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diff --git a/old/50510-0.txt b/old/50510-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 15b997a..0000000 --- a/old/50510-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,14472 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Boys' Book of Rulers, by Lydia Hoyt Farmer - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Boys' Book of Rulers - -Author: Lydia Hoyt Farmer - -Release Date: November 20, 2015 [EBook #50510] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOYS' BOOK OF RULERS *** - - - - -Produced by Emmy, Chris Curnow and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - - - - - - -[Illustration: CHARLEMAGNE.] - - - -THE BOYS’ BOOK OF FAMOUS RULERS. - - BY - LYDIA HOYT FARMER, - AUTHOR OF “THE STORY OF SCIENCE,” “THE PRINCE OF THE FLAMING - STAR,” “WHAT SHE MADE OF HER LIFE,” ETC. - -[Illustration] - - NEW YORK: - THOMAS Y. CROWELL & CO., - No. 13 ASTOR PLACE. - - - - _Copyright_, - BY THOMAS Y. CROWELL & CO. - 1886. - - J. S. CUSHING & CO., PRINTERS, BOSTON. - - - - DEDICATED - TO - MY CHILDREN - - - -PREFACE. - -THE aim of this book is to give in as concise manner as possible, -consistent with graphic narration and biographical completeness, the -most important and interesting events in the lives of these famous -rulers; together with a brief history of the various epochs in which -they lived, and a description of the manners and customs of the people -comprising the several nations governed by these illustrious monarchs. - - - -CONTENTS. - - PAGE - AGAMEMNON 1 - CYRUS THE GREAT 30 - ALEXANDER THE GREAT 71 - JULIUS CÆSAR 110 - CHARLEMAGNE 142 - ALFRED THE GREAT 169 - RICHARD CŒUR DE LION 195 - ROBERT BRUCE 233 - FERDINAND V. OF SPAIN 266 - PHILIP II. OF SPAIN 291 - GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS 312 - LOUIS XIV. 334 - PETER THE GREAT 367 - FREDERICK THE GREAT 398 - NAPOLEON I. 433 - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. - - Charlemagne _Frontispiece_ - Jupiter sending the Evil Dream to Agamemnon _Page_ 9 - Hector chiding Paris 11 - Diomed casting his Spear against Mars 17 - Ajax defending the Greek Ships against the Trojans 18 - Hector’s Body dragged at the Car of Achilles 26 - The Funeral of Hector 27 - Persian Guardsman carrying Bow and Quiver 37 - Persian Soldier with Battle-Axe 37 - Persian Foot Soldiers 37 - Persian King seated on his Throne 38 - Persian Subjects bringing Tribute 58 - Chart of the Country around Babylon 60 - Supposed Plan of Ancient Babylon 62 - Babylonian King 64 - Persian Chariot 67 - Tomb of Cyrus 67 - Ruins of Babylon 70 - Temple of Diana at Ephesus 72 - Alexander the Great 74 - Demosthenes 80 - Darius 92 - Julius Cæsar—from the Antique Bust 110 - Julius Cæsar 116 - Cæsar in Gaul 122 - The Landing of Julius Cæsar in Britain 124 - Charlemagne—from Early Engraving 142 - The Huns at Châlons 144 - “Thrust him away or thou diest in his stead” 147 - Charlemagne 152 - Death of Roland 160 - Alfred the Great 170 - The Northmen invading France 174 - Alfred the Great 182 - Alfred and the Cakes 186 - Richard Cœur de Lion 196 - Richard Cœur de Lion 208 - Richard tearing down the Austrian Banner 221 - “Most Holy Land, Farewell!” 228 - King John 230 - Warren, Earl of Surrey, Governor of Scotland under Edward I. 235 - Robert Bruce 238 - “Bruce was not slow in taking the warning” 243 - “See! I have spoiled my good battle-axe” 260 - Ferdinand of Aragon 266 - Isabella of Castile 268 - Segovia: The Alcazar and Cathedral 271 - The Cathedral and Port of Malaga 274 - Court of Lions, Alhambra 280 - Columbus 282 - Prison of the Inquisition at Barcelona 286 - Tomb of Ferdinand and Isabella in the Cathedral of Granada 289 - Philip II. 291 - Queen Mary plighting her Troth to Philip 292 - Destroying Statues, etc., in the Cathedral at Antwerp 304 - Philip II. 308 - Gustavus Adolphus 312 - Gustavus Adolphus—from a picture by Van Dyck 318 - Death of Gustavus and his Page 332 - Louis XIV. 334 - Anne of Austria and Cardinal Mazarin 340 - Louis XIV. taking leave of Fouquet 344 - Death of Turenne 350 - Jean Baptiste Colbert 352 - Revocation of the Edict of Nantes 354 - Peter the Great 368 - The Krémlin of Moscow 373 - Peter saved from Slaughter by his Mother 374 - Cathedral of SS. Peter and Paul in the Fortress 385 - Peter the Great in the Dutch Ship-yard 389 - Peter the Great 392 - Frederick II., King of Prussia, æt. 58 398 - Frederick the Great 418 - Arrest of Voltaire by order of Frederick 427 - Equestrian Statue of Frederick the Great, æt. 73 430 - Napoleon 434 - Napoleon in the Prison of Nice, 1794 442 - Napoleon at Fontainebleau 462 - Napoleon on Board the Bellerophon 466 - The Rock at St. Helena 474 - - - - -BOYS’ BOOK OF FAMOUS RULERS. - - - - -AGAMEMNON. - -1184 B.C. - - “The rule - Of many is not well. One must be chief - In war, and one the king.”—_Iliad._ - - -FOR nine years the Greeks had besieged the city of Troy. This famous -Trojan War, which is said to have occurred about 1184 B.C., has been -embellished by romance and poetry; and although the real events have -been much distorted by fabulous tales, it holds an important place in -ancient Grecian history. - -The marvellous Greek poet Homer has immortalized the wonderful story -of this contest, in which, according to the old Grecian belief, gods -and heroes fought for mastery; and it seems more fitting to the subject -that we should view these events through the eyes of those ancient -Greeks, whose weird yet fascinating fables peopled the mountains -and seas with gods and goddesses; over whom proud Zeus or Jupiter -ruled on the dread Mount of Olympus, from whence he hurled his awful -thunderbolts, and shook the earth and heavens in his wrathful moods, -when gods or mortals had dared to defy his imperial will. Agamemnon, -king of Mycenæ, was the commander of all the Grecian hosts which for -these nine years had surrounded the walls of Troy. The cause of the -quarrel may be thus briefly stated:— - -Priam was the richest and most powerful of all the kings of Troy. His -wife, Queen Hecuba, had dreamed that one of her children should become -a firebrand which should consume the whole city. Whereupon, Priam was -so alarmed, that he ordered that her next child should be exposed in a -desert place among the mountains, and left to perish. Paris was this -child, and when an infant, was hidden by his mother, that he might not -be thus destroyed. Paris grew to be a youth of marvellous beauty, and -was at length brought by his mother to the court of Priam. The king was -so charmed by his beauty and accomplishments, that Paris ventured to -make himself known, and was received by Priam, his father, with great -kindness; for he was so pleased with the noble youth, that he ceased -to remember the evil dream. This dream, however, was very strangely -fulfilled years afterwards. Paris made an expedition into Greece, which -country was at that time divided into many small kingdoms or states, -each governed by its own king. Agamemnon was king of Mycenæ, and his -brother Menelaüs was king of Sparta. - -Agamemnon and Menelaüs were the sons of Plisthenes; but as their father -died when they were very young, their mother Aërope was afterwards -married to Atreus; and these two brothers were brought up by their -step-father as his own children, to whom his name was given, as they -were called Atridæ. - -Atreus was afterwards murdered, and Agamemnon’s uncle Thyestes ascended -the throne of Mycenæ. Agamemnon and his brother Menelaüs then fled to -Sparta. The king of Sparta agreed to recover the kingdom for Agamemnon, -if he would marry his daughter Clytemnestra, and make her his queen. -To this Agamemnon consented, and with the aid of Tyndarus, king of -Sparta, he recovered his own kingdom, and married Clytemnestra. His -brother Menelaüs afterwards became king of Sparta. - -During the expedition into Greece, of Paris, the son of King Priam, -he visited the court of Sparta, and was received most kindly by King -Menelaüs. But the handsome and fascinating Paris ill-repaid this -courteous reception, for he fell in love with Helen, the beautiful -wife of Menelaüs, and carried her off with him on his return to Troy. -Menelaüs, enraged at this wicked treachery, persuaded his brother -Agamemnon, king of Mycenæ, to espouse his quarrel, and to join him -in waging war with the Trojans, to revenge his indignity, and to -recover, if possible, his wife, the fair Helen, who was so exquisitely -beautiful, that all who saw her fell in love with her. Agamemnon was -chosen commander-in-chief of all the powerful Grecian princes who now -combined their forces to fight against Troy. Homer gives us the names -of the most famous of these Grecian warriors. Agamemnon was sovereign -lord of all the host, and Achilles was the bravest and most valiant man -amongst them. But besides these, there was the yellow-haired Menelaüs, -king of Sparta, and husband of the beautiful Helen; Ajax Oïleus, or, as -men called him, the lesser Ajax, king of the Locri, swiftest of foot -among the Greeks, after the great Achilles; Ajax Telamon, from Salamis; -Diomed, son of Tydeus, king of Argos, and with him Sthenelus; Nestor, -king of Pylos, oldest and wisest among the Greeks; Ulysses, king of -Ithaca, most crafty in counsel; Idomeneus, grandson of the great -judge Minos, king of Crete, and with him Meriones; Tlepolemus, son of -Hercules, from Rhodes; Eumelus, from Pheræ, son of that Alcestis, who -died for her husband, and was brought back from death by Hercules, -according to Grecian mythology; and many more heroes too numerous to -mention: but the bravest and strongest of all was Ajax, son of Telamon, -and the best horses were those of Eumelus; but there was none that -could compare with Achilles and the horses of Achilles, bravest of men, -and swiftest of steeds. - -The heroes upon the Trojan side were also great and brave. The most -famous of their chiefs were Hector, son of King Priam, most valiant -of all the Trojan warriors; Æneas, whose father was Anchises, and -whose mother was supposed to be the goddess Aphrodité; Pandarus, from -Mount Ida, to whom Apollo had given a marvellous bow; Asius, the son -of Hyrtacus, who came from the broad salt river, the Hellespont; -Pylæmenes, king of Paphlagonia; and Sarpedon from Lycia, whom men -affirmed to be the son of Zeus himself; and lastly, Glaucus his friend. - -When the Grecian fleet had started upon this expedition against Troy, a -wonderful incident had occurred. The fleet of the Greeks was detained -by contrary winds at Aulis, owing to the wrath of the goddess Diana, -whom King Agamemnon had offended by killing one of her favorite deer. -In this emergency Calchas the soothsayer was consulted, and he declared -that to appease the anger of the goddess. Iphigenia, the eldest -daughter of King Agamemnon, must be sacrificed. She was accordingly -led to the altar, and was about to be offered as a victim, when she -is said to have suddenly disappeared, being caught up by Diana, who -in pity substituted a stag in her place. Virgil, however, tells -this story somewhat differently; for he relates that Iphigenia was -actually sacrificed. The goddess having been appeased, the winds were -favorable, and the Grecian fleet sailed onward, and arrived safely at -Troy; and for nine long years these famous warriors had been waging war -around the walls of that city, within which, in the palace of Paris, -son of King Priam, was concealed the matchlessly beautiful Helen, and -much rich treasure, which that treacherous but fascinating prince had -stolen from the Greeks. - -But now within the Grecian camp a strife arises between King Agamemnon -and Achilles, bravest of all his host. The Greeks, having been away -from home so many years, were accustomed to make frequent raids upon -the surrounding cities to supply their needs, and thus to enable them -to continue still longer this weary siege. They had thus ruthlessly -attacked a city called Chrysa, sacred to Apollo, where was a temple of -that god. - -The Greeks, in their plunderings, had not dared to molest the temple -or its priest; but they had carried off, with other prisoners, the -daughter of the priest of Apollo, named Chryseïs. The spoils obtained -from these expeditions were divided between the various kings -and heroes in the Grecian host; and the maiden Chryseïs had been -apportioned as the share of King Agamemnon. The next day the priest -Chryses came to the Grecian camp, bringing much gold, and wearing on -his head the priest’s crown, that men might thereby reverence him the -more. He demanded the return of his daughter, and offered his gold as -her ransom. The Grecian chiefs were favorable to his suit, but King -Agamemnon angrily repulsed him, exclaiming,— - - “Hence, on thy life, and fly these hostile plains, - Nor ask, presumptuous, what the king detains. - Hence with thy laurel crown and golden rod; - Nor trust too far those ensigns of thy god. - Mine is thy daughter, priest, and shall remain, - And prayers, and tears, and bribes, shall plead in vain.” - -The sorrowful priest turned away in silence, and as he walked along -the seashore, he besought the aid of his god, Apollo, praying: “Hear -me, God of the silver bow! If I have built thee a temple, and offered -thee the fat of many bullocks and rams, hear me! and avenge me on these -Greeks.” - -And Apollo heard him and descended with awful wrath from dread Olympus, -where dwelt the gods. The rattle of his arrows filled the air, as he -twanged his deadly bow, and sent the fateful shafts of pestilence -upon the Grecian fleet below; meanwhile, enwrapping his own form in -shadows black as night, from which his baleful darts shot forth like -lightning’s flash. And so for ten long days the pestilence raged, till -heaps of dead men and beasts lined the shore, and the black smoke -ascended from myriad funeral piles. Then Achilles called upon the seer, -Calchas, to tell them why Apollo was so wroth with them. To whom the -sage replied,— - -“It is on behalf of his priest that Apollo is so wroth; for when he -came to ransom his daughter, Agamemnon would not let the maiden go. Now -then, ye must send her back to Chrysa without ransom, and with her a -hundred beasts for sacrifice, so that the plague may be stayed.” - -Then, with a threatening frown, King Agamemnon started from his -gorgeous throne, with eyes which flashed with angry light, as he -exclaimed in fury,— - -“Prophet of plagues, forever boding ill! Still must that tongue some -evil message bring. I will release the maid, that my people may be -spared. But for this, my share of booty, shall the Greeks requite me.” - -Then Achilles answered,— - -“We have no treasures from which to make up thy loss. Let the maiden -go! and when we capture Troy, we will repay thee fourfold.” - -Then Agamemnon replied,— - -“Shall I my prize resign while thou art possessed of thine? I will send -back the maid to please Apollo; but know thou that I will seize thy -share, even the girl Briseïs, that all may know that I am sovereign -here.” - -Whereupon, Achilles was so fierce with anger, that he fain would have -slain the monarch, and had, forsooth, half drawn his sword from the -scabbard, to thrust it into the haughty king. But lo! the goddess -Athené stood behind him, and caught him by his long yellow locks of -hair. None saw the goddess, save only Achilles, to whom he said,— - -“Art thou come, fair Minerva, to witness these wrongs I bear from -Atreus’ son? If thou dost see his crime, see also my proud vengeance.” - -Whereupon, he raised his sword to strike; but the goddess said,— - -“Forbear thy fury! Let great Achilles yield to reason. Put up thy -sword; but if thou pleasest, use the dagger of thy tongue alone. With -that, the gods permit thee to reproach him; but vengeance, leave thou -to the care of heaven.” - -So spake the goddess, and Achilles thrust his sword back into its -sheath, and in proud scorn exclaimed, while turning to the king with -blazing eyes,— - -“Coward! thou rulest sure a puny race, else this had been thy last -affront. Thou darest not to fight, but cowerest like a dog in safe -retreat within the camp; but after we have fought and conquered, thou -claimest the richest booty! But know, for this my grievous wrong, -the gods shall avenge it! And when the Greeks lie in heaps before the -walls of Troy, slain by the dreadful Hector, then shalt thou miss the -strong arm of Achilles from thy side, and thy proud heart shalt mourn -the affront thy madness gave. For thou hast made the bravest Greek thy -bitterest enemy.” - -Then did Achilles dash his sacred sceptre on the ground, saying,— - -“As surely as this sceptre, which was once a branch from off a tree, -now starred with golden studs and bound with bronze, an ensign of -Jove’s favor, shall never blossom more, so surely shalt thou miss the -arm of brave Achilles, when the Trojans press thee sore. Thou canst -play the master over others, but think not to master me! As to the -maid, my prize, which the Greeks gave me, let them take it again if -they will, but if thou darest to invade my tent and touch whate’er is -mine, thy blood shall stream forth at the point of my revengeful blade.” - -So saying, the great Achilles strode forth from the counsel-tent with -wrathful looks, and the august brow of Agamemnon was overcast with -threatening gloom. In vain had Nestor, eldest of the Grecian kings -and wisest of counsellors, endeavored to quell this ominous quarrel. -His words of reason moved not the two fierce warriors. And surely, in -this strife, Achilles held the right, and Agamemnon showed himself a -selfish, proud, and haughty monarch. - -The priest’s daughter, Chryseïs, was sent back to her home with -offerings to the god, and Ulysses was appointed to conduct her thither. -But King Agamemnon would not be persuaded to renounce his purpose -of seizing upon the war-prize which had been awarded to Achilles, -namely, the maiden Briseïs; and forthwith he sent heralds to the -tent of Achilles to obtain her. The heralds approached the warrior with -much dread, for they feared his awful wrath. But Achilles said to them,— - -[Illustration: JUPITER SENDING THE EVIL DREAM TO AGAMEMNON.] - -“Fear not, ye heralds! It is no fault of yours that you are sent on -such an errand.” - -Whereupon he commanded that the maiden should be brought from her tent -and given to the heralds, who led her, much against her will, to the -haughty Agamemnon. Then Achilles called upon his mother Thetis, who was -a goddess of the sea, to avenge his wrongs. Thetis rose like a mist -from the waves, and coming to Achilles, who sat upon the seashore, she -comforted him and asked his trouble. Whereupon Achilles told her the -cause of his anger, and besought her to go to the great Zeus, whom -Thetis had once aided, when the other gods would have bound great Jove, -by bringing Briareus of the hundred hands, who so fought for the mighty -Jupiter, that the other gods dared no longer defy his power. And owing -this kindness to the goddess Thetis, her son thought rightly that the -great Jove would listen to her petitions on his behalf. So Achilles -asked his mother to go to Olympus, and pray Zeus that he would help the -sons of Troy and give them victory over the Greeks, whose sovereign -king had thus dishonored the bravest of all his host. - -This, Thetis did, going to the palace of Jupiter on the top of Olympus, -and making her prayer in her son’s behalf. Zeus was loath to grant it, -for he knew that it would anger his wife Heré, who loved the Greeks and -hated the Trojans. Yet on account of the past favor of Thetis, he would -not refuse, and in giving assent, nodded his awful head, thus causing -Olympus to shake and tremble. So Zeus called one of his swift-winged -messengers, called a Dream, and said,— - -“Fly hence, swift Dream, and to the tent of Agamemnon go! Bid him lead -all the Grecians forth to battle against Troy. Persuade him that the -gods intend to give him victory.” - -So this false Dream, flying to Agamemnon’s side, took to itself the -shape of wise old Nestor, whom the king honored more than all beside, -and thus the false Nestor counselled,— - -“Sleepest thou, Agamemnon? Arise! for now Zeus declares that the -immortal gods are favorable to thy plans, and through thy mighty hosts -will send the doom of destruction upon the city of Troy; and thou shalt -reap the eternal glory.” - -Then Agamemnon awoke from sleep and, little thinking how he had -been duped by this false Dream, quickly donned his tunic, fastened -his sandals on his feet, and hung from his shoulders his mighty -silver-studded sword. Wrapping his great cloak around him, he took in -his right hand his royal sceptre, token of his sovereignty over all the -Greeks. Thus attired, in martial grandeur, he went forth and roused his -chiefs, and then the heralds called the hosts to battle. Only Achilles -sat apart within his tent and went not forth to battle with the Greeks. - -Now, as the two forces were about to fight, Paris, the Trojan prince, -rushed forth and challenged the bravest of the Greeks to fight with -him. Then Menelaüs, whom he had so greatly wronged, leapt from his -chariot and rushed to meet his treacherous foe. But Paris was more -beautiful in form and feature than brave in heart, and seeing the man -whom he had so cruelly wronged, he was afraid to fight, and cowardlike -ran back into the Trojan ranks. Then his brother, brave Hector, thus -rebuked his cowardice. - -[Illustration: HECTOR CHIDING PARIS.] - -“Fair art thou, Paris, beauteous indeed, but ill thy soul supplies a -form so fair! Thou makest us the scorn of the proud Greeks, by thy -unmanly fear. Little will it avail thee that thou art in form so -stately, when thy soft curling locks and shapely limbs are lying in the -dust. Thy silver lyre, nor all thy blandishments, will naught avert thy -doom, for thou hast been the curse of Troy and ruin of thy race.” - -Then Paris, stricken with just shame, replied,— - -“Thou speakest well, Hector, and thy rebuke is just. Thy heart is like -iron; yet are beauty and love also the gift of the gods, and not to be -despised. Now let Menelaüs and me fight for the fair Helen and all her -possessions, and if he prevail, let him take her, and them, and depart -to