHOLD - -_Standing on a bold rocky bluff overlooking a beautiful bay, it guarded -the entrance to Frederica_] - -[Sidenote: =Oglethorpe foresees war=] - -While in England Oglethorpe was made a colonel. He saw that trouble -with Spain must soon come. From the beginning of the settlement of -Georgia Oglethorpe had been careful to treat the Indians well. He had -made treaties with them and had paid them for their lands. He now went -to visit the Creek and the Cherokee Indians. - -[Sidenote: =Frederica fortified=] - -On an island at the mouth of the Altamaha Oglethorpe planted a town to -serve as an outpost against the Spaniards. He fortified it, and made it -very strong. This town was called Frederica. - -In 1742 a Spanish fleet of fifty-one vessels and five thousand men -attacked Frederica. Oglethorpe beat them off, and thereafter Georgia -was left in peace. He went back to England and became a general. -Oglethorpe lived to a good old age. He died in 1785. - - - - -INDUSTRIES, MANNERS, AND CUSTOMS OF THE SOUTHERN PLANTERS - - -[Sidenote: =Farms near the sea=] - - -=59. The Carolina and Georgia Planters.= The colonial farms south of -Virginia lay mostly in a narrow strip near the sea. Inland were the -"pine barrens," a poor, sandy country grown up in pine woods. Inland -also were strong and fierce tribes of Indians like the Cherokees and -Creeks. - -[Sidenote: =Rice becomes an important product=] - -The younger colonies could not live by growing tobacco. Virginia was -nearer to the English market, and supplied it with most of the tobacco -needed. They did raise corn and cattle for their own use. One day a -ship captain from the Orient sailed into Charleston with some rice. -The story runs that he gave a few handfuls of this to the governor as -a curiosity. The wise old governor heard that this rice had been grown -in swamps, and he thought of the swamps all along the coast of Carolina -and Georgia. He had some of it planted in this wet land, and it grew -beyond all hopes. In a few years rice was produced in such quantity -that it could be shipped to England, where it was thought the best on -the market. - -[Sidenote: =Indigo also grown=] - -Some one else discovered that the low, wet land would also grow indigo, -a plant used for making a brilliant and valuable blue dye. Indigo soon -brought the settlers as much money as did the rice. - -[Sidenote: =Lumber, tar, and turpentine=] - -The great pine woods furnished lumber that was sent to Europe by the -boatload. From the sap of the pine trees the colonists also learned to -make turpentine and rosin. By heating or distilling the wood itself -they produced tar. To this day one of the most striking sights in these -states are the great sawmills and the stills, where negroes are making -turpentine much as it was made a century and a half ago. - -When Georgia was settled Oglethorpe did not permit slaves to be brought -in, and the colonists had to do all their own work. But later there -were as many slaves in Georgia as in the Carolinas or Virginia. - - -SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL - - =The Leading Facts.= _1._ Peter Stuyvesant was sent out by the - Dutch West India Company as Governor of New York. _2._ He ruled the - colony in his own way and gave the people very little power. _3._ - The council surrendered the colony to the English against the will - of Stuyvesant. _4._ New Netherland became the colony of New York. - _5._ The Dutch kept up the customs of their native country. _6._ - William Penn, son of a great English naval officer, became a Quaker - while a student at Oxford. _7._ He founded a colony in America on - a tract of land given him in payment of the king's debt to his - father. _8._ Penn gave the colonists the right to choose their own - rulers and to make their own laws. _9._ He gave a free constitution - and made friends with the Indians. _10._ He founded the city of - Philadelphia, which grew faster than the other colonial towns. - _11._ The Quakers were gentle and friendly to everybody. _12._ - All religions were welcomed in the colony. _13._ When a friend of - Oglethorpe's died in a debtors' prison, Oglethorpe determined to do - something for the unfortunates shut up in jail for debt. _14._ He - obtained a charter from the king for some land in Georgia. _15._ In - his selection of settlers no lazy men were allowed. _16._ The town - was built near the mouth of the Savannah River. _17._ The Savannah - colony flourished, and many other settlers came to Georgia. _18._ - Oglethorpe built Frederica to keep back the Spaniards. _19._ The - colonies south of Virginia thrived on the production of rice, - indigo, lumber, tar, and turpentine. - - =Study Questions.= _1._ Tell the story of Peter Stuyvesant until - the time he became governor. _2._ What reforms did Stuyvesant - bring to the colony? _3._ How did he rule? _4._ What part did the - nine men play in the government? _5._ What were they called? _6._ - Why were the people glad when the English fleet came? _7._ What - did William and Mary do for the colony? _8._ Tell what you know - about the way the Dutch lived. _9._ Why should the students at - Oxford be surprised to hear that William Penn had turned Quaker? - _10._ Why did his father drive him from home? _11._ What shows - that William Penn did not waste his time in Paris? _12._ Who made - peace between Penn and his father? _13._ What was William Penn's - noble resolution? _14._ How did Penn come into possession of - Pennsylvania? _15._ Prove that Penn was a very generous man. _16._ - Why did William Penn call his town the "city of brotherly love"? - _17._ Make a picture of the great treaty under the elm. _18._ Tell - the story of Oglethorpe. _19._ Why did Charleston lend a helping - hand to Oglethorpe's colony? _20._ Where did the settlers of - Georgia come from? _21._ What did Oglethorpe build Frederica for? - _22._ What did the colonists south of Virginia raise? - - =Suggested Readings.= STUYVESANT: Williams, _Stories from Early New - York History_, 21-32; Smith and Dutton, _The Colonies_, 189-202. - - PENN: Pratt, _Early Colonies_, 158-165; Hart, _Colonial Children_, - 144-148, Dixon, _William Penn_, 11-273. - - OGLETHORPE: Smith and Dutton, _The Colonies_, 78-89; Pratt, _Early - Colonies_, 173-176; Hart, _Source Book_, 71-73; Cooper, _James - Oglethorpe_. - - - - -ROBERT CAVELIER DE LA SALLE, WHO FOLLOWED THE FATHER OF WATERS TO ITS -MOUTH, AND ESTABLISHED NEW FRANCE FROM CANADA TO THE GULF OF MEXICO - - - - -LA SALLE PUSHED FORWARD THE WORK BEGUN BY JOLIET AND MARQUETTE - - -=60. Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle.= While Joliet and Marquette -were on their long journey, Frontenac was making use of another fur -trader, La Salle, and of another missionary, Hennepin. La Salle -belonged to a rich French family, and had left home at the age of -twenty-three (1666) for the wild life in the American forests. - -[Sidenote: =Fort Frontenac built=] - -He first built a fort-like post just above Montreal and named it -Lachine, because he supposed it was located on the route to China. In -1673 he helped build Fort Frontenac where the Canadian city of Kingston -now stands. - -La Salle returned home, and the king received him with honor and made -him governor of the region around Fort Frontenac. He came back and -built a great stone fort. Settlers soon came and built their cabins -around the fort, making a little frontier village. - -[Illustration: LA SALLE - -_Reproduced from a design based on an old engraving_] - -Here the fur trader came each season with his pack, and here the -faithful missionary said good-by before plunging into the wilds of the -unknown wilderness, perhaps never to return. - -[Sidenote: =La Salle not content to get rich only=] - -La Salle was growing rich, but he longed to make good his country's -right to the richer soil and to the milder climate of the Mississippi -Valley. Once more he returned to France, and the king gave him -permission to explore the great valley and to build forts along the way. - -[Sidenote: =Hennepin and his altar=] - -La Salle came back bringing sailors, carpenters, anchors, and cables, -for he intended to build a ship on the lakes. But best of all, he -brought Tonti, his faithful Italian friend and helper. Hennepin, the -missionary, carried an altar so made that he could strap it on his back -and set it up for worship wherever he chose. - -La Salle had resolved to build his first fort at the mouth of the -Niagara River, but the Iroquois permitted him to build only a large -storehouse. They were greatly displeased when he set about building a -ship above Niagara to sail the Great Lakes to the west, and threatened -to burn it. - -[Sidenote: =The first ship on the Great Lakes=] - -When the new ship, the _Griffin_, was ready to sail, they towed her up -the Niagara River and then into Lake Erie. There was great rejoicing -over the _Griffin_. Amid the firing of cannon and the singing of songs -she spread her sails, the first to whiten the waters of Lake Erie. - -[Illustration: ROUTES OF THE FRENCH MISSIONARIES AND TRADERS WHO -EXPLORED THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY] - -[Sidenote: =The visit to Mackinac=] - -On they sailed, through sunshine and storm, up Lake Huron until the -mission town where Marquette was buried came into view. When the -_Griffin_ fired her cannon, all was astir in that town of fur traders, -missionaries, and Indians. La Salle's men landed with great show. They -marched to the little chapel and knelt before the altar. - -[Sidenote: =The "Griffin" sails for the storehouse=] - -La Salle then sailed through the straits and to the head of Green Bay, -where some of his men, sent out many months before, had collected a -great quantity of furs. Laden with these, the _Griffin_ sailed for the -storehouse on the Niagara, but La Salle never saw again this first ship -of the lakes. - - -=61. Exploring the Mississippi Valley.= With fourteen men in four large -canoes, La Salle set out for the Illinois River. They passed southward -along the Wisconsin shore, sometimes living only on parched corn and -wild berries, but at other times feasting on the wild game killed by -their Indian hunter. - -[Illustration: FRENCH FUR TRADERS BARTERING WITH THE INDIANS] - -[Sidenote: =The journey by canoe to the Illinois River=] - -They passed the spot where Chicago stands, and reached the mouth of the -St. Joseph River. Here another fort was built while waiting for the -return of Tonti, who had gone to find the _Griffin_. Three months had -passed since the ship sailed. Tonti finally came, but brought no word -of the ill-fated _Griffin_. - -[Sidenote: =They reach Starved Rock=] - -Disappointed, but still brave, La Salle with a party of thirty men and -fourteen canoes paddled up the St. Joseph River to where South Bend now -is. From this point the party, carrying canoes and baggage, made its -way over to the headwaters of the Illinois. They were glad to reach -the region near the present site of Ottawa, where Marquette had been a -few years before. They saw Buffalo Rock and Starved Rock, high bluffs -renowned in Indian history. - -[Sidenote: =Surprising an Indian camp=] - -Just as the little fleet was passing through Peoria Lake, some one -saw the smoke of an Indian camp. At once every Frenchman dropped his -paddle, seized his gun, and sprang ashore. The Indians ran about in -wild excitement, but La Salle talked peace to the chiefs while Hennepin -tried to quiet the children. - -[Illustration: LA SALLE AND HENNEPIN SURPRISING THE INDIANS ON THE -SHORES OF PEORIA LAKE] - -The Indians told La Salle of fierce warriors farther on who would kill -them, and of great monsters ready to eat them. These stories frightened -some of La Salle's men and they ran away. - -[Sidenote: =The fort of the broken heart=] - -La Salle decided to build a fort on the bluff overlooking the river and -remain there through the winter (1680). They named it Fort Crèvecœur, -meaning that the builders had grieved until their hearts were broken. - -[Illustration: LA SALLE AT THE MOUTH OF THE MISSISSIPPI] - -La Salle returned to Fort Frontenac. In the meantime he ordered Tonti -to fortify Starved Rock, and Hennepin to explore the Illinois and the -upper Mississippi rivers. - -[Sidenote: =Iroquois destroy villages of the Illinois=] - -While La Salle was gone, a great army of fierce Iroquois destroyed the -villages of the Illinois Indians, "the children of Count Frontenac." - -[Sidenote: =A union of Indian tribes proposed=] - -La Salle's heart was indeed full of grief when he returned and saw the -awful desolation where once stood the villages of his Indian friends. -But worse still, he could not find Tonti. With a sad but brave heart -the great leader resolved to bring all the Illinois tribes into a union -that should be a match for the Iroquois. He went from tribe to tribe, -and night after night he sat around the council fires with the chiefs. - -[Sidenote: =La Salle journeys to the mouth of the Mississippi=] - -Before he could unite them he heard that Tonti was safe at Mackinac. -He hastened to meet his long-lost friend, and there he and Tonti once -more planned the exploration of the lower Mississippi. He returned to -Fort Frontenac, collected supplies, and was soon crossing the portage -between the Chicago and Illinois rivers. On they went, till early in -February their canoes floated out upon the bosom of the "Father of -Waters" (1682). - -Down the river they floated, passing the Missouri, the Ohio, and the -Arkansas, where Joliet and Marquette had turned back. With the kindly -help of new guides, they passed on until they found the Mississippi -branching into three streams. La Salle divided his party, and each took -a stream to the Gulf. - -[Sidenote: =La Salle takes possession of new country=] - -On shore, just above the mouth, a cross was raised and La Salle took -possession of all the country he had explored "in the name of Louis the -Great, King of France." The company shouted, "Long live the king!" La -Salle's first great object had been accomplished. - -Then the party began the slow journey up stream. La Salle finally -reached Mackinac, and there again began to lay great plans. The first -thing he did was to go to Starved Rock and build a fort for the -protection of his union of Indian tribes. - -[Sidenote: =Builds Fort St. Louis on Starved Rock=] - -Starved Rock is a rough cliff which rises one hundred thirty-five feet -high, right out of the valley. Its sides are almost perpendicular. La -Salle and his men cut away the trees on top and built storehouses, -log huts, and a palisade. They named it Fort St. Louis. In the valley -below, hundreds of Indians came and built their wigwams that they might -be safe from their enemies, the Iroquois. Tonti was put in command of -the fort. - -[Sidenote: =La Salle misses the mouth of the Mississippi=] - -La Salle's next step was to return to France and ask the king to plant -a colony of Frenchmen at the mouth of the Mississippi River. The king -agreed, and La Salle set sail for the Gulf of Mexico with a fleet of -four ships and a colony of more than one hundred fifty persons (1684). -But he missed the Mississippi and landed at Matagorda Bay in Texas. The -colonists blamed La Salle. He tried in vain to find the Mississippi. - -[Illustration: STARVED ROCK ON THE ILLINOIS RIVER - -_Many interesting Indian legends are connected with this rock, which -stands one hundred thirty-five feet above the river below_] - -[Sidenote: =La Salle's death=] - -Suffering and discontent increased until a party of La Salle's men lay -in ambush and shot him, and left his body in the woods. More than a -year went by before the faithful Tonti at Starved Rock heard of the sad -fate of the great leader. - -[Sidenote: =The heroic Tonti=] - -The French king refused to send aid to the starving colonists in -Texas, but the brave and heroic Tonti, though saddened by the death of -La Salle, resolved to rescue them. His rescuing party suffered awful -hardships. They deserted Tonti on the lower Mississippi, and he was at -last forced to return to Starved Rock. - - - - -THE MEN OF NEW FRANCE - - -[Sidenote: =Men of New France lived as the Indians lived=] - - -=62. Life of the Trapper, Jesuit Missionary, and Soldier of New -France.= For more than a hundred years after the explorations of -Joliet and La Salle the French in Canada sent trappers, missionaries, -and soldiers into the new territory. The trappers lived on friendly -terms with the Indians. They took shelter in the Indian wigwam and sat -at the Indian camp fire. Together they searched the forest for game, -and paddled up and down the rivers and lakes in the Indian canoes. They -joined in the Indian sports, lived as the Indians lived, and often -married the Indian maidens. - -The lives of the missionaries who went to preach among the Indians -were full of self-sacrifice. They had great difficulties to overcome. -The Indians were ignorant and hard to teach, but they treated the -missionaries with respect and loved them for their kind deeds. - -[Sidenote: =Long years of war=] - -From the mouth of the St. Lawrence to the Gulf of Mexico the soldiers -of New France built many forts. Their chief danger was from the -Iroquois Indians, who sided with the English in the long years of -war. Many times their settlements were destroyed, their forts burned. -But they were courageous and determined. They went on with their work -of establishing New France in America, fighting the English and the -Indians, until 1759. Then Wolfe captured Quebec and New France became -English territory. - - -SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL - - =The Leading Facts.= _1._ La Salle was sent to complete the - exploration of the Mississippi. _2._ La Salle made his way to the - Gulf of Mexico and later built the fort at Starved Rock. _3._ The - French sent trappers, missionaries, and soldiers into New France to - strengthen it against the English. _4._ The French trappers lived - on intimate terms with the Indians. _5._ With the fall of Quebec, - England won New France. - - =Study Questions.= _1._ Why was La Salle not satisfied merely to - get rich? _2._ Describe the first voyage on the Lakes. _3._ Find - on the map the places named, from Mackinac to Fort Crèvecœur. _4._ - How did La Salle reach the Mississippi? _5._ Picture Tonti's fort - on Starved Rock. _6._ Tell the story of the fate of La Salle. _7._ - What Indian tribe sided with the English? _8._ What was the effect - of the fall of Quebec? - - =Suggested Readings.= LA SALLE: Wright, _Children's Stories in - American History_, 316-330; Pratt, _Later Colonial Period_, 1-28. - - - - -GEORGE WASHINGTON, THE FIRST GENERAL AND FIRST PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED -STATES - - - - -THE "FATHER OF HIS COUNTRY" - - -[Sidenote: =Washington's birthday and birthplace=] - - -=63. George Washington as a Boy.= When Washington was born, February -22, 1732, in the old colony of Virginia, the early settlements had -grown into towns, and planters had prospered. His father's house stood -upon a gentle hill slope which ran down to the lazily flowing Potomac. -Across the river one could see the wooded Maryland shore, broken with a -few great farms and plantations. - -[Sidenote: =The mother of Washington=] - -Washington's father owned more than one plantation, and had many negro -slaves. He was also a partner in some iron mines, and once had been -captain of a ship carrying iron ore to London. It was in London that he -had fallen in love with Mary Ball, called, on account of her beauty, -the "Rose of Epping Forest." She, too, was a Virginian, and she married -Augustine Washington, and became the greatly revered mother of George. - -[Sidenote: =School in Fredericksburg=] - -When George was but three years old his parents moved to the -plantation on the Rappahannock. Across the river, in the old town of -Fredericksburg, George went to a school taught by the church sexton. -Both teachers and schools were scarce in Virginia then because the -people lived miles apart on their great plantations. - -[Illustration: THE BOYHOOD HOME OF WASHINGTON - -_Here on the site of the farmhouse, a slope on the river bank, stands -the first monument erected to Washington, the bricks from the great -chimney forming its foundation_] - -In Washington's day the plantations were usually located on the rivers -or bays. The rivers were the best roadways in those old times. Besides, -the planter was glad to have the yearly ship from London stop at his -door. - -[Sidenote: =The yearly ship from London=] - -The coming of the ship brought happy days to the young people, for it -often brought furniture for the house and fine clothes for the family. -Sometimes, too, it brought back some long-absent son or daughter, or -letters from relatives in the old English home. Then there were the -stories such as only sailors can tell. - -When all the stores of tobacco and grain had been loaded, once more the -great ship spread her wings and sailed away. Then many a Virginia boy -longed to go on board and sail away, too. - -[Sidenote: =Mary Washington=] - -George's father died and left him, at the age of eleven, to the care of -his mother. Mary Washington was a wise, firm mother, and always held -the love and admiration of her children. - -[Sidenote: =The eldest son in Virginia=] - -According to the custom of those old Virginia days, the eldest son, -Lawrence Washington, received the beautiful plantation on the Potomac, -which he named Mount Vernon in honor of Admiral Vernon, an English -naval officer under whom he had fought in the West Indies. - -[Sidenote: =George studied hard and played hard=] - -To George fell a smaller plantation on the Rappahannock. He could -hardly hope to go to England to study, but went to a school near his -birthplace. Here he studied hard, mastering mathematics, and business -papers of all sorts. The book into which he copied business letters, -deeds, wills, and bills of sale and exchange shows how careful he was -and how he mastered everything he undertook. - -At school, George was a spirited leader in all outdoor sports. He -outran, outjumped, as well as outwrestled all his comrades. He could -throw farther than any of them. The story is told that he once threw -a stone across the Rappahannock, and that at another time he threw -a stone from the valley below to the top of the Natural Bridge, a -distance of more than two hundred feet. - -[Sidenote: =Playing war=] - -Washington was captain when the boys played at war. Every boy among -them expected to be a soldier some day. George listened to the stories -told by his brother Lawrence, who had been a captain in the West Indies. - -[Illustration: WASHINGTON DREAMING OF A SEAMAN'S LIFE] - -[Sidenote: =A horseback rider=] - -As a boy George Washington also learned many useful things outside -of school. He became a skillful horseback rider, for every Virginia -plantation had fine riding horses. People lived so far apart that they -had to ride horseback when they visited each other and when they went -to church or to town. Whether George rode a wild colt to "break" it, or -whether he rode with his neighbors through woods and fields, jumping -fences or swimming streams, or in a wild chase after the fox, he always -kept his seat. - -[Sidenote: =A woodsman=] - -Even while a boy Washington was learning the ways of a woodsman. With -only a gun and a dog for companions, he made long trips into the deep, -dark Virginia forests, where no road or path showed the way. He could -cross rivers without bridge or boat, could build a shelter at night, -could trap, and shoot, and cook over the fire by the side of which he -slept. All this knowledge was soon put to use by Washington. - -[Illustration: WASHINGTON AS A WOODSMAN] - -[Illustration: WASHINGTON'S SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS] - -[Sidenote: =Washington wanted to be a sailor=] - -When George was fourteen it was decided that he might "go to sea." No -doubt he dreamed of the time when he should be a seaman, or perhaps an -officer on one of the king's great war ships. But when all was ready, -he gave up his plans to please his mother and went back to school. He -now studied surveying, and was soon able to mark off the boundaries of -farms and lay out roads. - -[Sidenote: =Lord Fairfax=] - -George was now more and more at Mount Vernon, where he met many fine -people. Among these visitors he admired most an old English nobleman, -Lord Fairfax, who had come to spend the rest of his days beyond the -Blue Ridge in the beautiful valley of the Shenandoah. - -[Sidenote: =A surveyor at sixteen=] - - -=64. Washington as Surveyor.= Lord Fairfax was pleased with Washington, -who was then tall, strong, active, and manly looking, although but -sixteen years old. Accordingly, one spring Washington, with a number of -companions, started over the mountains to survey the wild lands of Lord -Fairfax. - -[Sidenote: =Life in the Shenandoah in 1748=] - -The trip was full of danger. There were no roads, bridges, or houses -after the party reached the mountains; but deep rivers, wild animals, -and savage Indians were plentiful. Some nights they slept in rude huts, -other nights in tents, but more often under the stars and around the -camp fire. One night they saw a party of Indians dance their wild war -dance to the music of a rude drum, made by stretching a hide over a -pot, and to the noise of a rattle, made by putting shot in a gourd. - -[Illustration: THE SURVEYING PARTY AT AN INDIAN WAR DANCE] - -[Sidenote: =Work well done=] - -Within a month Washington was back with maps and figures showing what -lands belonged to Lord Fairfax. Few men could have done better, and a -warm friendship grew up between this white-haired English nobleman and -the young Virginian. Lord Fairfax immediately built a great hunting -lodge in the Shenandoah, near where Winchester is, and named it -Greenway Court. It became a favorite visiting place for many Virginians. - -[Illustration: WASHINGTON SURVEYING LORD FAIRFAX'S LANDS] - -[Sidenote: =A public surveyor=] - -Washington had done his work so well that Lord Fairfax had him -made a public surveyor, and invited him to make Greenway Court his -headquarters. - -For three years Washington was hard at work in that western wilderness -marking out the lands of settlers. It was a rough but health-giving -life and made his bones and muscles strong. He had to take many risks -and face many dangers. - -Once he wrote to a friend: "Since you received my letter in October I -have not slept above three or four nights in a bed; but, after walking -a great deal all the day, I have lain down upon a little hay, straw, -fodder, or a bear skin, whichever was to be had, with man, wife, and -children, like dogs and cats, and happy is he who gets the berth -nearest the fire." - -[Sidenote: =At Greenway Court=] - -But the young surveyor was often at Greenway Court taking part in -its pastimes, or spending his time in sober conversation with Lord -Fairfax, or in reading the books on history which were found in his -friend's library. - -[Illustration: GREENWAY COURT, THE VIRGINIA HOME OF LORD FAIRFAX - -_Surmounting the broad, sweeping roof, pierced by dormer windows, -were two belfries, doubtless designed for bells to call the settlers -together when an Indian uprising was feared_] - -[Sidenote: =Heavy responsibility at twenty=] - - -=65. Washington as a Soldier against the French.= Suddenly Washington's -whole life was changed. His brother Lawrence died and left to George -the beautiful Mount Vernon home and the care of his only daughter. At -the age of twenty Washington found himself at the head of two large -plantations. But he had hardly begun his new duties before he was -called to serve his governor and the king. - -The French in Canada were building a chain of outposts from Lake Erie -into Pennsylvania to the headwaters of the Ohio River so that they -might have a shorter route to their trading posts on the Mississippi. -Governor Dinwiddie of Virginia had sent orders for them to get out of -the country, but his messenger did not get within a hundred miles of -the French soldiers. - -It was probably Lord Fairfax who said to the governor: "Here is the -very man for you; young and daring, but sober minded and responsible, -who only lacks opportunity to show the stuff that is in him." - -[Sidenote: =George Washington sent to order the French out of Virginia -territory=] - -In October, 1753, Washington, not then twenty-two, set out with -servants, horses, and two companions for the French posts. One -companion was the old Dutch soldier who had taught Washington to use -the sword, and the other was the famous backwoodsman, Christopher Gist. -They pushed on through deep forests, over the mountains, across swift -rivers, to the Indian village near where Pittsburgh now stands. From -there Washington hurried on to the fort on French Creek. - -The French commander received him with great politeness, and tried to -keep him many days. But Washington saw that the French were really -preparing to fight to hold this "gateway to the West." - -[Sidenote: =The trip back to Virginia=] - -The Frenchmen very politely said that they intended to hold that region -at all hazard. Washington and his party at once started back with the -answer. - -Washington's party traveled through rain and snow, hurrying through -dense forests where savages lurked ready to scalp them. An Indian shot -at Washington, but missed him. Their horses gave out, and Washington -and Gist plunged into the forest alone, on foot, anxious to lose no -time. At last they reached Williamsburg. - -[Sidenote: =Washington cuts a road over the mountains=] - -War now seemed certain, and the governor hurried Washington forward -with about one hundred fifty men to cut a road through the forests and -over the mountains. But the French had already reached and built Fort -Duquesne, where the Ohio is formed, and were then hurrying forward a -party to look for the English. Just after Washington's men crossed the -mountains they surprised the French scouts, killed their commander, and -took the rest prisoners. Young Washington wrote home that he had heard -the whistle of bullets and liked the music. - -[Illustration: WASHINGTON ON HIS WAY BACK FROM THE FRENCH POSTS] - -[Sidenote: =He wins one battle, and loses another=] - -Although Washington's company soon grew to three hundred fifty men, -he built Fort Necessity, for a French force numbering four times his -own was now close upon him. A battle followed. Standing knee deep in -mud and water, the English fired all day at the hidden foe. Their -ammunition was about gone, and their men were falling. Washington -surrendered the fort, and the little army, with sad hearts, started -home along their newly made road. - -[Sidenote: =Washington joins Braddock's army=] - - -=66. Washington and Braddock.= But these were stirring times in -Virginia, for an English general, Braddock, had come up the Potomac; -and soldiers, cannon, and supplies were passing right by the doors of -Mount Vernon. Every day Washington looked upon the king's soldiers, -and saw the flash of sword and bayonet. How could he keep out of it? -General Braddock liked the young Virginian, and made him an officer on -his staff. - -Braddock was a brave man, but he had never made war in the woods, or -against Indians. One day Washington suggested that a long train of -heavily loaded wagons would make the march very, very slow. He was -thinking of Indians. Braddock only smiled, as if to say that a young -backwoodsman could not teach him how to fight. - -[Sidenote: =Braddock too vain to take good advice=] - -Benjamin Franklin, a very wise man from Philadelphia, was also troubled -when he thought of how the Indians and French would cut to pieces that -long line of troops as they marched through the deep, dark forests. -Braddock smiled again, and said: "These savages may be dangerous to the -raw American militia, but it is impossible that they should make any -impression on the king's troops." - -The army, over two thousand strong, slowly crossed the mountains, and -by July had almost reached Fort Duquesne. One day nearly one thousand -French and Indians swarmed on both sides of the road, and from behind -the safe cover of trees poured a deadly fire upon Braddock's men. "God -save the king!" cried the British soldiers, as they formed in line of -battle. - -[Illustration: A VIRGINIA RIFLEMAN] - -[Sidenote: =A great defeat=] - -[Sidenote: =Washington thanked for his bravery by the Burgesses=] - -Washington urged Braddock to permit the English to take to the trees -and fight Indian fashion, as the Virginians were doing, but Braddock -forced his men to stand and be shot down by the unseen foe. Braddock -himself was mortally wounded. Washington had two horses shot under him -and his clothes pierced by four bullets. The British regulars soon ran -madly back upon the soldiers in the rear. They threw away guns and -left their cannon and wagons, while the Virginians under Washington -kept the Indians back. The British army retreated to Philadelphia, -but Washington returned to Virginia, where he received the thanks of -the Burgesses. He at once collected troops, and hastened into the -Shenandoah Valley to protect the settlers from the French and Indians. - -[Illustration: WASHINGTON AND THE VIRGINIANS SAVE BRADDOCK'S ARMY] - -[Sidenote: =Colonel Washington visits Boston=] - -The next year (1756) Washington journeyed on horseback to Boston. He -wore his colonel's uniform of buff and blue, with a white and scarlet -cloak over his shoulders. At his side hung a fine sword. With him -rode two aids in uniform, besides two servants. Many an admiring eye -was turned toward this stately young cavalier. After this journey he -returned to the frontier, near Greenway Court, and remained there a -year or two more. - -[Sidenote: =Washington introduced to Martha Custis=] - - -=67. Washington Meets his Future Wife.= One day while on his way to -Williamsburg with war dispatches, Washington halted at a plantation -to take dinner with a friend. There he was introduced to Mrs. Martha -Custis, a charming young widow of his own age. - -[Illustration: THE OLD BLOCK HOUSE, PITTSBURGH - -_Still standing to-day in the heart of the city, formed part of Fort -Pitt_] - -After dinner the conversation with her was too interesting for the -young officer to see the horses being led back and forth near the -window. The horses were stabled again. After supper Washington was not -yet ready to mount. Not until late in the afternoon next day did he -mount and ride away with all speed for the capital. On his return he -visited Mrs. Custis at her own beautiful plantation, and did not leave -until he had her promise of marriage. - -[Sidenote: =Wolfe made it easy to capture Fort Duquesne=] - -Great armies were already gathering. William Pitt, who sent Wolfe to -capture Quebec, also ordered General Forbes to march against Fort -Duquesne. But it was November before the army reached the Ohio. The -French and Indians had nearly all gone to fight on the St. Lawrence, -and the place was easily captured. It is said that Washington himself -ran up the English flag. The fort's name was changed to Fort Pitt. - -[Sidenote: =A Virginia wedding=] - - -=68. Old Days in Virginia.= Washington now hastened home to claim his -bride. To the wedding came the new royal governor in scarlet and gold, -and the king's officers in bright uniforms. There, too, came the great -planters with their wives dressed in the best that the yearly ship -could bring from London. The bride rode home in a coach drawn by six -beautiful horses, while Washington, well mounted, rode by the side of -the coach, attended by many friends on horseback. - -[Sidenote: =Elected to the House of Burgesses=] - -The hardy settlers of the frontier, grateful to their brave defender, -had already elected him to represent them in the House of Burgesses. -He was proud to take his young wife to the meeting of the Burgesses -when the old capital town was at its gayest, and when the planters came -pouring in to attend the governor's reception. - -[Illustration: A RECEPTION AT THE GOVERNOR'S - -_At these receptions gay cavaliers and high-born ladies trod the -stately minuet or danced the famous Virginia reel_] - -[Sidenote: =Too confused to make a speech=] - -Washington had already taken his seat among the Burgesses when the -speaker arose and, in a very eloquent speech, praised him and presented -him the thanks of the House for his gallant deeds as a soldier. -Washington was so confused to hear himself so highly praised that, when -he arose to reply, he could not say a word. "Sit down, Mr. Washington," -said the speaker, "your modesty is equal to your valor, and that -surpasses any language that I possess." - -Washington took his young bride to Mount Vernon, and there began the -life that he enjoyed far more than the life of a soldier. He felt a -deep interest in everything on the plantation. Early every morning he -visited his stables and his kennel, for he liked horses and dogs very -much. He then mounted a spirited horse and rode over his plantation to -look at the growing fields of tobacco or wheat, or at the work of his -slaves. - -When the king's inspectors in the West Indies and in London saw barrels -of flour marked "George Washington, Mount Vernon," they let them pass -without examining them, for they were always good. He looked after his -own and his wife's plantations so well that in a few years he was one -of the richest men in America. - -[Illustration: FOX HUNTING IN VIRGINIA - -_In some sections of our country this popular sport of the Virginia -colonists is still followed as in the days of George and Martha -Washington_] - -[Sidenote: =Old Mount Vernon days=] - -But besides such duties, there were many simple pleasures to be enjoyed -at Mount Vernon. Here his soldier friends always found a warm welcome. -Lord Fairfax and other Virginia gentlemen went often to Mount Vernon -to enjoy a fox chase. Sometimes Mrs. Washington and the ladies rode -with dash and courage after the hounds. Now and then boating parties on -the wide Potomac were the order of the day. Many times the halls and -grounds of Mount Vernon rang with the shouts and laughter of younger -people, guests, who had come from miles around, for George and Martha -Washington were young in spirit. - -[Illustration: SCENE AT MOUNT VERNON IN THE DAYS OF WASHINGTON] - -[Sidenote: =Washington took sides with Patrick Henry=] - - -=69. The Mutterings of War.= One day in June, 1765, Washington came -back from Williamsburg and told his family and neighbors about the bold -resolutions and fiery speech of a rustic-looking member named Patrick -Henry. He said that many of the older members opposed Henry. Washington -took Henry's side, but his friends, the Fairfaxes, took the king's side -in favor of the Stamp Act. - -When the king put a tax on tea, Washington and many of his neighbors -signed an agreement not to buy any more tea of England until the tax -was taken off. When he heard that Samuel Adams and the "Mohawks" had -thrown the tea into Boston Harbor, he knew that exciting times would -soon be at hand. - -[Sidenote: =Sent to the Continental Congress=] - -The very next year the king ordered more soldiers to go to Boston and -put in force the Boston Port Bill and other unjust laws. The colonies -saw the danger, and sent their best men to hold the first Continental -Congress at Philadelphia. Virginia sent George Washington, Patrick -Henry, Richard Henry Lee, and other great men. Washington, however, was -not an orator, and made no speech in the Congress, as others did. He -was a man of deeds. His time had not yet come. - -[Sidenote: =A youthful colonel=] - -Many persons were surprised to find him so young, for twenty years -before they had heard of his deeds against the French, and how he -had saved the broken pieces of Braddock's army. A member of Congress -declared that "if you speak of solid information, and of sound -judgment, Colonel Washington is unquestionably the greatest man on the -floor." - -The Congress, among other things, resolved to stand by Boston, if -General Gage should make war on that town. Washington knew what that -meant. He was not at home many months before he was busy drilling his -brave Virginians, many of whom had been with him in the French and -Indian War. - -[Illustration: WASHINGTON DRILLING HIS VIRGINIANS] - -[Sidenote: =In Congress again=] - -[Sidenote: =What John Adams said=] - - -=70. Washington Made Commander of the American Armies.= In the last -days of April, 1775, the news of the fight at Lexington and Concord -was spreading rapidly southward. Washington, dressed in the buff and -blue uniform of a Virginia colonel, hurried to Philadelphia to the -meeting of the second Continental Congress. His day had come. It was -now a time for deeds. The American army that surrounded Gage in Boston -must have a head. John Adams arose in Congress and said that for the -place of commander he had "but one gentleman in mind--a gentleman from -Virginia--whose skill and experience as an officer, whose independent -fortune, great talents, and excellent universal character would command -the approbation of all America, and unite the colonies better than any -other person in the Union." - -[Sidenote: =What Washington said to Congress and wrote to his wife=] - -Before all these words were spoken, Washington, much moved, had left -the room. Congress elected him unanimously to be commander in chief -of its armies. When he accepted the honor, he said: "I beg it may be -remembered by every gentleman in this room, that I this day declare, -with the utmost sincerity, I do not think myself equal to the command I -am honored with." - -Washington wrote immediately to his wife: "You may believe me, my dear -Patsey, that so far from seeking this appointment, I have used every -endeavor in my power to avoid it, not only from my own unwillingness to -part from you and the family, but from the consciousness of its being a -trust too great for my capacity." Great men are often the most modest. - -[Sidenote: =On the way to take command=] - -[Sidenote: =News from Bunker Hill=] - -Washington was soon on the way to Boston by the very route he had -gone nearly twenty years before. But how different the journey! -Then he was a Virginia colonel. Now he was the honored commander of -all the American armies. Then only a few friends were with him. Now -congressmen, citizens of Philadelphia, and great crowds cheered him -on the way. Only twenty miles out from Philadelphia, they met the -news from Bunker Hill. When Washington heard how the Americans faced -the British bayonets, and twice forced the Redcoats to retreat, he -exclaimed: "The liberties of the country are safe!" - -[Sidenote: =Took command of the army, July 3, 1775=] - -Through New Jersey he was hailed by the people with delight. A military -procession escorted him through New York City, where he appointed -that noble general, Philip Schuyler, to take command in New York. The -students at Yale gave him a real college welcome--a parade with a band -and student songs. - -On Cambridge Common, under the famous Harvard Elm, on July 3, 1775, -Washington drew his sword and took command of the Continental army. -There was a great task before him. He had to drill the troops, collect -cannon from Ticonderoga, which Americans had captured, and get ready to -drive the British out of Boston. - -[Illustration: A COLLEGE WELCOME AT YALE] - -[Sidenote: =A bloodless victory=] - -It took all winter to do these things. One night in March, 1776, -Washington secretly sent some of his best troops to build a fort on -Dorchester Heights. The next morning Howe, the new British general, saw -Washington's cannon pointing down on his army and ships. He immediately -put his army on board and sailed away. This was a victory without a -fight. - -[Illustration: WASHINGTON TAKING COMMAND OF THE ARMY] - -[Sidenote: =Washington outwits Howe=] - -Washington took his army to New York, and built a fort on Long Island -to protect the city. He was none too quick, for Howe came with thirty -thousand men and many war ships. - -In the battle on Long Island a part of Washington's army was defeated. -General Howe planned to capture the defeated troops next day, but -Washington was too shrewd. In the night he collected all the boats in -that region and rowed his army over to New York before the British knew -what he was doing. - -[Sidenote: =New York captured=] - -The great British army and fleet took the city, but by the help of -a patriotic lady, Mrs. Murray, who entertained General Howe and his -officers too long for their own good, all of Washington's regiments -got away safely up the Hudson. During the fall of 1776, General Howe -tried to get above Washington's army and capture it. But he did -neither, for Washington's troops defeated the British both at Harlem -Heights and at White Plains. - -[Illustration: ENTERTAINING GENERAL HOWE AND HIS OFFICERS - -_At Murray Hill, then a great farmstead, now the heart of New York -City, Mrs. Murray entertained them so delightfully two hours slipped -away, and the Americans were out of reach_] - -[Sidenote: =Heroic Nathan Hale=] - -While at Harlem Heights Washington felt that he must learn some secrets -about the enemy. Nathan Hale, a young officer, volunteered to bring -General Washington the information he wanted; but Hale was caught by -the British and hanged. "I only regret," he said, "that I have but one -life to lose for my country." - -[Sidenote: =Washington retreats, but fights=] - -Howe then turned back as if to march against Philadelphia and capture -Congress. Washington quickly threw a part of his army across the -Hudson into New Jersey, but he had to retreat. The British followed in -a hot chase across New Jersey. Washington crossed the Delaware, and -took with him all the boats for many miles up and down the river. The -British decided to wait till they could cross on the ice. Some of their -generals thought the war was about over, and hastened back to New York -to spend the Christmas holidays. - -[Sidenote: =Americans discouraged=] - - -=71. The People Did Not Know Washington.= Those were, indeed, dark days -for the Americans. Hundreds of Washington's soldiers had gone home -discouraged, and many other faint-hearted Americans thought the cause -lost, and were again promising obedience to George III. But the people -did not yet know Washington. - -On Christmas night, with two thousand five hundred picked men, -Washington took to his boats, and crossed the Delaware in spite of the -floating ice. Nine miles away, in Trenton, lay the Hessians, those -soldiers from Hesse-Cassel, in Europe, whom George III had hired to -fight his American subjects, because Englishmen refused to fight -Americans. - -[Illustration: SCENE OF WASHINGTON'S CAMPAIGNS IN THE NORTH] - -On went the little army in spite of the biting cold and the blinding -snow. During this fearful night two men froze to death and many others -were numb with cold. - -[Sidenote: =An early morning surprise=] - -"Our guns are wet," said an officer. "Then use the bayonet!" replied -Washington. There was a sudden rush of tramping feet and the roar of -cannon in the streets. The Hessian general was killed, and one thousand -of his men surrendered. - -[Illustration: WASHINGTON ON THE MARCH TO TRENTON - -_All night, thinly clad, many without shoes and with bleeding feet, -over the frozen ground, on marched the shivering men, bringing at -daybreak disaster to the Hessians asleep after their Christmas revels_] - -These were a strange lot of prisoners. Not one could speak a word -of English or cared a thing for George III. No doubt they wished -themselves at home on that morning. But the Hessians were not more -surprised than the British generals in New York. - -[Sidenote: =Washington outwits another English general=] - -Cornwallis, the British commander, hurried forward with troops to -capture Washington, but rested his army at Trenton. That night -Washington's army stole away, and Cornwallis awoke in the morning to -hear the booming of Washington's cannon at Princeton, where Washington -was defeating another part of the British army. Cornwallis hastened to -Princeton. It was too late. Washington was safe among the heights of -Morristown, where Cornwallis did not dare attack him. - -These two victories turned the tide and aroused the Americans. -Reënforcements and supplies made Washington's army stronger and more -comfortable. - -[Illustration: HESSIAN FLAG - -_From a photo of the flag taken by Washington from the Hessians at -Trenton and now in the museum at Alexandria_] - -The next spring (1777) General Howe decided to capture Philadelphia. -But Washington boldly moved his army across Howe's line of march. -Howe did not want to fight, so he put his army on board his ships, -sailed around into the Chesapeake, landed, and marched for the "rebel -capital," as the British called Philadelphia. - -[Sidenote: =Washington and Howe meet at the Brandywine=] - -At Brandywine Creek, south of Philadelphia, Washington faced him. A -severe battle was fought. Each side lost about one thousand men. The -Americans slowly retreated. In this battle Lafayette, a young French -nobleman, was wounded. Lafayette had heard in France how the American -farmers had beaten the king's regulars at Lexington, and he had made up -his mind to go to help them. On his arrival Congress had made Lafayette -a general in the Continental army. - -[Illustration: KNEE BUCKLES WORN BY GENERAL WASHINGTON] - -[Sidenote: =Valley Forge=] - - -=72. The Winter at Valley Forge.= After the battle at Brandywine Creek -the British slowly made their way to Philadelphia. Washington took -post for the winter at Valley Forge, on the Schuylkill River, twenty -miles northwest of Philadelphia. There, in the deep woods among the -hills, and in log huts built by their own hands, the American forces -passed a winter so full of suffering that it makes one shudder to read -the story. - -[Sidenote: =What the soldiers suffered for independence=] - -When the army marched into Valley Forge, "their route could be traced -on the snow by the blood that oozed from their bare, frost-bitten -feet." Washington wrote to Congress that nearly three thousand of his -men were "barefoot or otherwise naked." - -A part of the army had no bread for three days, and for two days -no meat. Hundreds had no beds, and gladly slept on piles of straw. -Others had no blankets, and sat up nights before the fire to keep from -freezing. Many sickened and died. But in Philadelphia the well-fed -British soldiers had a gay season, with balls and banquets. - -[Illustration: CAMP AT VALLEY FORGE] - -[Sidenote: =Steuben helps drill the men=] - -Washington grieved over the suffering of his men, but never lost -heart. All the long winter through, with the aid of General Steuben, -a noble German officer, he drilled his men. In the spring when the -British started back to New York, he gave them such a bayonet charge -at Monmouth, New Jersey (1778), they were glad to escape that night, -instead of stopping to rest and bury their dead. - - -=73. The Crowning Victory at Yorktown.= For the next three years the -British army remained in New York, not daring to come out and attack -Washington. - -[Sidenote: =Good news from Lafayette=] - -Finally, in the summer of 1781, General Lafayette, who had now -recovered from his wound, and had fought with the Americans at -Monmouth, was sent to Virginia by Washington to watch the British army -there. Lafayette sent Washington word that Cornwallis had come up from -the Carolinas, and had taken post at Yorktown. After receiving more -soldiers, Lafayette followed Cornwallis to Yorktown and stationed his -army near that place. Washington also got word that a large French -war fleet was coming to the coast of Virginia to aid the Americans. -This fleet had been sent to aid the Americans by the King of France. -Washington also had six thousand fine French troops under the command -of General Rochambeau. This aid had been secured through the influence -of Lafayette, who had visited his home in France in 1779. - -[Illustration: GEORGE WASHINGTON - -_From the Gibbs-Channing portrait painted by Gilbert Stuart, the first -portrait of Washington, now in the possession of Samuel P. Avery of New -York_] - -[Sidenote: =Washington again outwits Cornwallis=] - -Washington now saw his chance. He ordered Lafayette to watch Cornwallis -while he himself took two thousand ragged Continentals and four -thousand French troops in bright uniforms, and slipped away from New -York. He was almost in Philadelphia before the British or his own -soldiers could guess where he was going. - -At Yorktown, Washington and his army found both Lafayette and the -French fleet keeping watch. Day and night the siege went on amid the -roar of cannon. When all was ready, then came the wild charge of the -Americans and the French in the face of British cannon and over British -breastworks. The outer works were won, and Cornwallis saw that he must -surrender. Seven thousand of the king's troops marched out and gave up -their arms. - -[Illustration: THE SURRENDER OF CORNWALLIS - -_After the painting by John Trumbull which hangs in the rotunda of the -Capitol at Washington_] - -[Sidenote: =Cornwallis surrenders=] - -The victory at Yorktown made all Americans happy, and they rang bells, -fired cannon, built bonfires, and praised Washington and Lafayette. But -England was now tired of war, and many of her great men declared in -favor of peace, which was soon made, in 1783. - -[Sidenote: =A touching scene=] - - -=74. Washington Bids Farewell to his Officers and to Congress.= -Washington bade farewell to his brave soldiers, with whom he had fought -so long. The parting with his officers in Fraunces' Tavern, New York, -was a touching scene. With tears in his eyes, and with a voice full of -tenderness, he embraced each one as he bade him good-by. It was like -the parting of a father from his sons. - -[Illustration: WASHINGTON'S RESIGNATION - -_After the painting by Trumbull in the Capitol at Washington_] - -[Sidenote: =A noble act=] - -Washington now journeyed to Annapolis, Maryland, where Congress was -then held, to give back the authority of commander in chief which -Congress had bestowed on him eight years before. How unselfish had been -the conduct of Washington in refusing pay for his services! How noble -was the act of giving up his power over an army which idolized him, and -which he might have used to make himself king! But he did not think -of these things as he hastened to his beautiful Mount Vernon to enjoy -Christmas time once more with his loved ones. - -[Illustration: MOUNT VERNON, THE HOME OF WASHINGTON] - -[Sidenote: =How the war had changed things=] - -[Sidenote: =Many people visit Washington=] - -But what a change had come to Virginia! Eight years before George III -was king over all the Thirteen Colonies, and Virginia was ruled by -one of his governors. Now the people were ruling themselves, and had -elected one of Washington's neighbors, Benjamin Harrison, to be their -governor. He missed some old friends. Some had died on the field of -battle; others, like Lord Fairfax, had gone back to England, where -they could be ruled by George III. Soon visitors began to come--old -soldiers, beloved generals, and great statesmen from America, as well -as distinguished people from Europe. They all wanted the honor of -visiting the man who had led the American armies to victory, but who, -again, was only a Virginia planter. - - -=75. Lafayette Visits Washington.= The year after peace was made -Lafayette came back to America to visit General Washington. There were -great times at Mount Vernon. Washington, Lafayette, and other noble men -sat around the table and there told stories of their struggles and of -their triumphs. - -[Illustration: LAFAYETTE AT MOUNT VERNON - -_After a painting by Rossiter and Mignot_] - -Lafayette visited many other places and received a warm welcome -wherever he went; he had taken active part in many battles of the -Revolution; his blood had flowed for the American cause. At Monmouth -he had saved the Americans from retreat by sending for Washington. -He had had an important part in the crowning victory at Yorktown. -The Americans loved and admired him, and did all in their power to -show their gratitude. Many years after, on another visit to America, -Congress voted him two hundred thousand dollars and twenty-four -thousand acres of land as a reward for his great services. - -[Sidenote: =Another call to duty=] - - -=76. Washington Elected First President.= The American people would not -let Washington long enjoy Mount Vernon, for when they met to make a new -constitution, or plan of government, he was chairman of the meeting, -and when that government was to go into operation they would have no -other man for their first president than George Washington. - -[Sidenote: =A triumphal procession from Mount Vernon to New York=] - -In 1789 he once more bade Mount Vernon and his aged mother good-by, and -began the journey to New York, which was at that time the capital of -the new nation. What a journey! It was almost one continual procession -and celebration! At every town and roadside the people came to show -their love for Washington, whom they rightly called the "Father of his -Country." School children scattered flowers in his way and beautiful -young women sang patriotic songs as he passed under decorated arches. -When he reached New York Harbor the bay was white with the sails of -many nations. Crowds thronged the streets, cannon boomed, and flags -were thrown to the breeze to welcome him. - -[Sidenote: =Washington takes the oath as first president=] - -On April 30, 1789, standing on the balcony of Federal Hall in Wall -Street, Washington took the oath of office, and pledged himself to -govern the people according to the Constitution they had just made. He -reverently bent and kissed the Bible, and became the first President of -the United States. From the street, from doors and windows, and from -the housetops, the people cried out: "Long live George Washington, -President of the United States!" - -His new office was almost as hard a task as the Revolution had been. -He was now in charge of the affairs of the country. He had to see to -it that laws were made to protect the rights of every one. Then he had -to see that these laws were carried out. He could not guide himself by -what another president had done, for there had been none before him. - -[Illustration: WASHINGTON'S GRAND ENTRY INTO NEW YORK CITY, 1789 - -_From a chromo-lithograph after an original drawing by Alphonse Bigot_] - -But Washington directed the new ship of state so that it suffered no -harm. When it looked as though we should have another war with England, -he wisely preserved peace. So well were the people satisfied that they -made him president a second time. When they offered him the office -for a third term he refused. Thousands gathered to see him leave the -capital. As he gave them his final farewell, tears rolled down his -cheeks, and men cried like children. - -[Illustration: WASHINGTON'S TOMB, MOUNT VERNON] - -[Sidenote: =Death in 1799=] - -He was glad to get back to Mount Vernon, for he had grown old and weary -in serving his country. He spent his remaining years among the scenes -he loved so well. There he died in 1799, mourned as a father by the -whole people. - - -SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL - - =The Leading Facts.= _1._ Washington was born on the Potomac, - spent his early days on the Rappahannock, and went to school at - Fredericksburg. _2._ He learned many things outside of school, - such as horseback riding, fox hunting, and how to find his way in - the deep forests. _3._ He became a surveyor in the Shenandoah for - Lord Fairfax. _4._ Governor Dinwiddie sent Washington to order - the French to leave the Ohio. _5._ Washington joined Braddock's - campaign against the French, and in the battle tried to save the - army. _6._ Washington married young Mrs. Martha Custis, and was - elected to the House of Burgesses. _7._ Heard Patrick Henry's fiery - speech, went to first Continental Congress, and the second Congress - made him commander over the Continental army. _8._ Washington - drove the British out of Boston, outwitted them around New York, - retreated across the Jerseys, and then beat them at Trenton and - Princeton, _9._ He fought at Brandywine, suffered at Valley Forge, - penned the British up in New York, and finally captured Cornwallis - at Yorktown. _10._ Washington gave up his command and retired to - Mount Vernon, but was called to be the first president of the new - republic. - - =Study Questions.= _1._ Who was Washington's father and where did - he meet Washington's mother? _2._ What was a plantation and why so - large? _3._ What things did Washington love to do besides study? - _4._ Why did George make a good captain? _5._ Picture the yearly - ship from London at Mount Vernon. _6._ Who was Lord Fairfax and - what did he engage Washington to do? _7._ What did Washington do at - Greenway Court? _8._ Why was Washington chosen for the mission to - the French, and what was the result? _9._ What were the preliminary - events before the great war? _10._ Picture Braddock's defeat. - _11._ How old was Washington when he first visited Boston? _12._ - How did he become so rich? _13._ What news did Washington bring - back to Mount Vernon in 1765? _14._ Who went to Congress with - George Washington, and how did a member speak of him? _15._ What - did he learn at Congress? _16._ Picture the scene in the second - Congress. _17._ Describe the trip to Boston. _18._ What task did - he set before himself, and how did he accomplish it? _19._ How - did Washington outwit Howe? _20._ Who was Nathan Hale? _21._ What - discouraged the Americans? _22._ Picture the surprise and capture - of the Hessians. _23._ How did Washington outwit Cornwallis? _24._ - What effect did these victories have? _25._ What sort of a time did - the soldiers spend at Valley Forge? _26._ Who was Steuben, and what - did he do? _27._ How did Lafayette aid Washington? _28._ Picture - the surrounding and capture of Cornwallis. _29._ What changes had - the war made in Virginia? _30._ In what way did Congress honor - Lafayette? _31._ Picture Washington's journey to New York. - - =Suggested Readings.= WASHINGTON: Cooke, _Stories of the Old - Dominion_, 94-139; Blaisdell and Ball, _Hero Stories from American - History_, 62-76, 123-155; Hart, _Camps and Firesides of the - Revolution_, 239-255, 261-266, 307-309; Glascock, _Stories of - Columbia_, 101-113; Baldwin, _Four Great Americans_, 9-68; Hart, - _How our Grandfathers Lived_, 45-47; Mabie, _Heroes Every Child - Should Know_, 274-288; Hawthorne, _Grandfather's Chair_, 186-191; - Magell, _Stories from Virginia History_, 56-78, 79-94; Brooks, - _True Story of Lafayette_; Wister, _The Seven Ages of Washington_; - Mace, _George Washington: A Virginia Cavalier_. - - - - -THE MAN WHO HELPED WIN INDEPENDENCE BY WINNING THE HEARTS OF FRENCHMEN -FOR AMERICA - - - - -BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, THE WISEST AMERICAN OF HIS TIME - - -[Sidenote: =Born in colonial times=] - - -=77. Benjamin Franklin, the Boy Printer.= When Franklin was born in -Boston (1706) there were men still living who had seen John Winthrop, -the first governor of Massachusetts, and Roger Williams, the founder of -Rhode Island. - -[Sidenote: =The scholar of the family=] - -Franklin's father was a poor but hard-working man. He made soap and -candles. Benjamin's nine brothers had learned trades, but his parents -had decided that he should be the "scholar of the family." At eight he -went to school to prepare for college and was soon at the head of his -class. - -[Sidenote: =Put to work=] - -But it was hard to feed and clothe a family of seventeen, and Benjamin -was sent to another school where he could fit himself for business. But -he did poorly in arithmetic, and at ten was taken out of school and put -to work with his father. - -[Sidenote: =Longs for the sea=] - -In the port of Boston Franklin saw the ships and sailors of all -nations, and longed to go to sea, but his father took him to visit the -shops, where he saw men busy at work with all kinds of tools. Although -Benjamin liked to work with tools, he liked to read better, and spent -all his little earnings in buying books. He borrowed books when he -could not buy them. - -[Sidenote: =How he improved his language=] - -Finally Franklin's parents decided that since he loved books so well -he might be a printer, and put him to learn the trade with an older -brother. Benjamin was to serve his brother for his board and clothes -until he was twenty-one. He worked hard at his trade, and read more -books than before. He improved his own language by writing out in his -own words what he had read, and then comparing his account with the -author's. - -[Illustration: BENJAMIN FRANKLIN - -_From the original portrait by Joseph Siffrein Duplessis, in the Museum -of Fine Arts, Boston_] - -He now offered to take half the money that his board cost, and board -himself. His brother agreed to this plan, and Benjamin saved money and -bought more books. - -[Sidenote: =Writes for his brother's paper=] - -He longed to write something for his brother's paper. He did so, and -put it at night under the door, but he did not dare sign his name to -what he had written. His brother showed it to his friends. They praised -it, and it was printed. It was fun for Benjamin to hear people guessing -that the writer must be some great man in Boston. Franklin wrote -several other articles, and called them the "Dogood Papers," but his -brother was angry when he learned who wrote them. - -[Sidenote: =Leaves home=] - -Franklin was now only seventeen, but because of his brother's cruelty -he sold his books and took a boat for New York without saying good-by -to his parents. He afterwards said that leaving home in this way was a -great mistake. - -[Sidenote: =From New York to Philadelphia=] - -No one in New York wanted a printer, so young Franklin took a boat -for Perth-Amboy, New Jersey, on his way to Philadelphia. His ship was -caught in a storm, and the passengers were wet and hungry when they -landed. - -Franklin set out on foot across the state for Burlington. For nearly -three days he walked in the rain along muddy roads, looking so rough -people thought he was a runaway servant. He was tired and homesick. But -he took boat again, and reached Philadelphia on Sunday morning, landing -at the foot of Market Street. - -[Illustration: FRANKLIN AND DEBORAH REED - -_The first meeting of Franklin and the young girl who was to be his -wife_] - -[Sidenote: =His sorry plight=] - -He was so hungry, he thought more of something to eat than of dressing -up for Sunday. He was in a sorry plight. With his pockets stuffed with -soiled shirts and stockings, and a roll of bread under each arm and one -in his hand, Franklin walked up Market Street, and passed the home of -his future wife, Deborah Reed. No wonder she laughed at him. She would -have laughed more if some one had said: "There goes a boy who will some -day become your husband and the greatest man in Philadelphia." - -[Sidenote: =Good books and good company=] - -Franklin found work in a printing office, saved his money, and bought -books to study. He got acquainted with other young people who also -loved books, and he often spent his evenings with them. - -[Sidenote: =A call from the governor=] - -To the surprise of Franklin and his brother printers, one day Sir -William Keith, the governor of Pennsylvania, called at the shop to see -Franklin. Governors did not then pay much attention to poor printers. -The governor, who was dissatisfied with Philadelphia printers, promised -to send him to England to buy a printing press. - -[Sidenote: =Returns home before going to London=] - -Franklin, with the governor's letter in his pocket, hastened back to -Boston in order to get his father's help to go to London. How happy -were parents, brothers, and sisters to see the long-absent son and -brother! But his father could give him no aid, and the young printer -returned to Philadelphia. The governor, however, promised to pay his -expenses, and Benjamin took ship for England. - -[Illustration: PRINTING PRESS - -_From a photo of the press used by Franklin when in London, and now in -the National Museum, Washington, D.C._] - -The governor had not even given him letters of introduction, to say -nothing of money, and Franklin found himself a stranger in one of the -largest cities in the world. - -[Sidenote: =In a London printing office=] - -He did not whine or spend his time grumbling, but went bravely to -work in a printing office. He set a good example to his beer-drinking -comrades by drinking only water and proving he was stronger and able -to do more work and do it better than any of them. - -[Sidenote: =Returns to Philadelphia and marries=] - -The next year a Philadelphia merchant persuaded Franklin to return to -America to become his clerk. But in a few years he went to work again -at his old trade as printer, and in a short time became the editor of -the _Pennsylvania Gazette_. - -Franklin had already married Miss Reed, the young lady who had laughed -at him for making a show of himself on his first day in Philadelphia. - -[Illustration: A FRANKLIN STOVE - -_After a model in the rooms of the American Philosophical Society, -Philadelphia_] - -[Sidenote: =Founds three great institutions=] - - -=78. A Rising Young Man.= He was now a rising young man in the old -Quaker city. From year to year he did many things to help others. He -started a circulating library, the first in America, out of which has -grown the Philadelphia Public Library. He founded a school which has -become the great University of Pennsylvania, and a society, called the -American Philosophical Society, which still holds important meetings. - -[Sidenote: =Invents a stove=] - -[Sidenote: =Forms the first fire department=] - -Franklin improved the heating of houses by inventing the "Franklin -stove," but refused to take out a patent and thus make himself rich at -other people's expense. He also formed the first "fire department" in -any American town. - -[Sidenote: =Poor Richard's sayings=] - -Who has not heard of _Poor Richard's Almanac_? Franklin printed it, -and the people liked it so well that he sometimes printed ten thousand -copies. Here are a few of the quaint and true sayings: "A word to the -wise is enough." "God helps those who help themselves." - - "Early to bed and early to rise, - Makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise." - -[Sidenote: =Economy is the road to wealth=] - -Franklin and his young wife kept these rules faithfully. She worked in -the printing office as well as in the house. They hired no servants: -Their furniture, dress, and food were plain. He ate his breakfast of -bread and milk out of a wooden bowl with a pewter spoon. Mrs. Franklin -surprised him one day by giving him a china bowl and a silver spoon. -She said her husband deserved such things as well as other men. - -[Sidenote: =Elected to office=] - -The people of Philadelphia admired Benjamin Franklin more and more. At -the age of thirty he was chosen clerk of the Assembly of Pennsylvania, -and afterward was elected a lawmaker in the Assembly. Every year for -ten years his neighbors elected him to help make the laws of the colony. - -[Sidenote: =Deputy postmaster-general=] - -In a few years Franklin was made deputy postmaster-general for all the -colonies by the king. He surprised the people by declaring that the -mail should be carried from Philadelphia to Boston every week! He was -postmaster-general for more than twenty years. - -[Illustration: MILESTONE, LYME, CONN. - -_This milestone, still standing at Lyme, marks the distance on a road -surveyed by Franklin_] - -[Sidenote: =Franklin plans a union of the colonies=] - -In 1754 Franklin was sent by the colony of Pennsylvania to Albany, -New York, to meet men from other colonies to make a treaty with the -Iroquois, and to plan a union of the Thirteen Colonies. While George -Washington was still a surveyor, before Wolfe captured Quebec, and when -Patrick Henry was yet a boy, Franklin wrote out a plan of union which -pointed the way toward that greater Union, the United States of America. - -[Sidenote: =Fame begins to come=] - -Franklin was now becoming famous outside of Pennsylvania. Yale College -honored him with the degree of Master of Arts. The old University of -Cambridge, England, gave him the same degree. - -All the wise men in England and France were excited by news of an -experiment made by Benjamin Franklin. He had made electricity by using -glass tubes, and he had seen the lightning flash in the storm cloud. He -decided to prove, if he could, that lightning and electricity are the -same. No one had yet done this. - -[Sidenote: =Proves that lightning and electricity are the same=] - -He made a kite out of silk, to which he fastened a small iron rod. -Then he tied a hempen string to the kite and the rod. To the lower -end of the string he tied a silken cord to protect his hand from the -electricity. On the string he tied a key. - -One day when the storm clouds came rolling up, Franklin sent his kite -high up among them, while he waited. Soon the loose fibers on the -hempen string moved. Franklin placed his knuckles close to the key, and -sparks came flying at his hand. - -[Sidenote: =More honors=] - -When the news of this experiment was published some very wise men -smiled; others said it was a trick. The great universities of Oxford -and Edinburgh, however, gave him the doctor's degree, and societies of -wise men in England, France, and Spain elected him a member. He was now -the most famous American. - -[Sidenote: =Sent to England to defend the colonies=] - - -=79. Franklin's Part in the Revolution.= Already we have seen that -England and her colonies were beginning to quarrel. What wiser man -could be sent to England to defend the colonies by tongue and pen than -Benjamin Franklin? He made friends for America among the great men of -England. - -[Sidenote: =How Franklin helped the English understand the Stamp Act=] - -When the Stamp Act was passed the members of Parliament asked him -nearly two hundred questions about the effects of the Stamp Act on -America. He wrote many letters to great men, and long articles to the -English newspapers, explaining how the Stamp Act injured America. Both -England and America rejoiced when the king and Parliament repealed the -Stamp Act, and Franklin sent his wife a fine London gown in honor of -the event. - -[Illustration: FRANKLIN'S CLOCK] - -[Sidenote: =Franklin and Pitt=] - -For eight years more, while America was busy opposing the tax on tea, -Franklin was in England trying to get Parliament and the king to give -the Americans better treatment. But it was all in vain. He often talked -with William Pitt, the great friend of America, who introduced into -Parliament a plan for making friends between the two countries. But the -plan was defeated. - -[Sidenote: =Hastens home=] - -Franklin saw that war would come, and hastened back to his beloved -America, where he arrived just after the battle at Lexington and -Concord (1775). - -[Sidenote: =Franklin plans union=] - -Pennsylvania sent him to the Congress of 1775, which, sitting in -Philadelphia, made George Washington general of the Continental army. -Franklin saw that if the thirteen scattered colonies were to defeat -Great Britain they must unite. So he introduced into Congress a plan of -union, but the other members were not ready for it. - -[Sidenote: =Helps write the Declaration of Independence=] - -Franklin was one of five men who were named by Congress to write the -Declaration of Independence (1776). - -[Sidenote: =Franklin in France=] - -Soon after, Congress sent him to France to influence the king and the -people of that country to aid America in winning independence. The -French hated the English, but admired Benjamin Franklin. The king gave -money secretly, and many French officers came to serve in the American -army. - -[Sidenote: =France sends aid=] - -In 1778 Franklin influenced the King of France to take sides openly -with the Americans. French warships and French soldiers by thousands -now came to help fight our battles. - -[Illustration: INDEPENDENCE HALL, PHILADELPHIA, IN THE DAYS OF FRANKLIN - -_From an old print_] - -[Sidenote: =Treaty with England=] - -After helping to make the treaty of peace with England in 1783, -Franklin came home with many honors. Though nearly eighty years old, -the people of Pennsylvania immediately elected him governor. - -[Illustration: FRANKLIN AT THE COURT OF FRANCE] - -Franklin did one more great work for his country. In 1787 the states -sent their wisest men to Philadelphia to make a constitution, or plan -of government. Pennsylvania chose Franklin, with others, to meet with -these men in Independence Hall. - -[Sidenote: =Helps make our Constitution=] - -[Sidenote: =Franklin signs the Constitution=] - -George Washington, as we have seen, was the president of this meeting. -Many speeches were made, and there was debating for many weeks. The -meeting was always glad to hear Franklin speak, for he was a very wise -man. As he had helped to make, and had signed, the Declaration of -Independence, so now, after helping make the Constitution, he signed -it. Many persons did not like the Constitution. Franklin said there -were some things in the new plan which he did not like, but declared -that he signed it because of the good things it did contain. He showed -his wisdom, for it is one of the best plans of government ever made. - -[Sidenote: =Died in 1790=] - -Franklin spent his last days with his daughter, and, surrounded by his -grandchildren, died in 1790, at the age of eighty-four. - - -SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL - - =The Leading Facts.= _1._ Franklin's parents were poor, had - seventeen children; hence Benjamin, though a studious fellow, - was put to the printer's trade. _2._ Franklin wrote the "Dogood - Papers." Left home for New York, but went on to Philadelphia. - _3._ Persuaded to go to London. He returned and married. _4._ - Franklin started a circulating library, a school which became the - University of Pennsylvania, and a society called the American - Philosophical Society. _5._ He invented a stove, founded the - first fire department in America, and printed _Poor Richard's - Almanac_. _6._ Wrote the first plan of an American Union, and won - degrees from English and Scotch universities. _7._ Franklin was - one of the committee to write the Declaration of Independence. - _8._ Was sent to France, where he won the help of France in the - War of the Revolution. _9._ Franklin was governor of the state of - Pennsylvania, was a delegate to help make the Constitution, and - died at the age of 84. - - =Study Questions.= _1._ How long ago was Franklin born? _2._ Tell - of his school experiences. _3._ Why did Franklin not go to sea? - _4._ Tell the story of his bargain with his brother. _5._ What did - Franklin hear about the "Dogood Papers"? _6._ Tell the story of the - "runaway printer." _7._ How did he save his time in Philadelphia? - _8._ How did he happen to go to London the first time? _9._ What - good example did he set to London printers? _10._ Why did he return - to Philadelphia? _11._ What three great institutions did he found? - _12._ Why did the people like _Poor Richard's Almanac_? _13._ What - public offices did he hold? _14._ Picture Franklin proving that - electricity and lightning are the same. _15._ What did he go to - England a second time for? _16._ How did Franklin aid in the repeal - of the Stamp Act? _17._ In what great events did he have a part? - _18._ What was his work in France? _19._ What was his last great - work? _20._ How did he spend his last days? _21._ Point out the - obstacles he overcame all along in his career. - - =Suggested Readings.= FRANKLIN: Baldwin, _Four Great Americans_, - 71-122; Hart, _Camps and Firesides of the Revolution_, 158-162; - Hart, _Colonial Children_, 197-199, 210-214; Wright, _Children's - Stories of Great Scientists_, 71-89; Bolton, _Famous American - Statesmen_, 38-66; Brooks, _Century Book of Famous Americans_, - 65-76. - - - - -PATRICK HENRY AND SAMUEL ADAMS, FAMOUS MEN OF THE REVOLUTION, WHO -DEFENDED AMERICA WITH TONGUE AND PEN - - - - -PATRICK HENRY, THE ORATOR OF THE REVOLUTION - - -[Sidenote: =Why the king wished to tax America=] - - -=80. The Stamp Act.= The surrender of Quebec and the fall of New France -caused great rejoicing among the thirteen colonies. But the long, hard -war had left both England and her colonies deeply in debt. King George -III, however, thinking only of England's debt, decided that England -ought to tax the colonies to pay for an army which he wished to keep in -America. - -[Illustration: PATRICK HENRY - -_After the painting by Thomas Sully, owned by William Wirt Henry, the -orator's grandson, Richmond, Virginia_] - -[Sidenote: =What the Stamp Act was=] - -So the Parliament of England passed a law that all licenses to marry, -all deeds to property, licenses to trade, newspapers, almanacs, and -other pamphlets had to be printed on stamped paper. This paper ranged -in value from a few cents to many dollars. - -[Illustration: PATRICK HENRY SPEAKING IN THE HOUSE OF BURGESSES - -_From an engraving after the original painting by Rothermal_] - -Leading men in every one of the thirteen colonies spoke and wrote -against the Stamp Act. Of all the men who did so, Patrick Henry, of -Virginia, was the most eloquent and fiery. He had been elected by the -people of his county to go up to Williamsburg, the capital of Virginia, -to help make the laws. There were many able men in that old House of -Burgesses, but none of them wished to take the lead in opposing the -king's plan of a stamp tax. - -[Sidenote: =Patrick Henry in the House of Burgesses=] - -One day young Henry, although a new member, snatched a blank leaf from -a law book and wrote down a set of resolutions declaring that only the -Virginia Assembly could tax Virginians, and that any one who asserted -the contrary was an enemy of the colony. - -[Sidenote: =Patrick Henry's famous speech=] - -He backed up these resolutions with a speech that stirred the -Burgesses. He was so fiery and bold that men almost held their breath -while they listened to the young orator. He closed by declaring that -George III was acting like a tyrant, and that "Caesar had his Brutus, -Charles the First his Cromwell, and George the Third--" "Treason! -treason!" shouted the Speaker of the House. Waiting a moment till the -noise ceased, the orator, with a calm and steady voice, added, "may -profit by their example. If this be treason, make the most of it." - -Henry's resolutions were passed, and were printed in almost every -newspaper in the colonies. They made the people more determined than -ever not to buy stamped paper. - -Who was this young lawyer that stirred these dignified Virginia -gentlemen in powdered hair, knee breeches, and silver buckles? - -[Sidenote: =Patrick as a boy=] - - -=81. The Orator of the Revolution.= Patrick Henry was born in Virginia -(1736). His father was a well-educated Scotchman, who taught school and -became a lawyer. His mother was of Welsh blood. Young Patrick went to -school, but he liked to hunt and fish far better than to study. He was -a puzzle to his parents. - -[Sidenote: =Early failures=] - -By the time he was eighteen he had failed as a student, as a clerk, and -as a storekeeper. He then married. The parents on both sides helped -them to start farming with a few slaves. In two years Patrick Henry was -forced to sell. Once more he tried keeping a country store. In three -years the store closed its doors and Patrick Henry, aged twenty-three, -was without an occupation. - -[Sidenote: =Liked to study history and law=] - -He now turned to the study of law. Although not in love with school -when a boy, he loved to read the Bible. He also had a strong liking for -history, and, in his youth, read the histories of Greece, of Rome, of -England, and of the colonies. By a few months of hard study of the law -he passed the examination. He succeeded from the first, and in less -than four years had been engaged in more than one thousand cases. - -[Sidenote: =Succeeded as a lawyer=] - -[Sidenote: =Patrick's father the judge=] - - -=82. The Parsons' Case.