Greece. But if I prevail, then shall the Greeks depart in peace -without her.” - -This saying, which at last betokened some spirit, pleased Hector well; -and going before the Trojan ranks, holding his spear by the middle, -he kept them back. The Greeks would have hurled spears upon him, but -Agamemnon cried out,— - -“Hold! Hector has somewhat to say to us.” - -Then Hector announced that Paris would fight with Menelaüs for the -fair Helen and all her wealth. To which Menelaüs readily agreed, but -demanded that King Priam should himself come and, with King Agamemnon, -make a covenant with sacrifice, that the fair Helen and all her wealth -should go to the one who should prevail. - -When the heralds went to bring the old King Priam, he was found on -the wall with the beautiful Helen near him, to whom he was talking -and asking the names of brave Grecian heroes whom he beheld among the -hostile host. And in this wise he spake to fair Helen,— - -“Come near, my daughter, tell me about these old friends of thine. -Who is that warrior, that I see, so fair and strong? There are others -taller than he, but none of such majesty.” - -And Helen answered,— - -“Ah, my father, would that I had died before I left the fair land of -Greece! That one is King Agamemnon, a good and brave soldier, and my -brother-in-law, in the old days. And that one is Ulysses of Ithaca, who -is better in craft and counsel than all other men.” - -Then Priam said,— - -“Who is that stalwart hero overtopping all others?” - -“That,” said Helen, “is mighty Ajax, the bulwark of the Greeks; and -as for the other chiefs, I could name them all. But I see not my two -brothers, Castor and Pollux;” for she wot not that they were already -dead. - -Thereupon came the heralds and told King Priam that the armies had -called for him. After the covenant between the Trojan and Grecian -kings, Priam and Agamemnon, Hector and Ulysses marked out a space for -the fight, and Hector shook two pebbles in a helmet, to decide which -one should be the first to throw the spear, Paris or Menelaüs. - -The lot fell upon Paris, and the two warriors having armed themselves, -came forth into the space and brandished their spears with wrathful -eyes. Then Paris threw his spear. It struck the shield of Menelaüs, -but pierced it not; and thereupon Menelaüs, with a prayer to Jupiter, -cast his long-shafted spear. It struck the shield of Paris, pierced -it through, and passing through both corselet and tunic, would have -bruised the side of Paris, but he shrank aside, and so was wounded not. -Then Menelaüs drew his sword and struck a mighty blow upon the top of -Paris’ helmet; but the sword brake in four pieces in his hand. Then -he rushed forward and seized Paris by the helmet, and fain would have -dragged him to the Grecian host, but the goddess Aphrodité loosed the -strap that was beneath the chin, and the helmet came off in the hand -of Menelaüs, and the goddess snatched Paris away, covering him with a -mist, and put him safely in his own palace in Troy. - -Then King Agamemnon said,— - -“Now, ye sons of Troy, give back the fair Helen and her wealth!” - -But just at this time the goddess Athené took upon herself the shape of -Laodocus, and going to Pandarus, the false Laodocus, said,— - -“Darest thou aim an arrow at Menelaüs?” - -Now Pandarus had a marvellous bow made from the horns of a wild -goat and tipped with beaten gold, and Pandarus strung his bow, his -comrades, meanwhile, hiding him behind their shields. Then took he a -sharp-pointed arrow from his quiver and laid it on the bow-string and -let it fly. Right well the aim was made; but the gods decreed that -the dart should not be fatal. For though it passed through belt and -corselet and strong girdle, and pierced the skin so that the red blood -rushed out, which sight filled Menelaüs and King Agamemnon with sore -dismay, Menelaüs soon perceived the barb of the arrow, and so knew that -the wound was not fatal; and when it was drawn forth by the physician -Machaon, and the blood was staunched with healing drugs, King Agamemnon -rejoiced that he should not thus lose his brave brother Menelaüs. - -Then the mighty hosts of Greeks and Trojans went forward to the battle, -and on either side the gods urged them on, Athené aiding the Greeks, -and Ares—called also Mars—strengthening the Trojan warriors. Many -were the valiant exploits that day performed; but we can mention but -a few of them. So close pressed host on host, that the armies dashed -together, shield on shield and spear on spear. Ajax Telamon slew -Simoisius, and Antiphon, son of King Priam, aimed at Ajax, but missing -him, slew Leucus, the friend of the valiant Ulysses. - -Whereupon, Ulysses, in great anger, to avenge his death, strode boldly -midst the Trojan ranks and hurled his spear at Democoön, a son of -Priam, whom he slew. At length the Trojan hosts were borne backward by -the mighty onslaught of the Greeks, till Apollo cried from the heights -of Pergamos,— - -“On, Trojans! The flesh of these Greeks is not stone or iron, that ye -cannot pierce it; and remember that the great Achilles fights not with -them to-day!” - -Athené also urged the Greeks to valiant deeds. This goddess aroused -Diomed to battle, making a wondrous fire shine forth from his helmet, -which made him seem a god, and he raged through the battle so -furiously, that he was now seen amongst the Grecian ranks, now boldly -invading the Trojan forces, and striking down his foes with mighty arm. -Then Pandarus aimed an arrow at him and smote him on the shoulder. But -the brave Diomed cared not for the arrow, and leaping from his chariot -he called to Sthenelus, his charioteer, to draw the arrow from the -wound; and praying to Athené for aid, he rushed madly into the Trojan -ranks, slaying a man at every blow. - -Meanwhile, Æneas, driving his swift chariot, said to Pandarus,— - -“Climb up into my chariot, and thou shalt fight, and I will drive.” - -So Pandarus mounted the chariot, and the two drove towards Diomed, and -as they came near, Pandarus cast his spear, which passed through the -shield of Diomed and reached his corselet; whereupon Pandarus cried,— - -“Ha, now he bleeds! Low will this haughty Grecian lie!” - -But Diomed replied,— - -“Thy dart has erred! Now I will try my spear.” - -And straightway he hurled his keen lance toward his boasting foe. -Through nose and jaw it crashed, and cleft the tongue in two; and the -bright point came forth beneath the chin. - -Pandarus fell from the chariot mortally wounded, and Æneas leapt to -the ground with drawn spear to defend the dead body of his friend. But -Diomed raised a huge stone and hurled it at Æneas, and crushed his -hip-bone, felling him to the earth. - -Then had brave Æneas perished, but his goddess mother, Aphrodité, -caught him in her white arms and threw her veil about him. But so -great was the rage of Diomed, that he spared not even the goddess, but -rushing upon her, he wounded her in the wrist, and with a shriek of -pain she dropped her son; but Apollo caught him up and covered him with -a thick mist. Thrice Diomed pursued, and thrice Apollo drove him back. -But as the rash Diomed advanced a fourth time, the god exclaimed,— - -“O son of Tydeus, beware! Nor think to match the immortal gods!” - -So Apollo carried Æneas out of the battle and placed him in safety -in Troy. Meanwhile, fair Venus, pale from the wound which mortal man -had dared inflict, was conducted by swift-winged Iris to the stern -god Mars, her brother; and Venus begged his car to mount the distant -skies, where in the fair realms of the gods her wounded hand was healed -by sacred balm. Then Mars went down upon the field of battle to aid the -Trojans, and Hector rushed to the front with the god Mars by his side; -and he dealt death and destruction through the Grecian ranks. Juno and -Minerva saw him from Mount Olympus, and they prayed Jupiter to allow -them to stop him in his fury. The mighty Zeus consented, and the two -goddesses yoked horses to the chariot of Juno and passed down to earth -with flying strides. Having reached the battle-field, Juno took the -shape of Stentor with the lungs of brass, whose voice was as the voices -of fifty men, and thus she cried,— - -“Shame, men of Greece! When Achilles fought, the Trojans dare not leave -the city; but now they fight even by the very ships.” Then Minerva -chided Diomed for want of bravery, to whom he replied: “I know thee, -great goddess, daughter of Jupiter! and ’tis thy commands I obey. Thou -didst bid me fight with none of the immortals save only with Aphrodité; -and therefore I gave place to Hector, for I perceived that he was aided -by great Mars.” - -But Athené answered: “Heed not Ares! drive thy chariot at him and hurl -thy spear. This morning did stern Mars promise to aid the Greeks, and -now he joins with our Trojan foes.” - -So saying, the goddess pushed the charioteer of Diomed from his -place, and herself mounted and seized the reins and lashed the horses -furiously. With swift speed they drove together till they found the god -Mars, or Ares, where he had just slain Periphas the Ætolian. Minerva -was even invisible to the god, for she had donned the helmet of Hades; -and so Ares, not seeing her, cast his spear at Diomed; but the goddess -caught the spear and turned it aside. Then Diomed thrust forth his -spear, and Minerva leaned upon it, so that it even pierced the side of -the god Mars, who shouted so loudly with the pain that the Greeks and -Trojans trembled with fear; while the god of war, wounded by the fair -goddess Athené, covered himself with a thunder-cloud, and in much rage -ascended to Olympus. - -[Illustration: DIOMED CASTING HIS SPEAR AGAINST MARS.] - -When Ares had departed, the Greeks prevailed again; but the seer -Helenus said to Hector and Æneas: “Draw back the Trojan army and -encourage them; and you, Hector, go within the city and bid thy mother -queen, with the daughters of Troy, take the costliest robe she hath, -and go to the temple of Athené and offer it to the goddess with prayers -and sacrifice, that perchance she may relent and have pity on us and -keep this terrible Diomed from our walls.” - -This counsel prevailed, and Hector departed to the city, whence he -dispatched his queen mother to Athené’s temple, and exhorted his -brother Paris to arm himself and come forth to battle. Hector then took -a fond farewell of his much-loved wife Andromaché and his only child, -called beautiful-headed as a star, and departed with Paris, who came -forth clad in shining armor; and they fell upon the hosts of the Greeks -and slew many chiefs of fame. - -Again came Athené to help the Greeks; and meeting the god Apollo, they -agreed to stay the battle for that day; and to this end inspired Hector -and King Agamemnon to agree that Hector should fight alone with the -bravest of the Greeks, while both armies should rest from battle. - -Then Menelaüs desired to meet brave Hector in single combat. But King -Agamemnon would not consent to this, fearing his brother would perish. -Whereupon it was resolved to decide the matter by lot, which fell -upon Ajax the Greater, who, having armed himself, stepped forth to -battle with the mighty Hector. First Hector hurled his spear, which -passed through six folds of Ajax’s shield. Then Ajax threw his lance, -striking proud Hector’s shield. Through shield, corselet, and tunic it -passed, but Hector shrank from the sharp point, and the flesh was not -pierced. Then again they rushed together with wild fury. And Ajax drove -his spear at Hector’s shield and grazed his neck, so that the blood -leaped forth. Then Hector hurled a mighty stone at Ajax; but his shield -broke not. Whereupon Ajax raised a mightier stone and threw it with -such aim that it broke the shield of Hector and felled him backwards -to the ground. But Apollo raised him up, and as they drew their swords -for deadlier conflict, the heralds held their sceptres between them -and bid them cease. So Hector and Ajax, both mighty warriors and brave -of heart, agreed to part as friends; in token whereof, Hector gave to -Ajax a silver-studded sword, and Ajax to Hector a buckler splendid with -purple. So they parted, and the conflict was stayed that night. In the -morning came Trojan heralds to King Agamemnon’s host, saying: “This is -the word of Priam and the sons of Troy. Paris will give back all the -treasures of the fair Helen and much more besides, but the fair Helen -herself will he not give up. But grant a truce that we may bury our -dead.” - -[Illustration: AJAX DEFENDING THE GREEK SHIPS AGAINST THE TROJANS.] - -So the truce was given, and the dead of both armies were burnt. Then -the Greeks and Trojans both feasted through the night. But all through -the hours of darkness the terrible thunder rolled on Mount Olympus; for -mighty Zeus was counselling evil against the hapless Trojans. - -When the morning came, the two hosts again went forth to battle with -each other. Till midday neither side prevailed; but then great Jupiter -sent fear and panic amidst the Grecian forces, and they fled to their -ships in terror. - -As the Greeks were flying in wild confusion, brave Hector driving in -his chariot pursued them; and called to his horses, “Now Xanthus, -Æthon, Lampus, and Podargus, speed ye well! Ye Flame of Fire, White -Foot, and Brilliant, named! carry me fast, and well repay the tender -care of my sweet wife Andromaché, who often from her fair white hands -has fed thee! For I would win old Nestor’s marvellous shield of purest -gold, and strip from off proud Diomed his boasted breastplate, wrought -by the mighty Vulcan.” - -But Jupiter willed not that this should be; for King Agamemnon prayed -aloud to Zeus for succor, and Jupiter heard his prayer, in token -whereof he sent a sign, namely: an eagle flew above the Grecian hosts -and dropped a kid out of his claws. Then did the Greeks take courage -and renewed the fight with vigor. But the darkness came, and each host -rested on their arms. - -Meanwhile, King Agamemnon called a council of war, and fain would -have returned to Greece and leave this invincible city of Troy. But -brave King Diomed would not receive such craven counsel, and angrily -exclaimed,— - -“Even though all the men of Greece depart, yet will I and Sthenelus -abide the doom of Troy, for surely the gods have brought us hither.” - -To these brave words the Grecian chiefs agreed; and wise Nestor -counselled that King Agamemnon should send to brave Achilles and seek -to make peace with him that they might have the strong help of his -mighty arm. To which King Agamemnon consented, and sent messengers to -the tent of Achilles to seek his favor, promising him seven kettles of -brass, ten talents of gold, twenty caldrons, twelve fleet horses, seven -women slaves skilled in the work of the loom, and, more than all, the -return of the maid Briseïs, the cause of all their quarrel; and when -Troy should be taken, much spoil besides. And even more; for when they -should return to Greece, King Agamemnon promised him one of his own -daughters for his wife, and seven cities by the sea. But all this moved -not the wrathful soul of stern Achilles, and he would not be appeased; -nor would he come to help the Greeks against the Trojans, but still sat -silent in his tent. Then it was decided that Diomed and Ulysses should -go that night disguised into the Trojan camp, to spy out, if possible, -their strength and plans. This same strategy had Hector also planned, -and had already sent one Dolon, swift of foot, towards the Grecian -host. But as he ran he met Diomed and Ulysses, who seized him, and -under threatenings forced him to reveal the Trojan secrets. Then did -they slay Dolon, and forthwith proceeded to where some men of Thrace, -allies of the Trojans, lay sleeping. These Thracians possessed most -matchless steeds—horses so fair and tall, whiter than snow and fleeter -than the winds. Diomed and Ulysses would fain secure these as a rich -prize, and so they slew the sleeping Thracians and led the captured -horses back to the Grecian hosts, and arrived in safety at the ships. -The next day the battle waged hot again. Ulysses was wounded, and Paris -shot an arrow and pierced the brave physician Machaon. Meanwhile, -Achilles was standing on his ship and looking upon the conflict. When -he beheld Nestor bearing the wounded Machaon to the ships, he called to -his friend Patroclus and bid him see if Machaon’s wound was fatal. - -Most fierce the battle raged. On the left, the Grecians prevailed, but -on the right brave Hector and his host fought even to the very ships, -dealing most deadly blows. So great were the shouts of battle that old -Nestor, who was tending the wounded Machaon, was roused; and going -forth he met King Agamemnon, and with him Diomed and Ulysses, who had -been wounded that day. Then they counselled together. Again Agamemnon -advised flight; but the others thought it not good to flee thus, and -they counselled King Agamemnon that he should go to the Grecian ranks, -bidding them bear themselves bravely and put courage into their hearts. -This did he do, and roused their waning strength to fresh exploits. -Then Ajax smote brave Hector with a mighty stone, which felled him to -the ground; and the Greeks, with a great cry, rushed forth to bear him -to their ranks; but the Trojans held their shields before him, and his -friends lifted him up and carried him to a place of safety. But he was -sorely bruised. Then Apollo, at Jupiter’s bidding, poured courage into -his heart and healed him of his wound, so that he rushed once more upon -the field of battle, strong and well and valiant as ever. Then were the -Greeks struck with dire dismay. Then did Patroclus lament to Achilles -on account of the ill fortune of the Greeks, and besought the mighty -warrior, if he would not fight himself in their behalf, to let him -go accompanied by the valiant Myrmidons, whom Achilles always led to -battle. At which the heart of Achilles was moved; and he said,— - -“I will not go to battle until it reaches my own ships, but thou mayest -put my armor upon thee and lead my Myrmidons to the fight.” - -So this was done; and when the Trojans beheld these famous Myrmidons -led by one who wore the armor of the mighty Achilles, their hearts were -faint with fear, for they supposed great Achilles himself had come -against them. Thrice did Patroclus rush against the men of Troy, and -each time slew nine chiefs of fame; but the fourth time Apollo stood -behind him and struck him, and his eyes were darkened, and the helmet -fell off his head, so that the waving plumes were soiled with dust. -Never before had this proud helmet of Achilles touched the ground. Then -Apollo broke his spear, and struck the shield from his arms, and loosed -his corselet. Then all-amazed, poor Patroclus stood defenceless; so -Hector struck him dead, and seized the matchless armor of the mighty -Achilles. - -Fierce was the fight about the body of Patroclus, and many chiefs fell -dead striving to obtain the prize. Then fled Antilochus to bear the ill -tidings to the great Achilles, who, upon hearing of this dire defeat, -poured dust upon his head, and called upon his goddess-mother to come -to his aid. - -“Why weepest thou, my son?” said the sea-goddess Thetis, rising from -the waves. - -“My friend Patroclus is dead, and Hector has my arms I gave him to -wear, and, as for me, I care not to live unless I can avenge myself.” - -Thus Thetis said,— - -“Be comforted, my son; to-morrow I will go to mighty Vulcan; he shall -forge new arms for thee.” - -Even as they spoke together, so sore the Trojans pressed the Greeks, -that Jupiter sent Iris to Achilles, and bade him show himself to the -Greeks that they might be filled with courage. - -“How can I go without arms?” replied Achilles. - -But the gods gave him courage, and he went, and Athené put her -matchless shield upon his shoulders, and wrapped a golden halo round -his head, so that he seemed clothed in godlike armor; and he shouted to -the Trojans with a mighty voice, which so filled them with fear that -they fell back, and the horses of the Trojan chariots were so terrified -at the flaming fire above his head that they thrice fell back, and -trampled on the Trojans, as thrice the awful voice of Achilles was -heard and his shining form revealed. Thus was the body of Patroclus -then secured, and carried on a bier, Achilles walking, weeping by his -side. - -That night the conflict rested. Meanwhile, Thetis the goddess went to -the dread Vulcan, and prayed him make new armor for her son Achilles. -To this did stern Hephæstus consent, saying, “Be of good cheer! I will -obey thy wish; for kind thou wast to me when my mother thrust me forth -from heaven because she saw I was deformed and lame. I will make such -arms for Achilles as the gods themselves might proudly wear.” - -So great Vulcan wrought at his mighty forge. First he made a ponderous -shield, and wrought upon it the earth, and sky, and sea, and sun, and -moon, and stars. He pictured upon it, also, two cities; one at peace, -and one in dire confusion where war raged. In the peaceful city, they -led a bride to her home with music and dancing, and women stood to -see the show, and in the market-place judges sat, and men bartered. -But around the other city, an army was besieging, and soldiers stood -upon the walls, defending. Also, he wrought fields where men ploughed, -and others reaped, and vineyards where youths and maidens gathered -baskets of grapes while minstrels played on harps of gold. Also, he -wrought herds of oxen going to the pasture, and sheepfolds, and a -dance of youths and maidens who wore coronets of gold and belts of -silver. Then, too, he pictured a fierce fight between lions and angry -bulls. Around the shield he wrought the mighty ocean. He made also a -corselet, brighter than fire, and a helmet of gold. At dawn the goddess -Thetis brought to her son this marvellous armor, which when Achilles -saw, his eyes flashed wild with joy; and seizing them, he put them on -most eagerly, and rushed forth to rouse the Greeks to battle. Then an -assembly was called, and Achilles stood up in the midst, saying, he had -put away his wrath, and King Agamemnon, who had been wounded in the -battle, declared that he had been wrong, and straightway commanded to -be sent to the tent of Achilles all that he had promised him, including -the maid Briseïs, which was done. The Greeks gathered again to battle. -Then did the fight wage sore against the Trojans, who fled within the -city gates; only brave Hector remained outside to meet the mighty -Achilles, who rushed towards him to engage in single combat. Then did -King Priam and Queen Hecuba beseech their much-loved son that he would -come within the city walls, and not risk his life by thus meeting this -dread foe; but Hector answered,— - -“Woe is me if I go within the walls!” - -But as Achilles came near, brandishing his great Pelian spear, while -the flash of his arms was as a flame of fire, Hector trembled, and -dared not abide to meet him, but fled around the walls, Achilles -pursuing. Thrice they ran round the city, while the immortal gods -looked down upon them from dread Olympus, and Jupiter said: “My heart -is grieved for Hector. Come, ye gods! shall we save him?” - -But Minerva—she who was called the goddess of wisdom, for she sprang -forth from the mighty head of Jove completely armed—thus counselled,— - -“Great Sire, is it well to rescue a man already doomed to die? If it be -thy august will, then do it; but the other gods approve not.” - -To whom Zeus answered,— - -“My heart is loath, but be it as thou wilt.” - -Then did the goddess descend down from high Olympus in hot haste, and -Athené lighted from the air at Achilles’ side, and whispered: “This is -our day of glory, great Achilles! Hector shall be slain; but tarry a -moment, that I may give him heart to meet thee in battle; so shalt thou -slay him.” - -Then Minerva took the form of Deïphobus, and came near to Hector, -saying, “Achilles presseth thee hard, my brother; let us stay and fight -him.” - -Then was brave Hector glad to find one of his brothers faithful to him, -and answered,— - -“I always loved thee best of all my brothers, good Deïphobus, and much -more now to know thou darest to stand by my side in this hour of deadly -peril.” - -Thus was Hector encouraged to meet Achilles, and Hector said to him: -“Thrice, great Achilles, hast thou pursued me round the walls of -Troy, and I dared not withstand thee; but now I will meet thee like a -warrior. If Jupiter gives me the victory, I will do no dishonor to thy -body; only thine armor will I take. Do thou the same to me.” - -But Achilles frowned, and answered,— - -“I make no covenants with thee. There is no agreement between wolves -and sheep. Show thyself a warrior if thou canst. Athené shall kill thee -by my spear.” - -[Illustration: HECTOR’S BODY DRAGGED AT THE CAR OF ACHILLES.] - -Then did they meet in deadliest conflict. Achilles threw his mighty -spear; but Hector, crouching, avoided it, and the great spear fixed -itself in the ground beyond. But, unseen by Hector, Athené brought it -back to proud Achilles. Whereupon, Hector cried, “Thou hast missed thy -aim, great Achilles. Look out for my spear!” - -And as he spake, he threw his long-shafted spear with so good an aim, -that it struck the very middle of Achilles’ shield; but it pierced it -not, and it bounded far away. And when Hector turned to his supposed -brother, Deïphobus, to get from him another spear, lo! he was gone; and -Hector knew then that his doom had come. Then thought he to himself: -“Though Athené has cheated me, and Jupiter and Apollo are against me, -if I must die, I will die in such manner as shall do honor to my name.” -Then he drew his mighty sword, and rushed upon Achilles. But at that -same instant Achilles charged to meet him, and holding his shining -shield before him, with his helmet plumes waving in the air, he raised -his long-pointed spear, which gleamed like a star, and drove it through -the neck of the brave Hector, so that the point stood out behind; and -Hector fell dying in the dust. Then with his last breath, he besought -Achilles to spare his body from the Greeks; for King Priam would ransom -it with much gold and treasure, to give it burial rites. But Achilles, -moved with fierce wrath, cried,— - -“Dog, seek not to entreat me! No gold could ransom thee.” - -Then Hector died, and Achilles drew out the spear from the corpse, and -stripped off the arms. Then great Achilles did a shocking deed; for he -bound the body of the dead Hector to his chariot, letting the brave -and noble head lie in the dust; and so he dragged the corpse of the -valiant Trojan round the walls of Troy, even to the Grecian ships. And -sorrowing Priam saw him from the walls; and fair Andromaché, the wife -of Hector, also beheld this dreadful spectacle, and thereupon fell in a -deadly swoon; and from her beautiful head dropped the golden wreath and -diadem, which Aphrodité gave her on her bridal day. - -[Illustration: THE FUNERAL OF HECTOR.] - -Then did old King Priam gather rich gifts, and aided by the gods, mount -his swift chariot and go to the tent of great Achilles, to beg the body -of his much loved son, brave Hector, praying to Jupiter that Achilles -might have pity on him. This did Jove grant; for Achilles received -him kindly, and gave up the body of dead Hector, which King Priam -carried back into the city of Troy. For nine days the people wailed and -mourned, and gathered much wood for a funeral pile, upon which they -laid brave Hector; and when his body was burnt to ashes, they gathered -up the white bones and put them in a chest of gold, and covered it -with purple. This chest they placed in a coffin and laid upon it many -stones, even until they had raised a mighty mound above it. Thus did -they bury the valiant Hector, bravest of Trojan princes. - -Such is a brief outline of the story of the famous Trojan War, as told -by the illustrious Homer in his matchless poem of the “Iliad.” Now we -return to the few further facts regarding King Agamemnon which can be -culled from history. - -There are two different accounts of the final overthrow and capture -of Troy. According to one of these, Antenor and Æneas treacherously -betrayed the Palladium to the Greeks, and at the same time threw open -the gates of the city at night. The other account relates that the -capture was effected by the stratagem of the wooden horse, which was -planned by the cunning of Ulysses. A huge, hollow structure resembling -a horse, was filled with armed men, and left standing in the plain, -while the Greeks went on board their ships and sailed to the island of -Tenedos, which lay not far distant. By an artful manœuvre, the Trojans -were made to believe that this horse was an offering to Minerva, and -that they would achieve a great triumph by carrying it into the city. -Accordingly they made a breach in the wall, and transported the horse -within. In the dead of night the Greeks broke out of their concealment, -and set the city on fire. The fleet, on a signal given, sailed back -from Tenedos; the army landed. Troy was taken and destroyed. - -This event is usually placed about 1184 B.C. In the division of the -spoils, after the taking of Troy, Cassandra, one of the daughters -of King Priam, fell to the lot of Agamemnon. She was endued with -the gift of prophecy, and warned Agamemnon not to return to Mycenæ. -This warning, however, was disregarded by the king, who, upon his -return from Troy, was carried by a storm to that part of the coast -of Argolis where Ægisthus, the son of Thyestes, resided. This king, -Ægisthus, had entered into a wicked agreement with Clytemnestra, wife -of Agamemnon, to put that monarch to death upon his return from Troy, -so that Ægisthus could seize the throne of Mycenæ, and marry Queen -Clytemnestra. There are two accounts of the death of Agamemnon. One -states that Ægisthus had set a watchman, with a promise of a large -reward, to give him the earliest tidings of the return of the king. As -soon as he learned that Agamemnon’s fleet was on the coast, he went -out to welcome him, and invited him to his mansion. At the banquet in -the evening, with the consent of Clytemnestra, he placed twenty -armed men in concealment, who fell on King Agamemnon and killed him, -together with Cassandra and all their attendants. Another account makes -Agamemnon to have fallen by the hands of his wife Clytemnestra, after -he had just come forth from a bath, and while he was endeavoring to put -on a garment, the sleeves of which she had previously sewed together, -as well as the opening for his head; thus giving her time to commit the -bloody deed before any succor could reach him. His death, however, was -avenged by his son Orestes. - -With regard to the extent of Agamemnon’s sway, Homer states that -he ruled over many islands, and over all Argos; meaning not the -city Argos, over which Diomed ruled, but a large portion of the -Peloponnesus, including particularly the cities of Mycenæ and Tiryns. -Homer also says that Agamemnon possessed the most powerful fleet; -and as he was chosen the sovereign of all the Grecian kings, and -commander-in-chief of all the Grecian hosts during the Trojan War, he -may doubtless be called the greatest and most famous of all the more -ancient Grecian rulers. - - - - -CYRUS THE GREAT. - -599-529 B.C. - - “Death makes no conquest of this conqueror; - For now he lives in fame, though not in life.” - SHAKESPEARE. - - -IN a lonely and desolate country, in the depths of a dark forest, at -the edge of a yawning precipice, there once lay an infant, robed in -costly garments, which betokened noble or royal birth. The baby lay -in a small basket cradle, made of golden wires and lined with richly -embroidered cushions. It seemed to be slumbering, for it moved not, -even when the afternoon shadows gathered more densely around it; and -a rapacious bird of prey might have been seen hovering above its -dangerous retreat, and the noise of wild beasts was heard in the dark -forests around. Was there no one near to protect and care for this -lovely child? Ah, see! as that vulture swoops down towards its helpless -victim, a lonely watcher rushes forth from the forest, and drawing -his bow, an arrow flies into the heart of the bird, which falls dead -into the awful chasm below. But why does not the babe awake? and why -is it left in this desolate spot? Just then a lion steals out of the -brushwood, and after a stealthy glance at the tempting prey so near -his reach, he prepares to spring. But again the watcher leaps forth -from the shadow, and hurls a sharp javelin with so true an aim that the -lordly beast is mortally wounded, and retreats to the forest, roaring -with pain. And still the infant sleeps on. - -Just outside of the dreary forest is a poor herdsman’s hut. Here, too, -might have been found an infant; but it is crowing and smiling as it -raises its chubby fists to its mouth and tries to catch the sunshine, -which streams in through the open door, and falls upon the wall over -its head. This baby is clothed in the coarse garments of a peasant’s -child. And yet the infant in the costly robes, in the wild forest, is -really the dead child of a poor herdsman; and this crowing, laughing -baby, dressed in peasant clothes, and lying in the lowly hut, is none -other than the future Cyrus the Great, upon whom hang the destinies -of a vast empire. The remarkable story regarding the birth and early -boyhood of Cyrus the Great is recounted by Herodotus, one of the -greatest and earliest of Grecian historians. Herodotus and Xenophon—a -noted Grecian general, as well as historian—are the chief sources of -information regarding most of the important historical events of that -period of the world. Some parts of their accounts are thought to be -historical romances, founded on facts; but as they have become a part -of the history of those times, I shall gather the story of Cyrus from -the events related by both these writers. - -About 599 B.C. there were three kingdoms in the centre of Asia: -Assyria, Media, and Persia. Astyages was king of Media. One night -Astyages awoke from a terrible dream: he had dreamed that a fearful -inundation had overwhelmed his kingdom. As the deluge seemed in some -mysterious manner to be connected in his mind with his only daughter, -Mandane, he imagined that it portended that evil should come to his -throne through her children. And so he arranged that she should marry -Cambyses, ruling prince of Persia. In this manner he hoped to remove -her so far distant, and place her in so weak a kingdom, that he need -have no fears. - -A year after his daughter’s marriage to the king of Persia, Astyages -had another dream,—of a great vine which overspread his kingdom. This -vine also appeared to be associated in his mind with his daughter. So -he called the soothsayers, who declared that it portended the future -power of his daughter’s son, who should become a king. - -Astyages was now so alarmed that he determined to destroy the child. -So, with seeming kindness, he invited his daughter Mandane to make -him a visit. He placed her in a palace and surrounded her with his -own spies and servants. As soon as the infant son was born, Astyages -sent for an officer of his court, named Harpagus, whom he thought -was unscrupulous enough to obey his evil commands. Astyages ordered -Harpagus to go and request the attendants of Mandane to allow him to -see the infant; and then, under pretence that his grandfather Astyages -desired that the infant should be brought to him, Harpagus should take -the child away, and in some manner cause it to be put to death. - -Harpagus did not dare to refuse, and accordingly went to the palace in -which Mandane was residing. Her attendants, not suspecting his evil -designs, arrayed the infant in its most beautiful robes, and delivered -it into his care. Harpagus took the child home and consulted with his -wife what he should do. He did not dare to disobey the king, and also, -as Mandane was the daughter of the king, he feared to carry out the -terrible deed himself. - -In his perplexity he sent for one of his herdsmen, named Mitridates, -living near wild and desolate forests. When Mitridates arrived, -Harpagus gave the infant to him, commanding him to expose it in the -forests for three days, and when the child was dead, to send him word. - -The herdsman dared not refuse this wicked mission, and took the child -home to his hut. His wife Spaco had at that time just lost an infant of -the same age, and its dead body was still unburied. When she saw the -beautiful babe of Mandane, she implored her husband to let her keep it -in place of her dead child, who was accordingly arrayed in the costly -robes of the young prince, while the royal baby was dressed in the -coarse garments of the little dead peasant. The body of the dead infant -was then placed in the royal cradle, or basket, in which the little -prince had been carried from the palace; and after being exposed in -the forest for three days, attended by watchers to keep away the wild -beasts, the herdsman sent word to Harpagus that the infant was dead. -Harpagus sent trusty messengers to see if the report was true; and when -they saw the dead infant in the royal robes, they returned with the -assurance that his orders had been complied with, and that they had -seen the dead child. Harpagus gave orders to have the body buried, and -sent word to King Astyages that the infant was dead. - -The truth about the young Cyrus was not discovered until ten years -after, and came about in a very strange way. Cyrus had now grown to be -a strong, bright boy of ten years of age, and was supposed to be the -son of the peasant herdsman. Several of the sons of the Median nobles -were accustomed to meet in the neighborhood where he lived, for their -sports, and Cyrus was always their leader in all pursuits. The story -goes that he was once chosen as their king in a boyish game; and one -of the nobles’ sons, being one of his subjects, and having disobeyed -his commands, the boy king Cyrus punished him very severely. The father -of the young noble complained to King Astyages of this ill treatment -which his son had suffered at the hands of a peasant boy. Whereupon, -the herdsman Mitridates and his supposed son were summoned to appear at -court. - -When the young Cyrus entered the presence of the king, Astyages was -astonished at his manly bearing and his unusual beauty, and with an -unaccountable feeling of interest in the supposed peasant boy, he -inquired if the complaint of the noble was true. The little disguised -prince looked up into the face of the dread monarch, in whose presence -all his subjects trembled, and with perfect self-possession, replied,— - -“My lord, what I have done I am able to justify. I did punish this boy, -and I had a right to do so. I was king, and he was my subject, and he -would not obey me. If you think that for this I deserve punishment -myself, here I am; I am ready to suffer for it.” - -Astyages was so surprised at this unlooked-for answer that he hastily -commanded that Mitridates should be brought before him; and under -threats of severe punishment, he demanded that he should tell him -the truth about the lad; for he had grave doubts about his being the -peasant’s son. Mitridates, frightened by the stern manner of the king, -confessed the truth, and related all the circumstances regarding the -infant who had been committed to him by Harpagus. - -Astyages had deeply regretted his evil intentions towards his grandson, -which, as he supposed, had ended in his death, and gladly claimed Cyrus -as his own. But with strange inconsistency, he was equally incensed -against Harpagus, who had dared to disobey his commands, by not -causing the infant to be put to death; and he determined to celebrate -in a strange and most shocking manner his joy at the recovery of his -grandson, and his anger at the disobedience of Harpagus. So with -wicked craftiness he sent word to Harpagus that his grandson had been -discovered, and commanded that Harpagus should send his son, a boy -about thirteen years of age, up to the palace to be a companion for -young Cyrus. Furthermore, he announced that he was about to celebrate -his joy at the recovery of his grandson, by a grand festival, at which -he invited Harpagus to be present. - -Harpagus suspecting no evil, and rejoicing at the happy sequel of -that deed which had occasioned him much disquiet, having sent his son -to the palace, according to the command of the king, related to his -wife the strange events which had taken place. Neither of them were -suspicious of any evil design in this seeming kindliness of Astyages, -and thought it a fitting honor for their son, that he should be chosen -as the companion of Prince Cyrus. Harpagus went to the festival, and -was given a seat of honor at the table. Various dishes were set before -the guests, and the attendants were especially attentive to see that -Harpagus was most bountifully served. At the end of the feast, Astyages -asked Harpagus how he had liked his fare. Harpagus expressed himself as -being well pleased. The king then ordered the servants to bring in a -basket, which they uncovered before Harpagus, and he beheld with horror -the head, hands, and feet of his own son. - -The story relates that Harpagus did not display his terrible despair by -word or look; and when the wicked king asked him if he knew what he had -been eating, he replied that he did, and whatever was the will of the -king was pleasing to him. Such shocking cruelties reveal the wickedness -of those despotic times. - -Harpagus satisfied his revenge against the cruel Astyages, many -years afterwards, in a manner which will be disclosed as this story -continues. A king whose greed of power could condemn an own grandson to -death would not scruple at other crimes. Astyages now again consulted -the soothsayers as to his safety in recognizing Cyrus as his grandson -and giving him his royal place at court. The Magi now replied, that as -Cyrus had already been a king, even though it was only in a childish -game, still, as he had been called a king, the oracles had been -fulfilled, and Astyages need fear no further danger to his kingdom. -Astyages therefore sent Cyrus to his parents in Persia, who received -their long-lost son with overwhelming delight; and the youthful Cyrus -was no doubt astonished and rejoiced to find himself the son and -grandson of powerful kings, rather than a simple peasant boy, the son -of a poor herdsman. - -[Illustration: PERSIAN GUARDSMAN CARRYING BOW AND QUIVER.] - -[Illustration: PERSIAN SOLDIER WITH BATTLE-AXE.] - -[Illustration: PERSIAN FOOT SOLDIERS.] - -Cyrus is described by the historians as being tall and handsome, and -excelling in all youthful exploits. - -Xenophon describes the life of young Cyrus in the court of his father -Cambyses, king of Persia. The sons of all the nobles and officers -of the court were educated together in the royal palace. They were -not taught to read, as there were no books, but they had certain -teachers who explained to them the principles of right and wrong, and -described to them the various laws of the land, and the rules by which -controversies should be settled. These were put to practical use in -deciding the various cases which occurred among the boys themselves; -and judges were chosen from their number who should discuss and -decide these questions. Right decisions were rewarded, and wrong ones -punished. Cyrus himself was once punished for a wrong decision. The -case was this:— - -A larger boy took away the coat of a smaller boy, whose coat was -bigger than his own, and gave him his own smaller coat. The smaller boy -appealed to Cyrus, who decided that each boy should keep the coat that -fitted him. The teacher condemned his decision in these words,— - -“When you are called upon to consider a question of what fits best, -then you should determine as you have done in this case; but when -you are appointed to decide whose each coat is, and to adjudge it to -the proper owner, then you are to consider what constitutes right -possession, and whether he who takes a thing by force from one who -is weaker than himself, should have it, or whether he who made it or -purchased it, should be protected in his property. You have decided -against law and in favor of violence and wrong.” - -The boys at