= In 1763 Patrick Henry set all Virginia to -talking about him as a lawyer. This colony had paid its clergymen from -the beginning. Each one received a certain number of pounds of tobacco -for his salary. But the price was now high and now low. A dispute -arose because of this and was taken into court. But no great lawyer -would take the people's side. Patrick Henry did. The courthouse was -filled with people, many clergymen among them. In the judge's chair sat -Patrick's own father. - -[Sidenote: =Henry's first great speech=] - -[Sidenote: =The people overjoyed=] - -Henry began his speech in an awkward way. The clergymen felt -encouraged, while his friends and father felt uneasy. Soon he began -to warm up. His words came more freely, and his gestures grew more -graceful. The people began to listen, and then to lean forward -spellbound by the charm of his eloquence and the power of his argument. -The clergy grew angry and left the room. His father, forgetting that he -was judge, cried for joy. When Henry finished, the people seized him -and carried him on their shoulders from the court room and around the -yard, shouting and cheering all the while. - -[Illustration: PEOPLE OF THE COURT CARRYING PATRICK HENRY ON THEIR -SHOULDERS AROUND THE GREEN] - -[Sidenote: =Elected a lawmaker=] - -Patrick Henry was now the people's hero. At the election the following -year his friends chose him to go to the House of Burgesses, and there, -in 1765, he made his stirring speech against the Stamp Act. - -[Sidenote: =The Stamp Act repealed=] - -Many great Englishmen, such as William Pitt and Edmund Burke, opposed -the Stamp Tax. Finally, King George and his Parliament repealed the -unpopular act. The Americans were happy when they heard of its repeal. - -[Illustration: ON THE WAY TO THE GREAT CONGRESS AT PHILADELPHIA] - -[Illustration: ST. JOHN'S CHURCH, RICHMOND] - -[Sidenote: =The Americans angry over the Tea Tax=] - - -=83. New Taxes.= As if the king and Parliament could learn nothing, -they passed a Tea Tax the very next year, placing a tax on all the tea -imported into the colonies. Then the Americans everywhere refused to -buy the tea and pay the tax. When the tea ships came to America the -people of New York and Philadelphia sent them back, and the "Sons of -Liberty" at Annapolis burned a ship full of tea. The king's governor at -Boston refused to permit the ships to carry the tea back to England, -but the people, one night, threw the tea into the sea. King George grew -angry at such "tea parties," and had laws passed to punish Boston. More -British soldiers were sent there to force the people to obey these -detested laws. - -[Sidenote: =Patrick Henry meets Samuel Adams at the great Congress=] - -The colonies, more excited than ever, decided to hold a great Congress -in Philadelphia (1774). Virginia, like the others, sent her best men. -There in Carpenter's Hall, a building still standing, Henry made -friends of leading men of other colonies. There he met Samuel Adams, -who was doing with his pen what Henry was doing with his tongue, and -they became life-long friends. - -[Illustration: THE STOVE IN THE HOUSE OF THE BURGESSES - -_This stove is now in the State Library of Virginia_] - -[Sidenote: =A new sentiment=] - -One day, when speaking in favor of united action, Patrick Henry -declared: "The distinctions between Virginians, Pennsylvanians, New -Yorkers, and New Englanders are no more. I am not a Virginian, but an -American." - -As Patrick Henry talked with men from other colonies and heard how the -king's troops were acting at Boston, he was convinced that war must -come. He went home and urged the people of Virginia to arm for the -coming struggle. The king's governor refused to permit meetings in the -old capitol at Williamsburg, so they were held in St. John's Church, -Richmond, a church still standing. - -[Sidenote: =Patrick Henry's new resolutions=] - -Here Patrick Henry offered resolutions declaring that Virginia should -arm herself for the coming war. It was a serious time, and these were -serious resolutions. Should the thirteen colonies go to war with one -of the greatest nations in the world? Would it not be wise to send -more petitions to the king? Some of the ablest men in Virginia opposed -Henry's resolutions. - -[Illustration: DECLAIMING PATRICK HENRY'S FAMOUS SPEECH - -_As a favorite declamation this great speech still rouses the spirit of -patriotism in America_] - -[Sidenote: =Patrick Henry's greatest speech=] - -[Sidenote: =War is inevitable=] - - -=84. Patrick Henry Defends his Resolutions.= Patrick Henry listened -to the speeches with smothered excitement. When he rose to defend -his resolutions his face was pale and his voice was trembling. But -soon his audience forgot what other men had said. They leaned forward -and listened as if no other man had spoken. He stirred their deepest -feelings when he declared: "We must fight! I repeat it, Sir, we must -fight! An appeal to arms and the God of Hosts is all that is left -to us. They tell us, Sir, that we are weak; unable to cope with so -formidable an adversary. But when shall we be stronger? Will it be the -next week or the next year? Sir, we are not weak, if we make a proper -use of the means which the God of Nature hath placed in our power. -There is no retreat but in submission and slavery. Our chains are -forged! Their clanking may be heard on the plains of Boston! The war is -inevitable, and let it come! I repeat it, Sir: Let it come!--The war is -actually begun! The next gale that sweeps from the north will bring to -our ears the clash of resounding arms. Our brothers are already in the -field! Why stand we here idle! Is life so dear, or peace so sweet, as -to be purchased at the price of chains and slavery? Forbid it, Almighty -God! I know not what course others may take; but as for me, give me -liberty, or give me death." - -[Illustration: THE FLAG OF THE VIRGINIA MINUTEMEN] - -[Sidenote: =What a listener in St. John's Church saw and heard=] - -One who heard this speech says that when the orator spoke the words -"chains and slavery," he stood like a slave with his body bent, his -wrists crossed, as if bound by chains, and that his face looked like -that of a hopeless slave. After a solemn pause he raised his eyes and -chained hands toward heaven, and said, as if in prayer: "Forbid it, -Almighty God!" He then slowly bent his body still nearer the floor, -looking like a man oppressed, heart-broken, and helpless, and said: -"I know not what course others may take." Then, rising grandly and -proudly, with every muscle strained, as if he would break his imaginary -chains, he exclaimed: "Give me liberty, or give me death!" - -[Illustration: OLD POWDER HOUSE, WILLIAMSBURG - -_The removal of the powder from this house to a British man-of-war -caused the first uprising of the Virginians_] - -[Sidenote: =What Washington saw in Boston in 1775=] - -The men who heard this great speech never forgot it. The people of -Virginia now pushed forward the work of arming her men. And when her -own Washington went to take command of the army at Boston he found -Virginia soldiers there wearing on their hunting shirts the words -"Liberty or death!" - -[Sidenote: =Patrick Henry loved by Virginians=] - -From this time on Patrick Henry was in the forefront of the struggle -with England. Virginia sent him to Congress, then she made him an -officer in the army, and finally not only made him the first governor -after independence was declared, but elected him to that office three -times in succession, and offered him the same office three times more. - -[Illustration: PATRICK HENRY - -_From the bronze figure of the Washington monument by Crawford at -Richmond_] - -After independence was won Patrick Henry opposed the adoption of our -constitution, although Washington, Madison, and many of his friends -were in favor of it. When, however, he saw that the new constitution -was a good one, he gave his support to his friend, President Washington. - -[Sidenote: =Patrick Henry in his old age=] - -Patrick Henry finally retired to his plantation and refused all offers -of office. Many old friends and many great strangers went to visit him -in his old age as one of the great men of the American Revolution. In -the year of his death (1799), when some danger threatened Virginia, -Patrick Henry came forth at Washington's request, old and feeble as he -was, and aroused the people once more with his burning words. They -elected him to the House of Burgesses by a great majority, but he did -not live to take office. - - - - -SAMUEL ADAMS, THE FIREBRAND OF THE REVOLUTION - - -[Sidenote: =Samuel Adams the pen of the Revolution=] - - -=85. Samuel Adams.= While Patrick Henry was stirring the feelings of -the people by his fiery eloquence, Samuel Adams was stirring them by -strong arguments in his writings, to oppose the acts of king and of -Parliament. - -[Sidenote: =A student=] - -Samuel Adams was born in Massachusetts (1722). While he loved school -and books he cared very little for spending his time in outdoor -amusements. At eighteen Samuel was graduated from Harvard College. His -parents hoped that he would be a minister, but he began to study law. -His mother was so opposed to his becoming a lawyer that he gave up the -study and turned to business. He set up in business for himself, but, -like Patrick Henry, soon lost all. He next went into business with his -father, but in that, too, he failed. Finally Samuel Adams turned to -politics. - -[Illustration: SAMUEL ADAMS - -_From the original painting by John Singleton Copley, representing -Adams in 1771, now hanging in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston_] - -[Sidenote: =Early love for politics=] - -While a student in Harvard he had debated the question whether it was -right to resist the king to save the country from ruin. He took an -active part in debating clubs and very soon began to write for the -newspapers, encouraging resistance. He never hesitated to take what he -thought the right side of any question. - -[Sidenote: =Why Adams opposed the Stamp Act=] - -Speaking before a meeting of Boston people, Samuel Adams boldly -declared that if England could tax the business of the colonies, then, -"why not tax our lands and everything we possess or make use of?" Such -taxes, he said, would make the colonists slaves. - -In a short time the people of Boston were reading in the papers the -fiery resolutions and the still more fiery speech of Patrick Henry. -Samuel Adams seized his pen and also began to pour hot shot into the -Stamp Act. - -[Sidenote: =How he opposed the Stamp Act=] - -The Boston people elected him to be their representative in the -Massachusetts Assembly. More and more he took the lead in the movement -against the Stamp Act. He went about the shops, into the stores, -wherever he found people to listen to him. - -He helped them form a society, called the Sons of Liberty, which -destroyed the hated stamps as soon as they arrived. He talked with the -merchants, and they signed a pledge not to buy any more goods from -England until the Stamp Act was repealed. At this the British merchants -felt the loss of trade and joined in the cry against the Stamp Act. - - -=86. The Tea Tax.= We have seen that Parliament, after the Stamp Act -was repealed, passed the famous Tea Act. The Americans were angry -again, and the Sons of Liberty declared that no tea should be landed. -The merchants took the pledge again to buy no more English goods, and -patriotic women began to make tea out of the leaves of other plants. - -[Sidenote: =Samuel Adams writes the "Circular Letter"=] - -Samuel Adams again sharpened his pen, and wrote the famous old -"Circular Letter," which urged all the colonies to unite and stand -firm in opposing the tax on tea. This letter made King George very -angry, but Samuel Adams only wrote the more. - -[Illustration: SAMUEL ADAMS WRITING THE FAMOUS CIRCULAR LETTER] - - -Night after night as the people passed his window they saw by his lamp -that he was busy with his pen, and said to one another: "Samuel Adams -is hard at work writing against the Tories." People in England and -America who took the king's side in these disputes were called Tories. - -[Sidenote: =Conflicts between people and soldiers=] - -The king now sent two regiments of soldiers to Boston to force the -people to pay the Tea Tax. There were frequent quarrels between the -soldiers and the people. One evening in a street quarrel the soldiers -killed three men and wounded eight others (1770). Immediately the -fire bells rang and great crowds of angry people filled the streets. -The next day they filled to overflowing Faneuil Hall, the "Cradle of -Liberty." A still larger meeting in the Old South Church cried out that -both regiments of soldiers must leave town. - -[Sidenote: =Samuel Adams and the people drive the soldiers out of -Boston=] - -Adams and other leaders were sent to the king's officers to tell them -what the people had said. Before the governor and the general, backed -by the king's authority and by two regiments, stood plain Samuel Adams, -with only the voice of the people to help him. - -The governor, unwilling to obey the demand of the people, said he would -send one regiment away. But Samuel Adams stood firm, and said: "Both -regiments or none!" The governor finally gave up, and Samuel Adams, the -man of the people, was a greater leader than ever before. - -The king now tried to trick the Americans into paying the tax by making -tea cheaper in America than in England, but leaving on the tax. But the -people everywhere declared that they did not object to the price, but -to the tax. - -[Sidenote: =The tea ships guarded while town meetings are held=] - - -=87. The Boston Tea Party.= When the ships carrying this cheaper tea -arrived in Boston, Samuel Adams set a guard of armed men to keep the -tea from being landed. - -[Illustration: THE BOSTON MASSACRE] - -Town meeting followed town meeting. On December 16, 1773, the greatest -one of all was held. Early that morning hundreds of country people -started for Boston. They found the shops and stores closed and people -standing on the street corners talking earnestly. - -At ten o'clock the people met in the Old South Church, and voted that -the tea should never be landed. They also sent the owner of the ships -to the governor for permission to take the tea ships out of the harbor. - -[Illustration: THE BOSTON TEA PARTY ABOARD THE TEA SHIP IN THE HARBOR] - -[Sidenote: =Permission to return tea denied=] - -In the afternoon still greater crowds pushed and jammed into the seats, -aisles, and galleries of that famous church. Samuel Adams was chairman. -He made a speech. Other leaders spoke. One stirred the audience by -asking "how tea would mix with salt water." Evening came, and candles -were lighted. The owner of the tea vessels returned and said the -governor would not give him the permission. - -[Sidenote: =The Boston Tea Party=] - -Immediately Samuel Adams arose and said: "This meeting can do nothing -to save the country!" In a moment the war whoop of the "Mohawks" -sounded outside. The crowd rushed out and found the people following -a band of men disguised as Indians down where the tea ships lay at -anchor. The "Mohawks" went on board, brought up the boxes of tea, broke -them open, and threw the tea into the sea. - -[Sidenote: =Paul Revere's first ride=] - -That very night Samuel Adams sent fast riders to carry the news to -the country towns. The next day, with letters to the leaders in other -colonies in his saddlebags, Paul Revere, the great courier of the -Revolution, started on his long ride to New York and Philadelphia. -As he went from town to town and told the story of the Tea Party the -people cheered him, spread dinners for him, built bonfires, and fired -cannon. He saw thousands of people gather in New York and Philadelphia, -and heard them declare that they would stand by Boston. - -[Sidenote: =Boston Port Bill=] - -Boston soon needed help, for the king and Parliament passed a law that -no ship could enter or leave Boston Harbor, and another which forbade -town meetings. Other hard laws were also passed, and an army was sent -to Boston to force the people to obey them. - - -=88. The First Continental Congress.= We have seen a call go forth for -a Congress at Philadelphia (1774). The Massachusetts legislature chose -Samuel Adams and his cousin, John Adams, with two others to go to the -Congress. - -[Illustration: ASSEMBLY ROOM IN CARPENTER'S HALL - -_Here met the first Continental Congress of the colonies_] - -[Sidenote: =Strange visitors=] - -But Samuel Adams was very poor and could not afford to dress in a style -suited to meet the rich merchants of New York and Philadelphia and the -great planters of the southern colonies. One evening while the family -was at tea, in came the most fashionable tailor of the town to take -his measure. Next came a hatter, and then a shoemaker. In a few days a -new trunk at his door told the story, for in it were a suit of clothes, -two pairs of shoes, silver shoe buckles, gold knee buckles, a cocked -hat, a gold-headed cane, and a fashionable red cloak. What proof of the -people's love for their neighbor! - -[Illustration: CARPENTER'S HALL, PHILADELPHIA] - -[Sidenote: =Poor but loyal=] - -Although Samuel Adams was a very poor man, George III did not have -offices enough to bribe him or gold enough to buy his pen. Several -times the king's officers had tried to do both, but they did not -succeed. - -[Sidenote: =What Samuel and John Adams saw on the way to Philadelphia=] - -In a carriage drawn by four horses, the delegates to Congress were -escorted by their friends right by the king's soldiers. The people of -the large towns met them, escorted them, rang bells, fired cannon, -feasted them at banquets, and talked of the Congress. - -[Sidenote: =New and noble friends=] - -At New York Samuel Adams and his friends were kept nearly a week. Many -persons in carriages and on horseback came out to welcome them to -Philadelphia, the city of William Penn. People were anxious to see the -man who had written the "Circular Letter," who had driven the king's -regiments out of Boston, who had planned the Tea Party, and whom the -king could not bribe. Here, in Carpenter's Hall, for the first time, -he met George Washington, Patrick Henry, and Richard Henry Lee, of -Virginia, Christopher Gadsden, who was called the "Samuel Adams of -South Carolina," and many other noble men who became his life-long -friends. - -[Sidenote: =Other colonies to help Boston=] - -Soon Paul Revere came riding into Philadelphia with the news that the -patriots of Boston were in danger of being attacked by the British. The -Congress immediately declared that if the British made war on Boston, -it was the duty of every colony to help her people fight. It now looked -as if war might come at any moment. - -[Illustration: PAUL REVERE ALARMING THE MINUTEMEN - -_The old Hancock House, where, guarded by the minutemen, Samuel Adams -and John Hancock lay sleeping when Paul Revere rode by, still stands in -Lexington_] - -[Sidenote: =Minutemen=] - -When Congress was over, Samuel Adams hastened home to help form, in -all the Massachusetts towns, companies of minutemen ready to fight -at a moment's warning. The next spring the news got out that British -soldiers were going to Concord to destroy the powder and provisions -collected there by the minutemen, and also to capture Samuel Adams -and John Hancock and send them to England to be tried for treason. -Paul Revere agreed to alarm the minutemen the moment the soldiers left -Boston. - -[Sidenote: =Alarming the minutemen=] - - -=89. Paul Revere's Midnight Ride.= Standing by his horse across the -river from Boston, one April evening, waiting for signals, Paul Revere -saw two lanterns flash their light from the tower of the Old North -Church. He mounted and rode in hot haste toward Lexington, arousing -the sleeping villages as he cried out: "Up and arm, the regulars are -coming!" Soon he heard the alarm gun of the minutemen and the excited -ringing of the church bells. He knew the country was rising. - -At Lexington minutemen who guarded the house where Samuel Adams and -John Hancock were sleeping ordered Revere not to make so much noise. -"You will soon have noise enough," he shouted. "The regulars are -coming!" And he rode on toward Concord. - -[Sidenote: =The first conflict of the minutemen=] - - -=90. The Battle at Lexington and at Concord Bridge.= As the British -soldiers reached Lexington at sunrise, April 19, 1775, the captain of -the minutemen gave the command: "Stand your ground. Don't fire unless -fired upon. But if they mean to have war, let it begin here!" A bold -speech for a captain of only about sixty men when facing as brave -soldiers as Europe had ever seen! The minutemen stood their ground till -seven were killed and nine wounded--nearly one third of their number. -Then they retreated. - -[Sidenote: =The retreat of the British=] - -The British pushed on to Concord. But the minutemen, now coming from -every direction, made a stand at Concord Bridge. Their musket fire was -so deadly that the British started back, running at times to escape -with their lives. At Lexington they fell upon the ground, tired out -with the chase the minutemen gave them, and were met by fresh troops -from Boston. - -[Sidenote: =Many redcoats fall=] - -Soon the British soldiers were forced to run again, for minutemen by -hundreds were gathering, and they seldom missed their aim. From behind -rocks, trees, fences, and houses they cut down the tired redcoats. -Nearly three hundred British soldiers were killed or wounded before -Boston was reached that night. - -[Sidenote: =Bunker Hill, June 17, 1775=] - - -=91. The Battle of Bunker Hill.= Day and night for weeks minutemen from -other New England colonies, and even from as far south as Virginia, -marched in hot haste to Boston. The British general soon found his army -in Boston entirely cut off from the mainland. He resolved to fortify -Bunker Hill, but what was his surprise to wake one morning (June -17) and find the Americans under Colonel Prescott already building -breastworks on the hill. - -[Illustration: THE BATTLE OF BUNKER HILL] - -[Sidenote: =Three fierce charges=] - -That afternoon three thousand picked troops, in solid columns and with -bayonets gleaming, marched up the hill to storm that breastwork. "Don't -fire till you can see the whites of their eyes!" said the commander of -the minutemen. On came the lines of red, with banners flying and drums -beating. From the breastworks there ran a flame of fire which mowed the -redcoats down like grass. They reeled, broke, and ran. They rested. -Again they charged; again they broke and ran. They were brave men, and, -although hundreds of their companions had fallen, a third time the -British charged, and won, for the Americans had used up their powder, -and they had no bayonets. More than one thousand British soldiers fell -that day. The Americans did not lose half that number. But among the -killed was brave General Joseph Warren. - -[Sidenote: =Adams and Hancock on the way to the second Congress=] - - -=92. The Second Continental Congress.= Just as the British were -marching into Lexington on that famous April morning, Samuel Adams, -with John Hancock, was leaving for Philadelphia, where Congress was to -meet again. As he heard the guns of the minutemen answer the guns of -the regulars, Adams said to Hancock: "What a glorious morning is this!" - -The members from Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New York were escorted -across the Hudson to Newark, New Jersey, and entertained at a great -dinner, with speeches. Near Philadelphia a large procession of armed -men and carriages met and escorted them into the city, where bells told -of their coming. - -When this Congress met, Samuel Adams seconded the motion of his cousin, -John Adams, that George Washington, of Virginia, be made the general of -all the American troops. He saw his own neighbor, John Hancock, made -president of the Congress. - -[Sidenote: =Samuel Adams among the first to favor independence=] - - -=93. The Declaration of Independence.= For more than a year Samuel -Adams worked hard to get the Congress to make a Declaration of -Independence. Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia, introduced a motion into -the Congress for independence. The Declaration was made, July 4, 1776, -and Samuel Adams, as a great leader of the Revolution, had done his -work. - -But, with other noble men, he still labored with all his powers, in -Congress and at home, to help America win her independence. - -[Sidenote: =Governor of Massachusetts=] - -After independence had been won, Samuel Adams still served his state, -and was elected governor of Massachusetts only a few years before his -death, which occurred in 1803, at the age of eighty-one. - -[Illustration: AN OLD QUILL PEN] - - -SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL - - =The Leading Facts.= _1._ The French and Indian War put both - England and her colonies in debt, but the king thought only of - England's debt. _2._ Great opposition to the Stamp Act in all - the colonies. _3._ Patrick Henry made a great speech against the - Virginia parsons, and a second on the Stamp Act. _4._ He went to - the first Continental Congress and made many friends; came home and - made a great speech saying that war would come. _5._ Made governor - of Virginia many times. _6._ Samuel Adams studied hard, failed in - several occupations, and went into politics. _7._ Led the patriots - against the soldiers, the Stamp Act, and planned the Tea Party. - _8._ Samuel Adams sent to Continental Congress, where he made many - friends. _9._ Urged a Declaration of Independence in 1776. _10._ - Made governor of Massachusetts. - - =Study Questions.= _1._ Why were the colonists happy because - England defeated France? _2._ What was the Stamp Act, and why did - men in America oppose this act? _3._ What did Patrick Henry say - in his resolution and in his speech? _4._ Picture the scene while - Patrick Henry spoke and afterwards. _5._ Why did not the Americans - like the Tea Tax? _6._ Why did not the king like the American "Tea - Parties"? _7._ What is a Congress; and why should Patrick Henry - and Samuel Adams become good friends? _8._ Commit to memory a - part of Henry's famous "liberty or death" speech. _9._ How did - the people trust Patrick Henry? _10._ What did Samuel Adams do - against the Stamp Act? _11._ What was the Circular Letter and why - should the king be angry about it? _12._ Tell how Samuel Adams - drove two regiments out of Boston. _13._ What caused a Congress? - _14._ Tell what Samuel and John Adams saw and did on their way - to Philadelphia. _15._ Why were people glad to see Samuel Adams? - _16._ What made war seem likely to happen at any time? _17._ Read - Longfellow's poem, "The Midnight Ride of Paul Revere." _18._ Give - an account of the Battle of Lexington. _19._ Picture the retreat - from Concord to Boston. _20._ Picture the charge of the British - soldiers at Bunker Hill. _21._ What did Samuel Adams see on his way - to the second Continental Congress? _22._ Who introduced the motion - for independence into the Congress? - - =Suggested Readings.= PATRICK HENRY: Cooke, _Stories of the Old - Dominion_, 158-180; Brooks, _Century Book of Famous Americans_, - 93-101; Magill, _Stories from Virginia History_, 116-128. - - SAMUEL ADAMS: Dawes, _Colonial Massachusetts_, 42-72; Brooks, - _Century Book of Famous Americans_, 10-30; Hart, _Camps and - Firesides of the Revolution_, 162-166; Hawthorne, _Grandfather's - Chair_, 153-189, 205, 206. - - - - -THE MEN WHO FOUGHT FOR AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE WITH GUN AND SWORD - - - - -NATHAN HALE - - -[Sidenote: =Hale a leader in class affairs and athletic sports=] - - -=94. Nathan Hale, the Martyred Patriot.= Nathan Hale was born in -Connecticut in 1755. He was brought up by his Puritan parents in the -fear of God and in obedience to duty. At the age of sixteen Nathan -left his native farm to enter Yale University. Here he soon became -well liked for his gentle nature, lively spirit, and studious habits. -In spite of his youth he was a leader in the affairs of his class and -in all athletic sports. He graduated from college with honor and then -taught school for almost two years. These were quiet days for the -active young man. - -[Sidenote: =Enrolled to fight for liberty=] - -At this time the people were talking a great deal about their troubles -with Great Britain. In secret, bands of young men were even forming -companies of militia. Suddenly the news of the fight at Lexington -came to the place where Nathan Hale was teaching. The citizens -gathered in meeting and he made a speech, in which he said: "Let us -march immediately and never lay down our arms until we obtain our -independence." The next day he and many others enrolled to fight for -liberty. - -[Illustration: NATHAN HALE - -_From the statue by William Ordway Partridge_] - -Washington was in command of the Continental army at Boston and soon -sent for Hale's company. None worked harder than he at drills, or did -more to keep the men cheerful in hardships. On New Year's day, 1776, -Congress made him captain for his bravery and faithfulness. - -[Sidenote: =Captures a British war vessel=] - -In the following spring Washington moved his army to New York. One -night Nathan Hale and a small band of men slipped out into the harbor -where a British sloop lay. They boarded the ship gently, locked the -sailors in before they knew what had happened, then they sailed their -prize past a British man-of-war and over to the American side. It was a -brave feat, well carried out. - -[Sidenote: =Offers to find out the British plans=] - -Soon after, the American troops were badly defeated in the battle of -Long Island. The army was half starved and losing hope. The British -general, Howe, was preparing to attack again. If Howe should win, the -American cause would be lost. Washington saw that it was necessary -to find out the British plans, or he would be caught and his army -destroyed. A brave man was needed to go into the British camp to spy -out their plans. No one was willing to go. Hale had been sick, but when -he heard of his country's need he offered himself. Friends pleaded with -him in vain. - -[Sidenote: =Passes the British lines safely=] - -The young officer took off his uniform and put on the clothes of a -schoolmaster. Under cover of night he was rowed to a place near the -British camp. This was the last his friends saw of him. He spent -several days with the British troops and got the needed information. On -his return he passed safely through the whole British army. He went to -the spot where the boat was to come for him. There he waited until the -boat came into view and then walked down to the water's edge to meet -it. A dozen muskets were leveled at him; instead of fellow-soldiers he -found himself in the hands of the British! - -[Sidenote: =Hale sentenced to death=] - -[Sidenote: =Gives his life for his country=] - -Hale was sent to New York immediately and placed before General Howe, -to whom he said frankly that he was a spy. The British general wrote -out his death warrant, "to be hanged to-morrow morning at sunrise." Not -even the death of a soldier was to be his. His brutal guard refused to -let him send a last letter to his people. Alone he spent the night, -without the comfort of friend or minister. At daybreak he was dragged -forth to execution. A crowd of strange people had gathered to see him -die. It is said that the officer asked him if there was anything he -wished to say. Brave to the last, Nathan Hale answered: "I only regret -that I have but one life to lose for my country." Thus, at the age of -twenty-two, died Nathan Hale, who held his country dearer than his own -life. - - - - -GENERALS GREENE, MORGAN, AND MARION, THE MEN WHO HELPED WIN THE SOUTH -FROM THE BRITISH - - -[Sidenote: =Moultrie repulses attack on Charleston=] - - -=95. The War in the South.= Early in the Revolutionary War British -vessels made an attack on Charleston, South Carolina (1776). But -Colonel Moultrie, from his rude fort of palmetto logs, gave them such a -welcome that they were glad to get away, and for two years the British -gave the southern colonies little trouble. - -[Sidenote: =Charleston surrenders to Cornwallis=] - -But in 1778 another British army captured Savannah, Georgia. In 1780 -the city of Charleston, South Carolina, with General Lincoln's entire -army, surrendered to Cornwallis. Congress hastened General Gates to the -South to check the British, but Cornwallis surprised Gates and cut his -army to pieces near Camden. - -[Illustration: NATHANAEL GREENE - -_From a painting by Charles Wilson Peale, once owned by Mrs. William -Brenton Greene, Jr., Princeton, New Jersey, and now in Independence -Hall, Philadelphia_] - -[Sidenote: =Greene goes south to watch Cornwallis=] - - -=96. Nathanael Greene, the Quaker General.= Washington now chose -Nathanael Greene, the "Quaker general," to go south, take command of -the American army, and to watch Cornwallis, who had just defeated -Gates. Greene was born in Roger Williams' old colony, and was ten -years younger than Washington. His father was a farmer, a miner, and a -blacksmith on week days, and a Quaker preacher on Sundays. - -[Sidenote: =The "learned blacksmith"=] - -As a boy Nathanael had plenty of hard work to do, and at thirteen could -"only read, write, and cipher." But he was hungry for more knowledge, -and began to study Latin, mathematics, philosophy, and history. -Besides, he made iron toys, and sold them to buy books. His family got -into a lawsuit, and Nathanael took up the study of law. He was called -the "learned blacksmith." - -[Illustration: GREENE'S GUN - -_Now in the possession of the Rhode Island Historical Association_] - -[Sidenote: =He buys a musket=] - -When Greene saw that King George was likely to force the Americans to -fight, he joined the militia and went to Boston to buy a musket, a -very unusual thing for a man in Quaker dress to do. He hid the gun in -his wagon. There he watched General Gage drilling British soldiers. He -persuaded one of them to go with him to drill his company of minutemen. - -[Illustration: GREENE CONCEALING THE MUSKET IN HIS WAGON] - -[Sidenote: =News from Lexington sends Greene to Boston=] - -When the stirring news from Lexington reached him, Greene was among -the first to start for Boston, and there Washington found him when he -arrived to take command of the army. - -Greene was made one of Washington's generals, and followed his great -commander till Washington sent him to the South to win back that part -of the country from Cornwallis. - -He found only a small army in North Carolina, but he knew the southern -men would fight if they had a chance, for the backwoodsmen had just -killed or captured one thousand British soldiers at Kings Mountain. - -[Illustration: SCENE OF THE CAMPAIGNS IN THE SOUTH] - -[Sidenote: =Men who helped Greene in the South=] - -Besides, he had some of the bravest and ablest leaders in America to -help him, among them Daniel Morgan, Francis Marion, William Washington -(a cousin of General Washington), Henry Lee (called "Light Horse -Harry"), and Thomas Sumter. - -[Sidenote: =Greene divides his army=] - -Greene divided his army into two parts. He took one thousand men and -marched into northeastern South Carolina, where Marion and Lee, with -small bands of cavalry, stole upon the British outposts. In broad -daylight they charged pellmell into Georgetown, captured the officer in -command there, and got safely away before the British were over their -fright. - -[Illustration: MORGAN'S ESCAPE FROM THE INDIANS] - -[Sidenote: =Morgan goes to northwestern South Carolina=] - -Greene sent General Morgan and Colonel William Washington with nine -hundred men into northwestern South Carolina to threaten some British -posts, and to encourage the patriots in the mountains. Very shortly -after this, Washington and his cavalry swooped down on a party of -British soldiers and captured two hundred fifty of them. - -[Sidenote: =Tarleton sent to capture him=] - -Cornwallis was now thoroughly roused, and resolved to put an end to -such events. He therefore ordered his favorite cavalry officer, Colonel -Tarleton, to take eleven hundred picked soldiers and capture Morgan and -his men. - - -=97. General Morgan.= But Morgan was not the kind of man to be caught -napping. When a young man, he had fought the French and Indians on the -Virginia frontier. - -[Sidenote: =Morgan's training=] - -He was at Braddock's defeat. He had once knocked a British officer -down for striking him. In an Indian fight he had been shot through the -neck and thought himself dying, but, to escape being scalped, locked -his arms tightly around his horse's neck, while the horse ran wildly -through the woods. - -At the head of a company of ninety-six Virginia backwoodsmen, Morgan -had marched six hundred miles in twenty-one days, and joined Washington -at Boston. - -[Illustration: DANIEL MORGAN - -_From a miniature painted by John Trumbull now in the Art Gallery of -Yale University_] - -[Sidenote: =Burgoyne's compliment=] - -Later, Washington sent him to join in the capture of Burgoyne, at -Saratoga. His men did such splendid fighting that Burgoyne said to -Morgan: "Sir, you command the finest regiment in the world!" Fighting -in the woods of America, such a man was likely to be a match for any -British officer. - -When Morgan heard of Tarleton's approach he retreated to a good place -for fighting, called the Cowpens. On the top of a long, rising slope he -placed the Continental troops--men trained to fight. In the rear he hid -Colonel Washington and his cavalrymen. - -[Sidenote: =Morgan places his men=] - -Some distance in front of the Continentals he placed the militia with -orders not to retreat till they had fired twice. In front of the -militia Morgan hid a company of deadly sharpshooters in the woods on -the right and another company in the woods on the left. - -As soon as Tarleton's men came in sight they charged pellmell, -thinking victory an easy matter. The militia and sharpshooters poured -in their fire not twice, but several times, and retreated behind the -Continentals, who now poured deadly volleys into the ranks of the -on-coming British, and then made at them with their bayonets. - -[Sidenote: =A brilliant victory=] - -Just at this moment, Colonel Washington's cavalry dashed out and struck -the right flank of the redcoats. In another moment the militia, which -had reformed and reloaded, rushed out and struck their left flank. -Most of Tarleton's men threw down their guns and surrendered on the -spot. Only two hundred seventy redcoats got away. Tarleton barely -escaped after being wounded in a hand-to-hand sword fight with Colonel -Washington. - -[Sidenote: =Stories of Tarleton=] - -Tarleton was not permitted to forget his defeat. In conversation one -day he remarked that he had never seen Colonel Washington. A patriotic -lady present replied: "If you had only looked behind you at the battle -of Cowpens, you would have had that pleasure." - -[Illustration: THE BATTLE OF THE COWPENS - -_Where General Morgan, in one of the most brilliant battles of the war, -defeated the brave but overconfident General Tarleton, destroying the -famous legion Tarleton boasted could not be defeated_] - -On another occasion it is told that Tarleton said to a lady, in a -sneering way, that he understood Colonel Washington was so ignorant -he could not even write his own name. This lady looked at Tarleton's -wounded hand, and said: "You certainly carry proof that he can at least -'make his mark.'" - -The defeat of Tarleton at the Cowpens roused Cornwallis. He destroyed -all his heavy baggage, and started in hot haste after Morgan. But -Morgan knew a thing or two, and marched for the fords of the Catawba -River as soon as the battle was over. - -[Sidenote: =Greene's great march=] - -There Greene joined him, and away the armies went for the Yadkin River. -Greene had brought along boats on light wheels, and had no trouble in -crossing, but Cornwallis had to march up the river until his army could -wade across. Greene was already on his way to the Dan, which he crossed -into southern Virginia. - -[Sidenote: =General Morgan retires=] - -General Morgan, now broken in health by long years of hard fighting, -retired to his home, "Soldiers' Rest," in the Shenandoah Valley. After -the war was over his neighbors elected him to Congress, where he gave -hearty support to President Washington. - -[Illustration: THE LAST SALUTE TO MORGAN] - -[Sidenote: =A touching scene=] - -When Daniel Morgan died he was followed to the grave by the largest -procession that the valley had yet seen. The people, who had come from -near and far, witnessed a touching sight. They saw seven gray-haired -veterans, with old rifles in their hands, stand beside the grave of the -hero, and fire a military salute. They were the last of that hardy -band of ninety-six which had marched with Morgan to Boston to join -Washington, nearly thirty years before. This was their last military -farewell! - -[Sidenote: =Greene's "victory"=] - - -=98. The Battle of Guilford Court House.= General Greene won a great -victory by retreating. He and his army were still among friends, -and his army was growing. Cornwallis was hundreds of miles from his -supplies and from reënforcements. After a few weeks, Greene crossed -back into North Carolina and fiercely attacked Cornwallis at Guilford -Court House, and killed or wounded one fourth of his army. - -Cornwallis claimed the victory, but instead of attacking Greene he -marched his army rapidly to Wilmington, on the seacoast, and from there -marched into Virginia, where Washington and Lafayette caught him in a -trap at Yorktown. - -[Sidenote: =Greene drives the British to Charleston=] - -Greene turned back to South Carolina, where the British still held -Charleston and a few other towns. The British lost so many men at -Hobkirks Hill and at Eutaw Springs, their last important battles in the -South, that they were compelled to retreat to Charleston, where they -were when the news from Yorktown put an end to serious fighting. - -[Sidenote: =Congress, South Carolina, and Georgia honor Greene=] - -General Greene's work as a soldier was done. Besides the medal -presented to him by Congress for the battle of Eutaw Springs, South -Carolina, as a token of affection, gave him a large sum of money, and -the state of Georgia a beautiful plantation on the Savannah River, -where he died in 1786. Greene's fame as a soldier of the Revolution -stands next to that of Washington. - -[Sidenote: =The "Swamp Fox"=] - - -=99. Francis Marion.= Of all the brave men who helped Greene win -back the South, none was braver than General Francis Marion, whom the -British named the "Swamp Fox." Marion was born in the same year as -Washington. He was of French parentage. He was so very small in size -that people wondered how he could be so great a soldier. - -[Sidenote: =Marion's "Brigade"=] - -Marion's "Brigade," as his company was called, was made up of only a -handful of men, usually less than one hundred. But they owned and rode -the swiftest horses, carried their own guns, and wore their own swords, -hammered out of old saws by country blacksmiths. - -Marion and his men seldom were two successive nights in the same place. -The night was their time for work. At sundown they swung into their -saddles, and were soon riding for the enemy's camp. When near, they -quietly surrounded the camp, took aim by the light of the fires, fired, -and then rushed upon the frightened British or Tories, and cut them -down with their terrible broadswords. - -[Sidenote: =How they escaped=] - -Before daybreak, Marion and his men were hiding safely in some distant -swamp or other safe place. If the British chased him too closely his -men scattered in different directions, but always made their way to the -common hiding place. In a few days they were ready to strike again. - -[Illustration: FRANCIS MARION - -_After the portrait in the painting by T. Stothard, R.A._] - -[Sidenote: =One hundred fifty prisoners set free=] - -Just after Cornwallis defeated Gates, near Camden, Marion pounced upon -a guard of British soldiers that was taking one hundred fifty prisoners -to Charleston, captured them all, and set the prisoners free. - -[Illustration: ONE OF MARION'S MEN] - -[Sidenote: =Tarleton cannot catch Marion=] - -At last Cornwallis ordered Colonel Tarleton to get "Mr. Marion," as -he called him. But before Tarleton could act Marion had fallen on a -large party of Tories going to join Cornwallis, and killed, captured, -or scattered the entire party. Tarleton chased Marion for twenty-five -miles, only to find a large swamp through which he could see neither -road nor path. He gave up the chase in disgust, declaring he would -pursue the "Swamp Fox" no farther. - -[Sidenote: =Congress gives Marion a vote of thanks=] - -When Greene returned to the last campaign in South Carolina he found no -better, bolder, or more vigilant helpers than Marion and his "Brigade." -Greene gave Marion high praise, and Congress gave him a vote of thanks. - -Marion was the true soldier of liberty. He cared nothing for display, -only for the success of the patriot cause. Marion thought of his men -before himself. He was watchful, patient, and silent. He always struck -his foes where and when they did not look for him. If they were too -strong for him he vanished like smoke in a brisk breeze. - -[Sidenote: =After the war=] - -Marion was as true and gentle as he was bold and brave. He was never -cruel to prisoners, and was greatly opposed to punishing the Tories -after the war was over. Marion's neighbors often elected him to high -office and in many other ways showed that they admired him, even if -some did not agree with him. - -[Illustration: "MARION AND HIS MEN" SURPRISE THE BRITISH - -_Dashing out of the swamp, Marion fell upon the guard of a band of -patriot prisoners, killed or captured the British, then set the -prisoners to guarding the redcoats_] - -[Sidenote: =A potato feast=] - -During the war a British officer was invited to take dinner with -Marion. What was his surprise to see only sweet potatoes, baked in the -ashes, set before him. After this feast the officer resigned, saying it -was useless trying to defeat such soldiers. - - -SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL - - =The Leading Facts.= _1._ When Hale heard the news of the fight at - Lexington he hastened to the front. _2._ He went inside the British - lines to learn their plans, was caught, and executed. _3._ Greene - went to Boston, saw the British army, returned home and prepared - his minutemen. _4._ Washington sent him to the Carolinas after the - defeat of Gates. _5._ In the retreat of the American army after the - battle of Cowpens, Greene turned and fought the battles of Guilford - Court House, Hobkirks Hill, and Eutaw Springs. _6._ Daniel Morgan - with ninety-six men marched from the Shenandoah Valley to Boston to - join Washington. _7._ He won the battle of Cowpens against Colonel - Tarleton. _8._ Francis Marion's "Brigade" was made up of a small - number, mounted on their own horses, and armed with their own - guns and swords. _9._ He was called the "Swamp Fox," because his - men, attacking after nightfall, usually escaped to a swamp before - daylight. - - =Study Questions.= _1._ What was Hale doing when war broke out? - _2._ Why did he go within the British lines? _3._ Where was Greene - born, and why was he called "the learned blacksmith"? _4._ How - did he get his company of minutemen drilled? _5._ What leaders - did Greene have to help him? _6._ Who was General Morgan? _7._ - What did Burgoyne say to Morgan? _8._ Explain how Morgan prepared - for the battle of Cowpens. _9._ Picture the battle. _10._ What - anecdotes are told of Tarleton? _11._ Picture the scene at General - Morgan's burial. _12._ How did Greene win a victory by retreating? - _13._ What became of Cornwallis after the battle of Guilford Court - House? _14._ What other battles did Greene fight? _15._ What proofs - of affection did South Carolina and Georgia give? _16._ What is - the rank of Greene as a general? _17._ How many were in Marion's - "Brigade," how were they armed, and how did they fight? _18._ Why - did Tarleton call Marion the "Swamp Fox"? _19._ Who praised General - Marion? _20._ Read _The Song of Marion's Men_, by William Cullen - Bryant. - - =Suggested Readings.= NATHAN HALE: Brown, _Nathan Hale, the Martyr - Spy_. - - NATHANAEL GREENE: Fiske, Irving's _Washington_, 430-456; Francis V. - Greene, _General Greene_, 1-22, 94-105, 160-262; Frost, _Heroes of - the Revolution_, 27-75. - - DANIEL MORGAN: Blaisdell and Ball, _Hero Stories from American - History_, 105-122; Brooks, _Century Book of the American - Revolution_, 168-173; Frost, _Heroes of the Revolution_, 76-89. - - FRANCIS MARION: McCrady, _South Carolina in the Revolution_, - 568-572, 577-652, 660-672, 748-752, 816-881. - - - - -THE MEN WHO HELPED WIN INDEPENDENCE BY FIGHTING ENGLAND ON THE SEA - - - - -JOHN PAUL JONES, A SCOTCHMAN, WHO WON THE GREAT VICTORY IN THE FRENCH -SHIP, "BON HOMME RICHARD" - - -[Sidenote: =John Paul born in Scotland=] - - -=100. John Paul.= In 1747, in far-away Scotland, on the arm of the sea -called Solway Firth, a great sailor was born. John Paul played along -the seashore, saw tall ships, and heard wonderful stories of a new land -called America, whose ships filled with tobacco came into the firth. - -[Sidenote: =Sails on the "Friendship" to America=] - -John Paul did not get much schooling, and at the age of thirteen -he went as a sailor lad on the _Friendship_ to America. The ship -sailed into Chesapeake Bay and up the Rappahannock River to the town -of Fredericksburg, where he found his brother William living on a -plantation. In the very same town where George Washington had just been -to school, John Paul also went to school. He studied hard to make up -for lost time, and left a great name among the boys. - -[Sidenote: =Returns and sails for Africa=] - -He afterward returned to Scotland, and at the age of nineteen sailed -as an officer on a slave-trading ship to Africa, and carried a load of -negroes away from their native land. Many people did not then think it -wrong to do this, but John Paul hated the cruel business, and left the -slave ship as soon as he reached Jamaica. - -[Sidenote: =Made captain=] - -On his way back to Scotland the officers of the ship died, and John -Paul, although but twenty years old, had to take charge. The owners of -the vessel were so pleased with the way he handled it that they made -him captain, and he went on many voyages to different countries. - -[Sidenote: =In Virginia again=] - -After a time John Paul went to Virginia to take care of his dead -brother's plantation. While he was living in Virginia he watched the -quarrel between England and her colonies break out in open war. - -[Sidenote: =Offers his services to Congress=] - - -=101. John Paul Jones Enters the American Navy.= He hastened to -Philadelphia and offered his services to Congress. He knew England -would send thousands of soldiers to America; and that she would send -her war ships along our seacoasts and up and down our bays and rivers, -to capture and burn our towns. He also knew that the Congress did not -own a single war ship when the war began. - -[Illustration: JOHN PAUL JONES - -_From a painting by Charles Wilson Peale in Independence Hall, -Philadelphia_] - -Congress ordered war ships to be built. While these were being made, -Congress ordered trading vessels to be fitted with cannon and sent out -to capture British ships. - -[Sidenote: =Changes his name=] - -When John Paul went to Philadelphia he gave his name as Paul Jones, -probably in honor of Willie Jones, a friend who lived in North -Carolina. Some have thought that he did not want the British to know -him, if they should capture him in a sea fight. - -[Sidenote: =Really wants to fight=] - -[Sidenote: =What he could do=] - -Although Paul Jones really knew more about war ships than most of the -men in Philadelphia, Congress gave him a very low office. But that made -no difference to him, for he really wanted to get into a sea fight. In -1775 he was made a lieutenant, and joined an expedition to capture -cannon and powder from the British in the West Indies. He did so well -that Congress made him captain and gave him a ship. He then went on -a cruise to the West Indies, where in six weeks he captured sixteen -prizes and destroyed a number of small vessels. - -[Illustration: THE FIRST AMERICAN ENSIGN - -_This, the first flag to float above an American man-of-war, was raised -by John Paul Jones_] - -[Sidenote: =Sent to France=] - -Congress afterward gave him command of the ship _Ranger_, and sent him -to carry letters to Benjamin Franklin, who was in France trying to get -the king to take sides with the Americans. - -[Sidenote: =With the "Ranger" at Whitehaven=] - -Franklin planned for Jones to take the _Ranger_ to the coast of -England, and show that American as well as English ships could burn, -destroy, and fight. He captured two vessels, made straight for his old -town of Whitehaven, "spiked" the cannon in the fort, set some ships on -fire, and escaped without harm. - -Near by this place, his sailors took all the silver from the home of a -rich lady. This robbery troubled him so much that, afterward, at great -expense to himself, he returned the silver to its owner. - -[Sidenote: ="Paul, the Pirate"=] - -"Look out for Paul Jones, the pirate!" the people said; and the -_Drake_, carrying two more cannon than the _Ranger_, was sent to -capture her. Five boatloads of people went to see the pirate captured. -The fight lasted more than an hour. When the _Drake_ surrendered, her -captain and forty-two men had been killed. The _Ranger_ had lost only -two men. After this fight the English towns were still more afraid of -Paul Jones. - -[Sidenote: =The "Good Man Richard"=] - -There was great joy in France when Paul Jones sailed into port. The -king, who was now making war on England, promised him a larger fleet -of war vessels. So, in 1779, he found himself captain of a large ship -armed with fifty cannon. He called the ship the _Bon Homme Richard_ in -honor of Franklin's Almanac, the "Poor Richard." Three smaller vessels -joined him, and he again set sail for the English coast. The news of -his coming caused great alarm. - -[Illustration: MARINE CANDLESTICK - -_From man-of-war "Constitution"_] - -[Sidenote: =The "Richard" and the "Serapis"=] - - -=102. A Great Sea Fight and a Great Victory.= As Paul Jones sailed -along the British coasts he captured many trading ships and frightened -the people. At last he came upon two British war ships. Just at dark -the _Richard_ attacked a larger English ship, the _Serapis_. At the -first fire two of Jones' cannon burst, tearing up the deck and killing -a dozen of his own men. - -[Sidenote: =The great sea fight=] - -The fight went on for an hour, when the _Serapis_ came near, and Jones -ran the _Richard_ into her. "Have you struck your colors?" called out -the English captain. "I have not yet begun to fight!" replied Captain -Jones. When the ships came together again Paul Jones himself seized a -great rope and tied them together. Now the fighting was terrific. The -cannon tore huge holes in the sides of the ships. - -[Illustration: NAVAL PITCHER - -_This was made in commemoration of the American Navy, 1795_] - -A great explosion on the _Serapis_ killed twenty of her men. Both -ships were on fire, and the _Richard_ began to fill with water. The men -on each ship had to fight fire. It was ten o'clock at night. - -[Illustration: THE CAPTURE OF THE SERAPIS - -_Because of this victory three nations, France, Russia, and Denmark, -bestowed special honors upon John Paul Jones as "the valiant assertor -of the freedom of the sea"_] - -The British prisoners on the _Richard_ had to help pump out water to -keep the ship from sinking. - -[Sidenote: =A great victory=] - -Only a few cannon on each ship could be fired. The decks of both ships -were covered with dead and wounded, but neither captain would give -up. Finally Paul Jones, with his own hands, pointed two cannon at the -great mast of the _Serapis_. Just as it was about to fall, the English -captain surrendered. - -[Sidenote: =A great naval hero=] - -All night Jones and his men were kept busy fighting fire and pumping -water, while the wounded were removed to the _Serapis_. The _Good Man -Richard_ sank the next day at ten o'clock. Paul Jones sailed to France -with his two English ships, where he was praised and rewarded by the -King of France. He was a great hero in the eyes of the French people, -and in the eyes of the Americans, too. - -[Sidenote: =Finally buried in America=] - -After the war Paul Jones was an officer in the Russian navy. He died -in France in 1792. His grave was forgotten for many years, but was -discovered in 1905, and his bones were brought to America with great -honor, and buried at Annapolis, Maryland. - - - - -JOHN BARRY, WHO WON MORE SEA FIGHTS IN THE REVOLUTION THAN ANY OTHER -CAPTAIN - - -[Sidenote: =Barry visits America=] - - -=103. John Barry.= Although born on a farm in Ireland (1745), John -Barry wanted to be a sailor lad. While still young he was put to -service on board a merchant ship. Here young Barry learned more than -being a mere sailor. Between voyages he studied hard, and soon gained -a useful education. At the age of fifteen he came to Philadelphia, and -was so pleased with the country and the people that he resolved to make -America his home. - -[Sidenote: =Offers his services to Congress=] - -He rose rapidly as a sailor and, when the news of the first bloodshed -between England and her colonies came, he offered his services to -Congress. - -[Sidenote: =Made captain of the "Lexington"=] - -In 1776 Congress made him captain of the ship _Lexington_, the first -Continental vessel to sail from William Penn's old city. Barry -immediately put to sea, and met and captured the _Edward_ after a -fierce fight. Thus the _Lexington_ was the first ship to bear the -American flag to victory. - -Congress, pleased with the result, put him in charge of a larger -ship, called the _Effingham_. The British, however, bottled up the -_Effingham_ in the Delaware. - -[Illustration: JOHN BARRY - -_From the portrait painted by Colin Campbell Cooper after the Stuart -painting, now in Independence Hall, Philadelphia_] - -But Barry was not idle. Arming four boatloads of men, with muffled oars -he rowed down the Delaware at night. - -[Sidenote: =He captures a British vessel and four transports=] - -Just as the sun was rising Barry saw a British vessel of ten guns. With -this ship were four transports loaded with forage for the British army. -Barry's boats made for the British ship. His men climbed on board with -guns and swords in hand. The British soldiers threw down their arms -and ran below. Barry fastened down the hatchways, and then turned his -attention to the four transports, which quickly surrendered. Barry then -took his five prizes across the river to an American fort. - -[Sidenote: =He takes command of the "Raleigh"=] - -In 1778 Congress promoted John Barry to the command of the _Raleigh_. -He set sail for Boston, and on his way met a British ship carrying -thirty-two guns. His sailors had taken an oath never to surrender. They -fought bravely, and had every hope of winning, when a British 64-gun -ship came in sight. To keep their oaths, they ran the _Raleigh_ ashore, -and set her on fire. The British put out the fire and saved the ship. - -[Illustration: BARRY'S BOATS ATTACKING THE BRITISH] - -[Sidenote: =Wounded, but forces the British to strike their colors=] - - -=104. Barry Given Command of the "Alliance."= In 1781 Barry was placed -in command of the _Alliance_, a ship whose name was given in honor of -France's helping America in this war. In May the _Alliance_ met two -British ships, and a hard battle followed. Barry was badly wounded, -but would not surrender. He fought on and forced the British ships to -strike their colors. - -In 1783 Barry, in the _Alliance_, sailed on his last voyage of the -Revolution. His companion ship was the _Luzerne_. Three British ships -discovered the Americans and quickly gave chase. The _Luzerne_ was slow -and threw her guns overboard. - -[Sidenote: =On his last voyage of the Revolution=] - -Another vessel came into view; it was a French ship of fifty guns. With -her aid Barry immediately decided to fight. He made a speech urging -the men not to fire until ordered. A terrific battle with the foremost -British ship followed. After fifty minutes' fighting, the British -showed signals of distress. The remaining British ships now came up to -rescue her, and the _Alliance_ sailed away. The French ships took no -part in the battle. - -[Sidenote: =Named first commander of a navy=] - -After the war was over, Congress provided for a navy, and General Knox, -Washington's Secretary of War and of the Navy, named John Barry as -first commodore. He served as the senior commander of the American navy -until his death, in 1803. The people of Philadelphia have erected a -monument to his memory (1907). - - -SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL - - =The Leading Facts.= _1._ John Paul was born a sailor in Scotland - and went to America. _2._ He was in America when war broke out; - offered his service and was made lieutenant. _3._ Congress sent - him to France, and Franklin sent him to prey on English commerce. - _4._ Paul Jones won the great sea fight in the _Bon Homme Richard_. - _5._ John Barry was born in Ireland, and went to sea early. _6._ - Congress made him captain in 1776, in charge of the _Lexington_. - _7._ Barry set the country talking by capturing a war vessel and - four transports. _8._ John Barry won more naval victories in the - Revolutionary War than any other office. _9._ Named first commodore - in 1794 by the Secretary of the Navy. - - =Study Questions.= _1._ Give an account of John Paul's boyhood. - _2._ What of his first visit to America? _3._ How did Paul happen, - at so early an age, to have full charge of a vessel? _4._ Why did - he go to Virginia a second time? _5._ Why did he hasten to Congress - as soon as war began? _6._ How did Paul Jones prove his right to - be captain? _7._ Tell the story of the battle between the _Drake_ - and the _Ranger_. _8._ Picture the battle between the _Bon Homme - Richard_ and the _Serapis_. _9._ What rewards came to Paul Jones? - _10._ Where is he buried? _11._ Give an account of John Barry's - youth. _12._ When the war came, what was Barry's action? _13._ What - was the first victory on the part of the navy? _14._ What was the - outcome of the battle on the _Raleigh_? _15._ What were Barry's - experiences in the _Alliance_? Picture Barry's last battle. - - =Suggested Readings.= PAUL JONES: Beebe, _Four American Naval - Heroes_, 17-68; Abbot, _Blue Jackets of '76_, 83-154; Frothingham, - _Sea Fighters_, 226-266; Hart, _Camps and Firesides of the American - Revolution_, 285-289; Hart, _How Our Grandfathers Lived_, 217-219; - Seawell, _Paul Jones_. - - JOHN BARRY: Griffin, _Commodore John Barry_, 1-96. - - - - -THE MEN WHO CROSSED THE MOUNTAINS, DEFEATED THE INDIANS AND BRITISH, -AND MADE THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER THE FIRST WESTERN BOUNDARY OF THE UNITED -STATES - - - - -DANIEL BOONE, THE HUNTER AND PIONEER OF KENTUCKY - - -[Sidenote: =Boone born in Pennsylvania=] - - -=105. A Famous Frontier Hero.= Daniel Boone was born in Pennsylvania -in 1735. He was only three years younger than Washington. While yet a -boy he loved the woods, and often spent days deep in the forest with no -companion but his rifle and dog. - -[Sidenote: =Moved to the Yadkin=] - -Boone's parents moved to North Carolina, and settled on the Yadkin -River. There he married at the early age of twenty, and, pioneer-like, -moved farther into the forest, where people were scarcer and game more -plentiful. He built a log cabin for his bride, and made a "clearing" -for raising corn and vegetables. But his trusty rifle furnished their -table with all kinds of wild meat, such as bear, deer, squirrel, and -turkey. - -[Sidenote: =Crossed the mountains in 1760=] - -In 1760 Boone with a friend crossed the mountains to the Watauga in -east Tennessee, on a hunting expedition, where he killed a bear, and -cut the date of the event on a beech tree, which still stands on -Boone's Creek in east Tennessee. - -[Illustration: BOONE AND HIS BEAR TREE] - -[Sidenote: =News from across the Cumberland=] - -One of Boone's hunter friends came back from a journey across the -Cumberland Mountains and told of the beauty of the land beyond--its -hills and valleys, its forests and canebrakes, full of game. Boone was -anxious to go. Too many people were settling near him. But Kentucky was -a dangerous country, even if beautiful. It was called "No-man's-land," -because not even Indians lived there, and also the "dark and bloody -ground," because the tribes from the north and from the south met -there in deadly conflict. - -[Sidenote: =Boone and companions go to Kentucky=] - - -=106. Boone Goes to the Land of Canebrakes and Blue Grass.= While the -people along the seacoast were disputing with the king, Boone and five -companions, after climbing over mountains, fording rivers, and making -their way through pathless forests, reached Kentucky, the land of salt -springs, canebrakes, and blue grass. - -[Sidenote: =Danger from animals=] - -They built a log camp and spent several months enjoying the wild life -so dear to the hunter. But it was full of danger. Sometimes it was a -battle with a father and a mother bear fighting for their little ones. -The sneaking panther or the lurking wildcat threatened their lives. Now -and then, hundreds of buffaloes came rushing through the canebrakes. - -[Sidenote: =Danger from Indians ever present=] - -But danger from the Indians was present every moment. Day and night, -sleeping in their camp or tramping through the woods, the hunters had -to be ready for the death grapple. One day Boone and a companion named -Stewart were off their guard. The Indians rushed upon them and captured -them. - -[Sidenote: =Captured but escapes=] - -Boone and his companion understood the ways of the Indians, and won -their confidence. One night, as the savages slept around the camp fire, -Boone arose and quietly awoke Stewart. They stole silently from the -camp and hastened by night and day back to their old camp, only to find -it destroyed and their comrades gone. - -[Sidenote: =News from the old home=] - -One day Daniel Boone saw his brother coming through the woods. What a -happy meeting five hundred miles from home! The brother brought good -news from kindred and friends. - -[Sidenote: =His brother returns home for supplies=] - -Stewart was shot by the Indians, but Boone and his brother remained all -winter in Kentucky. Powder, lead, and salt were growing scarce. What -should be done? Boone's brother returned home for supplies, but Daniel -remained without even a dog for a companion. He very seldom slept twice -in the same place for fear of the Indians. - -[Illustration: BOONE FIGHTING OVER THE BODY OF HIS SON] - -He wandered to the banks of the Ohio, and was charmed with all he saw. -He then decided that some day he would make Kentucky his home. - -[Sidenote: =Brings supplies and both go home=] - -Boone's brother returned in the spring, bringing supplies on two pack -horses. After further explorations the two brothers returned to their -home on the Yadkin and told their neighbors of the wonders of the new -land. - -[Sidenote: =An Indian attack=] - -In the fall of 1773 several families, with cattle and horses, bade -farewell to their friends and started for Kentucky, a "second -Paradise," as Boone called it. Before they reached the new land Indians -fell upon them and killed six. Among the killed was Boone's eldest son. -The party returned for a time to a settlement in Virginia. - -[Sidenote: =Making the "Wilderness Road"=] - -Richard Henderson, a rich planter, claimed a great tract of land -in Kentucky, and put Boone at the head of thirty brave men to cut -and blaze a road from the Holston River over the mountains, through -Cumberland Gap to the Kentucky River. The result was the famous -"Wilderness Road," the first road across the mountains, and over which -hundreds of pack horses and thousands of settlers made their way. - -[Illustration: FORT BOONESBORO IN WINTER - -_After the plan by Colonel Henderson in Collins' "Historical -Collections of Kentucky"_] - -[Sidenote: =Fort Boonesboro=] - -When the road was finished to the banks of the Kentucky River, Daniel -Boone built Fort Boonesboro. The fort was about two hundred sixty feet -long, and one hundred fifty feet wide. At each corner of it stood a -two-story blockhouse with loopholes, through which the settlers could -shoot at Indians. Cabins with loopholes were built along the sides of -the fort. Between the cabins a high fence was made by sinking log posts -into the ground. Two heavy gates were built on opposite sides of the -fort. Every night the horses and cattle were driven inside the fort. - -[Sidenote: =His family in the "second Paradise"=] - - -=107. Boone Takes His Family to Kentucky.= When the fort was finished -Boone brought his family, and several others, over the mountains to his -"second Paradise." Other settlers came, and Boonesboro began to grow. -Some of the bolder settlers built cabins outside of the fort, where -they cut away and burned the trees to raise corn and vegetables. - -[Sidenote: =Three girl prisoners=] - -To the Indian all this seemed to threaten his hunting ground. The red -men were anxious, therefore, to kill and scalp these brave pioneers. -One day Boone's daughter and two girl friends were out late in a boat -near the shore opposite the fort when the Indians suddenly seized the -girls and hastened away with them. The people heard their screams for -help, but too late to risk crossing the river. - -[Illustration: BOONE AND HIS MEN TRAILING THE INDIANS] - -[Sidenote: =The chase and the capture=] - -What sorrow in the fort that night! Had the Indians scalped the girls, -or were they hastening to cross the Ohio with them? The next day Boone -with eight men seized their guns, found the Indian trail, and marched -with all speed. What if the Indians should see the white men first! On -the second day Boone's party came upon the Indians building a fire, and -fired before they were seen. Two of the Indians fell, and the others -ran away, leaving the girls behind, unharmed, but badly frightened. - -[Sidenote: =Kentucky in the War of the Revolution=] - -The War of the Revolution was already raging east of the mountains, -and the Indians were taking the side of the British. In April, 1777, -a small army of Indians crossed the Ohio and attacked Boonesboro. The -little fort made a bold fight. The Indians retreated, but returned on -the Fourth of July in large numbers, to destroy the fort and scalp the -settlers. For two days and nights the battle went on. The fierce war -cry of the Indians filled the woods around the fort. The white men -took deadly aim. The women aided by melting lead into bullets. The -Indians again failed, and finally retreated. - -[Sidenote: =The prize prisoner=] - -While making salt at the "Blue Licks," Boone and twenty-seven of his -men were captured by the Indians and marched all the way to Detroit, -the headquarters of the British army in the Northwest. The British -offered the Indians five hundred dollars for Boone, but the savages -were too proud of their great prisoner, and marched him back to their -towns in what is now Ohio. - -[Sidenote: =Adopted by an Indian family=] - -Here he was adopted by an Indian chief. They plucked out all of Boone's -hair except a "scalp lock," which they ornamented with feathers. They -painted and dressed him like an Indian. His new parents were quite -proud of their son. Sometimes he went hunting alone, but the Indians -counted his bullets and measured his powder. But Boone was too shrewd -for them. He cut the bullets in two, and used half charges of powder. - -[Sidenote: =Steals away to Boonesboro=] - -One day he saw four hundred fifty painted warriors getting ready to -march against Boonesboro. He went hunting that day, but he did not come -back. What excitement in that Indian town! Soon the woods were full of -Indians hunting for Boone. In five days--with but one meal--he reached -Boonesboro. - -All hands fell to repairing the fort. The horses, cattle, and -provisions were brought inside the fort, and water was brought from the -river. - -The Indians came, and Boone's Indian "father" called on him to -surrender. Boone asked for two days to think about it, but he used this -time in getting ready to fight. At the end of the two days Boone told -him that his men would fight to the last. - -[Sidenote: =An Indian trick spoiled=] - -The Indians then proposed that twelve from each side meet to make a -treaty of peace. Boone took his strongest men. While parleying, each -Indian suddenly seized a white man. The white men broke away, and ran -for the fort. Boone's riflemen were ready, and poured a hot fire into -the Indians. - -[Sidenote: =The Indians cannot capture Boone's fort=] - -The Indians climbed into trees to shoot down into the fort. They tried -to set the fort on fire, but failed. They then tried to dig a tunnel -under the fort, but failed in that also. - -[Illustration: DANIEL BOONE - -_From a portrait made in 1819 when Boone was 85 years old, painted by -Chester Harding, and now in possession of the Massachusetts Historical -Society, Boston, Massachusetts_] - -After nine days of failure, and after losing many warriors, the Indians -gave up the fight and recrossed the Ohio. Although the settlers had to -keep a daily watch for Indians, and had to fight them in other parts of -Kentucky, they never attacked Boonesboro again. - -[Sidenote: =Boone's reason for again moving west=] - -During the Revolutionary War other brave men came as pioneers into -Kentucky, and built forts, and defended their settlements against the -Indians. As the settlements grew thicker, game grew scarcer. Boone -resolved once more to move farther west. When asked why, he replied: -"Too much crowded. I want more elbow room." - -[Sidenote: =Moves to Missouri=] - -At the age of sixty, while Washington was still president, and after he -had seen Kentucky become a state, Daniel Boone and his faithful wife -made the long journey to the region beyond the Mississippi, into what -is now Missouri. There he lived and hunted. He saw this region pass -from Spain to France, and from France to the United States (1803). He -was still a hunter at eighty-two, and saw Missouri preparing to enter -the Union as the twenty-fourth state. - -[Sidenote: =Died in 1820=] - -He died in 1820 at the age of eighty-six. Years afterward, remembering -the noble deeds of the great pioneer, Kentucky brought his body to the -capital city and buried it with great honors. - -[Sidenote: =The Louisiana country and the French=] - - -=108. Life in the Mississippi Valley.= When Boone led his brave men -into Kentucky, white men had been living for years in the Mississippi -Valley, farther west. These were the French of Louisiana, as they -called their country. Their chief settlement was St. Louis. - -These people came at first to dig lead from the old Indian mines of -southern Missouri and to trade for furs. They were a quiet people who -knew little and cared less about the rest of the world. They did not -work hard, and they loved good times. A traveler who visited them says -they were "the happiest people on the globe." - - - - -JOHN SEVIER, "NOLICHUCKY JACK" - - -[Sidenote: =Sevier born in Virginia=] - -[Sidenote: =Early life in the Shenandoah=] - - -=109. A Famous Indian Fighter.= John Sevier was born in the Shenandoah -Valley in 1745. His mother taught him to read, but he obtained most of -his schooling in Washington's old school town, Fredericksburg. He quit -school at sixteen. He built a storehouse on the Shenandoah and called -it Newmarket. He lived there, selling goods and fighting Indians, -until, at the early age of twenty-six, he was a wealthy man. He had -already made such a name as an Indian fighter that the governor made -him captain in the militia of which George Washington was then colonel. - -[Sidenote: =Fine looking=] - -Sevier was a fine-looking man. He was tall, slender, erect, graceful in -action, fair skinned, blue eyed, and had pleasing manners, which had -come to him from his French parents. He charmed everybody who met him, -from backwoodsmen up to the king's governor at Williamsburg. - -[Sidenote: =He goes to the Watauga=] - -A most promising future opened before him in Virginia. But hearing of a -band of pioneers on the Watauga, he rode over one day to see them and -resolved to cast in his lot with them. - -[Sidenote: =Tennessee in the Revolution=] - -During the Revolutionary War, British agents went among the Cherokee -Indians and gave them guns and ammunition. Indian-like, they planned -to take Fort Watauga by surprise. They came creeping up to the fort -one morning just at daybreak. Forty deadly rifles suddenly blazed from -portholes and drove them back to the woods. During the siege of three -weeks, food grew scarce at the fort, and the men became tired of being -cooped up so long. Some of them ventured out and were shot or had very -narrow escapes from death. - -[Illustration: JOHN SEVIER - -_After an engraving from a miniature now in possession of one of his -descendants at New York_] - -[Sidenote: =The story of Jack Sevier and Kate Sherrill=] - -The story is told that Sevier, during the siege, fell in love with the -beautiful, tall, brown-haired Kate Sherrill. One day she ventured out -of the fort. It was a daring act, for four men had lost their lives in -this way. The Indians tried to catch the girl, for they did not want -to kill her. But she could run like a deer, and almost flew to the -fort. Sevier was watching, and shot the Indian nearest her. The gate -was closed, but she jumped with all her might, seized the top of the -stockade, drew herself up, and sprang over into the arms of Sevier. Not -long after she became his wife. - -[Illustration: KATE SHERRILL RACING FOR LIFE] - -[Sidenote: =Sevier acts quickly=] - -In 1778 Sevier heard that the Indians were coming again. He quickly -called his men together, took boats, and paddled rapidly down the -Tennessee to the Indian towns. He burned the towns, captured their -store of hides, and marched home on foot. How surprised the Indians -were when they returned! - -[Sidenote: =Moves to the Nolichucky=] - - -=110. Nolichucky Jack.= The Watauga Settlement was growing in numbers, -and Sevier went to live on the Nolichucky, a branch of the French -Broad River. There he built a large log house, or rather two houses, -and joined them by a covered porch. Outside were large verandas, while -inside were great stone fireplaces. - -[Sidenote: =Welcomes rich and poor=] - -Here Sevier gave hearty welcome to friend and stranger, no matter how -poor, if they were honest. The settlers far and wide, and new settlers -from over the mountains, partook of his cider, hominy, corn bread, -and of wild meat of many kinds. Sometimes he invited them with their -families to a barbecue. Whether people came for advice or to call -him to arms against the Indians, no one was turned away. "Nolichucky -Jack," as his neighbors loved to call him, held a warm place in every -settler's heart. - -[Sidenote: =British challenge=] - -In 1780 Cornwallis, then victorious in South Carolina, sent Colonel -Ferguson with one thousand British soldiers into western North Carolina -to punish the backwoodsmen. Ferguson grew bold, and sent word across -the mountains, threatening to punish Sevier and his brave riflemen. -This was enough. Colonel Shelby of Kentucky and Sevier resolved to -rouse the frontiersmen, cross the mountains, and teach Colonel Ferguson -a lesson. Colonel Campbell with his men from the Holston, in Virginia, -joined them. A thousand well-mounted backwoodsmen, with their long -rifles, fringed hunting shirts, and coonskin caps, began the march -from the Watauga across the mountains. Once across they were joined -by several hundred Carolinians. Ferguson retreated to Kings Mountain, -too steep on one side to be climbed. He felt safe behind his thousand -gleaming bayonets. - -[Sidenote: =The plan of battle=] - -[Sidenote: =Battle of Kings Mountain=] - -The backwoodsmen picked nine hundred men to make the charge up the -mountain in face of the bayonets, although among themselves there -was not a bayonet. Three divisions, one for each side, marched up -the mountain. Down the mountain side came the flashing bayonets. The -backwoodsmen in the center retreated from tree to tree, firing steadily -all the time. The British, now shot at from both sides as well as in -front, turned and charged at one side. Then one division fired into -their backs and the other on their side. What could bayonets do in the -midst of trees? - -[Sidenote: =The result=] - -The backwoodsmen kept to the trees and their rifles seldom missed their -aim. The British retreated to the top of the mountain. Colonel Ferguson -was killed and his entire army was killed or captured. This victory -caused great rejoicing among the Americans and prepared the way for the -work of Greene and Morgan. - -[Sidenote: =A deadly blow=] - -Sevier and Campbell hastened back over the mountains, for the Indians -were scalping and burning again. With seven hundred riflemen, they -marched against the Indian towns and burned a thousand cabins and fifty -thousand bushels of corn. This was a hard blow, but the Indians kept -fighting several years longer. - -[Illustration: THE BATTLE OF KING'S MOUNTAIN - -_Where 900 frontiersmen attacked and totally destroyed 1,000 British -soldiers entrenched and better armed_] - -Sevier, in all, fought thirty-five battles. He was the most famous -Indian fighter of his time. - -[Sidenote: =Governor of Tennessee many times=] - -[Sidenote: =Indians trusted him=] - -When Tennessee became a state the people elected him governor. They -reëlected him till he had held the office for twelve years. The people -of Tennessee almost worshiped the bold pioneer. He had spent all his -time and all his wealth in their service. And while he was governor, -and living in Knoxville, the early capital, one or more of his old -riflemen were always living at his home. Even the Indian chiefs often -came to visit him. When the people of Tennessee were debating questions -of great importance, they always asked: "What says the good old -governor?" - -[Illustration: "NOLICHUCKY JACK'S A-COMING" - -_Sevier welcomed by the congregation of the country church_] - -[Sidenote: =The boy's disappointment=] - -One Sunday, when all the people of a backwoods settlement were at the -country church, a bareheaded runner rushed in and shouted, "Nolichucky -Jack's a-coming!" The people rushed out to see their governor. As he -came near, he greeted one of his old riflemen, put his hand upon the -head of the old soldier's son, spoke a kindly word, and rode on. The -boy looked up at his father and said: "Why, father, 'Chucky Jack' is -only a man!" - -[Sidenote: =Died in 1815=] - -Sevier died in 1815, while acting as an officer in marking the boundary -line between Georgia and the Indian lands. Only a few soldiers and -Indians were present. There he lies, with only the name "John Sevier" -cut on a simple slab. But for generations the children of the pioneers -went on repeating to their children the story of the courage and -goodness of "Nolichucky Jack." His name is yet a household word among -the people of eastern Tennessee. Their children are taught the story of -his life. In the courthouse yard at Knoxville stands a monument erected -to his memory. - - - - -GEORGE ROGERS CLARK, THE HERO OF VINCENNES - - -[Sidenote: =Clark born in Virginia=] - -[Sidenote: =A surveyor=] - - -=111. A Successful Leader against the Indians and the British.