this Persian court were taught many kinds of manly -exercises. They were trained to wrestle and run, and were instructed in -the use of all kinds of arms then known. Each one was furnished with -a bow and arrows, a shield, a sword, or dagger, which was worn at the -side in a scabbard, and two javelins, one of which they were to throw, -and the other to keep in the hand for use in close combat with the wild -beasts which they might encounter in their hunting expeditions. These -excursions were often long and fatiguing, which they took by turns with -the king in the neighboring forests. - -They were subjected to long marches, to cold and hunger and storms, -and sometimes dangerous conflicts. These experiences were considered -necessary to fit them to become good soldiers in the future. - -When Cyrus was about twelve years of age, he was invited by his -grandfather Astyages to make him a visit in Media. When Cyrus arrived -in Media with his mother Mandane, he was surprised at the magnificence -and pomp of the royal court; as the manners and habits of the Persians -were very simple, and as he had been sent to Persia as soon as his -royal rank had been discovered, he had not before had an opportunity of -seeing the splendor of his grandfather’s court. - -[Illustration: PERSIAN KING SEATED ON HIS THRONE.] - -In his first interview with Astyages, Cyrus displayed his great -tact and natural courtesy. When he came into the presence of his -grandfather, who wore a purple robe richly embroidered with gold and -covered with precious stones, and bracelets upon his arms, and a long, -flowing wig, while his face was painted and powdered, Cyrus exclaimed,— - -“Why, mother, what a handsome man my grandfather is!” - -Cyrus was dazzled by the great display around him, for in the Persian -court, Cambyses his father, and all his nobles, were clothed with great -simplicity. Mandane then said to Cyrus,— - -“Which one do you think the handsomer man, your father or your -grandfather?” - -It was a very unwise question to ask a child, but Cyrus was equal to -the emergency, and replied with great tact and politeness,— - -“My father is the handsomest man in Persia, but my grandfather is the -handsomest of all the Medes.” - -Astyages was much pleased with the aptness of this reply, and Cyrus -became a great favorite with his grandfather, who lavished upon him -costly garments, rich feasts, rare jewels, and the attentions of a -retinue of servants. But after the first novelty had passed away, Cyrus -preferred his more simple raiment and plainer food. - -At one time, Astyages invited Cyrus and his mother to one of his -grand feasts in his palace, and ordered the rarest viands to be served -for Cyrus in the most elegant and costly dishes. Instead of being -flattered, Cyrus showed no particular pleasure or surprise, and when -Astyages asked him if he did not delight in such rich and delicate -food, and if the feast before him was not much finer than any he had -seen in Persia, Cyrus replied,— - -“We manage much better in Persia; it is very troublesome to eat a -little of so many things.” - -“How do you manage in Persia?” asked Astyages. - -“When we are hungry, we eat plain meat and bread, and so we get health -and strength and have very little trouble,” answered Cyrus. - -Astyages then told Cyrus that he might continue his plain fare in -Media, if he thought it was better for his health. Cyrus then asked his -grandfather if he would give him all the costly dishes before him to do -as he wished with them. To this Astyages consented, and Cyrus, calling -up one of the attendants after another, presented to them as gifts the -various elegant dishes with their contents. To one he said, “I give you -this because you serve the king faithfully”; to another, “I make you -this present because you are faithful to my mother”; and to another, -“Because you have taught me to throw the javelin.” Thus he went on -until all the gifts had been disposed of. Now the king had one servant, -whom he honored above all others, who held the office of cup-bearer. - -In those days this was an important trust, for those despotic -monarchs possessed so many enemies that they were in constant danger -of assassination or of being poisoned. The king’s cup-bearer must -superintend the food of his master, and taste all wines himself before -offering them to the king. - -Great dexterity and grace were necessary to perform the latter service -acceptably, as the king’s cup must not be placed to the lips of his -cup-bearer, but a small portion must be poured into the palm of his -hand, and lifted gracefully to his mouth. - -Astyages’ cup-bearer was a Sacian; he was an officer of high rank, -tall and handsome, and magnificently dressed. In distributing his -gifts, Cyrus had neglected this officer, and when Astyages asked him -his reason, Cyrus replied that he did not like the Sacian. Astyages -inquired the cause of this dislike, and remarked, “Have you not -observed how gracefully and elegantly he pours out the wine for me, and -then hands me the cup?” - -Cyrus replied that he could pour out the wine and offer the cup as well -as the Sacian, and requested his grandfather to allow him to try. To -this the amused king consented, and Cyrus, taking a goblet of wine in -his hand, retired from the room. He soon re-entered with the pompous -and dignified bearing of the Sacian, and so mimicked his manner of -gravity and self-importance as to occasion much mirth amongst the -assembled guests. - -Cyrus, having advanced to the king, presented him with the cup, -neglecting not even one single motion of the usual ceremony, except -tasting the wine himself. Mandane and the king laughed heartily, and -the would-be cup-bearer, becoming the child again, jumped into his -grandfather’s arms, exclaiming, “Now, Sacian, you are ruined; I shall -get my grandfather to appoint me in your place. I can hand the wine as -well as you, and without tasting it myself at all.” - -“But why did you not taste it?” asked his grandfather. - -“Because the wine was poisoned,” replied Cyrus. - -“What makes you think it is poisoned?” inquired Astyages. - -“Because,” said Cyrus, “it was poisoned the other day when you made a -feast for your friends on your birthday. It made you all crazy. The -things that you do not allow us boys to do you did yourselves, for you -were very rude and noisy; you all bawled together so that nobody could -hear or understand what any other person said. Presently you went to -singing in a very ridiculous manner, and when a singer ended his song, -you applauded him, and declared that he had sung admirably, though -nobody had paid attention. You went to telling stories too, each one -of his own accord, without succeeding in making anybody listen to him. -Finally, you got up and began to dance, but it was out of all rule and -measure; you could not even stand erect and steadily. Then you all -seemed to forget who and what you were; the guests paid no regard to -you as their king, but treated you in a very familiar and disrespectful -manner, and you treated them in the same way; so I thought that the -wine that produced these effects must be poisoned.” - -“But have not you ever seen such things before?” asked Astyages. “Does -not your father ever drink wine until it makes him merry?” - -“No,” replied Cyrus, “indeed, he does not; he drinks only when he is -thirsty, and then only enough for his thirst, and so he is not harmed.” -He then added in a contemptuous tone, “He has no Sacian cup-bearer, you -may depend, about him.” - -“But why do you dislike this Sacian so much, my son?” asked Mandane. - -“Why, every time that I want to come and see my grandfather,” replied -Cyrus, “he always stops me, and will not let me come in. I wish, -grandfather, you would let me have the rule of him for just three -days.” - -“What would you do?” asked Astyages. - -“I would treat him as he treats me now,” answered Cyrus. “I would stand -at the door, as he does when I want to come in, and when he was coming -for his dinner, I would stop him and say, ‘You cannot come in now; he -is busy.’” Cyrus repeated these words in the tones and with the grave -manner of the Sacian. - -“Then,” continued Cyrus, “when he was coming to get his supper, I would -say, ‘You must not come in now; he is bathing, or he is going to sleep; -you must come some other time, for he cannot be disturbed.’ Thus I -would torment him all the time, as he now torments me in keeping me -from you when I want to see you.” - -When the time arrived for Mandane to return to Persia, Astyages was -very desirous to have Cyrus remain with him; Mandane gave her consent -if Cyrus should wish to do so. Astyages told Cyrus that if he would -stay, the Sacian should torment him no more, but that he should be -allowed to come into his presence whenever he wished to do so, and, -moreover, he should have the use of all his grandfather’s horses. He -should also have boys of his own age for companions, and they would -be allowed to hunt the animals in the park. They could pursue them on -horseback and shoot them with bows and arrows, or throw the javelins -at their prey. This pleasure of riding and hunting was a rare one to -Cyrus, for the Persians had few horses, and there were no bodies of -cavalry in their armies. Cyrus represented to his mother the great -advantage it would be to him to be a skilful horseman, as that would -give him a superiority over all the Persian youths. Mandane was -somewhat anxious lest the luxurious habits and haughty manners of his -grandfather should prove a bad example for Cyrus, but he assured her -that she need have no fears, as his grandfather required all to be -submissive to himself, and allowed imperiousness in no one but the -king. So it was decided that Cyrus should remain in Media, and Mandane -departed for Persia. - -Cyrus now applied himself with great diligence to acquire all the -various accomplishments and arts then most highly prized, such as -leaping, vaulting, racing, riding, throwing the javelin, and drawing -the bow. In the friendly contests among the boys, Cyrus would -courteously challenge those superior to himself in these exercises, -thus giving them the pleasure of winning the prize, and benefiting -himself by thus having the greater stimulus of contesting with -attainments higher than his own. He accordingly made rapid progress, -and speedily learned to equal and then surpass his companions without -occasioning any envy or jealousy. - -It was their favorite amusement to hunt the deer in his grandfather’s -park; but at last, so vigorous had been their onslaught, that the -animals were wellnigh exhausted, and Astyages went to great trouble to -secure further supplies. Cyrus then requested that they be allowed to -hunt in the forests, and hunt the wild beasts with the men. As Cyrus -had now grown up into a tall, robust young man, able to sustain the -fatigues of the hunt, his grandfather consented that Cyrus should go -out with his son Cyaxares. The party set out in high spirits. There -were certain attendants appointed to keep particular guard over Cyrus, -and prevent him from rushing rashly into danger. His attendants told -him that the dangerous animals were bears, lions, tigers, boars, and -leopards; and as they often attacked man, he must avoid them; but that -he could hunt the stags, goats, and wild sheep as much as he pleased. -They also told him of the dangers in riding over a rough country where -the broken ground and steep, rocky precipices made riding difficult, -and hunters driving impetuously over such a country were often thrown -from their horses, or fell with them into the chasms and were killed. -Cyrus promised to remember their warning; but no sooner had he entered -into the excitement of the chase than he forgot all their counsels, -and riding furiously after a stag, his horse came to a chasm which he -was obliged to leap. But the distance was too great, and the horse -fell upon his knees as he reached the farther side, and for a moment -before he recovered his footing Cyrus was in imminent danger of being -precipitated to the bottom of the deep precipice. But Cyrus was -fearless; and as soon as his horse had regained his feet and cleared -the chasm, he pressed on after the stag, overtook him, and killed him -with his javelin. As soon as his frightened attendants came up to him, -they reproved him for his reckless daring, and they threatened to -report to his grandfather. Just at the instant he heard a new halloo, -as fresh game had been started, and forgetting all his resolutions, -Cyrus sprang upon his horse with a loud shout and followed the chase. -The game now started was a dangerous wild boar, and Cyrus instead -of shunning the peril, as he should have done in obedience to his -grandfather’s orders, dashed after the boar, and aimed so true a thrust -with his javelin against the beast as to transfix him in the forehead. -The boar fell dying upon the ground, and Cyrus waited for the party to -arrive, with pride and triumph. When his uncle Cyaxares came near, he -reproved Cyrus for running such risks, and said that if his grandfather -knew what he had done, he would punish him. “Let him punish me,” said -Cyrus, “if he wishes after I have shown him the stag and the hoar, and -you may punish me too if you will only let me show him the animals I -have killed.” Cyaxares consented, and ordered the bodies of the beasts -and the bloody javelins to be carried home. Cyrus presented them to -his grandfather, who thanked him for the presents, but said he had no -such need of game as to require his grandson to thus expose himself to -danger. “Well, grandfather,” said Cyrus, “if you don’t wish the meat -yourself, will you let me give it to my friends.” Astyages agreed to -this, and Cyrus divided his booty amongst all his young companions who -had hunted with him in the park. The boys took their several portions -home, giving glowing accounts of the skilful exploits of the giver. -Thus was Cyrus thus early ambitious of spreading his own fame. - -When Cyrus was about sixteen years of age he went with his uncle -Cyaxares on an excursion for plunder into some neighboring provinces. -Neither the kings of those times nor their historians seem to have -considered such expeditions as unjust or wrong, but rather as a more -noble enterprise than even their favorite hunting. In this expedition -Cyrus so distinguished himself by his exploits, that his father, -hearing the reports thereof, concluded that if his son was beginning to -take part as a soldier in military campaigns, it was time to recall him -to his own country. He therefore sent for Cyrus to return home. - -There was great sadness in the Median court when Cyrus departed, for he -had become a special favorite with king and people. - -The succeeding events of Cyrus’ life take us more out of the field of -romance and are more strictly confined to the facts of history. Cyrus -on his return to Persia grew rapidly in strength and stature, and -soon became distinguished for his manly beauty, his personal grace, -and winning manners, as well as excelling all others in the martial -accomplishments he had acquired in Media. He gained great ascendancy -over the minds of others, and as he advanced to manhood his thoughts -turned from athletic sports and hunting to plans of war and ambitions -for more extended dominions. - -Meanwhile, Harpagus, who had always meditated revenge upon Astyages -for the horrible death of his son, though at the time he had been too -wary to express resentment, was constantly watching every opportunity -to work evil against the king. Fifteen years had now passed since the -terrible deed was committed. He remained all this time in the court of -Astyages, where he outwardly demeaned himself as the friend and zealous -subject of the king, but meanwhile he plotted revenge. - -He kept up a constant communication with Cyrus, and at last went so far -as to try to induce him to collect an army and march into Media against -Astyages. The plausible motives which he suggested made it appear to -Cyrus as though he would only be endeavoring to free his own Persia -from ignoble bondage, as Persia was a Median dependency. Meanwhile, -Harpagus sympathized with all the disaffected Medians, whose numbers -rapidly increased, as the tyranny of Astyages made numerous enemies. - -At length the time came when Harpagus thought the right moment -had arrived for a revolt. Cyrus had now determined to attempt -the enterprise. Astyages had been guilty of some unusual acts of -oppression, by which he had produced great dissatisfaction among his -people. Harpagus found the principal men around him willing to enter -into the conspiracy, so he desired that Cyrus should come into Media -with as large a force as he could raise, and head the insurrection -against the government of Astyages. - -Harpagus did not dare to trust this message to any messenger, and so -he took this novel way of communicating with Cyrus. He wrote a letter -to Cyrus, and then taking a dead hare he opened the body and concealed -the letter within, and then neatly sewed up the skin again so that no -signs remained of the incision. He then delivered the hare to some -trusty servants, who should also carry hunting weapons, as though about -to go upon some hunting expedition. He also commanded that they should -give the hare to Cyrus himself, and that he should open it alone. The -plan was successful; the hare reached the hands of Cyrus in safety, and -opening it, he read a letter which was in substance as follows:— - -“It is plain, Cyrus, that you are a favorite of Heaven, and that you -are destined to a great and glorious career. You could not otherwise -have escaped, in so miraculous a manner, the snares set for you in your -infancy. Astyages meditated your death, and he took such measures to -effect it as would seem to have made your destruction sure. You were -saved by the special interposition of Heaven. You are aware by what -extraordinary incidents you were preserved and discovered, and what -great and unusual prosperity has since attended you. You know, too, -what cruel punishments Astyages inflicted upon me for my humanity in -saving you. The time has now come for retribution. From this time the -authority and the dominions of Astyages may be yours. Persuade the -Persians to revolt. Put yourself at the head of an army and march into -Media. I shall probably myself be appointed to command the army sent -out to oppose you. If so, we will join our forces when we meet, and I -will enter your service. I have conferred with the leading nobles in -Media, and they are all ready to espouse your cause. You may rely upon -finding everything thus prepared for you here. Come, therefore, without -delay.” - -Cyrus determined to comply with the proposal of Harpagus. He therefore -resorted to deceit, or, as he called it, stratagem. Thus war upholds -and justifies falsehood and treachery under the name of stratagem. -Cyrus had a letter prepared in the form of a commission from Astyages, -appointing him commander of a body of Persian forces to be raised in -the service of the king. He then read this false letter at a public -assembly, and called upon all the Persian warriors to join him. - -Cyrus did not at first make known to them his designs, but commanded -them all to assemble on a certain day at a place named, and each one -was to provide himself with an axe. When they were thus mustered, he -marched them into the forest, and employed them all day in felling -trees. He gave them, moreover, only the coarsest food. When the day was -over, he ordered them all to assemble again on the morrow. When they -came the next day, instead of hard work and poor food, most sumptuous -feasts had been provided for them, and they spent the day in merriment -and revelry. - -In the evening Cyrus called them all together and revealed to them his -plans, and said to them that if they would follow him, they should live -in ease and plenty; otherwise, if they should continue as they were, -they would spend their lives in toil and privation; and he reminded -them of the two days just spent, and asked them which they preferred -to live. The soldiers received his proposals with joy, and eagerly -promised to follow him into Media. When everything was ready, Cyrus -led his army into Media. In the meantime Astyages, hearing of his -insurrection, had collected a large force, and as had been anticipated, -placed it under the command of Harpagus. When the battle was joined, -the honest part of the Median army fought valiantly at first; but -discovering that they were being deserted by their comrades, they fled -in confusion. Cyrus, thus reinforced by the deserting Medians with -Harpagus at their head, now found himself the leader of a large force, -and advanced toward the capital. When Astyages heard of the treachery -of Harpagus and the desertion of his army, he was frenzied with rage. -The long-dreaded prediction of his dream seemed about to be fulfilled, -and the Magi who had assured him that he was safe, as Cyrus had been a -king when a boy, had proved themselves false. - -He directed them all to be seized and crucified. He then ordered every -man capable of bearing arms, into the ranks, and putting himself at -the head of this large force, he marched against Cyrus. But he was -defeated, and he himself was taken prisoner. Harpagus was present when -he was taken, and he exulted in triumph over his downfall. Harpagus -asked him what he thought now of the supper in which he had compelled a -father to feed upon the flesh of his own child. Astyages asked Harpagus -if he thought the success of Cyrus was owing to what he had done. -Harpagus replied that it was, and revealed to him how he had schemed -for his destruction, and the preparation he had made in aid of Cyrus, -so that Astyages might see that his downfall had been effected by -Harpagus himself, in terrible retribution for the shocking crime he had -committed so many years before. - -The result of this battle was the complete overthrow of the power and -kingdom of Astyages, and the establishment of Cyrus on the throne of -the united kingdoms of Media and Persia. - -Cyrus treated his grandfather with kindness, though he kept him in a -sort of imprisonment. The people rejoiced in his downfall, and were -well pleased with the milder and more equitable government of Cyrus. -Astyages met His death years after, in a strange manner. Cyrus sent -for him to come into Persia, where he was then himself residing. The -officer who had Astyages in charge, led him into a desolate wilderness, -where he perished from hunger and exposure. Cyrus punished the officer -for this crime, though it was supposed by some that it was done by the -secret order of Cyrus, in retribution, perhaps, for the evil intentions -of Astyages toward himself in his infancy, which, if they had been -obeyed, would have resulted in his own death from the same cause. - -The character and nobleness of Cyrus, as evinced by numerous generous -deeds throughout his life, would, however, seem to refute such a -supposition. Harpagus continued in the service of Cyrus, and became one -of his most celebrated generals. - -Such is one of the stories of the accession of Cyrus to the thrones -of Media and Persia. Another account gives a different version of it, -and states that Astyages died while king of Media, and was succeeded -by his son Cyaxares, brother to Cyrus’ mother Mandane, or Mandana, as -her name is given by some historians. The years of the reign of Cyrus -are computed differently. Some make his reign thirty years, beginning -from his first setting out from Persia at the head of an army to succor -his uncle Cyaxares, who was in war with the Babylonians. Others make -the duration of it to be but seven years, because they date only from -the time when, by the death of Cambyses and Cyaxares, Cyrus became -sole monarch of the entire empire of both Media and Persia. But as -Cyrus seems to have been the leader in both the Median and Persian -empires long before the death of these kings, he probably ruled them -both in partnership with them; and notwithstanding Cyrus conquered and -acquired Babylon by his own valor, he complacently allowed his uncle -Cyaxares, whose forces had been engaged with his own, to hold the -first rank. This Cyaxares is called in the Bible Darius the Mede; and -it was under his reign in Babylon, which only lasted two years, that -Daniel the prophet had several revelations. But as our interest is more -particularly in the life and conquests of Cyrus himself, rather than -those of Cyaxares and Cambyses, and as the vast power and dominion -of both Media and Persia seemed to have been owing to the valor and -executive ability of Cyrus alone, our story will confine itself to the -achievements of Cyrus the Great, without further mention of Cambyses or -Cyaxares. - -We now come to the history of Cyrus and Crœsus, and before we recount -the conquest of the kingdom of Lydia, it will make it more interesting, -perhaps, to give a slight sketch of Crœsus, king of Lydia, and also to -mention the oracles which played such an important part in the history -of this king. The country of Lydia, over which this famous king ruled, -was in the western part of Asia Minor bordering on the Ægean Sea. -Crœsus, king of Lydia, acquired the enormous riches for which he was -so famous, from the golden sands of the river Pactolus, which flowed -through his kingdom. The river brought down the gold particles from -the mountains above, and the slaves of Crœsus washed the sands, thus -separating the metal, which was obtained in such vast quantities that -this king’s name has become a proverb for fabulous wealth, in the old -saying, “Rich as Crœsus.” - -The people of those days, however, had a very different story of the -origin of the gold in the river Pactolus. Their legend was that ages -before, a certain king named Midas had rendered some service to a god, -who thereupon promised to grant him any favor he should ask. Midas -prayed that the power might be granted him of turning everything he -touched into gold. This power was bestowed by the god, and after Midas -had turned many objects into gold, he began to find his gift very -inconvenient, and was in danger of starving to death in the midst -of all his wealth. For no sooner had he touched any food than it -straightway became gold. Midas was then as anxious to get rid of his -dangerous gift as he had been to secure it. - -He implored the god to take back the gift. - -The god told him to go and bathe in the river Pactolus, and he should -be restored to his former state. - -Midas did so, and was saved, but in the operation a great portion of -the sands of the river were transformed to gold. - -Crœsus was at one time visited by a famous Grecian lawgiver, named -Solon. Crœsus received Solon with great distinction, and showed him all -his treasures. - -One day the king asked Solon, who of all the persons he had ever met, -he considered to be the happiest man. - -Of course Crœsus imagined that the sage would name himself, the king, -as the happiest mortal. But Solon gave him the name of Tellus, a quiet -Athenian citizen. - -Crœsus asked why he should place such a man before a monarch occupying -such a throne as his own. - -Solon replied,— - -“You are now at the height of your power, but I cannot decide whether -you are a fortunate and happy man, until I know your end.” - -Crœsus had two sons. One was deaf and dumb, the other was a young man -of much promise; but he was killed while hunting. - -As soon as Cyrus had become established on his throne as king of the -Medes and Persians, his power began to extend westward toward the -empire of Crœsus, king of Lydia. - -Crœsus was roused from the dejection into which he had been plunged by -the death of his son, by the danger which now threatened his kingdom. -In his uncertainty regarding the future, he determined to consult the -oracles. The three most important of these oracles were situated, one -at Delphi, one at Dodona, and the third at the Oasis of Jupiter Ammon. - -Delphi was a small town built on the southern side of Mount Parnassus. -This mount was a famous place. From a deep cavern in the rocks there -issued a stream of gaseous vapor, which was said to inspire all persons -inhaling it with a spirit of divination and poetry. A temple was -built upon this mountain, in which a priestess resided, and she gave -responses to all who came to consult the oracle. When she gave her -answers, she sat upon a three-legged stool, which was afterwards called -the sacred tripod. This oracle became so renowned that many monarchs -came great distances to consult it; and they made very costly presents -to the shrine. The deity who was supposed to dictate the predictions -was Apollo. Crœsus sent messengers to all of the various oracles to -ask what should be the result of his contest with Cyrus. The replies -were all unsatisfactory, except the Delphic oracle. Crœsus now decided -that this was the oracle upon which he must rely, and immediately -made preparations to send most magnificent and costly presents to the -Delphic shrine. Some of the treasures were to be deposited in the -temple, and some were to be offered as a burnt sacrifice to the god. - -After the ceremonies were completed, everything that had been used in -the services, including gold and silver vessels, richly embroidered -garments, and numerous other costly articles, were gathered into one -vast funeral pile and burnt. So much gold had been employed in making -these things, that it melted in the fire and ran into plates of great -size. These were then collected and formed into an image of a lion, -which was placed in the temple. Crœsus also presented the temple with -a silver cistern, or tank, large enough to hold three thousand gallons -of wine. There was one strange piece of statuary which he sent to this -shrine, which we must not omit to mention. It was a statue of gold of a -woman-servant in the household of Crœsus. It was called The Breadmaker. -Its origin was this:— - -When Crœsus was a child, his mother died, and his father married -again. His stepmother desired to have one of her children succeed to -the throne instead of Crœsus. So she gave some poison to the woman who -was accustomed to make the bread for the family, telling her to put -it in the portion intended for Crœsus. This servant, however, instead -of minding the wicked queen, revealed the plot to Crœsus, and put the -poison in the bread of the queen’s own children. In gratitude for his -preservation by this slave, Crœsus ordered a statue of gold to be made -in her honor, when he came to the throne; and this he sent to the -temple at Delphi. After Crœsus had presented all these magnificent -gifts to the shrine, he consulted the oracle. The answer was as -follows:— - -“If Crœsus crosses the Halys and prosecutes a war with Persia, a mighty -empire will be overthrown. It will be best for him to form an alliance -with the most powerful states of Greece.” - -Crœsus was much pleased with this answer, and then asked furthermore, -whether his power would ever decline. - -The oracle replied,— - -“Whenever a mule shall mount upon the Median throne, then, and not till -then, shall great Crœsus fear to lose his own.” - -These replies strengthened the belief of Crœsus that he should be -victorious; but as the sequel shows, we will learn how vague and -indefinite were the answers of the oracles, and so given that they -could correspond with the event, whatever might be the result. - -Crœsus now sent ambassadors to Sparta to seek their aid, and meanwhile -went on making great preparations for his campaign. When all things -were ready, the army commenced its march eastward until it reached the -river Halys. - -The army encamped upon its banks until some plan could be formed for -crossing the river. Crœsus had with his army a very celebrated engineer -named Thales. This engineer succeeded in getting the army of Crœsus -over the river by ordering a large force of laborers to cut a new -channel for the river behind the army, into which the water flowed, and -Crœsus and his force passed on. Cyrus had heard of his approach, and -soon the armies were face to face. - -Cyrus had been conquering all the nations in his path, as he went -forward to meet Crœsus, and thus had been reinforced by all of the -neighboring people, except the Babylonians, who were allied with Crœsus -against him. A great battle was fought at Pteria, which continued all -day, and at its close the combatants separated without either of them -having gained much advantage. - -Crœsus thinking that this battle was enough for the present, and -supposing that Cyrus would now go home, having found that he could not -overcome him, determined to return to his own city Sardis, and there -prepare for a more vigorous campaign in the spring. - -Cyrus quietly remained in his position until Crœsus had time to return -to Sardis. Whereupon, he followed with his entire army. - -Crœsus was now thoroughly alarmed, and collecting all the forces he -could command, he marched forth to a great plain just without the city, -to meet Cyrus. - -The Lydian army was superior to that of Cyrus in cavalry, and upon -this plain they would have a much greater advantage. To avoid this, -Cyrus ordered all his large train of camels, which had been employed as -beasts of burden, to be drawn up in line in front of his army, each one -having a soldier upon his back, armed with a spear. - -It is said that horses cannot endure the sight or smell of a camel; and -when the two armies met, the cavalry of Crœsus, riding furiously to the -attack, were confronted by the line of huge, awkward camels, with their -soldier riders. The horses were so frightened by the spectacle, that -they turned and fled in dismay, trampling down their own forces, and -causing complete confusion in the Lydian army. The army of Crœsus was -totally defeated, and they fled into the city of Sardis and entrenched -themselves there. - -Cyrus now besieged the city for fourteen days, endeavoring to find -some place to scale the walls which surrounded it. One part of the -wall passed over rocky precipices which were considered impassable. -At length one of the soldiers of Cyrus, named Hyræades, observed -one of the sentinels, who was stationed on the wall overlooking the -precipice, leave his post, and come partway down the rocks to get his -helmet, which had dropped down. Hyræades reported this incident to -Cyrus, and so an attempt was made to scale the walls at that point. It -was successful, and thus the city was taken. It is reported that in -the confusion and noise of storming the city the life of Crœsus was -saved by the miraculous speaking of his deaf-and-dumb son. Cyrus had -commanded his soldiers not to kill Crœsus, but that they should take -him alive, and he should then be brought to him. As Crœsus was escaping -with his son a party of Persian soldiers took him prisoner, and were -about to kill him, not knowing who he was, when the dumb boy cried out,— - -“It is Crœsus; do not kill him!” - -Cyrus had not ordered Crœsus to be spared from any motives of kindness; -but that he himself might determine his fate. - -He commanded Crœsus to be put in chains, and a huge funeral pile to be -built in a public square, and Crœsus and fourteen of the young Lydian -nobles were placed upon the pile. - -Just as the torch was applied, Crœsus cried out in a tone of anguish -and despair,— - -“Oh, Solon! Solon! Solon!” - -The officers who had charge of the execution asked him what he meant, -and Cyrus, also hearing him, and being desirous of receiving an -explanation of his mysterious words, commanded the fires to be put out, -and ordered Crœsus to be unbound and to be brought to him. Cyrus now -treated Crœsus with much kindness. - -[Illustration: PERSIAN SUBJECTS BRINGING TRIBUTE.] - -Crœsus was very much incensed against the oracle at Delphi for having -deceived him by false predictions; but the priests of the oracle -replied that the destruction of the Lydian dynasty had long been -decreed by fate on account of the guilt of Gyges, the founder of the -line, who had murdered the rightful monarch, and usurped the crown. -The oracles had foretold that a mighty empire would be overthrown, and -Crœsus had wrongly imagined that it referred to the destruction of the -kingdom of Cyrus. As to the other prediction made by the oracle, that -when he should find a mule upon the throne of Media, he would lose his -own, this had been fulfilled, as Cyrus, who was descended from the -Persians on his father’s side, and from the Medians on his mother’s, -had thus become a hybrid sovereign, represented by the mule. - -In his advance towards the dominions of Crœsus in Asia Minor, Cyrus had -passed to the northward of the great and celebrated city of Babylon. -He had now conquered all the nations from the Ægean Sea to the river -Euphrates. He then subdued Syria and Arabia. After this he entered into -Assyria and advanced towards Babylon, the only large city of the East -yet unsubdued. - -The taking of Babylon is one of the greatest events in ancient history, -and the principal circumstances with which it was attended were -foretold in the Bible many years before it happened. Babylon, at this -time, was the most magnificent city in the world. It was situated in -a large plain, and was surrounded by walls which were eighty-seven -feet thick, three hundred and fifty feet high, and sixty miles in -circumference. These walls were in the form of a square, each side of -which was fifteen miles long. They were built of large bricks cemented -together with bitumen, which bound bricks so firmly together that the -mortar soon became harder than the bricks themselves. This wall was -surrounded by a deep, wide trench filled with water. The great wall of -Babylon contained 200,000,000 yards of solid masonry, or nearly twice -the cubic contents of the famous wall of China. Each of the bricks -was stamped with the name of Nebuchadnezzar. The wall was so wide -that four chariots could move abreast upon its summit. Two hundred -and fifty towers, each ten feet higher than the walls, rose above -the parapet. One hundred gates of brass opened to as many streets. -Each of the fifty streets was fifteen miles long, and one hundred and -forty feet broad, crossing each other at right angles; these avenues -divided the city into six hundred and seventy-six squares, each being -two and a half miles in circuit. The buildings were erected around -these squares with an open court in the centre, containing beautiful -gardens and fountains. The river Euphrates flowed through the city, and -was spanned by a bridge, five hundred feet long and thirty feet wide. -Above the bridge rose an obelisk one hundred and twenty-five feet high. -As the melting of the snows upon the mountains of Armenia caused the -river Euphrates to overflow its banks in the months of June, July, and -August, two artificial canals were cut, some distance above the city, -which turned the course of these waters into the Tigris before they -reached Babylon. To keep the river within its channel, they raised -immense artificial banks on both sides, built with bricks cemented with -bitumen. In making these works it was necessary to turn the course of -the river another way. For this purpose a prodigious artificial lake -was dug, forty miles square, one hundred and sixty in circumference, -and thirty-five feet deep. - -[Illustration: CHART OF THE COUNTRY AROUND BABYLON.] - -Into this lake the whole river was turned by an artificial canal, cut -from the west side of it, until the entire work was finished, when -the river was allowed to flow into its former channel. This lake was -kept, however, as a reservoir, as a means of irrigating the surrounding -fields. - -Along the banks of the river were the famous Hanging Gardens, where the -many terraces bloomed with brilliant flowers, and were shaded by groves -of trees, and cooled by fountains of sparkling water. These beautiful -gardens, which were considered one of the Seven Wonders of the World, -were constructed by Nebuchadnezzar to please his wife Amytis, whose -native land was Media, as she was the daughter of Astyages. - -Surrounded by a triple wall, and guarded by gates of brass, rose the -magnificent royal palace, whose walls were adorned by pictures of -the chase, and martial and festive processions, and whose apartments -were furnished with the rich carpets of Persia, the costly fabrics of -Damascus, and the jewels of Bokhara. - -Rising above all the other structures was the lofty Tower of Belus, -or Babel. The tower was six hundred feet high, and was crowned with -a statue of Belus, forty feet high, made of pure gold, which shone -resplendent in the sunlight, or gleamed with matchless beauty in the -soft moonlight. It is said that this tower far exceeded the greatest -pyramid of Egypt in height. The ascent to the top was by stairs round -the outside of it; and as the tower proper was composed of eight -stories, each decreasing gradually in size, the entire tower formed -a pyramid. In the different stories were many rooms, which were -richly adorned with tables, censers, cups, and other sacred vessels of -massive gold. Diodorus, one of the ancient historians, estimates the -value of the riches contained in this temple to amount to $93,240,000. -This temple stood in the time of Xerxes, but on his return from his -Grecian expedition, he entirely destroyed it, having plundered it of -all its immense treasures. Alexander the Great purposed to rebuild -it, and employed ten thousand men to remove the rubbish which had -accumulated around it, but after they had labored two months, Alexander -died, and that put an end to the undertaking. - -Belshazzar gave a great feast in his palace to all his chief officers -and nobles, even though Cyrus the Great was then besieging Babylon. -It was during this impious feast, after Belshazzar had commanded that -the sacred vessels, which had been taken from the Temple of Jehovah in -Jerusalem, should be desecrated by being used by his drunken guests -as wine-goblets, that the marvellous writing appeared upon his palace -wall, and the words “Mene, Mene, Tekel, Upharsin” were traced in -letters of fire by a mysterious hand. Belshazzar was aroused from his -drunken carousal and filled with terror on account of the strange omen. -None of his magicians could interpret its meaning. At last his mother, -Queen Nitocris, remembered the old prophet Daniel, and his previous -wonderful interpretations for Nebuchadnezzar. Daniel, being summoned, -declared that it predicted the destruction of his kingdom, which should -be divided, and given to the Medes and Persians. - -Swiftly, indeed, did the dread catastrophe overtake the wicked king. -Cyrus had caused great ditches to be dug on both sides of the city, -above and below, so that the water of the river Euphrates might run -into them. That very night he caused those great receptacles to be -opened; and while Belshazzar and his drunken army were carousing in -mad revellings, the channel of the river was emptied, and the hostile -forces marched into the dry channel in two bodies of troops; one -entering above the city, and one below. A guide who had promised to -open all the gates to Cyrus left open the gates of brass which were -made to shut up the descents from the quays to the river. - -[Illustration: SUPPOSED PLAN OF ANCIENT BABYLON.] - -Thus the army of Cyrus was enabled to penetrate into the very heart -of the city without opposition. Arriving at the royal palace, they -surprised the guards and killed them. Then rushing into the palace, and -meeting the king, who had seized a sword, and stood in the midst of his -frightened and helpless guests, the soldiers of Cyrus killed Belshazzar. - -Cyrus, having entered the city, put all to the sword who were found -in the streets. He then commanded the citizens to bring him all their -arms, and afterwards to shut themselves up in their houses. Early the -next morning, the garrison which kept the citadel, learning that the -city had been taken, and their king killed, surrendered themselves -to Cyrus. Thus did this prince, almost without striking a blow, find -himself in possession of the strongest place in the world. - -In the first year after Cyrus conquered Babylon, he published the -famous edict permitting the Jews to return to Jerusalem. Cyrus at the -same time restored to the Jews all the vessels of the temple of the -Lord, which Nebuchadnezzar had brought from Jerusalem, and placed in -the temple of his god Belus, or Baal. - -After this conquest, Cyrus established his residence in the midst of -the countries within his vast dominions. He spent seven months of -the year at Babylon in the winter season, because of the warmth of -that climate; three months at Susa in the spring; and two months at -Ecbatana, during the heat of summer. - -There is an interesting story, told by Xenophon, of a princess, named -Panthea, in connection with the expedition of Cyrus against the -Assyrians. Among the prisoners of war taken by his army was a very -beautiful princess, Panthea, the wife of Abradates, king of Susiana. -Her husband was an Assyrian general, though he himself was not captured -at this time with his wife. Cyrus committed this princess to the care -of one of his young nobles, named Araspes. This nobleman fell in love -with Panthea, and ventured to express to her his admiration for her. -She was offended; and when Araspes continued his declarations of -love, she complained to Cyrus. Cyrus severely reproved his officer -for proving unworthy of the trust reposed in him. Araspes, mortified -and repentant, was overwhelmed with fear and remorse. Cyrus, hearing -of this, sent for Araspes, and instead of upbraiding him, sent him -upon a trusty and difficult mission as a spy among the Assyrians. The -loss of so brave an officer, who was supposed to have gone over to the -enemy, greatly affected the army. Panthea, who imagined that she had -been the cause of this loss to Cyrus, told him that she would supply -the place of Araspes with an officer of equal merit. Accordingly, she -sent for her husband Abradates. Upon his arrival, she told him of the -kindness and consideration with which she had been treated by Cyrus, -the generous conqueror. - -“And how,” said Abradates, “shall I be able to acknowledge so important -a service?” - -[Illustration: BABYLONIAN KING.] - -“By behaving towards him as he has done towards me,” replied Panthea. - -Whereupon, Abradates immediately expressed his gratitude to Cyrus, and -offered to espouse his cause as his faithful ally. Cyrus received him -with a noble and courteous manner and accepted his offer. Abradates -then fitted up for Cyrus one hundred chariots at his own expense, -and provided horses to draw them, from his own troop. These armed -chariots were a very expensive sort of force. The carriages were heavy -and strong and were usually drawn by two horses. They had short, -scythe-like blades of steel projecting from the axletrees on each side, -by which the ranks of the enemy were mowed down when the chariots -were driven among them. Each chariot could hold one or more warriors -beside the driver of the horses. The warriors stood on the floor of -the carriage, and fought with javelins and spears. Abradates made -one chariot much larger than the rest for himself, as he intended to -command this corps of chariots. - -His wife Panthea took much interest in these preparations, and -unknown to Abradates, she furnished from her own treasures a helmet, -a corselet, and arm-pieces of gold for her husband. She also provided -breast-pieces and side-pieces for the horses. When the day arrived -for Abradates to go into battle with his chariot corps, Panthea -presented her munificent gifts to him, which were most royal. Besides -the defences of gold, there were other articles for ornament. There -was a purple robe, a violet crest for the helmet, waving plumes, and -costly bracelets. Abradates was greatly astonished, and exclaimed with -surprise and pleasure,— - -“And so to provide me with this splendid armor and dress, you have been -depriving yourself of all your finest and most beautiful ornaments!” - -“No,” lovingly replied Panthea; “you are yourself my finest ornament, -if you appear in the eyes of others as you do in mine; and I have not -deprived myself of you.” - -There were many spectators present to see Abradates mount in his -gorgeous chariot and drive away; but the attention of the beholders was -centred upon the exquisite beauty of Panthea, as she stood by the side -of his chariot to bid adieu to her husband. This was their last parting. - -As Panthea turned away from the royal train, her husband waved her a -fond farewell. - -On the field of battle Abradates displayed heroic courage. His chariot -was observed by Cyrus, in the thickest of the fight, rushing fearlessly -into the places of the greatest danger. - -The victory was gained by Cyrus; but Abradates was killed in his -chariot; and when Cyrus inquired about him, it was reported that -Panthea was then attending to the interment of the body on the banks of -a river which flowed near the field of battle. - -Cyrus immediately went to the spot, where Panthea sat weeping over the -remains of her beloved husband. Cyrus leaped from his horse, and knelt -beside the corpse, exclaiming,— - -“Alas! thou brave and faithful soul, and art thou gone?” - -Cyrus said what he could to console Panthea; but she was unconsolable. -He gave directions that everything should be furnished for her comfort. -Panthea thanked him for his kindness. - -After Cyrus had left her, Panthea sent away all her servants but her -waiting-maid, saying that she wished to be alone with the dead body of -her husband. She then drew forth a small dagger, which she had kept -concealed beneath her robe; and telling her maid to envelop her dead -body in the same mantle with her husband, and to have them buried -together in the same grave, she pierced her heart with the weapon -before her affrighted servant could prevent the fatal wound. Abradates -and Panthea were buried together in one grave, as the heart-broken -wife had requested, over which Cyrus erected a lofty monument to their -memory. - -Cyrus, finding himself master of all the East by the taking of Babylon, -did not imitate the example of most other conquerors, who sully the -glory of their victories by their cruelties and wicked lives. Cyrus -is justly considered one of the wisest conquerors and one of the most -accomplished of the princes to be found in profane history. He was -possessed of all the qualities necessary to make a great man. Cicero -observes, that during the entire time of the rule of Cyrus he was never -heard to speak one rough or angry word. - -Cyrus, according to his belief, was very religious. He was, to be sure, -a pagan; but he reverenced sacred things, and as his deliverance of the -Jews showed, he acknowledged the power of Jehovah, even though we have -no account of his complete conversion from idolatry. But his devotion -to what he held to be religion is an example for the worshippers of the -one true God. - -Cyrus, having established himself in the midst of his wide kingdom, -with his chief residence at Babylon, resolved to appear before the -people in an august religious ceremony, by marching in a grand -cavalcade to the places consecrated to the gods, in order to offer -sacrifices to them. He ordered the superior officers of the Persians -and allies to attend him; and he presented each one with a suit of -clothes of the Median fashion. These were long garments, of various -colors, of the finest and brightest dyes, richly embroidered with -gold and silver. One of the historians gives this description of this -gorgeous pageant. - -[Illustration: PERSIAN CHARIOT.] - -[Illustration: TOMB OF CYRUS.] - -“When the time appointed for the ceremony was come, the whole company -assembled at the king’s palace by break of day. Four thousand of the -guards, drawn up four deep, placed themselves in front of the palace, -and two thousand on the two sides of it, ranged in the same order. All -the cavalry were also drawn out, the Persians on the right, and that -of the allies on the left. The chariots of war were ranged half on one -side and half on the other. As soon as the palace gates were opened, -a great number of bulls of exquisite beauty were led out, by four and -four. These were to be sacrificed to Jupiter and other gods, according -to the ceremonies prescribed by the Magi. Next followed the horses -that were to be sacrificed to the sun. Immediately after them a white -chariot, crowned with flowers, the pole of which was gilt; this was to -be offered to Jupiter. Then came a second chariot of the same color, -and adorned in the same manner, to be offered to the sun. After these -followed a third, the horses of which were caparisoned with scarlet -housings. Behind came the men who carried the sacred fire in a large -hearth. - -“When all these were on the march, Cyrus himself made his appearance -upon his car, with his upright tiara upon his head, encircled with the -royal diadem. His under-tunic was of purple mixed with white, which -was a color peculiar to kings; over his other garments he wore a large -purple cloak. His hands were uncovered. A little below him sat the -master of the horse, who was of a comely stature, but not so tall as -Cyrus, for which reason the stature of the latter appeared still more -advantageously. - -“As soon as the people perceived the prince, they all fell prostrate -before him and worshipped him; whether it was that certain persons -appointed on purpose, and placed at proper distances, led others -by their example, or that the people were moved to do it of their -own accord, being struck by the appearance of so much pomp and -magnificence, and with so many awful circumstances of majesty and -splendor. - -“The Persians had never prostrated themselves in this manner before -Cyrus till on this occasion. When Cyrus’ chariot was come out of the -palace, the four thousand guards began to march; the other two thousand -moved at the same time, and placed themselves on each side of the -chariot. - -“The eunuchs, or great officers of the king’s household, to the number -of three hundred, richly clad, with javelins in their hands and mounted -upon stately horses, marched immediately after the chariot. After -them were led two hundred horses of the king’s stable, each of them -having embroidered furniture and bits of gold. Next came the Persian -cavalry divided into four bodies, each consisting of ten thousand men; -then the Median horse, and after those the cavalry of the allies. The -chariots of war, four abreast, brought up the rear and closed the -procession. When they came to the fields consecrated to the gods, they -offered their sacrifices first to Jupiter and then to the sun. To the -honor of the first, bulls were burnt, and to the honor of the second, -horses. They likewise sacrificed some victims to the earth, according -to the appointment of the Magi; then to the demigods, the patrons and -protectors of Syria. In order to amuse the people after this grave and -solemn ceremony, Cyrus thought fit that it should conclude with games -and horse and chariot races. - -“The place chosen for them was large and spacious. He ordered a certain -portion of it to be marked out, and proposed prizes for the victors of -each nation, which were to encounter separately and among themselves. -He himself won the prize in the Persian horse-races, for nobody was -so complete a horseman as he. The chariots ran but two at a time, one -against another. Some days after, Cyrus, to celebrate the victory he -had obtained in the horse-races, gave a great entertainment to all -his chief officers, as well strangers as Medes and Persians. They had -never yet seen anything of the kind so sumptuous and magnificent. At -the conclusion of the feast he made every one a noble present, so -that they all went home with hearts overflowing with joy, admiration, -and gratitude; and all-powerful as he was, master of all the East and -so many kingdoms, he did not think it descending from his majesty to -conduct the whole company to the door of his apartment. - -“Such were the manners and behavior of those ancient times, when men -understood how to unite great simplicity with the highest degree of -human grandeur.” - -There are two accounts given of the death of Cyrus. Herodotus relates -that Cyrus made war against the Scythians, and after having attacked -them, made a feint of retreating, leaving a great quantity of -provisions and wine behind him. The Scythians, supposing he had indeed -departed, seized the booty and were soon thoroughly drunk from the -effects of the wine. While they were still in a drunken slumber, they -were surprised by Cyrus and completely routed. The son of Tomyris, -queen of the Scythians, had commanded the vanquished army, and was -taken prisoner. When he recovered from his drunken fit and found -himself in captivity, with a disgrace hanging over his head which -he could never hope to wipe out, he killed himself in despair. His -mother, Queen Tomyris, determining to avenge the death of her son, -collected a large force; and meeting the Persians in a second battle, -they were defeated, and more than two hundred thousand of their number -were killed, together with their king, Cyrus. Tomyris was so enraged -against Cyrus, that even his death did not suffice her vengeance; but -it is said that she ordered his head to be cut off and flung into a -vessel full of blood. This shocking account, however, is not given -by Xenophon, who relates that when Cyrus perceived the time of his -death to be near, he ordered his children and officers of state to be -assembled about him. After thanking the gods for their favors to him, -he declared his oldest son, Cambyses, to be his successor, and left the -other, whose name was Tanaoxares, several important governments. Having -taken his leave of them all, he addressed these words to his sons:— - -[Illustration: RUINS OF BABYLON.] - -“I could never imagine that the soul only lived while in a mortal body, -and died when separated from it. But if I mistake, and nothing of me -shall remain after death, at least fear the gods, who never die, who -see all things, and whose power is infinite. Fear them, and let that -fear prevent you from ever doing, or deliberating to do, anything -contrary to religion and justice. For my body, my sons, when life has -forsaken it, enclose it neither in gold or silver, nor any other matter -whatever; restore it immediately to the earth. Adieu, my dear children; -may your lives be happy. Carry my last remembrance to your mother. And -for you, my faithful friends, receive this last farewell, and may you -live in peace.” Having said these words, he covered his face and died, -sincerely lamented by all his people. - - - - -ALEXANDER THE GREAT. - -356-323 B.C. - - “Self-conquest is the greatest of victories.”—PLATO. - - -ONE day a terrible event transpired in the ancient city of Ephesus. -The magnificent temple of Diana, one of the famous Seven Wonders of -the World, was in flames. The people from all parts of the country -flocked to the scene of the imposing conflagration. This marvellous -temple had been built at the expense of all Asia Minor. One hundred -and twenty-seven kings had contributed one hundred and twenty-seven -magnificent columns of Parian marble, which were sixty feet in height, -and wrought by the most famous artists. Pliny says that two hundred -and twenty years were occupied in rearing this vast structure. But now -the flames mount higher and higher. All the efforts of the distracted -people to subdue them are in vain. See! the rapacious tongues of fire -are nearing the sacred image of the goddess, which the Ephesians -believed had fallen from heaven. Why does not Diana, the great goddess, -prevent the destruction of this, her most imposing and sacred shrine? -The people call upon her in their wild despair; but still the flames -devour with fury the magnificent structure, and the air is rent with -the cries of the horror-stricken multitude. That very night, while the -heavens were still red with the lurid light of the burning temple, -another event occurred upon the other side of the Ægean Sea, in the -royal palace of the kingdom of Macedon. A tiny infant first opened -its eyes upon this strange world; and above his royal cradle, king and -nobles bent in gratified delight, and welcomed the little stranger -with proud joy. But what had this helpless babe to do with the burning -temple in Ephesus? This baby was the infant Alexander the Great; and -so superstitious were the people of those times that in order to -explain the strange fatality of a great goddess like Diana allowing her -magnificent temple to be burned and destroyed without any miraculous -intervention on her part, to punish such a sacrilegious desecration of -her shrine by wicked mortals, the historians of those days declared -that as Diana was at that time lending her aid and presence to insure -the future greatness of the new-born infant Alexander, it was on -account of her absence on so beneficent an errand, that her temple was -not guarded from this impious destruction. - -[Illustration: TEMPLE OF DIANA AT EPHESUS.] - -But what mortal had so dared to insult the gods, as to apply the torch -to this most sacred shrine? At last it was discovered that a person -named Herostratus had fired the temple; not by accident, but with -wicked intent. Upon being put to the torture in order to force him to -confess the motive for so infamous a crime, he declared that it was to -immortalize his own name, that he might be known to all posterity as -the destroyer of this famous structure. A decree was then published -that all should be prohibited from mentioning his name. But this decree -only caused greater curiosity, and scarcely one of the historians of -those times have failed to mention the name of this wicked and vain man. - -These events happened about 356 B.C. Alexander was born the heir to the -throne of one of the Grecian kingdoms. His father was King Philip of -Macedon. The kingdom of Macedon was in the northern part of Greece. -The mother of Alexander was Olympias, the daughter of the king of -Epirus, which was a kingdom lying west of Macedon. Olympias was a woman -of very strong character, but possessed also some unlovely traits. His -father, King Philip, was a great warrior, and during the boyhood of -Alexander, he made many conquests in various parts of Greece. Alexander -was much favored in the circumstances of his early life, and also in -the possession of a superior mind, and handsome face and figure, and -most winning manners. He was born to rule; and had he always used his -many gifts as wisely as he employed his executive powers and physical -courage, he would have been one of the greatest of men, whereas now he -can be called only one of the greatest of conquerors, whose life was -marred by some of the most terrible of vices. - -But the boy Alexander is intensely attractive and interesting. He -seemed to possess few of the faults of youth. He was active, and full -of ardor and enthusiasm, and at the same time he was calm and prudent -in emergencies, and very thoughtful and far-seeing. He was kind and -considerate, faithful to his friends, and generous to his foes. He -possessed a remarkable mind, and delighted in study and in improving -conversation with his teachers. He was privileged to be a pupil of the -famous Aristotle. The progress of the pupil was equal to the care and -ability of the preceptor. Alexander became very fond of philosophy and -metaphysics, even though a young boy; and he did not omit mathematics -and the study of the wonders of nature. But Alexander applied himself -chiefly to the study of morality, as it contributes to the good conduct -of a prince and the best government of a people. How sad it was that, -with all these desirable qualities of heart and mind, his later years -were marred by the greatest of vices, and his natural noble impulses -were deadened by a life of brutal ferocity and drunken debauchery, -which tarnished the brightness of his glory and sullied the reputation -of a great conqueror, whose brilliant actions and intrepid bravery -dazzled the eyes of friends and foes! - -[Illustration: ALEXANDER THE GREAT.] - -But we must not suppose that the youthful Alexander was a melancholy -dreamer or an embryo philosopher. His greatest delight was to read of -the exploits of the Grecian heroes, which were described by Homer, an -ancient poet who lived four or five hundred years before the time of -Alexander. There were then no printed books, but these and other works -were written on parchment rolls, which the young scholars were taught -to read. As Homer’s tales were written in Greek, which was the native -language of Alexander, he could understand them very easily, and was -greatly excited with the stirring scenes there depicted. Aristotle -ordered a beautiful copy of Homer’s poems to be prepared expressly for -his princely pupil. Alexander afterwards carried this copy with him in -all his campaigns; and years after, when he was fighting the Persians, -among the spoils taken from them was a very costly casket, which King -Darius had used for jewels or perfumes. This box was always afterwards -employed by Alexander as a receptacle for his beautiful copy of Homer; -and he placed it with his sword beneath his pillow at night. Although -he was a prince, he was not brought up in habits of luxury. The Greeks -in those days had no firearms, and in battle combatants fought in -hand-to-hand conflicts. It was the business of the officers to lead the -men on, and set them the example of bravery by performing themselves -deeds of daring and valor. It was considered necessary to accustom the -young, even though princes, to hardship and fatigue. Alexander was -full of energy and spirit. He early evinced a great degree of ambition; -and when news of his father’s many conquests would be brought to the -court in Macedon, Alexander often remarked to his companions, in a tone -of sorrow and dejection,— - -“There will be nothing left for us to conquer.” - -The story of Bucephalus, his famous horse, illustrates the courage and -also the keen observation of Alexander. A spirited war-horse had been -sent to Philip while Alexander was quite a young boy. The king and his -courtiers went out into one of the parks to view and try the horse; but -so furious was the animal that no one dared to mount him, as he seemed -entirely unmanageable. Philip was