= George -Rogers Clark was born in Virginia in 1752. From childhood Clark liked -to roam the woods. He became a surveyor and an Indian fighter at the -age of twenty-one. Like Washington, with chain and compass, and with ax -and rifle, he made his way far into the wild and lonely forests of the -upper Ohio. - -[Sidenote: =A scout=] - -Clark was a scout for the governor of Virginia in the expedition which -defeated the great Shawnee chief Cornstalk at the mouth of the Kanawha. - -[Illustration: INDIANS ATTACKING A FORT - -_Again and again, when a surprise was not possible, the Indians from -safe hiding places picked off the men in a garrison_] - -Two years later Clark made his way alone over the mountains and became -a leader in Kentucky, along with Boone. The Kentucky hunters chose -Clark to go to Virginia as their lawmaker. - -[Sidenote: =In Kentucky=] - -He told Governor Patrick Henry that if Kentucky was not worth defending -against the Indians, it was not worth having. At this the Virginian -lawmakers made Kentucky into a Virginia county and gave Clark five -hundred pounds of powder, which he carried down the Ohio River to -Kentucky. - -[Sidenote: =Life at Harrodsburg=] - -Clark lived at Harrodsburg where, for more than a year, he was kept -busy helping the settlers fight off the Indians. This was the very -time when Boonesboro and other settlements were so often surrounded by -Indians who had been aroused by the British officers at Detroit. These -officers paid a certain sum for each scalp of an American the Indians -brought them. - -[Illustration: GEORGE ROGERS CLARK - -_From a painting on wood by John Wesley Jarvis, now in the State -Library at Richmond, Virginia_] - -[Sidenote: =Turns to Patrick Henry in time of need=] - -After having seen brave men and women scalped by the Indians, Clark -decided to strike a blow at the British across the Ohio. But where -could he find money and men for an army? Kentucky did not have men -enough. Clark thought of that noble patriot across the mountains, -Patrick Henry. He mounted his horse and guided some settlers back to -Virginia, but kept his secret. In Virginia he heard the good news that -Burgoyne had surrendered. - -Governor Henry was heart and soul for Clark's plan. He made Clark a -colonel, gave him six thousand dollars in paper money, and ordered him -to raise an army to defend Kentucky. - -[Sidenote: =A colonel with a secret=] - - -=112. The Campaign against Old Vincennes.= In May, 1778, Clark's little -army of about one hundred fifty backwoodsmen, with several families, -took their flatboats and floated down the Monongahela to Fort Pitt. -Clark did not dare tell the riflemen where they were going, for fear -the British might get the word. Here they took on supplies and a few -small cannon. - -[Sidenote: =Floating down the beautiful Ohio=] - -On they floated, in the middle of the river to keep away from the -Indians who might be hiding in the deep, dark forests on the river -banks. At the falls of the Ohio, on Corn Island, Clark landed his -party. He built a blockhouse and cabins, and drilled the riflemen into -soldiers while the settlers planted corn. This was the beginning of the -city of Louisville. - -[Sidenote: =Clark tells his secret=] - -One day Clark called his men together and told them the secret--he was -really leading them against the British forts on the Illinois and the -Wabash rivers. - -A few of the men refused to go so far from home--a thousand miles--but -the rest were willing to follow their leader. - -[Sidenote: =A long march begun=] - -In June, Clark's boats "shot the falls" and were soon at the mouth of -the Tennessee, where a band of hunters joined the party. There Clark -hid the boats and began the long march through tangled forests and -over grand prairies. But they did not know what minute the Indians -might attack, or some British scout discover them and carry the news to -General Hamilton at Detroit. - -[Sidenote: =Kaskaskia, July 4, 1778=] - -They reached the old French town of Kaskaskia at dusk on July 4. They -did not dare give a shout or fire a gun, for the British officer had -more men than Clark. - -[Sidenote: =Surrounds the town=] - -Clark sent part of his men silently to surround the town, while he led -the others to the fort, where they heard the merry music of the violin -and the voices of the dancers. - -[Illustration: CLARK'S SURPRISE AT KASKASKIA] - -[Sidenote: =Virginia, not Great Britain=] - -[Sidenote: =The French settlers alarmed=] - -Clark himself slipped into the great hall, folded his arms, and looked -in silence on the dimly lighted scene. An Indian lying on the floor saw -Clark's face by the light of the torches. He sprang to his feet, and -gave the terrible war whoop. Instantly the dancing ceased, the women -screamed, and the men rushed toward Clark. But Clark simply said: "Go -on with your dance, but remember that you dance under Virginia and not -under Great Britain!" The British general surrendered, and the French -inhabitants trembled, when they learned that the backwoodsmen had -captured the town. They sent their priest, Father Gibault, and other -chief men to beg for their lives. Imagine their surprise and joy when -Clark told them that not only were their lives safe, but that the new -republic made war on no church, and protected all from insult. - -[Sidenote: =The treaty with France=] - -He also told them that the King of France had made a treaty with the -United States and was sending his great war ships and soldiers to help -America. The town of Cahokia also surrendered. - -[Sidenote: =Vincennes surrenders=] - -Father Gibault went to Vincennes to tell the French settlers about the -doings of Clark and to give them the news that France had taken sides -with the Americans. The people rejoiced, and ran up the American flag. -Clark sent Captain Helm to command the fort. - -General Hamilton at Detroit was busy planning to attack Fort Pitt and -to encourage the Ohio Indians to kill and scalp Kentuckians. - -[Sidenote: =General Hamilton stirred up=] - -[Sidenote: =Stays in Vincennes until spring=] - -How astonished he was when he heard that the forts on the Illinois and -the Wabash had fallen! He gathered a mixed army of British, Canadians, -and Indians, crossed Lake Erie to the mouth of the Maumee, and "poled" -and paddled up that river to the portage. Down the Wabash they -floated, five hundred strong. Vincennes surrendered without a blow. -Hamilton decided to stay there for the winter and march against Clark -in the spring. This was a blunder. He did not yet know Clark and his -backwoodsmen. - -"I must take Hamilton or Hamilton will take me," said Clark, when he -heard the news. He immediately set to work to build a rude sort of -gunboat, which he fitted out with his cannon and about forty men. He -sent the _Willing_, as it was called, down the Mississippi, around -into the Ohio, and up the Wabash to meet him at Vincennes. - -[Sidenote: =Clark begins the march=] - -All was excitement in the French towns. Forty or fifty French joined -Clark's riflemen. Father Gibault gave them his blessing, and the march -overland to Vincennes began. - -[Sidenote: =On the march=] - -Clark divided his men into parties. Each, in its turn, did the hunting, -and at night invited the others to sit around great camp fires to feast -on "bear ham, buffalo hump, elk saddle, and venison haunch." They ate, -sang, danced, and told stories. No doubt they often talked of their -loved ones far away in the cabins of Virginia and Kentucky. - -[Illustration: CLARK'S MEN ON THEIR WAY THROUGH THE DROWNED LANDS OF -THE WABASH VALLEY] - -[Sidenote: =The drowned lands=] - -On they pushed till they came to the "drowned lands of the Wabash," and -there they saw miles and miles of muddy water. They made a rude boat to -carry them over the deepest parts. The horses had to swim. - -[Sidenote: =The morning gun=] - -Soon they were near enough Vincennes to hear the "morning gun" at the -fort, but they did not dare fire a gun themselves for fear of being -discovered by parties of hunters. Food grew scarce, game was hard to -find, and starvation threatened them. - -[Sidenote: =Terrible suffering=] - -Sometimes, after wading all day, they could hardly find a dry spot to -camp for the night. Some grew too weak to wade and were carried in -boats. The stronger sang songs to keep up the courage of the weak. When -they finally reached the opposite shore of the Wabash many fell, worn -out--some lying partly in the water. - -[Illustration: THE BIG TROOPER CARRIED THE DRUMMER BOY] - - -Those who were well built great fires and warmed and fed the faint ones -on hot deer broth. But these brave men soon forgot their hardships and -again were full of fight. - -[Sidenote: =Clark's letter=] - -Clark now decided to take a bold course. He sent a letter to the people -of Vincennes telling them that he was about to attack the town. He -advised all friends of America to remain quietly in their homes, and -asked all friends of the British to go to the fort and join the "hair -buyer," as the backwoodsmen called Hamilton. - -[Sidenote: =The attack=] - -At dark, Clark's men charged into the town and attacked the fort. The -fight went on all night. As soon as it was daylight the backwoodsmen -fired through the portholes and drove the gunners from the cannon. - -[Sidenote: =Hamilton surrenders=] - -Clark's men begged to storm the fort. Only one American had been -wounded, but several British soldiers had been killed and others -wounded. In the afternoon Hamilton surrendered and once more the Stars -and Stripes floated over "old Vincennes." - -The _Willing_ appeared in a few days. Her men were deeply disappointed -because they were too late to take part in the fight. - -[Illustration: EXPEDITIONS TO THE WEST AND THE SCENE OF GEORGE ROGERS -CLARK'S CAMPAIGN] - -Clark put men in the forts at Kaskaskia, Cahokia, and Vincennes, and -made peace with the Indians round about. But he was never able to -march against Detroit, as once he had planned to do. - -[Sidenote: =Clark's Grant=] - -Virginia rewarded the brave men who had followed Clark by giving to -each three hundred acres of land in southern Indiana. The land was -surveyed and is known to-day as "Clark's Grant." - -Clark and his men had performed one of the greatest deeds of the -Revolutionary War. They made it possible for the United States to -have the Mississippi River for her western boundary when England -acknowledged our independence. - -[Sidenote: =Clark unrewarded=] - -George Rogers Clark was never properly rewarded. He spent his last days -in poverty at the falls of the Ohio, on Corn Island, and died in 1818. -In 1895 a monument was erected in honor of his memory in the city of -Indianapolis, Indiana. - - -SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL - - =The Leading Facts.= _1._ Boone loved the woods, crossed the - mountains into east Tennessee, and later went to Kentucky. _2._ - He wintered alone in Kentucky; his brother returned home for - supplies. _3._ Boone built the "Wilderness Road," and also built - Fort Boonesboro. _4._ Boone took part in the War of the Revolution, - was captured by the Indians, carried to Detroit, but escaped. _5._ - Years after his death his remains were taken to Frankfort, Kentucky. - - _6._ John Sevier studied at Fredericksburg; fought Indians in the - Shenandoah. _7._ He went over to the settlement on the Watauga; - helped defend it against the Indians. _8._ Sevier helped win the - great victory at Kings Mountain. _9._ He was many times governor of - Tennessee. - - _10._ George Rogers Clark loved the woods; was a surveyor and an - Indian fighter at twenty-one. _11._ Moved to Kentucky, saw men and - women scalped, and resolved to capture the British posts north - of the Ohio. _12._ Clark received permission from Patrick Henry, - collected his little army, and floated down the Ohio to the falls. - _13._ He drilled his men; set out for Kaskaskia, which he captured. - _14._ Clark marched for Vincennes through the drowned lands; - attacked and captured Vincennes. _15._ Clark was not rewarded - by the government, but the state of Indiana has erected a great - monument to his memory. - - =Study Questions.= _1._ What did Boone do that was pioneer-like? - _2._ What was the country doing in 1760? _3._ Why did Boone wish to - leave North Carolina? _4._ What were the early names of Kentucky, - and what did these names mean? _5._ Tell the story of Boone's first - visit to Kentucky. _6._ Picture the capture and escape of Boone - and Stewart. _7._ Find the places on the map which are named on - Boone's Wilderness Road. _8._ Picture the scene in Boonesboro the - night of the capture of the girls and also their rescue and return - home. _9._ Go with Boone to Blue Licks and help make salt. _10._ - Be captured, and tell of the long journey to Detroit, what you - saw there, and how and why Boone made his escape. _11._ Tell the - story of the last attack on Boonesboro. _12._ Why did Boone move to - Missouri? - - _13._ What famous men went to school at Fredericksburg? _14._ What - famous men have lived a part of their time in the Shenandoah? _15._ - What changed Sevier's career? _16._ Tell what happened to Sevier at - the siege of Fort Watauga. _17._ Why did Sevier leave Watauga, and - what sort of life did he lead on the Nolichucky? _18._ Tell of the - gathering of the clans, and picture the battle of Kings Mountain. - _19._ Why did the people of Tennessee love Sevier? _20._ Why was - the boy disappointed? - - _21._ What were Clark's surroundings in boyhood? _22._ When was - he a scout? a leader in Kentucky? _23._ What made Clark learn - to hate the British? _24._ Tell the story of his secret. _25._ - Picture the voyage to the falls of the Ohio. _26._ What did Clark - do here? _27._ Tell the story of events from the falls of the - Ohio till he reached Kaskaskia. _28._ Picture the scene of the - dance at Kaskaskia. _29._ What news did Clark give Father Gibault? - _30._ Where were the British, and what did they do? _31._ Picture - Clark's march to Vincennes. _32._ Be one of the soldiers of Clark - and tell what was seen, heard, and done the night of the attack on - Vincennes and the next day. _33._ Where was Clark's Grant? _34._ - Why do we call Clark's conquest of Kaskaskia and Vincennes one of - the greatest events in American history? _35._ Where is a monument - erected to his memory? _36._ Find on the map the places mentioned - in the campaign. - - =Suggested Readings.= DANIEL BOONE: Wright, _Children's Stories of - American Progress_, 1-40; Glascock, _Stories of Columbia_, 138-147; - Hart, _Camps and Firesides of the Revolution_, 101-116; McMurry, - _Pioneers of the Mississippi Valley_, 68-83. - - JOHN SEVIER: Blaisdell and Ball, _Hero Stories from American - History_, 90-104; McMurry, _Pioneers of the Mississippi Valley_, - 104-123; Phelan, _History of Tennessee_, 57-66, 241-257. - - GEORGE ROGERS CLARK: McMurry, _Pioneers of the Mississippi Valley_, - 124-149; Blaisdell and Ball, _Hero Stories from American History_, - 1-17; Eggleston, _Tecumseh and the Shawnee Prophet_, 41-51; - Roosevelt, _The Winning of the West_, II, 31-85. - - - - -DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEW REPUBLIC - - - - -ELI WHITNEY, WHO INVENTED THE COTTON GIN AND CHANGED THE HISTORY OF THE -SOUTH - - -[Sidenote: =Eli at work in his father's tool shop=] - - -=113. What a Boy's Love of Tools Led to.= Before the Revolution there -lived in a Massachusetts village a boy named Eli Whitney. His father -had a farm, on which there was also a tool shop. This was the most -wonderful place in the world to young Eli. Whenever he had a moment -to spare, he was sure to be working away with his father's lathe or -cabinet tools. At the age of twelve he made a good violin. After that -people with broken violins came to him to have them mended. - -One day, when his father had gone to church, Eli got Mr. Whitney's fine -watch and took it all apart. He then showed his wonderful mechanical -ability by putting it together again, and it ran as smoothly as before. -During the war he made quite a bit of money as a nail-smith. At college -he helped pay his expenses by mending things and doing a carpenter's -work. - -[Sidenote: =Goes to Georgia to teach=] - -If Eli Whitney were living to-day he would surely have been an -engineer. But there were no engineers in those days, so he decided to -teach. He found a position in far-off Georgia, and took passage on -a ship to Savannah. On board ship he found the widow of the old war -hero, General Nathanael Greene, whom he had met a short time before. -She liked the young man for his friendly nature and his intelligence. -He had a very pleasant voyage. But sad was his disappointment when he -arrived at Savannah! The people who had asked him to come had engaged -another tutor, and he was left without a position. - -[Sidenote: =Invited to Mulberry Grove=] - -He was in a strange place, without money, and did not know what to do. -Just then came an invitation to visit at Mulberry Grove, where Mrs. -Greene lived. He went gladly and was treated very kindly. He made many -new friends. The men liked the interest he took in their farms and -their work. The children were his friends because he made for them -wonderful toys of all sorts. - -[Sidenote: =Cotton fiber separated from seed by hand=] - -One day some visitors were talking with Mrs. Greene about cotton. This -plant was little grown at that time. People knew that it had a fine -soft fiber which could be made into excellent cloth. But the fiber had -to be separated from the seed before it could be spun. In those days -the seeds were taken out by hand, and even a skillful slave could clean -only about a pound a day. Think of working a whole day for a handful -of cotton! Because of this difficulty, cotton was very expensive, more -so even than wool or linen. Only well-to-do people could wear cotton -clothes. - - -=114. The Cotton Gin Invented.= One of the visitors said that a machine -ought to be invented which would clean the cotton. Mrs. Greene thought -of Whitney. She had seen him make many wonderful things. She believed -he could make such a machine, and asked him to try. He thought about -it, and believed he could make iron fingers do the work that the -fingers of the slaves had done. - -[Illustration: ELI WHITNEY WORKING ON HIS COTTON GIN] - -[Sidenote: =Whitney sets to work=] - -[Sidenote: =Invents cotton gin=] - -Whitney got a basketful of cotton and fixed up a shop. Then he went to -work. He had a good deal of trouble, but he kept on. One day he called -in Mrs. Greene and her overseer and proudly showed them his little -machine, made of rollers and wires and brushes. Into this he poured -the cotton just as it came from the field. When he turned a crank the -soft, clean cotton came tumbling out of one side and the seeds out of -another. This was the cotton gin, which in a few years was to change -the entire life of the South. - -A few years before Whitney made the cotton gin a vessel came to -Liverpool with cotton from the United States. The people in Liverpool -were astonished. They did not know that cotton grew in America! As soon -as Whitney began to sell his new machines, all the South became a great -cotton field. In 1825, the year of Whitney's death, the South shipped -abroad thirty-seven million dollars' worth of cotton, more than that of -all other goods exported from this country! - -[Sidenote: =More slaves brought into the South=] - -Before this time many planters had thought that slavery was -unnecessary. But when Whitney's gin made cotton growing so profitable, -they had to have many more laborers to raise this new crop. Thousands -of black slaves were sold to the cotton-growing parts of the South. The -planters then believed they could not grow cotton without slaves, and -it took a terrible war to settle the great question of slave labor. - - - - -THOMAS JEFFERSON, WHO WROTE THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, FOUNDED -THE DEMOCRATIC PARTY, AND PURCHASED THE LOUISIANA TERRITORY - - -[Sidenote: =Jefferson born in Virginia=] - -[Sidenote: =A lover of books from boyhood=] - - -=115. The Early Years of Jefferson.= The author of the Declaration of -Independence was born in 1743, near Charlottesville, Virginia. Like -most other Virginia boys, Thomas Jefferson lived on a large plantation, -and spent much time in hunting, fishing, and horseback riding. While -yet a boy, and throughout his long life, Jefferson loved books and -studied hard every subject that came before his mind. - -[Illustration: WHERE JEFFERSON WENT TO SCHOOL BEFORE HE WENT TO WILLIAM -AND MARY COLLEGE] - -[Sidenote: =Goes to William and Mary College=] - -When seventeen years old he rode away to Williamsburg to attend the -College of William and Mary, the second oldest college in America. - -[Sidenote: =A wonderful old town=] - -Although Williamsburg was the capital of the largest and oldest of all -the colonies, it had scarcely more than two hundred houses, and not -more than a thousand people. But it was a wonderful town in Jefferson's -eyes, although it had but one main street. The capitol stood at one -end of the street and the college at the other. It was the first town -Thomas Jefferson had ever seen. - -[Illustration: THE OLD CAPITOL, WILLIAMSBURG - -_Here Jefferson heard Patrick Henry make his famous Caesar-Charle the -First speech_] - -At the opening of the House of Burgesses, Jefferson saw the best people -in the Old Colony come pouring in. The planters came in fine coaches -drawn by beautiful horses. The wives and daughters came to attend the -governor's reception, and to enjoy meeting their old friends. - -[Sidenote: =He knew great men=] - -Jefferson became acquainted with the great men of his colony, and -with many young men who were to be the future leaders in America. -Here he met Patrick Henry, a student in a law office. Jefferson liked -the fun-making Henry, and the two young men enjoyed many happy hours -together, playing their violins. - -[Sidenote: =Studies law=] - -After his graduation Jefferson remained in his old college town to -study law in the office of one of Virginia's ablest lawyers. Henry -often lodged in Jefferson's rooms when he came to attend the meetings -of the Burgesses. When Henry made his stirring speech against the -Stamp Act, Jefferson stood in the doorway of the House and listened -spellbound to his friend's fiery eloquence. - -[Sidenote: =Jefferson a member of the House of Burgesses=] - -In a few years Jefferson himself was honored with a seat in the House -of Burgesses. He immediately took a leading part in opposing the tax on -tea. The king's governor became angry and sent the members of the House -of Burgesses home. But before they went, the bolder ones met and signed -a paper which pledged the people of Virginia to buy no more goods from -England. - -[Sidenote: =Marries and begins life at Monticello=] - -The next important event in Jefferson's life was his falling in love, -and his marriage to a young widow. She was beautiful in looks, winning -in her manner, and rich in lands and slaves. Jefferson took his young -wife to a handsome mansion which he had built on his great plantation. -He called the home Monticello. Here these two Virginians, like -Washington and his wife at Mount Vernon, spent many happy days. - -[Sidenote: =A rich man=] - -Jefferson, with his wife's estate added to his own, was a very wealthy -man. Together they owned at this time nearly a hundred thousand acres -of land and three hundred slaves. - -[Illustration: JEFFERSON AND HIS WIFE AT MONTICELLO] - -[Sidenote: =Committee of Correspondence=] - -But stirring events took Jefferson away from the quiet life at -Monticello. After his marriage, he went to the meeting of the -Burgesses, and there with other leaders formed a Committee of -Correspondence. This committee wrote to the other colonies to get -news of what the leaders were doing, and to tell them what the men in -Virginia were planning to do. Each of the other colonies appointed -committees of correspondence. They kept the news going back and forth -as fast as rapid horsemen could carry it. These committees had a strong -influence in uniting the colonies against England. - -[Illustration: THE RALEIGH TAVERN, WILLIAMSBURG - -_When barred from the House of the Burgesses the Committee of -Correspondence met in this tavern_] - -[Sidenote: =In the Continental Congress=] - - -=116. Writes the Declaration of Independence.= In 1775 the Burgesses -chose Thomas Jefferson, Richard Henry Lee, and Benjamin Harrison as -delegates to the Continental Congress in Philadelphia. In this Congress -Richard Henry Lee made a motion declaring that the thirteen colonies -were free and independent of Great Britain. - -The Congress appointed Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, John Adams of -Massachusetts, Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania, Roger Sherman of -Connecticut, and Robert R. Livingston of New York, to draw up a -Declaration of Independence. - -[Sidenote: =Jefferson writes the Declaration of Independence=] - -When these great men met to talk over the Declaration, the others urged -Jefferson to do the writing, for he was able to put his thoughts on -paper in plain, strong words. How important that the Declaration should -be well written, and should contain powerful reasons for breaking away -from England and setting up an independent government! A large number -of people in America were opposed to separating from England. Besides, -good reasons must be given to those brave Englishmen who, like Pitt and -Burke, had been our defenders in Parliament. - -[Sidenote: =The other members liked what Jefferson wrote=] - -When Jefferson showed what he had written, the others liked it so well -only a few words were changed. Even after several days' debate in -Congress, only a few more words were changed. Then it was signed by -the members of the Congress and sent out for all the world to see why -America was driven to fight for independence. - -[Illustration: SIGNING THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE - -_From the first historical painting of John Trumbull, now in the -rotunda of the Capitol at Washington_] - -John Hancock, the president of the Congress, was the first to sign the -Declaration, and he did so in large letters, saying that George III -might read his name without spectacles. He also said: "We must all -hang together in this matter." "Yes," replied Franklin, "we must all -hang together, or we shall hang separately." - -Jefferson returned to Virginia, and later became governor, on the -resignation of Patrick Henry. - -[Sidenote: =Minister to France=] - -[Sidenote: =Helps France become a republic=] - -After the war was over and England had taken her armies home, Congress -sent Thomas Jefferson as minister to France (1785). The French people -liked Jefferson very much, because, like Franklin, he was very -democratic, and treated all men alike. The French people were just -beginning to overthrow the power of their king, and plan a republic. -Jefferson told them how happy the Americans were since they had broken -away from George III. - -[Sidenote: =Greeted by his slaves=] - -After five years Jefferson returned home. When his negro slaves heard -that he was coming back to Monticello they went several miles to greet -him. When the carriage reached home they carried him on their shoulders -into the house. The slaves were happy for Jefferson, like Washington, -was a kind master, and hoped for the day to come when slavery would be -no more. - -[Illustration: JEFFERSON WELCOMED BACK TO MONTICELLO BY HIS NEGROES] - -[Sidenote: =First Secretary of State=] - -Washington had just been elected the first President of the United -States (1789), and was now looking for a good man to be his adviser on -questions relating to foreign nations. He chose Thomas Jefferson to do -that work and gave him the office of Secretary of State. - -[Sidenote: =Leader of the Democratic-Republican party=] - -Congress disputed and debated over the best ways of paying the -Revolutionary War debt, and also over the question as to whether -America should take sides with France in the great war between that -country and England. The people also disputed over these questions, and -formed themselves into two parties. One, the Democratic-Republican, was -led by Thomas Jefferson, and the other, the Federalist party, was led -by Alexander Hamilton. - -[Illustration: THOMAS JEFFERSON - -_From a painting by Rembrandt Peale, now in the possession of the New -York Historical Society, New York City_] - -[Sidenote: =Elected president=] - - -=117. Jefferson President.= In 1800 the people elected Jefferson -president. He was very popular because he was a friend of the poor -as well as of the rich people. He declared that the new national -government should in every way be plain and simple, instead of showy -like the governments of Europe. - -Presidents Washington and Adams had had fine receptions, where people -wore wigs, silver shoe buckles, and fine lace. When Jefferson became -president he did away with all this show and style. - -[Sidenote: =Reduces expenses=] - -Jefferson also pleased the people by reducing the expenses of the -government. He cut down the number of government clerks, soldiers in -the army, and sailors in the navy. He spent just as little money as -possible in running the government. - -One of Jefferson's most important acts while president was the purchase -of Louisiana. Thanks to George Rogers Clark and his brave men, England -had been forced to give the United States the Mississippi as our -western boundary. - -[Sidenote: =Napoleon forces Spain to give France Louisiana=] - -In 1800 Napoleon, the great French general, forced Spain to give -France all the region then known as Louisiana, which extended from the -Mississippi to the Rocky Mountains, and from Canada to the Gulf of -Mexico. Spain, a weak country, had already refused to permit American -boats to use the mouth of the Mississippi. What if Napoleon should send -his victorious army to Louisiana and close the Mississippi entirely? -Jefferson saw the danger at once, and sent James Monroe to Paris to -help our minister, Robert R. Livingston, one of the signers of the -Declaration of Independence, buy New Orleans and a strip of land on the -east side of the Mississippi River near its mouth. - -[Sidenote: =Sells Louisiana to America=] - -Napoleon was about to enter on a terrible war with England, and needed -money badly. He was only too glad to sell all of Louisiana for fifteen -million dollars (1803). This was more than Livingston was told to buy, -but he and Monroe accepted his offer. - -[Sidenote: =The greatness of the purchase=] - -If you will count the number of great states which have been carved -out of the "Louisiana Purchase," and look at the great cities and the -number of towns which have grown up within "old Louisiana," you will -understand why great honor is given to the men who purchased this vast -region. - -[Sidenote: =The Lewis and Clark expedition=] - -In the very next year Jefferson sent out an expedition under the -command of Meriwether Lewis and William Clark to explore this vast -country of Louisiana. With white men, Indians, and boats they made -their way slowly up the Missouri, across the mountains, and down the -Columbia River to the Pacific coast. - -[Illustration: THE UNITED STATES IN 1803, AFTER THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE] - -[Sidenote: =Louisiana Purchase Exposition=] - -The wonderful stories told by Lewis and Clark gave Americans their -first real knowledge of parts of the Louisiana Purchase and of the -Oregon region. In 1904, America, with the help of all the great nations -of the world, celebrated at St. Louis the buying of this region by -holding the Louisiana Purchase Exposition. - -[Sidenote: =President a second time=] - -[Sidenote: =Friends visit him at Monticello=] - -In 1804 Jefferson was elected president again by a greater majority -than before. After serving a second term, he, like Washington, refused -to be president for a third time. He retired to Monticello, where he -spent his last days pleasantly and where hundreds of friends from all -parts of America and Europe came to consult him. The people called him -the "Sage of Monticello." - -[Sidenote: =Died July 4, 1826=] - -Jefferson lived to see the first two great states, Louisiana and -Missouri, carved out of the Louisiana Purchase. He died at Monticello, -July 4, 1826. On the same day, at Quincy, Massachusetts, died his -longtime friend, John Adams. These two patriots, one the writer the -other the defender of the Declaration of Independence, died just half a -century after it was signed. - - - - -LEWIS AND CLARK, AMERICAN EXPLORERS IN THE OREGON COUNTRY - - -[Sidenote: =A vast unexplored country=] - -[Sidenote: =Gray visits the Pacific=] - - -=118. Discovery of the Columbia River.= The purchase of the Louisiana -territory by Jefferson opened up a great new field for settlers. It -was necessary to know something about the new territory. It was a -vast unexplored country stretching from the Mississippi River to the -Rockies. The Pacific shore had already been visited by explorers. -Boston merchants had sent Captain Robert Gray to the Pacific coast to -buy furs of the Indians. He did not try to find an overland route, -but sailed around South America and up the coast to Vancouver Island, -where he obtained a rich cargo of furs. He then made his way across -the Pacific to China, and came back to Boston by way of the Cape of -Good Hope--the first American to carry the Stars and Stripes around the -world. - -[Sidenote: =Discovers the mouth of the Columbia=] - -On a second voyage to the same region, in the good ship _Columbia_, -Gray discovered the mouth of a great river (1792). Up this river he -went for nearly thirty miles, probably the first white man to sail upon -its waters. Captain Gray named the river the Columbia after his vessel. -The Indians had called it the Oregon. - - -=119. The Lewis and Clark Expedition.= The next important step in -finding a route to the Oregon country was the great expedition -undertaken while Thomas Jefferson was yet president. - -[Sidenote: =Expedition leaves St. Louis=] - -Lewis and Clark were two young men chosen by Jefferson to explore the -region known as the Louisiana Purchase and to make their way across the -Rocky Mountains to the Oregon country and to the Pacific. They chose -forty-two men to go with them--some as soldiers, others as servants, -and still others as hunters. From the little French village of St. -Louis they began their adventurous journey in boats in the spring of -1804. - -[Illustration: CAPTAIN MERIWETHER LEWIS - -_From the original painting by Charles Wilson Peale in Independence -Hall, Philadelphia_] - -Up the Missouri River they slowly made their way against the current of -the muddy, rushing stream. At one time it was so swift that they could -not force boats against it, and at another time the brushwood that came -down the river broke their oars. - -[Sidenote: =Smoked the "pipe of peace"=] - -Near where the city of Council Bluffs now stands, Lewis and Clark held -a great meeting with the Indians. They told the Indians that the people -of the United States and not the people of France were now the owners -of this great land. Together they smoked the "pipe of peace," and the -Indians promised to be friendly. - -On they went till the region near the Black Hills was reached. It was -the fall of the year and the trees were bright with color, and the -wild ducks and geese in large numbers were seen going southward. - -[Sidenote: =Spent the winter with the Indians=] - -The company spent the winter on an island sixteen hundred miles from -St. Louis. The men built rude homes and fortified them. The Indians -were friendly and the explorers spent many evenings around the wigwam -fires listening to stories of the country the Indians had to tell them. - -[Sidenote: =The Rocky Mountains=] - -In the spring they bade the Indians good-by, passed the mouth of the -Yellowstone, and traveled on till the Rocky Mountains with their long -rows of snow-covered peaks came into view. - -On the thirteenth day of June they beheld wonderful pictures of the -"Falls of the Missouri." The water tore through a vast gorge a dozen -miles or more in length. - - -=120. The Way over the Mountains.= On they went until their boats could -go no farther. They had reached rough and rugged hills and mountains. -They climbed the heights as best they could. From now on the suffering -was very great indeed. - -[Illustration: CAPTAIN WILLIAM CLARK - -_From the original painting by Charles Wilson Peale in Independence -Hall, Philadelphia_] - -[Sidenote: =The source of the Missouri=] - -One day Captain Lewis went ahead with three men to find Indian guides -for the party. They climbed higher and higher until finally they came -to a place where the Missouri River takes its rise. They went on and at -last came to the western slope of the mountains, down which flowed a -stream toward the Pacific Ocean. - -Finally Captain Lewis came upon a company of Indian women who could not -get away. They all bowed their heads as if expecting to be killed. They -led the white men to a band of Indians, who received them with all the -signs of kindness they could show. - -[Sidenote: =Indians are friendly=] - -Now they all turned back to find Clark and his party. When they reached -Clark the Indians smoked the "pipe of peace" and Lewis and Clark told -the Indians why the United States had sent them out. - -[Illustration: STATUE OF SACAJAWEA - -_This Indian woman, as interpreter and guide, was a great aid to the -exploring party_] - -They were the first white men these Indians had ever seen. They looked -the men over carefully and took a deep interest in their clothing, -their food, and in their guns. - -[Sidenote: =Explorers suffer from hunger and cold=] - -The mountains were now rough and barren and the streams ran through -deep gorges. The explorers took an old Indian guide and crossed the -Bitter Root Mountains into a valley of the same name. They followed an -Indian trail over the mountains again and into the Clearwater. They -suffered for want of food and on account of the cold. When they reached -a tribe of the Nez Percé (Pierced Nose) Indians they ate so much they -were all ill. - -[Sidenote: =Reach the Columbia River=] - - -=121. On Waters Flowing into the Pacific.= In five log boats, which -they had dug out of trees, they glided down the Clearwater to where it -meets the Snake River. They camped near the spot where now stands the -present town of Lewiston, Idaho. Then they embarked on the Snake River -and floated down to where it joins the mighty Columbia. - -They were among the Indians again, who had plenty of dried fish, for -here is the home of the salmon, a fish found in astonishing numbers. -The men had never seen so many fish before. - -[Sidenote: =Explorers reach the Pacific=] - -The number of Indians increased as they went toward the Pacific. -Finally the party of explorers passed through the Cascade Mountains and -were once more on the smooth current of the Columbia. They soon beheld -the blue waters of the Pacific. - -During their five months' stay on the Pacific, Captain Clark made a map -of the region they had gone through. They repaired their guns and made -clothes of the skins of elk and of other game. - -[Sidenote: =Lewis and Clark travel different routes=] - -The Indians told them of a shorter route to the Falls of the Missouri, -and Captain Lewis and nine men went by this route while Captain Clark -with others retraced the old route. They saw nothing of each other -for two months, when they all met again in August on the banks of the -Missouri. - -[Sidenote: =All return to St. Louis=] - -They reached St. Louis September 23, 1806. The people of the United -States were glad to hear of the safe return of the exploring party, for -they had long thought the men were dead. - -[Sidenote: =Rewarded by Congress=] - -Both President Jefferson and Congress put great value upon the useful -information that the expedition gathered. Congress rewarded every one -connected with the expedition. Each man was granted double pay for the -time he spent and was given three hundred acres of land. To Captain -Lewis was given fifteen hundred acres and to Captain Clark a thousand -acres. Lewis was appointed first governor of Louisiana Territory and -Clark was made the governor of Missouri Territory. - - -=122. Fur Traders and Missionaries Lead the Way.= Soon after this -expedition the fur traders pushed their way across the Rocky Mountains -from St. Louis to the Pacific. They found the "gateway of the Rockies," -called the South Pass, which opened the way to the Oregon country -(1824). - -[Illustration: LEWIS AND CLARK ON THEIR WAY DOWN SNAKE RIVER] - -[Sidenote: =The coming of the missionaries=] - -After the fur traders came the missionary, Nathaniel Wyeth, a New -Englander who led a party to the Columbia and established a post -(1832). Five missionaries followed him and began to work among the -Indians. Very soon Parker and Whitman went out to the Nez Percé -Indians, who came over the mountains to meet them near the headwaters -of the Green River. Parker returned with the Indians and visited Walla -Walla, Vancouver, and the Spokane and Colville regions. Whitman -returned East, was married, and found a missionary, Spaulding, and his -wife, and the party went out to the Oregon country to work among the -Indians. - -[Sidenote: =The treaty of 1846=] - - -=123. The Boundary Established.= During this time fur traders from -Canada and Great Britain were occupying the Oregon country as far as -the Columbia River. The United States and Great Britain made a treaty -by which they agreed to occupy the country together. This treaty lasted -till settlers from the United States made it necessary to have a new -treaty. In 1846 a new treaty was made and the present northern boundary -was established. - - - - -OLIVER HAZARD PERRY, VICTOR IN THE BATTLE OF LAKE ERIE - - -[Sidenote: =A Rhode Islander=] - - -=124. A Young Man Who Captured a British Fleet.= Perry was born in -Rhode Island in 1785. He went to the best schools, and learned the -science of navigation. At fourteen years of age he was a midshipman on -his father's vessel, and before he was twenty-one he had served in a -war against the Barbary pirates. - -[Sidenote: =Perry bitter toward the British=] - -[Sidenote: =Ready for battle=] - -When young Perry returned to his home the British were seizing American -ships, claiming the right to search them for British sailors. Perry -was very bitter toward the British for these insults to his country, -and when war was declared he was eager to fight. A fleet of vessels -was being built on Lake Erie, and Perry was sent as commandant to take -charge of their construction. He promptly set to work, and in a few -weeks the ships were ready for battle. - -He immediately set sail for Put-In-Bay, where the British fleet was -stationed. There he arranged his ships for battle and raised a banner -containing the last words of Captain Lawrence, who had been killed -earlier in the war while bravely fighting. "Don't give up the ship!" -were the words the flag showed as it was unfurled to the breeze. - -[Illustration: OLIVER HAZARD PERRY - -_After an engraving by Edwin made in 1813 from the Waldo picture_] - -[Sidenote: =Drives the "Lawrence" into the British fleet=] - -Driving his flagship, the _Lawrence_, right in among the enemy's ships, -Perry made them turn all their cannon against it. The loss of life was -dreadful, but Perry kept cool. When the last gun of the _Lawrence_ -could no longer be fired, he ordered a boat to be lowered and with some -brave men rowed through a storm of shot and shell to the _Niagara_, -another of Perry's large ships. Then he drove this ship into the midst -of the fight. In fifteen minutes the two largest British ships struck -their colors. The remainder of the fleet then surrendered. - -[Sidenote: =Broke British power in the West=] - -This victory broke the British power in the West. Congress voted -resolutions in praise of Perry and ordered a gold medal struck in his -honor. Wherever he went the people paid him great attention, and at his -home he was given a royal welcome. - - - - -ANDREW JACKSON, THE VICTOR OF NEW ORLEANS - - -[Sidenote: =Jackson a Scotch-Irishman=] - - -=125. How a Poor Boy Began to Rise.= Andrew Jackson was born of -Scotch-Irish parents who had emigrated from Ireland to South Carolina. -His father died and his mother moved to North Carolina to be among her -own people. Here, a few days after his father's death, in the same year -in which England passed the Tea Act (1767), Andrew was born. - -[Sidenote: =Learns from the woods=] - -Schools were few and poor. In fact, Andrew was too poor himself to do -anything but work. He learned far more from the pine woods in which he -played than from books. At nine he was a tall, slender, freckle-faced -lad, fond of sports, and full of fun and mischief. But woe to the boy -that made "Andy" angry! - -[Sidenote: =Learns to hate the British=] - -When thirteen, he learned what war meant, for it was in the days of -the Revolution when Colonel Tarleton came along and killed more than -a hundred and wounded one hundred fifty of Jackson's neighbors and -friends. Among the killed was one of the boy's own brothers. Andrew -never forgave the British. - -[Illustration: JACKSON REFUSES TO SHINE THE OFFICER'S BOOTS] - -[Sidenote: =A prisoner of war=] - -[Sidenote: =Loses his mother=] - -At fourteen he was taken prisoner by the British. "Boy," shouted an -officer, "clean these boots!" "I will not," replied Jackson. "I am a -prisoner of war, and claim to be treated as such." The officer drew his -sword and struck Jackson a blow upon the head, and another upon the -hand. These blows left scars which Jackson carried to his grave. He was -taken a prisoner to Camden, where smallpox killed his remaining brother -and left Andrew poor and sickly looking. His mother had come to Camden -to nurse her sons. A little later she lost her life in caring for -American prisoners on British ships in Charleston Harbor, so Jackson -was now an orphan of the Revolution. - -[Illustration: THE HERMITAGE NEAR NASHVILLE - -_This historic house, the home of Andrew Jackson, is now owned by the -state of Tennessee_] - -[Sidenote: =A lawyer before twenty=] - -After the Revolutionary times had gone by, Jackson studied law and at -the age of twenty was admitted to practice in the courts of the state. - -[Sidenote: =Follows the settlers over the mountains=] - -But stories of the beautiful country that were coming over the -mountains from Tennessee, stirred his blood. He longed to go, and in -company with nearly a hundred men, women, and children, Jackson set out -for the goodly land. - -They crossed the mountains into east Tennessee, where was the town of -Jonesboro, not far from where Governor Sevier lived. - -[Sidenote: =Outwits the Indians=] - -Jackson and the others rested awhile before taking up their march -to Nashville. From Jonesboro to Nashville they had to look out for -Indians. Only once were they troubled. One night, when men, women, and -children were resting in their rude tents, Jackson sat at the foot -of a tree smoking his corncob pipe. He heard "owls" hooting near by. -These were Indian signals. "A little too natural," thought Jackson. He -aroused the people, and silently they marched away. Another party, -coming an hour or two later, stopped in the same place, and were -massacred by Indians. - -[Sidenote: =Practicing law on the frontier=] - -Arriving in Nashville, Jackson began the practice of law. To reach the -court, he sometimes had to ride miles and miles, day after day, through -thick forests where the Indians might lie in wait. - -When Tennessee was made a territory, Jackson became district attorney. -He had many "ups and downs" with the bad men of the frontier. Jackson -himself had a bad temper, and woe to the man who made him angry. He -either got a sound thrashing or had to fight a duel. - -[Sidenote: =In Congress=] - -When Tennessee became a state, Jackson was elected to Congress. A year -or so afterward (1797) he was appointed a United States senator to fill -a vacancy. But such a position did not give him excitement enough, so -he resigned the next year and returned to Nashville. He was a frontier -judge for a time, then he became a man of business. - -[Sidenote: =A call to arms=] - - -=126. How Jackson Won a Great Victory.= When the War of 1812 broke -out there was a call to arms! The British will capture New Orleans! -Twenty-five hundred frontiersmen rallied to Jackson's call. He was just -the man to lead them. They decided to go to New Orleans by water. - -Down the Cumberland to the Ohio in boats! Down the Ohio to the -Mississippi, and down the Mississippi to Natchez! Here they stopped, -only to learn that there were no British near. - -[Sidenote: =How he won the name "Old Hickory"=] - -The twenty-five hundred men marched the long, dreary way home. Jackson -was the toughest one among them. He could march farther and last -longer without food than any of them. The soldiers nicknamed him "Old -Hickory." - -Once more he was at home, where he now was a great man among his -friends. About this time Jackson had a fierce fight with Thomas H. -Benton and received a pistol shot in the shoulder. Before he was again -well the people who suffered from the Fort Mims massacre were calling -loudly for help. Tecumseh had stirred up the Creeks to murder five -hundred men, women, and children at this fort in Alabama. - -[Sidenote: =Another call to arms=] - -[Sidenote: =Jackson and the hungry soldier=] - -Twenty-five hundred men answered Jackson's call. They marched south -through a barren country. Food was scarce. His army, almost starved, -threatened to go home. A half-starved soldier saw Jackson sitting under -a tree and asked him for something to eat. Looking up, Jackson said: -"It has always been a rule with me never to turn away a hungry man. I -will cheerfully divide with you." Then he drew from his pocket a few -acorns, saying: "This is the best and only fare I have." - -[Illustration: JACKSON SHARES HIS ACORNS WITH THE HUNGRY SOLDIER] - - -But Jackson soon received reënforcements, and then, in spite of all -these drawbacks, he broke the power of the Creeks in the great battle -of Horseshoe Bend on the Tallapoosa River in Alabama. After that the -Indians were only too glad to cease fighting and sue for peace. - -[Illustration: A BREASTWORK OF COTTON BALES] - -[Sidenote: =A third call to arms=] - -Jackson was hardly home again before President Madison made him a -major-general, and sent him with an army to guard New Orleans from the -British. - -After attacking and capturing Pensacola, a Spanish fort which the -English occupied, he hurried his army on to New Orleans. Nothing had -been done to defend the city. Jackson immediately declared martial law. -He threw himself with all the energy he had into getting New Orleans -ready, for the British troops were already landing. - -[Sidenote: =The two armies=] - -The British general had twelve thousand veterans, fresh from their -victory over the great Napoleon. Jackson had only half as many men. But -nearly every man was a sharpshooter. They were riflemen from the wilds -of Kentucky, Tennessee, and Mississippi, and every man was burning with -an ardent desire to fight and defeat the redcoats. - -[Illustration: A LITTLE BREASTWORK OF SUGAR BARRELS] - -Jackson had not long to wait. On came the British in solid column, -with flags flying and drums beating. The fog was breaking away. Behind -the breastworks stood the Americans with cannon loaded to the muzzle -and with deadly rifles primed for the fight. - -[Illustration: THE BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS - -_Won by Jackson after peace was made, this battle helped to make him -president and to change history_] - -[Sidenote: =The beginning of the battle=] - -The cannon were the first to fire, but the redcoats closed up their -shattered ranks, and moved on. Those lines of red! How splendid and -terrible they looked! The Americans gave three cheers. "Fire!" rang out -along the line. The breastworks were instantly a sheet of fire. Along -the whole line it blazed and rolled. No human being could face that -fire. The British soldiers broke and fled. - -[Sidenote: =The battle in earnest=] - -[Sidenote: =The victory after the treaty=] - -Once more they rallied, led by General Pakenham, a relative of the -great Duke of Wellington. But who could withstand that fire? Pakenham -was slain, and again his troops fled. The battle was over. The -British had lost two thousand six hundred men and the Americans only -twenty-one! This victory was won after peace had been made between -England and America. A ship was then hurrying to America with the glad -news. - -[Sidenote: =Jackson a hero=] - -Everywhere the people rejoiced greatly over the victory of New Orleans. -Jackson was a great hero, and wherever he went crowds followed him, and -cried out, "Long live the victor of New Orleans!" - -For several years Jackson remained at the head of the army in the -South. The Seminole War was fought, and those Indians were compelled to -make peace. - -[Illustration: ANDREW JACKSON - -_From a painting by Thomas Sully which hangs in the rooms of the -Historical Society of Pennsylvania at Philadelphia_] - -[Sidenote: =Elected president=] - - -=127. The People's President.= The people of the United States elected -Jackson president in 1828, and reëlected him in 1832 by a greater -majority than before, showing that he was very popular. - -[Sidenote: =Quarrels with the bank=] - -[Sidenote: =Great men oppose Jackson=] - -President Jackson had a quarrel with the men who were managing the -United States Bank. This bank kept the money for the government. He -ordered that the money of the government be taken out of this bank and -put in different State Banks which were called "pet" banks. In the -Senate of the United States at this time were three men of giant-like -ability--Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, and John C. Calhoun. They joined -together to oppose President Jackson in his fight against the United -States Bank. These men made many long and very bitter speeches against -the president. - -The Senate finally passed a resolution blaming President Jackson for -taking the money away from the United States Bank. President Jackson -was furious. He wrote a protest and sent it to the Senate. The people -in the states took sides, and the excitement spread to all parts of the -country. - -[Sidenote: =Jackson and Benton friends=] - -In the Senate was another great man, Thomas H. Benton of Missouri. -Although Jackson and Benton had once fought a terrible duel in -Nashville, they now were good friends. Benton attacked Clay, Webster, -and Calhoun in powerful speeches and defended President Jackson in -every way he could. At last, after several years, he succeeded in -getting the Senate to expunge, or take away, from their records the -resolution blaming President Jackson. - -There was great rejoicing among Jackson's friends, and Senator Benton -was the hero of the day. President Jackson gave a great dinner party in -Washington in Benton's honor. - -[Illustration: THE SCENE OF JACKSON'S CAMPAIGNS] - -[Sidenote: =Nullification=] - -For a long time South Carolina and other southern states had been -complaining about the high tariff which Congress had passed. In 1832 -South Carolina declared in a state convention that her people should -not pay the tariff any longer. She resolved to fight rather than obey -the law and pay the tariff. This act of the convention was called -nullification. - -[Sidenote: =President Jackson's proclamation=] - -President Jackson was very angry when he heard of this act of South -Carolina. He told General Scott to take soldiers and war vessels to -Charleston, and enforce the law at all hazards. The president published -a letter to the people of South Carolina, warning them not to nullify a -law of Congress. - -[Sidenote: =Jackson a Union man=] - -These acts made President Jackson very popular at the North, where the -people all believed the president had saved the Union from breaking up. - -In 1837 his second term as president expired and he retired from public -life after having seen his good friend, Martin Van Buren of New York, -made president. - -[Sidenote: =Death at the Hermitage=] - -Jackson returned to Tennessee, greatly beloved by the people. There, in -his home, called the Hermitage, he spent the rest of his life. He died -in 1845, at the age of seventy-eight. - -[Illustration: THE TOMB OF ANDREW JACKSON] - - -SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL - - =The Leading Facts.= _1._ Eli Whitney was born in Massachusetts. - _2._ As a boy he was very much interested in tools, and worked in - his father's shop with all kinds of mechanical contrivances. _3._ - He earned his way through college doing carpenter work. _4._ After - graduation he set out to teach in Savannah. _5._ He failed to - get the situation, and went to visit a friend who had taken much - interest in him. _6._ The South needed a machine to separate the - cotton fiber from the seed. _7._ Whitney set to work to make one, - at the suggestion of his friend, Mrs. Greene. _8._ The cotton gin - revolutionized the South. _9._ It made cotton raising the chief - industry, and brought thousands of slaves into the country. - - _10._ Thomas Jefferson, born in Virginia, loved books; while in - college he met Patrick Henry. _11._ Went to the Burgesses and - planned the committees of correspondence. _12._ Jefferson was sent - to the Congress of 1776 and wrote the Declaration of Independence. - _13._ After the war Jefferson was sent as Minister to France. - _14._ Washington chose him as Secretary of State, and he founded - the Democratic-Republican party. _15._ Jefferson was popular as - president. _16._ He cut down expenses, and with his savings in - running the government purchased Louisiana. - - _17._ The Columbia River was discovered by Gray. _18._ The way to - the Oregon country was made known by Lewis and Clark. _19._ The - Indians received them with kindness along the route. _20._ They - followed the Columbia until they reached the Pacific; Clark made a - map of the region they had gone through. _21._ As a reward, Lewis - was appointed governor of the Louisiana Territory and Clark of the - Missouri Territory. _22._ Fur traders and missionaries soon found - their way to the Oregon country. - - _23._ Perry went to serve against the pirates, was eager to fight - the English when war broke out, and was appointed commandant at - Lake Erie. _24._ Perry built a fleet and won a famous victory over - the English. _25._ A gold medal was struck in his honor by Congress. - - _26._ Andrew Jackson was born of poor parents; learned from the - woods more than from books. _27._ Jackson was captured by the - British. _28._ His mother died nursing American soldiers. _29._ - He studied law, went over the mountains to Nashville, and was - elected to Congress. _30._ He also served as United States senator. - _31._ Jackson defeated the Indians, captured Pensacola, and won - a brilliant victory at New Orleans. _32._ Jackson was elected - president and was opposed in his policy by Clay, Webster, and - Calhoun. _33._ Threatened South Carolina over nullification. _34._ - Died at the Hermitage in 1845. - - =Study Questions.= _1._ What did Whitney like to do as a boy? - _2._ How did he help himself through college? _3._ Why did he - go to Savannah? _4._ Whom did he meet on the way? _5._ Describe - how cotton was then separated from the seed. _6._ Describe the - action of the machine made by Whitney. _7._ What was the effect - of his invention? _8._ How did the value of cotton shipped out of - the country compare with other goods? _9._ What effect did the - invention have on negro slavery in the South? - - _10._ Name some things boys did on a Virginia plantation in - Jefferson's time. _11._ Name some of Virginia's great men whom - Jefferson knew. _12._ Explain how the committees of correspondence - worked. _13._ Who were the men appointed to make a Declaration of - Independence? _14._ Why did Jefferson write the Declaration? _15._ - Why did French people like Jefferson? _16._ Picture Jefferson's - return home. _17._ How was Jefferson fitted for Secretary of State? - _18._ What were the people then disputing about, and who were their - leaders? _19._ Why did Jefferson want the government to be plain - and simple? _20._ Who wanted it different? _21._ Tell the story of - the buying of Louisiana. _22._ Why did Americans think the buying a - great event? _23._ Why did Jefferson not become president a third - time? _24._ What can you tell of the friendship of John Adams and - Thomas Jefferson? _25._ Describe the trip of Lewis and Clark up the - Missouri River. _26._ How did the Indians on the way receive them? - _27._ How did they return home? _28._ What offices were given Lewis - and Clark? - - _29._ What important command was given to Perry? _30._ Tell what he - did when his ships were ready for the "Battle of Lake Erie." _31._ - Picture the battle. _32._ What honors were given to Perry? - - _33._ Where was Andrew Jackson born? _34._ Name some other boys who - learned more from the woods than from books. _35._ Mention some - early experiences Jackson had with the British soldiers. _36._ - What other experiences did he have in the war? _37._ What led - him to go to Nashville? _38._ Explain how Jackson outwitted the - Indians. _39._ What did he do as a young lawyer? _40._ Tell the - story of Jackson's first call to arms. _41._ Give a full account - of Jackson's second call to arms. _42._ Imagine yourself one of - Jackson's soldiers, and tell what you saw and heard at the battle - of New Orleans. _43._ Give an account of Jackson's fight against - the United States Bank. _44._ Who was Thomas H. Benton, and why - did he defend President Jackson? _45._ What action did South - Carolina take in 1832, and what did the president do? _46._ Where - did Jackson live after his last term as president? - - =Suggested Readings.= ELI WHITNEY: Brooks, _The Story of Cotton_, - 90-99; Southworth, _Builders of Our Country_, Vol. II, 108-116; - Shillig, _The Four Wonders_, 1-32. - - JEFFERSON: Wright, _Children's Stories of American Progress_, - 55-85; Cooke, _Stories of the Old Dominion_, 180-192; Hart, _How - Our Grandfathers Lived_, 317-320; Butterworth, _In the Days of - Jefferson_, 32-168, 175-206, 216-264. - - PERRY: Beebe, _Four American Naval Heroes_, 71-130; Wright, - _Children's Stories of American Progress_, 130-144; Hart, _How - Our Grandfathers Lived_, 241-242, 248-249; Glascock, _Stories of - Columbia_, 172-174. - - JACKSON: Brooks, _Century Book of Famous Americans_, 162-172; - Blaisdell and Ball, _Hero Stories from American History_, 185-198; - Hart, _How Our Grandfathers Lived_, 284-291; Barton, _Four American - Patriots_, 133-192; Frost, _Old Hickory_. - - - - -THE MEN WHO MADE THE NATION GREAT BY THEIR INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES - - - - -ROBERT FULTON, THE INVENTOR OF THE STEAMBOAT - - -[Sidenote: =How boats were driven=] - - -=128. The Invention of the Steamboat.= Once there were no steam engines -to drive boats. On sea and river they were driven by wind, and on -canals they were pulled along by horses. - -[Sidenote: =Inventors before Fulton=] - -James Rumsey on the Potomac, John Fitch on the Delaware, and William -Longstreet on the Savannah had each invented and tried some kind of -steamboat, before Robert Fulton. - -Fulton was born of Irish parents, in New Britain, Pennsylvania, in -1765. At the age of three he lost his father. Young Fulton had a great -taste for drawing, painting, and inventing. - -He went to Philadelphia, then the largest city in the Union, when he -was twenty, and engaged in painting and drawing. His first savings were -given to his widowed mother to make her comfortable. - -[Sidenote: =Studied under Benjamin West=] - -Fulton finally decided to be an artist, and went to England to make his -home with Benjamin West, a great painter who once lived at Philadelphia. - -[Illustration: ROBERT FULTON - -_After the painting by Benjamin West_] - -[Sidenote: =Influenced to become an engineer=] - -There he became acquainted with the Duke of Bridgewater, who influenced -him to become a civil engineer. Fulton now met James Watt, who had -greatly improved the steam engine. At one time the young man aided Watt -in building an engine. - -[Sidenote: =Meets Livingston in France=] - -Fulton next went to France, where he became interested in plans for -inventing diving boats, torpedoes, and steamboats. Here he met Robert -R. Livingston, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, then United -States Minister to France. Livingston took a deep interest in his -experiments in driving boats by steam, and furnished him the means to -make them. - -[Sidenote: =Fulton's trial boats=] - -Fulton made a "model" boat, which he left in France. Shortly afterward, -he built a boat twenty-six feet long and eight feet wide. In this -vessel he put a steam engine. The trial trips proved beyond a doubt -that steamboats could be made. - -[Sidenote: =Twenty years' rights=] - -Livingston believed in Fulton and his steamboat. When he returned -to New York, Livingston obtained from the legislature the right to -navigate the waters of the state by steam for twenty years. The one -condition was that the boat should go against the current of the Hudson -at the rate of four miles an hour. - -[Sidenote: =Gets engine in England=] - -[Sidenote: =The "Clermont"=] - -Fulton got his engine from the inventors, Watt and Boulton, in -England--the only place where suitable engines could be found. The -engine came in 1806. A boat called the _Clermont_ was built to carry -it. She was one hundred thirty feet long and eighteen feet wide. She -had a mast with a sail. At both ends she was decked over, and in the -middle the engine was placed. Two large side-wheels dipped two feet -into the water. - -[Illustration: SCENE ON A CANAL] - - -=129. The "Clermont" Moves.= At one o'clock in the afternoon of -August 7, 1807, a great crowd gathered to see the first voyage of the -_Clermont_. Many people did not expect to see the vessel go. They -believed Fulton and Livingston had spent their money for nothing. -Fulton gave his signal from the deck of the _Clermont_. The people -looked on in astonishment as the boat moved steadily up the pathway of -the Hudson. - -[Sidenote: =A great victory for Fulton and Livingston=] - -The _Clermont_ kept on going till out of sight, and the crowds of -wondering people went home hardly believing the evidence of their eyes. -Up the river, against the current of the mighty Hudson, she made her -way till Albany was reached. She had gone one hundred fifty miles in -thirty-two hours, and won a great victory for Fulton and Livingston. - -[Sidenote: =Name of boat changed to "North River"=] - -When winter came the _Clermont_ was taken out of the water and rebuilt. -They covered her from stem to stern with a deck. Under the deck they -built two cabins, with a double row of berths. Everything was done to -make her attractive in the eyes of the people. They changed her name to -the _North River_. In the spring she made her trips regularly up and -down the Hudson. - -[Illustration: THE "CLERMONT"] - -[Sidenote: =Steamboats appear on different rivers=] - - -=130. Steamboats on All the Rivers.= In 1809 a steamboat was built on -Lake Champlain, another on the Raritan, and a third on the Delaware. -From this time forward, steamboats, carrying passengers and freight -from place to place, began to appear on all the great rivers in the -settled portions of the United States. - -[Sidenote: =People along the Ohio frightened=] - -In 1811 a steamboat was built on the Ohio River at Pittsburgh. It -started on its trip down the beautiful Ohio. People gathered on the -banks of the river to see it go by. The steamboat, at first, made a -frightful noise. Hence when it came to places where news traveled -slowly, the people were sometimes frightened, and the negroes, terror -stricken, ran crying into the woods. - -[Illustration: WATCHING THE "CLERMONT" ON ITS FIRST VOYAGE UP THE -HUDSON] - -[Sidenote: =A steamboat helped Jackson=] - -In 1814 a steamboat carried supplies to General Jackson at New Orleans, -and helped him to win the great battle fought there. - -Seven steamboats were running on the Ohio and the Mississippi at the -close of the War of 1812. Before another year went by, a steamboat had -made its way from New Orleans against the currents of the Mississippi -and the Ohio rivers to Louisville, laden with goods from Europe. - -The steamboat had now won a place on the American rivers. It aided in -the rapid settlement of the country. It made travel quick and easy, and -it carried the goods of settlers up and down the rivers. - -[Sidenote: =Robert Fulton dies, 1815=] - -Robert Fulton died in 1815, deeply mourned by all his countrymen, and -was buried in Trinity churchyard, New York City. - -[Sidenote: =Steamboats carry goods up the Mississippi=] - -[Sidenote: =Erie Canal across New York=] - - -=131. The Erie Canal.= Before Fulton invented the steamboat, supplies -had been carried to the western settlers over the mountains from the -East. Now, however, steamboats puffed up the Mississippi from New -Orleans loaded down with goods that had been brought all the way from -Europe. The settlers could get all the supplies they wanted and at a -much lower cost. For this reason the merchants of New York and the -East were in danger of losing all their trade with the settlers. They -saw that they must have some connection with the West by water, and so -they planned the Erie Canal. It took seven years to dig. When it was -finished it was three hundred sixty-three miles long, forty feet wide, -and four feet deep. The depth was later increased to seven feet. It -stretched straight across the state of New York from Lake Erie to the -Hudson River. - -In the autumn of 1825, when the canal was finished, there was a great -celebration. A "fleet" of canal boats carried Governor Clinton of New -York and a number of other distinguished men across the state. - -[Sidenote: =New York recovered her trade=] - -The merchants of the East were no longer afraid of the Mississippi -route, for they had a route of their own. The canal became the great -highway of commerce from the East to the West and from the West to the -East. New York recovered her trade, and flourishing cities grew up -along the canal. - -But there were cities in the East that could not use the canal. Farther -south they could not dig a canal across the mountains. All their goods -had to be carried over the Cumberland Gap on the backs of horses. But a -new means of travel and transportation had been invented, which was to -far surpass the steamboat and which was to help every city no matter -where located. - -[Sidenote: =The first railroad=] - - -=132. Railroad Building.= The first railroad in America was a very rude -affair. There were no "palace cars" or steel rails, nor did the trains -run at a speed of sixty miles an hour. Instead, cars that looked like -huge wagons ran on wooden rails and were dragged along by horses. - -[Sidenote: =Stephenson's "Puffing Billy"=] - -But George Stephenson had thought out a plan for a machine that would -pull the cars along by steam. He called his engine "Puffing Billy." He -kept at work always improving it. In 1825, after eleven years of hard -work, he made an engine that could pull both passengers and freight. - -[Sidenote: =The first long railroad=] - -In 1828 the first long railroad in America was started. A great -ceremony took place. It was a very solemn occasion. Charles Carroll, -the only living signer of the Declaration of Independence, drove the -first spade into the ground where the first rail was to be laid. As he -did so he said, "I consider this among the most important acts of my -life, second only to that of signing the Declaration of Independence." -This railroad was the famous Baltimore & Ohio. - -Inventors continued to improve the locomotive. In 1831 an American -company built one which ran at the rate of fifteen miles an hour. At -that time that was considered a very rapid rate. - -[Sidenote: =By rail from Boston to Buffalo=] - -Since then railroad building and transportation have improved -wonderfully. By 1842 one could travel by rail from Boston to Buffalo. -But it was not until ten years later that Chicago was connected by rail -with the East. - -[Sidenote: =To the Pacific coast=] - -Gradually the railroads spread a network over the country. In 1857 St. -Louis and Chicago were connected. A railroad to the Pacific coast was -much needed, and Congress voted an appropriation of $50,000,000 for the -work. By 1869 the great work was completed. Other lines to the coast -were started, and to-day many railroads cross the mountains, connecting -the Pacific with the North, South, and Atlantic regions. - - - - -SAMUEL F. B. MORSE, INVENTOR OF THE TELEGRAPH - - -[Sidenote: =Morse, 1791=] - - -=133. The Coming of the Telegraph.= Samuel Morse was born in -Massachusetts (1791). His father was a Presbyterian minister. Young -Morse went to the common schools and to Yale College. - -[Sidenote: =Paints portraits=] - -In college he used his spare time in painting, and after graduation he -went to England and studied under the best artists. He came home and -for a time painted portraits for a living. - -[Illustration: MORSE WORKING ON HIS MACHINE] - -[Sidenote: =The idea came to him of sending news by electricity=] - -After having spent some years abroad, in work and study, Morse was -again returning home from France when the idea of sending news by -electricity first came to him. - -[Sidenote: =A machine and an alphabet=] - -"Why can't it be?" said Morse to a friend, who answered, "There is -great need of sending news by electricity." He began, then and there, -to plan a machine and to invent an alphabet. This was all done on -shipboard. When he reached land he went to work with a will at his -new-found problem. - -[Sidenote: =The hungry inventor=] - -For a long time the work went on very slowly, for inventors must eat -and sleep and pay their way in the world. While Morse was struggling -over his machine and trying to make himself master of the strange force -called electricity, he was very often hungry and at times even on the -point of starvation. - -[Illustration: THE FIRST TELEGRAPH INSTRUMENT] - -[Sidenote: =Alfred Vail=] - -Now came a bright spot in his career. A young man named Alfred Vail, an -excellent mechanic, saw Morse's telegraph instruments, and immediately -believed they would be successful. Young Vail borrowed money and became -Morse's assistant in the great work. For what he did he deserves credit -next to Morse himself. - -[Sidenote: =Getting ready for Congress=] - -[Sidenote: =Behind locked doors=] - -A patent must now be had and the telegraph must be so improved that -they could show it to a committee of Congress. It was arranged that -Vail and a mechanic by the name of Baxter should do the work behind -locked doors. For, if some one should happen to see the instruments, -and obtain a patent first, then Morse and Vail would be ruined. - -[Sidenote: =The dot and dash alphabet=] - -In the locked shop the two men worked steadily day after day. Vail made -many improvements. Among these was the new "dot and dash" alphabet. At -last, one day in January, 1838, everything was in complete working -order. Baxter, hatless and coatless, ran for Mr. Vail's father to come -at once and see the telegraph work. - -[Illustration: MORSE SHOWING HIS COMPLETED WORK] - -[Sidenote: =The final test=] - -[Sidenote: =Patented in Morse's name=] - -At one end of the wire stood young Vail, and at the other stood Morse. -This wire was stretched around the room so that it was three miles in -length. The elder Vail wrote: "A patient waiter is no loser." He said -to his son: "If you can send this message, and Mr. Morse can read it at -the other end, I shall be convinced." It was done, and there was great -rejoicing. The invention was hurried to Washington, and young Vail took -out a patent in the name of Morse. - -[Illustration: MORSE LISTENING TO CONGRESS MAKING FUN OF HIS INVENTION] - -[Sidenote: =Congressmen watch the instruments=] - -Morse obtained permission to set up his telegraphic instruments -in rooms in the capitol. These rooms were filled with congressmen -watching the strange business. Members in one room would carry on witty -conversations with persons in the other room. This was great fun for -those looking on. But it was slow work talking with members of Congress -and winning their help. - -[Sidenote: =Congress makes fun of the idea=] - - -=134. The Government Aids.= Finally Morse asked for thirty thousand -dollars to build a line from Washington to Baltimore. The bill met -opposition, one member moving that a part of the money be used in -building a railroad to the moon, another that it be used in making -experiments in mesmerism. - -[Illustration: SAMUEL F. B. MORSE - -_From a photograph taken by Abraham Bogardus, New York City_] - -[Sidenote: =Morse ruined if bill does not pass=] - -Morse stood leaning against the railing which separated the outsiders -from the members. He was greatly excited, and turning to a friend, -said: "I have spent seven years and all that I have in making this -instrument perfect. If it succeeds, I am a made man; if it fails, I am -ruined. I have a large family, and not money enough to pay my board -bill when I leave the city." - -[Sidenote: =Telegraph line to Baltimore built=] - -[Sidenote: =The first message=] - -It was ten o'clock, March 3, 1843, the last night of that Congress. -Morse gave up and went to his hotel. In the morning a friend met and -congratulated him on the action of Congress in granting thirty thousand -dollars for his telegraph line--the last thing Congress did that night. -Morse was surprised. The telegraph line to Baltimore was built and the -first dispatch was ready to send. Morse called the young woman who had -been the first to congratulate him, to send this first message: "What -hath God wrought." - -[Sidenote: =Honors heaped on the inventor=] - -The success of Morse was slow at first, but he lived to see the day -when his instrument was used in Europe. He visited Europe again, was -given gold medals, and received other rewards and honors from many of -the rulers of the different European countries. - -[Sidenote: =Morse dies, 1872=] - -He died in 1872 at the good old age of eighty-one. Congress and state -legislatures paid tribute to his memory. - -[Illustration: THE TELEPHONE] - -[Sidenote: =The telephone=] - - -=135. A Wider Use for Electricity.= Samuel Morse was hardly in his -grave before a wonderful invention was made which called electricity -into far wider use in carrying news. This new invention was the -telephone, and two men, Bell and Gray, applied for patents on it at -almost the same time. - -The instruments are wonderful conductors of sound, carrying, as they -do, the actual words and tones of the voice. - -[Sidenote: =Marconi beats them all=] - -But Marconi has gone beyond them all in his invention. He sends the -electric wave forth without the aid of a wire, thus giving rise to -wireless telegraphy. - - - - -CYRUS WEST FIELD, WHO LAID THE ATLANTIC CABLE BETWEEN AMERICA AND EUROPE - - -[Sidenote: =Cyrus W. Field, 1819=] - -[Sidenote: =In business for himself=] - - -=136. The Atlantic Cable.= Cyrus W. Field was born in Massachusetts in -1819. His grandfather was a Revolutionary soldier. Cyrus went to school -in his native town of Stockbridge, and at fifteen was given a place in -a New York store at fifty dollars a year. Before he was twenty-one he -went into business for himself. At the end of a dozen years he was the -head of a prosperous firm. In 1853 he retired from active business. - -[Sidenote: =Why not span the Atlantic?=] - -Field became interested in a man who was joining Newfoundland with the -mainland by means of a telegraph line. "Why not make a telegraph line -to span the Atlantic?" thought Field. He went to work, and put his -schemes before Peter Cooper and other generous men. They believed in -them. - -[Sidenote: =Englishmen also approve the plan=] - -Field next went abroad and laid his plan before a number of Englishmen. -He pleaded so eloquently that they, too, were convinced. He returned to -America to lay the matter before Congress and ask that body to vote him -a sum of money. - -[Sidenote: =President Pierce signs the bill=] - -Congress was very slow about it, and the bill did not pass until the -last days of that session. President Pierce signed it the last day of -his term as president. - -[Sidenote: =Half a million dollars gone=] - -Field returned to England and watched over the making of his "cable." -In August, 1857, everything was ready. The cable lay coiled on -shipboard, ready to be let out in the Atlantic. The great ship started, -and everything went well till three hundred thirty-five miles of the -cable had been let out, when it broke in two. It was the same as losing -half a million dollars. - -[Illustration: PRESIDENT PIERCE SIGNING THE FIELD BILL] - -[Sidenote: =A second trial=] - -[Sidenote: =Breaks again=] - -Field went back to England and began promptly to prepare for a second -trial. He then came to America and made arrangements to use the -_Niagara_, a large vessel. The British ship, _Agamemnon_, was also -taken to help in this second trial. The ships started in mid-ocean, one -going one way and one going the other way. This time only one hundred -eleven miles were laid, when the cable again parted. - -[Sidenote: =A council of war=] - -Field hastened to London to meet the men who had backed him in his -undertaking with their money. It was a council of war after a terrible -defeat! But Mr. Field did not believe in surrender, even to the sea. - -[Sidenote: =Success=] - -On the seventeenth of July, 1858, the ships again set sail for -mid-ocean. They "spliced" the cable, and the _Niagara_ with Mr. Field -on board sailed away for Newfoundland. The British ship went the other -way. This time they were successful. Both countries were excited. Queen -Victoria flashed a message under the sea to President Buchanan. - -[Sidenote: =A great day in New York=] - -Great was the rejoicing in New York, the home of Mr. Field. A religious -service, expressive of the deep interest of the people in the success -of his work, was held in Trinity Church, at which two hundred clergymen -in gowns appeared; national salutes were fired, a great procession was -formed, an address was made by the mayor of the city and, at a very -late hour, a grand banquet was held. While the banquet was going on, -the cable gave its last throb, and parted. - -[Illustration: CYRUS W. FIELD - -_From a photograph by Elliott and Fry, London_] - -[Sidenote: =The cable parts the third time=] - -The very day that a whole city rose up to do honor to the Atlantic -telegraph and its author, it gave its last flash and then went to sleep -forever in its ocean grave. - -[Illustration: LAYING THE FIRST ATLANTIC CABLE] - -[Sidenote: =After a wait of five years=] - -After five years of slow and toilsome work, caused by the fact that the -Civil War was raging in the United States, Cyrus W. Field was again -ready. When the vessel, bearing the cable, was within six hundred miles -of land, the cable broke again. - -[Sidenote: =The money subscribed=] - - -=137. The Final Success.= An Anglo-American Telegraph Company was -now formed. Mr. Field subscribed $50,000, Daniel Gooch $100,000, and -another person promised to bear a part of the expense. On a Friday -they set out and on another Friday they reached America with the cable -safely laid. Mr. Field sent this message to England: - -[Sidenote: ="Hearts Content"=] - -"Hearts Content, July 27, 1866. We arrived here at nine o'clock this -morning. All well. Thank God, the cable is laid, and is in perfect -working order." - -[Sidenote: =Effect on the civilized world=] - -[Sidenote: =Great honor for Mr. Field=] - -The success of this undertaking, after so many years of failure, -produced a great effect throughout the civilized world. Mr. Field was -the center of all rejoicing. Congress voted him a gold medal. England -did honor to his name. The Paris Exposition of 1867 gave him the -highest medal it had to bestow. From Italy he received a decoration. -States and chambers of commerce in all parts of the nation passed -resolutions in praise of his great work. - -Finally he took a trip around the world and received honors from many -nations. Mr. Field lived at Tarrytown, New York. He died in New York -City in 1892, at the age of seventy-three. - - - - -CYRUS H. MᶜCORMICK, INVENTOR OF THE REAPER - - -=138. Making Bread More Plentiful for Millions.= It was only natural -that Cyrus H. McCormick should be interested in inventions. His father, -Robert McCormick, had fitted up many labor-saving devices for use on -his farm. He tried to make a reaper, but it was a failure. - -One hundred years ago the common method of harvesting in this country -was by "cradling" the grain. For this, a scythe with prongs on its -handle was used. The prongs caught the grain and laid it in rows, ready -to tie. - -[Illustration: CYRUS HALL MᶜCORMICK] - -Cyrus Hall McCormick was born at Walnut Grove, West Virginia, in 1809. -The boy was always interested in inventing. When fifteen, he invented -a better grain cradle. At twenty-one he made a hillside plow that -surpassed his father's. His great invention, the reaper, was made the -following year. His friends all laughed at his machine, but he went on -perfecting it. All his life Cyrus McCormick had to meet ridicule or -bitter competition. But he came of Scotch-Irish fighting stock. He had -the determination which battles its way to success. - -In 1834 the reaper was patented. It was shown at the World's Fair in -London in 1851. It won a prize as the most valuable thing in the whole -fair. - -[Illustration: THE FIRST MᶜCORMICK REAPER - -_After a model of the original reaper_] - -Cyrus H. McCormick started to manufacture his machine at Chicago in -1847. The demand for reapers grew rapidly. When the Civil War called -out one man in three from the North, there were enough reapers in use -to equal the labor of one million slaves. The North not only fed itself -but sent great quantities of grain to England. Cyrus McCormick's great -invention did much to help the North abolish slavery. - -[Illustration: HARVESTING WITH MODERN MACHINERY] - - -=139. Reapers for the West.= The invention of the reaper made it -possible for the West to be quickly settled. Before, farmers raised -only the few acres they could be sure of harvesting. Grain is lost, -if not cut a few days after it is ripe. The wide prairies of the West -could not be harvested by the old methods. Now on these great plains -huge reapers drawn by engines sometimes cut forty-eight feet of grain -in a single swathe. - -Because of the labor it saves, McCormick's invention has made the cost -of bread low for millions of people. With hand-reaping half the people -of the country would be busy producing nothing but bread. In the past -most nations were never free from the danger of starvation. Now the -world produces enough for all. - -A noted French society, when it elected McCormick a member, said that -he had "done more for the cause of agriculture than any other living -man." - - - - -ELIAS HOWE, INVENTOR OF THE SEWING MACHINE - - -=140. A Time-Saving Invention.= Elias Howe was a poor boy who won great -riches through his invention, but spent most of his years in a long, -dreary struggle with poverty. - -[Illustration: ELIAS HOWE] - -Elias was born in Massachusetts in 1819. His father was a poor man. He -worked in his father's mill and then in the cotton mills of New England -until he came to have a thorough knowledge of machinery. When he was -twenty-four he began his great invention, the sewing machine. - -Sewing machines using a chain stitch had already been invented in -England and France, but a chain stitch ravels easily. Howe invented -a lock stitch machine. Like earlier machines, it had a needle with an -eye in its point to bring a loop of thread through the cloth. In chain -stitching the needle at the next stitch passes through this loop. Howe -instead passed a shuttle carrying a second thread through the loop. -This made a firm lock stitch. - -[Illustration: HOWE'S FIRST SEWING MACHINE] - -Howe tried to get tailors to buy his machine. He proved that it would -sew seven times as fast as the best needleworkers. But they were afraid -it would take work away from their men, and would have nothing to do -with it. - -After patenting his machine, Howe took it to England, but there he -remained as poor and unknown as before. - -Returning to New York he heard that unscrupulous men had stolen or -"pirated" his ideas, and that the sale of sewing machines was now a -thriving business. But Howe was determined to uphold his rights. In -1859, after a battle of many years in the law courts, he secured the -full and complete title to his invention. - - -=141. A Turn in Fortune.= The man who had faced poverty and rebuffs -all his days now came into great wealth. His income each year would be -equal to-day to at least a million dollars. - -Sewing machines have now become almost a necessity in all American -homes. It is hard to realize the amount of close, slow, exacting work -from which Howe's machine has released women everywhere. The work of -the most skillful needlewomen is not to be compared in speed and -evenness with machine stitching. Garments now can be produced in vastly -greater quantities than by hand work, and machine stitching is much -more durable. - -When the Civil War came, Howe's sewing machine made tents, shoes, and -uniforms for the great Union army which would not have had them in time -otherwise. Howe himself enlisted as a private and served while his -health lasted. He died in 1867 when only forty-eight years old. - - -SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL - - =The Leading Facts.= _1._ Fulton's invention greatly increased - commerce before the coming of railroads. _2._ Congress granted - Morse money to build a telegraph line, after many delays. _3._ Bell - and Gray invented the telephone. _4._ Marconi invented wireless - telegraphy. _5._ Cyrus Field after many failures laid a permanent - cable across the Atlantic in 1866. _6._ McCormick's reaper hastened - the settlement of the West. _7._ Howe became rich through the - invention of the sewing machine. - - =Study Questions.= _1._ Tell of early attempts to build steamboats. - _2._ Give the story of the _Clermont_. _3._ Give an account of the - steps by which Morse won success. _4._ How many attempts did Field - make before a permanent cable was laid? _5._ What was the great - importance of McCormick's reaper? _6._ Describe Howe's first sewing - machine. - - =Suggested Readings.= ROBERT FULTON: Glascock, _Stories of - Columbia_, 186-188; Wright, _Children's Stories of American - Progress_, 104-120; Thurston, _Robert Fulton_. - - SAMUEL F. B. MORSE: Trowbridge, _Samuel Finley Breeze Morse_; - Mowry, _American Inventions and Inventors_, 270-277; Holland, - _Historic Inventions_, 168-188. - - BELL AND GRAY: Holland, _Historic Inventions_, 215-232. - - CYRUS WEST FIELD: Judson, _Cyrus W. Field_; Doubleday, _Stories - of Inventors_, 3-16; Mowry, _American Inventions and Inventors_, - 278-285. - - CYRUS H. MCCORMICK: Brooks, _The Story of Corn_, 218-220; Forman, - _Stories of Useful Inventions_, 91-96; Sanford, _The Story of - Agriculture in the United States_, 144-149. - - ELIAS HOWE: Hubert, _Inventors_, 99-110. - - - - -THE MEN WHO WON TEXAS, THE OREGON COUNTRY, AND CALIFORNIA - - - - -SAM HOUSTON, HERO OF SAN JACINTO - - -[Sidenote: =Houston among the Cherokees=] - - -=142. Sam Houston.= Young Houston was born of Scotch-Irish parents, -in Virginia (1793). His father had fought under General Morgan in the -Revolution. Sam Houston did not have much schooling, and when but -thirteen his family moved to east Tennessee. Made angry by his older -brother, he left home and went to live with the Cherokee Indians. He -liked the wild life of the Indians and took part with the Indian boys -in their pastimes of hunting, fishing, and playing at games. - -[Illustration: THE BATTLE OF HORSESHOE BEND - -_Here Houston, under Jackson in the victory over the Creeks, won great -distinction_] - -[Sidenote: =Returns home=] - -[Sidenote: =Wounded in battle=] - -He was now eighteen. He returned home and went to school a term at -Marysville Academy. In the war of 1812 General Jackson called the men -of Tennessee to arms. Young Houston responded to the call, and fought -against the Indians in the great "Battle of Horseshoe Bend." After -doing heroic deeds, he was dangerously wounded. Houston was a long time -in getting well. - -[Illustration: SAM HOUSTON - -_From a photograph by Matthew B. Brady in the collection of the War -Department, Washington, D.C._] - -[Sidenote: =Elected to Congress=] - -At twenty-five he began to study law in Nashville and in six -months--just a third of the time said to be necessary--he was ready to -practice. Houston's rise in the law and in the favor of the people was -rapid. He went from one position to another until the people elected -him to Congress. - -[Sidenote: =Governor of Tennessee=] - -[Sidenote: =Forsakes his home=] - -He was in Congress four years. He won many friends by his gracious -behavior. The people of Tennessee made him their governor. But -suddenly, without warning, Houston resigned as governor, and forsook -his home and friends. He sailed down the Mississippi River to the -Arkansas, and up this river several hundred miles to the land of his -early friends, the Cherokees, whom the United States government had -sent to that far-away country. - -[Sidenote: =Returns to the Cherokees=] - -[Sidenote: =The old chief's welcome=] - -Here Houston found the old chief--now the head of his tribe--who had -adopted him as a son years before on the banks of the Tennessee. The -chief threw his arms around him in great affection and said: "My -son, eleven winters have passed since we met. My heart has wondered -often where you were; and I heard you were a great chief among your -people.... I have heard that a dark cloud had fallen on the white path -you were walking, and when it fell ... you turned your thoughts to my -wigwam. I am glad of it,--it was done by the Great Spirit.... My wigwam -is yours, my home is yours, my people are yours,--rest with us." - -[Sidenote: =Visits Washington=] - -When Andrew Jackson became President of the United States Houston went, -in his Indian dress, on a visit to Washington. He was warmly received -by his old friend from Tennessee. - -[Sidenote: =Visits Tennessee=] - -Once more he turned his face toward the wilderness. He stopped in -Tennessee and was warmly greeted by old friends. He did not stay long -in Tennessee. - -[Sidenote: =Hastens to Texas=] - -Neither did he stay long with the Cherokees, but hastened to Texas, -where the people were already murmuring against the treatment they were -receiving from Mexico. - -[Sidenote: =Texas declares independence=] - -The people of Texas finally issued a declaration of independence. -Thereupon the Mexicans resolved to send a large army into Texas and -force the revolutionists into submission to the government. - -[Illustration: THE ALAMO, SAN ANTONIO - -_Of its defense by Travis, Crockett, and their few men it was said, -"Thermopylae had her messenger of woe--the Alamo had none"_] - -A most important event of this war was the capture, by a large Mexican -force, of an old mission building used as a fortress, called the Alamo. -It was defended by one hundred forty men, among them the famous "Davy" -Crockett, Colonel Travis, and Colonel Bowie--the inventor of the bowie -knife. Only six Texans were alive after the capture of the fortress. -These heroic men died, fighting the Mexicans to the last. - -[Sidenote: ="Remember the Alamo!"=] - -"Remember the Alamo!" became the war cry of every Texan. The Mexicans -were approaching, five thousand strong, under General Santa Ana. -General Houston commanded the Texans, about seven hundred in all. - -[Illustration: THE FLAG OF THE TEXAS REPUBLIC] - -[Sidenote: =Massacre of Goliad=] - -Suddenly the news came that General Fannin and his men, five hundred -in number, had been massacred by the Mexicans at Goliad. The cause of -Texan independence looked dark indeed. - -[Sidenote: =Houston's retreat=] - -Houston began a retreat of two hundred fifty miles to the eastward. -Santa Ana followed closely after him, but scattered his men, just as -Houston wanted him to do, until he had with him only eighteen hundred -men. They were now on the banks of the San Jacinto. - -[Illustration: HOUSTON AT SAN JACINTO - -_Where his battle cry, "Remember the Alamo!" won Texas independence -from Mexico_] - -[Sidenote: =Battle of San Jacinto=] - -Houston waited till the Mexicans were a bit careless, then seven -hundred Texans charged the breastworks of the Mexicans. After the first -fire they clubbed their guns and went at it, pioneer fashion, with the -cry, "Remember the Alamo!" The right and the left wings of the Mexicans -gave way first, and then the center. - -[Sidenote: =Retreat of the Mexicans=] - -They retreated, expecting to cross a deep, narrow bayou or stream on a -log bridge, but Houston had had the bridge destroyed. The slaughter was -terrific. The stream was choked with Mexicans and their horses. - -[Sidenote: =Santa Ana captured and sent to visit Washington=] - -Santa Ana was captured and was turned over to the Texan government. -Many thought he ought to die because of the massacres at the Alamo and -Goliad, but Houston, generous toward the beaten man, sent him on to -visit Washington. - -[Illustration: SCENE OF HOUSTON'S CAMPAIGN] - -[Sidenote: =Houston elected president of Texas=] - -Houston had been badly wounded, and sailed to New Orleans for medical -care. He returned to be elected first president of the "Lone Star -Republic," as Texas was called. He was reëlected for a second term and -served his country well. - -[Sidenote: =Annexation of Texas=] - -Houston wanted Texas made a part of the United States. This was -afterwards done, and war followed with Mexico. - -In 1845 Texas sent Houston to the United States Senate, where he served -his state for fourteen years. He was devoted to our national Union. He -died in 1863. - - - - -DAVID CROCKETT, GREAT HUNTER AND HERO OF THE ALAMO - - -[Sidenote: =Crockett found his schooling in the woods=] - - -=143. A Brave Backwoodsman.= At the close of the Revolution, Tennessee -was still largely a wilderness. Here David Crockett was born in 1786. -In those days schools on the frontier were few and poor, and young -"Davy" found most of his schooling in the backwoods. He learned to know -the woods and streams and the animals that lived in them. As a boy he -spent most of his time hunting and trapping. As a young man he was one -of the most famous rifle shots in the United States. - -When the Creek War broke out, he enlisted under Andrew Jackson to march -against the Indians. The young rifleman fought so well under "Old -Hickory" that Tennessee made him a colonel. - -[Sidenote: =Elected to Congress=] - -He had become a famous hunter and fighter. He thought he would try -politics next. Instead of making political speeches, he went about -from place to place telling stories. The people liked both him and his -stories so well that they elected him to the legislature. A few years -later they sent him to Congress. - -[Sidenote: =Returns to the wilderness=] - -[Sidenote: =Joins the fight at the Alamo=] - -By and by Crockett grew tired of civilization. He wanted to get back to -the wilderness. His old home was too well settled to suit him. So he -wandered to Texas. Here he heard that the Mexicans were surrounding the -Americans at San Antonio. "Davy" Crockett loved a good fight too well -to stay away. He hastened to join the small band of brave men who were -defending the Alamo. All could have escaped had they chosen to do so, -but with iron courage these hundred and forty stayed and defied Santa -Ana's thousands. - -For several days the Mexicans were held at a distance. They dared -not bring their cannon close to the building, for the concealed -sharpshooters picked off the men who tried to man the guns. Old -Crockett himself laid low five men in charge of one cannon. - -[Illustration: MAP OF THE WEST AFTER THE WAR WITH MEXICO - -_Showing the territory added to the United States after the Louisiana -Purchase_] - -[Sidenote: =David Crockett fights to the last=] - -The fall of the Alamo was however merely a question of time. Little -by little the walls were battered down, and finally the Mexicans were -ready to storm. On they came, a great charging mass. The American -riflemen shot them down by scores, but when one Mexican fell another -took his place. One by one the fearless defenders fell. The last man to -go down was Davy Crockett. - -It is said that he stood with his back to the wall, fighting to the -last, and that the Mexicans, afraid to meet him hand to hand, shot him -down from a distance. - - - - -JOHN C. FREMONT, THE PATHFINDER OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS - - -[Sidenote: =His father a French refugee=] - - -=144. A Great Explorer.= Fremont's father was a Frenchman who was -driven to America by the terrible French Revolution. John Charles -Fremont was born at Savannah (1813) while his parents were on a -journey through the South. His father died soon after, and his mother -went to live in Charleston, South Carolina. - -[Sidenote: =Goes to South America=] - -After a time at a good school, Fremont entered the junior class in -Charleston College (1828). After leaving college he spent two and a -half years on a voyage to South America. - -[Sidenote: =Becomes a civil engineer=] - -On his return he joined a company of engineers sent by the governor to -explore the mountains between South Carolina and Tennessee, in order to -find a suitable place for a railroad. This work was through a region -rough, wild, and full of beauty. It gave young Fremont a taste for -exploration which never left him. - -Fremont's longing for a wild life was gratified when he was made -assistant to a famous Frenchman who was exploring the wild region -between the upper Missouri River and Canada. - -[Illustration: THE PATHWAYS OF THE EARLY EXPLORERS OF THE WEST] - -[Sidenote: =Marries Senator Benton's daughter=] - -After this work Fremont returned to Washington and later married -Jessie Benton, the daughter of the senator from Missouri. Thomas H. -Benton was a great friend of President Jackson. - -Fremont was now related to a powerful man who was deeply interested -in the growth of the "Great West." Benton's repeated speeches on the -"West" and on the "Oregon Country" called attention to the importance -of the Pacific slope. - -[Illustration: JOHN C. FREMONT - -_After a photograph from life_] - -[Sidenote: =Receives permission to explore South Pass=] - -In 1842 Fremont, now a lieutenant of engineers, received permission -from the government to explore the South Pass of the Rocky Mountains. -With a party made up largely of French Canadians, and assisted by that -famous guide, Kit Carson, he passed up the Kansas River, crossed to the -Platte, went up this river, and thus reached the South Pass. - -[Sidenote: =Unfurls the Stars and Stripes on Fremonts Peak=] - - -=145. On the Watershed.= Standing on the watershed of a continent, he -saw the beginnings of rivers that flow into the Atlantic, and of others -that stretched away through unknown regions to the Pacific. He took -four men and climbed what has since been called Fremonts Peak, one of -the highest of the Rockies, about 13,800 feet above the sea. At the top -Fremont unfurled the Stars and Stripes in all its glory! - - -=146. A Pathway to the Pacific.= Fremont reported his discovery at -Washington and immediately applied for orders to make an expedition to -discover a more southerly route to California and Oregon. - -[Sidenote: =Beholds Great Salt Lake=] - -[Illustration: GAZING OUT AT THE BEGINNINGS OF RIVERS] - - -He left the little town of Kansas City with his guide, Kit Carson, in -May, 1843. In September, after traveling seventeen hundred miles, the -little party beheld the shores of Great Salt Lake. What feelings must -have stirred the breasts of men shut in for months by mountains, at -seeing what appeared to be an ocean, here in the midst of a continent! -Little did they dream of that hardy band of immigrants, so soon to -follow, who would make the shores of this sea blossom like a garden. -Fremont wrote: "As we looked over that vast expanse of water and -strained our eyes along the silent shores, over which hung so much -doubt and uncertainty, I could hardly repress the almost irresistible -desire to continue our exploration." - -[Illustration: FREMONT'S MEN BUILDING A FIRE IN THE SNOW] - -[Sidenote: =Reaches Fort Vancouver=] - -After making preparations, the party crossed over to a branch of the -Columbia River. Down this stream they traveled until Fort Vancouver was -reached on November 4. Here Fremont was the guest of the governor of -the British Hudson Bay Company. - -[Sidenote: =Travel in deep snow=] - -[Sidenote: =Crossing the Sierra Nevada=] - -November 10, on the way home, the little party started to make the -circuit of the Great Basin, a vast depression beyond the east wall -of the Sierra Nevada. But very soon they found deep snow on the -mountains. Turning to the west at about the latitude of San Francisco, -Fremont determined to cross the Sierra Nevada into the valley of the -Sacramento. The river was not many miles distant. - -[Illustration: FREMONT'S EXPEDITION REACHING SUTTER'S FORT, CALIFORNIA] - - -But what miles! Up and down, up and down that snowy mountain range, -which the Indians told him no man could cross in winter, with snow -lying upon it as deep as the dark forest trees were high, and places -where, if a man slipped off, he would fall half a mile without stopping! - -[Sidenote: =In the Valley of the Sacramento=] - -They attempted to cross without a guide, in the dead of winter. In -forty days the men and the surviving horses--a woeful procession -crawling along one by one, skeleton men leading skeleton -horses--arrived at Sutter's Fort (Sacramento) in the beautiful valley -of the Sacramento. Here genial warmth, trees in foliage, grassy ground, -and flowers made a fairy contrast to the famine and freezing they had -met on the mountains they had climbed. - -After enjoying the hospitality of Colonel Sutter, Fremont again crossed -the mountains farther to the south, where the beautiful San Joaquin -River makes a gap or pass. - -[Sidenote: =Sees the Mohave Desert=] - -When he reached the top of the pass Fremont beheld the plains of the -Mohave Desert. An Indian said to him: "There is neither water nor -grass--nothing; every animal that goes upon them dies." - -[Sidenote: =End of second expedition=] - -Pushing forward with great energy, he reached Utah Lake, thus having -nearly made the circuit of the Great Basin. - -Fremont hastened to Washington with the story of his discoveries. -General Scott now recommended that he be made captain. - -[Sidenote: =Third expedition=] - -Fremont's third expedition, with Carson as a helper, began in the -spring of 1845, and aimed to explore the Great Basin and the coast of -California and Oregon. - -[Illustration: THE UNFURLING OF THE AMERICAN FLAG IN CALIFORNIA - -_The Stars and Stripes were raised for the first time in California -near Monterey in 1846_] - -[Sidenote: =War breaks out=] - - -=147. In the Mexican War.= Little did Fremont--or any of his men--think -what fortune had in store for them. On his way to the Oregon Country -Fremont received news that the Mexicans were planning to kill all the -Americans in the Sacramento Valley. War had already broken out between -the United States and Mexico, but he did not know it. He returned, -reaching the valley in May, 1846. The settlers rushed to join him, and -in one month northern California was declared independent. - -[Sidenote: =Conquest of California=] - -Fremont then marched to Monterey and joined Commander Sloat, who had -raised the American flag there, July 7, 1846. This practically finished -the conquest of all California in sixty days. - -[Sidenote: =Fourth expedition=] - -[Sidenote: =Elected to United States Senate=] - - -=148. Becomes a Private Citizen.= Soon after this event Fremont -returned to Washington, gave up his place in the regular army, and went -to live in California. His journey to California made up his fourth -expedition. But the people would not let him long remain in private. -The state elected him to the United States Senate. Fremont was not long -in Congress, but was of great service in giving advice concerning the -long-talked-of railroad to the Pacific. - -Early in 1848 gold was discovered in the sand near the American River -at Sutter's Mill, the site now occupied by Coloma. As the news spread, -great excitement arose, and everybody wanted to dig gold. This was the -"gold fever" of 1848 and 1849. The rush to the coast was tremendous. -It made the building of a railroad urgent. Fremont made his fifth -expedition to survey three routes to the Pacific. After great hardships -he returned to Washington to report what he had found. - -[Sidenote: =Nominated for president=] - -He now took up his residence in New York City and became a member of -the party opposed to the extension of slavery. The new party, the -Republican, nominated him as its first candidate for president (1856). -He was defeated after a most exciting time, yet he carried all the -northern states but four. - -[Sidenote: =A major-general in the Civil War=] - -During the Civil War he was made a major-general, but after a year or -two he resigned. He was talked of for president in 1864, but did not -make the race. - -After the war was over he was interested in a great continental -railroad. From 1878 to 1881 he was governor of Arizona. Congress voted -him a pension just before he died in 1890. - - - - -SPANISH MISSIONS IN THE SOUTHWEST - - -[Sidenote: =Spanish missionaries baptize Indians=] - - -=149. How the Franciscans Ruled the Southwest.= Centuries before -Fremont or Kit Carson or any other American had seen the wonders of -our western country, Spaniards made their homes there. Before the -_Mayflower_ landed at Plymouth, Spanish missionaries had built many -churches in the Southwest and had baptized thousands of Indians into -the Christian faith. - -[Sidenote: =Franciscan friars friends of the oppressed=] - -The story of the Spaniards in New Mexico, Arizona, and California is -not of victories won by the sword, but by the cross. The men who ruled -this country were not soldiers, but pious Franciscan friars. - -Many years ago there lived in Italy a godly man, St. Francis, who -looked upon all poor and oppressed people as his children and devoted -his life to their care. His followers, who are called Franciscan -friars, have gone into all parts of the world to be missionaries to the -poor and the heathen. - -[Sidenote: =Serra builds a mission at San Diego=] - -Greatest of the Franciscans who worked in the Southwest was Junipero -Serra. One warm day in 1769 he came riding into San Diego on mule-back, -a tall, thin figure, wrapped in a long gown. There were no missionaries -at this time in California. He had come from Mexico with a small party -to convert the Indians. At San Diego he saw "valleys studded with -trees, wild vines covered with grapes, and native roses as fair and -sweet as those of Castile." - -Here was just the place to build a mission. First he set up a great -wooden cross and said mass. There was no organ music, so the soldiers -fired their arms instead. The simple Indians stood by in wonder and -awe. Junipero Serra was a man of energy and action, and in a short time -he had his first mission built. From San Diego he went northward and -planted mission after mission as far north as San Francisco. When he -died the Franciscan missions controlled practically all of southern -California. - -[Sidenote: =Mission buildings surrounded by gardens=] - -Wherever the friars built a mission they made sure the soil was good -and that there was plenty of water near by. For in much of that country -little rain falls and many crops grow only when watered by irrigation. -Having found a suitable place, they would then build a church. This was -always the largest building of the mission. Some of the churches were -very beautiful. Around the church clustered the houses of the friars -and the huts of the Indians. Each mission was surrounded by beautiful -gardens and orchards. A little farther away were the fields in which -the grain was grown. All of these were watered by irrigation ditches -that drew their water from some mountain stream. Beyond the cultivated -land lay the ranches on which cattle and sheep grazed in great numbers. - -[Sidenote: =Indians taught useful occupations=] - -All the Indians in the neighborhood were made to live at the mission, -and here they were taught the Christian religion. They were also taught -many useful occupations. The men were shown how to farm, to make -saddles, work at the forge and the carpenter bench, and other useful -trades. The women were instructed in spinning and weaving. - -In the morning the angelus called every one to mass. After breakfast -the day's work began and each Indian was sent to his task. Some -cultivated the fields, some took care of the stock, some worked in the -shops. Each one had to do his share of the work, and was punished if he -disobeyed. He had to work, pray, and live as the friars told him. - -[Sidenote: =Missions fall to ruin=] - -When Mexico freed itself of Spanish rule, California became a part of -Mexico. The new government put an end to the missions. The friars were -forced to leave, and the Indians drifted back into their old wild life. - -To-day nothing remains of the work of the friars except the old mission -buildings. Most of them are in ruins, but they still tell of the quiet -by-gone days when the gentle Franciscans ruled in California. - - -SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL - - =The Leading Facts.= _1._ Houston had little schooling and went to - live with the Cherokee Indians. _2._ Wounded at Horseshoe Bend; - studied law in Nashville; was sent to Congress for four years; - and was elected governor of Tennessee. _3._ Went to live with - the Cherokees again, and then went to Texas. _4._ Houston won - the battle of San Jacinto; was made president of the republic of - Texas; and later elected to the United States Senate. _5._ David - Crockett was born in Tennessee, had little schooling, and became an - expert rifle shot. _6._ He fought the Indians under Andrew Jackson. - _7._ Won an election to the legislature by telling stories; later - elected to Congress. _8._ Crockett grew tired of civilization - and returned to the wilderness. _9._ Fought against the Mexicans - at the Alamo, where he was killed with all his companions. _10._ - Fremont went to school in Charleston, but left for a voyage to - South America. _11._ He worked for exploring parties; married, and - thus became related to a great man interested in the Far West. - _12._ Fremont explored the South Pass on his first expedition; on - his second, saw Great Salt Lake, and crossed the mountains with - great suffering. _13._ Fremont crossed a third time, and aided in - conquering California; was made a United States senator, and became - first candidate of the Republican party for the presidency. _14._ - Franciscan friars, long before the landing of the Pilgrims, entered - what is now New Mexico, Arizona, and California. _15._ They taught - the Indians the Christian religion and many useful occupations. - - =Study Questions.= _1._ What was peculiar in Houston's early life? - _2._ What had he done before he began to study law? _3._ What - made people like him? _4._ Where was the battle of Horseshoe Bend - fought? _5._ How did the Cherokee chief welcome him? _6._ Why - did Houston go back to Tennessee? _7._ What drew him to Texas? - _8._ What were the first bad defeats of the Texans? _9._ Tell the - story of San Jacinto. _10._ What kind of a general, a president, - and a senator did Houston make? _11._ Where did Crockett spend - his boyhood, and what fame did he gain? _12._ How did he win his - way to the legislature? _13._ What made Crockett go back to the - wilderness? _14._ Describe the fight at the Alamo. _15._ Who was - John Charles Fremont? _16._ What of his youthful days? _17._ What - experience in early days after college prepared him for his great - work? _18._ Who was Kit Carson? _19._ Describe Fremont's journey to - the South Pass. _20._ Tell what was seen and what was done there. - _21._ What expedition did he now plan? _22._ Picture the scene on - the discovery of the Great Salt Lake. _23._ Picture his exploration - of the Great Basin and crossing the mountains. _24._ What was the - contrast at Sutter's Fort? _25._ Describe the Digger Indians. - _26._ At what was Fremont's third expedition aimed, and what did - it really accomplish? _27._ Who was St. Francis? _28._ Describe - Serra's arrival at San Diego. _29._ Why did he build a mission at - San Diego? _30._ Describe life at a Spanish mission. _31._ What - happened when Spanish rule was ended in California? - - =Suggested Readings.= HOUSTON: Bruce, _Life of General Houston_. - - DAVID CROCKETT: Crockett, _Life of Davy Crockett_; Lodge and - Roosevelt, _Hero Tales from American History_, 171-181. - - FREMONT: Bigelow, _Life of John Charles Fremont_, 1-216, 319-373, - 379-466. - - - - -THE THREE GREATEST STATESMEN OF THE MIDDLE PERIOD - - - - -HENRY CLAY, THE FOUNDER OF THE WHIG PARTY AND THE GREAT PACIFICATOR - - -=150. The Rise of Henry Clay.= Henry Clay was born in Virginia in the -year of Burgoyne's surrender (1777). His father was a Baptist preacher, -with a fine voice and a graceful way of speaking. He died when Henry -was four years old. - -[Sidenote: =The "Mill boy of the Slashes"=] - -Little Henry lived near the "Slashes," the name given to a low, flat -region, and went to school in a log cabin. When not at school he worked -on the farm, helping to do his share in support of the family. He could -be seen walking barefooted behind the plow, or riding the horse with -a rope bridle to mill. From this he was called the "Mill boy of the -Slashes." - -[Sidenote: =Read books when other boys played=] - -Henry was a raw-boned and awkward lad. The other boys laughed at him, -but he read books when not at work, and soon could speak far better -than the boys who made fun of him. - -At fourteen he was a clerk in a store. But he seemed made for other -things. He was put in the office of a famous lawyer who was clerk in -one of Virginia's courts. - -[Illustration: THE "MILL BOY OF THE SLASHES"] - -The Chancellor of Virginia, a great judge, liked him and took him to be -his private secretary. For four years Clay wrote down the judge's law -decisions. The great man often talked with Clay on important subjects -and advised him about the kind of books to read. - -[Sidenote: =Leader in a debating club=] - -After studying law for a year, Clay began to practice in Richmond. -He had plenty of time, so he formed a debating club, in which he was -easily the leader. - -[Illustration: HENRY CLAY IN CONGRESS - -_Urging war in 1811, with England or France or even both if necessary_] - -Finally he made up his mind to go to Lexington, Kentucky, and try his -fortune in the West. There his rise in the law was rapid. His fame -grew, and he became known as the lawyer who seldom lost a case. - -He married a well-to-do young lady and lived near Lexington on a -beautiful estate called Ashland. - -[Sidenote: =Favors gradual abolition of slavery=] - -Henry Clay's first work in politics was to favor the gradual abolition -of slavery in Kentucky. Although beaten, he was always proud of his -stand on this question. - -[Sidenote: =Too young to be a senator=] - -When too young, according to the Constitution, to take his seat, he was -made a senator of the United States. But nobody called the attention of -the Senate to his age. After his term as senator was out he was elected -to the legislature of Kentucky, and was immediately made Speaker. - -[Sidenote: =Speaker of the House of Representatives=] - -Born during the Revolution, Henry Clay, like most Americans of his -time, grew up with hatred toward England in his heart. He was -sent to Congress in 1811, and was elected Speaker of the House of -Representatives. As Speaker, he did much to bring on a declaration of -war with Great Britain, in 1812. - -[Illustration: INKSTAND USED BY HENRY CLAY] - -[Sidenote: =The War of 1812=] - -Clay made speeches in Congress and over the country, stirring up the -war spirit. "On to Canada!" was his cry. But the capture of Canada was -not so easy. Many generals failed, and only Harrison and Perry made -much headway in defeating the British in Canada. - -[Sidenote: =The Treaty of Ghent=] - -When the time for peace came President Madison sent Henry Clay and -other noted Americans to Ghent, in Belgium, to meet the British agents. -After many months of talking and disputing, they finally agreed on a -treaty. This treaty has since been called the "Treaty of Ghent." Great -Britain and America were both glad that peace had come. - -[Sidenote: =The conflict over Missouri=] - -From 1819 to 1821 Congress was debating over the admission of Missouri -as a slave state. The North opposed, and the South favored, the -admission of Missouri. The excitement spread to the state legislatures -and to the people. Many meetings were held. Resolutions strongly -favoring, or strongly opposing, the admission of Missouri as a slave -state, were drawn up and voted upon. - -[Sidenote: =The Missouri Compromise=] - -Wise men thought the Union was in danger and Henry Clay, by his -eloquence, succeeded in getting Congress to pass the famous Missouri -Compromise. This resolution provided that Missouri should be admitted -as a slave state, but that no other slave state north of the line of -36 degrees 30 minutes should ever be admitted. Both sides were pleased -and the excitement died out. - -We have seen how South Carolina threatened to refuse to pay the tariff -in 1832, and how President Jackson hurried the army and the navy there -to make her people pay it, as the people of the other states were -obliged to do. - -[Sidenote: =The Compromise Tariff Law=] - -[Sidenote: =Henry Clay as a peacemaker again=] - -Henry Clay came forward again and introduced the Compromise Tariff Law. -It was called a compromise because it gave each side a part of what it -wished. Calhoun and other Carolinians favored it, because by this law -the tariff was reduced very greatly. It was carried through Congress. -The law made unnecessary the warlike preparations of both the president -and South Carolina, and again Henry Clay was hailed by the people as -"pacificator" or peacemaker. - -[Sidenote: =The founder of the Whig party=] - - -=151. Henry Clay the Founder of the Whig Party.= But Henry Clay was -not only a peacemaker. He was now a great statesman, and like Hamilton -and Jefferson he led in forming a part of the people into a political -party. It was called the Whig party. - -[Illustration: HENRY CLAY - -_From a daguerreotype owned by Garrett Brown, Jr., Chicago_] - -In 1824, before there was a Whig party, Clay ran for president, but -was beaten. Again in 1832, just as the new party was being formed, he -ran a second time. Although he was beaten for the presidency by Andrew -Jackson, he was the life and soul of his party. It was his eloquence, -the music of his words, that made men Whigs. - -On one occasion Clay spoke on the question of the abolition of slavery. -Some one said that this might hurt his chances of being president. Clay -replied: "I had rather be right than be president." - -[Sidenote: =Unfortunate Henry Clay=] - -Finally, in 1844, he was again the Whig candidate, but he was defeated -for the third time. When the Whig party had a good chance of electing -a president, they nominated somebody else. When they had a poor chance -they nominated Henry Clay! - -[Sidenote: =Dispute over the new territory=] - -War with Mexico had come, and with it a great victory for the American -army. The treaty of peace with Mexico, in 1848, gave the United States -all the territory then known as Alta (Upper) California and New Mexico. -But the North and South disputed over this territory. The North said it -must be free. The South said it must be open to slavery. The quarrel -grew so bitter that many men thought the Union would be destroyed. - -[Sidenote: =Retires to Ashland=] - -Henry Clay was now an old man. He had left the Senate, and had gone -home to his beloved Ashland for a few years of rest before the final -summons. - -[Sidenote: =A unanimous call=] - - -=152. The Aged Peacemaker Returns to the Senate.= Kentucky was greatly -excited by the threats of disunion. Her legislature sent Clay back to -the United States Senate by a unanimous call, Democrats as well as -Whigs joining in the vote. It was a proud moment for the old man. - -Now in the Senate, he offered the Compromise of 1850. This bill -contained a number of points in favor of the slave states, and a number -in favor of the free states. - -[Sidenote: =Walks to the capitol on the arm of a friend=] - -One day Clay made a great speech in favor of his Compromise. He had to -walk to the capitol that day on the arm of a friend. He was too weak to -climb the steps alone. - -[Sidenote: =His audience=] - -When he arose to speak, he saw before him an audience that had come -from distant parts of the nation to hear his thrilling words once more. -The people filled the Senate to overflowing. Outside they crowded the -corridors. When Clay arose the audience broke into applause, a strange -thing for the Senate to do. The people were not disappointed. For two -days the ringing words flowed on. Under the excitement he was young -again. - -[Illustration: HENRY CLAY BEING CONGRATULATED - -_In 1850 on his great plea before the Senate for the Federal Union_] - -He pleaded with the North to give up some things for the love of the -Union; he pleaded with the South for peace. He told them that all the -territory the United States had purchased had been purchased for all of -them. "War and the dissolution of the Union are identical." - -[Sidenote: =A remarkable scene=] - -On the second day some one suggested that he rest, and the Senate -adjourn. But he refused; he might not be able to go on the next day. -After he had finished his speech, a great crowd rushed forward to -congratulate him. No such scene ever had been witnessed before in the -Senate. - -[Sidenote: =The reunion of the Union=] - -The debate went on. Now and then Clay took part in it. On one occasion -he said: "I believe from the bottom of my soul that this measure is the -reunion of the Union." - -[Sidenote: ="This Union is my country"=] - -On another occasion he said: "The honorable Senator speaks of Virginia -being my country. This Union is my country. But even if ... my own -state ... should raise the standard of disunion ... I would go against -her. I would go against Kentucky, much as I love her." - -Congress finally passed the Compromise. Both political parties pledged -themselves to obey it. Public meetings in all parts of the nation -resolved to abide by it, and the country rested for a time from the -slavery question. - -[Sidenote: =Died in Washington in 1852=] - -Henry Clay's work was done. His body was worn out, but his mind still -clung to the Union. On June 29, 1852, Henry Clay died in Washington, -the place of so many of his triumphs. - -A great monument at Lexington, Kentucky, testifies the people's love -for "Harry" Clay. - - - - -DANIEL WEBSTER, THE DEFENDER OF THE CONSTITUTION - - -[Sidenote: =Daniel Webster, 1782=] - -[Sidenote: =Loves the woods and fields=] - -[Sidenote: =A good reader=] - - -=153. A College Boy and a Young Lawyer.= Daniel Webster was born of -good Puritan stock, in 1782, in New Hampshire. He was a very weakly -child. No one dreamed that one day he would have an iron-like body. -Daniel spent much of his time playing in the woods and fields. He loved -the birds and beasts that he found there. He went to school, but the -schoolmasters were not very learned, and Daniel could read better than -most of them. The teamsters, stopping to water their horses, were glad -to hear him read. He went to work in an old-fashioned sawmill, but he -read books even there in odd moments of time. - -[Sidenote: =Webster at Exeter Academy=] - -One day in spring his father took him to Exeter Academy to prepare for -college. The boys laughed at his rustic dress and manners. The timid -little fellow was greatly hurt by their scorn. - -He finally entered Dartmouth College at the age of fifteen. He was -simple, natural, and full of affection. - -[Sidenote: =The best student at Dartmouth=] - -[Sidenote: =He loved public speaking=] - -Webster was the best student at Dartmouth. He still kept the reading -habit. The students liked him. They had a feeling that he would amount -to something some day. At this time he was tall and thin, with high -cheek bones. His eyes were deep set, and his voice was low and musical -in its tones. He loved to speak, even then. - -At the age of eighteen Webster gave the Fourth of July oration in his -college town. The speech was full of the love of country and of the -Union, then in its first days of trial. - -[Illustration: HOUSE AT ELM FARMS - -_The birthplace of Daniel Webster. The site is now occupied by the New -Hampshire State Orphans Asylum_] - -[Sidenote: =Teaches school and studies law=] - -He never forgot his father's sacrifice in sending him to college. After -he had finished at Dartmouth, Webster taught school in order that he -might help his parents send his elder brother to college. He afterwards -studied law. But he longed to finish his law studies in Boston. Finally -good fortune put him in the office of Christopher Gore, a wise man, a -great lawyer, and a statesman. In his office Daniel Webster studied -until he was given the right to practice law. - -Within a few years, he was earning enough to enable him to take a life -partner, the beautiful and accomplished Grace Fletcher, the daughter of -a minister. She made a delightful home for him and their children. - -[Sidenote: =Elected to Congress=] - -[Sidenote: =Favors a naval war=] - -Webster was gaining name and fame as a lawyer, but the approach of -the War of 1812 drew him into politics. He was elected to Congress, -and took his seat in 1813. Henry Clay was Speaker of the House of -Representatives. Webster's most important speech was in favor of a war -carried on by the navy: "If the war must be continued, go to the ocean. -There the united wishes and exertions of the nation will go with you. -Even our party divisions cease at the water's edge." - -[Illustration: SCENE OF THE FOURTH OF JULY ORATION - -_Daniel Webster asserting the dignity of patriotism at Dartmouth, July -4, 1800_] - -[Sidenote: =Webster's appearance=] - -[Sidenote: =His battle with Hayne=] - -After the war, Webster left Congress for a number of years. He was now -a great man. When he entered a room, by his mere look and presence he -drew all eyes toward him, and all conversation hushed. In size, he -looked larger and broader than he really was. His forehead was broad -and massive. It towered above his large, dark, deep-set eyes. His hair -was black and glossy as a raven's wing. He looked thus in 1830 in the -Senate, when he made his famous speech in reply to Senator Hayne of -South Carolina. - -[Illustration: SCENE IN THE UNITED STATES SENATE - -_Daniel Webster defending the Federal Constitution against Hayne's idea -of nullification_] - -[Sidenote: =Denies the right of nullification=] - -[Sidenote: ="Liberty and Union, one and inseparable"=] - - -=154. The Greatest Statesman of his Time.= Hayne had spoken against a -protective tariff and in favor of nullification. Webster felt called -upon to reply. He denied the right of a state to nullify a law of -Congress, and said that nullification was another name for secession. -He closed his great speech with these words: "When my eyes shall be -turned to behold, for the last time, the sun in heaven, may I not -see him shining on the broken and dishonored fragments of a once -glorious Union ... but may I see our flag with not a stripe erased or -polluted, nor a single star obscured ... but everywhere spread all -over in characters of living light, blazing on its ample folds, as -they float over the sea and over the land ... that sentiment, dear to -every American heart--Liberty _and_ Union, now and forever, one and -inseparable!" - -[Illustration: DANIEL WEBSTER - -_From a daguerreotype taken in 1850 by J. J. Hawes of Boston_] - -This speech made Daniel Webster immortal. It did more; it fired the -heart of every lover of his country. - -[Sidenote: =Opposes Clay's Compromise Tariff=] - -We saw how South Carolina went on toward nullification, and how Clay's -Compromise Tariff settled the difficulty. Webster strongly opposed -this compromise, and said that South Carolina should get out of the -difficulty the best way she could. - -[Sidenote: =Jackson praises Webster=] - -President Jackson was delighted, and praised Webster in public and in -private. - -[Sidenote: =Harrison makes him Secretary of State=] - -When Harrison captured the presidency, after the greatest campaign -ever seen up to that time, he wanted the best men in the Whig party to -advise him, so he made Daniel Webster Secretary of State. - -[Sidenote: =Webster back in the Senate=] - -It was a sad day when President Harrison died, after being in office -just one month. John Tyler, of Virginia, the vice-president, became the -president. But he would not accept measures which Congress had passed. -Daniel Webster left the cabinet after a time because he disliked the -way Tyler was doing. He went back to the United States Senate, where he -joined Clay, supporting the great Compromise of 1850. - -[Sidenote: =His speech on the Compromise=] - -On March 7, Webster made his speech on the Compromise, entitled "For -the Union and the Constitution." It was an appeal to all persons to -stand by the Constitution and the Union. In blaming both the North and -the South, much to the surprise of everybody, he blamed the North more -than the South. - -Because he did this, many of his supporters in the North, especially -those in New England, turned their backs upon him. Webster was an old -man now. Ever since 1832 he had looked forward to being nominated for -the presidency, but his party always took some other man. His last days -were made bitter and unhappy by the thought that some old friends had -forsaken him. - -[Illustration: THE UNITED STATES IN 1850] - -[Sidenote: =Boston welcomes Webster=] - -[Sidenote: =Death at Marshfield, 1852=] - -One bright spot for Webster lay in the fact that President Fillmore -invited him to be Secretary of State again. After two years of service, -he went back to Boston. He was received with joy by some of his friends -and neighbors, and was hailed with shouts by the multitude. This must -have made his heart leap with gratitude, for the praise of friends -is pleasant. But men saw he was not like his former self. He went to -his home at Marshfield, where he died, October 24, 1852, the greatest -figure in American politics in his day. - - - - -JOHN C. CALHOUN, THE CHAMPION OF NULLIFICATION - - -[Sidenote: =John C. Calhoun, 1782=] - - -=155. The Champion of the War of 1812.= John C. Calhoun was born in -the same year as Webster (1782) in South Carolina. His parents were -Scotch-Irish. His father, a Revolutionary patriot, died soon after John -was born. John spent his early years roaming in the fields and woods. -He learned more there than from books, and he learned to think before -the thoughts of other people filled his memory. - -[Sidenote: =Entered Yale College as a junior=] - -At eighteen he began to prepare for college, under the care of his -brother-in-law, a Presbyterian minister. In two years he entered Yale -College. When in college he studied hard, and was graduated with high -honors. - -[Sidenote: =A lawyer=] - -Calhoun studied law diligently for three years, a year and a half of -the time in his native state, and a year and a half in Connecticut. -He began to practice law in South Carolina, but did not have great -success. Perhaps it was because the law was too dry for him, or perhaps -because he was soon elected to the legislature of his state. - -In 1811 he was married, and was elected to Congress--two great events -in his life. Henry Clay, as Speaker, immediately put Calhoun on an -important committee. He quickly sounded a bugle call to war, declaring -that it was the duty of "Congress to call forth the patriotism and -resources of the country." - -[Sidenote: =Works hard for the success of the army=] - -During the War of 1812 he worked hard in Congress for the success of -the American army. After the war he favored a tariff to keep English -goods out of the country. - -[Sidenote: =Secretary of War=] - -President Monroe made him Secretary of War. He found the office in the -utmost confusion, but, by hard and careful work, he left the war office -a model for future secretaries. - -[Illustration: JOHN C. CALHOUN - -_From a photograph by Matthew B. Brady in the collection of the War -Department, Washington, D.C._] - -[Sidenote: =Twice elected vice-president=] - -[Sidenote: =Calhoun's "South Carolina Exposition"=] - - -=156. Calhoun Favors Nullification.= He was elected vice-president -in 1824, and again in 1828. In the last-named year he wrote a paper -called the "South Carolina Exposition." In this letter, and in others -that he wrote, he told the people of South Carolina there would always -be differences between the North and the South. He said the southern -people, using slave labor, would raise more tobacco and cotton than -they needed, and that the tariff was hurtful to the South. That the -northern people, using free labor, would manufacture all kinds of -things, and that the tariff would be helpful to them. This document -took the ground that between the North and the South there always would -be a conflict of interests. The South was devoted to agriculture, and -the North to manufacturing. The South had slave and the North free -labor. - -[Sidenote: =South Carolina passes ordinance of nullification=] - -Therefore, Calhoun concluded that to protect the South from the North -a state has the right to nullify a law of Congress. A state has this -right, because the state is above the nation. The states made the -Constitution. He believed that nullification was a means of saving the -country from secession. - -South Carolina took the fatal step, and nullified the tariffs. This -decision was to take effect February 1, 1833, provided the United -States did not do something before that time to lower the tariff. - -[Sidenote: =Jackson warns South Carolina=] - -President Jackson warned the citizens of South Carolina against the men -who had led them to take this step. He hinted that the tariff would be -collected by the use of force, if necessary. - -[Sidenote: =She withdraws her ordinance=] - -We have seen how Henry Clay rushed his Compromise Tariff through -Congress. At the same time another bill was passed by Congress, which -gave President Jackson the right to use the army and navy in forcing a -collection of the tariff. South Carolina stopped her nullification, and -the excitement passed away. - -[Sidenote: =Speech on the purpose of the Abolitionists=] - - -=157. Opposed to the Abolitionists.= The people who wished to do away -with slavery entirely were called Abolitionists. The Abolitionists -stirred Calhoun deeply by petitions in favor of abolishing slavery in -the District of Columbia. He declared that "the petitions are a foul -slander on nearly one half of the states of the Union.... The object -is to humble and debase us in our own estimation ... to blast our -reputation. This is the (manner) in which they are (trying) -abolition ... and now is the time for all opposed to them to meet the -attack. - -"We love and cherish the Union. We remember with kindest feelings our -common origin ... but origin (is) to us as nothing compared with this -question. - -[Sidenote: =The Union in danger=] - -"The relation which now exists between the two races in the -slave-holding states has existed for two centuries.... We will not, -we cannot, permit it to be destroyed.... Should it cost every drop of -blood and every cent of property, we must defend ourselves.... It is -not we, but the Union, which is in danger." - -[Illustration: THE HOME AND OFFICE OF CALHOUN, AT FORT HILL, SOUTH -CAROLINA] - -[Sidenote: =Goes beyond most slaveholders=] - -Not many in the Senate agreed with Calhoun then. In 1837 Calhoun -went much farther in the defense of slavery than any of the other -slaveholders would go. He declared in a great speech in the Senate that -"slavery is a good, a positive good." - -[Sidenote: =The Revolutionary fathers did not agree with Calhoun=] - -This was not the belief of the majority of even the slaveholders in -Congress or in the nation. Much less had it been the view of the men -who had fought out the Revolution, and who had made our Constitution. - -The majority of slaveholders still looked upon slavery, at best, as -a necessary evil and one to be gotten rid of sometime and somehow. -Calhoun's view that "slavery is a good, a positive good," was an -entirely new view of slavery. - -[Sidenote: =Calhoun aids the annexing of Texas=] - -Calhoun was made Secretary of State under President Tyler, and -succeeded in annexing Texas to the United States. For this reason -Mexico made war with the United States. - -[Sidenote: =Dispute over territory=] - -The result of the war with Mexico was the gaining of territory in the -West and in the Southwest. Over this territory arose the great dispute -that sent the aged Henry Clay back to the Senate with the Compromise of -1850. - -[Illustration: MONUMENT TO CALHOUN AT CHARLESTON, S.C. - -_From a photograph of the monument, which was designed by A. E. -Harnisch_] - -[Sidenote: =Calhoun opposed Compromise of 1850=] - -Calhoun opposed that Compromise. He was too ill to speak, and a friend -read his address to a hushed and listening Senate. He declared that the -Union was in danger because the Abolitionists had stirred up strife. -He wanted all agitation against slavery stopped. In the second place, -he wanted an equal division of territory between the North and South. -"If you of the North will not do this, then let our southern states -separate, and depart in peace." - -[Sidenote: =Farewell words to the Senate=] - -"Having faithfully done my duty to the best of my ability, both to the -Union and my section ... I shall have the consolation ... that I am -free from all responsibility." - -[Sidenote: =His last words=] - -On March 31, 1850, he breathed his last words: "The South! The poor -South! God knows what will become of her!" - - -SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL - - =The Leading Facts.= _1._ Clay's father was a Baptist preacher. - Young Henry went to school in a log cabin, and rode his horse - to mill with a rope bridle. _2._ He studied law, and went to - Lexington, Kentucky, to practice. _3._ Clay won his way to the - hearts of the people; was elected to the House of Representatives - for a great many years. _4._ He favored the War of 1812; induced - Congress to pass the Missouri Compromise and the Compromise Tariff - of 1833. _5._ Clay ran three times for president. He was author - of the great Compromise of 1850. _6._ Webster was a weakly child, - played in the woods, and read books. _7._ He was graduated at - Dartmouth, taught school, studied law, and was opposed to the War - of 1812. _8._ Webster replied to Hayne, opposed the nullification - of South Carolina, and was made Secretary of State by Harrison. - _9._ Supported Clay's Compromise of 1850, and was made Secretary - of State by Fillmore. _10._ John C. Calhoun was born in South - Carolina, and studied law. _11._ He went to Congress, favored - the War of 1812, and was afterwards made Secretary of War. _12._ - Calhoun thought that a state had the right to nullify an act of - Congress. _13._ He opposed Abolitionists and the Compromise of 1850. - - =Study Questions.= _1._ Who was the "Mill boy of the Slashes"? - _2._ Name some of our great men besides Clay who loved books. _3._ - What could Clay do better than the other boys? _4._ What help did - he get from the Chancellor of Virginia? _5._ Why did Henry Clay - form a debating club? _6._ Where was Ashland? _7._ What was Clay's - first great work in Kentucky? _8._ What is a Speaker of the House - of Representatives? _9._ What did Clay do in stirring up the war - spirit? _10._ Why did Clay speak for the Missouri Compromise? _11._ - What was the Compromise Tariff? _12._ Why call Clay a peacemaker? - _13._ How many times did Henry Clay run for president? _14._ Why - was Clay sent back to the United States Senate in 1850? _15._ - Picture the scene when Clay made his last great speech. - - _16._ Who was Webster? _17._ Why did he play in the woods? _18._ - What proof that he loved books too? _19._ Why were Daniel Webster's - feelings hurt at Exeter? _20._ Why did students like Webster? _21._ - How did he reward his parents for sending him to college? _22._ - What was Webster's view of the War of 1812? _23._ Picture Webster - in 1830. _24._ Quote something from his speech in reply to Hayne. - _25._ Who praised Webster for his speech against nullification? - _26._ Do you think Harrison selected the best man for Secretary of - State? _27._ Why did his friends in the North blame Webster for - the Seventh of March speech? _28._ How were Webster's last days - affected by public opinion? - - _29._ Who was Calhoun and what did roaming in the woods and fields - do for him? _30._ Where did he go to college and when did he reach - Congress? _31._ What position did he take in the War of 1812? _32._ - Why did he favor the tariff and later favor the nullification of - the tariff? _33._ What office did President Monroe give him? _34._ - What effect had the "South Carolina Exposition"? _35._ What did - South Carolina do? _36._ How was a clash averted? _37._ What did - Calhoun say of the Abolitionists? _38._ What did he say of the - Union? _39._ What did he say of slavery? _40._ What was Calhoun's - position on the Compromise of 1850? _41._ What were his last words? - - =Suggested Readings.= HENRY CLAY: Wright, _Children's Stories - of American Progress_, 159-178; Brooks, _Century Book of Famous - Americans_, 145-155; Anderson, _United States Reader_, 281-285; - Frost, _The Mill Boy of the Slashes_. - - DANIEL WEBSTER: Baldwin, _Four Great Americans_, 125-186; Brooks, - _Century Book of Famous Americans_, 37-48; Hart, _How Our - Grandfathers Lived_, 341-344; Bolton, _Famous American Statesmen_, - 177-229. - - JOHN C. CALHOUN: Brooks, _Century Book of Famous Americans_, - 140-144; Rogers, _The True Henry Clay_, 248-254. - - - - -ABRAHAM LINCOLN, THE LIBERATOR AND MARTYR - - - - -A POOR BOY BECOMES A GREAT MAN - - -[Sidenote: =Abraham Lincoln, 1809=] - -[Sidenote: =Moves to Indiana at the age of seven=] - - -=158. The Backwoodsman Who Became President.= Abraham Lincoln was born -in Kentucky, February 12, 1809. His parents were so poor that they -hardly knew that they were poor. When he was seven years old his family -crossed the Ohio River and settled in Indiana. There they found a place -in the deep, dark forest, in the southern part of the state, and began -to build a cabin for a home. Abe worked hard to help build it. It was -not much of a house--only fourteen feet square. One side was left out, -and here they built the fire. It was not very warm in winter and not -very cool in summer. The hard ground was the floor. - -[Illustration: THE BIRTHPLACE OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN] - -[Sidenote: =Lincoln's father makes the furniture=] - -The father was a sort of carpenter, and out of rough timbers he made a -table and some three-legged stools. He also made the bedsteads, which -consisted of poles driven into the wall. - -In the loft of the cabin Abe made himself a bed of leaves. Every night -he climbed into the loft by means of wooden pins driven into the wall. -He was busy helping cut down trees and burning them to make room for a -patch of corn and pumpkins. - -The lad and his sister roasted the ears of young corn over the fire. -The ripe corn was ground into meal from which corn bread was made. This -was baked in the ashes or on a board in front of a bed of red-hot coals. - -[Illustration: THE GRAVE OF NANCY HANKS LINCOLN] - -[Sidenote: =As a hunter=] - -The woods, great thick woods for miles on all sides of them, were -broken only here and there by a "clearing." In these forests Abe went -hunting with a gun on his shoulder. He often came back laden with -squirrels, wild turkeys, and other game. - -[Sidenote: =His mother's death=] - -They were living in the cabin when Abe's mother sickened and died. He -was broken-hearted. She had taught him what little he knew. Her last -words to him were: "Try to live as I have taught you and to love your -Heavenly Father." - -[Sidenote: =Lincoln's tribute to his mother=] - -Many years after, when he became famous, he said: "All that I am or -hope to be, I owe to my angel mother." She was put in a coffin roughly -cut out of logs by the same tools that had made their furniture, and -laid to rest in a corner of the clearing. Long years afterward a good -man put a stone over the grave, with this inscription: "Nancy Hanks -Lincoln, the mother of President Lincoln, died October 5, A.D. 1818, -aged 35 years." - -[Sidenote: =Lincoln gets a new mother=] - -After a year his father went back to Kentucky to look about for a wife. -He found a widow, named Sarah Bush Johnston, and married her. He had -known her before he met Nancy Hanks. She was thrifty and industrious, -and her bedding and other household goods filled a four-horse wagon. - -Before winter came she made her husband put a good floor, and a door, -and windows in the cabin. She took charge of Abe and his sister, and -made them "look a little more human." She put good clothes on the -children and put them to sleep in comfortable beds. - -[Sidenote: =Abe's education=] - - -=159. Lincoln Educates Himself.= Schools were scarce in that new -country, and Abe never had more than a year at school. His stepmother -encouraged him in every way to study at home. - -[Sidenote: =A taste for reading=] - -[Sidenote: =He copies down what pleases him=] - -When Abe got a taste for reading it was hard to satisfy it. He read -the Bible, _Æsop's Fables_, _Robinson Crusoe_, _Pilgrim's Progress_, -a history of the United States, and Weem's _Life of Washington_. He -borrowed the _Revised Statutes of Indiana_. These were all solid books, -good for a young boy to read. When a sentence pleased him, he read and -reread it. If he did not own the book, he took many notes, filling his -copy book with choice sentences. - -[Illustration: LINCOLN READING BY THE LIGHT OF THE OPEN FIRE - -_After a painting by Eastman Johnson_] - -[Sidenote: =Lincoln reads while he eats=] - -John Hanks, a boy brought up with Lincoln, says: "When Abe and I -returned to the house from work, he would go to the cupboard, snatch a -piece of corn bread, sit down, take a book, cock his legs up as high as -his head, and read." He read, wrote, and ciphered incessantly. - -[Sidenote: =A great story-teller when a boy=] - -Young Lincoln was soon able to do a "man's labor," although only a boy. -He was strong and powerful, and a great favorite. In that family of -brothers, sisters, and cousins, his good-natured jokes and stories kept -peace. Abe was the great story-teller of the family. - -[Sidenote: =At nineteen years of age=] - -At the age of nineteen Lincoln reached his full height of six feet four -inches. By that time he had read every book he could find, and could -"spell down" the whole country. "He could sink an ax deeper into the -wood than any man I ever saw," said a neighbor. - -[Illustration: FASHIONS IN THE DAYS OF LINCOLN'S BOYHOOD] - -[Sidenote: =Moves to Illinois=] - -When Abe was twenty-one, the entire family started for Illinois. Along -forest roads, and across muddy prairies, for two weeks they traveled -till they came to the Sangamon River. - -They built a cabin on the north fork of the river. With the help of -John Hanks, young Lincoln plowed fifteen acres, planted it in corn, and -split the rails from the tall walnut trees on the ground and fenced it. - -[Sidenote: =A trip to New Orleans=] - - -=160. Tries to be a Business Man.= The next year he was hired to take -a flatboat to New Orleans. The boat was loaded with hogs, pork, and -corn. The wages of the trip were fifty cents a day, and twenty dollars -besides for each man. - -[Sidenote: =A slave auction=] - -[Sidenote: =Clerk in a store=] - -They "poled" and rowed their slow way down the Ohio and the -Mississippi. At New Orleans, Lincoln first saw a slave auction. He saw -men and women sold. As he turned away he said to a friend: "If ever I -get a chance to hit that thing, I'll hit it hard." He did not then -dream of the mighty blow he would one day strike. After his return from -New Orleans, he became a clerk in a store. - -One day a woman gave Lincoln six cents too much. That very evening he -walked several miles to find her and give back the money. At another -time Lincoln found that he had not given a woman as much tea as she -paid for. He went in search of her and gave her the rest of the tea. - -[Sidenote: =The Black Hawk War=] - -About this time Lincoln joined a company of soldiers going to the Black -Hawk War. An Indian chief named Black Hawk was on the "war path." All -the frontier was up in arms against him and his band of braves. - -[Sidenote: =Lincoln elected captain=] - -Lincoln was well pleased when nearly all the men in his company walked -over and stood by his side. This was their way of electing a captain. -No election in later days gave him greater pleasure. - -[Sidenote: =Fame as a story-teller spreads=] - -Little fighting was done by Lincoln's company, but sitting around the -camp fires in the evening, he became famous as a story-teller, and he -made many friends. - -[Illustration: LINCOLN SPLITTING RAILS TO FENCE IN THEIR FARM] - - -=161. Makes a Success in Politics.= On his return from the war, though -he was only twenty-three years old, he became a candidate for the state -legislature, but was defeated. - -[Sidenote: =Elected to the legislature=] - -A little later he was again a candidate. This time he won. After the -election, he said to a friend: "Did you vote for me?" "I did," replied -the man. "Then you must lend me two hundred dollars." Lincoln needed -a suit of clothes and money to pay the expenses for traveling in a -stagecoach to the capital! - -In 1837 the legislature passed a set of resolutions in favor of slavery -and condemning the Abolitionists. Lincoln could not stand this. He and -one other man signed a protest declaring that slavery was founded on -"injustice and bad policy." - -[Illustration: LINCOLN AS A CIRCUIT RIDER] - -Lincoln was reëlected to the legislature seven times. He generally got -more votes than other men on the ticket because the people liked his -quaint sayings and his unpretending manner. - -[Sidenote: =Lincoln licensed to practice law=] - -In the meantime, after three or four years of study, he was given a -license to practice law. He made it a rule never to take a case which -he believed to be wrong. He was a successful lawyer, but the road to -fame by way of the law was a slow one. It gave Lincoln a chance to -engage in politics, as we have already seen. - -[Sidenote: =His taste for public speaking=] - -He liked "stump speaking." He liked to go about the country from one -speaking place to another, or to travel from one county to another -to meet the different sessions of the courts. He spoke for what he -believed to be the truth. He was always in earnest, and made his -hearers feel that he was sincere. - -[Sidenote: =Speaks for Harrison and for Henry Clay=] - -In 1840 he was one of Harrison's orators, and in 1844 he threw all his -power and influence in favor of Henry Clay, his favorite among the -great men, for the presidency. - -[Sidenote: =Lincoln in Congress=] - -In 1846 the Whigs of Springfield, where he was then living, put Lincoln -forward for Congress, and succeeded in getting him elected. He was not -in favor of the war with Mexico, then going on, and was not selected to -run again. Lincoln returned to Springfield, and began the practice of -law with greater success than ever before. - -When Senator Douglas of Illinois, in 1854, carried the Kansas-Nebraska -Bill through Congress, anti-slavery men all over the nation raised a -storm of indignation. This bill repealed the Missouri Compromise, which -had stood for thirty years, and threw the territories open to slavery. - -[Sidenote: =The champion against Douglas=] - -Douglas spoke at the state fair, held in Springfield. He tried to -explain why he favored the Kansas-Nebraska Bill. Lincoln made a speech -four hours in length, ably answering the argument of Douglas. This -speech made him the champion for the anti-slavery people in the state -against Douglas. - -[Sidenote: =Public opinion points toward Lincoln=] - -The same question was fought out between them at Peoria, a little -later. Again Lincoln met Douglas' arguments. People began to talk of -Lincoln as the next United States senator. More and more, popular -opinion in the state began to turn toward Lincoln. - -[Illustration: WHALE-OIL LAMP - -_From Lincoln's log cabin_] - -[Sidenote: =Nominated for United States senator=] - -Accordingly, in 1858, at Springfield, the Republicans in convention -named Lincoln for United States senator. He made a speech to the -Republicans in which he said that this country cannot remain half slave -and half free--that it must become all slave or all free. - -This called every man to face a new question. No greater question could -be raised. Some friends of Lincoln pleaded with him not to say that -the country could not remain half slave and half free. "I had rather -be defeated with that expression in my speech than to be victorious -without it," said Lincoln. - -[Sidenote: =Lincoln challenges Douglas=] - - -=162. The Lincoln-Douglas Debates.= Douglas attacked this speech, and -Lincoln challenged him to hold several joint debates before the people -of Illinois. Seven debates were arranged, in which Douglas insisted -upon opening and closing four. - -[Sidenote: =People come from far away to hear the debates=] - -The people of Illinois were mainly farmers in 1858. They traveled long -distances to hear these giants debate the question of slavery. Some -of them were several days coming and going--in wagons, on horseback, -or on foot. The newspapers in the larger cities sent men to listen to -these debates, and take down the words used by Lincoln and Douglas. The -editors knew the people were anxiously waiting to read what these men -had to say about slavery. - -[Sidenote: =The fatal answer=] - -"Can the people of a ... Territory, in any lawful way, against the -wish of any citizen ... exclude slavery?" Lincoln asked. "Yes," said -Douglas. That was a fatal answer. For, by this answer, Douglas lost the -support of the Democrats of the South, although he held the Democrats -of Illinois. He could still be senator, but he could never be president. - -The debates went on. "I do not perceive," said Lincoln, "that because -the white man is to have the superior position, the negro should be -denied everything ... there is no reason in the world why the negro is -not entitled to all the natural rights [named] in the Declaration of -Independence ... I agree with Judge Douglas, he [the negro] is not my -equal in many respects--certainly not in color, perhaps not in moral or -intellectual endowments. But, in the right to eat the bread, without -the leave of anybody else, which his own hand earns, he is my equal, -and the equal of Judge Douglas, and the equal of every living man." - -[Sidenote: =Lincoln made famous by the debates=] - -These debates made Lincoln widely known. He accepted invitations to -speak in Ohio, New York, and New England. - -[Sidenote: =Lincoln the rail-splitter=] - -In May, 1860, the Republicans of Illinois met in state convention. -Lincoln was there. The people picked him up, lifted him over their -heads, and placed him on the platform. The cheering was loud. Just at -this moment John Hanks came into the hall carrying two fence rails, -with the Stars and Stripes mounted between them, bearing in large words -the following: "Taken from a lot made by Abraham Lincoln and John -Hanks in the Sangamon Bottom in the year 1830." The people stood up -and cheered, and threw their hats high and shouted for Lincoln, the -"rail-splitter." He made them a speech. The convention then and there -named him as the choice of the Republican party of Illinois for the -next President of the United States. - -[Sidenote: =The candidate of the Republican party=] - - -=163. Lincoln President.= A few weeks later Abraham Lincoln was -nominated in Chicago by the National Convention of the Republican party -for the presidency. Just as the passage of Douglas' Kansas-Nebraska -Bill killed the old Whig party, so the debates between Lincoln and -Douglas split the Democratic party into a northern and a southern wing. - -[Illustration: LINCOLN SPEAKING IN THE STATE CONVENTION] - -[Sidenote: =Lincoln elected=] - -Douglas was nominated by the northern wing, and Breckenridge by the -southern wing. This division in the Democratic party resulted in the -election of Lincoln to the presidency, in November, 1860. - -During the fall and winter, seven southern states left the Union, -and set up a government called the "Confederate States of America." -They had their government all in running order before Lincoln left -Springfield. - -[Sidenote: =Bound for Washington=] - -[Sidenote: =At Independence Hall=] - -In February, 1861, Lincoln said good-by to the people of Springfield, -and started for Washington to take his seat as president. The people -were bound to see him and hear his voice and shake his hand. Along the -route there were cheers, bonfires, and military parades with miles of -marching men. At Philadelphia he raised a flag over Independence Hall. -He made a touching speech in regard to the men of the Revolution who -had sat in that hall, and pledged himself to abide by the principles of -the Declaration of Independence. - -[Sidenote: =The inauguration=] - -On March 4, with soldiers guarding the capitol, Lincoln read his -inaugural address and took the oath of office which all presidents -before him had taken. This speech was listened to with the greatest -interest. It was now plain to everybody that Lincoln meant to fight, if -fighting were necessary to save the Union. - -In April Confederates fired on Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor, -South Carolina. After awful hardships, Colonel Anderson and his men -surrendered the fort to the Confederate troops. - -[Sidenote: =The call for men=] - -Lincoln immediately sent forth the call for seventy-five thousand -men. He made it a call to save the Union which Jackson, Webster, and -Clay had done so much to save. War had come--civil war, the most -dreadful kind of war. Four more states left the Union, and joined the -Confederate States. But the slave states of Maryland, Kentucky, and -Missouri remained with the Union. - -[Sidenote: =Blockade of Confederate States=] - -While the Union troops were gathering and drilling in Washington, -Lincoln declared a blockade of the ports of the Confederate States. -He saw that if he closed the ports of the South he could prevent the -shipment of cotton to Europe and so keep the Confederacy from getting -supplies in exchange for the cotton. This was a heavy blow to the -Confederates. - -[Sidenote: =The "Merrimac" and the "Monitor"=] - -The South depended on the _Merrimac_ to break the blockade. The -_Merrimac_ was a wooden war vessel which had been covered with a double -coat of iron. It had a great iron beak with which it could ram wooden -vessels. The _Merrimac_ moved to attack the Union fleet, which was -stationed in Hampton Roads. The shot fired from the Union vessels and -from the shore batteries had no more effect on the iron coat of the -_Merrimac_ than hail on a tin roof. She sank one wooden war vessel and -set another on fire. What was to hinder her from going up the Potomac -and bombarding Washington? - -[Illustration: THE CONFEDERATE STATES] - -[Sidenote: =Battle between ironclads=] - -But Lincoln placed his hope in the _Monitor_. This strange craft, -"looking like a cheese box on a raft," reached Hampton Roads that -night and took position to defend the Union fleet from the _Merrimac_. -The next morning the two ironclads met in battle. It was a battle -of giants. "Why do you stop firing?" asked an officer of one of the -gunners on the _Merrimac_. "I can do her as much damage by snapping my -thumb at her every two minutes and a half," was the reply. - -[Illustration: ABRAHAM LINCOLN - -_From a rare photograph taken by Alexander Hesler in Chicago, 1860, and -loaned by the Chicago Photogravure Company, who own the original_] - -It was a drawn battle. Washington was safe. The South could not break -the blockade. This battle between the _Merrimac_ and the _Monitor_ -changed the navies of the world. Wooden war vessels now gave place to -iron vessels. - -[Sidenote: =McClellan in the East=] - -Meantime great battles were also being fought on land. In the East the -Union army under General McClellan had been hurled back in an attack on -Richmond. The Confederates under General Lee, in an attempt to invade -the North, had been forced to retreat. - -[Sidenote: =Grant in the West=] - -In the West events of equal importance were taking place. The Union -troops under General Grant defeated the Confederates in many battles -in Kentucky and Tennessee. Then with the aid of the Union fleet under -Captain David Farragut, Grant captured the Confederate strongholds -along the Mississippi River, and so cut the Confederacy in two. - -[Sidenote: =Slavery question to the front=] - -Lincoln had declared the war was to be fought to save the Union and not -to get rid of slavery. But as the war went on, the slavery question -would keep coming up. The Confederates used the slaves to build forts, -cook for the army, and to do other work. Thus the slave took the place -of the white soldier. Other slaves raised food supplies and cared for -the women. In this way the slaves were constantly being used to help -fight against the Union. - -[Sidenote: =Proclamation of Emancipation=] - -The time had come to destroy slavery. Lincoln now saw that by freeing -the slaves he could strike a heavy blow at the Confederacy. So as -commander in chief of the Union armies he issued the Proclamation of -Emancipation January 1, 1863. - -The war, however, continued more than two years longer. The long list -of dead and wounded on both sides saddened Lincoln. Day by day the -lines in his kindly face grew deeper. - -Finally the news came that General Grant had hammered General Lee's -lines to pieces, and that Jefferson Davis and his cabinet were leaving -Richmond, the capital of the Confederacy. - -[Illustration: THE STATUE OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN IN LINCOLN PARK, CHICAGO - -_By Augustus St. Gaudens_] - -Early in April President Lincoln went to visit the city of Richmond. -Here he saw a city on fire, and a mob breaking into houses. - -[Sidenote: =Lee surrenders=] - -Grant was pursuing Lee's army. He overtook it, and on April 8 offered -terms of surrender. Lee accepted. The president's heart was filled with -gratitude that no more lives were to be sacrificed on either side. - -[Sidenote: =Lincoln shot=] - - -=164. President Lincoln Assassinated.