very much provoked, and gave orders -that the horse should be sent back into Thessaly, as useless. - -Alexander had stood quietly by, noticing the actions of the animal and -attentively studying his traits. He perceived that the horse seemed -to be frightened at his own shadow; and he begged the consent of his -father to allow him to try the experiment of mounting him. Philip at -last gave a reluctant consent, as the attempt seemed so hazardous -for a young boy, when all his experienced grooms condemned the horse -as too vicious to be subdued. Alexander, however, quickly turned -the frightened creature round, so that he could not see his shadow; -and patting him on the head and neck, reassured him with the gentle -tones of his voice; and as he became less restive, he sprang upon -the animal and gave him full rein to run as he pleased. King Philip -and his nobles first looked on in terror, then in admiration, as the -splendid steed flew over the plains like the wind, with his intrepid -rider seated in calm grace upon his back, evidently perfectly fearless -and self-possessed. Having allowed the horse to tire himself with -his free run, Alexander reined him in with perfect ease, and returned -safely to the king. Philip was so pleased and proud of his son that he -embraced Alexander when he had alighted, and kissing his forehead, he -said to him, “My son, seek a kingdom more worthy of thee, for Macedon -is below thy merit.” This Bucephalus afterwards became the famous -war-horse of Alexander the Great, and many surprising stories are told -of his marvellous sagacity. When this horse was saddled and equipped -for battle, he seemed to realize his proud position, and would allow -no one to approach him but Alexander. When his master wished to mount -him, he would kneel upon his forelegs. Some historians relate that -when Alexander was fighting in a desperate battle, and had plunged too -imprudently amidst his infuriated foes, Bucephalus, though severely -wounded, bore his master to a place of safety, although he was himself -bleeding to death, pierced with the fatal darts of the enemy. Then, -perceiving that Alexander was safe, he fell exhausted, and expired. -Others say that Bucephalus lived to be thirty years of age, and that -Alexander so mourned for him at his death that he built a city on the -spot where his faithful horse had been buried, and called it Bucephalia -in honor of the noble and trusty steed. - -When Alexander was only sixteen years of age, his father, Philip, made -him regent of Macedon while he was absent on a great military campaign -against the other Grecian states. - -At this time some ambassadors from the Persian court arrived in -Macedon. In the absence of Philip, Alexander received them with -courtesy. They, supposing that he would be interested in hearing about -the splendors of the Persian court, entertained him with stories of -the famous Hanging Gardens of Babylon; and the vine of gold, the grapes -of which were emeralds, rubies, and other precious stones; and the -marvellous golden plantain-tree. But Alexander, instead of appearing -absorbed and delighted with these glowing accounts of fabulous wealth, -inquired about the geography of the country, the various roads, and the -strength and power of the Persian king. What battles he had fought, -how he behaved towards his enemies, and how he governed his people. -The ambassadors, astonished at such maturity in one so young, and -filled with admiration for the Grecian prince, began to compare among -themselves Alexander and their own Artaxerxes, saying, “This young -prince is great, while our king is only rich.” - -When Alexander was eighteen years of age, King Philip took him with him -on one of his military campaigns, during which Philip fought one of his -great battles in Bœotia. Philip gave the command of one of the wings -of his army to Alexander; and so valiantly did he lead his troops, -that his wing was victorious, and Philip and his command had to exert -themselves to prevent being outdone by the youthful prince. His mother, -Olympias, was of a haughty and imperious temper, and Philip himself was -headstrong and obstinate, and the result of their frequent quarrels -was a final separation, and Philip obtained a divorce from his wife, -she returning to the court of her father. Philip then married a young -and beautiful princess, and at the wedding festivities an incident -occurred which illustrated the traits of both father and son. The uncle -of the new queen, having made some disparaging remark about Olympias, -the mother of Alexander, that prince threw the cup from which he had -been drinking at the offender’s head. Attalus, the queen’s uncle, then -threw his cup at Alexander, and Philip, enraged at such disturbance at -the feast, seized his sword, and rushed towards his son. Having a lame -foot, he stumbled, and fell upon the floor; and Alexander, looking upon -him with scorn and contempt, exclaimed, “What a fine hero the states of -Greece have to lead their armies, a man who cannot get across the floor -without tumbling down!” He then turned away and left the palace, and -afterwards joined his mother in Epirus, and espoused her cause in the -quarrel with his father. - -Philip had been planning a great expedition into Asia. He had formed a -strong combination among the states of Greece, and had raised a large -army. Alexander is said to have taken sides with his mother, not so -much out of filial devotion, as because he was jealous of his father’s -conquests, and desirous himself of reaping the glory which seemed to -await the Grecian army in the coming campaign. Before setting forth -upon this expedition, Philip desired to become reconciled to his son -Alexander, and Olympias. He realized the importance of securing the -co-operation of Alexander in his plans; and it would be dangerous to -leave his own kingdom with a son so near in open hostility. Whereupon, -Philip sent conciliatory messages to Olympias and Alexander, and he -proposed that one of his own daughters should marry the present king of -Epirus, who was the brother of Olympias. His overtures were peacefully -received; and Olympias and Alexander returned to Macedon, where great -preparations were made for the proposed wedding festivities. Philip -determined that this event should be celebrated with most gorgeous pomp -and splendor. - -He received very costly presents from the other states of Greece; -and though their professions of friendship were very hollow on both -sides, he took this occasion to pay marked attention to their kings and -generals; and they sent him golden crowns, most beautifully wrought, -and large embassies, expressing their good wishes. Athens, the seat of -literature in Greece, sent a poem, in which the history of Philip’s -expedition into Persia was related in anticipation, and in which he was -described as being most triumphantly successful. - -The wedding was at length celebrated with much splendor, and the day -after the nuptials was devoted to games and processions. In one of the -latter, which was a religious ceremony, twelve statues of the gods, -carved with marvellous art, were carried with great pomp through the -streets. A thirteenth, which surpassed them all in magnificence, was -a statue of Philip, representing him as a god. The procession was -moving towards a great theatre, where games and spectacles were to be -exhibited. At length Philip himself appeared in the procession. He -had ordered that a wide space should be left around him, so that he -might be more plainly visible to the populace, and also as a proof -of his confidence in the love of his people, thus to expose himself -without a guard. He was clothed in white robes, and adorned with a -sparkling crown. Just as the statues of the gods had been carried into -the theatre, and as that of Philip was about to be born in, an officer -of the guards, a young Macedonian nobleman, named Pausanias, advanced -quickly towards King Philip, and before the spectators suspected his -design, he plunged his dagger into the heart of the king, who fell dead -upon the ground. All was now confusion. The murderer was instantly cut -to pieces by the guards; and an officer of state hastened to inform -Alexander of his father’s death, and his succession to the throne. An -assembly of the leading statesmen was hastily summoned, and Alexander -was proclaimed king. It was by some supposed that the motive which -induced Pausanias to murder Philip was a private revenge for a personal -insult he had received from the uncle of Philip’s present wife, which -insult Philip would not notice. But others believed that the murder was -instigated by the other states of Greece, who were hostile to Philip. -Demosthenes, the celebrated orator, was Philip’s bitterest enemy, and -he used his eloquence in stirring up the Grecians against him. These -orations were called his Philippics. - -[Illustration: DEMOSTHENES.] - -Alexander’s first measures were to punish his father’s murderers. -Although it could not be ascertained who were involved in the plot, -several were suspected, and put to death. Alexander decided not to make -any change in his father’s appointments, and to carry out his proposed -campaigns. There were two officers in particular, who were the especial -confidants of Philip,—Antipater and Parmenio. Antipater had charge -of the civil, and Parmenio of military affairs. Alexander, at this -time, was only twenty years of age; and Parmenio, a very distinguished -general, was sixty years old. But the genius, power, and enthusiasm of -Alexander’s character made even men of such age and experience willing -to obey his orders, and aid in the execution of his plans. - -The Macedonians advised Alexander not to attempt to hold all the states -of Greece; but to relinquish the conquests of Philip, and join with -them in an alliance. But Alexander determined to march boldly into -their midst, and demand their continued subjection, which his father -had gained. This was a bold measure for so young a prince. He thereupon -collected his forces, and set forth at their head. He first marched -his troops to the banks of the Danube, which he crossed in one night. -He defeated the king of the Triballi in a great battle, and subdued -several barbarous nations. While he was thus engaged, several of the -Grecian cities, inflamed by the eloquence of Demosthenes, who harangued -the people, calling Alexander “a child, a hare-brained boy,” formed -a powerful alliance against him. A false report that Alexander was -dead inspired the Thebians with a boldness which proved their ruin. -Alexander, having secured his kingdom from the barbarians, marched with -much expedition towards Greece, and passed the Strait of Thermopylæ. -He then said to his army, “Demosthenes called me, in his orations, -a child, when I was in Illyria, and among Triballi; he called me a -young man, when I was in Thessaly; and I must now show him, before the -walls of Athens, that I am a man grown.” At the Pass of Thermopylæ, a -great council was held between Alexander and the Thessalians, who were -favorable to his claims. Alexander now appeared so suddenly before -the city of Thebes, as to astonish them. He demanded only that they -should deliver up to him the two ringleaders of the revolt against -him, and then he promised a general freedom to the citizens. But the -Thebans insultingly replied that they would only comply, if two of -his generals were delivered to them. Alexander now determined upon a -speedy punishment, and attacked them so vigorously, that the city was -taken, and a large number of the Thebans were killed. Alexander then -resolved to make Thebes a warning to all the Grecian states, and the -city was accordingly destroyed, and thirty thousand of the Thebans were -sold into slavery. He, however, set the priests at liberty; and those -who had opposed the revolt, and also the descendants of Pindar, the -famous poet. Alexander now sent word to Athens, and demanded that they -should deliver up to him ten orators, whom he supposed had influenced -the people against Philip and himself. The Athenians, though in this -dilemma, were still unwilling to deliver up their orators to death; -and at last, one Demades, who was a friend of Alexander’s, offered to -undertake the embassy alone, and plead for them. Alexander, having -now satiated his revenge, and believing that the Grecians were enough -subdued to be controlled, waived his demand. - -He then summoned all the monarchs and potentates of Greece, to meet him -at Corinth, that he might obtain from them the same supreme command -against the Persians which had been conferred by them upon his father -Philip. The deliberations of the assembly were short, and Alexander was -appointed generalissimo against the Persians. - -There is a story told of Alexander and the philosopher Diogenes, who -was then at Corinth. Alexander supposed that Diogenes would of course -come with the officers and governors of cities, and philosophers, who -waited upon him immediately to congratulate him upon his election. But -Diogenes did not come, and so Alexander, having curiosity to see a -man who would thus slight a king, condescended to call upon Diogenes. -Attended by his courtiers, he paid the philosopher a visit. - -Diogenes was found lying in the sun, and seeing the crowd of people -advance toward him, he sat up and fixed his eyes upon Alexander. - -That prince was surprised to see so great a philosopher in such seeming -poverty, and accosting him kindly, asked him courteously if there was -anything he wanted. - -“Yes,” replied Diogenes, “that you would stand a little out of my -sunshine.” - -The courtiers of the monarch were astounded at such audacious boldness; -but Alexander exclaimed,— - -“Were I not Alexander, I would be Diogenes.” For Alexander perceived, -that even with all his wealth and power, he was in some sense inferior -to a man to whom he could give, and from whom he could take, nothing. - -Alexander now returned to Macedon to prepare for his great expedition -into Asia. As king of Macedon he possessed large estates and revenues, -which were his own personal property, independent of the state. He -apportioned these among his officers and generals, both those who were -to go with him, and those who were to remain to guard his kingdom, over -which he placed Antipater as viceregent during his absence. - -He displayed such generosity in his gifts, that his friends asked him -what he had reserved for himself. - -“Hope,” replied Alexander. - -After all things were ready, Alexander celebrated the religious -sacrifices and ceremonies. This great Macedonian festival was held in -honor of the Muses, as well as Jupiter. The Muses, according to the -belief of the Greeks, were nine singing and dancing maidens, who were -very beautiful in face and form, graceful in motion, and brilliant in -mind. They were supposed to have first come from Thrace, and having -gone to Mount Olympus, they were made goddesses by Jupiter. At last -they selected for their place of residence a palace in Mount Parnassus. -They were worshipped all over Greece and Italy as the goddesses of -music and dancing. Afterwards arts and sciences were assigned to -them,—one being the goddess of history, another of astronomy, another -of tragedy, etc. - -Alexander celebrated these festivities with great magnificence and -pomp, and then bid a long farewell to his native land. His army -consisted of about thirty thousand foot and four or five thousand -horse. But they were all brave men. His officers were experienced men -of sixty years of age, who had served under Philip his father. Parmenio -commanded the infantry, Philotas his son the cavalry. Alexander sent a -fleet of one hundred and fifty galleys over the Ægean Sea, to land at -Sestos, to be ready to transport his army across the Hellespont. The -army marched to Sestos by land. Having arrived there, Alexander left -Parmenio to conduct the transportation of the army, while he himself -went in a single galley to visit the ruins of Troy, which city was the -scene of Homer’s poems, which had so charmed Alexander in his early -years. So Alexander resolved that his first landing in Asia should be -at Troy. As they approached the Asiatic shore, Alexander took the helm -and steered the galley himself, and just before he reached the land, he -stood upon the prow and threw a javelin at the shore as he approached, -as a sign of his purpose to take possession. He then leaped upon the -land before any of his crew, and afterwards offered sacrifices to the -gods, having erected altars on the shore to Jupiter, Minerva, and to -Hercules. - -A large part of Asia Minor had been settled by the Greeks, and -sometimes these cities had been under Grecian rule, and sometimes under -Persian. They were now included in the dominion of Persia. One of -these cities, called Lampsacus, had incurred the anger of the Greeks, -because it had formerly revolted from their rule. Alexander determined -to destroy this city. The ambassador sent by the city to implore his -mercy was a famous historian, who had once been Alexander’s teacher. -Alexander knowing his errand, and fearing his former friendship might -weaken his resolve, declared with a solemn oath, as the ambassador -approached him, that he would not grant the request he was about to -make. The witty historian replied,— - -“I have come to implore you to _destroy_ Lampsacus.” - -Alexander, pleased with the readiness of the reply, kept his oath; and -of course the city was saved. - -In his progress onward, Alexander found himself obliged to cross either -Mount Ida, or a river which descended from its slopes, called the -Granicus. As they neared the river, some of the Grecian scouts, or as -they were called by the Greeks, _prodromi_, reported that the opposite -side was lined with Persian troops, waiting to dispute the passage. - -Parmenio counselled Alexander against an immediate crossing, but -Alexander was unwilling to delay. Accordingly, the army advanced to -the banks in order of battle. The centre portion of the Grecian troops -was arranged in a peculiar manner, and was called a phalanx. The men -composing it were heavily armed. They bore a shield upon the left -arm, and they carried spears sixteen feet long and pointed with iron, -which they clasped firmly with both hands, with the points projecting -in front. These men were placed in line, one behind another, to the -number of sixteen, all facing the enemy. So that a phalanx contained -sixteen thousand men. The spears were so long, that when drawn up in -close lines, the points of eight or ten of the ranks projected in -front, forming a bristling wall of sharp points of steel. This wall no -force could penetrate; men, horses, elephants, rushed upon it, only to -meet inevitable destruction. If their enemies threw javelins from a -distance, the shields upon their arms were held in such a manner as -to form a mass of close scales of metal, upon which the javelins fell -harmlessly. The troops upon the sides of the phalanx were called the -wings, and were composed of cavalry and foot-soldiers, who were more -lightly armed, and could therefore move with greater speed. - -Alexander commanded one wing, and Parmenio the other. The Persians had -assembled in vast numbers upon the opposite shore. The Grecian army, -led by Alexander, descended into the stream, and moved on through the -water. The Persians dashed down the farther banks, and strove to oppose -their landing. A terrible battle ensued, the soldiers grappling with -each other in the midst of the waves, and the Granicus ran red with the -blood of the wounded. Alexander was fearless and irresistible, and his -long white plume, waving from his shining helmet, was a conspicuous -target for the arrows and javelins of the enemy. At one time, meeting -the foe in close combat, a Persian horseman aimed a blow at his head -with a sword. The weapon took off the white plume, and cut into the -helmet of Alexander, who immediately stabbed his antagonist through the -heart. Just as a second Persian had raised his sword to strike a fatal -blow upon the exposed head of the Grecian hero, a Macedonian general -cut the uplifted arm from the assailant’s body, and saved the life of -Alexander the Great. The Persians were defeated, and Alexander landed -his brave band of warriors upon the opposite bank, while the terrified -Persians fled in dire confusion. - -Darius himself had not commanded this Persian force, and he employed -all of the following winter in preparing for a vigorous defence of his -dominions from the encroaching foe. - -Alexander, however, did not remain idle during the winter. He marched -from province to province, meeting with many adventures. During this -time Parmenio had remained in the western part of Asia Minor, with -quite a large force. As the spring approached, Alexander ordered him to -meet him at Gordium. One reason which influenced Alexander in this plan -was the desire to attempt to untie the famous Gordian knot. The story -of the Gordian knot was this:— - -Gordius was a sort of mountain farmer. One day he was plowing, and an -eagle flew down and alighted upon his yoke, and remained there until he -had finished his plowing. This was an omen; but Gordius did not know -what it meant. So he went to a neighboring town to consult the prophets -and soothsayers. On his way he met a maiden who was going forth to draw -water. Gordius fell into conversation with her, and related to her -the occurrence which had just transpired. The maiden advised him to -go back and offer a sacrifice to Jupiter. Finally she consented to go -back with him and aid him. The affair ended in her becoming his wife, -and they lived in peace and happiness for many years upon their farm. -They had a son named Midas. The father and mother were accustomed to -go out in their wagon drawn by oxen, with Midas as their driver. One -day they were going into the town in this manner, at a time when it -happened that there was an assembly convened, which was in a state -of great perplexity, on account of civil dissensions in the country. -They had just inquired of an oracle what they should do. The oracle -said that “a cart would bring them a king who would