= The evening of April 14, 1865, -Lincoln went to Ford's Theater in Washington to rest his body and mind. -As he sat in a box, John Wilkes Booth, an actor, shot him in the back -of the head. Booth sprang upon the stage, flourished his revolver, and -escaped. - -[Sidenote: =Dies April 15, 1865=] - -Abraham Lincoln died the next day. Thus the nation lost a great man. He -was truly a man "with malice toward none, with charity for all." - -[Illustration: - - Courtesy of - _Youth's Companion_ - -LINCOLN TOWER OF CHRIST CHURCH, SOUTHWARK, LONDON - - _The cost of this tower was met by contributions half in English - sixpences and half in American dimes_] - -[Sidenote: =Monuments to his memory=] - -Many monuments have been built to honor the name of this great man. The -most unique one is in Edinburgh, Scotland--a life-size statue with one -hand holding the Emancipation Proclamation and with the other striking -the chains from a half-rising slave. Another interesting monument is -the Lincoln Tower of Christ Church, London. High on this tower in red, -white, and blue tiles, is the American flag. The largest memorial is at -Springfield, Illinois, the home of Lincoln and where he lies buried. -One of the most celebrated is the St. Gaudens statue in Lincoln Park, -Chicago. - -[Sidenote: =Lincoln and the South=] - - -=165. Andrew Johnson as President.= Before the war Lincoln had begun -the reconstruction of the South. He did not admit that the Confederate -states had ever really left the Union. Whenever one-tenth of the voters -in a state would take an oath of loyalty to the Union, he allowed them -to set up a new government. Lincoln then recognized this as the regular -state government. - -[Illustration: ANDREW JOHNSON - -_From a photograph taken in 1865, by A. Gardner, Washington, D. C._] - -[Sidenote: =Johnson a Southerner=] - -Lincoln did not live to apply his wise and moderate rule to more than -a few states. Even here he met with opposition from Congress. Andrew -Johnson, who succeeded him as President, was a Southerner, though a -stout Unionist. He was honest, but rude and harsh in his behavior. - -Johnson tried to carry out Lincoln's plans for reconciling the defeated -states. But he did not consult Congress before he began. Congress felt -that the President was trying to override its power. It made much more -harsh conditions for re-admitting the southern states. - -[Sidenote: =The President and Congress quarrel=] - -The quarrel between the President and Congress ended in an impeachment -trial. Johnson retained his presidency by only one vote. Whether or -not this trial was deserved may be a question. There can be no doubt, -however, but that in dealing with foreign countries Andrew Johnson's -motives were wise and patriotic as well. - -[Sidenote: =Maximilian "Emperor of Mexico"=] - -Mexico had long owed certain debts to England, France, and Spain. -The French emperor, Napoleon III, determined to make these debts an -excuse for extending his power. He sent soldiers to Mexico, and used -them to set up an Austrian archduke, Maximilian, as Emperor of Mexico. -President Johnson sent American soldiers to the Rio Grande, and the -French forces were withdrawn. Maximilian had now no support and later -was shot. - -[Sidenote: =The Alaska Purchase=] - -In 1867 Johnson purchased Alaska from Russia for $7,200,000. Thus one -more European power gave up its possessions in the New World. - - -=166. The Progress of Reconstruction.= Contentment of mind and regular, -peaceful growth of trade and business did not return to the South until -long after Johnson's presidency. Congress had little understanding of -the difficulties with which it was faced. Under its reconstruction the -life of the South was for a time cruelly unsettled. At last the old -southern leaders themselves restored order. Then they governed much as -before. - -[Sidenote: =What Lincoln's death meant to the South=] - -Lincoln had earned the respect of the South, for he was a leader great -enough to be generous in victory. He might have checked the misrule -which nearly ruined the industries of the South, and created more -lasting bitterness than the war. The South suffered as great a loss as -the North in the death of Lincoln. - - -SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL - - =The Leading Facts.= _1._ Lincoln, born of poor parents in the - state of Kentucky, went over to Indiana at seven years of age. - _2._ Helped build a cabin and clear the forest and went hunting. - _3._ Lincoln lost his mother, and his father married again. _4._ - His stepmother took good care of Abe and his young sister. _5._ - Lincoln had little schooling, but read a few books thoroughly. - _6._ He was physically strong at twenty-one, and he had read so - much that he could "spell down" the whole country. _7._ The family - moved to Illinois, and Abe was hired to take a flatboat down the - Mississippi. _8._ He saw a slave auction at New Orleans. _9._ - Lincoln was elected captain in the Black Hawk War; elected to the - legislature for four terms. _10._ He studied law and was elected - to Congress. _11._ Attacked Douglas for the Kansas-Nebraska Bill. - _12._ Lincoln and Douglas held joint debates. _13._ Nominated for - the presidency by the Republicans in convention at Chicago. _14._ - Douglas displeased the South and the Democratic party was split. - _15._ Lincoln was elected president, the South seceded, and Douglas - stood by the Union. _16._ The battle between the _Merrimac_ and - the _Monitor_ ushered in the age of the ironclad war vessel. _17._ - Grant defeated Lee, and Lee surrendered. _18._ Lincoln went to the - Ford Theater in Washington, and was assassinated. _19._ Johnson - started to carry out Lincoln's plans for reconstruction, but - Congress interfered, and tried to impeach him. _20._ Johnson caused - the French to withdraw from Mexico, and bought Alaska from Russia - in 1867 for $7,200,000. _21._ The South was slow in recovering from - the effects of the war. - - =Study Questions.= _1._ Describe Lincoln's early surroundings. _2._ - Picture Abe and his sister. _3._ How did Abe help get their meat? - _4._ What did he owe to his mother? _5._ What did Abe's new mother - do for him? _6._ What books did Abe read and how did he read them? - _7._ Why was Abe liked in the family? _8._ How tall was Lincoln? - How old was he when the family started for Illinois? _9._ What - did he do soon after going to Illinois? _10._ What did he see in - New Orleans that was new to him? _11._ Prove Lincoln was honest. - _12._ Prove that the men of the countryside had confidence in - Lincoln. _13._ How old was Lincoln when he ran for the legislature? - _14._ Tell the story of Lincoln's experiences in running for the - legislature. _15._ What was his success as a lawyer? _16._ Why did - Lincoln love public speaking? _17._ Why was Lincoln not elected to - Congress again? _18._ How did Lincoln become the champion speaker - against Douglas? _19._ What was the effect of the debate? _20._ - What new declaration did Lincoln make in his Springfield speech? - _21._ Why did Lincoln challenge Douglas? _22._ How did Lincoln - become widely known? _23._ What was the fatal question put to - Douglas by Lincoln? _24._ To what rights did Lincoln say the black - man is entitled? _25._ Picture the scene in the state convention - of 1860. _26._ What was the effect of the Lincoln-Douglas - debates on the Democratic party? _27._ Why did this result in - Lincoln's election to the presidency? _28._ Give an account of - the demonstrations made in honor of Lincoln. _29._ Who fired the - first shot in the Civil War, and where was it fired? _30._ How many - slave states in all remained loyal to the Union cause? _31._ What - kind of a war did Lincoln make of this war? _32._ Tell the story - of the _Merrimac_ and the _Monitor_. _33._ How was the _Merrimac_ - protected? _34._ How did the Proclamation of Emancipation affect - the strength of the Confederates? _35._ Describe the surrender of - Lee. _36._ Tell the story of Lincoln's assassination. _37._ How - did the nation feel over Lincoln's death? _38._ How has he been - honored? _39._ Describe the statue in Edinburgh. _40._ Where was - Lincoln buried? _41._ What was Lincoln's plan of reconstruction? - _42._ What happened when Johnson tried to carry this out? _43._ - Name two matters in which Johnson acted wisely. - - =Suggested Readings.= ABRAHAM LINCOLN: Baldwin, _Four Great - Americans_, 187-246; McMurry, _Pioneers of the Mississippi Valley_, - 170-184; Wright, _Children's Stories of American Progress_, - 159-178, 299-327; Brooks, _Century Book of Famous Americans_, - 193-210; Hart and Stevens, _Romance of the Civil War_, 1-112; - Bolton, _Lives of Poor Boys Who Became Famous_, 342-367; Mabie, - _Heroes Every Child Should Know_, 309-319; Nicolay, _Boys' Life of - Abraham Lincoln_; Coffin, _Abraham Lincoln_; Mace, _Lincoln: The - Man of the People_; Hale, _Stories of War_; Southworth, _Builders - of Our Country_, Vol. II, 186-217. - - ANDREW JOHNSON: Sparks, _Expansion of the American People_, - 433-438; Guerber, _Story of the Great Republic_, 252-256. - - - - -TWO FAMOUS GENERALS - - - - -ULYSSES S. GRANT, THE GREAT GENERAL OF THE UNION ARMIES - - -[Sidenote: =Ulysses Simpson Grant, 1822=] - -[Sidenote: =Early schooling=] - -[Sidenote: =Fond of horses=] - - -=167. A Poor Boy Becomes a Great Man.= Ulysses Simpson Grant was born -in 1822, in Ohio, at a place called Point Pleasant. When he was a -year old his parents removed to Georgetown, Ohio, and there a few -years later he attended school. He was taught little besides reading, -writing, and arithmetic. As he grew up he helped his father and mother -by hauling wood, plowing, and doing other useful work. He did not like -the leather business, his father's occupation, but he found great -pleasure in farm work because he was very fond of horses. - -[Sidenote: =He liked to travel=] - -Young Grant liked to travel. When the news came that he had been -appointed a cadet at the United States Military Academy, he was glad -because of the journey to West Point but not because of any other -opportunities it offered. He did not like West Point, and studied only -to please his father. - -[Sidenote: =Fights under General Taylor=] - -[Sidenote: =Resigns and returns home=] - -After his graduation Grant fought in the Mexican War as lieutenant -under General Taylor and later under General Scott. After peace was -restored he served in California as a captain, but very soon resigned, -and when the Civil War broke out in 1861 he was working as a clerk in -his father's store at Galena, Illinois. - -[Illustration: THE BIRTHPLACE OF GENERAL GRANT, POINT PLEASANT, OHIO] - -[Sidenote: =Grant goes to Springfield=] - -[Sidenote: =His promotions=] - - -=168. A Great General.= When Lincoln's call for seventy-five -thousand men startled the country, Grant was made chairman of a -meeting at Galena called to raise a company of soldiers. He then -went to Springfield, where the governor set him to work drilling -soldiers and getting them ready for the war. After a time he became -colonel of a regiment. A further promotion followed which made him a -brigadier-general in command of several regiments. Later still he rose -to be major-general, in command of an army. - -[Illustration: ULYSSES S. GRANT - -_From a photograph taken in 1866 by F. Gutekunst, Philadelphia_] - -Early in the war it was seen that in order to conquer the Confederacy -it must be split in two by gaining possession of the Mississippi -River. As a part of the great campaign with this end in view, we find -Brigadier-General Grant directing the attacks on Fort Henry and Fort -Donelson. These places were less than ten miles apart, in western -Tennessee. - -[Sidenote: =Captures Forts Henry and Donelson=] - -With the help of Commodore Foote and his gunboats, Grant easily -captured Fort Henry. To take Fort Donelson was not so easy. The -Confederates tried to break through the right wing of Grant's army. -After hard fighting they were driven back, and General Buckner asked -what terms Grant would give if they surrendered. To this General Grant -replied that he would consider "no terms but an unconditional and -immediate surrender ... I propose to move immediately upon your works." -This answer has become famous. - -[Sidenote: =Confederates fall back=] - -[Sidenote: =Grant moves against Vicksburg=] - -The surrender of Fort Henry and Fort Donelson forced the Confederates -to move back their line of defense. After winning the two days' -battle at Pittsburg Landing, General Grant turned his attention to -the Mississippi River. As long as the Mississippi remained open to -the southern forces, Arkansas, Louisiana, and Texas could send food -supplies to the Confederates on the east side of the river. This -General Grant wanted to stop, so, early in 1863, he moved southward to -take Vicksburg. He beat the Confederates in the field and drove them -into Vicksburg. The siege of the city lasted seven weeks. No one could -slip in or out. Meat and bread grew scarce. The houses were knocked to -pieces by cannon balls, and people found shelter in cellars and caves. - -[Illustration: THE BATTLE OF PITTSBURG LANDING, TENNESSEE] - -[Sidenote: =The surrender=] - -On the Fourth of July, 1863, Vicksburg, with Pemberton's army of more -than thirty thousand men, surrendered. There was great happiness -throughout the North. President Lincoln sent a message of thanks to -General Grant, and Congress voted that he be given a medal. - -[Sidenote: =Gettysburg on the same day=] - -During this campaign in the lower Mississippi country a large -Confederate army had marched north from Virginia, across Maryland into -Pennsylvania. This army, under General Robert E. Lee, had won its way -as far as Gettysburg. Here, at the end of a great three days' battle, -the Confederates were decisively beaten; this defeat came on July 3, -and on the very next day came the news that far-away Vicksburg had -surrendered to Grant. After defeating the Confederates at Murfreesboro, -General Rosecrans was in turn defeated at Chickamauga, and then cooped -up in the town of Chattanooga by General Bragg. General Grant was -sent to rescue the Union army, which he did in the battles of Lookout -Mountain, led by Hooker, and Missionary Ridge, led by Sherman. - -[Illustration: SCENE OF GRANT'S CAMPAIGNS IN THE WEST] - -[Sidenote: =Lieutenant-general=] - - -=169. Great Commander of the Union Armies.= President Lincoln saw -that General Grant was a great soldier. He sent for him to come to -Washington and made him lieutenant-general in command of all the armies -of the United States. - -[Sidenote: =The "Wilderness"=] - -Grant took command at once. His first great object was to capture Lee's -army. The shortest way to Lee's army lay through the "Wilderness," a -part of the country lying south of the upper part of the Rapidan, in -Virginia, and covered with a thick forest of tangled underbrush. The -route was dangerous. But into the "Wilderness" Grant plunged with his -great army. General Lee was there with his troops. The fighting began. -For a month it was almost constant charging, back and forth, and there -were long lists of dead and wounded. Grant moved his army southward and -nearer Richmond. Lee met him in the bloody battles of Spottsylvania and -Cold Harbor. - -[Sidenote: =Petersburg taken=] - -Then Grant crossed the James River, south of Richmond, and began the -attack on Petersburg. This place was taken in the spring of 1865. - -[Sidenote: =Richmond given up=] - -General Lee told the Confederate president, Jefferson Davis, that he -could hold Richmond no longer. He tried to get his army away, but the -men were weak from hard fighting, and Sheridan, with his cavalry, was -too quick for him. - -[Sidenote: =Lee surrenders at Appomattox=] - -General Grant wrote to General Lee suggesting that he surrender, and -thus prevent the loss of more lives. Lee agreed, and the papers were -signed April 9, 1865, at Appomattox Court House. No more generous terms -were ever given than those granted to Lee and his men. - -After the war was over General Grant served for a time in the cabinet -of President Johnson, who had become president at Lincoln's death. - -[Sidenote: =Grant elected president=] - - -=170. President of the United States.= In 1868 Grant was elected -President of the United States. He was elected again in 1872. Late in -life he made a tour of the world, and everywhere was received with -great honor. - -[Illustration: THE GRANT MONUMENT, RIVERSIDE PARK, NEW YORK] - -[Sidenote: =Dies in 1885=] - -He died July 23, 1885, at Mount McGregor, near Saratoga, New York. -His body rests in Riverside Park, New York City, where a magnificent -monument has been built to his memory. - - - - -ROBERT EDWARD LEE, THE MAN WHO LED THE CONFEDERATE ARMIES - - -[Sidenote: =Robert E. Lee, 1807=] - - -=171. The Great General of the Confederacy.= Robert E. Lee was born -in Virginia in 1807. He went to school at Alexandria, where George -Washington once lived, and became a cadet at the United States Military -Academy at West Point. - -[Sidenote: =Wins fame in Mexico=] - -[Sidenote: =In charge at West Point=] - -In the war with Mexico Lee earned honor and fame. He rose rapidly in -rank. Starting as captain, he became major, lieutenant-colonel, and -then colonel. When the Mexican War was over, he took charge of the -Military Academy at West Point. After three years, he decided to give -up the work at West Point and go West to fight the Indians. - -[Sidenote: =Lee goes with his state=] - -About this time the people began to insist that, in the United States, -slavery must be given up. Even the army officers and men quarreled -about it. Lee believed in the Union and did not want the South to leave -it. But when Virginia followed other slave states out of the Union and -into the Confederacy, Lee went with his native state. - -[Sidenote: =In command of army defending Richmond=] - -When the war began, Lee, as general, had command of the Virginia -troops. After the battle of Fair Oaks, in which General Joseph E. -Johnston was wounded, General Lee took charge of the army defending -Richmond. - -[Sidenote: =Compels McClellan to retreat=] - -[Sidenote: =Invaded Maryland and Pennsylvania=] - - -=172. Lee Fights Battle after Battle.= Lee at once attacked the Union -army which was trying to take Richmond. In a seven days' battle he -forced McClellan, the Union general, to retreat. He then struck the -army of Pope a fatal blow and marched with his victorious soldiers -into Maryland. A great battle was fought at Antietam (1862) and Lee -returned to Virginia. He won two great victories at Fredericksburg and -Chancellorsville. In the latter battle he lost Stonewall Jackson, his -best general. After this, his army rested and ranks filled, General -Lee moved rapidly through Maryland and into Pennsylvania. The North -became alarmed, but a great Union army was already hurrying to meet the -Confederate forces. - -[Sidenote: =Greatest battle of the war=] - -[Sidenote: =Pickett's charge=] - -[Sidenote: =The loss=] - -The two armies met at Gettysburg, and there for three days was fought -the greatest battle of the Civil War. On the last day General Pickett -made his famous charge. Fifteen thousand southern soldiers charged -across the valley--more than a mile wide--right up to the muzzles of -the Union guns. But the help they expected from another direction did -not arrive, and they had to retreat. Lee's army was defeated. More than -fifty thousand men--including the killed, wounded, and missing on both -sides--were lost at Gettysburg. - -[Illustration: PICKETT'S CHARGE AT GETTYSBURG - -_This heroic assault marked the turn of the Confederate tide_] - -[Sidenote: =Lee never invades again=] - - -=173. Facing a Powerful Army.= General Lee then went back across the -Potomac, never to invade the North again. From then onward, little -was done until, in 1864, General Grant took command of all the Union -forces. Then followed three great battles--the "Wilderness," so called -because it was fought in a thick forest of tangled underbrush lying in -Virginia just south of the upper portion of the Rapidan; Spottsylvania, -fought near the Spottsylvania courthouse a little farther southward, -and Cold Harbor, fought a few miles northeast of Richmond. - -[Sidenote: =Lee's troops wearing out=] - -General Lee's troops were wearing out. There were no more men to take -the places of those killed and wounded. Food and clothing became -scarce, and other supplies were hard to get. General Lee was now made -commander in chief over all the Confederate armies. He immediately put -Joseph E. Johnston back in command of his old army in the West, but it -was too late. - -[Sidenote: =Sheridan blocks the way=] - -Lee decided in 1865 that Richmond must be given up. He wanted to take -his army to Danville, Virginia, on the way to join the army of General -Joseph E. Johnston, in North Carolina, but at Appomattox his troops met -General Sheridan's cavalry. - -[Illustration: SCENE OF WAR AROUND WASHINGTON AND RICHMOND] - -[Sidenote: =Terms of surrender=] - - -=174. The Confederacy Was Lost.= General Lee received a letter from -General Grant asking him to surrender. The two generals met at a -farmhouse and agreed upon terms. Grant gave the officers and men -permission to take their horses home "to do their spring plowing." - -The next morning Lee, surrounded by his sorrowing men, mounted his -horse, Traveler, and rode slowly away to his home in Richmond. The -other Confederate armies surrendered one by one. - -[Illustration: ROBERT EDWARD LEE - -_From a portrait painted by Browne, now in the Westmoreland Club, -Richmond, Virginia_] - -[Sidenote: =President of Washington College=] - -[Sidenote: =Dies in 1870=] - -After the war General Lee was elected president of Washington College -at Lexington, Virginia, now Washington and Lee University. He greatly -enjoyed his work of building up the young manhood of the South. He died -at Lexington in 1870. A monument to the memory of this great man has -been erected at Richmond, and another at Lexington. - - -SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL - - =The Leading Facts.= _1._ Grant born of parents who were farmers. - Loved to work with horses. _2._ Sent to West Point; was in Mexican - War under Generals Taylor and Scott. _3._ Was clerk for his - father at Galena. _4._ In the Civil War rose rapidly till made a - major-general. _5._ Captured Fort Donelson and Fort Henry. _6._ - Captured Vicksburg; was made lieutenant-general, and sent into - the Wilderness after General Lee. _7._ Fought a month, then moved - around to Petersburg. _8._ Offered Lee terms of surrender. _9._ Was - twice made president. _10._ Died at Mount McGregor. _11._ Robert E. - Lee was born in Virginia and went to school at Alexandria. _12._ - Went to West Point, and was in the Mexican War, where he earned - honor and fame. _13._ Took charge at West Point. _14._ Followed - Virginia when she seceded, and was given command of the troops - defending Richmond. _15._ Won several victories over the North. - _16._ Failed at Gettysburg. _17._ Fought to save Richmond. _18._ - Surrendered to General Grant in spring of 1865. _19._ Became - president of Washington College. - - =Study Questions.= _1._ Tell the story of Grant until he reached - West Point. _2._ What part did Grant take in the war with Mexico? - _3._ What did Grant do at Galena when Lincoln's call came? _4._ - Tell of his promotion. _5._ What would happen if Vicksburg and - other Mississippi River places were taken? _6._ What two victories - came on the Fourth of July, and what did both mean? _7._ How did - Grant's victory impress the president? _8._ What can you tell of - the "Battle of the Wilderness"? _9._ What happened at Richmond? - _10._ Picture the scene at Appomattox Court House. _11._ Tell the - story of Grant after the Civil War. _12._ Tell of Lee's promotion - after leaving West Point. _13._ Did Lee want his state to leave - the Union? _14._ Was he a victorious general at first? _15._ What - happened at Gettysburg? _16._ Tell about Lee defending Richmond. - _17._ What did Lee plan to do after Richmond fell? _18._ Why did he - not carry out this plan? _19._ What position did Lee accept after - the war? - - =Suggested Readings.= ULYSSES S. GRANT: Burton, _Four American - Patriots_, 195-254; Brooks, _Century Book of Famous Americans_, - 181-191; Hart and Stevens, _Romance of the Civil War_, 179-183; - Hale, _Stories of War_, 21-29, 74-91, 92-118, 168-187, 226-264; - Bolton, _Famous American Statesmen_, 307-360. - - ROBERT E. LEE: Hale, _Stories of War_, 61-73, 119, 149; Mabie, - _Heroes Every Child Should Know_, 289-308; Magill, _Stories from - Virginia History_, 162-172. - - - - -MEN WHO DETERMINED NEW POLITICAL POLICIES - - - - -RUTHERFORD B. HAYES - - -=175. A Wise and Independent President.= In 1822 a baby boy was born -in the old college town of Delaware, Ohio. His parents named the -boy Rutherford B. Hayes. As a youngster he loved his books and his -playmates. - -[Sidenote: =A leader at college=] - -At an early age he entered Kenyon College, Ohio. Here he was a leader -among his fellows, not only in college affairs, but in his daily work -in the classroom. He graduated with first honors in his class. - -For his after-college work Hayes decided to choose the law, and -graduated from Harvard Law School. He was just beginning to win success -when Lincoln's call to arms aroused the men of the North. It seemed -terrible for northern men and southern men to fight against each other, -but it had to be done to save the Union. - -[Illustration: RUTHERFORD B. HAYES - -_From a photograph by Pach Bros., New York City_] - -[Sidenote: =Becomes a general=] - -Hayes volunteered and was made a major in command. By his fine work as -an officer in caring for his men and in bravery on the field of battle, -he won the title of general. While he was still fighting, the people at -home, looking for a high-minded, honorable man for congress, nominated -Hayes. - -[Sidenote: =Refuses to leave his post to campaign=] - -His supporters sent for him to come home and canvass for votes. He -would not go. He said: "An officer fit for duty who, at such a time as -this, would abandon his post to electioneer for a seat in Congress, -ought to be scalped." Hayes remained at his post and was elected by a -large majority. - -Hayes had become known to all the people of his state and they wanted -him for governor. So friendly was he toward all whether high or low, -so honest was he that three times the people chose him to be their -governor. - -In 1876 the Republicans of the nation selected him to be their -candidate for the high office of president. The Democratic candidate -was a man of very high reputation, Samuel J. Tilden of New York. He was -known as a fighter for honesty and against wrongdoing in public office. - -[Sidenote: =Contest over the presidency=] - -Unfortunately, the politicians aroused bitter feeling between the North -and the South in this campaign. When it was seen that Hayes was winner -by only one vote, there were threats of "civil war." But luckily Tilden -did not lose his head, and his party, following his advice, accepted -the result. - -[Sidenote: =Generous toward the South=] - -Hayes decided to take the Union soldiers out of the South. The radical -Republicans opposed this action, but the majority of the people in the -North favored it. The southern people were happy, because now they -might manage their elections to suit themselves. - -President Hayes also placed a southern man in his cabinet, and this, -too, helped along the good feeling between the North and the South. - -We can see now that the return of good feeling between the North and -the South was necessary, but it was not so easily seen then. Now we can -say that President Hayes was a noble and far-seeing statesman when he -offered the "olive branch" to the South. - -[Sidenote: =A startling change in custom=] - -Lucy Hayes, his wife, was a brave woman. She startled society at -Washington and in the country at large by issuing a decree that no -strong drink should be used in the White House. The temperance people -were happy, but others were not, especially the ministers of foreign -countries who had always been in the habit of using wine on social -occasions. A great cry was raised throughout the country, but Lucy Webb -Hayes stood her ground. - - - - -JAMES A. GARFIELD AND CHESTER A. ARTHUR - - -=176. The Towpath that Led to the Presidency.= Like Lincoln, the second -of our "martyr Presidents" started life in a log cabin. Garfield was -born near Cleveland, Ohio (1831). His parents were poor and his father -died while Garfield was yet an infant. Garfield's mother was brave and -held her little family together. The children did not have much chance -to go to school. Life to them was a hard struggle. - -[Illustration: JAMES A. GARFIELD - -_After a photograph by E. Bierstadt_] - -When James reached the age of fifteen, he began driving mules on the -towpath of a canal running from Cleveland to Portsmouth. This was the -time when canal boats carried both freight and passengers. The towpath -was a hard "school," but had many good lessons for a boy wise enough to -keep out of mischief. - -[Sidenote: =Determined to have an education=] - -He had his heart set on an education. He went to school long enough -to be able to teach school. He shared his earnings with his mother. -Teaching only sharpened his appetite for an education. For a time he -went to Hiram College and afterward became a teacher there. He loved -Hiram College because it was supported by the Church of the Disciples, -of which he was a member. He finished his education at Williams College. - -When Lincoln called for men for the war, Garfield, like thousands of -others, volunteered. He became an officer and did his work so well that -he was promoted to be major general. Like Hayes, he was elected to -Congress while in the army, fighting its battles. Again and again, the -people of his district sent him to Congress, and finally in 1880 the -legislature of his native state made him a United States senator. - -[Sidenote: =War, Congress, and the Presidency=] - -Garfield was a wonderful orator. Before the Republicans, gathered in -Chicago, he placed the name of John Sherman in nomination for the -presidency. So great was this speech that the convention turned from -all the men who were before it, and nominated Garfield himself. - -Garfield won the presidency before he had a chance to take his seat as -United States senator. After delivering his inaugural address to the -vast crowd gathered, he turned and kissed his mother. - -The Republicans had promised to make new rules about men appointed to -office. They declared that men should not hold office just because -they had worked for the party in power, but that they should pass an -examination to find out whether or not they were fit for the position. - -While Garfield was leaving Washington to attend the Fourth of July -celebration at Williams College, he was shot by a half-crazy, -disappointed office seeker. He lived until September. Few young people -can now understand how the American people felt during this time. They -learned to hate the "spoils system." Garfield's death sealed its fate. - -[Sidenote: =Civil service reform=] - - -=177. Arthur Becomes President.= Chester A. Arthur was thought to be a -"politician" merely, but he proved to be a good president. He began to -build up a strong navy and started the movement for the reform of the -civil service. - -Since the days of the Civil War, we had been too busy with affairs -at home to think much about the need of a navy. But beginning with -President Arthur's administration we have increased its size from time -to time, until during the war with Spain, our people came to feel the -navy's value. - -[Illustration: CHESTER A. ARTHUR - -_From a photograph by Sarony_] - -Under Arthur the spoils system received its first deadly blow when -Congress passed and Arthur signed a bill establishing the merit system. -By this system, men are appointed to office only after they have proved -their fitness by an examination. Under it men cannot be turned out of -office except for just cause. - - - - -GROVER CLEVELAND - - -[Sidenote: =Early life=] - - -=178. A Man Who Was Twice President.= Grover Cleveland saw the light -of day in the old state of New Jersey in 1837. While he was yet a boy -his parents moved to central New York. Here he received a common school -education. He was a good pupil and made friends with boys who loved -honesty and fair play. His parents were poor and could not send him to -college. He was always sorry for this and tried to make up for it by -hard study. The lives of men great in history and literature were what -he liked best to read. - -After going to Buffalo, young Cleveland entered upon the study of law. -He studied long upon the fine points of the law. In time he became one -of the ablest lawyers, not only in Buffalo, but in the State of New -York. The fact that young Cleveland was chosen sheriff of Erie County -shows that a great many people already looked upon him as a courageous -man. - -[Illustration: GROVER CLEVELAND - -_From a photograph by Bell_] - -[Sidenote: =Lawyer, mayor, and governor=] - -When Buffalo needed a mayor who was not afraid to do his duty, the -people elected this man who had been a good sheriff. - -The people of the State of New York wanted a man of the Cleveland -type for governor. He carried the state by a great majority. He was -a great governor as he had been a great mayor. He was honest and -straightforward, and treated all men alike. Long before his time as -governor was up, the people began to talk of him for president. - -[Sidenote: =Runs against Blaine=] - -Cleveland ran against a widely known and popular man, James G. Blaine -of Maine. But the Republicans split and Cleveland won. The Democrats -were happy over the result, for this was the first time they had -elected a president since 1856. - -The Republicans had kept a high tariff ever since the Civil War. The -result was that our treasury at Washington was full of money. Cleveland -sent a message to Congress asking that the tariff be cut down, but the -high-tariff Democrats joined the Republicans in supporting it. - -Cleveland had made many enemies in his own party by refusing to appoint -unfit men to office. When, therefore, he ran for president again in -1888, he was beaten by Senator Harrison of Indiana. - -But four years later, in 1892, he defeated Harrison and again became -president. - -[Sidenote: =The panic of 1893=] - - -=179. The Panic of 1893.= Cleveland had hardly taken his seat as -President when hard times struck the country. Business men and laborers -suffered greatly. They could not pay their debts. Men, women, and -children suffered for want of bread. - -[Sidenote: =The great railroad strike=] - -The Pullman Car Company of Chicago cut down the wages of its workmen. -The men called a strike which finally extended over half the states of -the Union. - -Chicago was the center of the strike. Hundreds of cars were burned and -lives were threatened. It was impossible to carry the United States -mail or freight from one state to another. Grover Cleveland ordered -United States soldiers to Chicago to keep the mails going and the -freight running. This broke the back of the strike. Cleveland had shown -how to settle strikes in a new way. - -Cleveland served twice as President and after his second term of office -he moved to Princeton, New Jersey, the seat of Princeton University. -Here he became famous for his lectures given before the student body. - - - - -BENJAMIN HARRISON - - -=180. A General Who Became President.= Early in our national history -it had happened that the son of a President of the United States had -also become President. In 1833 a boy was born in Ohio, the grandson of -a President, who was also to gain this high position. His grandfather -was William Henry Harrison, who was elected President in the stirring -campaign of 1840. His parents named him Benjamin. - -[Illustration: BENJAMIN HARRISON - -_From a photograph by L. Alman_] - -Young Harrison, a happy and well-born boy, received his education in -the public schools. He entered Miami University at an early age and -graduated at eighteen. - -Harrison, like so many of our other presidents, studied law. He was -very soon admitted to the bar, and in 1854 he went to live in the -Hoosier State at Indianapolis. - -[Sidenote: =Enters the army=] - -He answered the call to arms. He was made a lieutenant, but had hardly -learned his duties before he was promoted to be captain of a company of -one hundred men. Hardly a month passed before an order came making him -a colonel of a regiment of a thousand men. He led this regiment until -the last days of the war, and the boys were proud of "Colonel Ben." - -For personal bravery and for skill in handling his men in one of the -battles in Georgia, he was made major general. - -[Sidenote: =Active in politics=] - -After the war Harrison returned to the law. In political campaigns he -was much sought after to speak in all parts of the state. - -He did not accept office until he was elected United States senator in -1881. Senator Harrison was nominated for the presidency in 1888. He -set the example of making speeches "on his front porch" to admiring -crowds who came from different states. - -[Sidenote: =A picturesque campaign=] - -In this campaign the Democrats pointed to Harrison as a man who wore -his "grandfather's hat." The Republicans made this campaign like that -of 1840. There was great enthusiasm, big wagons carrying log cabins -with raccoons and barrels of hard cider, great balls rolling on, and -happy songs. Tippecanoe clubs were formed in all parts of the country. -The result was the election of Harrison. - -[Sidenote: =Pensions and the tariff=] - -Under President Harrison a tariff law was passed with a reciprocity -agreement. By this arrangement, the United States agreed to reduce -its tariff if other nations would reduce theirs. President Harrison -had a warm spot in his heart for the old soldiers, and he signed with -pleasure a new pension law. - -The farmers and the silver men of the West were becoming dissatisfied -with the action of Congress. In 1890 their forces elected several new -Congressmen, and in the next year formed the People's party. Most of -the votes of this party were drawn from the Republican side, hence in -the next campaign Harrison was defeated by Cleveland. - - -SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL - - =The Leading Facts.= _1._ Hayes studied law, and served in the - Civil War. _2._ He was elected to Congress while still in the - field. _3._ He received only one more vote than Tilden for - President. _4._ He was wise and fair in his treatment of the South. - _5._ Garfield was a poor boy who had to work hard for an education. - _6._ He was a war veteran and was elected senator before becoming - President. _7._ His remarkable ability as an orator caused him to - be nominated for the presidency. _8._ His assassination helped to - bring civil service reform. _9._ Arthur when President, worked for - a larger navy. _10._ He supported civil service against the spoils - system. _11._ Cleveland, after being mayor of Buffalo and governor - of New York, was elected President twice, though not in succession. - _12._ A severe panic occurred while he was President. _13._ - Harrison studied law, and became a general during the Civil War. - _14._ His election was like that of his grandfather, William Henry - Harrison. _15._ Changes in the tariff and in pension laws took - place during his presidency. _16._ At the following election the - farmers and those favoring silver money combined in the Populist - party, reducing the Republican vote and causing the election of - Cleveland. - - =Study Questions.= _1._ Tell something of Hayes' early life. _2._ - How did he come to be chosen Congressman? _3._ What was unusual - about his election to the presidency? _4._ How was his election - accepted by the country? _5._ What kind of a President did he make? - _6._ What can you tell of Garfield's youth? _7._ What positions - did he hold before becoming President? _8._ What brought about his - nomination? _9._ What reform did the nation demand after Garfield's - assassination? _10._ What two things did Arthur work for? _11._ - What positions did Cleveland hold? _12._ Name two important things - that happened while he was President. _13._ Tell something of - Harrison's career and election. _14._ What was done about the - tariff and pensions during his presidency? _15._ Why was Harrison - defeated by Cleveland in the next election? - - =Suggested Readings.= Higginson, _History of the United States_, - 330-347; Guerber, _Story of the Great Republic_, 281-285, 288-293. - - - - -THE BEGINNING OF EXPANSION ABROAD - - - - -WILLIAM McKINLEY AND THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR - - -[Sidenote: =William McKinley, 1843=] - -[Sidenote: =Teaches school=] - - -=181. William McKinley.= William McKinley was born in Ohio in 1843. As -a boy his chief delight was to roam the fields and woods surrounding -Niles, his home town, or to fish in the fine streams near by. When he -was about nine years old his parents moved to Poland, Ohio, where there -were good schools for children. McKinley studied hard, and at seventeen -years of age entered Allegheny College at Meadville, Pennsylvania. But -his health had never been very good and he fell ill from hard study. He -returned to Poland, and there a little later he taught school. - -[Sidenote: =Enlists to fight for the Union=] - -[Sidenote: =Wins praise and promotion=] - -In 1861 Lincoln's call for troops to save the Union fired the whole -North with patriotism. McKinley, though then only eighteen years of -age, enlisted at once. Under fire at Antietam and in later battles of -the war, he won praise and promotion for his heroic deeds. The active -army life was good for him, and when the war was over he was a strong -and healthy man. He enlisted as a private and came out as a major. All -his promotions were for merit and bravery. - -[Illustration: WILLIAM McKINLEY - -_From a photograph by Courtney, taken at Canton, Ohio_] - -[Sidenote: =Studies law=] - -He returned to Poland and took up the study of the law. But his means -were small and he had a hard struggle. In 1867 McKinley was admitted to -the bar and opened an office in Canton, Ohio. - -[Sidenote: =Becomes a successful lawyer and speaker=] - -Like many another young lawyer he had numerous difficulties and -disappointments, but he worked hard and in time became a successful -lawyer. He was a good speaker and soon was much in demand in political -campaigns. - -[Sidenote: =In Congress=] - -[Sidenote: =Elected president=] - -The people admired him. They felt that he could be trusted. They sent -him, for seven terms, to represent them in Congress at Washington, and -twice they made him governor of Ohio. In 1896 he was elected president -of the United States. - -[Sidenote: =The Cubans revolt=] - - -=182. Spanish Persecution in Cuba.= Since the earliest days of Spanish -rule, Cuba had been discontented and had engaged in frequent wars with -Spain because of heavy taxation and bad government. Again and again the -Cubans revolted, but they were not strong enough to succeed and Spanish -oppression continued. In 1895 the people rose in a last desperate -effort to free themselves. To crush them Spain sent a large army under -a cruel general. Large numbers of unarmed Cubans--men, women, and -children--were gathered into camps guarded by Spanish soldiers and cut -off from food and other supplies. Thousands died of starvation and -disease. - -[Illustration: HOW THE CUBANS FOUGHT - -_Lying in ambush for the advancing column of the enemy_] - -[Sidenote: =Americans aroused=] - -[Sidenote: =Red Cross Society goes to Cuba=] - -These and other harsh things done in an attempt to break the spirit of -the Cubans filled the American people with bitter indignation. On the -recommendation of President McKinley, Congress voted fifty thousand -dollars for relief work. Money, by private contribution, also flowed -in from all parts of the country. The Red Cross Society, led by Clara -Barton, hastened to the island to relieve the awful conditions of -hunger and disease. - -[Illustration: GEORGE DEWEY - -_From a photograph taken in 1900 by Francis B. Johnston, Washington, -D.C._] - -The American people were aroused. They demanded that the United States -interfere in behalf of the suffering Cubans, who were fighting to be -free. They were eager to take up arms for freedom and humanity. - -[Sidenote: =Battleship "Maine" blown up=] - -Indignation was brought to its highest pitch when, on February 15, -1898, the United States battleship _Maine_ was sunk in Havana Harbor, -two hundred sixty of the crew perishing. What was the cause of the -explosion has never been found out, but Americans then believed it to -be the work of the Spaniards. - -[Sidenote: =War declared=] - -In April the United States demanded that the Spanish troops be taken -from Cuba and the Cubans be given their independence. Spain was given -three days in which to reply. She immediately declared war against the -United States. - -[Sidenote: =Dewey destroys the Spanish fleet=] - - -=183. A War for the Sake of Humanity.= The war had hardly begun before -Admiral George Dewey destroyed the Spanish fleet and pounded to pieces -the shore batteries in Manila Bay, Philippine Islands. Dewey, with his -fleet, sailed under orders from Hong-kong, China, entered the bay, and -did his work without the loss of a man. This deed made him the naval -hero of the war. - -[Sidenote: =California volunteers lead in numbers=] - -Thousands of men, North and South, rallied to the call of President -McKinley. The states of the far West responded with noble enthusiasm. -California, largest in population and wealth, led in the number of its -volunteers. - -[Illustration: SCENE OF THE SPANISH WAR IN THE PHILIPPINES] - -[Sidenote: ="Rough Riders" win fame=] - -The land forces in Cuba were under the command of General Shafter. They -stormed El Caney and San Juan and marched on Santiago. But the "Rough -Riders," a regiment raised from the mountains and plains, attracted -the most attention. Colonel Leonard Wood had command of them, aided -by Theodore Roosevelt. When Wood was made a general, Roosevelt became -their colonel, and fought through the war with them. - -[Sidenote: =Spanish fleet in Santiago Harbor=] - -A large fleet sent from Spain under Admiral Cervera had kept out -of the way of the American fleet under Rear-Admiral Sampson and -Commodore Schley and was now hidden in Santiago Harbor. When the -Americans captured El Caney and San Juan, the Spanish admiral decided -that Santiago would soon be in American hands. To escape being taken -prisoner he made a bold dash from the harbor. - -[Illustration: THE BATTLE OF MANILA BAY] - -[Sidenote: =Cervera's fleet destroyed=] - -The American naval forces were on the watch, and soon the entire -Spanish fleet was destroyed or captured--July 3, 1898. - -[Sidenote: =Treaty of peace signed=] - -The occupation by the Americans of the city of Manila, in the -Philippines, in August (1898), brought peace proposals from Spain. -These were accepted, the treaty being signed on the tenth of December. - -[Sidenote: =The Philippines bought for twenty million dollars=] - -This war was fought for the sake of humanity and freedom and not for -gain or glory. The United States had taken the side of an oppressed -people struggling for independence but she did not claim these -countries as the spoils of war. She paid Spain twenty million dollars -in gold for the Philippines, and at once set to work to establish -schools, build good roads, help the farmers, and improve living -conditions by making the government more stable and humane. - -[Sidenote: =Hawaiian Islands annexed=] - -It had long been felt, especially by the people of the Pacific States, -that for both commercial and military reasons the Hawaiian Islands -should belong to us. These islands--eight in all--were annexed in 1898. - -[Sidenote: =Cuba a republic=] - -[Sidenote: =Conditions in Cuba greatly improved=] - -[Sidenote: =United States a world power=] - -Steps were taken at once to give the people of Cuba a government of -their own. The island was made a republic. The constitution, drawn up -somewhat like our own, was adopted by the people of Cuba, February 21, -1902. The United States did much to help the people before it withdrew -from the island in 1902 and left the Cubans to rule themselves. -Conditions have rapidly improved. In 1894, under Spanish rule, there -were only about 900 public schools, and, even including the 700 private -schools, only about 60,000 pupils were on the rolls. Six years later, -under American rule, there were 3,550 public schools, with 172,000 -pupils enrolled. By the conduct of their government the Cubans are -justifying the confidence the American people had in them. - -[Illustration: THE BATTLE OF SANTIAGO] - -As a result of the war Guam and Porto Rico also became American -possessions. This was the beginning of American territorial expansion. -The United States took its place among the great world powers, and has -since played an important part in the affairs of nations. - -[Sidenote: =McKinley shot by an anarchist in 1901=] - - -=184. McKinley Assassinated.= President McKinley did not live to see -the results of self-government in Cuba. Shortly after his election to a -second term as president, he was shot by an anarchist, while the guest -of the Pan-American Exposition at Buffalo in September, 1901. After a -week of patient suffering, watched with painful anxiety by the people, -William McKinley, our third martyr president, passed away. - - -SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL - - =The Leading Facts.= _1._ William McKinley was born in Ohio. _2._ - He went to college at Meadville, Pennsylvania, and afterwards - taught school. _3._ Enlisted as a private in 1861 and won praise - and promotion for bravery in fighting for the Union. _4._ After the - war he studied law and opened an office in Canton, Ohio. _5._ Was - a good speaker and was sent to Congress at Washington for seven - terms. _6._ Twice governor of Ohio, he was elected president of - the United States in 1896. _7._ The Cubans had revolted many times - against Spanish oppression and now rose again. _8._ The Americans - sympathized with the suffering Cubans; Congress voted fifty - thousand dollars for relief work. _9._ The United States battleship - _Maine_ blown up in Havana Harbor. _10._ Spain declared war against - the United States. _11._ Admiral George Dewey destroyed the Spanish - fleet at Manila in the Philippine Islands. _12._ American forces, - among them the Rough Riders, attacked the Spanish in Cuba. _13._ - American fleet destroyed the Spanish fleet at Santiago. _14._ Peace - proposals came from Spain and the treaty of peace was signed in - December, 1898. _15._ The United States bought the Philippines - from Spain, the Hawaiian Islands were annexed, and Cuba became - a republic. _16._ Guam and Porto Rico also became American - possessions. _17._ Conditions in former Spanish possessions greatly - improved. _18._ McKinley was assassinated by an anarchist while - he was the guest of the Pan-American Exposition at Buffalo, in - September, 1901 and died soon after. - - =Study Questions.= _1._ Describe McKinley's boyhood surroundings - and what he liked to do. _2._ What made him fall ill? _3._ How did - he answer Lincoln's call for troops? _4._ What effect did army life - have on his health? _5._ What did he do after the war? _6._ To - what public office was he elected? _7._ Why did the Cubans revolt - against Spain? _8._ How did the Spaniards attempt to crush the - revolt? _9._ What did the Americans do to relieve the suffering - of the Cubans? _10._ What did they want to do? _11._ How did the - sinking of the Maine affect Americans? _12._ What did the United - States demand of Spain? _13._ Describe Dewey's action at Manila. - _14._ What state led in the number of volunteers? _15._ What were - the "Rough Riders"? _16._ What happened at Santiago? _17._ What - finally brought peace proposals from Spain? _18._ Why had the war - been fought? _19._ What did the Americans do in the Philippines? - _20._ What other islands came into American possession? _21._ - What happened in Cuba? _22._ When and in what city was President - McKinley assassinated? - - =Suggested Readings.= Stratemeyer, _American Boy's Life of William - McKinley_; Morris, _The War with Spain_, 150-169, 180-214, 267-285; - Barrett, _Admiral George Dewey_, 55-152, 230-251; Ross, _Heroes of - Our War with Spain_. - - - - -THE MAN WHO WAS THE CHAMPION OF DEMOCRACY - - - - -THEODORE ROOSEVELT, THE TYPICAL AMERICAN - - -[Sidenote: =Of Dutch descent=] - - -=185. Theodore Roosevelt as a Boy.= Although the son of a rich -man, Roosevelt both as boy and man was most democratic. One of his -forefathers, Klaes Martensen van Roosevelt, came from Holland to -New York in the steerage of a sailing vessel, a most lowly way to -travel. This was long ago, before Peter Stuyvesant was governor of New -Netherland, as New York colony was then called. - -Young Roosevelt had learned a few words of an old Dutch baby-song. When -in South Africa, he pleased the Dutch settlers by repeating the few -words he still remembered. The settlers still teach this song to their -children, though their forefathers left Holland for that country more -than two hundred and fifty years ago. - -[Illustration: THEODORE ROOSEVELT - -_From a photograph by Bell_] - -Roosevelt's mother was a charming southern woman, who was true to the -South in the Civil War; her brothers were in the Confederate Navy. One -night, as she was putting the children to bed, Theodore broke out into -a rather loud prayer for the Union soldiers. The mother only smiled. - -[Sidenote: =Absence of sectional bitterness=] - -The father stood for the Union and for Lincoln. He helped fit out -regiments and cared for the widow and the orphan. But there was no -quarreling in this home over these differences. What a fine example to -set before children! No wonder Roosevelt could refer with pride, when a -man, to the heroic deeds of the Blue and the Gray. - -[Sidenote: =What the Roosevelt children did=] - -Theodore was a sickly boy. Hence he was sent to a private school or -had a tutor. The children spent their summers among the delights of a -country home. They had all sorts of frolicsome games. They had pets: -cats, dogs, rabbits, woodchucks, crows, and a Shetland pony. They ran -barefoot and joined their elders in playing at haying, harvesting, and -picking apples. In the fall they climbed the hickory and the chestnut -trees in search of nuts. Sometimes they played "Indians," in real -fashion, by painting hands and faces with pokeberry juice! - -But the children thought that by far the happiest time was Christmas. -Roosevelt declares that he never knew another family to have so jolly a -time at that season of the year. - -[Sidenote: =Praises father as model man=] - -Roosevelt makes a statement I wish every boy could make: "My father was -the best man I ever knew." Roosevelt, the father, did not permit his -children to become selfish. Each was taught to divide his gifts--not -always an easy thing for older folks to do. In this home the children -were taught to avoid being cruel and to practice kindness. Idleness -was forbidden. The children were kept busy doing interesting things. -Neither was young Roosevelt permitted to play the coward. He was taught -to face unpleasant things like a man. His father could never stand a -lie, even if it were only a "white" one. There was no room in that home -for the coward or the bully. - -[Sidenote: =Enters Harvard=] - -At fifteen, after a year or more spent in Egypt, Palestine, and -Germany, Theodore came home a more enthusiastic American than ever. He -now began to prepare for college. He entered Harvard in 1876. He made -a good but not a brilliant student. Throughout his course he taught a -mission Bible class. He would not be without something to do even on -Sunday. - -[Sidenote: =A boxing match=] - -He graduated with Phi Beta Kappa honors. Yet he was not a "bookworm," -but fond of all college sports. He was a genuine sportsman without -being "sporty," as a boxing match once proved. One day Roosevelt and -another student were having a hard fight. Students crowded around. -The battle was hot. Time was called. Roosevelt promptly dropped his -hands, while the other fellow landed a smashing blow on Roosevelt's -nose. "Foul! foul!" shouted the students. "No! He did not hear," cried -Roosevelt, and warmly shook hands with the offending student. How many -boys can stand a blow in the face and not get angry? Roosevelt could. - -[Sidenote: =Fought hard for health=] - -Roosevelt had a resolute will, and he determined to make himself -stronger, so far as he could. He took boxing lessons, and became -skilled in this art. He rode horseback in the chase. He took long -tramps into the dark woods of Maine. In the summer he went on canoe -trips, and in winter on long hikes on snowshoes. - -This frail boy, through his determination, became a man noted for his -ruggedness and ceaseless energy. He had a keen love of adventure. As a -rancher, hunter and explorer he met constant hardship and danger. But -Roosevelt welcomed it all as part of the game. - -[Sidenote: =Beginnings of political life=] - - -=186. Enters Politics.= He joined a local Republican association in -New York. His rich friends laughed at him for joining hands with -saloonkeepers and "ward heelers." They would not do it, but this young -democrat did. He was nominated for the assembly. He must now show his -mettle. He began canvassing the saloon vote. A saloonkeeper declared -his license too high. Roosevelt declared it too low; he said if elected -he would make it higher. In spite of opposition he won. - -Before he got through at Albany he learned that no man could be a -fearless leader whose moral character was weak. Another lesson he -learned was that a man must act in office as if he were never to hold -another. He was elected three times to the assembly and made a name for -himself in fighting bad laws and demanding good ones. - -[Sidenote: =Often lived life of cowboy on ranches=] - - -=187. Western Life.= After this, Roosevelt spent a number of years -in the great Northwest. These years added to his strength and helped -him become finely developed both physically and morally. In the time -he spent on the ranches of this wild region and on a Dakota ranch of -his own, he lived as a cowboy. He was a young man then, and with all -the enthusiasm of youth he hunted the big game of the Rockies, rode -the "bucking broncho," and slept with his saddle for a pillow in the -"round-up." - -This life tested courage as well as endurance, but Roosevelt was equal -to the test. One day a drunken fellow with pistols in his belt ordered -him to treat the crowd. Roosevelt knocked him down and took his guns -from him. - -[Sidenote: =Law enforcement under difficulties=] - -Another time a boat was stolen, and Roosevelt, with two other men, -started down the river in pursuit. They caught the three thieves, but -an ice jam prevented them from going farther. Through days of bitter -cold the whole party followed the slowly moving jam. After while there -was nothing left to eat but bread made with the brown river water. -But Roosevelt was a deputy sheriff. He was determined to punish the -lawbreakers. - -Finally provisions and a wagon were found. Leaving his men, Roosevelt -started with his prisoners on a two-days' overland trip. He had a -driver, but he himself tramped through the mud with his gun, behind -the wagon. At last after a one hundred and fifty mile trip, the -lawbreakers were landed in jail. - -[Sidenote: =Wins admiration of West=] - -In this big young country where bravery and manliness meant so much, -the people thought there was no one like him. - - -=188. Returns to Politics.= He was surprised just before he left for -the east to find that he was to be nominated for mayor of New York, at -the early age of twenty-eight. He was defeated. - -[Sidenote: =Fights spoilsmen of all parties=] - -He served as Civil Service Commissioner for four years under President -Harrison and for two years under Grover Cleveland, a Democrat. He was -not head of the commissioners, but he worked so hard and fought the -"spoilsman" so boldly that everybody called it Roosevelt's Commission. -He had to fight Republicans and Democrats alike, for they were bent on -turning all men out of office simply because the positions were needed -for their party workers. - -[Sidenote: =Roosevelt and the children of the tenement=] - -In 1895 Roosevelt was appointed police commissioner for New York -City. As head of the Police Board he was on the Health Board, too. He -took special delight in looking after playgrounds for the children -of the slums. He was aided by Jacob Riis, who wrote _How the Other -Half Lives_. Roosevelt's idea was to take children from the streets -and put them in playgrounds to prevent them from becoming "toughs." -A Washington city editor said, "Roosevelt is the biggest man in New -York City. I saw a steady stream of people go up and down the stairs -which led to police headquarters. He has more visitors than the -President." The truth is, as police commissioner for all New York he -was commander-in-chief of an army. - -[Sidenote: =Merit system for police=] - -A policeman before could not get promoted without a "pull." But -Roosevelt changed this. A Civil War veteran who had served for a long -time as a policeman and had no "influence" rescued twenty-eight men and -women from drowning. Congress had given him two medals, but New York -City did nothing. Roosevelt came. The veteran, one night, plunged into -the icy river and rescued a woman. Roosevelt showed his appreciation -by promoting him. Every man on the force did his best now, for he knew -promotion would come. - -[Sidenote: =Builds up United States Navy=] - -Roosevelt was called to be Assistant Secretary of the Navy, under -President McKinley. He built up the navy and sent Dewey with the fleet -to the Pacific. The war with Spain came (1898). Roosevelt resigned from -his office, raised the Rough Riders, and took command with Colonel Wood. - - -=189. Congress Orders Medal.= For bravery in leading the Rough Riders -in a gallant charge up San Juan Hill in the face of a murderous fire he -was promoted, and a medal was ordered for him. - -He went back to New York with his Rough Riders. They fairly worshiped -him. "He knows everybody in the regiment," said one. "He is as ready -to listen to a private as a major-general," said another. The boys -presented him with a statue of the "Broncho Buster." Tears ran down the -sun-tanned faces as a comrade made a touching speech. Roosevelt now was -a real hero. - -[Sidenote: =Defies bosses as governor=] - -On his return from war he was elected governor of New York. He told -the leaders of his party that he would be controlled by no man or set -of men. He said that he would gladly talk with all classes of men, but -must be permitted to make up his own mind. This was plain talk for the -"bosses." "He just plays the honesty game," said a Tammany politician. - -[Sidenote: =National recognition of his work=] - -But he had the same old battles as in the days when he was a young -man in the assembly. He tried to run the government of the state in -a businesslike manner, and his fight for cleaner politics was so -determined that it caught the interest of the entire country. - -[Illustration: COLONEL ROOSEVELT AND A GROUP OF ROUGH RIDERS] - -[Sidenote: =Becomes Vice-President=] - -After two years he was nominated for the vice-presidency. The New York -"bosses" were glad because they knew that as president of the Senate he -could do very little to disturb them. But he had set a good example, -and the great man who brought notice of his nomination said, "There is -not a young man in the United States who has not found your life and -influence an incentive to better things and higher ideals." - -He made a whirlwind campaign. He spoke for eight weeks, in twenty-four -states, traveling more than twenty thousand miles, making nearly seven -hundred speeches to three million citizens. - -[Sidenote: =Succeeds McKinley=] - -In just six months President McKinley was assassinated and Roosevelt -became President. - -[Sidenote: =How he had risen to high office=] - - -=190. At Height of Ambition.= The young man who had made himself -strong, who cherished the memory of his father and mother, who -had taught the mission class while in college, who had joined the -Republican Club against the advice of his friends, who had fought -against spoilsmen in state and national politics, who battled for the -right of children to a breathing place in New York City, who had led -the Rough Riders up San Juan Hill, who had stood as governor of New -York against wrongdoing in high as well as low places, who was made -Vice-President against his will, for the good of his party, now stood -at the height of political power in America. - -The people loved him so well that they called him to be President a -second time; and that, too, by the largest majority ever given to any -President. He was the youngest President ever elected. - -[Sidenote: =Square deal, his motto=] - -His motto as President was "a square deal for everybody." He did many -wonderful things as President: he stopped men from stealing public -lands in the West; he built great dams in the dry regions to hold the -water for raising crops; he established national parks containing -millions of acres of woodland; he kept millions of acres of coal lands -from falling into the hands of private companies; he established -fifty-one national reservations where birds might nest and live -protected from harm. How he did enjoy saving what nature had given men! - -[Sidenote: =A great writer=] - -Down to his time, Roosevelt was the most learned man ever President. He -knew more subjects and knew them better than most men. He was a great -writer. For a long time he thought that writing was to be his career. -It turned out to be only a small part of his crowded life, yet he wrote -over thirty books--more than any other President. - -[Sidenote: =Roosevelt's books=] - -He wrote histories, books on hunting, essays on American life and -ideals, and lives of famous men. His story of his own life is well -known. In his book, "The Strenuous Life," he tries to rouse other -people to as active and fearless a life as he himself lived. He wrote -always in vigorous, stirring language. Nearly every one agrees that -Roosevelt's books alone would have made him famous. - - -=191. President Taft, an Advocate of Peace.= Roosevelt was President -nearly two whole terms. He refused another term, and worked for the -nomination of his Secretary of War, William Howard Taft. - -Taft was well fitted for his new tasks as President. He had held many -public offices. He had made a very wise and successful governor of the -Philippines. - -[Illustration: WILLIAM HOWARD TAFT] - -President Taft was deeply interested in the need of world peace. He -submitted to the Senate wide-reaching treaties to uphold peace with -France and Great Britain, and also a reciprocity treaty with Canada. -Under this last agreement the two countries were to treat each other's -trade alike, and some things were to be free of duty. The outcome was -disappointing. Canada failed to accept the reciprocity treaty, and the -Senate passed the British and French peace treaties only after changing -them greatly. - -The passage of a new tariff bill caused a sharp division among the -Republicans. The tariff was much criticized; but President Taft -defended it. This was one reason why, in the second half of his term, -the lower house of Congress became Democratic. - -[Sidenote: =New laws passed=] - -A divided Congress could not easily agree on any needed laws. Yet many -good laws were passed during Taft's presidency. One was a Parcel Post -measure. Two others proposed constitutional amendments for the taxation -of incomes, and the election of United States senators directly by the -people. Two new states, New Mexico and Arizona, were admitted to the -Union. - -The growing differences between the two wings of the Republicans in -1912 led to the nomination of both Taft and Roosevelt. Both were -defeated by Woodrow Wilson. - -[Sidenote: =Taft professor at Yale=] - -After he left the presidency, Mr. Taft became professor of law at -Yale. But he now worked more earnestly than ever in behalf of world -peace. His sincere and generous efforts in this cause won him increased -influence and respect throughout the nation. - - -=192. Roosevelt's Active Life as Ex-President.= Roosevelt, after -his defeat in 1912, started out to explore a Brazilian river. Four -years before he had also made a hunting trip through the tropical -wildernesses of Africa. - -[Sidenote: =Explores Brazilian river=] - -Now Roosevelt and his party went into a jungle where no white man had -been before. They were faced with tremendous hardships of all kinds. - -The trip was longer than they expected, and there was little food in -the jungle. They ate palm cabbages, and were glad to find a bit of wild -honey or shoot a monkey. - -[Sidenote: =A hazardous voyage=] - -Most of the party became ill with fever. But they scarcely dared halt. -With their few provisions they were in danger of starving. Roosevelt -begged the party to leave him behind, but no one would hear of it. So -with his party Roosevelt pushed on to civilization, at grave risk to -his life. The Brazilian government renamed the six-hundred-mile river -he explored Rio Roosevelt. - -[Sidenote: =In the World War=] - -In the great World War, Roosevelt stood for the Allies from the first. -He opposed our neutrality and our failure to get ready for the war -which he saw coming. - -When America declared war he begged to take an army to Europe. Although -for some reason he was not sent, he did send four sons. Two of them, -Theodore and Archie, were wounded, and Quentin gave his life flying and -fighting inside the German lines. - -In January, 1919, Theodore Roosevelt died. No other man carried the -love and admiration of the boys and girls as did Roosevelt. The -friendly name "Teddy" was the children's name for this great man. - - -SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL - - =The Leading Facts.= _1._ Though the son of a rich man, Roosevelt - even as a boy was most democratic. _2._ In the Roosevelt home - idleness, selfishness, and cowardice were unknown. _3._ In college - Roosevelt was a good student and a genuine sportsman. _4._ In spite - of the jeers of his rich friends Roosevelt started on a political - career by joining the 21st District Republican Association of New - York City. _5._ Roosevelt was elected three times to the New York - Assembly. _6._ In 1886 he was nominated for mayor of New York City, - but he lost. _7._ In 1895 he was appointed police commissioner - for New York City. _8._ Under President McKinley he was chosen - Assistant Secretary of the Navy. _9._ During the Spanish-American - War he organized the Rough Riders and led them to victory. _10._ On - his return from war he was elected governor of New York. _11._ In - 1900 he was elected Vice-President and on the death of President - McKinley six months later became President. _12._ In 1904 he was - reëlected. _13._ After he retired from the presidency he traveled - in Africa, Europe, and South America. _14._ Although nominated - for President in the campaign of 1912, he was defeated by Woodrow - Wilson. _15._ At the beginning of the World War, Roosevelt opposed - neutrality and advocated preparedness. _16._ Four of his sons took - an active part in the war. _17._ In January, 1919, Roosevelt died. - _18._ Taft had been governor of the Philippines before becoming - President. _19._ Both during his administration and afterward he - was an earnest advocate of peace. - - =Study Questions.= _1._ Describe Roosevelt's boyhood. _2._ What - influence did his family life have on his character? _3._ Show - how Roosevelt's character was revealed by the boxing bout. _4._ - What sort of a young man was he during his college days? _5._ What - was his first political experience and what did he learn from it? - _6._ What did Roosevelt accomplish as head of the Police Board? as - Assistant Secretary of the Navy? _7._ Explain his connection with - the Rough Riders. _8._ Tell how Roosevelt came to be President and - what he accomplished in that office. _9._ What was Roosevelt's - political nickname and why was it given to him? _10._ Relate his - activities from the time he retired from the presidency to 1914. - _11._ Tell what was his attitude toward the World War and the part - he played in it. _12._ What become of the treaties Taft supported? - _13._ Tell of some good laws passed while he was President. _14._ - What did Taft do at the close of his administration? - - =Suggested Readings.= ROOSEVELT: Hagedorn, _Boys' Life of Theodore - Roosevelt_; Morgan, _Theodore Roosevelt, the Boy and the Man_; - Hale, _A Week in the White House with Theodore Roosevelt_; Riis, - _Theodore Roosevelt, the Citizen_. - - - - -WESTWARD EXPANSION AND DEVELOPMENT - - - - -THE WESTWARD MOVEMENT OF POPULATION AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF -TRANSPORTATION - - -[Sidenote: =The gold seeker=] - -[Sidenote: =Three routes to the Pacific coast=] - -[Sidenote: =New discoveries of gold=] - - -=193. The New West.= We have seen how the discovery of gold in the -sand near the American River over one hundred miles from San Francisco -started the tremendous rush to the Pacific coast. The gold seekers -went by three routes: by ship all the way around the Horn, the longest -and stormiest way; by ship to Panama and beyond, a way beset by danger -from fever in crossing the isthmus; and by long overland trails on -which travelers suffered untold hardships from losing their way on -the sandy plains or among the mountains. Many hundreds perished from -sickness and hunger. In 1858, ten years later, gold was discovered near -Pike's Peak; in 1859, silver was found in what is now southern Nevada. -People streamed westward in ever-increasing numbers. Long lines of -covered wagons, called "prairie schooners," filled with fortune seekers -toiled over the plains and mountain trails. "Way stations" sprang -up along the routes of travel, to supply the needs of immigrants. -These supply stations soon grew into towns. Then came the discovery -of gold in what is now Idaho and Montana, and in the Black Hills of -the Dakotas. The westward tide of population broadened. It filled the -bounds of the United States from the Dakotas to Texas; but it was the -lure of gold and silver that caused all this early development. - - -=194. A Faster Means of Travel.= The demand for means of rapid -communication with the new West became strong. It was necessary to -bind the new country firmly with the old. The "pony express" and the -overland stage were too risky and too slow. - -[Sidenote: =California admitted as a state=] - -The number of people in California was increasing steadily. In 1850, -two years after the discovery of gold, California with about one -hundred thousand inhabitants was admitted as a state. The Homestead -Law of 1862, by which settlers could easily obtain land, brought great -numbers of farmers to the western plains. - -The first railway engine in the United States was built in 1830. -Such engines had been in use in England for some time. The earliest -railroads were very short. Seven companies owned the parts of the first -line from Albany, New York to Buffalo. Now in the same number of great -systems is included two-thirds of the mileage of the United States. - -[Illustration: A CALIFORNIA MINING CAMP OF '49] - -[Sidenote: =Rapid growth of railroads=] - -On March 10, 1869, the Union Pacific Railway, the first link between -the Atlantic and the Pacific, was finally completed. There were then -only a few short lines besides, west of the Mississippi. It was hard to -find the large amounts of capital needed for railway building. Congress -and the states helped the railroads by granting them many square miles -of land along their rights of way. After 1869 the miles of railroad in -the United States increased over seven times in twenty years. To-day -(1920) seven great railways cross the mountains to the Pacific coast. - -[Sidenote: =Farming develops=] - - -=195. The Growth of Farming.= The railroads brought thousands of -settlers into the new regions. But it was no longer to hunt for gold. -It was to build homes on the rich farm lands of the West. - -Miners, cattlemen, farmers, and permanent settlers crowded on the lands -of the Indians. The regions occupied by the red men now became smaller -and smaller. Nearly all the Indians were placed on reservations on -land which the national government does not allow to pass out of their -hands. - -[Sidenote: =Irrigation projects aided by the government=] - -The need of more and still more land brought the farmers to the dry -slopes and plateaus of both sides of the Rockies. Here were vast -regions which water would make productive. The government gave its -support to great irrigation projects. Water was brought to the barren -deserts and they became vast expanses of waving grain. - -[Sidenote: =Gold becomes more difficult to get=] - -In California the rich gold deposits which lay comparatively free were -growing smaller. The gold seekers were no longer able to wash gold from -the sands and gravel of the river beds, or to find nuggets in rocky -hollows of the hillsides. They had to make a living in some other way. -Vast mineral resources were still there, but they could only be reached -by mining. Expensive machinery was necessary, and companies were formed -to work the deposits. - -[Sidenote: =California a great agricultural state=] - -Then began the real development of California and the great Pacific -Northwest. Up to 1875 California had been peopled with prospectors for -gold. Now the output of minerals kept increasing, but the farm crops -grew still faster in value until in 1920 they were worth many times the -mineral output, because of the wonderful climate and the richness of -the land. - -[Sidenote: =The leading fruit-growing state=] - -The first product to which the settler turned was wheat. California -became one of the leading wheat states of the Union. Then the state -discovered its great fruit-growing possibilities, and to-day it raises -the largest fruit crop in the nation. People at first became almost as -excited about their golden orange crops as they had been over yellow -metal. - -[Sidenote: =Great cities develop=] - -Meanwhile great cities were springing up rapidly, and the riches of -forest, mine, and stream brought unlimited prosperity and growth. Los -Angeles, San Francisco, Seattle, and Portland have taken their places -among the great cities of the Union. - -[Sidenote: =Agriculture on the great plains=] - -From the Mississippi valley to the mountains agriculture and commerce -developed with great strides. Enormous elevators were built to handle -the vast quantities of grain. Great packing plants were established, -where immense numbers of cattle and sheep could be slaughtered and the -meat shipped to all parts of the world. - - - - -GEORGE WASHINGTON GOETHALS, CHIEF ENGINEER OF THE PANAMA CANAL - - -=196. The Panama Canal.= In the great rush of gold seekers to the -Pacific coast, many of the thousands who started out never reached -California, for the crossing of the Panama isthmus and the long journey -around Cape Horn were both full of danger. - -[Illustration: GEORGE W. GOETHALS] - -It was this which first made Americans realize the value to their -country of a canal across the Isthmus. As time passed, the great -development of the Pacific coast region brought demands for fast and -easy communication with the East. Railroads were built across the -mountains, but transportation was still very expensive. The remedy lay -in a short route by water between the east and the west coasts. Then -came the Spanish-American War and the wonderful trip of the _Oregon_. -People now saw that a canal across the Isthmus of Panama must be built -at whatever cost. - -[Sidenote: =The French attempt to build a canal=] - -[Sidenote: =Work begun by the United States=] - -In 1869 a French company had begun building a canal at Panama. They met -great difficulties. The expense was so heavy and the waste of money so -great that little progress was made before the company failed. In 1903 -the United States bought the rights of the French company and obtained -a strip of land ten miles wide from the new Republic of Panama. Work -was then begun by our government where the French had left off. - -[Sidenote: =George Washington Goethals, 1858=] - -[Sidenote: =Studies engineering at West Point=] - -[Sidenote: =Serves in the Spanish-American War=] - - -=197. George Washington Goethals.= During the progress of the work -there were several changes in the position of chief engineer in charge -of building the canal. In 1907 this work was given to George Washington -Goethals, of the corps of army engineers. Colonel Goethals was born in -Brooklyn, June 29, 1858. He was clearly a boy of unusual ability. At -the age of fifteen he entered the College of the City of New York. At -graduation he stood at the head of his class. He then took up the study -of engineering at the United States Military Academy at West Point. -He advanced rapidly, and when twenty-four years of age was appointed -first lieutenant of army engineers. After teaching at West Point for -several years he was appointed captain of engineers. His ability caused -him to be given charge of the Mussel Shoals Canal Construction on the -Tennessee River. During the Spanish-American War he served with the -volunteers as lieutenant-colonel and chief of engineers. - -[Sidenote: =Goethals put in charge=] - -In 1907 came the great opportunity of his life. He was given charge -of building the Panama Canal. He faced a gigantic task. But the -government of his country had entrusted it to him, and he determined to -do it without losing more lives by fever than necessary. - -[Sidenote: =Canal completed, 1914=] - -The great work was finished at a comparatively low cost. Meanwhile -Colonel Goethals had cleaned up the Canal Zone and made it a healthful -place to live in. - -The building of the Canal took about eight years' time, required the -services of forty thousand men, and cost the United States four hundred -million dollars. - -[Sidenote: =Goethals governor of the Canal Zone=] - -When the Canal was nearly finished, in 1914, a civil government was -established in the Canal Zone. President Wilson appointed Colonel -Goethals the first governor. The enormous task which he had done so -well showed that he was a great manager as well as a great engineer. - -[Sidenote: =Benefit of Canal to the Pacific States=] - - -=198. Value of the Canal to the Pacific Coast.= The Pacific Coast -States now more than ever ranked high among the leading states of the -country. They could now send the valuable products of their forests, -streams, fields, and mines to the Atlantic coast by water. The water -route to New York has been shortened by 7,800 miles, and to Europe -by more than 5,600 miles. The canal supplies a cheaper means of -carrying freight than the overland route, and there is no limit to its -usefulness for this purpose. - -[Sidenote: =The San Francisco Exposition=] - -In 1915 the Panama-Pacific International Exposition was held at -San Francisco and the Panama-California Exposition at San Diego to -celebrate the opening of the Canal. - - -SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL - - =The Leading Facts.= _1._ Gold seekers reached the Pacific coast - by three routes: by ship around Cape Horn; across the Isthmus - at Panama; and over trails across the mountains. _2._ With new - discoveries of gold and the increasing population on the Pacific - coast, means of rapid communication were urgently needed. _3._ - In 1869 the Union Pacific Railway was completed. _4._ Settlers - in large numbers entered the new West; agriculture on the great - plains developed rapidly. _5._ Farmers crowded on the dry slopes - and plateaus and irrigation projects were aided by the government. - _6._ In California, when free deposits of gold became hard to find, - the gold seekers became farmers. _7._ First a leading wheat state, - California then became the leading fruit-growing state. _8._ Great - cities grew up along the coast. - - _9._ The Spanish-American War brought home to Americans the urgent - necessity for a short route by water between the east and the west - coasts. _10._ The United States took up the work of building a - canal at Panama, buying the rights of a French company which had - started the work and had failed. _11._ George Washington Goethals - given position of chief engineer. _12._ Educated at West Point, - Goethals served as chief of engineers in the Spanish-American - War. _13._ The Canal was completed in 1914 and Goethals was - appointed first governor of the Canal Zone, a strip of land ten - miles wide along the course of the Canal. _14._ The Panama-Pacific - International Exposition was held at San Francisco in 1915 to - celebrate the opening of the Canal. - - =Study Questions.= _1._ How did the gold seekers reach the Pacific - Coast? _2._ What demand did the increasing population in the West - bring? _3._ What was the name of the first railway across the - mountains to the Pacific coast? _4._ How many railways cross the - mountains to-day? _5._ What did the railways bring about? _6._ How - did this affect the Indians? _7._ How did the government aid the - farmers in the dry areas? _8._ What happened in California when the - free gold deposits gave out? _9._ What great cities grew up along - the Pacific coast? _10._ What was happening in the plains east of - the Rockies? _11._ What first brought home to Americans the urgent - need of a canal across the Isthmus? _12._ Who began a canal at - Panama? _13._ Why did the French not succeed? _14._ Who was put in - charge of the work of the Americans? _15._ Where did Goethals study - engineering? _16._ In what war did he serve? _17._ When was the - Canal completed? _18._ How was the event celebrated? - - =Suggested Readings.= Wright, _Children's Stories of American - Progress_, 268-298; Brooks, _The Story of Cotton_ and _The Story of - Corn_; Nida, _Panama and Its "Bridge of Water,"_ 63-187. - - - - -MEN OF RECENT TIMES WHO MADE GREAT INVENTIONS - - - - -THOMAS A. EDISON, THE GREATEST INVENTOR OF ELECTRICAL MACHINERY IN THE -WORLD - - -[Sidenote: =His parentage=] - - -=199. The Wizard of the Electrical World.= Thomas A. Edison was born in -1847 at Milan, Ohio. His father's people were Dutch and his mother's -were Scotch. When he was seven years of age his parents removed to Port -Huron, Michigan. - -Edison owed his early training to his mother's care. At the age of -twelve he was reading such books as Gibbon's _Decline and Fall of the -Roman Empire_, Hume's _History of England_, Newton's _Principia_, and -Ure's _Dictionary of Science_. The last-named book was too full of -mathematics for him. - -[Illustration: EDISON SELLING PAPERS AFTER THE BATTLE OF PITTSBURG -LANDING] - -[Sidenote: =A tireless reader=] - -That Edison was a great reader is proved by his resolution to read all -the books in the Detroit Free Library! He did finish "fifteen feet of -volumes" before any one knew what he was doing. - -In 1862 General Grant fought the terrible battle of Pittsburg Landing. -Everybody wanted to hear the news. Edison bought a thousand newspapers, -boarded a train, and the engineer allowed him a few minutes at each -station to sell papers. - -[Sidenote: =His experience as a newsboy=] - -As the first station came in sight, Edison looked ahead and saw a wild -crowd of men. He grabbed an armful of papers, rushed out, and sold -forty before the train left. At the next station the platform was -crowded with a yelling mob. He raised the price to ten cents, but sold -one hundred fifty. - -Finally he reached Port Huron. The station was a mile from town. Edison -seized his papers. He met the crowd coming just as he reached a church -where a prayer meeting was being held. The prayer meeting broke up, and -though he raised his price to twenty-five cents he "took in a young -fortune." - -[Sidenote: =Experimenting in electricity=] - -Edison began very early to make experiments in electricity. After -rigging up a line at home, hitching the wire to the legs of a cat, and -rubbing the cat's back vigorously, he saw the failure of his first -experiment--the cat would not stand! - -[Sidenote: =Saves a life and receives lessons in telegraphy=] - -At Mt. Clemens, one day, young Edison saw a child playing on the -railroad with its back to an on-coming freight train. He dashed at the -child, and both tumbled to the ground at the roadside. For this act of -bravery the telegraph operator gave him lessons in telegraphy. - -[Sidenote: =Makes a set of telegraphic instruments=] - -[Sidenote: =Becomes a tramp telegrapher=] - - -=200. Begins to Study Electricity.= He studied ten days, then -disappeared. He returned with a complete set of telegraphic instruments -made by his own hand! After his trade was learned he began a period -of wandering as a telegraph operator. For many boys still in their -teens this would have been a time of destruction, but Edison neither -drank nor smoked. He wandered from Adrian to Fort Wayne, Indianapolis, -Cincinnati, Memphis, and Boston, stopping for shorter or longer periods -at each place. - -[Illustration: THOMAS ALVA EDISON - -_After a photograph from life_] - -By the time he was twenty-two he had invented and partly finished his -plan of sending two dispatches along the same wire at the same time. -This was equal to doubling the number of wires in use. - -[Sidenote: =Repairs electric machinery and gains a situation=] - -Edison was a poor boy and was two or three hundred dollars in debt. -He went from Boston to New York. The speculators in Wall Street were -wild with excitement, for the electric machinery had broken down. -Nobody could make it work. Edison pushed his way to the front, saw the -difficulty, and at once removed it. - -All were loud in their praise of Edison. On the next day he was engaged -to take charge of all the electric machinery at three hundred dollars -per month. - -[Sidenote: =Receives forty thousand dollars for his inventions=] - -After a time he joined a company and gave his time to working out -inventions. The company finally sent a number of men to ask Edison how -much he would take for his inventions. He had already decided to say -five thousand dollars. But when the men came he said that he did not -know. He was dumfounded when they offered him forty thousand dollars! - -[Sidenote: =Establishes his first workshop=] - - -=201. Edison's Inventions.= In 1873 Edison established his first -laboratory or workshop in Newark, New Jersey. Here he gathered -more than three hundred men to turn out the inventions pertaining -to electricity which his busy brain suggested. They were all as -enthusiastic over the inventions as Edison himself. No fixed hours of -labor in this shop! When the day's work was done the men often begged -to be allowed to return to the shop to complete their work. - -[Sidenote: =More inventions=] - -[Sidenote: =Builds a new laboratory and gathers a fine library=] - -Many telegraph and telephone inventions were made in this laboratory. -There were forty-five inventions all told. They brought in so much -money that Edison decided they must have a better place to work. He -built at Menlo Park, New Jersey, twenty-four miles from New York City, -the finest laboratory then in the world. On instruments alone he spent -$100,000. In the great laboratory at Menlo Park Edison gathered one of -the finest scientific libraries that money could buy. This library was -for the men in the factory--to help them in their inventions and to -give them pleasure. - -[Sidenote: =Invents the microphone=] - -The microphone is one of Edison's inventions. Its purpose is to -increase sound while sending it over the wire. The passing of a -delicate camel's-hair brush is magnified so as to seem like the roar of -a mighty wind in a forest of giant pines. - -[Illustration: THE PHONOGRAPH] - -[Sidenote: =The megaphone=] - -Next came the megaphone, an instrument to bring far-away sounds to -one's hearing. By means of this instrument, persons talking a long -distance apart are able to hear each other with ease. - -The phonograph, which can reproduce the human voice and other sounds -almost perfectly, was invented by Edison in 1876. - -[Illustration: EDISON'S GREAT WORKSHOP AT ORANGE, NEW JERSEY] - -[Sidenote: =Edison's first phonograph=] - -Sounds reach the ear by means of air waves which the sounding body -sets in motion. In Edison's first phonograph these waves struck a bit -of taut parchment, and were marked by a needle on a tinfoil disc. But -tinfoil does not hold its shape well. In 1888 Edison patented a better -phonograph in which the record was made on a wax disc. - -Phonograph records are now made with one hundred grooves to an inch. -Each groove is not more than four one-thousandths of an inch deep. A -lever tipped with sapphire cuts the grooves. Its tiny marks have been -photographed--one way of seeing a sound! - -[Sidenote: =What the phonograph does=] - -The phonograph is used everywhere for amusement. It preserves the -voices of great singers for the future. With it songs and bits of -folklore can be collected in languages that are now dying out. - -[Sidenote: =The electric light=] - -Edison has put into practical use many principles discovered by other -men. He does not claim to be the discoverer of the electric light. -He did much, however, to make it useful to people in lighting their -houses, and also in lighting great cities. - -[Sidenote: =The first great electrical exhibition=] - -In the winter of 1880, in Menlo Park, Edison gave to the public an -exhibition of his electric light. Visitors came from all parts of the -country to see this wonderful show. Seven hundred lights were put up -in the streets, and inside the buildings. Edison had produced a much -better light than any that had been used before. - - -=202. A Great New Industry.= Edison also had a part in another -invention for which Americans can claim most of the credit--moving -pictures. - -[Sidenote: =Settling a racetrack dispute=] - -A dispute about horseracing did most for the discovery of moving -pictures. The question was whether a horse ever had all four feet off -the ground at once. To settle it, Edward Muybridge, an employee of the -government, was called in. He stretched cords, fastened to the shutters -of a row of cameras, across a racetrack. As the horse ran past, it -took its own pictures. Later Muybridge made a camera which would take -pictures very quickly, but he could not show his pictures well. - -[Sidenote: =Edison's camera=] - -Edison in 1892 invented a camera which used long strips of celluloid -film. These pictures were looked at through a slot by one person at a -time. - -Another government worker, C. Francis Jenkins, invented the first -complete moving picture machine in 1894. - -[Sidenote: =The moving picture business=] - -At first people were slow to welcome the new kind of play. Now it is -claimed that our fifth largest industry is moving pictures. Probably as -many tickets are sold here each year as there are people in the world. - -[Sidenote: =Moving pictures of the war=] - -In the war each army had its own moving picture camera men. They took -pictures of ships torpedoed, of airplane battles, and of the fighting -among the icy peaks of the Alps, often at great danger to their own -lives. Great events of world history like the signing of the armistice -can now be recorded for future times. Such pictures teach us things -that cannot easily be learned from books. - -Many schools have a machine of their own, and use moving pictures as a -part of their regular class work. The subject is first outlined, then -the pictures are shown, and afterwards the pupils write about what they -have learned. - -[Sidenote: =Moving pictures in schools=] - -Some schools have films of their own. Others find it easy to get them. -Our government sends out educational films on silo building, dairying, -airplane manufacture, and many government activities. Business firms -have films to loan on shoes, soap, automobiles, and other things they -make. Regular film companies have pictures of animal life, the natural -wonders of our country, current events, foreign countries, and other -subjects suitable for school use, such as the teaching of cube root by -moving picture cartoons. - -Outside of schools moving pictures can be used for educational purposes -in social service and Americanization work. One state, North Carolina, -has trucks carrying moving picture machines for many of its counties. -Programs of educational and amusing pictures can be given regularly in -small towns with these machines. - - - - -TWO INVENTIONS WIDELY USED IN BUSINESS - - -[Sidenote: =The work of many inventors=] - - -=203. Christopher L. Sholes and the Typewriter.= The typewriter cannot -be called the invention of any one man. Many inventors, half of them -Americans, worked on the problem, for even a simple machine has many -parts. - -Machines by which the blind could print or type raised letters were -first made. A little difficulty may hold back a great invention. A -typewriter was not built until long afterward because inventors did not -know how to ink type. - -[Illustration: TYPEWRITER AND DICTAPHONE] - -In the Scientific American more than fifty years ago was printed -an article on a new invention which was rather grandly called the -"literary piano." Christopher Latham Sholes, a Wisconsin editor read -the article. He was convinced that he could make a better typewriter -than this himself. - -[Sidenote: =The earliest typewriter=] - -He set to work, and his first typewriter was patented in 1868. It was -indeed something like a piano. It had long ivory and ebony keys, but -it also had a third set of peg-shaped keys like those we now use. It -carried its type on levers arranged in a circle. It had a spacer, and a -way to move the paper along as it was typed, as well as inked ribbon, -which he borrowed from an earlier inventor. - -Sholes' was the first successful practical typewriter made. Now nearly -twenty million dollars' worth are produced in this country each year. - - -=204. The Dictaphone in Business Offices.= An interesting outgrowth -of Edison's phonograph is the dictaphone, used in dictating business -letters. It consists of two machines much alike. On the first are put -smooth cylinders of wax. The person dictating speaks through a tube. -Then the dictaphone operator puts the cylinders on her machine, places -light tubes in her ears, and takes down the dictation on her typewriter -as she hears it. - -Both machines are run by electric motors, and that of the operator can -be stopped with the foot. The wax cylinders may be pared and used again -and again. - -[Illustration: THE DICTAPHONE IN USE] - -The dictaphone means a great saving of time and labor, for dictating -can be done anywhere at any moment. - - - - -AUTOMOBILE MAKING IN THE UNITED STATES - - -=205. The Earliest Automobiles.= The first kind of automobile men tried -to build was a "steam carriage." A Frenchman in 1755 invented a steam -road wagon meant to draw a field gun. But his invention could not be -steered, and was soon wrecked by running into a wall. - -[Sidenote: ="Steamers"=] - -In England one hundred years ago a few of these "steamers" were run as -stage coaches. They were noisy, clumsy "steamers" and always likely to -explode. They were not popular, and a law was passed that a man must -always walk ahead of them carrying a red flag. They were only allowed -to go only four miles an hour. Of course this meant they could not be -used at all. - -[Sidenote: =Watts could not imagine good roads=] - -Oliver Evans of Philadelphia built the first steam automobile in the -United States in 1804, to carry a steam flatboat he had made down to -the river. Evans and other inventors after him for nearly one hundred -years worked on self-driven carriages, but could interest no one in -their plans. Watts, the great English inventor of the steam engine, -stopped a friend who had all but invented an automobile. It was -useless, he said; roads would not allow such rapid travel. Watts could -discover steam power, but it never occurred to him that good roads -could be easily built. The use of rubber tires in 1887 stopped the -jolting that had been such a difficulty. - -In 1892 Charles Duryea built the first gasoline automobile in America. -He tried to get money to continue his work. He told a business man, -"You and I will live to see more automobiles than horses on the -street." The man thought him crazy, and refused to help him. Now horses -are becoming rare in large cities. - - -=206. America, the Land of Automobiles.= In 1891 the first electric -vehicle in this country was made. The first gasoline car was sold -March 24, 1898. Now, twenty years later, this country is manufacturing -nearly half a million cars annually. Other countries are backward by -comparison. Four-fifths of all the automobiles in the world are owned -in the United States. - -[Illustration: AN EARLY AUTOMOBILE] - -[Sidenote: =Motor trucks in the war=] - -Motor trucks can carry many tons, and are now very largely used for -hauling, especially in cities. At the end of the war our government had -seventy thousand trucks in use overseas. - -One time when the German army threatened Paris it was only the unbroken -stream of motor trucks moving along a great French road carrying men -and supplies to the front that saved the city. In memory of its service -the French call this road the "Sacred Way." - - - - -WILBUR AND ORVILLE WRIGHT, THE MEN WHO GAVE HUMANITY WINGS - - -=207. Early Attempts to Fly.= To sail through the air as birds do is an -ambition that has dazzled men since ancient times. The Greek myths tell -us of Phaeton who drove the horses of the sun, and of Icarus who flew -too near the sun with his wings of feathers and wax. - -[Sidenote: =Studying birds=] - -To learn how to fly men studied the wings of huge birds living millions -of years ago, made careful mathematical reckonings about them, and -then made themselves wings of feathers or skin. But with these wings -they could only glide to earth from high towers or cliffs. One useful -thing they learned from this study. They found that the wing of a bird -is bent as you bend a long piece of paper if you hold it by opposite -corners and start to twist it. This is called the principle of the -screw, and is now used in making the propeller blades of airplanes. - -[Illustration: WILBUR WRIGHT] - - -=208. The First Airplanes.= Early airplanes, airplane models and -"gliders" were made in the queerest, most outlandish shapes imaginable. -They had from one to five or more planes, arranged at almost every -possible angle. Some looked like a row of box kites, some like -dragons, and some like a collection of old fashioned windmill wheels -all fastened together. - -It was only a little while ago that men were working with these strange -models, for it was only about ten years before the World War that a -successful airplane flight was first made. - -[Illustration: ORVILLE WRIGHT] - -The invention of the balloon came late in the history of flying. Two -sons of a French paper manufacturer probably made the first balloon. -They filled a large bag with hot air from a bonfire, and found that it -rose and sailed away. - -Early balloons were carried through the air by wind currents, and could -not be guided. Their passengers were often blown out to sea and drowned. - -[Sidenote: =Zeppelins=] - -A German, Count Zeppelin, invented a balloon called a dirigible, -because it could be directed through the air. The Germans named these -large cigar-shaped balloons "zeppelins," after their inventor. - -Dirigibles are now built more than two blocks long, about the length -of the largest battleships. They can lift heavy loads, but are very -expensive and very easily broken, and require huge sheds or houses to -shelter them. - -[Sidenote: =First successful flight=] - -An airship properly means a dirigible, while an airplane is a -heavier-than-air machine. The first successful flight of any length in -an airplane that could be directed was made by Wilbur Wright in 1903, -at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. It was also the first time an airplane -had been driven by a gasoline engine. - -[Sidenote: =Did bicycle repairing=] - - -=209. The Wright Brothers.= Wilbur Wright was one of two brothers who -had long been working on the problem of a flying machine. He was born -in 1867, and his brother Orville in 1871. Their father was a bishop -whose excellent library took the place of a university education for -his boys. Wilbur and Orville studied especially works on physics, -mathematics, and engineering. They earned their living by making -and repairing bicycles. But they spent much time experimenting with -different kinds of gliders. They also studied the action of the -atmosphere. Aërostatics, or the science of the air, is a very difficult -and important part of flying. - -[Sidenote: =Flights by airplane models=] - -Before Wilbur Wright's success in 1903 progress of various kinds had -been made. Fairly long flights with gliders had been made in different -countries. Two Americans, Langley and Hiram Maxim, had worked out -models driven by steam. Langley's had flown half a mile over the -Potomac, and Maxim's, though not allowed to fly freely, was strong -enough to carry a man. - -[Illustration: A DIRIGIBLE BALLOON] - -The Wright brothers were wise in employing a gasoline motor. A steam -engine, with its large boilers, was of course much heavier. They had -a rudder in the tail of their machine, but they also invented a new -method of steering. By "warping" or bending the planes, a monoplane, -with its one set of wings could keep its balance as well as a biplane, -which has two. - -[Illustration: AN EARLY WRIGHT AIRPLANE] - -After Wilbur Wright's first flight in 1903 several Frenchmen made -successful flights. But in 1908 Wilbur Wright went to France and broke -the records of all the French flyers by the unparalleled feat of -remaining in the air for more than two hours. - -[Illustration: A MONOPLANE - -_From a photograph of a Bleriot Monoplane in "Flying," New York_] - -[Sidenote: =Air records=] - -Now the airplane can do all kinds of fantastic tricks. Aviators "loop -the loop" dozens of times, and move in any direction through the air -at will. They can rise in the air thirty-six thousand feet, and can -fly at the rate of three miles a minute. In 1907 Orville Wright made -the first record flight of an hour. All this has been accomplished -in scarcely more than a dozen years since then. Flying developed -especially rapidly during the World War. Airplanes were used to spy out -the enemy's defenses, to direct gunfire, to drop bombs, to shoot down -soldiers, and to hunt submarines. The daring and brilliant fighting of -airmen in the World War makes a story more breathless than that of any -novel. Incidents like landing with burning planes or with planes partly -stripped of their canvas were not uncommon for these fighters of the -air. - -[Illustration: A HYDROPLANE] - -[Sidenote: =Bombing machines=] - -One type of airplane was used for fighting and another heavier type for -bombing. Air bombing is now so accurate that in the future it may be -useless to build super-dreadnaughts and large battleships. - - -=210. Peace Time Uses of the Airplane.= During times of peace airplanes -are useful in exploring and for carrying passengers and light freight. -Airplanes scarcely more expensive than the earlier automobiles can now -be bought. - -[Sidenote: =Airplanes carry the mail=] - -Airplanes in this country are chiefly used for carrying mail. "The mail -must fly" is the slogan of the mailmen of the air, and in storm or -fog--even in the face of a tornado--it has gone. - -In May, 1919, a hydroplane belonging to the United States navy made -the first trip across the ocean. A hydroplane is an airplane having a -boat-like body so that it is able to alight on or rise from the water. - -[Sidenote: =Transatlantic flights=] - -In July a British dirigible flew across with its crew. A few weeks -earlier a British plane flew from continent to continent in less than -sixteen hours. It took Columbus seventy days to make his crossing. - - - - -JOHN P. HOLLAND, WHO TAUGHT MEN HOW TO SAIL UNDER THE SEA - - -[Sidenote: =Bushnell and Fulton and the undersea boat=] - - -=211. The Submarine.= During the War of the Revolution an American -named Bushnell worked on the problem of making a boat that would sail -under the surface of the sea. He was the first to work on this problem -and is called the Father of the Submarine. Some years later Robert -Fulton (page 257) became interested in the submarine. In 1801 he built -one for the French government. But Fulton turned his efforts to making -steamboats and did not continue his plans for a successful diving boat. - -[Sidenote: =John P. Holland, 1842=] - - -=212. John P. Holland.= John P. Holland was born in Ireland in 1842. He -was a studious boy and became a teacher. The stories of Bushnell and of -Fulton interested him and he studied carefully what they had done. - -He came to America and settled in New Jersey. There he got a position -as teacher in a parochial school. He continued his study of the -undersea boat making many experiments and tests. - -Holland's first submarine became stuck in the mud. But he did not give -up. His next boat he called the "Fenian Ram." It frightened people when -it suddenly raised its head out of the water and as quickly disappeared. - -[Illustration: JOHN P. HOLLAND - -_From a photograph_] - -In 1895, after a number of severe tests, Holland succeeded in -interesting the United States Government in his plans. He built for it -a submarine which he named the "Plunger." - -[Illustration: A SUBMARINE] - -Holland now formed a company to build his boats. In 1898 he produced -the famous Holland submarine. This boat settled any doubt about what -submarines could do. It was only fifty feet long, but it could dive -under water and rise again at the will of the inventor. From that time -the Holland company built many submarines for all the great nations of -the world. - -[Sidenote: =The periscope=] - -From the top of the submarine there extends upward a long slender -tube called a periscope. When the boat is under water the end of this -tube extends above the surface. By means of a certain arrangement of -lenses and mirrors in this tube, the observer in the submarine can see -everything on the surface of the water. In this way the boat can be -guided in any direction. - -Holland died in 1914. - -[Sidenote: =Value in war=] - - -=213. The Submarine in War and Peace.= The submarine is much used in -war time. The war diver is provided with one and sometimes two tubes -through which torpedoes or bombs may be fired at enemy ships while the -submarine is hidden under water. It is very hard to detect a submarine -when it is under the water. The only sign of its approach is a slight -ripple on the surface. But if we look straight down at the water from -high up in the air, then the outlines of the boat can easily be seen. -In war time airplanes are used in spying out the submarine. - -[Sidenote: =Use of the submarine in peace=] - -In times of peace, too, the submarine is of great value. It is not -exposed to great storms on the sea, since it can escape the waves by -submerging. These boats can cross the ocean and are large enough to -carry cargoes of valuable goods. In July, 1916, the world was startled -by the arrival of the merchant submarine, "Deutschland," at Baltimore. -Loaded with articles of trade, mainly chemicals, she left Bremen, -dodged the British and French blockade, and in fifteen days reached -America. - -One cause of America's entering the World War was Germany's attempt to -starve England by a submarine blockade. - -[Sidenote: =Fighting the submarine=] - - -=214. Other Inventions in the War.= The "depth bomb" was an out and out -new invention. 11 could be "dropped" over the spot where a submarine -was seen. Very often it blew the submarine to pieces. - -The "tank" was a "moving iron fort" drawn by a tractor. It could tear -wire entanglements to pieces and cross enemy trenches. The "depth bomb" -and "tank" were used mainly by the Allies. - -The wide use of "poison gas" was first introduced by the Germans. Guns -able to shoot many miles were invented. One of them carried seventy -miles or more. - - -SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL - - =The Leading Facts.= _1._ Edison learned telegraphy, and made his - own instruments. _2._ Edison saved the day in Wall Street, and - made his reputation, as well as plenty of money. _3._ He made - many telegraph and telephone inventions. _4._ He built great - laboratories in New Jersey, where many men worked helping him. _5._ - Edison invented the phonograph, and worked to improve the electric - light. _6._ An argument about horseracing led to the invention of - moving pictures. _7._ Edison improved the moving picture camera. - _8._ C. Francis Jenkins invented the first complete moving picture - machine. _9._ During the World War remarkable moving pictures - were taken on all fronts. _10._ Moving pictures are often used - in schools and elsewhere for educational purposes. _11._ The - typewriter was really the work of many different inventors. _12._ - Typing machines for the blind first invented. _13._ Christopher - Sholes' typewriter was the first practical one invented. _14._ The - dictaphone is really a development of Edison's phonograph. _15._ - It consists of two machines, and is used in business offices to - save time. _16._ Steam automobiles were the first kind invented. - _17._ For one hundred years many inventors worked trying to build - automobiles. _18._ The first gasoline automobile in this country - was built by Charles Duryea. _19._ The United States is far in the - lead in the number of automobiles manufactured and used. _20._ Men - have for ages tried to discover a way to fly. _21._ They filled - balloons with gas or heated air which carried them far up. _22._ - Dirigible balloons were invented by Zeppelin. _23._ Wilbur and - Orville Wright built a successful heavier-than-air machine. _24._ - The gasoline engine made their success possible. _25._ Airplanes - can now go three miles a minute. _26._ All the great progress in - flying has come since Wright's first successful flight in 1903. - _27._ In the war airplanes were used for observing the enemy, for - fighting, and for bombing. _28._ In this country airplanes are now - used chiefly for carrying mail. _29._ A hydroplane has a boat-like - body. _30._ In 1919 three successful flights were made across - the Atlantic. _31._ John P. Holland was the first to succeed in - building a submarine. _32._ The submarine is guided by means of the - periscope, and is valuable in peace and war. _33._ Depth bombs and - tanks were new inventions. _34._ The Germans introduced poison gas. - - =Study Questions.= _1._ What books could Edison read at twelve? - _2._ Tell of his thousand newspapers. _3._ What were the cause and - the effect of his first lessons in telegraphy? _4._ What was his - first great invention? _5._ What did he find in Wall Street, New - York? _6._ How much did Edison think of asking for his invention? - _7._ How much was offered him? _8._ Tell the story of the work - in Edison's shop at Newark, New Jersey, _9._ Why did he want a - great library at Menlo Park? _10._ How does sound travel? _11._ - What was the trouble with Edison's first phonograph? _12._ Name - some of the uses of the phonograph. _13._ Make a list of Edison's - great inventions. _14._ Tell how the first moving pictures came to - be made? _15._ How did the machine Edison invented differ from a - real moving picture machine? _16._ Who invented the first complete - moving picture machine? _17._ How important is the moving picture - business? _18._ Tell some incidents of the war which you saw in - moving pictures. _19._ Does your school use a moving picture - machine in its classroom work? _20._ How are lessons studied when - moving pictures are used? _21._ Where can schools get their films? - _22._ Name two other uses for moving pictures. _23._ What earlier - invention resembled the typewriter? _24._ Name one simple thing the - lack of which kept men from inventing a typewriter sooner. _25._ - Describe Sholes' first typewriter. _26._ From what invention did - the dictaphone come? _27._ How is dictating done by means of the - dictaphone? _28._ What difficulty held back the progress of the - automobile? _29._ Name two ways in which this has been overcome. - _30._ How old is the automobile business? _31._ How does the United - States compare with other countries in number of automobiles used? - _32._ How did auto trucks keep the Germans from capturing Paris? - _33._ What is a Zeppelin or dirigible? _34._ Tell about the studies - of the Wright brothers. _35._ What progress had others made before - the Wright brothers succeeded? _36._ What was unusual about Wilbur - Wright's flight in 1903? _37._ What is a monoplane? a biplane? a - hydroplane? an airship? _38._ Name some peace-time and war-time - uses of airplanes. _39._ Tell the story of Holland's inventions. - _40._ What are the uses of the submarine? _41._ Name the first - submarine to cross the Atlantic. - - =Suggested Readings.= THOMAS A. EDISON: Mowry, _American Inventions - and Inventors_, 85-89; Dickson, _Life and Inventions of Edison_, - 4-153, 280-388. - - CHRISTOPHER L. SHOLES: Hubert, _Inventors_, 161-163. - - THE AUTOMOBILE: Doubleday, _Stories of Inventors_, 69-84; Forman, - _Stories of Useful Inventions_, 161-163. - - WILBUR AND ORVILLE WRIGHT: Wade, _The Light Bringers_, 112-141; - Delacombe, _The Boys' Book of Airships_; Simonds, _All about - Airships_; Holland, _Historic Inventions_, 273-295. - - JOHN P. HOLLAND: Corbin, _The Romance of Submarine Engineering_; - Bishop, _The Story of the Submarine_; Williams, _Romance of Modern - Inventions_, 143-165. - - - - -HEROINES OF NATIONAL PROGRESS - - - - -ELIZABETH CADY STANTON AND SUSAN B. ANTHONY, TWO PIONEERS IN THE CAUSE -OF WOMAN'S SUFFRAGE - - -[Sidenote: =Women play an important part in early progress=] - - -=215. The Women of Our Nation.= Women have had a large part in the -progress of our nation. In colonial days women often had to defend -their homes against Indians. They endured the hardships of the first -settlements as bravely as did the men. They had larger rights and -greater freedom than in England at that time, because their help was so -plainly necessary in this new country. - -By 1850 nearly one-fourth of the nation's manufacturing was done by -women, but otherwise until that time women's lives were spent almost -entirely in their homes. Though no colleges were open to women until -1833, many mothers knew enough of books to prepare their sons for -college at home. - -[Sidenote: =Women's service in war=] - -During the Revolution women formed a society called "Daughters of -Liberty," to spin and sew for their soldiers. They gave their treasured -pewter spoons and dishes to be melted up for bullets. As women have -always done, they cared for the sick and wounded after battles. - -In the great Civil War, women were needed still more to nurse the -wounded, for even then there was no Red Cross or large body of women -who were nurses by profession to call upon. Women took the place of the -men called to war in many ways, and especially in teaching schools. On -both sides women worked in the fields, and sometimes acted as spies, -or served, disguised, in the ranks. Southern women also entered the -factories in large numbers. They had to meet even greater hardship than -women in the North, and were often face to face with starvation. - -On the frontier women had always worked in the fields when necessary, -and often helped to build the houses they lived in. The fearless -pioneering spirit and fine, sturdy character of these women won them -the highest respect. This was one reason why western states were the -first to grant women the right to vote. - -[Sidenote: =Women's equality with men=] - -Long before the Civil War great leaders in the cause of woman's -advancement had appeared. These leaders saw that in many ways women -had proved their equality with men. This encouraged them to appeal for -wider opportunities for women, who then had almost no legal rights. The -leaders now demanded the privileges enjoyed only by men. We should all -know the stories of these women of wise and fearless vision. - -[Illustration: ELIZABETH CADY STANTON - -_From a photograph_] - -[Sidenote: =Born, 1815=] - - -=216. Elizabeth Cady Stanton.= Elizabeth Cady was born in New York, in -1815. Her girlhood was a happy one, spent with her brother and sisters. -She was a healthy, rosy-cheeked girl, full of life and fun, who -believed girls were the equals of boys and had just as much intellect. - -[Sidenote: =Studies hard=] - -When Elizabeth was eleven years old her brother died. Her father -grieved deeply over the loss of his only son, and Elizabeth determined -to try to be to her father all that her brother might have been. She -therefore applied herself diligently to study and self-improvement. - -[Sidenote: =Finds woman's position unequal=] - -Her father was a lawyer. He had been a member of Congress. Many hours -out of school Elizabeth spent in his office, listening while his -clients stated their cases. She gradually became indignant at what she -found to be the unequal position of women in almost every walk of life. -She determined to devote her life to securing for women the same rights -and privileges that men had. - -[Sidenote: =Marries Henry B. Stanton=] - -While studying she did not neglect the arts of housekeeping. She -regarded these as occupations of the highest dignity and importance. -When twenty-five years old she married Henry B. Stanton, a lawyer and -journalist who since his student days had talked and written against -slavery. But she did not forget her old resolve to struggle for the -rights of women, even when occupied with the duties of home and -children. - -[Sidenote: =Calls woman's rights convention=] - - -=217. The First Woman's Rights Convention.= In 1848 Mrs. Stanton called -a woman's rights convention--the first ever held. Its purpose was "to -discuss the social, civil, and religious conditions and rights of -women." - -[Sidenote: ="Declaration of Sentiments"=] - -[Sidenote: =Women demand the right to vote=] - -Mrs. Stanton read to the convention a set of twelve resolutions, the -now famous "Declaration of Sentiments." It demanded for women equality -with men and "all the rights and privileges which belong to them as -citizens of the United States," including the right to vote. This was -the first public demand for woman's suffrage. The resolutions were -passed. A storm of ridicule followed the convention, but Mrs. Stanton's -position remained unchanged. - -[Sidenote: =Susan B. Anthony, 1820=] - - -=218. Susan B. Anthony.= A few years after this historic convention, -Mrs. Stanton met Susan B. Anthony. Miss Anthony was the daughter of -Friends, or Quakers as they are often called. She was born at South -Adams, Massachusetts, in 1820. Her father maintained a school at -Battenville, New York, and here Susan received her early education. - -[Illustration: SUSAN B. ANTHONY - -_From a photograph by Veeder, Albany, N.Y._] - -[Sidenote: =Teaches school=] - -[Sidenote: =Won to the cause of woman's rights=] - -From her seventeenth birthday until she met Mrs. Stanton, Miss Anthony -had been engaged in teaching school. But now the great national -questions of anti-slavery and temperance were drawing her away from her -work as a teacher. At first Miss Anthony had not been in sympathy with -the Declaration of Sentiments, but when she met Mrs. Stanton the cause -of woman's rights won an able, enthusiastic, and untiring friend. - -[Sidenote: =National Woman's Suffrage Association=] - -From this time on these two fought side by side for the cause of -women. They traveled and lectured in all parts of the country. In 1868 -they started a weekly paper, which they called _The Revolution_. Miss -Anthony was the business manager and Mrs. Stanton was the editor. Its -motto was, "The True Republic--men, their rights and nothing more; -women, their rights and nothing less." - -[Sidenote: =Miss Anthony casts vote for President=] - -In 1869 they organized the National Woman's Suffrage Association. In -many states the question of woman suffrage became an important one at -election. Wherever they were needed, in California, in New York, or -in any other state, these two women could be found. Every year from -1869 until her death, in 1906, Miss Anthony addressed committees of -Congress. In 1872 she cast a vote for President. She declared it to be -her right under the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution. For this -act she was arrested and fined, but the fine was never collected. - -[Sidenote: =Women win suffrage=] - -Mrs. Stanton died in 1902. The great movement she had started was on -its way to certain victory. Congress passed the suffrage amendment in -1919, and in August, 1920, it became law. Over twenty-five million -women were entitled to vote in the presidential elections that year. - - - - -JULIA WARD HOWE, AUTHOR OF THE "BATTLE HYMN OF THE REPUBLIC," AND -HARRIET BEECHER STOWE WHO WROTE "UNCLE TOM'S CABIN" - - -=219. Julia Ward Howe.= All the great wars in which our country has -engaged have brought heavy burdens and sorrow to women. They could not -march away to fight side by side with the men. Their duty was to cheer -their loved ones as they went away to danger and perhaps to death. - -[Sidenote: =Women in the Civil War=] - -At the outbreak of the Civil War, from thousands and thousands of homes -father, husband, son, or brother went away, in many instances never -to return. Women were left behind, praying for their loved ones and -working untiringly night and day to provide food and clothing and to -keep up their homes. - -[Sidenote: =Born 1819=] - -But there were other women who could not serve their country in this -way. Many had no one to send away to fight. Among these was Julia Ward -Howe. She was born in New York in 1819, of wealthy and distinguished -parents. She was carefully reared, but she knew little of the work that -girls are usually taught to do. Practically everything was done for her -by servants. However, Julia dearly loved to read and study, and very -early she began to write poetry. - -[Sidenote: =Marries Doctor Howe=] - -[Sidenote: =Desires to be of service to the Union=] - -In 1841 she married Dr. Samuel Gridley Howe, a noted teacher and -reformer. While visiting in Washington in 1861 she saw women nursing -the wounded soldiers brought in from the battle field of Bull Run. She -was deeply stirred by the sights around her. What service could she do -for her country? Her husband was too old to enter the army, her son -too young. She knew that there were thousands making clothes for the -soldiers in the field. But she could not sew for the soldiers or care -for the wounded, for she had never been taught to work with her hands. -She could only write poetry. Of what use was that now? - -[Sidenote: =Writes "Battle Hymn of the Republic"=] - -One day her minister suggested that she write words for the popular -army tune, "John Brown's Body Lies A-mouldering in the Grave." She did -so, and the poem was published in a magazine under the name of "The -Battle Hymn of the Republic." - -[Sidenote: =It helps to bring victory=] - -Soon the song was being sung through all the camps of the northern -troops. The soldiers sang it on the march, in wild charges, or at night -beside the camp fire. Everywhere its challenge roused the northern -soldiers to a more determined fight for victory. In writing this poem -Mrs. Howe had done a great service for the Union. - -[Sidenote: =Founds clubs for women=] - - -=220. The Woman's Club.= After the war Mrs. Howe wished to continue -serving her country in some way, and she took up the cause of woman's -rights. Women had had little or no chance to educate themselves and -broaden their minds by discussing with each other subjects outside -their homes. She thought woman's clubs would work to free women -from the narrowness of mind that comes from thinking only of dress, -hired help, and housekeeping. From then on, she devoted herself to -establishing clubs for women. She traveled over the country and wrote -and lectured on this subject. She urged that the members of these clubs -should seek not only for self-improvement but for means of serving -others; and through their efforts hospitals for women and children, -lodging houses, and labor schools were established. - -Mrs. Howe had found a means of serving her country even greater and -more effective than the writing of her "Battle Hymn of the Republic." - -[Illustration: JULIA WARD HOWE - -_From a photograph by the Notman Photo. Co., Boston_] - -[Sidenote: =Born, 1811=] - - -=221. Harriet Beecher Stowe.= Another woman who did great service for -her country with her pen was Harriet Beecher Stowe. She was born in -1811. Her father was a Connecticut minister, and she was brought up -in a deeply religious home. At school she was apt at writing and she -dreamed of becoming a great author. - -[Sidenote: =Marries Calvin E. Stowe=] - -She married Calvin E. Stowe, a student of theology, and thereafter -devoted herself to her home and her children. During the years just -before the Civil War there was much discussion of the slavery question. -Mrs. Stowe had traveled in the South and had seen how the negroes were -kept in ignorance, and how cruelly they were sometimes treated. She was -aroused by the passage of the Fugitive Slave Law and by some of the -things that happened as a result of it. She resolved to use her talent -for writing to help the slaves. - -[Sidenote: =Writes "Uncle Tom's Cabin"=] - -In 1851 she began the story, _Uncle Tom's Cabin_. It was first -published in serial form in an abolition paper in Washington. It was -later published in book form. From the first, the sale of the book was -enormous. It was translated into many languages and was very popular -abroad as well as at home. - -Mrs. Stowe became famous. It is said that the book converted more than -two million people to the cause of freedom for slaves. It helped to -unite the North and to give it strength to stand firm in the great -conflict. - -[Illustration: HARRIET BEECHER STOWE - -_From a photograph by Sarony, New York_] - -Mrs. Stowe continued writing in behalf of the slaves. She gave her -son to the cause of freedom. He was wounded at Gettysburg and never -regained his health. She aided in establishing schools for the negroes -in the South, and worked among them earnestly until her death in 1896. - - - - -FRANCES E. WILLARD, THE GREAT TEMPERANCE CRUSADER; CLARA BARTON, WHO -FOUNDED THE RED CROSS SOCIETY IN AMERICA; AND JANE ADDAMS, THE FOUNDER -OF HULL HOUSE SOCIAL SETTLEMENT IN CHICAGO - - -[Sidenote: =Frances E. Willard, 1839=] - -[Sidenote: =Family moves to Wisconsin=] - - -=222. Frances E. Willard.= In 1839, when Frances Elizabeth Willard -was born, thousands were leaving the eastern states for the new West. -Her father and mother were successful teachers in New York, but when -Frances was two years old they decided to move with the westward -current. After living five years at Oberlin, Ohio, the family went -on to Janesville, Wisconsin, settling on a farm in the midst of -picturesque hills and woods. There Frances and her brother and sister -grew up healthy, happy children, playing together in the forest and -fields. The parents were religious and were total abstainers, and the -children never forgot their teachings. - -[Sidenote: =Stands at head of her class=] - -At fifteen years of age Frances went to school in Janesville, and at -eighteen to a Milwaukee college for girls. The following year she -entered the Northwestern Female College at Evanston, Illinois. At -graduation she stood at the head of her class. - -[Sidenote: =Death breaks up the home=] - -Miss Willard began teaching. Then the death of her sister Mary, and -shortly afterward, of her father, broke up her home. That home had been -an ideal one. There the father and mother were equal in all things, -and discussed together the affairs of the household. It was a perfect -home, orderly and temperate. Frances Willard made up her mind to spend -her life in spreading abroad a knowledge of such homes, and in helping -women to become equal with men before the law. - -[Sidenote: =President of W.C.T.U.=] - -In 1874 came the anti-saloon crusade. Miss Willard saw that this -movement was part of the fight for better and happier homes, and threw -herself ardently into the work. When the Woman's Christian Temperance -Union was organized in Chicago, Miss Willard became its president. - -In 1879 she became the president of the National Union. Her work was -never-ending. She wrote books; she lectured all over the country. For -twelve years she held an average of one meeting a day. - -[Illustration: FRANCES E. WILLARD - -_From a photograph_] - -[Sidenote: =Favors woman suffrage=] - -Miss Willard had seen that unless women had the right to assist in -making laws, their cause was hopeless. Accordingly she declared herself -in favor of woman suffrage. A few years later the Woman's Christian -Temperance Union followed their leader into politics in an effort to -encourage temperance legislation. - -[Sidenote: =Women united for the protection of the home=] - -Miss Willard's work constantly became wider. The organization of which -she was the head became international in its influence, and the World's -Woman's Christian Temperance Union was organized in 1883, with Miss -Willard as president. She had united the women of the world in a great -league for the protection of the home. Miss Willard remained to the -end of her life president of the World's Woman's Christian Temperance -Union. She died in 1898. - -[Sidenote: =Clara Barton, 1821=] - - -=223. Clara Barton.= Clara Barton was born in 1821, near Oxford, -Massachusetts. She was educated to be a school teacher, and for many -years followed that profession. In 1861 she visited Washington, and -there felt the impulse that led to her great life work. - -[Illustration: CLARA BARTON - -_From a photograph by Charles E. Smith, Evanston, Illinois_] - -[Sidenote: =Nurses the wounded=] - -The injured soldiers from the first battles of the Civil War were being -brought to Washington. Miss Barton at once felt it her duty to help in -caring for them. She not only nursed the wounded, but she encouraged -those who were on the way to the line of battle. - - -=224. Goes to the Battle Field.= The men that were being taken to the -hospitals received no care until they arrived there. Miss Barton saw -that her place was on the battle field. - -[Sidenote: =Constantly in danger=] - -[Sidenote: =Received no pay=] - -She secured a pass to the firing line, and for four years she followed -the Union soldiers. She was constantly in danger; her clothing -was pierced by bullets, her face blackened by powder. But she was -undaunted. The soldiers needed her, and she must be there to help them. -When she could, she nursed wounded Confederate as well as Federal -soldiers. She received no pay for her work. - -[Sidenote: =Red Cross Society in Europe=] - -When the war was over Miss Barton went to Europe. There she learned -of the Red Cross Society, founded in Geneva in 1863. The purpose of -the society was to care for the wounded of any nation on the field of -battle. A treaty among the nations agreed that the Red Cross nurses -should be safe from capture. Miss Barton was asked to organize a branch -of the Red Cross in the United States. - -[Sidenote: =American Red Cross=] - -In 1882 President Arthur signed the treaty, and the American Red Cross, -with Miss Barton as its first president, was established. She continued -as president until 1904, when she resigned. - -[Sidenote: =Goes to Armenia=] - -In 1896 Miss Barton went to Armenia at the head of her Red Cross to -relieve the suffering caused by the massacres. She saved thousands from -starvation and disease. - -Again she nobly responded to the call of President McKinley to go to -the help of Cuba in the Spanish-American War. - -Miss Barton lived to see the Red Cross a world-wide society carrying -comfort and cheer to all nations. In the World War after every great -battle the Red Cross nurses worked on the field or in the hospital to -lighten the awful sufferings of the wounded. - -[Sidenote: =Work of the society in times of peace=] - - -=225. The Red Cross Society in Times of Peace.= It was Miss Barton's -firm belief that the world needed the services of the Red Cross in -times of peace as well as in times of war. Accordingly an amendment was -made to the Geneva treaty. Local Red Cross societies sprang up in every -part of the country. The suffering which followed the great Charleston -earthquake, the Galveston flood, forest fires, mine explosions, and -all similar accidents found the Red Cross Society on hand with aid and -supplies. - -The greatest calamity that has befallen our country since the Red Cross -was well organized was the burning of San Francisco following the great -earthquake of 1906. Five hundred millions in property was destroyed, -and two hundred and fifty thousand people were left homeless and -without food. The Red Cross alone spent three million dollars in giving -aid to the sufferers. - -[Sidenote: =Rural work of the Red Cross=] - -An important new undertaking is the rural work of the Red Cross. This -is not limited to health questions, though a nurse is the first person -sent into a country. But also if possible another worker is sent to -help the country people with their social problems, their amusements, -and the building up of a spirit of neighborhood coöperation. - -[Sidenote: =Jane Addams and the cause of the poor=] - - -=226. Jane Addams.= There was still another great and vital field of -service waiting for a leader. This was the cause of a better chance in -life for the very poor. A better understanding among all people, rich -and poor, and a knowledge of the interests which all have in common are -aiding in this. Education, reform of unjust working conditions, and -social service--the help or relief of poor or unfortunate people--are -all means of progress through which people like Jane Addams have worked. - -In 1883 while traveling in Europe, Jane Addams, a daughter of wealthy -and distinguished parents, was deeply touched by the terrible poverty -and misery she saw everywhere around her. She herself had never known -want or hunger. Indeed she had more wealth than she knew how to spend -for things she herself needed or cared for. - -[Illustration: JANE ADDAMS - -_From a recent photograph_] - -[Sidenote: =Devotes herself to social service=] - -She determined to devote herself and her fortune to a fairer -distribution of the world's goods and pleasures among those who were -always hungry and in want. It was a vast undertaking, but Miss Addams -was not dismayed. She hoped that some day the rich and the educated -would see that all men are equal and would unite with the unfortunate -in one great brotherhood. - -[Sidenote: =Hull House Social Settlement founded=] - -She returned to Chicago, and there with a group of workers established -a social settlement in a building in a poor quarter of the city and -called it Hull House. - -There everyone, however poor, was welcomed. People could come there -for advice or help. Through personal influence they were led to become -acquainted with the best books, to cultivate their minds, and to meet -each other at times for study or social enjoyment. - -[Sidenote: =The settlement a success=] - -Men and women from all parts of the country and from abroad visited -Hull House to see what Miss Addams and all her fellow-workers, through -personal service, were doing to make the lives of the poor people -around them a little brighter and happier. They found Hull House a -success. The neighborhood was like a great family whose members sought -each other's welfare. They regarded Miss Addams as one of themselves. -This was a bit of the human brotherhood of which Miss Addams had -dreamed. - -[Sidenote: =Greater opportunities for women=] - - -=227. What Has Been Accomplished.= These great women of whom we have -read have worked for the advancement, not alone of their sex, but of -all mankind in the United States and the world over. - -Through their efforts great changes have taken place in woman's -position. Throughout the country she has a place more equal to man's in -the eyes of the law, almost unlimited opportunities in education and -business, and whatever openings in public life she proves fitted for. -Now looking back, we can see that the greater part of what Elizabeth -Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony so relentlessly strove for has been -gained. Woman suffrage will doubtless soon cause the more backward -states to give women full legal rights, and it will also enable women -to work more freely for the progress of the nation. - - -SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL - - =The Leading Facts.= _1._ Women shared the hardships and dangers - of the early colonists. _2._ They did heroic service during the - Revolution and in the later progress of the nation; but they had - no legal or political rights. _3._ Leaders arose among the women - demanding for their sex the same rights and privileges that men - had. _4._ As a girl Elizabeth Cady Stanton became indignant at - what she found to be the unequal position of women in almost every - walk of life; she resolved to devote her life to the struggle for - the rights of women. _5._ In 1848 she called the first woman's - rights convention, where she made the first public demand for woman - suffrage. _6._ She met Susan B. Anthony, a school teacher, and won - her to the cause. _7._ Together they organized the National Woman's - Suffrage Association. _8._ Their great work succeeded in making - woman suffrage an election issue in many states. _9._ By 1915 - eleven states had been won to woman suffrage; some voting rights - had been won in twenty-two other states. - - _10._ Julia Ward Howe was the daughter of wealthy parents and knew - little of work. _11._ She began to write poetry early. _12._ When - the Civil War broke out Mrs. Howe wanted to be of service to the - Union. _13._ She wrote "The Battle Hymn of the Republic," a song - that proved a great aid to victory since it cheered the soldiers in - the field. _14._ After the war Mrs. Howe established women's clubs - in all parts of the country for self-improvement among the women, - and for social service. - - _15._ Harriet Beecher Stowe as a girl was apt at writing. _16._ She - resolved to use her talent to help the slaves. _17._ _Uncle Tom's - Cabin_ helped the North to win the victory by uniting the people - against slavery. _18._ Frances E. Willard was raised in Wisconsin - in frontier days. _19._ In school she stood at the head of her - class. _20._ Joined the anti-saloon crusade; became president of - the Woman's Christian Temperance Union and later of the National - Union. _21._ Declared herself in favor of woman suffrage. _22._ - As president of the World's Woman's Christian Temperance Union, - Miss Willard united the women of the world in a world union for - the protection of the home. _23._ Clara Barton took up the work of - nursing after the first battles of the Civil War. _24._ First in - the hospitals of Washington, she finally went to the battle fields - in order to give the wounded immediate help. _25._ The Red Cross - Society was founded in Europe; a branch was established in the - United States by Miss Barton. _26._ Following the great earthquake - and fire in San Francisco in 1906, the Red Cross did heroic work in - aiding the 250,000 people left homeless and without food. - - _27._ Jane Addams while traveling in Europe was touched by the - sight of the poverty and misery everywhere. _28._ She determined - to devote herself and her fortune to make better and brighter the - lives of the poor. _29._ She established the Hull House Social - Settlement in Chicago. - - =Study Questions.= _1._ How did women aid in the progress of the - nation? _2._ What did they do during the Revolution? during the - Civil War? _3._ What was their position in law and in affairs of - government? _4._ Who was the first to champion woman suffrage? - _5._ Describe Elizabeth Cady in her girlhood. What was her opinion - of boys and girls? _6._ To what did she determine to devote her - life? _7._ What was the purpose of the woman's rights convention? - _8._ What demand was first publicly made at this convention? _9._ - What was Miss Anthony's occupation before she met Mrs. Stanton? - _10._ Describe the work of these two women for the cause of woman's - rights. _11._ In 1915 how many states had granted women the right - to vote? _12._ Why did Julia Ward Howe know so little of work? - _13._ What did she like to do? _14._ What sights did she see in - Washington in 1861? _15._ What did she do to serve her country? - _16._ How could a song count much for victory? _17._ What was the - purpose of women's clubs? _18._ How did Harriet Beecher Stowe - serve her country? _19._ What book did she write? What was its - effect? _20._ Describe Frances Willard's girlhood, her home, and - surroundings. _21._ Why did Miss Willard take up temperance work? - _22._ Did Miss Willard work hard for temperance, woman's rights, - and protection of the home? What makes you think so? _23._ How did - Miss Willard become of international influence? _24._ Where did - Clara Barton begin her work of nursing the wounded? _25._ Where - did she go then, and why? _26._ Where was the Red Cross Society - founded? _27._ What was its purpose? _28._ What great service does - it perform in time of peace? _29._ What was the result of the San - Francisco earthquake? _30._ How did the Red Cross relieve the - distress? _31._ How did the sight of poverty and suffering affect - Jane Addams? _32._ What did she determine to do? _33._ What did - she establish in Chicago? _34._ What did the Social Settlement - accomplish? _35._ Was it a success? - - =Suggested Readings.= Wade, _The Light Bringers_, 64-111, 142-171; - Adams, _Heroines of Modern Progress_. - - - - -RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES OF OUR COUNTRY - - - - -HOW FARM AND FACTORY HELPED BUILD THE NATION - - -[Sidenote: =The great cotton crop of the southern states=] - - -=228. Cotton Fields and Cotton Factories.= Since the days of Eli -Whitney cotton has been grown in all the southern states from Virginia -westward to Texas, and from the Gulf of Mexico north to Missouri. More -than one half of all the cotton in the world is grown in southern -United States. High-grade cotton is also grown in California, -Arizona, and New Mexico, and California is now one of our leading -cotton-producing states. - -A field of growing cotton is very picturesque. Its culture employs -many laborers. The number of laborers needed, however, is not the same -throughout the year. In the fall, when the bolls ripen, all hands, -large and small, pick cotton. This work takes several months. Then the -picked cotton is put through a gin which is still built along the -lines of Whitney's invention. The cleaned cotton is pressed into large -bales and is then ready for market. - -[Sidenote: =Cotton-seed oil=] - -The cotton seed goes to one mill, the cotton to another. For many years -the seed was wasted. Farmers burned it or threw it away. But now in -all parts of the South great mills crush the seed and make from it a -valuable oil. What is left is cotton-seed cake, and is bought eagerly -by cattle growers everywhere. - -[Sidenote: =Cotton mills in the South=] - -Only a few years ago almost all the cotton grown in the South was -shipped away, either to Europe or to New England. In Massachusetts and -Rhode Island cotton mills employ more people than any other industry, -and great cities are supported almost entirely by manufacturing cotton -goods. Now the South has also discovered that it can spin and weave its -cotton at home. About many of its waterfalls is heard the hum of busy -cotton mills. New cities are growing up, and prosperity has returned to -the South. - -[Illustration: PICKING COTTON - -_From a photograph_] - -[Sidenote: =Wheat belt west of the Mississippi=] - - -=229. The Grain that Feeds the Nation.= From the days of the early -colonists, wheat has been one of the most valuable crops produced in -this country. In the states east of the Mississippi River the farmers -have long raised it in connection with a variety of other crops. But -as the newer lands west of this river were taken up, the settlers -discovered that in that region wheat yielded more abundantly than any -other crop. - -From Kansas northward to Minnesota and western Canada lies a broad -stretch of land which has cool spring weather and a light rainfall. -This is the climate best suited to wheat, and here has developed the -great wheat belt of America. - -[Sidenote: =Traction engines=] - -In this region there are vast wheat fields almost everywhere, -stretching farther than the eye can see over the level surface. Most -of the farms are very large, some of them including many thousands of -acres. The work on these places is done with the most modern machines. -Traction engines are used to pull the great plows, the largest of which -turn fifty furrows at a time. In harvest time an army of reaping and -binding machines harvests the golden grain. The harvesting machine and -the thresher have also been combined. On some of the greatest farms a -huge complex machine makes its way through the standing grain, leaving -behind it rows of bags, filled with threshed grain ready for the market. - -[Sidenote: =Grain elevators=] - -With the aid of such machinery a few people can cultivate a great many -acres. As a result, the country is thinly settled. The towns are few -and far between. In most of them the principal building is the grain -elevator, which holds the grain until it is ready to be shipped. - -[Sidenote: =Flour mills=] - -From the elevators the wheat goes to the flour mills. The largest of -these are in Minneapolis, in the eastern part of the wheat belt. The -flour in its turn goes to feed the many millions of people in all parts -of the country. - -[Sidenote: =Grain exports decrease=] - -For many years this country grew much more wheat than we needed, and -we shipped great quantities to Europe. But each year our growing -population needs more food, and our exports of this grain decrease -steadily. Even now our farms grow but little more of this grain than is -needed at home, and the time is almost at hand when we shall no longer -send any of it abroad. - -[Illustration: THE STEAM PLOW AT WORK ON A PRAIRIE FARM - -_From a photograph_] - -[Sidenote: =Texas and Iowa lead=] - - -=230. Cattle Raising and Meat Packing.= Cattle raising, like wheat -farming, is principally an industry of the West. As late as 1850 the -states which raised the most cattle lay along the Atlantic coast. But -to-day Texas and Iowa are in the lead, and Kansas and Nebraska follow -closely. - -[Sidenote: =Cattle ranches of the West=] - -As the eastern states became peopled more densely, cattle grazing -was forced west. The cattle pastures were broken up into fields. The -prairies of Illinois and Iowa became a vast cornfield. Eastern Kansas -and Nebraska were turned into corn and wheat farms. Always the cattle -had to give way to the grain. At last the farmers came to a strip -of country where the rainfall was not enough to make grain growing -profitable. This comparatively narrow strip stretches north in an -irregular area of plains from western Texas to Montana. This region -grows fine grass and has become the great grazing country of the United -States. Here vast herds of cattle still roam on large ranches and are -cared for by cowboys. - -[Sidenote: =Corn-fed cattle=] - -East of the ranch country lies the corn belt, in which Illinois and -Iowa are the leading states. Cattle fatten better on corn than on any -other food, and the meat of corn-fed stock brings the best prices. - -The corn states have therefore taken up the raising and fattening of -cattle on a tremendous scale. When western cattle leave the ranch they -are generally not very heavy. Thousands of carloads are shipped into -the corn country each year, there to be fattened before going to the -packing houses. - -The Department of Agriculture, at Washington, is now taking great pains -to induce the boys, especially of the South, to make experiments in -corn raising. Some wonderful results have been produced, and the South -is in a fair way to take to the raising of corn. - -[Illustration: COWBOYS DRIVING CATTLE FROM THE PRAIRIE PASTURAGE - -_From a photograph_] - -[Sidenote: =Invention of refrigerator cars=] - -The largest meat-packing plants are located in the corn belt at -Chicago, Kansas City, Omaha, and other cities. To-day meat packing -is the greatest business of Chicago and many other large cities. A -generation ago it had scarcely begun. But the packers learned to can -meat, to use ice for cold storage, and, most important of all, the -refrigerator car was invented. - -By this last discovery it became possible to ship meat almost -everywhere. Where before the packers had to sell their goods at home, -now they have the world as a market. A steer raised on the western -prairies may now be fattened for market in Illinois, slaughtered in -Chicago, and served in New York, or sent to England or even to the -Orient. - - - - -MINES, MINING, AND MANUFACTURES - - -[Sidenote: =Great value of coal and iron=] - - -=231. Coal and Iron.= Next to the great farm crops, coal and iron are -the most valuable products of our country. The coal that is mined in -one year is worth five times as much as the gold and silver combined. -Our iron mines yield as much wealth in one year as the gold mines do in -three. Gold and silver are luxuries without which we could get along, -but our great factories, railroads, and steamship lines could not exist -without an abundance of iron and coal. - -A hundred years ago there was almost no coal mined in this country. Now -we use more of it than any other land, and almost a million men make a -living by mining it. - -[Sidenote: =Hard coal in Pennsylvania=] - -[Sidenote: =Factories need coal=] - -At first most of the coal produced was the hard anthracite of eastern -Pennsylvania. But this hard coal is found only in one small section of -Pennsylvania, whereas great beds of soft coal stretch from Pennsylvania -west to Washington. At present there is far more soft coal used than -anthracite. Pennsylvania is the leading state in the production of both -hard and soft coal, but West Virginia, Illinois, and Ohio are also -great coal states. Generally, where there are productive coal mines, -factories have been built, because most of them need a great deal of -coal for fuel. - -[Illustration: IRON AND STEEL WORKS IN A SOUTHERN CITY - -_From a photograph_] - -[Sidenote: =Largest iron-ore deposits in the world=] - -Iron was first worked by the colonists in the bogs of New England. Iron -mining, however, did not become a great industry until the latter part -of the last century. In that period the great iron "ranges" of Lake -Superior were opened up. These are the largest deposits of iron ore in -the world. - -[Sidenote: =Carried to the smelters=] - -Most of the ore lies in Minnesota. Here, far up in the northern woods, -thousands of men are blasting or digging out the red and rusty ore. -Huge steam shovels load a car in a few minutes, and in a short while a -trainload of ore is on its way to Duluth or Superior. From there it is -carried by steamer east, most likely to one of the Ohio towns on Lake -Erie. Here much of the ore is again loaded into cars and hauled to the -Pittsburgh region, there to be smelted. - -[Sidenote: =Coal and iron support great industries=] - -Pittsburgh has become the greatest iron and steel center of America. -Enormous quantities of coal are mined here and used for smelting the -iron ore that is shipped in. More people of western Pennsylvania and -eastern Ohio make a living by mining coal and making steel and iron -than anywhere else in America. Great blast furnaces melt the iron -ore. Steel works turn out huge quantities of rail and sheet steel. -Foundries make cast-iron products of all kinds. Vast shops are busily -engaged in producing locomotives and machines of endless variety. -Everywhere in this region are smoking chimneys and busy industrial -plants, all supported by coal and iron. The southern states, Alabama, -the Carolinas, Georgia, and Tennessee, also contain rich stores of coal -and iron. These resources were little used during slavery days. Now, -however, the southern states are digging coal for use in their great -factories and cotton mills, or sending it abroad. Birmingham, Alabama, -is one of the great coal and iron centers of the United States. - - -SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL - - =The Leading Facts.= _1._ The toilers in forest, mine, and factory - contributed to the development of our land. _2._ Cotton is grown - in all the southern states and from the Atlantic to the Pacific. - _3._ A valuable oil is made from the cotton seed. _4._ The climate - west of the Mississippi best suited to the raising of wheat. - _5._ The work of cultivating and harvesting is done by machines. - _6._ Wheat is sent to the flour mills, the largest of which are - in Minneapolis. _7._ Exports of wheat decreasing. _8._ Texas and - Iowa the leading cattle-raising states. _9._ Cattle from the - ranches are fed on corn in the corn states, principally Iowa and - Illinois. _10._ The refrigerator car permitted the shipment of - meat to all the world. _11._ Coal and iron mined in America worth - many times more than the gold and silver. _12._ Hard coal mined in - Pennsylvania. _13._ The Lake Superior iron ranges the greatest in - the world. _14._ Pittsburgh is the greatest iron and steel center - of America. - - =Study Questions.= _1._ Describe the process of preparing cotton - for the market. _2._ What is done with the cotton seed? _3._ What - is the South preparing to do with the cotton crop? _4._ Where is - the wheat belt of America? _5._ How is the wheat cultivated and - harvested? _6._ Describe the progress of the wheat from the field - to its use as food. _7._ What are the leading cattle-raising - states? _8._ Where and how are the herds fattened? _9._ What was - the effect of the invention of the refrigerator car? _10._ How does - the value of coal and iron mined in America compare with the gold - and silver? _11._ Where is anthracite or hard coal mined? _12._ - Where was iron first mined? _13._ Where is the largest deposit - in the world? _14._ Where is the great iron and steel center of - America? _15._ Give a list of all the things you can think of that - are made out of iron. - - =Suggested Readings.= INDUSTRIES: Fairbanks, _The Western United - States_, 215-290; Brooks, _The Story of Cotton_; Shillig, _The Four - Wonders (Cotton, Wool, Linen, and Silk)_; Brooks, _The Story of - Corn_. - - - - -AMERICA AND THE WORLD WAR - - - - -EARLY YEARS OF THE WAR - - -[Sidenote: =The hero of the World War=] - - -=232. A War of All the People.= We have been studying in this history -the lives of America's greatest men and women, and the ways they have -served their country. But in the last great part of American history, -the World War, what counted most was the loyalty of every one of the -people to a free government, and their willingness to fight and work -unitedly for its safety. The plain, everyday American is our hero in -this chapter. - -The war was so big that if each citizen had not done his bit, Germany -might have conquered. The work of shipping boards and directors of fuel -supply was less important than the work done by ordinary people. Much -was done to win the war in the homes of each boy and girl in the United -States as well as on the battlefields of France. Every member of the -family found things he could do without to help buy more Liberty bonds. -Boy Scouts sold bonds and thrift stamps. Girls worked to get food-card -pledges. Mothers planned the meals carefully to save the wheat, meat, -and sugar that had to be sent across to our army. Brothers and fathers -had to answer the draft call and go to training camps if necessary. Not -only must food and money, gasoline and coal, be saved, but everyone who -could not fight overseas was expected to do some useful work. - -[Illustration: A WAR GARDEN POSTER - -_In the "Food Will Win the War" campaign posters urged all school -children to make gardens_] - -With one hundred million people in the country, we might think it would -not make any difference if we let someone else do our part. But this -was not the spirit of America. For the most part, each person himself -felt that this was _his_ war, fought for _his_ rights and for _his_ -aims. And because for the most part each person acted as if success -depended on him, Europe was amazed at America's swiftness in getting -ready to fight. - -[Sidenote: =America by tradition aloof=] - -The United States did not decide to enter this war until it had been -going on nearly three years, for its people had come from nations -fighting on opposite sides. Besides, war had always been a common -happening in Europe, and the United States had always tried to keep its -hands free. Washington and Jefferson and later Monroe had advised that -we should only be "interested spectators" of quarrels abroad. - -[Sidenote: =The powers involved=] - - -=233. A World at Arms.= The outbreak of the war surprised the world by -its suddenness. The heir to the throne of Austria, Archduke Ferdinand, -was murdered in June, 1914. Austria blamed Serbia for the murder. When -Serbia would not agree to all that was demanded of her, Austria at once -declared war. The largest nations of Europe were united in two groups. -Germany took up Austria's quarrel; Russia, France, and England combined -to oppose Germany. Italy was bound to defend Germany and Austria if -they should be attacked, but now believed they were the attacking -nations, and later came in against them. Bulgaria and Turkey threw in -their lot with Germany and Austria, these four nations forming the -Central Powers, and Japan and Roumania with the Allies, as the nations -opposing them were called. - -[Sidenote: =Invasion of Belgium=] - -Germany's first act was to rush her troops across the borders of -Belgium, straight toward Paris. Belgium, of course, was too small a -state to stand against the armies of her stronger neighbors. On this -account the great nations of western Europe had agreed never to invade -Belgium, and now England felt bound to go to her defense. - -[Sidenote: =Events at sea=] - -British, French, and Belgian soldiers, fighting in whatever order they -could, checked the on-coming masses of Germans. The Allies stopped them -at the Battle of the Marne, far within France. On the sea England's -mighty navy quickly put an end to all German shipping. She kept -the German navy from venturing even into the North Sea. But German -submarines could not be so easily blocked up, and slipped out and sunk -Allied vessels. - -[Sidenote: =Opinion favors the Allies=] - - -=234. The American Government Neutral.= When Germany first attacked -Belgium, some people believed that the United States should break off -relations with her at once. Our government declared itself neutral. -President Wilson asked the people to be friendly in their dealings -with all the nations at war. But Germany's headlong haste in declaring -war, and her methods of waging it made most Americans anxious for the -success of the Allies. - -[Sidenote: =Germany protests=] - -The European countries were too busy fighting to raise all the food -or forge all the guns their armies needed. They were producing these -things on a very great scale, but had to buy vast quantities besides. -The United States was the country best able to supply them. The great -steel factories of the country worked night and day making shells, -tanks, and war material of all kinds. Since England controlled the -seas, everything we made went to the Allies. Germany protested strongly -against our supplying her enemies with the means to fight her. But -America, not being at war, had a right to trade with all countries. To -give up this right would have been to take sides with Germany. American -merchants were willing to manufacture goods for Germany, but she could -not send ships to get them. - - -=235. Disputes with England and Germany.= Our government had a just -cause of complaint against England. Her acts were not always strictly -lawful. She stopped our ships on the high seas and searched them, -destroying mail which she thought was intended for Germany. When the -United States objected, she promised to make good all losses. - -[Illustration: THE LUSITANIA] - -[Sidenote: =The Lusitania=] - -Germany, on the other hand, not only destroyed American goods but -American lives. One of the two largest passenger ships ever built, the -_Lusitania_, was sunk by a German submarine on May 7, 1915. Over one -hundred Americans went down. Again there was a great cry that Germany -should be punished. But President Wilson made every possible effort -for peace. He gave Germany a chance to prove that she did not mean to -continue such lawlessness. Finally Germany promised to take Americans -off the ships to be sunk. In spite of her pledge Germany failed to -change her methods. New notes protesting and more ships sunk was the -order of things for almost two years. - -[Sidenote: =A peace-loving nation=] - -President Wilson was severely criticized for this "warfare of notes." -But many people were not yet convinced that this was different from -other European wars. Otherwise Congress, which like the President is -the servant of the people, might have declared war sooner. The country -was peace-loving, and far away from roaring guns and ruined towns of -Europe. In a way it is to the credit of the American people that they -were slow to believe in the world-wide plots of the Kaiser, and the -reported cruelty of his soldiers. - -[Sidenote: =United support of war essential=] - - -=236. The Need of a United Nation.= President Wilson sought to be a -true public servant, by listening to the opinions of people throughout -the land. He did not try to lead the nation into war while the feelings -of the people were still divided. A divided people could have done -little in this gigantic war. - -His training made him able to understand the temper of the American -people well. He was a student of history, and the author of well-known -books on the American government. - -[Sidenote: =Wilson's boyhood=] - -President Wilson's boyhood was much like that of any other boy. In his -classes he was neither brilliant nor slow. He took part in all regular -school sports, and at Davidson College once saved the day for his team -in baseball. Later at Princeton and Johns Hopkins, two of the most -famous eastern universities, he studied history and economics. At the -age of twenty-three he began a book called _Congressional Government_, -which shows his command of words and thorough knowledge of his subject. - -[Sidenote: =Governor of New Jersey=] - -He had tried practicing law, but did not make a success of it and -decided to be a teacher. In this he is like many other Americans who -have failed in their first undertaking, and have later been successful -in a different line. He taught first at Bryn Mawr, a woman's college -near Philadelphia, then at Wesleyan, the old Methodist university, -then at Princeton. "Princeton, Trenton, Washington"--Wilson's career -has been jokingly summed up, for he was in turn chosen president of -Princeton, governor of New Jersey, whose capital Trenton is, and -President of the United States. On the whole, his record at Princeton -and Trenton, and as President during his first term, was that of a -liberal and fearless chief. The elections of 1916 came at a critical -time and President Wilson was reëlected partly because "he kept us -out of war." Banners with this motto on them were largely used in the -campaign. The American nation did not have that "warlike spirit" of -loving war for war's sake which the Kaiser boasted of in his people. - -[Illustration: WOODROW WILSON] - -[Sidenote: =A Mexican Crisis=] - -In 1913 Mexico had been so upset that it looked as though the United -States might be drawn into a clash with her. President Wilson avoided -this except when our soldiers landed at Vera Cruz for a short time. -Later General John J. Pershing was sent down to Mexico to punish Villa -and his outlaw bands. He killed many of Villa's followers, but the wily -old fox himself escaped. - -[Sidenote: =Germany's lawless acts=] - -After the _Lusitania_ was sunk, the submarine warfare grew more -widespread and reckless month by month. In January, 1917, Germany -openly declared that in the future she would not limit this warfare -by any rules whatever. She aimed to cut off all supplies from Great -Britain and to starve her people. She gave America one little port -among the British Isles where the United States might send her -passengers and commerce. Secret agents of the Central Powers had been -blowing up factories in the United States, and purchasing newspapers -to defend the German cause. Their treacherous acts had already caused -President Wilson to dismiss the German ambassador. - -Germany's statement that hereafter her submarines would know no law at -last proved to all the nation that America could not honorably remain -out of the war. - - - - -AMERICA ENTERS TO WIN - - -[Sidenote: =Loans to the Allies=] - - -=237. Congress Votes Billions.= Congress voted billions of money to be -spent in various ways, and President Wilson loaned millions of dollars -to England, France, and Italy. They in turn sent great men to talk with -those who were managing our war preparations. - -Never did a nation given to peace turn so quickly to war. Thousands of -Americans in Europe had already been taking part for years. Some had -joined the Canadian army or the Lafayette Squadron, part of the French -air service. Others were working under the Red Cross or the American -Committee for the Relief of Belgium. - -[Sidenote: =Hoover as food administrator=] - -Other measures necessary to "mobilize" the nation were quickly passed. -The railroads were put under the control of a director-general of -railroads, who ran them first of all in the service of the army. A fuel -administrator decided what factories and businesses were most necessary -in the war and in the life of the nation. Others had to limit their use -of coal, or to close down entirely for a short time. Herbert Hoover, -head of the great committee which had charge of feeding the starving -people of Belgium, was made food administrator. On one hand, he decided -how much food whole nations could buy of us. On the other, he helped -American housewives plan their daily meals to save the wheat, meat, -and fat that were needed for the soldiers, because food would "win the -war." - - -[Sidenote: =An army of millions=] - - -=238. The Selective Draft.= Millions of soldiers would have been -America's share of the Allied fighting forces if the war had gone -on longer. Congress decided that a "Selective Draft" would be the -most fair and just method of raising these millions. All men between -the ages of twenty-one and thirty, and later between nineteen and -forty-five, had to be examined by "Draft Boards," and the proper number -selected. - -[Sidenote: =Great training camps built=] - -Immense training camps were built, with railroad lines, electric light -and water systems, and all the needs of a modern city. Many of these -camps sprang up in a few months, ready to take care of fifty thousand -men apiece. - - -=239. The War's Nameless Heroes.= All these great preparations at home -were more businesslike than they were stirring and warlike. They meant -a great change in the life of the whole nation. Workers were shifted -from all kinds of small, unimportant peace-time tasks to a few gigantic -businesses on which the success of the war depended. All the efforts -of the nation were centered on saving goods, time, and money, and -producing goods to carry on the war. - -[Sidenote: =Not a war of great names=] - -The "home front" did not give great honors to those who held it. But -the war was fought to preserve the rights of free citizens, and it had -the nearly united support of a whole people. There are few famous names -in the fighting abroad, and few, too, at home. It was a war in which -the average man was the hero. He did not expect medals for doing his -duty in battle, or a high salary for doing his duty at home. But he did -it, and unbelievable deeds were accomplished--fleets built, factories -multiplied, waste lands planted, two million men sent across the seas, -and the war brought to a swift end. - -[Sidenote: =The Burial of an "Unknown Warrior"=] - -England had a great state funeral not long ago. It rivaled in ceremony -the honors paid to dead queens and kings. Throngs followed the great -procession to Westminster Abbey, where England's famous dead of all -time are buried. A tablet was placed above the tomb of a hero whom -a nation united to give its highest honors. The name on that tablet -was "To an Unknown Warrior." In America, too, the deeds of the great -number, in battle or at home, will always be nameless. - -[Sidenote: =The spirit of heroism needed in peace=] - -If each person, instead of looking straight ahead at the task to be -done, had looked to see who else could do it, America's war program -would have failed. It has been said that in a great nation any one -person, by himself, is lost, and does not count. The chapter in -American history just ended proves that when his country is in danger, -each citizen can and must act as if the result depended on him. This -spirit of patriotism among millions of those whom history will call -nameless heroes brought victory in the war, and if it is still followed -in peace, will bring "victories no less renowned." - - -[Sidenote: =An unparalleled war=] - - -=240. The World's Greatest War.= The war of 1914-1918 is the greatest -history has ever known, because of the number of nations in it, the -number of lives lost, the cost in goods and money, and the changes it -has made among nations. - -[Sidenote: =A record in shipbuilding=] - -Its size is too vast for any one mind to picture it fully. The -front-line trenches, with all their turns and twists, were six hundred -miles long, nearly equal to the straight distance from Philadelphia -to Chicago. Mountains of material had to be sent across to keep our -soldiers well fed and warmly clothed, and furnished with the cannon -and shells they must have to meet the enemy. Only about two out of -three men in the army could fight, for the third man had to keep these -mammoth quantities of supplies steadily moving toward the front. Ships -were the thing our government needed most, since it was fighting so far -away from home. American shipyards grew so rapidly that they broke all -records for number of ships launched and swiftness in building them. -The United States soon led the world in shipbuilding for this war. - -[Illustration: CARRIER PIGEONS, A MEANS OF COMMUNICATION AT THE FRONT] - - -The War Department was so anxious to keep our men warm and comfortable -that it bought up all the wool in the country. The army had to have -thirty-five million more pairs of woolen socks than were made for the -whole nation in 1914. It used more woolen blankets in one year than the -one hundred million people in the United States buy in two ordinary -years. - -[Sidenote: =Attacks carefully planned=] - - -=241. A War of Science.= Every movement in the war had to be planned -as exactly as possible. This was a war of science, rather than a war -of dashing adventure, as those in the past had been. Before attacks -were made on the enemy, a barrage, or curtain-like rain of shells, was -turned on his lines. This "curtain of fire" moved forward at a fixed -rate, and the men walked behind it. They had strict orders to go only -so many yards a minute, or their own guns would kill them. - -[Sidenote: =Use of poison gas=] - -Poison gas was one of the new weapons of this war. It caused almost -one-third of our losses in 1918. Science produced new gases so rapidly -that inventors had to be continually making new gas masks to strain out -the deadly fumes. Over thirty kinds of gas were used during the war. - -No one commander could be present at once on every part of the hundreds -of miles of battle-lines, or even a small part of them. The war had to -be carried on largely by telephone. The Americans strung one hundred -thousand miles of wire in France. - -[Sidenote: =Pershing trained for his work=] - - -=242. Pershing Heads the Army.= The youngest of American generals, John -Joseph Pershing, was put at the head of the American forces. The choice -of Pershing was hailed everywhere as a wise one. A war so immense and -mechanical needed a general who had studied the art of war thoroughly, -as Pershing had. He had seen much actual fighting, and was the only -American general who had commanded a division in actual war. He carried -with him the love and respect of all national guardsmen. They would -have followed him anywhere he wished to lead. - -[Illustration: THE TANK, A NEW WEAPON IN THE WAR] - -We have already heard how he had routed Villa's bandits in Mexico. -He had also led a charge of colored troops against the Spaniards in -Cuba, and had conquered a powerful savage tribe in the Philippines. -Before he was sent to Mexico he had been governor of a province in the -Philippines for four years. - -[Sidenote: =Fights squarely=] - - -=243. A Boy Who Was Made of Fighting Stuff.= As a boy, Pershing was -brave and modest, with the ability to stay by a hard task until he -finished it. John was a hardy, active boy. He played at mimic war -and attended school. He played "hookey," and got into fights with -his fellows, but he was square. One day the father saw the signs of -battle-torn clothes and a bruised face. "Been fighting? Never let any -boy say that he has licked you," was the father's remark. John had -expected a whipping. - -[Illustration: - - _From a Photograph by Clinedinst_ - -JOHN J. PERSHING] - -At day school he was a plodder. But he did win a prize, a nicely bound -volume of the _Life of Washington_. This was offered by the president -of the school board. John's mother was there. The children clapped and -called for a speech. "I'm sorry you didn't all win a prize. I'm going -to grow up like Washington," he said. - -[Sidenote: =Studies at West Point=] - -In the 70's, when times were bad, John had to help earn the family -living, and he did it by teaching some of the hardest schools in the -district. He took the examinations for West Point when he was twenty, -and defeated his friend. "I'm sorry you could not win too," he said. -At the end of his first year at West Point he was made class leader, a -position won only by hard study. - -[Sidenote: =Made a general by Roosevelt=] - -After he graduated from West Point, honors and promotions came fast. -Roosevelt had passed by eight hundred and sixty-two older officers to -make him a brigadier general. At the beginning of the war he was major -general, and later Congress promoted him to the full rank of general, a -very rare honor, and the highest in its power to give. - -[Sidenote: =Arrival in France=] - -When Pershing, with a few officers and engineers first landed in France -the news spread quickly. "The Americans have come." Their arrival meant -that the United States would soon take part in the fighting in earnest. -New life and fresh resolution came into the hearts of the war-tired -veterans of France. - -[Sidenote: =Germany's last great effort=] - - -=244. The Great Danger in 1918.= Russia had fought bravely for the -Allies at the beginning of the war, but about the time the United -States entered, a revolution drove the Czar from his throne. Russia -was so upset by the revolution that after a year it gave up trying to -keep its army at the front, and made peace with Germany. Hundreds of -thousands of German soldiers were thus left free to attack the Allies -in the west. Germany thought that if she could succeed in taking Paris -before many Americans arrived in the trenches, the war would be won. It -was her last chance to win. - - - - -THE CONCLUSION OF THE WAR - - -[Sidenote: =Need of a united front=] - - -=245. Foch the Allied Supreme Commander.= Before the spring of 1918 -each of the Allied armies had been acting on its own plan. The places -where the trenches of two armies came together were, of course, the -weakest, and were favorite points for German attacks. It was now -decided to have one commander for all the Allied forces. Foch, a French -general highly skilled in the science of war, was chosen for this great -task. - -[Sidenote: =The German advance=] - - -=246. The Crisis of the War.= In their great drive the Germans always -struck at the weakest point. They found this where the French and -English armies were joined. They drove forward in mass formations or -solid blocks. Thousands upon thousands were mowed down by the English -and French guns, but on they came. Back, back the Allies fell, day -after day, until the Germans reached the Marne again. The world held -its breath. Each day the Germans were expected to break through, but -each day the Allied troops retreated. Slowly they moved, fighting like -demons and always holding at vital points. - -[Illustration: TRANSPORTS CARRYING AMERICAN TROOPS CONVOYED BY -BATTLESHIPS] - -[Sidenote: =American troops scattered along the front=] - -America was eager to be of the greatest possible help in the grave -danger to Paris and France. The Allies were short of reserves. General -Pershing, putting his own honors second in the same generous way he had -done at school, decided to scatter the Yankee troops all through the -French and British lines, wherever they were needed. - -[Sidenote: =Rushing troops to France=] - -Germany had sneered at our nation because she thought our people were -so devoted to dollars that we could not or would not fight. Now she -began to learn how high the war spirit flamed in the soldiers we were -preparing to send by millions to France. By the help of England's great -fleet, we were able to send over more than a million men by the summer -of 1918. The American troops then formed a united army, fighting under -their own flag. They took over a hundred miles of the front, relieving -tired Frenchmen. Another million arrived by November. - -The Allied command gave Pershing command of the region between the -Aisne and the Marne. The Germans thought the Americans untried, and -expected to break through by using their best "shock troops." - -[Sidenote: =The battle of Château-Thierry=] - -In July the Germans struck a terrific blow at Château-Thierry. Without -waiting for artillery, Pershing struck, and in six hours had captured -as much ground as the Germans had spent six days in getting possession -of. The Americans were advancing with great rapidity. The Germans were -dumbfounded. They did not have time to remove their supplies. - -[Sidenote: =The turning point of the war=] - -By the brilliant generalship of Foch the great German attack was -stopped in the middle of July, and after that it was the German army -which was in danger. - -Now Pershing got ready for St. Mihiel. He drew from the French and -English ranks the Americans he had sent to learn war from these -veterans. Now he also had tried men. St. Mihiel was important. It -threatened the famous battlefield of Verdun and protected the great -German fortified city of Metz. - -[Sidenote: =American victory at St. Mihiel=] - - -=247. Germans Cry "Kamerad."= On September 12 the Americans burst forth -in a rain of shot and shell such as the Germans had seldom before -witnessed. The fierce battle raged for four hours. The Americans then -charged across the river yelling like demons. The German soldiers had -been taught to despise these "green American troops." But these same -Germans now cried "Kamerad" in dead earnest. Five miles of ground were -gained before these "green" Americans halted. - -[Illustration: SUBMARINE PURSUED BY AIRPLANE] - -The next day our artillery opened fire at 1:30 in the morning. Before -the day was done, more than one hundred and fifty square miles of -German territory were in our possession. - -Both the French and the English were busy. The French were driving -at the center of the great line stretching from the North Sea to -Switzerland. The English were driving the Germans out of the Belgian -cities. - -[Sidenote: =The greatest American battle=] - - -=248. Battle of the Argonne.= Many large battles were fought by the -Americans, besides the smaller clashes that occurred. The greatest one -was in the Argonne Forest. This was a half-mountainous, woody country, -much of which was covered with underbrush. The Germans had fortified -it strongly. Besides their great cannon, they had filled the Argonne -with nests of machine guns, placing them in gullies and behind trees, -stumps, and rocks, for protection. Here too, they had their best -fighting men. - -The battle started on September 26. This was the most bloody fighting -of the war. Companies and regiments were cut off and lost for a time. -The Germans were bound to hold the forest, and the Americans were -bound to win it. Gradually the Germans were forced back, thousands -were captured, and thousands more were killed. They could not stem the -American tide. After many days of hard fighting in which the Americans -proved themselves fully equal to the best shock troops of the German -army, victory fell to the better army. - -[Sidenote: =Allied victories on all fronts=] - -The storm was just breaking loose on Germany. The combined navy of the -Allies was choking out her life in spite of the submarines. The English -in Asia were capturing the strongholds of the Turks, and the Italians -now were gaining against the Austrians. Calamities came fast. Bulgaria, -an ally of Germany, surrendered. Turkey followed. The hungry people of -Germany began to plot revolution against their rulers, and the armies -were retreating toward the Rhine. - - -=249. The Kaiser Runs Away.= Seeing that his cause was lost, the German -ruler, the Kaiser, gave up his throne and fled to Holland. The German -generals agreed to an armistice November 11, 1918, by which they gave -up much fighting material and moved back many miles across the Rhine -into their own land. - -[Sidenote: =The bravery of ordinary men=] - - -=250. American Soldiers in Battle.= The American doughboys were -splendid fighters. The officers had to check the rash daring of their -men, they did not need to urge them forward. The Americans were drilled -in methods of attack rather than defense, from the start. A joking -comment was made that it took only half as long to train American -troops as it did others, because they only had to be taught to go one -way. - -The ordinary American showed what courage lay behind the quiet round of -his peace-time life. Our soldiers were clean and full of high spirits, -and they were keyed to the most stubborn efforts by knowing that they -were not fighting in a selfish cause. They "fraternized" famously with -the French children of the villages. - -[Sidenote: =Work of the Peace Conference=] - - -=251. The Treaty of Peace.= After the armistice, the nations which had -won the victory planned to meet at Paris to make a treaty of peace. -President Wilson went over to France to take part in this meeting. - -The men who made the peace treaty gave France her two states, Alsace -and Lorraine, which Germany had taken in the war of 1870. They divided -Austria into a number of separate states, giving to each kind of people -its own government. They took land from Germany and Russia and created -Poland. They also decided that Germany should pay Belgium and France -for the destruction of property in those countries. - -[Sidenote: =Opinion favors a League=] - -[Sidenote: =Why the League was defeated=] - - -=252. America and the League of Nations.= Included in the treaty was -an agreement called the League of Nations. Its purpose was to combine -all nations, great and small, in a covenant which would work for the -peace of the world. The need of a league was urged by men of different -parties in this country during the war. A great number of Americans -were in favor of such a world agreement. This country had always been -a peace-loving people, and had fought in the hope that this would be a -war to end war. But after the armistice Europe remained more unsettled -than anyone had expected. In spite of all the treaties, wars of various -kinds continued in Europe. President Wilson toured the country speaking -for the League, but met much opposition. The American people came to -believe that under the League they would be too closely bound up with -European affairs, which were now so disturbed. - -In 1920 the question of entering the League in its original form was -widely debated. It was the chief point on which the presidential -election turned, and the result was overwhelmingly against the League -as it had been drawn up at Paris. - - -SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL - - =The Leading Facts.= _1._ This war was so great that it needed - the support of every American citizen. _2._ People at home had to - do without many things needed by the army and by the Allies. _3._ - Nearly all the great powers of Europe were drawn into the war. _4._ - Germany, contrary to treaty, invaded Belgium. _5._ The German navy - was quickly driven from the seas, and Germany was blockaded. _6._ - The American government remained neutral, but most of its people - favored the Allies. _7._ Germany sank the _Lusitania_ and other - vessels illegally. _8._ President Wilson did not lead the nation - into war until the people were unitedly in favor of it. _9._ When - Germany declared that her submarines would obey no law, and the - United States entered the war. _10._ Congress voted billions of - dollars for war. _11._ A selective draft raised a great national - army. _12._ The part of the average man in this war stands out - more than that of famous leaders. _13._ This was a war of science, - and by far the greatest war in history. _14._ Pershing was given - command of the American army. _15._ When Russia withdrew from the - war Germany used her extra troops for a final great attack. _16._ - Foch was put in command of all the Allied armies, and turned the - Germans back. _17._ The United States sent more than two million - men in all overseas. _18._ The peace treaty changed many boundary - lines. _19._ Americans wished to uphold world peace, but in the - election of 1920 defeated the League of Nations as it stood. - - =Study Questions.= _1._ Name some of the things that were done in - American homes to win the war. _2._ Why did everyone wish to do - his part? _3._ Why was the United States so late in entering the - war? _4._ Make a list of the principal countries that took part - in the World War. _5._ What was the importance of the invasion of - Belgium? _6._ Give the story of the war at sea. _7._ What disputes - occurred between the United States and the different warring - countries before 1917? _8._ Tell briefly Wilson's life before he - became President. _9._ How did Germany's treatment of the United - States lead to war? _10._ How did the United States "mobilize" for - war? _11._ What means were used to raise a national army? _12._ - What was done to take care of these millions of men? _13._ What did - the United States need most at the start? _14._ Why was this "a - war of science"? _15._ What training had Pershing had for his new - position? _16._ Tell some events of Pershing's boyhood. _17._ What - was the great danger in 1918? _18._ Give a number of reasons why - a supreme commander for the Allied armies was needed. _19._ What - action of General Pershing's reminds you of the boy, John Pershing? - Why? _20._ Tell about the battle of Château-Thierry; of St. Mihiel; - of the Argonne. _21._ What events led up to Germany's surrender? - _22._ Who in your opinion was the real hero of this war? _23._ What - did the Peace Conference do? _24._ Do you think we should enter a - world league of nations? - - =Suggested Readings.= Rand McNally's _School Atlas of - Reconstruction_; Perry, _Our Navy in the War_, 170-175. - - - - -WHERE THE AMERICAN PEOPLE AND THEIR CIVILIZATION CAME FROM - - - - -INTRODUCTION - - -[Sidenote: =First settlers from a built-up Europe=] - - -=253. Why Boys and Girls Should Know about Europe.= In the part of the -book just studied, you have become acquainted with men and women who -have been great American leaders. Did you ever stop to think that the -early settlers in this country, from whom most of our great men sprang, -came from countries in Europe already built up? What the settlers gave -to this country they got from people who had lived a long time ago. -Therefore in many ways their habits and institutions were different -from ours now. They had their own ways of living, their own schools, -churches, and forms of government. - -[Sidenote: =The rulers=] - -In most European countries kings and queens ruled the people. Next to -the king stood the lords, who were great men and owned acres and acres -of land. They had their own soldiers and many servants to do their work -and to wait on them. - -[Illustration: - - _From an early 14th century psalter_ - -SERFS OF THE MIDDLE AGES] - -[Sidenote: =The serfs=] - -Below the lords, who spent their time in war, in the chase, and in -going to see play-battles, called mock-fights, were the common people. -In some countries these people were not free, as you are, but lived in -huts in small villages on the great man's land. They had to work on his -land, and were only a little better off than slaves. These people were -called serfs. - -In the few large cities there lived at that time rich merchants who -traded in slaves, or went on long journeys to buy and sell their wares. -In the cities, too, lived workers in wool, cotton, brass, iron, wood, -and other materials. After a time the workers of a given class gathered -into a sort of union called a guild, to protect themselves. - -[Sidenote: =The roots of our civilization=] - -But in neither country nor city did the common man have the many rights -and privileges he has now-a-days in America. - -These people, so different from us, got their habits and their ways of -doing things from still older nations in Asia, in Africa and in Europe. - - - - -THE OLDEST NATIONS - - -=254. Egypt, the Land of the Nile and the Pyramids.= Egypt has always -been a land of curious things. It lies across the Mediterranean, -southeast of Europe. It is a land of sunshine day after day. Were it -not for the Nile River, it would be a part of the Great Sahara Desert. -Every year for ages, the Nile has risen in a great flood and its waters -have spread out over Egypt. In coming down from their mountain home -these waters carry rich earth which they spread over a part of Egypt. -The result is that Egypt, in an early day, became the garden spot for -nations less favored. - -[Sidenote: =Egypt in Bible times=] - -Many of you can recall the Bible story of Joseph's brethren who were -sent down into Egypt to buy corn because there was a famine in their -land. Thanks to the Nile, there was plenty of corn in Egypt. The people -of Egypt were among the first of the world's farmers and gardeners of -which history has any record. - -[Sidenote: =Carrying the waters of the Nile to the land=] - - -=255. Irrigation Systems of the Egyptians.= In a great many parts of -western United States where little rain falls, how do farmers and -gardeners get water for their plants? "Irrigation" is the word that -tells the story. The Egyptians taught the people of the world how to -save water for irrigation by building great dams in the Nile. This -water they carried in ditches throughout the land so that the thirsty -crops would have the moisture they needed for growing. - -[Sidenote: =The tombs of the kings=] - - -=256. Egypt Ruled by Kings.= For several thousand years Egypt was ruled -by kings. The most famous of these rulers was a great warrior called -Rameses II. He built great tombs or monuments called "pyramids." These -were built out of huge blocks of stone much larger than any now used in -buildings. For many years he had the common man or the slave doing this -work for him. - -[Illustration: THE PYRAMIDS OF GIZEH AND THE SPHINX] - -The Bible tells us about Moses, who became a great leader among the -Israelites. The Israelites were slaves to the kings of Egypt. Moses led -them forth from Egypt to escape the hard tasks of one of their kings. - - -=257. What the Egyptians Gave to Other Nations.= Among the Egyptians -there were great students for that early time. A few men among them -studied the stars and learned about the movements of the heavenly -bodies. In arithmetic they could count up to millions. They could weave -cloth, cut jewels, and make most beautiful objects out of glass. - -[Sidenote: =Egyptian hieroglyphics=] - -But above all the Egyptians could write. Not as we do, of course, but -they used letters, not rude pictures as seen in most early writings. -Scholars have named the characters used in writing by Egyptians and -other ancient peoples "hieroglyphics." - - -=258. Babylon and Nineveh.= Asia, too, had early peoples. Perhaps some -of them were older than the Egyptians. There lived in southwestern -Asia, in the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, two mighty -nations whose chief cities were Babylon and Nineveh. - -[Sidenote: =The hanging gardens of Babylon=] - -Babylon on the Euphrates was a splendid city. It had great walls to -protect it against enemy nations. Its hanging gardens were the wonders -of the ancient world. - -To the north, on the banks of the Tigris, lay the great city of -Nineveh. The fierce kings of Nineveh conquered many nations and forced -them to pay tribute. - -In this region, nature furnished the kings no building stone such as -was found in Egypt. But they made their homes and their palaces out of -sun-dried brick. This soft material, as the years rolled on, fell into -decay, and now men can find the ruins of these wonderful cities only by -digging where they lay. - -[Sidenote: =How the Babylonians wrote=] - -The Babylonians did their writing upon bricks or clay tablets before -they dried them. They had their own way of writing, using a sharp piece -of metal for making wedged-shaped lines instead of letters. They used -a sort of picture-writing too, making rude cuts of birds, animals, -and man. On these clay tablets, buried centuries ago, we may read the -stories of what they did and how they lived. - - -=259. How Jews and Phoenicians Helped Mankind.= Along the eastern end -of the Mediterranean lies Palestine, which was conquered by the Jews -early in their history, and became their home. The Jews as a people -interest us because they have given us our religious ideas. They have -never been a warlike nation, but at times they could fight. David was -one of their great kings, and Solomon another. - -During long years this people has held faithful and true to the idea -of one God. Although the Jews were driven from Palestine and scattered -among the nations of the world they have never given up their religion. -They have always looked forward to the time when they might return to -Jerusalem and set up a Jewish nation once more. As a result of the -World War that time seems to have come. - -[Illustration: TYPES OF EARLY ALPHABETS] - -[Sidenote: =Phoenicians helped to advance learning=] - -The Phoenicians were akin to the Jews. They lived near the Jews on the -Mediterranean and were a sea-going people, the traders of that early -time. In their ships, driven by oar and sail, they braved the dangers -of the Atlantic and reached Spain and England. To these people must -be given the credit of carrying to the Greeks and Romans much of the -learning of Egypt and Asia. To the Phoenicians also belongs the honor -and fame of inventing an alphabet much like the one we have to-day, -although with fewer letters. - - -SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL - - =The Leading Facts.= _1._ The first settlers in America came from - old and well-established countries in Europe. _2._ Their ways of - living were very different from ours. _3._ The classes of people - were very different from those we have. _4._ Egypt the oldest - nation. _5._ What the Nile does for Egypt. _6._ What Egypt taught - the world. _7._ Babylon and Nineveh, the early cities of Asia. _8._ - How they differed from Egypt. _9._ How Egypt, Babylon, and Nineveh - recorded their deeds. _10._ What the Jews were noted for. _11._ Who - were great among them? _12._ How the World War has changed the hope - of some Jews. _13._ The Phoenicians were celebrated for carrying - trade and learning. _14._ They also invented the alphabet. - - =Study Questions.= _1._ Name the different classes of people in - Europe. _2._ What would have happened if a great lord had carried - his people to America in an early day? _3._ Make a list of useful - things that the Egyptians knew. _4._ How do you imagine we know - about the ancient cities of Babylon and Nineveh? _5._ Why did they - use brick? _6._ Why is it better to use letters than pictures in - writing? - - =Suggested Readings.= Dopp, _The Tree Dwellers_; _The Early - Cave-men_; _The Later Cave-men_; _The Early Sea People_; _Stories - of Ancient Peoples_; Ragozin, _A History of the World_, Vol. I. - Earliest Peoples; Retold from _St. Nicholas_, Stories of the - Ancient World, 3-52, 69-77, 92-124; Mace-Tanner, _Old Europe and - Young America_, 14-24. - - - - -GREECE, THE LAND OF ART AND FREEDOM - - -=260. Greece, a Beautiful Land.= Among the countries of the ancient -world Greece was the one bright spot where men had the right to think -and act for themselves. - -[Sidenote: =The geography of Greece=] - -Greece is a small peninsula in southeastern Europe cut up by many -deep gulfs and bays and crossed by rugged mountains. The colors of -its landscape have been thus described: "Against a deep blue sky, -its bold hills and mountains, often powdered with snow, stand out in -clear outline, and its fertile valleys please the eye with their green -vineyards and groves of silver-gray olive trees." - -[Illustration: MOUNT OLYMPUS, IN GREEK MYTH THE HOME OF THE GODS] - -Greece is kissed by gentle winds of the Mediterranean Sea and has the -warm, balmy climate that all the shores of this inland ocean have. - -[Sidenote: =Greek colonies=] - - -=261. The Greeks of the Olden Times.= The Greeks were bold people and -many of them went on long voyages in their small vessels. These voyages -were not for plunder, but for trade and for planting colonies. Under -the lead of some brave Greek they made their way to France, to Italy, -to Africa, to Asia Minor, and to the shores of the Black Sea. Some of -these colonies became rich and prospered greatly. There were so many -Greeks living in southern Italy that it was called "Greater Greece." In -the island of Sicily stood the largest and most splendidly built city -in Greater Greece, called Syracuse. - -[Illustration: PART OF THE FRIEZE OF THE PARTHENON, THE GREAT ATHENIAN -TEMPLE] - -[Sidenote: =An old Greek myth=] - - -=262. The Brave Deeds of Ancient Greek Heroes.= The story of the Greek -heroes was the invention of her early poets. The most famous of these -heroes was Hercules, the most powerful man that ever lived, according -to story. He performed twelve mighty labors, among them killing with -his hands a big lion, and a terrible water serpent or snake which bore -many heads. - -[Sidenote: =The blind singer of Greece=] - - -=263. The Favorite Story of the Greeks.= The favorite tale of the old -Greeks was the story of the capture of Troy. It was written by one of -their poets, the blind Homer. He told how Paris, son of the king of -Troy, stole Helen, the wife of the king of a Greek city called Sparta. -Helen was said to be the most beautiful woman in the ancient world. - -The king of Sparta called upon all Greeks for help. From every city of -Greece came bold warriors. The Trojans were great fighters, too. For -nine years war was waged under the walls of Troy. The Greek leaders -quarreled among themselves and the Trojans drove them to their ships. -This united the Greeks, and their great leader Achilles, clad in new -armor made for him by the god Vulcan, rushed forth and slew Hector, -leader of the Trojans. There was great sorrow among the people of Troy, -but they fought on. - -[Sidenote: =The fall of Troy=] - -Now Ulysses, another Greek of great fame, had built a huge wooden -horse. The Greeks left the horse standing near the walls of Troy. Then -they pretended to sail home. The Trojans drew the great wooden beast -within the walls of the city. It was full of Greek warriors. They -climbed out at dead of night and opened the gates. The Greeks rushed -in, slew the Trojans, burned their city, and carried home the beautiful -Helen to be queen of Sparta again. The ancient Greeks never tired of -telling their children the wonderful story of these brave deeds. - - -=264. Socrates, the Philosopher.= After ages had gone by the Greek -nation still flourished, having improved in many ways, especially in -art and in education. - -[Sidenote: =One of the world's greatest men=] - -One of the wisest of their great men was Socrates. Socrates was an ugly -old man with a scolding wife. In spite of these drawbacks he stands out -as one of the foremost teachers of the world. Socrates was truly a wise -man, because he knew that the wisest man knows very little. He did not -pretend to know things that he did not know. - -[Sidenote: =The method Socrates used=] - -Socrates taught, for the most part, by going among the people and -asking them questions. Some people liked him, but some hated him -because he asked questions that led persons on from one point to -another until they saw their own mistakes. - -His enemies grew in numbers and brought false charges that Socrates had -not respected the gods of the city. - -There came a day when he was called before the city's judges, who -heard the charges against him. The judges decided that he must die by -drinking a cup of poison. Some of the friends of Socrates found a way -by which he could escape death. But the brave old Greek had faced death -on the battlefield and was not afraid to die. - -[Illustration: PORCH OF THE CARYATIDES, ATHENS] - -[Sidenote: =The death of Socrates=] - -Socrates believed that the laws of the city should be obeyed even if -they were unjust. He drank the fatal cup while telling his friends and -followers of a life beyond the grave. It was a favorite doctrine of -Socrates that men would live again after the body died. - -We know what Socrates taught from the writings of his most famous -pupil, Plato. These _Dialogues_ of Plato's, in the form of question and -answer, are among the greatest books ever written. - -[Sidenote: =A very learned man=] - - -=265. Aristotle, the Scientist of Ancient Times.= Aristotle was one of -the later Greeks. He was celebrated for his learning. He was called a -"Scientist," for he was not simply a philosopher as Socrates and Plato -were. - -[Sidenote: =Followed without question for ages=] - -Aristotle was indeed a wonderful man. He studied about every subject -known to the ancients and won honors in all subjects; people for -centuries and centuries after Aristotle's time accepted what he said -and did not try very hard to study further. They thought that the giant -mind of Aristotle had found out all there was to know. - -Aristotle studied animals and plants, putting them in different classes -and finding out many of their characteristics. He also knew a great -deal about music and his _Logic_ has been the great text book even down -to modern times. - -[Sidenote: =One of the earliest geographers=] - -We have a special interest in Aristotle because in his studies in -geography he taught that the world is round. From men who accepted -Aristotle's teaching about the shape of the earth, Columbus, the -discoverer of America, got his idea of sailing west to find eastern -countries. - - -=266. The Father of Alexander the Great.= Macedon was a country just -north of Greece. Its great king was Philip, father of Alexander the -Great. Philip was a brave king and had good soldiers. He taught them to -form in bodies sixteen ranks deep and armed them with lances or spears -fourteen feet long. A body of soldiers so formed and armed was called a -Macedonian phalanx. "When the Macedonians leveled their long spears and -advanced with steady step they bore down" the ranks of the enemy. - -[Illustration: ALEXANDER AT TWENTY] - -[Sidenote: =Alexander seeks to imitate the old Greek heroes=] - -With these soldiers Philip conquered Greece, but he ruled the Greeks -kindly. He even employed one of them to give lessons to his young son. -Aristotle was the teacher who opened to this young man all the learning -of the Greeks. Alexander was a bright boy and learned quickly. Although -not born a Greek, he admired their learning. He was fond of the blind -poet Homer, and it was said could repeat his poems by heart. - -Achilles was his favorite among the Greek heroes, and he finally made -himself believe that Achilles was one of his forefathers. At any rate -he resolved to imitate his hero and to conquer cities more splendid -than Troy. - - - - -HOW THE GREEKS TAUGHT MEN TO BE FREE - - -=267. Self-Government among the Greeks.= The Greeks were not many in -number, if we compare them with modern nations. But we admire them -because they were free and had the most democratic government in the -ancient world. - -[Sidenote: =Greece a city-state=] - -They lived in little cities located in the valleys shut in by hills -or mountains. Around their cities they built strong walls to shut out -dangerous enemies. There were some benefits growing out of living in -small cities. The people could know each other. The men could come -together quickly and easily to talk of things needed for the good of -the city. Only a small part of the men and women in a modern city can -get together. These Greeks could know the best men for office, for they -were their own neighbors. Now but a few men who want office can be -known to all the voters in a city, and still fewer who want to run for -governor or for president can be known by all the voters of a state or -country. - -The most famous of the cities in ancient Greece were Athens and Sparta. -Their history is well known to us because of the great deeds of their -people. Another reason for remembering them is that the two cities -were so very different, as we shall see. - -[Sidenote: =The Greeks their own rulers=] - - -=268. The Government of the Cities.= At first, just as in the case of -other nations, the Greeks had kings in all their cities. But unlike the -other nations, the Greeks drove their kings out and made for themselves -a kind of government called a republic. This was the best and wisest -government for a people as intelligent as the Greeks. In a republic all -the people, or a majority of them, take part in making and in carrying -out the laws. This is the kind of government we have. - -But while a republican government is the best, it is also the hardest -to run. It demands that each one of its citizens shall be educated so -that he may be able to vote wisely. - -[Illustration: AN ATHENIAN SCHOOLBOY LEARNING TO PLAY THE LYRE - -_From an Athenian vase_] - -The Greeks had a hard time keeping their self-government. There were -shrewd men among them who seized the power in the city and compelled -the people to obey them. Such a man the Greeks called a "tyrant." A -tyrant was either good or bad. He sometimes gave the people a better -government than they had when they ruled themselves. But the Greeks -were liberty-loving and liked to govern themselves even though their -government was worse than a tyrant's government. So they generally -drove out the tyrants and again set up a government under rulers of -their own choosing. - - -=269. The Two Rival Cities, Athens and Sparta.= The people of Athens -were the most democratic in all Greece. The Spartans, on the other -hand, were the most soldier-like of the Greeks. The Athenians loved -new things while the Spartans liked old ways best. The Athenians made -Athens the most beautiful city in the Old World. The Spartans cared -nothing for beautiful things. They loved only things that were useful. - -All the citizens of Athens came together to make the laws. In the -center of their city they met in their assembly, a semicircle of stone -seats rising one above another. Here the men of Athens listened to -their speakers. Each speaker placed a wreath upon his head before he -began speaking. - -[Illustration: THE DISCUS THROWER] - -[Sidenote: =The public life of the Athenians=] - -Often there were exciting debates between great speakers called -orators. They spoke eloquent words and sometimes stirred people deeply. -The Athenians enjoyed these debates almost as much as they did their -Greek plays. - -[Illustration: THE WRESTLERS] - -[Sidenote: =Athenian orators=] - -The people of Athens, because they made their laws after debating -them in the assembly, placed emphasis on public speaking. All the -citizens were taught how to speak in public and how to appear before -the assembly. It was natural for the best orators to have the most -influence. But the people were keen and quick to see the difference -between orators who were interested only in winning applause and -honor for themselves through their speeches and the ones who were true -patriots and spoke for the good of the city. - -Yet while the people of Athens trained their citizens to make the laws -they saw to it that their young men were trained to be good soldiers. -Training began with the school boy. There were two schools, one called -the music school and the other the wrestling school. - -[Sidenote: =The music school=] - -In the music school the Greek boys did not study music alone, but -learned to read and write and do simple sums in arithmetic. More than -this, their teachers wanted them to learn the poems written by blind -Homer, their wonderful old poet. They learned to play and sing. A -stringed instrument called a lyre was the favorite among the Greeks. - -[Sidenote: =The gymnasium=] - -In the wrestling school the boys learned to run, to jump, to dance, and -especially to throw the javelin. At fifteen they attended the gymnasium -where they were taught the more difficult athletic games. This led up -to the next great event in the young man's life, his preparation for -becoming a citizen. - -[Sidenote: =Soldier-citizens=] - -This important event came at the age of eighteen. It began with a great -ceremony. The young men came into the assembly before all the men of -the city. Here they were given a spear and shield. With their hands -raised they took an oath never to bring shame upon the city nor to -desert a companion in arms. They pledged themselves to give over the -city of Athens to their children greater than when they had found it. - -After this ceremony was over, the young men marched away to be trained -for two years more in the art of being soldiers. When they had reached -their twentieth year, they returned to Athens to become citizens of -the republic, to work for its good, and to enjoy the pleasures of that -charming city. - -[Sidenote: =Character of Pericles=] - - -=270. Pericles, the Wise Statesman.= Pericles lived in the "Golden -Age of Athens." He was born nearly 500 years before Christ. He was -trained in the same manner as any other boy in Athens. He became one -of the first orators of Greece and his ability as a speaker gave him -great power over his people. He became one of their leading officers. -Pericles stood for the people and against those men of aristocratic -ways who wanted the city ruled by the few. - -Cimon was the leader of the aristocracy. The people of Athens voted -to banish him. But after a time Pericles had him brought back to -Athens. This shows how very kind-hearted Pericles was toward his great -political enemy. - -For thirty years Pericles was the most popular man in Athens. He ruled -the people kindly and well during this time. - -It was Pericles who made Athens the City Beautiful. When you are older -you may read all about the many wonderful buildings and monuments he -erected. - -[Illustration: HEAD OF PERICLES - -_After the original in the British Museum_] - -The rule of Pericles had one bad result: He was so popular and had been -the great man in the government so long that when he passed away there -was no one who could take his place. The time in which he lived is -often called the "Age of Pericles." After his death history handed his -high ideas on to Rome and the rest of the world. No doubt these ideas -influenced the great men of Rome. - - - - -SPREAD OF GREEK CIVILIZATION - - -[Sidenote: =The Greeks of Asia Minor=] - - -=271. The Old Wars of the Greeks.= The once greatest enemies of -the Greeks were the Persians, living in western Asia. The Persians -conquered Asia Minor. Here on its coast the Greeks had planted many -cities, and they naturally sent ships and soldiers to aid their kinsmen. - -[Illustration: AN ATHENIAN WAR GALLEY] - -[Sidenote: =The battle of Marathon=] - -The king of the Persians, Darius by name, whom we read about in the -Bible, sailed with a great army across the sea to Greece. One hundred -thousand Persians met ten thousand Greeks on the battlefield of -Marathon. The Greeks won. - -The old folks and children among the Greeks waited for the news with -breathless anxiety. The minutes grew into hours. At last they saw a -runner coming. He was covered with dust. He had been on the battlefield -and was running to tell the waiting people of the great victory. He -dropped dead as he called out, "Victory!" He had run twenty-four miles! - -Both Europe and America have celebrated the victory at Marathon by -naming one of their races in the great Olympic contest the Marathon -race. - -[Sidenote: =Xerxes' forces=] - -Again, a new king, Xerxes, who reigned over Persia, decided to -overthrow Greece. He gathered a vast host from forty-six tributary -states. He also gathered a fleet greater than any Greece had. - -[Illustration: THE PERSIAN KING FLEEING IN THE BATTLE OF ISSUS] - -The city of Sparta gave three hundred brave soldiers. Their leader -was Leonidas. The Persian army had to march along the narrow pass of -Thermopylae that ran between high mountains and the sea. Here stood the -brave Spartans. For two days Leonidas held the pass. Through a mountain -road the Persians gained the rear of the Spartan army. But the Spartans -did not retreat. Every Spartan fell fighting for his country. A noble -example! - -[Sidenote: =The battle of Salamis=] - -The Greek warships met the Persians in the Bay of Salamis and overthrew -them completely. Xerxes took his army and hastened back to Persia. Asia -might be ruled by tyrants but the Greeks were bound to be free. - - -=272. How Alexander Spread Greek Ideas.= But these wonderful deeds were -not all the Greeks were to do. We have seen Alexander come to the head -of the Greek Empire. He had a wonderful army and resolved to teach the -Persians a lesson or two as well as to spread Greek ideas. - -[Sidenote: =The march of the Greeks=] - -Alexander's army was not large, but it was the best trained in the -world. Think of the Macedonian phalanx! All the cities of Persia fell -into his hands. Before he was thirty years old, southwestern Asia and -Egypt recognized his rule. Alexandria, situated at the mouth of the -Nile River, was founded by him. It became a center of Greek ideas and -boasted the largest library in the Old World. - - -=273. Why Alexander Failed.= Alexander's army made its way to India. -But its great general, now only thirty-two, was drunk with power. He -even permitted the people he conquered to worship him as a god. He -loved the wine-cup too well and was stricken with a fever and died. - -There was no one to take his place, but much that was finest and best -in Greek life remained to the world. - - -SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL - - =The Leading Facts.= _1._ Greece, a land of hills, mountains, - plains, bays, and gulfs. _2._ Greeks traded and planted colonies. - _3._ The deeds of Greek heroes. _4._ The great men of the newer - Greece. =5.= The reason why the Persians attacked the Greeks. =6.= - Marathon, Thermopylae, and Salamis. _7._ Alexander the Great, his - father, his education, his army, and his victories. =8.= Spread of - Greek ideas. - - =Study Questions.= _1._ See map for the boundaries of "Greater - Greece." _2._ Name heroes among the ancient Greeks. Do you know - of any others? _3._ What was their favorite story? _4._ What was - the cause of the Trojan War? _5._ Who was Helen and for what was - she famous? _6._ Who was Socrates? Plato? Aristotle? _7._ How is - Aristotle connected with Columbus? _8._ Who were the Persians? - _9._ Why did they attack the Greeks? _10._ Name the great battles. - _11._ How was Alexander able to beat the Persians in their own - land? _12._ How did Alexander benefit the world in what he did? - - =Suggested Readings.= Guerber. _The Story of the Greeks_; Hall, - _Life in Ancient Greece_, II, 166; Harding, _Stories of Greek Gods, - Heroes, and Men_; Tappan, _The Story of the Greek People_; Yonge, - _Young Folks' History of Greece_; Mace-Tanner, _Old Europe and - Young America_, 24-73; Hall, _Four Old Greeks_. - - - - -WHEN ROME RULED THE WORLD - - -=274. Rome, the Eternal City.= Italy looks like a big boot hanging from -the Alps Mountains down into the Mediterranean Sea. "Sunny Italy," -people call it. - -[Sidenote: =An old Roman myth=] - -The ancient Romans all believed that their city, Rome, was founded by a -hero called Romulus. He had a twin brother, Remus. A wicked uncle threw -them while babies into a basket and set it adrift on the river Tiber. -But the boys--so the story runs--were found by a she-wolf that nursed -them until they became men, strong and cruel. With the aid of others as -brave as himself, Romulus founded the city of Rome. - -[Sidenote: =How Rome was ruled=] - - -=275. Rome Becomes a Republic.= Romulus was the first of six kings. -The people drove out the sixth because he was cruel, and Rome became a -republic. The republic was ruled by two men called "consuls," aided by -the advice of great men called "senators." These senators were among -the wisest men in the Old World. - - -=276. Stories of Roman Heroes.= The people of Rome, like the Greeks, -had their tales of what the bold heroes of olden times had done. - -[Sidenote: =Horatius saves Rome=] - -One of the most famous stories is about a hero named Horatius. The -Romans sent for him to lead their soldiers against the last king, who -was trying to get back the Roman throne. Bold Horatius took his stand -on a narrow bridge leading across the Tiber to the city. Here he met -the enemy, and defended the bridge with only his good sword until the -Roman soldiers broke down the bridge behind him. When the bridge fell, -he plunged into the fast rolling stream and swam ashore. - -[Illustration: THE PANTHEON, A ROMAN TEMPLE DEDICATED TO ALL THE GODS] - -[Sidenote: =The story of Cincinnatus=] - -The story that American boys and girls like best, perhaps, is one -the Romans never tired of telling their children. It is about an old -farmer-soldier named Cincinnatus. Rome's enemies were knocking at the -very doors of the "Eternal City." The Romans called for Cincinnatus to -head the army. They found him ploughing on his little farm. He left his -plough and oxen in the field, took command of the Roman army, and by -a night attack completely defeated the enemy. He was the most popular -man in Rome and could have held any office in the government. But he -returned to his plow as if nothing had happened. - -George Washington is often called the American Cincinnatus, for he, -too, at the close of our Revolution, laid down his arms and went to -live on his farm on the banks of the Potomac. - -[Sidenote: =How the common people gained new rights=] - - -=277. The First Battle between Rich and Poor.= A fierce war between -the rich and poor threatened to destroy the republic itself. The rich -were selfish and thought they should have all the power. After a long -struggle the poor gained some political rights by all moving to a -sacred hill and beginning to build a rival city. The rich gave in and -the poor in Rome had a right to choose a man who could raise his hand -in the assembly and say: "I forbid," which he did by using the Latin -word, "veto." This is where we get our word "veto." - - -=278. The People Called Gauls Take Rome.= For many years the Romans -quarreled among themselves. How could they defend Rome from the great -bands of brave and fierce people who swarmed down from the North? -These were the Gauls. They were very large men who dressed in skins of -beasts. They defeated the Romans, burned their cities, and murdered the -people. - -[Illustration: SAVAGE GAULS AND THEIR WEAPONS] - -[Sidenote: =Gauls become Romans=] - -After a time the Gauls lived among the Romans and finally became so -mixed with them you could hardly tell them apart. They all became -Romans, and Rome was then united and strong. The natural result was -that Rome conquered all the other tribes or peoples living in Italy. - - - - -HANNIBAL TRIES TO CONQUER ROME - - -[Illustration: HANNIBAL'S ARMY CROSSING THE ALPS] - -[Sidenote: =A Phoenician colony=] - - -=279. Carthage the Rival of Rome.= Just as Persia was the rival of -Greece, so Carthage was the rival of Rome. Carthage had been settled -by the Phoenicians, the traders of the ancient world. Carthage, the -richest of their colonies, was just across the Mediterranean from Rome. -In the days of her greatest power Carthage was said to have nearly a -million people. Rome and Carthage quarreled about the island of Sicily, -lying midway between them, and Rome was successful in driving her enemy -out of the island. The great Carthaginian general, Hannibal, when only -a boy took a solemn oath to carry on war with Rome without ceasing. -When he later became a famous general he still remembered his oath -against Rome. He gathered a mighty army from all Carthaginian colonies -as well as from the homeland. Soldiers came from all parts of Spain -and Gaul. From Africa came the finest body of cavalry in the world. -The strangest part of the body was a long line of war elephants driven -by their riders to trample down the Roman soldiers and to break their -solid lines. - -[Illustration: ROMANS PLOWING THE GROUND WHERE CARTHAGE HAD STOOD] - - -The army came together in Spain and marched over the mighty Alps into -Italy. Their march was slow and hard. There were no roads at all -through the mountains. The army was often attacked by people living in -the mountains who hurled huge stones upon it. - -After five months the army finally reached the plains of Italy, though -hundreds of brave soldiers had been lost. - -Rome was stirred to her depths. A great army was raised to meet the -Carthaginians. But Rome had no general like Hannibal. For fifteen years -he remained in Italy, defeating every general sent against him. - -[Sidenote: =How Hannibal made war=] - -Hannibal's greatest victory was on the field of Cannae. Rome raised a -mighty army, 86,000 men. Hannibal had only 50,000, but he had faith -in his veterans, especially in the African horsemen. He arranged his -troops so that his center gave way easily. When the Romans thought -victory near, Hannibal's heavy troops on each wing attacked them from -both sides and his African horsemen struck them in the rear. The -Romans lost in killed and wounded 70,000 men. - -The Romans hit upon the plan of sending an army to attack Carthage. -Hannibal had to rush his troops home to save his beloved city. In the -great battle of Zama Hannibal was defeated and Carthage fell. - -[Sidenote: =The fate of Carthage=] - -Rome would not permit a rival, so she wholly destroyed Carthage, her -great fleets of ships, her hoards of money, her stores of goods and her -great buildings. It is said that Romans sowed salt where Carthage once -stood so that nothing might ever grow there. - - - - -ROME CONQUERS THE WORLD BUT GROWS WICKED - - -=280. How Rome Came to Win Victories.= The wars made great soldiers -out of the Romans, who, now that they had trained generals, began to -conquer all the nations about them. They invaded Macedonia, Greece, -Asia, and Africa, destroying the mighty nations which had grown out of -the work of Alexander the Great. - -[Sidenote: =How the Romans defeated the phalanx=] - -How do you suppose the Romans defeated the Macedonian phalanx? The -Roman generals planned the battle with the Macedonians so that it -always occurred in a forest or on rough broken ground where the phalanx -could not stand in solid columns. With the phalanx already in disorder -the Romans charged and defeated them easily. - -[Sidenote: =Roman slaves=] - - -=281. The Effect on the Romans.= Long before the Romans began to -conquer other nations they were a simple farmer-like people living by -raising grain and horses and cattle and sheep. But as soon as they -began to conquer other nations many of the Romans grew proud and -haughty. A great many grew rich from what they took from the defeated -nations. Hundreds of Romans who had been small farmers now lived on -great farms. On these farms or plantations the work was done by slaves, -who were prisoners taken in battle. Some of these slaves were rude men -taken in wars against half-savage people. Others, like the Greeks, -were well educated, and really knew more than their masters. Those who -belonged to this class of slaves were treated kindly and often played -the part of tutors to the children of their rich masters. - - -=282. The Rich and Poor Quarrel Again.= The rich men oppressed the poor -in many ways. A great many poor went to Rome to live because they found -it hard to make a living on their little farms. Then, too, the great -city was full of interesting doings. Besides, the city did not permit -her poor to starve. Great shiploads of grain were brought from Egypt to -feed them. - -[Sidenote: =The Gracchi=] - -In Rome at this time there lived two brothers called the Gracchi. -They were both great orators and rose to high positions in Rome. They -saw their city was in a bad way on account of the many poor that were -flocking to it. - -The Gracchi tried to change this by taking away from the very rich -landowners a part of their land and giving it to the poor. The Gracchi -wanted to make farmers out of the poor. This plan roused the anger of -the rich. They raised riots against the brothers and both men were -killed. Rome never forgot the Gracchi, and even in our time they are -looked upon as noble men laboring for the good of their country. - - -SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL - - =The Leading Facts.= _1._ What Italy looks like on the map. _2._ - Romulus and Remus. _3._ The founding of Rome; the six kings. - _4._ A republic with "consuls" and "senators." _5._ The story - of Horatius; of Cincinnatus. Our Cincinnatus. _6._ The first - quarrel, and the removal to the second hill. _7._ The capture of - Rome by the Gauls; the Gauls become Romans. _8._ Rome and Carthage - rivals. _9._ Quarrel over Sicily. _10._ Hannibal takes a great - oath. _11._ Hannibal's army. _12._ How it reached Italy and how - long it remained. _13._ Hannibal's victory at Cannae. _14._ The - Romans invade Carthage and defeat Hannibal at Zama. _15._ How - Rome defeated the phalanx. _16._ Romans before conquests a simple - people. _17._ Effect on the Romans of conquering the world. _18._ - Second great contest between rich and poor. _19._ The Gracchi to - the rescue. _20._ Death of the Gracchi and why they are remembered. - - =Study Questions.= _1._ Why did the Romans believe the story of - Romulus and Remus? _2._ Tell the story of Horatius and Cincinnatus. - Which do you like best? _3._ Tell the origin of the word "veto." - _4._ Who was Hannibal and how could he stay so long in Italy with - his army? _5._ Who built Carthage? _6._ Describe the battle of - Cannae. _7._ Why did the Romans scatter salt over the ground where - Carthage stood? _8._ How did Rome overcome the Macedonian phalanx? - _9._ What bad effect did the world conquest have upon Rome? _10._ - Tell the story of the Gracchi. - - =Suggested Readings.= Tappan, _The Story of the Roman People_, - 1-122; Yonge, _Young Folks' History of Rome_, 13-202; Harding, _The - City of the Seven Hills_, 7-165; Lang, _The Red Book of Heroes_, - 43-94; Guerber, _The Story of the Romans_; Mace-Tanner, _Old Europe - and Young America_, 74-93. - - - - -THE ROMAN REPUBLIC BECOMES THE ROMAN EMPIRE - - -[Sidenote: =Conditions that favored Caesar=] - - -=283. The Rise of Julius Caesar.= When a country is torn by quarrels -between rich and poor, very often some great man rises, seizes the -government, and rules the country himself. He may use the army in -compelling all parties to submit quietly to his rule. So it was in Rome. - -Caesar was "tall and erect, with hooked nose, and piercing glance." He -made the common people believe him to be their friend. They probably -thought that he was another Gracchus. - -[Sidenote: =Governor of Gaul=] - - -=284. Caesar Governor of Gaul.= Caesar was chosen consul, and then -later made governor of Gaul. In Gaul the people were half savage and -were constantly fighting. - -They made friends with Caesar because he helped them defeat the -Germans. The Germans were carrying fire and sword into Gaul until -Caesar put them to rout. - -[Sidenote: =War with the Gauls=] - -Caesar now decided that he must conquer all the country of the Gauls. -He called for more of the Roman legions, such as had defeated the -Macedonian phalanx. One after another the tribes of Gaul were overcome. -Then suddenly, when Caesar least expected it, the Gauls rose as one -man and defeated the Romans. But Caesar would not give up. He finally -defeated the Gauls and sent their great leader a prisoner to Rome. - - -=285. His Invasion of England.= The Britons were kinfolk of the Gauls -and had sent them help in the fight against Caesar. The Britons were -also half savage, and Caesar resolved to make them feel the power of -Rome. But Caesar found the Britons ready for him when his ships tried -to land his soldiers. The Britons, though bravely fighting for native -land, were finally defeated. - -[Illustration: ROMAN REMAINS IN GREAT BRITAIN - -_The Lighthouse, Dover Castle_] - -Caesar made two invasions into England, but when his soldiers were -needed at home, he withdrew. - -[Sidenote: =Trouble at home=] - - -=286. He Crosses the Rubicon.= There were other great generals in Rome -and they now became jealous of Caesar's many victories and of his -popularity. They prepared to punish him. But Caesar was too quick for -them. He marched his army rapidly into Italy until he reached a little -stream called the Rubicon. To cross this stream meant war--victory or -defeat. He stood awhile--so the story runs--in deep study. "The die is -cast," said Caesar, and plunged into its waters. - - -=287. Caesar the Ruler of Rome.= Caesar's enemies fled from Rome, -so quickly did he come. He now held the great city in his hands. He -followed his enemies and defeated them in a great battle. Other armies -were raised against him, but he was the final victor. He sent a famous -dispatch to Rome: "I came, I saw, I conquered." Julius Caesar was now -master of the civilized world. - -[Illustration: JULIUS CAESAR] - -[Sidenote: =The plot against Caesar=] - -But in ruling the world Caesar had changed Rome from a republic into -an empire. Many good Roman nobles could never forget that fact. Caesar -planned to give Rome a good government. He was in many ways a wise -ruler. Still many people could not forgive him. So those who believed -Rome should still be a republic and others who were merely jealous of -him, planned to kill him. As he came into the Senate Hall one day they -stabbed him. - -But the death of Rome's greatest man did not set her free. Another and -a worse tyrant ruled Rome. - - - - -WHAT ROME GAVE TO THE WORLD - - -[Sidenote: =How Rome ruled=] - - -=288. Great Lawmakers and Governors.= Of all the ancient nations Rome -was the most famous in establishing laws in regard to the ownership of -property and in regard to the way men should act toward one another. - -Her consuls and senators were men skillful in planning laws not only -for Rome but for the nations which she had conquered. - -[Sidenote: =The Colosseum=] - - -=289. Romans Were Great Builders.= The buildings of Greece were -beautiful but those of Rome were large and strong. The Colosseum, built -as a place of entertainment for the people, was a gigantic affair -seating 87,000 people. In this were held fights between gladiators, men -trained to kill each other, and between men and wild beasts. The effect -was to make the Romans lovers of such cruel sports. - -Other famous buildings put up by the Romans were the Forum and the -Pantheon. You may see remains of these now in Rome. They are visited by -hundreds of Americans every year. - -[Sidenote: =Roman roads=] - -The Romans also built wonderful roads in all parts of the empire for -the use of armies and for travel and trade. Some of these roads are -still used. They built strong bridges over the rivers and erected -aqueducts in different parts of the empire. These Roman aqueducts -brought good, pure water from the hills to supply the needs of the -townspeople. - -[Illustration: ROMAN BRIDGE AND AQUEDUCT NEAR NIMES, FRANCE] - - -=290. The Romans Gave a Literature to the World.= Not all Romans were -educated. All boys and girls did not then go to school, as they do in -America. Only the sons of the well-to-do could become educated. - -[Sidenote: =Classic Roman writers=] - -Rome became famous for her great writers. Even Julius Caesar found time -to write the story of his war against the Gauls. High school boys and -girls read Caesar's _Commentaries_. There was Vergil, a great poet, who -told the story of how the Greeks beat the Trojans. Vergil made these -Greek heroes the ancestors of the Romans. Horace was another of Rome's -great poets. He amused the Romans "by his genial and quiet humor." But -Cicero was the great orator of Rome. His voice went ringing down the -senate halls as he challenged Catiline, who had plotted to overthrow -the republic. - - -=291. Rome Prepared the Way for the Spread of Christianity.= When Rome -seemed sunk in wickedness there came out of Palestine the story of -Jesus. His disciples were carrying the glad news everywhere over the -empire. Paul, the most learned of these followers of Christ, carried -the story to Greece and to Rome. - -[Sidenote: =Early Christian martyrs=] - -The emperors tried to stamp out the new religion, but the more they -opposed the more it grew. Hundreds of Christians perished holding firm -to the faith. Many were destroyed by wild beasts in the Colosseum -before the eyes of thousands of Romans. But the new religion appealed -to many, and especially to the poorer classes. The Emperor Constantine -(305 A. D.) soon accepted the new religion and gave it protection. It -then spread rapidly. Priests were sent into the villages to preach and -to set up churches. Above the priest was a bishop in charge of all the -churches in a district or province. - -The government of the new church was formed like that of the empire -and became strong. Other religions were driven out. In time the many -offices of the empire were in the hands of the priests or under their -influence. Many years later these two governments of the church and the -empire quarreled over their rights to rule the people. - - - - -THE DOWNFALL OF ROME - - -[Sidenote: =How the Teutonic tribes lived=] - - -=292. The Coming of the Huns and Teutons.= North of the Alps, beyond -the Danube and the Rhine, and between the North Sea and the Black Sea, -was a vast region of wild lands. Here the German or Teutonic tribes -had lived for hundreds of years. They had made little advance in ways -of living. They still dwelt in poor villages. They loved to fight, or -waste their time in idleness and feasts. They were noted for their -love of liberty and pure family life. At the time of the invasions -(4th century) they were learning to live in towns, to unite in -confederations, and to be ruled by elected kings. They had so increased -in numbers that more land was needed to afford them a living. This was -the main cause of their moving south to the Roman frontiers. - -[Sidenote: =Gradual coming of the Germans=] - -For three hundred years the Germans were restless in their northern -homes. But the Roman armies were strong enough to keep them beyond the -Danube. Some had come over as soldiers in the Roman legions. By 330 -half the troops were German. Some of the more peaceful Germans were -allowed to make settlements within the empire. Other Germans came in as -slaves, but mainly to work on the farms. - -By the end of the fourth century after Christ the Romans had become too -weak to keep the Germans back. - -[Illustration: THE COMING OF THE HUNS - -_From a print after the painting by Ulpiano Checa_] - -[Sidenote: =Battle of Chalons=] - -But the Germans were gentle compared with the fierce Huns from Asia -who made the next great invasion into Europe. And under their terrible -chief, Attila, they swept over Europe like firebrands, laying waste all -they could not carry away. At last the Germans and the Romans united -and defeated the Huns at Chalons (451). The Huns moved eastward, passed -through northern Italy, and soon reëntered Asia. Europe was saved. - - -=293. End of the Empire.= Other German tribes entered the empire, -took possession of the lands, and even formed governments under their -chiefs. In a quarrel over lands the German troops removed the Roman -emperor and declared their chief, Odoacer, king (476). This marks the -end of the Roman Empire and the rise of the kingdom of Italy, though -the present United Kingdom, formed after centuries of division, among -small, jealous city states, is only sixty years old. - -Other invasions went on for many years. Europe was in disorder and -confusion for nearly four hundred years. It was a time of seeding, when -the rough, brave, liberty-loving German peoples were intermarrying with -the Greeks and Romans and learning from them the finer ways of living. -From this fusion a new society was built on the ruins of the old, as -shown in the nations of Italy, France, and Spain. - - - - -THE ANGLES AND SAXONS IN GREAT BRITAIN - - -=294. The Britons.= There were already two groups of people in these -islands. Under the rule of the Romans one group, the Britons, had been -weakened as fighters. - -[Sidenote: =Britons fight among themselves=] - -Rome called her legions out of Britain to fight the Germans. This left -the Britons without good soldiers to keep order and the tribes began -fighting one another. One tribe, the Britons proper, invited bands of -Jutes from Denmark (449) to help them. After the Britons had forced -back their enemies the Jutes refused to go away. They took possession -of the land, making it their home. - -[Sidenote: =Where the name England came from=] - - -=295. Coming of the Anglo-Saxons.= Other German tribes, chiefly the -wild Angles and Saxons, now came over from Europe. The new tribes soon -brought the Britons under their rule. They gave their names to the land -they had taken--Angle land or England. The Angles and Saxons are the -forefathers of the "English" people. The Britons who would not submit -were driven into the lands to the west known as Wales, and became the -"Welsh." - - -=296. Rome Brings Christianity to the Germans.= When the western Roman -Empire passed away in 476, the church remained the only strong central -government in all that vast territory. It acted as a steady light -when all about was dark and changing. Its priests came to be the only -educated class, giving it great influence. - -[Sidenote: =Clovis, king of the Franks, converted=] - -Even before the invasions began, missionaries went among the German -tribes on the frontiers to preach the religion of Christ. Many of the -Germans had accepted the new religion either before or soon after -entering Roman territory. Clovis, king of the Franks, was influenced by -his Christian wife to accept the new religion. His army followed, and -was baptized with its leader. - -[Sidenote: =England becomes Christian=] - -Missionaries under Augustine were sent from Rome to England. Through -their earnest preaching and noble living the king of Kent and his -followers accepted the new religion. A church was built at Canterbury. -Others carried on the work until all England had accepted Christianity. -Other missionaries went to the northern Germans, and many of these -people became Christians. - -These early missionaries were mostly monks. Their homes (monasteries) -were like small settlements among the people. They not only preached -the new religion, but showed people better ways of farming and living. -In their schools, they taught people to read and write. - -[Illustration: _After an engraving in Green's History of England_ - -WORK COPYING MANUSCRIPT, 1200 A. D.] - - - - -CHARLES THE GREAT, RULER OF THE FRANKS - - -=297. Charlemagne.= While the Germans were still moving into the -Roman Empire the Franks had set up a government under Clovis. They -had become Christians and lived on friendly terms with the church. -They grew strong and settled down to a more orderly and quiet way of -living. Their first great king, Charles Martel, the Hammer, checked -the invasion of the Mohammedans at Tours (732), and again Europe and -Christianity were saved. But the greatest of all the leaders of the -Franks was Charlemagne, the grandson of Charles Martel, for he was not -only a great conqueror but a wise and able ruler. - -[Illustration: CHARLES THE GREAT AT THE SCHOOL OF THE PALACE] - - -Charlemagne, or Charles the Great, was by far the most famous man of -his time. He seemed to be a happy fusion of Germanic strength and Roman -learning. He was tall and strong, with large, bright eyes, fair hair, -and a face round and laughing. He exercised much, riding, hunting, -and swimming. He liked the Frankish costume: "... next to his skin -a linen shirt and linen breeches, and above these a tunic fringed -with silk; while hose fastened by bands covered his lower limbs, and -shoes his feet, and he shielded his shoulders and chest in winter by -a close-fitting coat of otter or marten skin. Over all he cast a blue -coat: always too he had a sword girt about him." - -[Sidenote: =Character of Charles=] - -[Sidenote: =The School of the Palace=] - -Charles ate and drank with care, never taking too much of either food -or drink. During his meals his attendants entertained him with reading -and music. He liked the stories and deeds of the olden time and the -books of Augustine. He was a good speaker, easily understood. He loved -learning, but had little education himself. He had the famous School -of the Palace in his own home to educate his own children and those of -the nobles. Wise teachers like Peter of Pisa, and Alcuin of England -were brought to his court. He helped the priests in their study and -in building schools. Charles loved the church and gave much to aid -its educational and religious work. He really brought learning to the -people. - -[Sidenote: =Charlemagne's wars=] - -Charles the Great was for three years ruler with his father (768-771), -then sole ruler until 814. His kingdom was surrounded on all sides by -fierce enemies. Most of his long rule was taken up in fighting the wild -Germans to the north and east, the Arabs in Spain, or the Lombards and -others to protect the church in Italy. He was a great warrior. Before -his death he had brought most of western Europe under his rule. - -[Sidenote: =Crowned Emperor of Rome=] - - -=298. The Crowning of Charlemagne.= So successful was he that it seemed -the Roman Empire was again to live in the memories of men. God was -surely with him. How simple it then seemed to bestow the symbol of -divine blessing upon Charles! On Christmas day, 800, Charles was in -Rome. And on that sacred day of the Christians he entered the great -church and knelt in prayer before the altar. In that solemn moment -the pope, as the messenger on earth of God, quietly stepped to where -Charles was kneeling. Lifting the crown which he held in his hands, he -placed it upon the head of the king of the Franks and proclaimed him -Emperor of Rome (800). What glorious memories it must have brought to -the thousands gathered there! In their joy they cried out: "Long life -and victory to the mighty Charles, the great and pacific emperor of the -Romans, crowned of God!" - -[Sidenote: =How he governed=] - - -=299. The Ruler Charlemagne.= Charles was a great ruler as well as -soldier. He divided his territory into districts over each of which -a count ruled. An army officer cared for all military matters. At -certain times inspectors passed over the several districts. These three -officers reported directly to Charles and were checks on the conduct of -each other. - -[Sidenote: =His just laws=] - -Some of the orders which he sent to his officers show how great and -just a ruler he was. He orders that "all shall live entirely in -accordance with God's precept, justly and under a just rule, and each -one shall be admonished to live in harmony with his fellows." Let no -one "do injury to the churches of God, or to the poor, or the widows, -or the wards, or any Christian." He then lays down the rules of living -for the clergy, nuns, bishops, and other church officers, that their -lives may be holy and their influence good. - -He wanted to see justice done all over his kingdom--to the poor as well -as to the rich. Wonderful stories, some true, have been woven about the -name of the great emperor. - -[Sidenote: =Why his empire fell=] - -He built up a great empire, but it was too great to live long. There -were too many races with different ways of living, and the provinces -were too far apart. When the strength and wisdom of his hand and head -passed away in death, the great empire began to crumble and fall apart. - - -SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPILS - - =The Leading Facts.= _1._ Julius Caesar takes the popular side. - _2._ Governor of Gaul. _3._ Conquest of Gaul and the Germans. _4._ - Caesar invades Britain. _5._ Crosses the Rubicon and becomes ruler - of the Roman Empire. _6._ Why he was assassinated. _7._ What Rome - gave to the world. _8._ Rome famous for its wonderful buildings - and roads. _9._ Her great literature. _10._ How Rome prepared the - way for Christianity. _11._ Coming of the Huns and Teutons marks - the downfall of Rome. _12._ The removal of the Roman emperor and - Odoacer made king. _13._ Anglo-Saxons in Britain. _14._ Rome takes - Christianity to the Germans. _15._ Charles the Great. _16._ The - Palace School. _17._ The crowning of Charlemagne. - - =Study Questions.= _1._ Who was Julius Caesar? _2._ What did he - do to make people remember him? _3._ Why did good men join in - murdering him? _4._ Name the different things given to the world - by Rome? _5._ Explain how Rome helped Christianity. _6._ Who - were the Huns and the Teutons? _7._ Tell about the following in - Charlemagne's career: (1) The battle of Tours; (2) How Charlemagne - looked and dressed; (3) His Palace School; (4) How he ruled the - Franks; (5) How he was crowned; (6) Why his empire crumbled at his - death. - - =Suggested Readings.= Tappan, _The Story of the Roman People_, - 123-237; Harding, _The City of the Seven Hills_, 184-211; Yonge, - _Young Folks' History of Rome_, 229; Clarke, _The Story of Caesar_; - Guerber, _The Story of the Romans_. - - - - -THE COMING OF THE NORTHMEN - - -[Sidenote: =The vessels of the Northmen=] - - -=300. The Vikings or Sea-Rovers.= The Northmen lived in the lands of -Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. They lived on the inlets of the ocean, -or viks, and were called "vikings." Their boats were long, and each -one had a high prow with the head of a dragon or other fierce-looking -animal upon it. They drove their vessels by sail or oar. Often there -were as many as fifty rowers in a boat, their bright shields hanging -over the sides. When the sun shone on them they looked like great -moving lights. The Northmen were great sea-rovers and pirates. - -[Sidenote: =Movements of the Northmen=] - -In the eighth and ninth centuries these Northmen or Norsemen began -moving out in great bands. Some overran the northern part of France and -settled on the river Seine. They were called "Normans," and this region -is now Normandy. Others sailed to the west and founded Iceland and -Greenland. And their "sagas" or records tell us that Leif Ericson and -his men even sailed as far as the coast of North America, although the -settlements they made then did not prove to be lasting. - -[Illustration: THE LANDING OF LEIF ERICSON IN AMERICA] - -[Sidenote: =The conquest of England=] - -The Northmen, called Danes by the English, had made many attacks on -the coasts of England. Now they came in armies to take the land for -homes. As they were heathen they took the riches from the churches and -slew the priests. They captured place after place, driving the English -before them, until the greater part of England fell into their hands. -Young Alfred, king of Wessex, finally forced them to stop. While he -drove them back some distance, he could not make them leave England. - - - - -ALFRED THE GREAT - - -[Sidenote: =Childhood of Alfred=] - - -=301. Alfred the Boy.= Alfred was born in 849. His mother was a good -woman who gave much time and care to her children. Alfred learned -early to read and to love books. A story is told of how Alfred won -a beautiful book as a prize from his mother for learning to read it -sooner than the other children. He spent much time in learning about -wise men, in order to become wise himself. - -[Sidenote: =Alfred fights the Danes=] - -As he grew older he found other serious work to do. He aided his -brother Ethelred, king of Wessex, to give battle to the Danes, who were -moving south. In one battle Alfred led the English "with the rush of a -wild boar," and defeated the Danes. Later the Danes drove them back and -killed the English king. Alfred now became king of Wessex (871). - -[Sidenote: =The story of the cakes=] - - -=302. Alfred as King.= Soon after Alfred became king his army was -beaten and his men fled. With a little band of followers he hid in the -marshes and there built a fort on an island. A story is told of how he -was lost while wandering alone, and asked for shelter at the hut of a -herdsman. The good wife told him to watch some cakes on the fire while -she was busy. Alfred was bending his bow and arrows, and forgetting the -cakes, let them burn. When she came back and saw the burnt cakes the -good wife scolded the king. - - "Can't you mind the cakes, man? - And don't you see them burn? - I'm bound you'll eat them fast enough, - As soon as 'tis the turn." - -Of course she did not know he was the king or she would not have -scolded him. - -[Sidenote: =Makes a treaty with the Danes=] - -The next spring Alfred raised a large army, drove the Danes back, and -forced them to make peace. By this treaty, and another later one, the -Danes were given that part of England north and west of the river -Thames. Alfred and his people ruled over the country south of them. The -land of the Danes was called "Danelagh." They soon settled down to till -the soil. Years later they became Christians and intermarried with the -English. - -To protect England from other sea-rovers, Alfred now built many ships, -and thus became the father of the English navy. The army was also -made larger. Later, Vikings again reached the shores of England, but -Alfred's navy beat them off. Peaceful times now gave Alfred a chance to -help his people in other ways. - -[Illustration: STATUE OF ALFRED AT WINCHESTER] - - -=303. What Alfred Did for England.= It is difficult to know what -the law is if it is not written, and injustice is often done to the -people. Alfred now began the work of collecting and changing the laws -of England. It is interesting to know what he thought of his work, as -shown in his writing: "I, Alfred, gathered these laws together, and -commanded many of them to be written which our forefathers held, those -which seemed to me good. And many of those which seemed to me not good, -I rejected, and in other wise commanded them to be held. For I durst -not venture to set down in writing much of my own, for it was unknown -to me what if it would please those who should come after us." - -[Sidenote: =Advances learning=] - -In those far-away days learning and schools were found in monasteries -and in the churches. When the Danes came they destroyed most of these -buildings. The people, therefore, were growing up in ignorance. Alfred -felt then, as we feel now, that the people should be educated. So he -invited wise men from other countries to come to England to teach his -people. He built many churches and monasteries, and set up schools -where the people might go to learn. But there must be books for them to -read. - -The learning of that day was mostly in Latin. Besides the priests and -monks very few could read that language. "I wondered extremely," said -Alfred, "that the good and wise men who were formerly all over England, -and had perfectly learned all the books, did not wish to translate them -into their own tongue." - -[Sidenote: =Translates Latin books into English=] - -He now began earnestly the work of making English books for his people. -He translated a book containing a history of the world, and an account -of two voyages to the north seas. He then put into English the famous -book _Bede's History of England_. A book on religion by Pope Gregory -the Great, and another of wise sayings, were soon after translated into -English. In this way Alfred helped his people to learn to read, and to -read good books. The English people have saved these works that their -children for many generations to come might learn good things from -them. Now, however, they must be translated into the English of our day -before most of us can read them, for our language has changed greatly -since Alfred's time. - -Alfred also helped his people to learn new trades, and to do their work -better in those trades they already knew. He had skilled workers from -other countries come to England to help his people. - -[Sidenote: =King Alfred's purpose=] - -Alfred was a true and good man. He loved his home and his people. He -said: "To sum up all, it has ever been my desire to live worthily while -I was alive, and after my death to leave to those that should come -after me my memory in good works." - -[Sidenote: =His time well-ordered=] - -The daily life of the king was orderly. The twenty-four hours were -divided into three parts; eight hours were given to the business of the -people (governing), eight hours to study and prayer, and eight hours -to exercise and rest. "As he had no clock, he measured out his time by -burning candles, each of which lasted for four hours. In order that the -candles might burn evenly and mark the time properly, he enclosed them -in lanterns of thin horn" which he had invented. - -[Sidenote: =Alfred the Great=] - -Good King Alfred died in 901. A thousand years later the English raised -a statue to him at Winchester. Because of his many good works he is -called "Alfred the Great." He is one of the noblest men in all history. - - - - -THE NORMAN CONQUEST - - -[Illustration: _From an old print_ - -ENGLISH ARCHERS] - - -=304. England Conquered Many Times.= England had been conquered by the -Romans, the Anglo-Saxons, and the Danes. Now she was conquered for the -last time. The people who defeated her were the Normans of France. We -have seen them come into France when the Normans scattered from their -native lands in the north of Europe. - -After Alfred died several kings ruled in England. When Harold was -chosen king, the Duke of Normandy claimed the throne of England. He -made this claim on the ground that the former English king had promised -it to him. The Duke of Normandy has always been called William the -Conqueror. He was a stern man who knew how to rule and fight. To -establish his claim to the English throne he gathered together an -army, crossed the Channel, and landed at Senlac, near Hastings. - -[Illustration: ST. CUTHBERT, A NORMAN CATHEDRAL] - - -=305. The Battle of Hastings (1066).= Harold had gathered his soldiers -to resist the Normans. They fought bravely, as any good soldiers do -when defending their native land. "All day long they stood stubbornly -together on a hilltop and beat back every attack with their swords and -axes." When Harold was wounded, his men still fought on. William of -Normandy now thought of a trick. He ordered his soldiers to pretend -to be beaten and to retreat. This they did. The English soldiers now -rushed forward to follow on their heels and cut down as many as they -could. What was their dismay to see the Normans turning around and -cutting down the English! When night came the English army was no more. - -[Sidenote: =Character of the Normans=] - -England had staked all and had lost. Most of the country gave up. -William was crowned king. He divided the land among his nobles, and -England, which was democratic under the Anglo-Saxon became aristocratic -under the rule of William. The Normans built the huge castles and -cathedrals that dot the face of England. From their castles they lorded -it over the Anglo-Saxon. But slowly this condition changed. After many -years Normans and Anglo-Saxons commenced to grow friendly and their -sons and daughters began to marry one another. The fusion of these -two classes made the English people a more hardy and daring race than -before. - -[Illustration: A NORMAN CASTLE BUILT IN 1078, NOW PART OF THE TOWER OF -LONDON] - -[Sidenote: =How the Anglo-Saxons conquered the Normans=] - -The local institutions which had grown up under the Anglo-Saxons now -began to appear again. And in time the Normans may be said to have -been conquered by the Anglo-Saxons. The Anglo-Saxon way of doing -things belonged to the shire, the county, and the township. The -people were called together in the different districts and practiced -self-government. - - - - -THE STRUGGLE FOR THE GREAT CHARTER - - -[Sidenote: =Lawlessness of the nobles=] - - -=306. Henry II a Great Ruler.= Nearly a hundred years had gone by since -William the Conqueror ruled England. There was great confusion in -England. The Norman nobles were doing about as they pleased. They rode -forth from their castles with their little armies and attacked each -other, or attacked the citizens of a town, sometimes murdering them. - -Then Henry II, the grandson of William the Conqueror, came to the -throne. He was like his ancestor in many ways. He could brook no -opposition. He was short and powerfully built. "He had red hair, a bull -neck, and bow legs." He was careless about his dress, but was a hard -worker. He saw that England needed order first. He therefore first of -all compelled the nobles to behave by destroying some of their castles -and driving the soldiers, which they had hired, back to France. - -[Sidenote: =Trial by jury=] - -He changed the way of finding out whether or not a man was guilty. -Instead of employing the "ordeal by fire," by water, or by battle, he -sent judges around to different places. These judges called together -sixteen good men who told them about those who they thought had broken -the law. These men made up the Grand Jury. - -Twelve other men were selected to examine into all the facts of a given -case before the man was condemned or set free. This way of "trying -men by jury" was a great improvement over the old way. In these ways -Henry II brought the evildoers in England, whether high or low, to obey -the law or be severely punished. England was now once more an orderly -country. - -[Sidenote: =John a worthless king=] - - -=307. King John and the Pope.= The son of Henry II, John, was about the -worst king that England ever had. John was bad; he would not keep a -promise, was a great liar, was cruel, was cowardly, was a traitor and a -tyrant. - -[Sidenote: =All the churches closed=] - -Ever since the days of William the Conqueror the kings of England had -been the dukes of Normandy. In a war with the French king, John lost -all of Normandy. The Pope named as Archbishop of Canterbury a man whom -John opposed. The Pope and John quarreled. "The Pope closed every -church in England. No bells rang to call the people to prayer or to -service on the Sabbath. No priest could preach. The dead could not be -buried; the living might not marry. Every church stood silent and grass -grew about the doors." - -The Pope called on the king of France to take John's place, for in the -eyes of the Pope John was no longer king of England. John turned about -and begged for the Pope's mercy. He promised to submit to his will and -to pay him a large amount of money each year. - -[Sidenote: =The barons revolt=] - - -=308. John Compelled to Grant Magna Charta.= John was so cruel to his -own people that the barons rose in revolt. Their forefathers had been -free, and "why not we?" they asked. John only "laughed in his sleeve." -But the barons meant business. They met in a meadow, called Runnymede, -and summoned the king to face them. He came. - -[Sidenote: =The meeting at Runnymede=] - -It was a great scene. There stood the barons with their soldiers not -far away. Their faces showed their anger and their decision to have -their rights. The head of every house had his great banner which he -had carried to victory on many a field of battle. But worse than all, -there John saw the very Archbishop of Canterbury whom he had refused -to permit to enter England. John was furious, but he could not help -himself, for he heard the clanking of cold steel all around him. - -[Sidenote: =What the Great Charter meant=] - -The barons told him plainly that he must give all England a pledge to -do right according to England's law. They told him that this promise -must be signed by his own hand and on the signed paper he must place -the royal seal. This great paper is called the Great Charter--"Magna -Charta" (1215). Englishmen love it and have often shed their blood in -defense of it. - -[Sidenote: =The Petition of Right=] - -For more than four hundred years this charter was the foundation of -the rights of Englishmen. But they found in the charter only the old -laws which had come down from good Edward the Confessor (1042-1066). -In 1628 another English king, Charles I, was compelled by Parliament -to sign another charter, called the "Petition of Right." In this new -pledge to the English people they found nothing very new but mostly the -old laws or principles contained in Magna Charta. - -[Sidenote: =The Bill of Rights=] - -When James II was driven from the throne by the English people they -drew another charter, which King William signed (1689). This was called -the "Bill of Rights." In this there were not many new things, but it -contained mostly the principles of Magna Charta and the Petition of -Right. Besides, this last charter contained several rules which made -Parliament superior to the king. - -When the American people after their Revolution came to make a -Constitution, they put in it many principles found in the English Bill -of Rights. We ought to admire and love our Constitution because it -contains ideas that have been tried out for more than ten centuries. - - -SUGGESTIONS INTENDED TO HELP THE PUPIL - - =The Leading Facts.= _1._ England almost ruined by the Danes. _2._ - Alfred's youth. _3._ Alfred as king. _4._ What he did for his - people. _5._ The Norman conquest. _6._ Battle of Hastings. _7._ - Norman nobles built castles and brought confusion to England after - William's time. _8._ The Normans and Anglo-Saxons mix. _9._ Henry - II a great king. _10._ Nobles forced to behave. _11._ Established - the Grand Jury and the jury to try cases. _12._ King John lost - Normandy and quarreled with the Pope. _13._ John submits to the - Pope. _14._ Barons at Runnymede force John to sign Magna Charta. - _15._ The Petition of Right, the Bill of Rights, and the American - Constitution. - - =Study Questions.= _1._ Why did the Danes go to England? _2._ Tell - all the anecdotes about Alfred the Great. _3._ Prove that he was a - good man. _4._ Why did the Normans invade England? _5._ Tell the - story of Hastings. _6._ Explain the mixture of races in England. - _7._ How did the Anglo-Saxons conquer the Normans? _8._ Who was - Henry II, and what did he do? _9._ How did he prepare the way for - Magna Charta? _10._ Prove that John was a bad king. _11._ Tell - the story of Runnymede. _12._ Give the date of Magna Charta, the - Petition of Right, and the Bill of Rights. _13._ What do Americans - owe these charters? - - =Suggested Readings.= Mowry, _First Steps in History of England_, - 38-97; Tappan, _England's Story_, 24-93; Blaisdell, _Stories from - English History_, 27-77; Dickens, _A Child's History of England_, - 18-24, 50-63, 89-110, 122-168; Guerber, _Story of the English_, - 42-53, 73-84, 117-128; Yonge, _Young Folks' History of England_; - Mace-Tanner, _Old Europe and Young America_, 162-183. - - - - -A PRONOUNCING INDEX - - -Webster's New International Dictionary, the Century Cyclopedia of -Names, and the Encyclopedia Americana have been used as authorities for -spelling and pronunciation. - - _Adirondack_ (ăd´ĭ-=rŏn´=dăk) - _Achilles_ (ă-=kĭl´=ēz) - _Aisne_ (ân) - _Alamo_ (=ä´=lä-mō) - _Alcuin_ (=ăl´=kwĭn) - _Algonquin_ (ăl-=gŏŋ´=kĭn) - _Allegheny_ (=ăl´=ē̍-gā´nĭ) - _Altamaha_ (ôl´t_ȧ_-m_ȧ_-=hô´=) - _Andes_ (=ăn´=dēz) - _Angles_ (=ăŋ´=g'lz) - _Annapolis_ (_ă_-=năp´=ō̍-lĭs) - _Antietam_ (ăn-=tē´=t_ă_m) - _Appalachian_ (ăp´_ȧ_-=lăch´=ĭ-_ă_n) - _Appomattox_ (ăp´ō̍-=măt´=_ŭ_ks) - _Argonne_ (är´=gō̍n´=) - _Aristotle_ (=ăr´=ĭs-tot'´l) - _Arizona_ (ăr´ĭ-=zō´=n_ȧ_) - _Arkansas_ (=är´=k_ă_n-sô´) - _Armenia_ (är-=mē´=ni-_ȧ_) - _Attila_ (ăt´ĭ-l_ȧ_) - - _Babylon_ (băb´ ĭ-lŏn) - _Bahama_ (b_ȧ_-=hā´=m_ȧ_) - _Barcelona_ (bär´sē̍-=lō´=n_ȧ_ _or_ bär´thā̍-=lō´=nä) - _Bede_ (bēd) - _Birmingham_ (=bûr´=mĭng-_ă_m) - _Bon Homme Richard_ (bō̍´ =nō̍m´= rē´=shär´=) - _Boone_ (boo͞n) - _Boulton_ (=bōl´=t_ŭ_n) - _Breckinridge_ (=brĕk´=ĭn-rĭj) - _Bristol_ (=brĭs´=t_ŏ_l) - _Buchanan_ (b_ŭ_-=kăn´=_ă_n _or_ bū̍-=kăn´=_ă_n) - _Buena Vista_ (=bwā´=nä =vẽs´=tä) - _Burgoyne_ (bûr-=goin´=) - - _Cabot, Sebastian_ (sē̍-=băs´=ch_ă_n =kăb´=_ŭ_t) - _Cadiz_ (=kā´=dĭz _or_ =kä´=thēth) - _Caesar_ (=sē´=z_ȧ_r) - _Cahokia_ (k_ȧ_-=hō´=kĭ-_ȧ_) - _Cairo_ (=kā´=rō) - _Calhoun_ (kăl-=hoo͞n´=) - _Canandaigua_ (kăn´_ă_n-=dā´=gw_ȧ_) - _Canaries_ (k_ȧ_-=nā´=rĭz) - _Cañon_ (=kăn´=y_ŭ_n) - _Cape Breton_ (=brĕt´=_ŭ_n) - _Carthage_ (=kär´=thā̍j) - _Cartier, Jacques_ (zhäk kär´=tyā´=) - _Catawba_ (k_ȧ_-=tô´=b_ȧ_) - _Cavite_ (kä-=vē´=tā) - _Cervera_ (thĕr-=vā´=rä) - _Chalons_ (shä´lôN) - _Champlain_ (shăm-=plān´=) - _Charlemagne_ (=shär´=lē̍-mān) - _Charles Martel_ (shȧrl or chärlz mär´=tel´=) - _Château-Thierry_ (shä-=tō´=tyĕ´=rē´=) - _Chattanooga_ (chăt´_ȧ_-=noo͞´=g_ȧ_) - _Cherokee_ (chĕr´ō-=kē´=) - _Chesapeake_ (=chĕs´=_ȧ_-pēk) - _Chickahominy_ (chĭk´_ȧ_-=hŏm´=ĭ-nĭ) - _Chickamauga_ (chĭk´_ȧ_-=mô´=g_ȧ_) - _Cicero_ (=sĭs´=ẽr-ō) - _Cimon_ (=sī´=mŏn) - _Cincinnati_ (sĭn´sĭ-=nȧt´=ĭ) - _Colorado_ (kŏl´ō̍-=rä´=dō) - _Concord_ (=kŏŋ´=kẽrd) - _Connecticut_ (k_ŏ_-=nĕt´=ĭ-k_ŭ_t) - _Constantinople_ (kŏn-stăn´tĭ-=nō´=p'l) - _Cornwallis_ (kôrn-=wŏl´=ĭs) - _Coronado_ (kō´rō̍-=nä´=thō) - _Cortés_ (kō̍r-=tās´=) - _Crèvecœur_ (krĕv´=kûr´=) - - _Danelagh_ (=dān´=lâ) - _Darius_ (d_ȧ_-=rī´=_ŭ_s) - _Dewey_ (=dū´=ĭ) - _Diego_ (dē̍-=ā´=gō) - _Dinwiddie_ (dĭn-=wĭd´=ĭ _or_ =dĭn´=wĭd-ĭ) - _Duluth_ (doo͝-=loo͞th´=) - _Duquesne_ (doo͝-=kān´=) - _Duryea_ (=dṳr´=yȧ) - - _Edison_ (=ĕd´=ĭ-s_ŭ_n) - _El Caney_ (ĕl =kä´=nā) - _Ericson_ (=ĕr´=ĭk-sȯn) - _Ethelred_ (=eth´=ĕl-rĕd) - _Eutaw Springs_ (=ū´=tô-) - - _Faneuil_ (=fŭn´='l) - _Fannin_ (=făn´=ĭn) - _Farragut_ (=făr´=_ȧ_-gŭt) - _Foch_ (fōsh) - _Frontenac_ (=frŏn´=tē̍-năk _or_ frôN´tẽ-=nȧk´=) - - _Gadsden_ (=gădz´=d_ĕ_n) - _Gama, da_ (dä =gä´=mä) - _Gaul_ (gôl) - _Geneva_ (jē̍-=nē´=v_ȧ_) - _Genoa_ (=jĕn´=ō̍-_ȧ_) - _Genoese_ (jĕn´ō̍-=ēz´= _or_-=ēs´=) - _Gettysburg_ (=gĕt´=ĭz-bûrg) - _Ghent_ (gĕnt) - _Gibault_ (zhē̍´=bō´=) - _Goethals_ (=gû´=tălz´) - _Goliad_ (gō´lĭ-=ăd´=) - _Gooch_ (goo͞ch) - _Gracchi_ (=grăk´=ī) - _Guam_ (gwäm) - _Guilford_ (=gĭl´=fẽrd) - - _Haiti_ (=hā´=tĭ) - _Hannibal_ (hăn´ĭ-b_ă_l) - _Hawaiian Islands_ (hä-=wī´=y_ă_n) - _Hennepin_ (=hĕn´=ē̍-pĭn) - _Hercules_ (=hër´=kū-lēz) - _Herkimer_ (=hûr´=kĭ-mẽr) - _Hong-kong_ (=hŏng´=-=kŏng´=) - _Horatius_ (hō-=rā´=shĭ-ŭs) - _Houston_ (=hūs´=t_ŭ_n) - _Huguenot_ (=hū´=gẽ-nŏt) - - _Iceland_ (=īs´=l_ă_nd) - _Indianapolis_ (ĭn´dĭ-_ă_n-=ăp´=ō̍-lĭs) - _Iroquois_ (ĭr´ō̍-=kwoi´=) - _Isthmus_ (=ĭs´=m_ŭ_s) - - _Jamaica_ (j_ȧ_-=mā´=k_ȧ_) - _Joliet_ (zhō̍´=lyā´= _or_ =jō´=lĭ-ĕt) - _Jutes_ (joo͞tz) - - _Kanawha_ (k_ȧ_-=nô´=w_ȧ_) - _Kaskaskia_ (kăs-=kăs´=kĭ-_ȧ_) - _Kieft_ (kēft) - - _Labrador_ (lăb´r_ȧ_-=dôr´=) - _Lachine_ (l_ȧ_-=shēn´=) - _Lafayette, de_ (dẽ lä´fā̍-=yĕt´=) - _La Salle, de_ (dẽ lȧ =sȧl´=) - _Leiden_ (=lī´=d_ĕ_n) - _Leif Ericson_ (līf =ĕr´=ĭk-sȯn) - _Leonidas_ (lē̍-=ŏn´=ī-d_ȧ_s) - _Lisbon_ (=lĭz´=b_ŭ_n) - _Los Angeles_ (lōs =ăŋ´=gĕl-ĕs) - _Louisburg_ (=loo͞´=ĭs-bûrg) - _Luzerne_ (lū̍-=zûrn´=) - - _McClellan_ (m_ȧ_-=klĕl´=_ă_n) - _McCrea_ (m_ȧ_-=krā´=) - _Macdonough_ (m_ȧ_k-=dŏn´=ō) - _Macedonia_ (măs´ē̍-=dō´=nĭ-_ȧ_) - _McGregor_ (m_ă_k-=grĕg´=ẽr) - _Mackinac_ (=măk´=ĭ-nô) - _McKinley_ (m_ȧ_-=kĭn´=lĭ) - _Magellan_ (m_ȧ_-=jĕl´=_ă_n) - _Magna Charta_ (=măg´=nă =kär´=tă) - _Manila_ (m_ȧ_-=nĭl´=_ȧ_) - _Manitou_ (=măn´=ĭ-too͞) - _Marathon_ (=măr´=_ȧ_-thŏn) - _Marianas_ (_Ladrones_) (mä´rē̍-=ä´=näs, l_ȧ_-=drōnz´=) - _Marne_ (märn) - _Marquette_ (=mär´==kĕt´=) - _Massachusetts_ (măs´_ȧ_-=choo͞´=sĕts) - _Massasoit_ (=măs´=_ȧ_-soit´) - _Matagorda_ (măt´_ȧ_-=gôr´=d_ȧ_) - _Maumee_ (mô-=mē´=) - _Mediterranean_ (mĕd´ĭ-tẽr-=ā´=nē̍-_ă_n) - _Memphis_ (=mĕm´=fĭs) - _Merrimac_ (=mĕr´=ĭ-măk) - _Milan_ (=mĭl´=_ă_n) - _Minneapolis_ (mĭn´ē̍-=ăp´=ō̍-lĭs) - _Minuit_ (=mĭn´=ū̍-ĭt) - _Missouri_ (mĭ-=soo͞´=rĭ) - _Mobile_ (mō̍-=bēl´=) - _Monmouth_ (=mŏn´=m_ŭ_th) - _Monongahela_ (mō̍-nŏŋ´g_ȧ_-=hē´=l_ȧ_) - _Montcalm_ (mŏnt-=käm´=) - _Monterey_ (mŏn´t_ĕ_-=rā´=) - _Montezuma_ (mŏn´tē̍-=zoo͞´=m_ȧ_) - _Monticello_ (mŏn´tē̍-=sĕl´=ō) - _Montpelier_ (mŏnt-=pē´=lĭ-ẽr) - _Moultrie_ (=mōl´=trĭ _or_ =moo͞´=trĭ) - _Munich_ (=mū´=nĭk) - _Muybridge_ (=moi´=brĭj) - - _Nassau_ (=năs´=ô) - _Natchez_ (=năch´=ĕz) - _Newfoundland_ (=nū´=fŭnd-lănd´) - _New Orleans_ (nū =ôr´=lē̍-_ă_nz) - _Nez Percé_ (nā pẽr-=sā´=) - _Niagara_ (nī-=ăg´=_ȧ_-r_ȧ_) - _Ninevah_ (=nĭn´=ē̍-vĕ) - _Nolichucky_ (nŏl´ĭ-=chŭk´=ĭ) - _Normandy_ (=nôr´=m_ă_n-dĭ) - - _Oberlin_ (=ō´=bẽr-lĭn) - _Oglethorpe_ (=ō´=g'l-thôrp) - _Oneida_ (ō̍-=nī´=d_ȧ_) - _Oregon_ (=ŏr´=ē̍-gŏn) - _Orinoco_ (ō´rĭ-=nō´=kō) - _Oriskany_ (ō̍-=rĭs´=k_ȧ_-nĭ) - - _Palos_ (=pä´=lōs) - _Panama_ (păn´_ȧ_-=mä´=) - _Patagonia_ (păt´_ȧ_-=gō´=nĭ-_ȧ_) - _Penobscot_ (pē̍-=nŏb´=skŏt) - _Pensacola_ (pĕn´s_ȧ_-=kō´=l_ȧ_) - _Pericles_ (pĕr´ĭ-klēz) - _Peru_ (pē̍-=roo͞´=) - _Philadelphia_ (fĭl´_ȧ_-=dĕl´=fĭ-_ȧ_) - _Philippine Islands_ (=fĭl´=ĭ-pĭn-_or_-pēn-) - _Phoenician_ (fē̍-nĭsh´_ă_n) - _Pinzón_ (pēn-=thōn´=) - _Pisa_ (pē´sä) - _Pizarro_ (pĭ-=zär´=rō _or_ pē̍-thär´rō) - _Platte_ (plăt) - _Pocahontas_ (pō´k_ȧ_-=hŏn´=t_ȧ_s) - _Porto Rico_ (=pōr´=tō =rē´=kō) - _Portugal_ (=pōr´=tū̍͜-g_ă_l) - _Portuguese_ (=pō̍r´=tū̍͜-gēz) - _Potomac_ (pō̍-=tō´=m_ă_k) - _Poughkeepsie_ (pō̍-=kĭp´=sĭ) - _Powhatan_ (pou´h_ȧ_-=tăn´=) - - _Raleigh_ (=rô´=lĭ) - _Rameses_ (=răm´=ē̍-sēz) - _Rapidan_ (răp´ĭ-=dăn´=) - _Rappahannock_ (răp´_ȧ_-=hăn´=_ŭ_k) - _Raritan_ (=răr´=ĭ-t_ă_n) - _Remus_ (=rē´=mŭs) - _Richelieu_ (rē´shẽ-=loo͞´=) - _Rio Grande_ (=rē´=ō =grän´=dā) - _Roanoke_ (rō´_ȧ_-=nōk´=) - _Rochambeau, de_ (dẽ rō̍´shäN´=bō´=) - _Rochelle_ (rō̍-=shĕl´=) - _Romulus_ (rŏm´ū-lŭs) - _Roosevelt_ (=rō´=zẽ-vĕlt) - _Rosecrans_ (=rō´=zē̍-krănz) - - _Sacramento_ (săk´r_ȧ_-=mĕn´=tō) - _St. Louis_ (sā̍nt =loo͞´=ĭs _or_-=loo͞´=ĭ) - _St. Mihiel_ (săN´mē´=yel´=) - _Samoset_ (=săm´=ō̍-sĕt _or_ sȧ-=mŏs´=-ĕt) - _San Diego_ (săn dē̍-=ā´=gō) - _San Francisco_ (săn frăn-=sĭs´=kō) - _Sangamon_ (=săŋ´=g_ȧ_-mŏn) - _San Jacinto_ (săn j_ȧ_-=sĭn´=tō) - _San Joaquin_ (săn wä-=kēn´=) - _San Juan_ (săn =hwän´=) - _San Salvador_ (sän säl´vȧ-=dōr´=) - _Santa Ana_ (=sän´=tä =ä´=nä) - _Santa Maria_ (=sän´=t_ȧ_ m_ȧ_-=rē´=_ȧ_) - _Santiago_ (sän´tē̍-=ä´=gō) - _Savannah_ (s_ȧ_-=văn´=_ȧ_) - _Schenectady_ (sk_ĕ_-=nĕk´=t_ȧ_-dĭ) - _Schley_ (slī) - _Schuyler_ (=skī´=lẽr) - _Schuylkill_ (=skoo͞l´=kĭl) - _Seattle_ (sē̍-=ăt´='l) - _Seminole_ (=sĕm´=ĭ-nōl) - _Senlac_ (sĕn´lăk) - _Serapis_ (sē̍-=rā´=pĭs) - _Sevier_ (sē̍-=vēr´=) - _Shafter_ (=shȧf´=tẽr) - _Shawnee_ (shô´=nē´=) - _Shenandoah_ (shĕn´_ă_n-=dō´=_ȧ_) - _Sierra Nevada_ (sĭ-=ĕr´=_ȧ_ nē̍-=vä´=d_ȧ_) - _Sioux_ (soo͞) - _Sloat_ (slōt) - _Socrates_ (=sŏk´=r_ȧ_-tēz) - _Solway Firth_ (=sŏl´=wā-) - _Spokane_ (spō´=kăn´=) - _Spottsylvania_ (spŏt´sĭl-=vā´=nĭ-_ȧ_) - _Steuben, von_ (fō̍n =stū´=bĕn) - _Stuyvesant_ (=stī´=v_ĕ_-s_ă_nt) - - _Tallapoosa_ (tăl´_ȧ_-=poo͞´=s_ȧ_) - _Tecumseh_ (tē̍-=kŭm´=sĕ) - _Terre Haute_ (=tĕr´=ẽ =hōt´=) - _Teutons_ (=tū´=tŏnz) - _Thames_ (thāmz) - _Thorvald_ (=tôr´=väld) - _Ticonderoga_ (tī-kŏn´dẽr-=ō´=g_ȧ_) - _Tippecanoe_ (tĭp´ē̍-k_ȧ_-=noo͞´=) - - _Ulysses_ (ū̍-=lĭs´=ēz) - - _Valparaiso_ (văl´p_ȧ_-=rī´=sō) - _Vancouver_ (văn-=koo͞´=vẽr) - _Van Rensselaer_ (văn =rĕn´=sẽ-lẽr) - _Venezuela_ (vĕn´ē̍-=zwē´=l_ȧ_) - _Venice_ (=vĕn´=ĭs) - _Vergil_ (vûr´jĭl) - _Vespucci, Amerigo_ (ä´mā̍-=rē´=gō vĕs-=poo͞t´=chē) - _Vikings_ (=vī´=kingz) - _Villa_ (=vē´=yȧ) - _Vincennes_ (vĭn-=sĕnz´=) - - _Walla Walla_ (=wŏl´=_ȧ_ =wŏl´=_ȧ_) - _Watauga_ (w_ȧ_-=tô´=g_ȧ_) - _Weehawken_ (wē-=hô´=k_ĕ_n) - _Westminster_ (=wĕst´=mĭn-stẽr) - _Windsor_ (=wĭn´=zẽr) - - _Xerxes_ (zûrk´zēz) - - _Zuñi_ (=zoo͞´=nyē̍) - - - - -THE INDEX - - - =Abolitionists=, 308-310, 318. - - =Achilles=, 453, 456. - - =Adams, John=, 131; - sent to First Continental Congress, 172; - at Second Continental Congress made Washington general of American troops, 131, 177; - appointed to help draw up Declaration of Independence, 232; - death, 238. - - =Adams, Samuel=, 167-178; - portrait of, 167; - early turns to politics, 167; - leads movement against Stamp Act, 168; - forms "Sons of Liberty Society," 168; - opposes Tea Tax, 169; - writes Circular Letter, 169; - drives British out of Boston, 169; - and the Boston Tea Party, 129, 170, 171; - sends Paul Revere on his ride, 172; - goes to the First Continental Congress, 172; - forms companies of minutemen, 174; - goes to the Second Continental Congress, 177; - works for Declaration of Independence, 177; - made governor of Massachusetts, 178; - death, 178. - - =Addams, Jane=, 412-413; - becomes interested in social service, 412; - portrait of, 412; - founds Hull House Social Settlement, 413. - - ="Agamemnon," The=, 270. - - =Agricultural development=, 374-376. - - =Agriculture=, 416-421; - machinery used for, 418-419. - - =Airplane=, 390-393; - uses of, 393, 397. - - =Alamo=, capture of the, 279-281. - - =Albany=, Fort Orange becomes, 90. - - =Alexander the Great=, 455, 463, 469. - - =Alfred the Great=, 484-488; - early life, 484-485; - king of Wessex, 485; - drives Danes back, 485; - begins to build fleet, 485-486; - re-makes the laws, 486; - advances learning, 486-487; - translations by, 487; - death, 488. - - =Algonquin Indians=, 49-52. - - ="Alliance," The=, 200-201. - - =Alsace-Lorraine=, 442. - - =Altamaha River=, colony on, 101-102. - - =American Committee for the Relief of Belgium=, 431. - - =American Red Cross Society=, 410-412. - - =American River=, 289, 372. - - =Amerigo Vespucci=, _see_ Vespucci, Amerigo. - - =Anderson, Colonel=, 323. - - =Anglo-Saxon tribes=, 478-479, 488. - - =Annapolis=, founded, 70. - - =Anthony, Susan B.=, 403-404; - portrait of, 403; - early life of, 403; - works for cause of woman's rights, 403-404; - death, 404. - - =Anthracite=, 421-422. - - =Antietam=, battle of, 338. - - =Anti-saloon crusade=, 408. - - =Appomattox Court House=, Lee's surrender at, 336. - - =Argonne, battle of=, 441. - - =Aristotle=, 454-455, 456. - - ="Ark," The=, 69. - - =Armada=, _see_ Spanish Armada. - - =Arthur, President=, 346-347; - portrait of, 347. - - =Ashland=, Clay's home, 295, 298. - - =Athens=, 456, 457-460; - assembly of, 458; - orators of, 458-459; - schools of, 459; - training for citizenship in, 459-460; - in the "Age of Pericles," 460-461. - - =Atlantic cable=, 268-271. - - =Augusta=, settled, 102. - - =Automobile=, 388-390. - - - =Babylonians=, 448-449. - - =Ball, Mary=, mother of Washington, 115, 116. - - =Baltimore=, colony of, 70. - - =Baltimore, Lord=, _see_ Calvert, George _and_ Cecil. - - =Baltimore and Ohio Railroad=, started, 263. - - =Barlow, Captain=, 44. - - =Barry, John=, 199-201; - early life of, 199; - portrait of, 199; - captain of the _Lexington_, 199; - on the Delaware, 199-200; - commands the _Alliance_, 200, 201; - first commodore of American navy, 201; - death, 201. - - =Barton, Clara=, 409-412; - early life of, 409-410; - portrait of, 410; - goes to the battlefield, 410-411; - and the American Red Cross, 410-412; - goes to Armenia, 411; - in the Spanish-American War, 411. - - "=Battle Hymn of the Republic=," 405, 406. - - =Baxter=, 265. - - =Belgium=, invasion of, 426-427; - American Committee for the Relief of, 431; - and the German Peace Treaty, 442. - - =Bell, Alexander Graham=, invents telephone, 268. - - =Benton=, Jessie, 285. - - =Benton, Thomas H.=, 249, 253, 285. - - "=Bill of Rights=," 493. - - =Biplane=, 393. - - =Birmingham, Alabama=, great coal and iron center, 423. - - =Blackbeard the Pirate=, 72. - - =Black Hawk War=, 317. - - =Blockade of southern ports=, 324. - - ="Bon Homme Richard," The=, 197, 198. - - =Boone, Daniel=, 202-210; - early life of, 202-203; - crosses mountains, 203; - and the Indians, 204-209; - blazes famous "Wilderness Road," 205; - builds Fort Boonesboro, 206; - goes to Kentucky, 206; - at siege of Boonesboro, 208-209; - portrait of, 209; - moves to Missouri, 210; - death, 210. - - =Boonesboro, Fort=, 206, 207, 208, 217. - - =Booth, John Wilkes=, 327. - - =Boston=, settled, 82; - British soldiers in, 129, 169, 172. - - =Boston Port Bill=, 129, 172. - - "=Boston Tea Party=," 162-163, 170-172. - - =Boulton, Matthew=, inventor, 259. - - =Bowie, Colonel=, 279. - - =Braddock, General=, 123-124. - - =Bradford, William=, 73, 76, 79, 81. - - =Brandywine=, battle of the, 137. - - =Breckenridge, John=, 322. - - =Brewster, William=, 73. - - =Bridgewater, Duke of=, 258. - - =Britons=, 472, 478. - - =Buchanan, President=, 270. - - =Buckner, General=, 333. - - =Buffalo=, herds of, 24. - - =Bunker Hill=, battle of, 132, 176-177. - - =Burgesses, House of=, 127, 159, 162, 167, 230, 231. - - =Burgoyne, General=, 217; - compliments Morgan, 186. - - =Burke, Edmund=, 162, 233. - - =Bushnell, ----=, work on submarine, 394. - - - =Cabot, John=, 34-37; - born in Genoa, 34; - voyages of, 34-36; - statue of, 35; - seeks India and discovers Labrador, 35; - honored by king and people on return to England, 35, 36; - on second voyage, 36; - England claims large part of North America through discoveries of, 37. - - =Caesar, Julius=, 471-473. - - =Cahokia=, 220, 223. - - =Calhoun, John C.=, 252, 297, 306-311; - early life of, 306; - portrait of, 307; - works hard for success of army in War of 1812, 307; - made Secretary of War, 307; - twice elected Vice-President, 307; - favors nullification, 308; - opposes Abolitionists, 308-309; - annexes Texas, 310; - opposes Compromise of 1850, 310; - death, 311. - - =California=, conquest of, 288-289; - missionaries in, 291-292; - sends greatest number of volunteers to Spanish-American War, 356; - admitted as a state, 373; - an agricultural state, 375. - - =Calvert, Cecil=, 69-70; - and the Indians, 69; - locates village of St. Marys, 69. - - =Calvert, George=, 69; - prepares to found a colony for Catholics and Protestants, 69; - colony named after, 70. - - =Camden=, battle of, 182. - - =Campbell, Colonel=, 213, 214. - - =Canada=, French in, 49-53, 106-114, 121. - - =Cannae=, battle of, 468. - - =Cape Breton Island=, 35. - - =Cape of Good Hope=, rounded by Drake, 39. - - =Carpenter's Hall=, 163, 173. - - =Carroll, Charles=, 263. - - =Carson, Kit=, 285, 286, 288. - - =Cartier, Jacques=, takes possession of Montreal for France, 49. - - =Carthage=, 467-469. - - =Carver, John=, first Pilgrim governor, 73, 75, 78. - - =Catholics=, 68, 69. - - =Catiline=, 475. - - =Cattle raising=, 419-421. - - =Cavaliers=, settle in Virginia, 69. - - =Cervera, Admiral=, 357. - - =Chalons=, battle of, 477. - - =Champlain, Lake=, discovered, 50. - - =Champlain, Samuel de=, 49-53; - portrait of, 49; - founds Quebec, 49; - and Indians, 49-52; - discovers Lake Champlain, 50; - death, 53. - - =Chancellorsville=, battle of, 338. - - =Charlemagne=, 479-482; - grandson of Charles Martel, 479-480; - appearance, 480; - and the School of the Palace, 481; - crowned Emperor of Rome, 481; - methods of governing, 482; - fall of empire, 482. - - =Charles I=, friend of Lord Baltimore, 69; - gives charter to Puritan colony, 81. - - =Charles II=, and William Penn, 94; - gives Pennsylvania to Penn, 96. - - =Charles Martel=, 479-480. - - =Charles the Great=, _see_ Charlemagne. - - =Charleston=, 101-102, 104; - surrenders to Cornwallis, 182. - - =Charleston earthquake=, Red Cross Society relieves suffering caused by the, 411. - - =Charleston Harbor=, 323. - - =Château-Thierry=, battle of, 439. - - =Cherokee Indians=, 104, 211, 277, 278. - - =Chickamauga=, 335. - - =Christianity=, rise of, 475; - becomes widespread, 478-479. - - =Cicero=, 475. - - =Cimon=, 461. - - =Cincinnatus=, 465. - - =Circular Letter=, Adams', 168-169, 173. - - =Cities=, development of, in West, 376. - - =Civil War=, 323-327, 337-341; - woman's part in the, 400-401, 404; - Clara Barton's part in the, 410. - - =Clark, Captain William=, 239-244; - and Lewis sent to explore Louisiana Purchase, 239; - and Lewis and the Indians, 239-243; - portrait of, 240; - and Lewis cross Rocky Mountains, 240, 241; - with Lewis reaches Columbia River, 241; - with Lewis reaches the Pacific, 242; - and Lewis return to St. Louis, 242; - rewarded by Congress, 242; - appointed governor of Missouri Territory, 243. - - =Clark, George Rogers=, 216-224, 236; - in Virginia, 216; - portrait of, 217; - becomes a leader in Kentucky, 217; - at Harrodsburg, 217; - receives aid from Patrick Henry to raise army, 218; - at old Vincennes, 218-224; - at Louisville, 218; - surprises Kaskaskia, 218-219; - builds the _Willing_, 220; - marches on Vincennes, 220-222; - retakes Vincennes, 223; - unrewarded, 224; - result of his work, 224; - death, 224. - - "=Clark's Grant=," 224. - - =Clay, Henry=, 294-300; - "mill boy of the Slashes," 294; - studies law, 295; - goes to Lexington, 295; - sent to United States Senate, 295; - speaker of House of Representatives, 296; - urges war in 1812, 296; - and the Treaty of Ghent, 296; - and the Missouri Compromise, 296; - and his Compromise Tariff Law, 297; - the "Pacificator," 297; - portrait of, 297; - retires to Ashland, 298; - and the Compromise of 1850, 298-299; - receives ovation from the people, 299; - death, 300. - - ="Clermont," The=, first successful steamboat, 259-260. - - =Clovis=, 479. - - =Coal=, 421-422. - - =Cold Harbor=, battle of, 336, 349. - - =Cold storage of meat=, 421. - - =Colorado, Grand Cañon of the=, 24. - - ="Columbia," The=, 238. - - =Columbia River=, discovered by Captain Gray, 238; - Lewis and Clark embark on, 242; - Fremont on, 286. - - =Columbus, Christopher=, 2-16, 18, 31; - boyhood of, 2, 3; - goes to Lisbon, 4; - plans new route to India, 5; - unfairly treated by King of Portugal, 5; - seeks aid of Spain, 6; - begs bread for his son at monastery, 7; - portrait of, 8; - first voyage of, 9-13; - discovers the New World, 11; - names the natives Indians, 12; - honored on return to Spain, 13, 14, 15; - last voyages of, 15, 16; - death, 16; - effect in England of discoveries of, 34. - - =Committees of Correspondence=, 232. - - =Compromise of 1850=, 298, 300, 305, 310. - - =Compromise Tariff Law=, 297. - - =Concord=, battle of, 130, 175. - - =Confederate States of America=, formed, 323; - capital of, 326; - war between Union and, 323-327. - - =Congress=, 130, 134, 138, 141, 154, 155, 163, 232, 233; - First Continental, 172-174; - Second Continental, 177; - disputes in, 235; - Clay in, 296-300; - Webster in, 302; - Calhoun in, 306-307. - - =Constantine=, Emperor of Rome, 475. - - =Constitution of the United States=, 143, 144, 156, 157, 166, 493. - - =Cooper, Peter=, 269. - - =Corn-fed cattle=, 419-420. - - =Corn Island=, 218; - Clark dies on, 224. - - =Cornwallis, Lord=, 136, 137, 213; - Washington outwits, 139-140; - surrenders at Yorktown, 140; - gains victories, 182, 183; - Green turns tide against, 185; - pursues Morgan, 188; - at Guilford Court House, 189; - caught at Yorktown, 180; - orders Tarleton to catch Marion, 191. - - =Coronado, Francisco=, 24; - searches for rich cities, 24; - discovers Grand Cañon of the Colorado, 24; - finds buffalo, 24; - returns home, 24. - - =Cortés, Hernando=, 18-22, 23, 28, 37; - invades Mexico, 18; - sinks his ships, 18; - armor of, 19; - attacks the Indians, 20; - takes Mexican capital, 19, 20; - puts Montezuma to death, 21; - conquers Mexico, 21; - visits Spain, 21; - portrait of, 21; - shares Columbus' fate, 22. - - =Cotton=, 227, 228; - fields and factories, 420-421. - - =Cotton gin=, invention of, 227-228; - present-day machine built along lines of Whitney's, 416. - - =Cotton-seed oil=, 417. - - =Cowpens=, battle of the, 186, 188. - - "=Cradle of Liberty=," 169. - - =Creek Indians=, 104, 249. - - =Crèvecœur=, Fort, 111. - - "=Croatoan=," 46. - - =Crockett, David=, 279, 282-283; - boyhood of, 282; - enlisted under Jackson, 282; - elected to Congress, 282; - fights for Texas at the Alamo, 282-283; - death, 283. - - =Cuba=, discovered by Columbus, 13; - Spanish persecution in, 354-355; - United States at war with Spain in behalf of, 354-358; - made a republic, 358. - - =Custis, Martha=, 126. - - =Cuzco=, where Pizarro found fabulous riches, 23. - - - =Da Gama, Vasco=, rounds Africa, 28. - - =Danes=, 484, 485, 486. - - =Dare, Virginia=, first white child of English parents born in America, 45. - - =Darius=, 461. - - =Daughters of Liberty=, 400. - - =Davis, Jefferson=, president of the Confederacy, 326, 336. - - =Declaration of Independence=, Franklin appointed to help write, 155, 156; - made, 177, 178; - Samuel Adams worked hard for, 177; - Jefferson author of, 229, 232. - - "=Declaration of Sentiments=," 402. - - =Democratic party=, 322, 348, 351. - - =Democratic-Republican party=, formed by Thomas Jefferson, 235. - - =Depth bomb=, 397. - - =De Soto, Hernando=, 24-28; - makes an expedition to Florida, 24-26; - welcomed at Cuba, 24; - portrait of, 25; - cruel to natives, 25; - fights way northward and inland, 25; - discovers Mississippi, 26-27; - marches far northward and westward, 27; - returns to the Mississippi and dies, 27. - - ="Deutschland," The=, 397. - - =Dewey, Admiral George=, 355; - portrait of, 355. - - =Dictaphone=, 387-388. - - =Diego=, son of Columbus, 6, 7. - - =Dinwiddie, Governor=, 121. - - =Dirigibles=, 391, 394. - - "=Dogwood Papers=," 148. - - =Dorchester Heights=, 133. - - =Douglas, Stephen A.=, debates with Lincoln, 319-322; - nominated by northern Democrats, 322. - - ="Dove," The=, 69. - - =Drake, Sir Francis=, 37-42; - ruined by Spaniards, 37; - portrait of, 38; - returns to England with Spanish gold, 38; - on voyage around the world, 38-40; - captures Spanish treasure ships in Pacific, 39, 41, 43; - given title by Queen Elizabeth, 40; - takes command of fleet to fight Spain, 40; - destroys Spanish towns in Cuba, 41; - burns Spanish ships, 41; - and the Spanish Armada, 42; - takes Raleigh's colony home, 45. - - ="Drake," The=, 196. - - =Duquesne, Fort=, 122; - captured, 126. - - =Duryea, Charles=, 389. - - =Dutch=, explorations of the, 54-59; - establish trading posts, 56; - Indians and the, 56-57; - fur traders, 57-58; - settle New Netherland, 58-59; - governed by Stuyvesant, 88-90; - surrender to the English, 90-91; - manners and customs of the, 91-92. - - =Dutch traders=, 56-59. - - =Dutch West India Company=, 88. - - - "=Ebenezer=," German colony in Georgia, - 102. - - =Edison, Thomas A.=, 380-385, 387; - boyhood of, 380-381; - experiments in telegraphy, 381; - receives $40,000 for his inventions, 382; - portrait of, 382; - builds his first laboratory in Newark, 383; - builds a second laboratory at Menlo Park, 383; - invents microphone, megaphone, and phonograph, 383-384; - develops the electric light, 384-385; - and moving pictures, 385; - and the dictaphone, 387. - - ="Edward," The=, 199. - - ="Effingham," The=, 199. - - =Egypt=, 446-448, 450; - and the Nile, 446-447; - irrigation in, 447; - and its kings, 447; - civilization in, 447-448; - Phoenicians spread learning of, 450. - - =El Caney=, capture of, 356-357. - - =Electricity=, Edison the wizard of, 383-385. - - =Electric light=, developed by Edison, 384-385. - - =Eliot, John=, preaches to the Indians, 83-84. - - =Elizabeth, Queen of England=, knights Drake, 40; - favors Raleigh, 43, 44; - names colony of Virginia, 44. - - =Emancipation Proclamation=, 326. - - =England=, explorations made by, 34-47; - claims large part of North America, 37; - quarrel between Spain and, 37-42; - first permanent settlement in America by, 60-61. - - =Ericson, Leif=, 1, 484. - - =Ericson, Thorvald=, 1-2. - - =Eric the Red=, 1. - - =Erie, Lake=, battle of, 244-245. - - =Erie Canal=, 262. - - =Euphrates River=, 448. - - =Eutaw Springs=, battle of, 189. - - =Evans, Oliver=, 388. - - - =Fairfax, Lord=, 119, 122, 128; - friend of Washington, 120; - builds Greenway Court, 120; - makes Washington public surveyor, 120; - returns to England, 142. - - =Fair Oaks=, battle of, 338. - - =Faneuil Hall=, 169. - - =Fannin, General=, 280. - - =Farming=, _see_ Agriculture. - - =Farragut, Captain David=, 325. - - "=Father of Waters=," 112. - - =Federalist party=, 235. - - =Ferdinand and Isabella=, 6, 15. - - =Ferguson, Colonel=, 213; - defeated at Kings Mountain, 213-214. - - =Field, Cyrus W.=, 268-272; - early success of, 269; - becomes interested in telegraph lines, 269; - conceives idea of connecting Europe and America, 269; - aided by Peter Cooper and other wealthy men, 269; - success of invention of, 270; - portrait of, 270; - receives honors from many nations, 271; - death, 272. - - =Fillmore, President=, 305. - - =Fitch, John=, 257. - - =Five Nations=, _see_ Iroquois. - - =Fletcher, Grace=, 302. - - =Florida=, De Leon takes possession of, 17; - De Soto's expedition to, 24-26. - - =Flour mills=, 418. - - =Foch, Ferdinand=, 437, 438, 439. - - =Foote, Commodore=, 333. - - =Forbes, General=, 126. - - =Forts=, _see under_ names of forts. - - =France=, aids Americans, 139; - discoverers and explorers of, 49-53; - missionaries of, 53, 106-114. - - =Franciscan friars=, 300-302. - - =Franklin, Benjamin=, 124, 147-157; - early life of, 147-151; - portrait of, 148; - in London, 150; - editor of _Pennsylvania Gazette_ in Philadelphia, 151; - founds three great institutions, 151; - invents stove, 151; - forms first fire department in America, 151; - author of _Poor Richard's Almanac_, 151-152; - clerk of Pennsylvania Assembly, 152; - postmaster-general, 152; - plans union of colonies, 153; - becomes famed as scientist, 153; - experiments with electricity, 153; - sent to England to defend colonies, 154; - appointed to help write Declaration of Independence, 155, 232; - secures French aid for America, 155; - helps make treaty of peace, 155; - helps make and signs Constitution, 156, 157; - death, 157. - - =Franks=, 479. - - =Fraunces' Tavern=, 140. - - =Frederica=, 103. - - =Fredericksburg=, battle of, 346. - - =Fremont, John C.=, 283-290; - early life of, 284; - goes to South America, 284; - becomes a civil engineer, 284; - loves the wild life, 284; - portrait of, 285; - marries Jessie Benton, 285; - receives permission to explore South Pass, 285; - unfurls Stars and Stripes from summit of Fremonts Peak, 285; - seeks a more southerly route to Oregon and California, 285; - reaches Great Salt Lake, 286; - goes to Fort Vancouver, 286; - makes a circuit of the Great Basin and crosses mountains to California, 287; - third expedition of, 288; - in Mexican War, 288-289; - elected to United States Senate, 289; - fifth expedition of, 289; - first Republican candidate for president, 289; - major general in Civil War, 290; - governor of Arizona, 290; - death, 290. - - =Fremonts Peak=, 285. - - =French=, in North America, 49-53, 106-113. - - =French allies=, in Revolutionary War, 139. - - =French and Indian War=, 114, 121, 126, 130. - - =French in Canada=, 121. - - =Friends=, _see_ Quakers. - - ="Friendship," The=, 194. - - =Frontenac, Count=, sends Joliet and Marquette to find Mississippi, 53; - sends La Salle and Hennepin, 106; - "children of," 111. - - =Frontenac, Fort=, 106, 107, 111. - - =Fruit growing=, 375. - - =Fugitive Slave Law=, 407. - - =Fulton, Robert=, 257-264, 395; - portrait of, 258; - starts life as portrait painter, 258; - meets James Watt, 258; - becomes interested in driving power of steam, 258; - makes trial steamboat in France, 258; - builds the _Clermont_, 259; - wonderful success of invention of, 260, 261; - death, 261; - and the invention of the submarine, 395. - - =Fur traders=, 56-58 106-107, 243-244. - - - =Gadsden, Christopher=, 173. - - =Gage, General=, 130, 131, 183. - - =Galena=, 332. - - =Galveston flood=, Red Cross relieves suffering caused by the, 411. - - =Gama, Vasco da=, _see_ Da Gama, Vasco. - - =Garfield, James J.=, 345-347; - portrait of, 345. - - =Gates, General=, 182. - - =Gauls=, 466, 472, 475. - - =George II=, grants charter to Oglethorpe, 101. - - =George III=, 135, 136, 141, 158, 159, 173. - - =Georgia=, founded, 101-103; - planters of, 103-104. - - =Germanic tribes=, 476, 477, 478, 479, 481. - - =Germany=, one of the Central Powers, 426; - protests against United States trading with Allies, 427; - lawless submarine policy of, 428, 430-431; - America enters the war against, 431; - makes last great attack, 437; - defeated on all fronts, 441; - accepts armistice, 442; - treaty of peace with, 442-443. - - =Gettysburg=, battle of, 335, 338. - - =Ghent=, _see_ Treaty of. - - =Gibault=, Father, 220, 221. - - =Gilbert, Sir Humphrey=, 43. - - =Gist, Christopher=, 122. - - =Goethals, George Washington=, 376-378; - portrait of, 376; - early life of, 377; - in Spanish-American War, 377; - in charge of construction of Panama Canal, 377-378; - appointed governor of Canal Zone, 377. - - =Gold=, discovery and mining of, 289, 372-373, 375. - - ="Golden Hind," The=, Drake's ship, 38, 39, 40. - - =Gold Fleet, Spanish=, 41. - - =Goliad=, massacre at, 280. - - =Gooch, Daniel=, 271. - - ="Good Man Richard," The=, 197-198. - - =Gore, Christopher=, 311. - - =Gracchi, the=, 470. - - =Grain=, 417-419; - elevators for 418. - - =Grant, Ulysses S.=, 325, 327, 331-337; - early life of, 331-332; - in Mexican War, 332; - promoted in the army, 333; - at Forts Henry and Donelson, 333; - portrait of, 333; - at Vicksburg, 334; - at Gettysburg, 335; - made commander of the Union armies, 336; - in the "Wilderness," 336; - Lee surrenders to, 336; - elected president, 337; - death, 337. - - =Gray, Captain Robert=, the first to carry the Stars and Stripes around the world, 238; - discovers the Columbia River, 238. - - =Gray, ----=, invents telephone, 268. - - =Great Basin=, Fremont explores the, 287-288. - - =Great Charter=, struggle for the, 490-493. - - =Great Salt Lake=, 286. - - =Greater Greece=, 451-452. - - =Greece=, 450-463; - geography of, 450-451; - legendary heroes of, 452-453; - philosophers of, 453-455; - wins admiration of Philip of Macedon, 455; - government of, 456-460; - civilization of, 458-460; - in "Age of Pericles," 460-461; - defeats Persian kings, 461-463; - Alexander's conquests spread civilization of, 463. - - =Green Bay=, 108. - - =Greene, Mrs.=, 227-228. - - =Greene, Nathanael=, 182-185, 188, 189, 190, 191; - portrait of, 182; - given command of army in South, 182; - goes to Boston and meets Washington, 184; - made one of Washington's generals, 184; - divides army, 184; - on great march, 188; - at Guilford Court House, 189; - drives British into Charleston, 189; - honored by his country, 189; - praises General Marion, 191. - - =Greenland=, discovered by Northmen, 1, 484. - - =Greenway Court=, 120-121, 125. - - =Grenville, Sir Richard=, 44. - - ="Griffin," The=, 108-109. - - =Guam=, annexed by United States, 359. - - =Guatemotzin=, statue of, 20. - - =Guilds=, 446. - - =Guilford Court House=, battle of, 189. - - - =Hale, Nathan=, 134, 179-182; - in college, 179; - statue of, 180; - joins Washington, 180; - captures British man-of-war, 180; - passes safely through British lines, 181; - captured, 181; - death, 181. - - ="Half Moon," The=, 54, 55. - - =Hamilton, Alexander=, 235. - - =Hamilton, General=, 220, 222. - - =Hancock, John=, 177, 233. - - =Hanks, John=, 315, 316, 321. - - =Hannibal=, 467-469. - - =Harlem Heights=, 134. - - =Harrison, Benjamin=, 142, 232, 349, 351. - - =Harrison, William Henry=, 304, 319. - - =Harrodsburg=, 217. - - =Harvard Elm=, 132. - - =Harvesting machines=, 418. - - =Hastings=, battle of, 489. - - =Hawaiian Islands=, annexed by United States, 356. - - =Hawkins, Captain=, 37. - - =Hayes, Lucy Webb=, 344. - - =Hayes, Rutherford B.=, 342-344; - portrait of, 343. - - =Hayne, Senator=, 303. - - "=Hearts Content=," 271. - - =Helen of Troy=, 452-453. - - =Helm, Captain=, 220. - - =Henderson, Richard=, 205. - - =Hennepin=, a missionary, 106, 107, 110, 111. - - =Henry, Patrick=, 129-130, 153, 158-167, 217, 230, 234; - portrait of, 158; - opposes Stamp Act, 159; - birth and parentage of, 160; - early failures of, 160; - orator of the Revolution, 160-167; - succeeds as a lawyer, 161; - first great speech of, 161; - elected to House of Burgesses, 161-162; - speaks against Stamp Act, 162; - sent to Continental Congress, 163; - offers resolutions for arming Virginia, 164; - defends his resolutions in great speech, 164-165; - in forefront of struggle with England, 166; - statue of, 166; - aids George Rogers Clark in raising an army, 217-218; - death, 166. - - =Henry=, Prince of Portugal, 3. - - =Henry II=, 490-491. - - =Henry VII=, 35, 37. - - =Henry VIII=, 37. - - =Hercules=, 452. - - =Hermitage, The=, 254. - - =Hessians, The=, 135, 136. - - =Hieroglyphics=, 448-449. - - =Hobkirks Hill=, 189. - - =Holland, John P.=, and the submarine, 395-397; - portrait of, 395. - - =Homestead Law=, 373. - - =Hooker=, 335. - - =Hoover, Herbert=, 431-432. - - =Horace=, 475. - - =Horatius=, 464-465. - - =Horseshoe Bend=, battle of, 249, 277. - - =Houston, General Sam=, 277-281; - lives with Cherokees, 277; - in battle of Horseshoe Bend, 277; - portrait of, 278; - studies law, 278; - goes to Congress, 278; - governor of Tennessee, 278; - visits Washington, 279; - goes to Texas, 279; - in Texas War with Mexico, 279-281; - at battle of San Jacinto, 280-281; - elected first president of Texas, 281; - sent to United States Senate, 281; - death, 281. - - =Howe, Elias=, 274-276. - - =Howe, General=, 133, 134, 137, 181. - - =Howe, Julia Ward=, 404-406; - early life of, 404-405; - writes "Battle Hymn of the Republic," 405; - and the Woman's Club, 405-406; - portrait of, 406. - - =Howe, Samuel Gridley=, 405. - - =Hudson, Henry=, 54-56; - discovers Hudson River, 54; - portrait of, 55; - cruel to Indians, 55; - seeks northwest passage, 55-56; - set adrift by sailors, 56. - - =Hudson Bay Company=, 286. - - =Hudson River=, 54-55. - - =Hull House=, 413. - - =Huns=, 476-477. - - =Hydroplane=, 394. - - - =Iceland=, discovered by Northmen, 1. - - =Illinois Indians=, 111. - - =Illinois River=, 109, 110, 111. - - =Inca=, captured by Pizarro, 23. - - =Independence, Declaration of=, _see_ Declaration of Independence. - - =India=, search for new route to, 2-16, 34-37; - Magellan first to reach, 31. - - =Indian corn=, taken to England, 45; - best crop of the Pilgrims, 79. - - =Indians=, first seen by white men, 12; - named by Columbus, 12; - Cortés and the Mexican, 18-21; - great city of the, 18-21; - cruelly treated by De Soto, 25; - welcomed Raleigh's sailors, 44; - Lane cruel to, 45; - hostile to English settlers, 45; - Champlain and the, 49-53; - Marquette loved by the, 53; - carried Champlain's remains to Mackinac, 53; - friendly to Hudson but repaid with cruelty, 55; - and the Dutch, 56-58, 59; - and the Jamestown Colony, 61-66; - friendly to Lord Baltimore, 69; - Pilgrims and, 76, 78-81, 84-85; - John Eliot and the, 83-84; - Penn's treaty with the, 98; - Oglethorpe made treaty with the, 103; - La Salle and the, 107, 110-112; - French trappers and, 113-114; - in French and Indian War, 114, 121-126; - war dance of the, 119; - Boone and the, 204-209; - fought with British in Revolutionary War, 207-209; - Sevier and the, 211-215; - Clark and the, 216, 217; - friendly to Lewis and Clark, 239-243; - missionaries among the, 243-244, 301; - Jackson and the, 247-249; - War of the Seminole, 252; - Houston and the, 277-278; - placed on reservations by U. S. government, 375; - _see also_ names of Indians. - - =Indigo=, 104. - - =Iron=, 422-423. - - =Iroquois Indians=, 50, 52, 56, 107, 111, 112, 114. - - =Irrigation=, 375, 446-447. - - =Isabella, Queen of Spain=, 6, 8, 15. - - =Italians=, 102. - - - =Jackson, Andrew=, 245-254, 282, 308; - early life of, 246-247; - taken prisoner by the English, 246; - lawyer before twenty, 247; - emigrates to Tennessee, 247; - made U. S. senator, 248; - in War of 1812, 248-252; - wins the name "Old Hickory," 249; - fights Indians, 249; - at battle of New Orleans, 250-252; - portrait of, 252; - twice elected president, 252; - and the United States Bank, 252-253; - and nullification, 254, 308; - death, 254. - - =Jackson, General "Stonewall,"= 338. - - =James I=, puts Raleigh to death, 47; - gives London Company a charter, 60; - makes Calvert, Baron of Baltimore, 69. - - =Jamestown=, settled, 61; - life in the colony of, 60-66, 71-72. - - =Jefferson, Thomas=, 229-238; - early life of, 229; - studies law, 230; - meets Patrick Henry, 230; - member of House of Burgesses, 231; - marries, 231; - and Committee of Correspondence, 232; - and the Declaration of Independence, 232-233; - governor of Virginia, 234; - minister to France, 234; - first Secretary of State, 235; - leader of the Democratic-Republican party, 235; - elected president, 235; - portrait of, 235; - purchases Louisiana, 236; - sends out Lewis and Clark Expedition, 237; - elected president second time, 237; - "Sage of Monticello," 238; - death, 238. - - =Jenkins, C. Francis=, 385. - - =Jews=, 447, 449. - - =John, King of England=, 491-492. - - =John II=, of Portugal, 5. - - =Johnson, Andrew=, 328-329, 337; - portrait of, 328. - - =Johnston, General Joseph E.=, 338, 340. - - =Johnston, Sarah Bush=, stepmother of President Lincoln, 314. - - =Joliet=, 53, 106, 112; - with Marquette sets out to find the Mississippi, 53; - sails down the Mississippi, 53; - death, 53. - - =Jones, John Paul=, 194-198; - early life of, 194; - enters American navy, 195; - portrait of, 195; - shows his mettle in West Indies, 196; - sent to France, 196; - in Whitehaven, 196; - on English coast, 197; - captain of _Bon Homme Richard_, 197; - and the _Serapis_, 197-198; - great naval hero, 198. - - =Jonesboro=, 247. - - =Jutes=, 478. - - - =Kaiser, The German=, 430, 442. - - =Kansas-Nebraska Bill=, 319-322. - - =Kaskaskia=, Clark at, 218, 219, 223. - - =Keith, Sir William=, 150. - - =Kentucky=, Boone in, 204-210, 216. - - =Kieft, Governor=, 59. - - =King Philip=, Indian chief, 84-85. - - =Kings Mountain=, battle of, 184, 213-214. - - =Knox, General=, 201. - - =Knoxville=, 215, 216. - - - =Labrador=, discovered by John Cabot, 35. - - =Lachine=, 106. - - =Lafayette, Marquis de=, 137, 139, 140, 189; - visits Washington after war, 142-143; - rewarded by Congress, 143. - - =Lafayette Squadron=, 431. - - =Lake Superior=, iron "ranges" of, 422. - - =Lane, Ralph=, 44. - - =La Salle, Robert Cavelier, Sieur de=, 106-113; - seeks Canada, 106; - builds Fort Frontenac, 106; - portrait of, 107; - returns to France for permission to explore Mississippi Valley, 107; - sets out for Mississippi, 107; - builds _Griffin_, 108-109; - builds Fort Crèvecœur, 111; - plans union of Indian tribes, 111; - journeys to mouth of Mississippi, 112; - takes possession for France, 112; - builds Fort St. Louis on Starved Rock, 112; - returns to France and brings over colony, 113; - killed by disappointed colonists, 113. - - ="Lawrence," The=, Perry's flagship, 245. - - =Lee, Henry=, "Light Horse Harry," 184. - - =Lee, Richard Henry=, 130, 173, 177, 232. - - =Lee, Robert E.=, 325, 326, 327, 335, 336, 337-341; - at West Point, 337; - wins fame and honor in Mexican War, 337; - in charge at West Point, 337; - in charge of Confederate army at Richmond, 338; - defeats McClellan, 338; - retreats from Maryland after battle of Antietam, 338; - at Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville, 338; - at Gettysburg, 338; - in the "Wilderness," 339; - plans to join Johnston, 340; - meets Sheridan, 340; - surrenders to Grant, 341; - president of Washington College, 341; - death, 341; - portrait of, 341. - - =Leonidas=, 462. - - =Lewis, Captain Meriwether=, 239-244; - portrait of, 239; - and Clark sent to explore Louisiana Purchase, 239; - and Clark and the Indians, 239-243; - and Clark cross Rocky Mountains, 240-241; - and Clark reach the Columbia River, 242; - and Clark reach the Pacific, 242; - and Clark return to St. Louis, 242; - rewarded by Congress, 242; - made governor of Louisiana Territory, 243. - - =Lewis and Clark Expedition=, 237, 239. - - =Lexington=, battle of, 130, 175. - - ="Lexington," The=, 199. - - =Lincoln, Abraham=, 313-329; - born in Kentucky backwoods, 313; - early life of, 313-317; - in Black Hawk War, 317; - goes to Illinois legislature, 318; - speaks for General Harrison and Henry Clay, 319; - goes to Congress, 319; - the champion against Douglas, 319; - in the U. S. Senate, 320; - debates between Douglas and, 320-322; - elected president, 322; - calls for troops, 323; - portrait of, 325; - issues Emancipation Proclamation, 326; - assassinated, 327; - and reconstruction, 328-329. - - =Lincoln, General=, 182. - - =Lincoln, Nancy Hanks=, 314. - - =Livingston, Robert R.=, helps draw up Declaration of Independence, 232; - helps make Louisiana Purchase, 236; - aids Fulton, 258, 259. - - =Locomotive invented=, 263. - - =Loe, Thomas=, 92, 94. - - =London Company=, formed, 60. - - "=Lone Star Republic=," 281. - - =Longstreet, William=, 257. - - =Lookout Mountain=, battle of, 335. - - =Los Angeles=, 376. - - =Louisiana Purchase=, 236-238; - Lewis and Clark explore territory obtained by, 237, 239-244. - - =Louisiana Purchase Exposition=, 237. - - =Louisville=, 218. - - ="Lusitania," The=, 428, 430. - - ="Luzerne," The=, 201. - - - =McClellan, General=, and Lee, 325, 338; - at Antietam, 338. - - =Mace, Samuel=, 46. - - =Macedonian phalanx=, 455, 463, 469. - - =McCormick, Cyrus H.=, 272-274. - - =McKinley, William=, 352-359; - early life of, 352-353; - in the Civil War, 353; - becomes a successful lawyer, 353; - portrait of, 353; - in Congress, 354; - and the Spanish-American War, 354-359; - assassinated, 359. - - =Madison, James=, 250, 296. - - =Magellan, Ferdinand=, 28-31; - portrait of, 28; - first to sail around earth and prove it round, 28-31; - names, and is first to cross Pacific Ocean, 30; - visits the Philippines, 30; - killed defending his sailors, 31. - - =Magellan, Strait of=, discovered, 30; - Drake sails through, 38. - - "=Magna Charta=," _see_ Great Charter. - - ="Maine," The=, 355. - - =Manhattan Island=, trading posts established on, 56; - purchase of, 58. - - =Manila=, bay, 355-356; - city of, 357. - - =Manufactures=, 421-423. - - =Marathon=, battle of, 461-462. - - =Marconi=, invents wireless telegraphy, 268. - - =Marianas=, 30. - - =Marion, Francis=, 184, 189-192; - portrait of, 190; - the "Swamp Fox," 190, 191; - sets free one hundred and fifty prisoners, 191; - honored by friends, 192. - - =Marne=, first battle of, 427; - second battle of, 438. - - =Marquette, Father=, 53, 106, 112. - - =Maryland=, 68-70. - - =Massachusetts Bay=, Colony of, 82, 83. - - =Massasoit=, Indian chief, 78, 79, 80, 84. - - ="Mayflower," The=, 73-75, 77, 78, 80, 81. - - =Meat packing=, 376, 419-421. - - =Megaphone=, 275. - - =Menlo Park=, Edison's laboratory at, 383, 385. - - ="Merrimac," The=, 324-325. - - =Mexican Indians=, 18-21. - - =Mexico=, invaded and conquered by Cortés, 18-22; - mines of, 22; - war between Texas and, 279-283; - Fremont in the war with, 288-289; - war between United States and, 298, 310; - Grant in war with, 332; - Lee in war with, 337; - Pershing sent into, 430. - - =Microphone=, 383. - - "=Mill boy of the Slashes=," 294. - - =Mims, Fort=, massacre at, 249. - - =Mines and mining=, 375, 421-423. - - =Minuit, Peter=, first governor of New Netherland, 58. - - =Minutemen=, 174-175, 183. - - =Missionaries=, 53, 106-114, 243. - - =Missionary Ridge=, battle of, 335. - - =Missions=, in the Southwest, 300-302. - - =Mississippi River=, discovered by De Soto, 26, 27; - explored by Joliet and Marquette, 53; - La Salle reached mouth of, 112; - western boundary of United States, 224, 236. - - =Mississippi Valley=, La Salle explores the, 107, 109-113. - - =Missouri=, state of, 210, 238, 296. - - =Missouri Compromise=, 296, 319. - - =Missouri River=, Falls of the, 240. - - =Mohave Desert=, 288. - - "=Mohawks=," 171. - - ="Monitor," The=, 324-325. - - =Monoplane=, 392-393. - - =Monmouth=, battle of, 138, 139. - - =Monroe James=, 236, 307, 426. - - =Monterey=, 289. - - =Montezuma=, 20. - - =Monticello=, home of Jefferson, 231, 232, 234, 237, 238. - - =Moravians=, 102. - - =Morgan, General=, 184, 185-189; - fights French and Indians, 185; - helps capture Burgoyne, 186; - complimented by Burgoyne, 186; - at battle of Cowpens, 186, 188; - portrait of, 186; joins Greene, 188; - last days of, 188-189. - - =Morristown=, 137. - - =Morse, Samuel F. B.=, 264-268; - interested in electricity, 264; - plans instrument, 265; - meets helper in Alfred Vail, 265; - gets government aid, 267; - portrait of, 267; - receives rewards and honors, 268; - death, 268. - - =Moving pictures=, 385-386. - - =Moultrie, Colonel=, 182. - - =Mount Vernon=, 116, 119, 121, 123, 128, 129, 141, 142, 143, 145. - - =Murfreesboro=, 335. - - =Murray, Mrs.=, entertains Lord Howe, 133. - - - =Napoleon=, sells Louisiana Territory to the United States, 236. - - =Nassau, Fort=, 56. - - =Natick, Mass.=, 84. - - =National Woman's Suffrage Association=, 403. - - =Necessity, Fort=, 123. - - =Negro slaves=, _see_ Slavery. - - =Neutrality=, American in World War, 426, 427-429. - - =New Amsterdam=, 58, 91, 92; - becomes New York, 90. - - =New England=, Puritans in, 68, 81-86; - Pilgrims in, 73-81; - industries, manners, and customs of colonists in, 85-86. - - =New France=, 52; - trappers, soldiers, and missionaries of, 113-114. - - =New Netherland=, 88-90; - settlement of, 58-59; - industries, manners, and customs of, 91-92. - - =New Orleans=, 236; - battle of, 250-252. - - =Newport, Captain=, 60, 62. - - =New York=, New Amsterdam becomes, 90; - William and Mary give representative assembly to, 90; - British in, 133; - Washington inaugurated in, 143-144. - - =Nez Percé Indians=, 241, 243. - - ="Niagara," The=, 245. - - =Niagara River=, 108, 109. - - =Nile River=, 446-447, 463. - - ="Niña," The=, 10, 13. - - =Ninevah=, 448. - - "=Nolichucky Jack=," 212-216. - - =Nolichucky River=, 212. - - "=No-Man's-Land=," 203. - - =Normans=, 483, 488-490. - - =Northmen=, voyages of, 1-2; - in Iceland and Greenland, 1; - discover Vinland, 1; - wanderings of, 483, 484, 486. - _See also_ Normans _and_ Danes. - - ="North River," The=, 260. - - =Nullification=, and President Jackson, 254, 308; - Webster's great speech on, 303-304; - Calhoun favors, 307-308; - South Carolina and, 253-254, 308. - - - =Odoacer=, 477. - - =Oglethorpe, James=, 100-103, 104; - friend of the unfortunate, 100; - portrait of, 101; - settles Georgia, 101-103; - death, 103. - - "=Old Hickory=," 249. - - =Old North Church=, 174. - - =Old South Church=, 169, 171. - - =Orange, Fort=, 56, 57, 90. - - =Orange growing=, 375. - - ="Oregon," The=, 377. - - =Oregon Country=, Lewis and Clark Expedition sent to, 237, 243; - sought by fur traders and missionaries, 243-244; - United States and Great Britain occupy, 244; - northern boundary of the established, 244; - Benton speaks on the, 285. - - - ="Pacificator," The=, 297. - - =Pacific Northwest=, 333. - - =Pacific Ocean=, named by Magellan, 30. - - =Pakenham, General=, 251. - - =Palos=, 7, 9, 13, 15. - - =Panama-California Exposition=, 378. - - =Panama Canal=, 376-378. - - =Panama-Pacific International Exposition=, 378. - - =Paris=, son of the king of Troy, 452. - - =Parker, ----=, 243. - - =Parsons' Case, The=, 161-162. - - =Patagonia=, 29, 38. - - =Patroons, The=, 58-59, 89. - - =Paul, John=, _see_ Jones, John Paul. - - ="Pelican," The=, Drake's ship, 38. - - =Penn, Admiral=, 93, 94, 95, 96. - - =Penn, William=, 92-98; - becomes a Quaker, 93; - sent to Paris and Ireland, 93-94; - portrait of, 94; - King Charles and, 94; - founds Pennsylvania as home for Quakers, 95-98; - invites all persecuted people, 96; - founds Philadelphia, 97; - treaty with the Indians, 98; - death, 98. - - =Penn's Woods=, 96. - - =Pennsylvania=, founded, 95-96; - coal in, 421-422. - - =Pennsylvania, University of=, founded, 151. - - "=Pennsylvania Dutch=," 98. - - "=Pennsylvania Gazette=," 151. - - =Pericles=, 460-461. - - =Perry, Oliver Hazard=, 244-245; - midshipman at fourteen, 244; - in war against Barbary States, 244; - ordered to Lake Erie, 244; - battle of Lake Erie, 244-245; - portrait of, 245; - highly honored, 245. - - =Pershing, John J.=, sent to Mexico, 430; - heads American forces, 436; - portrait of, 436; - early life, 436-437; - lands in France, 437; - divides his troops among the Allies, 438-439; - defeats the Germans at Château-Thierry, 439; - wins battle of St. Mihiel, 439-440. - - =Peru=, Pizarro in, 23. - - =Petersburg=, siege of, 336. - - "=Petition of Right=," 493. - - =Philadelphia=, 137; - founded, 97; - British at, 138; - first Continental Congress at, 172; - Second Continental Congress at, 177. - - =Philip=, _see_ King Philip. - - =Philip of Macedon=, 455. - - =Philippines=, Magellan visits, 30; - United States pays Spain for, 357. - - =Phoenicians=, 449-450. - - =Phonograph=, 384, 387. - - =Pickett, General George E.=, 338. - - =Pierce, President=, 269. - - =Pilgrims, The=, 73-81; - seek Holland, 73; - land in America, 74-77; - and the Indians, 76, 78-81, 84-85; - settle at Plymouth, 77; - build homes in the forest, 77; - celebrate Thanksgiving, 80; - industries, manners, and customs of, 85-86. - - ="Pinta," The=, 10, 11, 13, 14. - - =Pinzón=, 7; - sails with Columbus, 10. - - =Pitt, Fort=, 126, 218. - - =Pitt, William=, 126, 154, 162, 233. - - =Pittsburgh=, iron and steel center of America, 423. - - =Pittsburg Landing=, 334-335, 380. - - =Pizarro, Francisco=, 23-24; - marches army to Cuzco and finds vast wealth, 23; - killed by his men, 24. - - =Planters=, industries, manners, and customs of the southern, 103-104. - - =Plato=, 454. - - =Plymouth=, landing place of the Pilgrims, 77; - colony of, 83. - - =Plymouth Rock=, 77. - - =Pocahontas=, 66-68; - rescues John Smith, 64; - carries corn to settlers, 64; - warns settlers of danger, 65; - marries John Rolfe, 66; - received as a princess in England, 67; - portrait of, 68; - death, 68. - - =Ponce de Leon=, 17-18; - takes possession of Florida, 17; - death, 18. - - "=Pony express=," 373. - - "=Poor Richard's Almanac=," 151, 152, 197. - - =Pope, General=, 338. - - =Portland=, 376. - - =Porto Rico=, annexed by United States, 357. - - =Port Royal=, founded, 49. - - =Potato, white=, taken to England, 45. - - =Powhatan=, famous Indian chief, 63, 64, 65, 67. - - =Prescott, Colonel=, 176. - - =Princeton=, 136. - - =Protestants=, 68, 69, 102. - - "=Puffing Billy=," 263. - - =Puritans=, 68, 70, 81-83, 85; - in England, 81; - seek America, 81; - at Salem, 81; - found Boston, 82, 83; - found colony of Massachusetts, 92. - - =Put-In-Bay=, 244. - - - =Quakers=, 92-100; - called themselves Society of Friends, 99. - - =Quebec=, founded, 49; - fall of, 114; - expedition against, 126. - - - =Railroads=, 263-264, 373. - - =Raleigh, Sir Walter=, 42-47; - Drake carries back to England colony of, 41; - as student, soldier, seaman, 42-43; - plants colonies in America, 43-46; - portrait of, 44; - wins favor with Queen Elizabeth, 44; - put to death, 47. - - ="Raleigh," The=, 200. - - =Rameses II=, 447. - - ="Ranger," The=, 196, 197. - - ="Ranges" of Lake Superior=, 422. - - =Reaper=, 272-274. - - =Red Cross Society=, 355, 410-412, 431. - - =Reed, Deborah=, wife of Franklin, 149, 151. - - =Refrigerator cars=, 421. - - =Remus=, 464. - - =Republican party=, 289, 320, 344, 348, 351, 370. - - =Resources and industries of the United States=, 416-423. - - =Revere, Paul=, 172, 174. - - ="Revolution," The=, 403. - - =Revolution, War of the=, 207, 209, 211, 224, 246, 247; - debt of the, 235; - woman's part in the, 400. - - =Rice=, in the South, 104. - - =Richmond=, 325, 326, 327. - - =Roanoke Island=, 44, 45. - - =Rochambeau, General=, 139. - - =Rocky Mountains=, 240, 243. - - =Rolfe, John=, 66, 67. - - =Rolfe, Thomas=, 68. - - =Rome=, 464-477; - legends and myths of, 464-466; - threatened with civil war, 466; - taken by Gauls, 466; - conquers all tribes of Italy, 466; - war with Carthage, 466-469; - conquers many nations, 469; - changed character of, 469-470; - uprisings in, 470; - conquests under Caesar, 472; - becomes an empire, 473; - establishes a system of laws, 473-474; - builds famous roads and engineering works, 474; - literature of, 475; - prepares way for spread of Christianity, 475-476; - conquered by Teutons, 476-477; - later invasions, 477; - brings Christianity to Germans, 478-479; - Charlemagne crowned emperor of, 481. - - =Romulus=, 464. - - =Roosevelt, Theodore=, 356, 360-372; - early life, 360-363; - as New York assemblyman, 363-364; - western life, 364-365; - as Civil Service Commissioner, 365; - as Police Commissioner, 365-366; - in Spanish-American War, 366; - governor of New York, 366; - as vice-president, succeeds McKinley, 367; - record as president, 368; - as an author, 368-369; - defeated for reëlection, 370; - explores a Brazilian river, 370-371; - death, 371. - - =Rosecrans, General=, 335. - - "=Rough Riders=," 366. - - =Rubicon=, 472-473. - - =Rumsey, James=, 257. - - =Runnymede=, meeting at, 492. - - =Russia=, takes part in World War, 421; - makes peace with Germany, 437. - - - =Sacajawea=, statue of, 241. - - =Sacramento Valley=, 287-288. - - "=Sage of Monticello=," 238. - - =St. Francis=, 290. - - =St. Gaudens=, statue of Lincoln by, 326-327. - - =St. John's Church=, 163. - - =St. Joseph River=, 109, 110. - - =St. Lawrence River=, French on, 49, 50, 52. - - =St. Louis=, 210, 242. - - =St. Louis, Fort=, 112. - - =St. Marys=, 69. - - =St. Mihiel=, battle of, 439-440. - - =Salamis=, battle of, 462. - - =Salem=, colony at, 81, 82. - - =Samoset=, 78. - - =Sampson, Rear Admiral=, 357. - - =San Antonio=, 282. - - =San Diego=, mission at, 290-291; - exposition at, 378. - - =San Francisco=, importance of, 376; - exposition at, 378; - Red Cross relieves suffering caused by earthquake at, 411-412. - - =San Jacinto=, battle of, 280-281. - - =San Juan=, 356-357. - - =San Salvador=, discovered by Columbus, 12. - - =Santa Ana, General=, 280, 281, 282. - - ="Santa Maria," The=, 9. - - =Santiago=, 356-357. - - =Savannah=, founded, 102; - captured by British, 182. - - =Saxons=, _see_ Anglo-Saxon tribes. - - =Schley, Commodore=, 357. - - =Schuyler, Philip=, 132. - - =Scott, General=, 254. - - =Seminole Indians=, war with the, 252. - - ="Serapis," The=, 197, 198. - - =Serfs=, 445. - - =Serra, Junipero=, 290-291. - - =Settlement=, _see_ Social Settlement. - - =Sevier, John=, 210-216, 247; - goes to school at Fredericksburg, 210; - famous Indian fighter, 210; - captain in Washington' regiment, 210; - portrait of, 211; - at siege of Fort Watauga, 211-212; - Kate Sherrill and, 211-212; - moves to the Nolichucky, 212; - fights battle of Kings Mountain, 213-214; - destroys Indian towns, 214; - governor of Tennessee, 215; - dies while working, 215. - - =Sewing Machine=, 274-276. - - =Shafter, General=, 356. - - =Shawnee Indians=, 216. - - =Shelby, Colonel=, 213. - - =Sheridan, General=, 340. - - =Sherman, Roger=, 232. - - =Sherrill, Kate=, 211-212. - - =Sholes, Christopher L.=, 386-387. - - =Silver=, 373. - - =Slavery=, in Virginia, 71; - in the South, 229; - Calhoun on question of, 308-310; - petitions in favor of abolishing, 308; - new view of, 310; - Lincoln's attitude toward, 316, 318; - question of, 320; - destroyed, 326; - Harriet Beecher Stowe's efforts against, 407. - - =Sloat, Commander=, 289. - - =Smith, John=, 61-66, 77; - portrait of, 61; - as a soldier, 62; - and the Indians, 62-65; - saved from death by Pocahontas, 64; - returns to Jamestown, 64; - returns to England, 66; - on last visit to America, 66; - meets Pocahontas in England, 67. - - =Snake River=, Lewis and Clark on the, 242. - - =Social Settlement=, Jane Addams and the, 413. - - =Socrates=, 453-454. - - "=Soldier's Rest=," Morgan's home, 188. - - "=Sons of Liberty=," 162, 168. - - =South Carolina=, and nullification, 253-254, 308. - - =South Pass=, 243, 285. - - =Spain=, in America, 11-16, 18-28; - Englishmen check progress of, 37-42; - missions of, 290-292; - war between United States and, 366-370. - _See also_ Spanish-American War. - - =Spanish-American War=, 366-370; - Goethals in the, 377; - Clara Barton and the Red Cross in the, 411. - - =Spanish Armada, The=, 42. - - =Spanish missions=, in the Southwest, 290-292; - in California, 290-292; - treatment of Indians at, 291-292; - present condition of, 292. - - =Sparta=, 452, 453, 456, 458, 462. - - ="Speedwell," The=, 73, 74. - - =Spottsylvania=, battle of, 336, 337. - - =Squanto=, friend of Pilgrims, 78, 79, 80. - - =Stamp Act=, 129, 154, 158-160, 162, 168, 230. - - =Standish, Miles=, 75, 76, 78, 79, 80; - portrait of, 78. - - =Stanton, Elizabeth Cady=, 401-404; - early life of, 401-402; - portrait of, 401; - calls woman's rights convention, 402; - works with Miss Anthony for suffrage, 403; - death, 404. - - =Stanton, Henry B.=, 402, 403. - - =Starved Rock=, 110, 111. - - =Steamboat=, invented by Fulton, 257-260; - used on all rivers, 260-261. - - =Steel=, manufacture of, 423. - - =Stephenson, George=, 263. - - =Steuben, General=, 138. - - =Stewart=, Boone's companion, 204. - - =Stowe, Calvin E.=, 407. - - =Stowe, Harriet Beecher=, 406-407; - early life of, 406-407; - in behalf of freedom for slaves, 407; - writes _Uncle Tom's Cabin_, 407; - portrait of, 407; - death, 407. - - =Strait of Magellan=, _see_ Magellan. - - "=Stump speaking=," 319. - - =Stuyvesant, Peter=, 87-91; - in West Indies, 87; - portrait of, 88; - governor of New Amsterdam, 88-90; - makes strict laws, 88; - disputes with people, 89; - surrenders to English, 90-91. - - =Submarine=, 395-397. - - =Suffrage, Woman=, 402, 403-404, 414. - - =Sumter, Fort=, 323. - - =Sumter, Thomas=, 184. - - =Superior=, iron "ranges" of Lake, 422. - - =Sutter, Colonel=, 288. - - =Sutter's Fort=, 287. - - - =Taft, William Howard=, 369-370; - portrait of, 369. - - =Tanks=, 397. - - =Tariff=, collecting in South Carolina, 297; - protective, 303-307; - Calhoun and, 307-308. - - =Tariff Law, Compromise=, 297, 304, 308. - - =Tarleton, Colonel=, sent to capture Morgan, 185-187; - defeated at battle of the Cowpens, 186-188; - stories of, 187-188; - sent to capture Marion, 191. - - =Tea Tax=, 129, 162-163, 168-170, 231. - - =Tecumseh=, 249. - - =Telegraph=, invented by Morse, 264-268; - Marconi invents wireless, 268; - Edison and the, 381-383. - - =Telephone=, invented by Bell and Gray, 268. - - =Temperance=, _see_ Woman's Christian Temperance Union. - - =Tennessee=, 215, 247, 248. - - =Texas=, 279-283, 310. - - =Thanksgiving=, the first American, 80. - - =Thermopylae=, 462. - - =Threshing machines=, 418. - - =Ticonderoga=, 132. - - =Tigris River=, 448. - - =Tobacco=, chief crop of Virginia planters, 71. - - =Tonti=, comes to America with La Salle, 107; - goes to hunt the _Griffin_, 109, 110; - at Starved Rock, 111, 113; - in command of Fort St. Louis, 112. - - =Tories=, 169, 190. - - =Tours=, battle of, 479. - - =Trade routes=, old, 2; - Turks destroy, 3. - - =Trading posts=, 56. - - =Transportation=, development of, 373-374. - - "=Traveler=," Lee's horse, 341. - - =Travis, Colonel=, 279. - - =Treaty of 1783= (Revolution), 140, 155. - - =Treaty of Ghent= (War of 1812), 306. - - =Treaty of 1846=, 244. - - =Trenton=, 135. - - =Trojans=, 452-453. - - =Turkey=, 45. - - =Tyler, President=, 314, 320. - - =Typewriter=, 386-388. - - - =Ulysses=, 453. - - "=Uncle Tom's Cabin=," 407. - - "=Unknown Warrior=," burial of, 433. - - =Union-Pacific Railway=, completed, 374. - - =United States=, resources and industries of the, 316-323. - - =United States Bank=, President Jackson and the, 252-253. - - - =Vail, Alfred=, 265. - - =Valley Forge=, 137, 138. - - =Van Buren, President=, 254. - - =Vancouver, Fort=, 286. - - =Van Rensselaer=, a patroon, 58. - - =Vernon, Admiral=, 116. - - =Vespucci, Amerigo=, 16. - - =Vicksburg=, siege of, 334. - - =Victoria, Queen=, 270. - - =Vikings=, _see_ Northmen. - - =Villa=, 430. - - =Vincennes=, campaign against, 218-224. - - =Vinland=, visited by Northmen, 1. - - =Virgil=, 475. - - =Virginia=, 60, 130, 163, 166; - named by Queen Elizabeth, 44; - colony planted in, 46; - Charles I gives Baltimore a part of, 69; - slavery introduced into, 71; - life in the colony of, 71; - industries, manners, and customs of, 71-72; - old days in, 126-129; - the change in, 141. - - - =Wabash=, Clark and his men in the "drowned lands" of the, 221-222. - - =War of 1812=, heroes of, 244-254; - Perry in, 244-245; - Jackson in, 248-252; - Clay's part in the, 296; - treaty ending, 296; - Webster's part in, 302; - Calhoun's work in, 307. - - =Warren, General Joseph=, 177. - - =Washington, Augustine=, 115. - - =Washington, George=, 114-145, 153, 166, 173, 180, 182, 184, 234; - birthday and birthplace of, 115; - mother of, 115; - a skilled woodsman, 118; - meets Lord Fairfax, 119; - as a surveyor, 119-120; - in the wilderness and at Greenway Court, 119-121; - as a soldier against the French, 121-123; - builds Fort Necessity, 123; - joins Braddock's army, 123; - visits Boston, 125; - meets Martha Custis, 126; - at Fort Duquesne, 126; - married, 126-127; - elected to House of Burgesses, 127; - at Mount Vernon, 128-129; - modesty of, 128, 131; - sent to Continental Congress, 130; - made commander in chief of American armies, 130, 155, 177; - takes command of army, 132; - appoints Schuyler to take command in New York, 132; - outwits Howe, 133; - retreats but fights, 134; - at Trenton, 135-136; - defeats British at Princeton, 137; - at battle of Brandywine, 137; - at Valley Forge, 137-138; - at Yorktown, 139-140; - portrait of, 139; - bids farewell to army and returns to Mount Vernon, 140-142; - elected first president, 143-145, 234; - loved by the people, 143; - character of administration of, 144; - reëlected president and refuses third term, 145; - death, 145. - - =Washington, Lawrence=, 116, 117, 121. - - =Washington, William=, 184, 185, 186, 187. - - =Watauga, Fort=, 211, 212. - - =Watt, James=, 258, 259. - - =Webster, Daniel=, 300-306; - early life of, 300; - best student at Dartmouth, 301; - studies law, 301; - marries, 302; - in Congress, 302; - opposes nullification, 303, 304; - portrait of, 304; - Secretary of State, 304, 306; - supports the Compromise of 1850, 305; - dies at Marshfield, 306. - - =Wesley, John and Charles=, 103. - - =West, Benjamin=, 258. - - =West, The New=, 372-376. - - =West Indies=, Columbus discovers and explores, 13, 15; - devastated by Drake, 41; - Paul Jones' expedition to, 196. - - =Wheat=, 375, 417-419. - - =Whig party, The=, 297, 298, 304, 319, 322. - - =White, John=, 45, 46. - - =Whitehaven=, Paul Jones' exploit at, 196. - - =White Plains=, 134. - - =Whitman, Marcus=, missionary, 243, 244. - - =Whitney, Eli=, 226-229; - in his father's tool shop, 226; - goes to Savannah, 227; - invited to Mulberry Grove, 227; - becomes interested in cotton, 228; - invents cotton gin, 228; - effect of cotton gin invented by, 416. - - "=Wilderness=," fighting in the, 336, 337. - - ="Wilderness Road," The=, 205-206. - - =Willard, Frances E.=, 408-409; - early life of, 408; - and the Woman's Christian Temperance Union, 409; - death, 409; - portrait of, 409. - - =William and Mary=, 90. - - =William the Conqueror=, 488-489, 490. - - =Williamsburg=, 159, 163, 230. - - ="Willing," The=, 220, 223. - - =Wilson, Woodrow=, 428-431; - early life, 429; - practises law, 429; - as a teacher, 429; - president of Princeton, 429; - governor of New Jersey, 429-430; - portrait of, 430; - and Mexico, 430; - dismisses German ambassador, 431; - makes loans to Allies, 431; - at Paris, 442; - tours the United States, 443. - - =Winslow, Edward=, 73. - - =Winthrop, John=, 81-83, 147. - - =Wireless telegraphy=, 268. - - =Wolfe, General=, 114, 126. - - =Woman's Christian Temperance Union=, 409. - - =Woman's club=, 405-406. - - =Woman's rights=, 401-404, 414; - Elizabeth Cady Stanton and, 402; - Susan B. Anthony and, 403-404; - Julia Ward Howe and, 406. - - =Woman's Rights Convention=, first, 402. - - =Woman suffrage=, 402, 403-404, 414. - - =Women of our nation=, 400-416. - - =Wood, Colonel Leonard=, 356. - - =World's Columbian Exposition=, 16. - - =World's Woman's Christian Temperance Union=, 409. - - =World War=, 371, 424-443; - support of by the American people, 424-426; - attitude of United States in early years of, 426-429, 430-431; - nations involved in, 426, - naval events of, 427; - United States enters, 431-432; - size of, 433-434; - character of, 434-435; - Russia withdraws from, 437; - crisis of, 437-439; - American battles in, 439-441; - Allied victories in, 441; - close of, 442-443. - - =Wright, Orville=, 390-394. - - =Wright, Wilbur=, 390-394. - - =Wyeth, Nathaniel=, 243. - - - =Xerxes=, 462. - - - =Yadkin River=, Greene crosses, 188; - Boone on the, 203; - Boone returns to home on the, 205. - - =York, Duke of=, 89. - - =Yorktown=, victory at, 139-140, 189. - - - =Zama=, battle of, 469. - - =Zeppelins=, 391. - -[Illustration: UNITED STATES - - _Copyright, 1909, by Rand, McNally & Company._] - - - - - - TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES - - - Silently corrected simple spelling, grammar, and typographical - errors. - - Retained anachronistic and non-standard spellings as printed. - - Enclosed italics font in _underscores_. - - Enclosed bold font in =equals=. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Beginner's History, by William H. 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