terminate their -eternal broils.” Just then Midas came up, driving the cart in which his -father and mother were seated. The assembly thought at once that this -must be the cart meant by the oracle, and they made Gordius king by -acclamation. They took the cart and yoke to preserve as sacred relics, -consecrating them to Jupiter, and Gordius tied the yoke to the pole of -the cart by a thong of leather, making a knot so close and complicated -that nobody could untie it again. It was called the Gordian knot. The -oracle afterwards said that whoever should untie this knot should -become monarch of all Asia. Thus far, nobody had succeeded. - -Alexander was very desirous of examining this wonderful knot and -trying his own fortune. He accordingly went into the temple where the -sacred cart had been placed, and after looking at the knot, he became -convinced that it could not be untied, whereupon he cut it to pieces -with his sword. - -From this story comes the old saying, when any one gets out of a -difficulty by very violent means, “He has cut the Gordian knot.” - -After leaving Gordium, Alexander proceeded with his whole army against -Darius, who was now advancing to meet him. - -On a very warm day, after a long and fatiguing march, the Grecian army -reached the river Cydnus, a small stream which came down from Mount -Taurus, near the city of Tarsus. Alexander, warm and weary, plunged -into the cold mountain stream, and was taken with a violent chill, and -as he was lifted out of the water, he fainted away. He was borne to his -tent. A severe and protracted fever came on. Alexander bewailed this -enforced delay, and summoned his physicians, to whom he said,— - -“The present condition of my affairs will not admit either of slow -remedies or fearful physicians. A speedy death is more eligible to me -than a slow cure. In case the physicians think it is in their power to -do me any good, they are to know that I do not so much wish to live as -to fight.” - -All his physicians but one, however, were afraid to dare any violent -and hazardous remedies, especially as an unfavorable result would -endanger their honor; for Darius had published that he would reward -with a thousand talents the man who should kill Alexander. - -His old family physician, named Philip, who had attended him from -childhood, offered to give him a dose of medicine which would be speedy -in its effects, but desired three days to prepare it. During this -interval of waiting Alexander received a letter from Parmenio, who had -been left behind in Cappadocia, warning him against this physician -Philip, and stating that Darius had bribed him by promising a thousand -talents, and his sister in marriage. Alexander courageously refrained -from divulging its contents, and placed the letter under his pillow. - -When Philip entered the tent with the medicine, Alexander took the cup, -and handing the letter at the same time to the physician, he swallowed -the dose without waiting his perusal of it. After reading the letter, -Philip replied,— - -“Royal sir, your recovery will soon clear me of the guilt of murder, -with which I am charged.” - -Three days after, Alexander showed himself to his army, who were filled -with delight at his wonderful recovery; and the accused physician was -now the recipient of the most lavish praises, and looked upon with the -deepest reverence, because he had saved the life of their sovereign. - -Slowly Darius marched in stately grandeur to meet his advancing enemy. -A description of his martial procession reads more like a picture of a -grand tournament than the march of an army. One of the historians thus -describes this gorgeous pageant:— - -“The king advanced with his troops towards the Euphrates. It was a -custom long used by the Persians never to set out upon a march till -after sunrise, at which time the trumpet was sounded for that purpose -from the king’s tent. Over this tent was exhibited to the view of the -whole army the image of the sun set in crystal, as the Persians were -worshippers of the sun and fire. - -“The order they observed in their march was as follows: First, they -carried silver altars, on which there was fire, called by them sacred -and eternal; and these were followed by the Magi, singing hymns after -the manner of their country. They were accompanied by three hundred -and sixty-five youths, corresponding to the number of days in a -year, clothed in purple robes. Afterwards came a chariot consecrated -to Jupiter, drawn by white horses, and followed by a courser of a -prodigious size, to whom they gave the name of the sun’s horse; and the -equerries were dressed in white, each having a rod of gold in his hand. - -“Ten chariots, adorned with sculptures in gold and silver, followed -after. Then marched a body of horse, composed of twelve nations, -whose manners and customs were various, and all armed in a different -style. Next advanced those whom the Persians called the Immortals, -amounting to ten thousand, who surpassed the rest of the barbarians in -the sumptuousness of their apparel. They all wore gold collars, were -clothed in robes of gold tissues, with surtouts completely covered with -precious stones. Then followed those called the king’s relations, to -the number of fifteen thousand, in habits very much resembling those -worn by women, and more remarkable for the vain pomp of their dress -than the glitter of their arms. Then came the king’s guards; they -carried the cloak of the monarch, and walked before his chariot, in -which he seemed to sit as on a high throne. This chariot was enriched -on both sides with images of the gods in gold and silver; and from the -middle of the yoke, which was covered with jewels, rose two statues -a cubit in height, the one representing war, the other peace, having -a gold eagle between them, with wings extended, as ready to take its -flight. - -“But nothing could equal the magnificence of the king. He was clothed -in a vest of purple, striped with silver, and over it a long robe -glittering all over with gold and precious stones, that represented two -falcons rushing from the clouds and pecking at one another. Around his -waist he wore a gold girdle, called cidaris, after the manner of women, -from which hung his scimitar, the scabbard of which flamed all over -with gems. On his head he wore a tiara, or mitre, round which was a -fillet of blue mixed with white. On each side of him walked two hundred -of his nearest relations, followed by ten thousand pikemen, whose pikes -were adorned with silver and tipped with gold; and lastly, thirty -thousand infantry, who composed the rear-guard. These were followed by -the king’s horses, four hundred in number, all of which were led. - -“Then came the chariots of his wife Statira and his mother Sysigambis, -with the several female attendants of both queens, riding on horseback. -After them came fifteen large chariots, in which were the king’s -children and those who had the care of their education, escorted by -a band of household officers. Then followed three hundred and sixty -carriages, containing the ladies of the court, dressed in the costumes -of princesses. - -[Illustration: DARIUS.] - -“After these marched six hundred mules and three hundred camels, -which carried the king’s treasure, and were guarded by a great body -of archers. After these came other chariots, in which rode the wives -of the crown officers and of the greatest lords of the court; then -the sutlers and servants of the army. In the rear were a body of -light-armed troops, with their commanders, who closed the imposing -procession.” - -Darius, at the head of six hundred thousand men, and surrounded with -this mighty pomp, considered himself invincible, and imagined that he -had only to show his gorgeous army to the few Grecian troops led by the -boy Alexander, in order to inspire such awe as should cause them to fly -in terror. - -The two opposing forces came in sight of each other upon a plain -near the city of Issus. It was now evening. At midnight the army -of Alexander had reached a defile in the chain of mountains called -Mount Taurus. Among these mountains there are various tracts of open -country, and upon one of these the army of Darius was encamped. -Alexander ascended one of the eminences from whence he could look -down upon the great plain beyond, which was dimly illuminated by the -smouldering fires of the Persian encampment. Alexander there sacrificed -by torchlight to the gods of the Grecians, and returning to his army, -prepared for an early conflict. In the morning, at break of day, -Alexander began his march down to the plain. The battle waged hotly -all day, and at sunset all the valleys and defiles around the plain of -Issus were thronged with the vast masses of the Persian hosts, flying -in confusion from the victorious Macedonians. The flight of Darius had -been so sudden that he had left his wife and mother and children and -much of his treasure behind in the deserted camp. He pressed on -in his chariot as far as he could, and then mounted a horse and fled -for his life. Alexander and his army soon abandoned the pursuit, and -returned to take possession of the Persian camp. The tents of King -Darius were filled with gold and silver vessels, caskets, boxes of rich -perfumes, and many articles of luxury. The greater part of his vast -treasures, however, he had previously sent to Damascus, where they were -afterwards captured by Parmenio. So that Alexander came into possession -of all his splendid treasures, upon which he had so prided himself. -Alexander treated the captive wife, mother, and children of Darius with -great kindness, and gave them every attention he would have paid to -honored guests. - -Darius got together a small remnant of his army and continued his -flight. After he had crossed the Euphrates, he sent an ambassador to -Alexander to make propositions for peace. He offered him any sum he -desired as a ransom for his wife, mother, and child, and agreed to -become his ally and friend if he would deliver them up and depart to -his own dominions. Alexander replied by a brief letter. He reminded him -that the Persians had been the first to invade Greece. “I am acting -only on the defensive,” wrote Alexander. “The gods, who always favor -the right, have given me the victory. I am now monarch of a large part -of Asia, and your sovereign king. If you will admit this, and come to -me as my subject, I will restore your wife, mother, and child without -any ransom. And, at any rate, whatever you decide in respect to these -proposals, if you wish to communicate with me on any subject hereafter, -I shall pay no attention to what you send unless you address it to me -as your king.” - -As the vast army of the Persian king had now been defeated, none of the -smaller kingdoms or provinces thought of resisting. They yielded one -after another, and Alexander appointed governors of his own to rule -over them. He then advanced along the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, -until he reached the city of Tyre. - -The Tyrians wished to avoid a quarrel if possible, and so sent -complimentary congratulations to Alexander, presenting him with a -golden crown. Alexander replied courteously, and stated that his reason -for coming to Tyre was to offer sacrifices to Hercules, a god whom the -Tyrians worshipped. The Tyrians, fearful of allowing him to enter the -city, sent him word that it would not be in their power to receive -him in the city, but that he could offer the sacrifice on the site of -ancient Tyre, as there was a temple sacred to Hercules among the ruins -there. - -This answer displeased Alexander, and he now determined to build a -broad causeway from the mainland to the island upon which the present -city of Tyre stood. This causeway he would build out of the ruins of -old Tyre, and then march his army over it and take the new city. His -soldiers accordingly commenced this work. But the Tyrians constantly -harassed the workers; now attacking them with arrows and javelins; -then they took a large galley and filled it with combustibles, and -towing it near the enemy’s works, they set fire to it; and putting it -in motion towards the pier where there was the largest collection of -engines and machines, the vessel drifted down upon Alexander’s works, -and notwithstanding the most strenuous efforts of the Macedonians, the -whole mass was destroyed. Not long after this the sea itself came to -the aid of the Tyrians, and a fearful storm destroyed the portions of -the work which had escaped the fire. Whereupon the Tyrians deridingly -inquired, “Whether Alexander was greater than Neptune, and if they -pretended to prevail over that God?” - -But Alexander was not to be defeated by fire, or storm, or the hostile -Tyrians, and again ordered his men to repair the pier. Meanwhile, -Alexander himself collected and equipped a fleet, and sailed into the -Tyrian seas. - -The fleet of galleys now protected the men at work on the pier, and -Alexander began to prepare for the final assault. He proposed to force -his entrance on the southern side of the city, where there was a large -breach in the wall. - -The plan was successful. He prepared a number of ships, with platforms -raised upon them in such a manner that on getting near the walls they -could be let down, and form a sort of bridge, over which the men could -pass to the broken fragments of the wall, and thence ascend through the -breach above. - -The ships advanced to the proposed place of landing. The bridges were -lowered, and before the Tyrians realized their danger the city was -filled with thirty thousand infuriated soldiers, who showed them no -mercy. Thus the city was stormed. - -Alexander here displayed a brutal ferocity which tarnished the -brightness of his victory. The inhabitants were put to the sword, -some were executed, some thrown into the sea; and it is said that two -thousand were crucified along the seashore. - -Prosperity and power were beginning to exert a baneful influence upon -the character of Alexander. He became haughty, imperious, and cruel. -About this time Darius sent him a second communication, proposing terms -of peace. Darius offered him a large sum of money for the ransom of -his wife, mother, and child, and agreed to give him all the country he -had conquered. He also offered him his daughter Statira in marriage. -He recommended that he should be content with his conquests, and added -that he could not hope to succeed in crossing the mighty rivers of the -East, which were in the way of his march toward the Persian dominions. - -Alexander replied “that if he wished to marry the daughter of Darius, -he could do it without his consent; as to ransom, he was not in want -of money; and as to the offer of Darius to give him all the territory -west of the Euphrates, it was absurd for a man to speak of giving -what was no longer his own; that he had crossed too many seas in his -military expeditions, since he left Macedon, to feel any concern about -the _rivers_ that he might find in his way; and that he should continue -to pursue Darius wherever he might retreat in search of safety and -protection, and he had no fear but that he should find and conquer him -at last.” - -The siege and storming of Tyre has been considered one of the greatest -of Alexander’s exploits. - -After the subjugation of Tyre, Alexander commenced his march for -Egypt. His route led him through Judea. This was about three hundred -years before the birth of Christ. A Jewish writer, named Josephus, who -lived and wrote a few years after Christ, relates the circumstances of -Alexander’s visit to Jerusalem. - -When Alexander had been besieging Tyre, he had sent to Judea for -supplies, which were refused, as the Jews were subjects of Darius. -Hearing that Alexander was about to pass through Jerusalem, they began -to fear a fate like that of Tyre. Accordingly the high priest Jaddus, -who was the chief magistrate at Jerusalem, caused great sacrifices to -be offered to Almighty God, and public and solemn prayers were made, to -implore his guidance and protection. - -The day after these services he told the people that they need fear -nothing; for God had appeared to him in a dream, and directed him what -to do. “We are not to resist the conqueror,” said he, “but go forth to -meet him and welcome him. We are to strew the city with flowers, and -adorn it as for a festive celebration. The priests are to be dressed in -their pontifical robes, and lead the procession, and the people are to -follow. In this way we are to go out to meet Alexander as he advances, -and all will be well.” - -When Alexander met this procession he stopped, and appeared both -pleased and surprised. He advanced to meet the high priest with an air -of the profoundest reverence. - -Parmenio, astonished at such a sudden change in his sovereign, asked -for an explanation. To which Alexander replied,— - -“When I was in Macedon, before setting out on this expedition, one -night I had a remarkable dream. In my dream this very priest appeared -before me, dressed just as he is now. He exhorted me to banish every -fear, to cross the Hellespont boldly, and to push forward into the -heart of Asia. He said that God would march at the head of my army, and -give me the victory over the Persians. I recognize this priest as the -same person who appeared to me then. It is through his encouragement -and aid that I am here, and I am ready to worship and adore the God -whose service he administers.” - -Alexander then joined the high priest in the procession, and returned -with him to Jerusalem. The high priest afterwards read and interpreted -to Alexander some of the prophecies of Daniel, which were supposed to -refer to that conqueror; and Alexander then assured the Jews that they -should be protected in their rights, and especially in their religious -worship. - -Alexander next proceeded to the city of Gaza. This was a place of -considerable importance, and was under command of a governor, named -Betis, whom Darius had appointed. This Betis refused to surrender the -place to Alexander; whereupon, he besieged it for two months. Having -captured the city, Alexander treated the wretched captives with extreme -cruelty. He cut the garrison to pieces, and sold the inhabitants into -slavery. Then becoming still more brutal, his punishment of Betis was -most shocking. He ordered him into his presence, and said to him, “You -are not going to die the simple death that you desire. You must suffer -the worst torments that revenge can invent.” - -Betis calmly looked at Alexander, without reply. This still more -incensed the cruel conqueror. - -“Observe his dumb arrogance,” said Alexander; “but I will conquer him. -I will show him that I can draw groans from him, if nothing else.” - -He then ordered holes to be made through the heels of his helpless -victim; and passing a rope through the wounds, commanded the body -to be fastened to a chariot, and dragged about the city until the -poor captive was dead. Thus had prosperity and conquest degraded the -character of Alexander. - -Having destroyed Gaza, with such inhuman brutality, Alexander now -formed a more ambitious project. The heroes of Homer were represented -as sons of the gods; and Alexander now began to aspire to supernatural -honors, and accordingly resolved that he should be declared to be the -son of a god. He determined to visit the temple of Jupiter Ammon, in -the Oasis of Siwah, and bribe the priests there to declare his divine -origin. - -The priests at the great temple of Jupiter Ammon received Alexander -with marks of distinction and honor. After most solemn and magnificent -ceremonies, the priests, pretending to confer with the god in the -temple, declared that Alexander was indeed his son; and accordingly -they paid him almost divine honors. Alexander, in his subsequent orders -and decrees, styled himself Alexander king, son of Jupiter Ammon. - -On his return from the Oasis, Alexander began building a city at the -mouth of the river Nile. This city he called Alexandria. This city -is the only monument of his greatness which still remains. Upon an -island near the coast, opposite the city of Alexandria, a magnificent -lighthouse was erected, which was considered in those days one of the -Seven Wonders of the world. It was said to have been five hundred feet -high. - -The building of the city of Alexandria was one of the most beneficent -acts of Alexander. How much better for the world, as well as for -his own true glory, if good deeds had been the rule instead of the -exception in the life of this famous man! - -Alexander was now master of Asia Minor, Phœnicia, Judea, and Egypt. He -now continued his pursuit of Darius. - -The Persian army had crossed the Tigris river, and encamped upon the -extensive plain of Arbela. Here Darius waited the approach of his -relentless foe. - -The night before the noted battle between Alexander and Darius, the -conqueror, who had come within sight of the Persian host, having -completed his arrangements for the morrow’s conflict, retired to rest. -Early in the morning Parmenio awoke him, and expressed surprise at his -sleeping so quietly when such vast issues were at stake. “You seem -as calm,” said he, “as if you had fought the battle and gained the -victory.” - -“I have done so,” replied Alexander; “I consider the whole work done, -when we have gained access to Darius, and forced him to give us battle.” - -Alexander is thus described as he appeared at the head of the army on -this important occasion. “He wore a short tunic, girt close around him, -and over it a linen breastplate, strongly quilted. The belt by which -the tunic was held was embossed with figures of beautiful workmanship. -Upon his head was a helmet of polished steel, surmounted with a white -plume. He wore also a neck-piece of steel, ornamented with precious -stones; he carried a shield, lance, and sword.” - -The Persians employed elephants in their wars. They also had chariots, -armed with long scythes. But the terrible Macedonian phalanx, with -columns of infantry and flying troops of horsemen on either side, cut -through the mighty mass of their enemies with irresistible force. The -elephants turned and fled. The Persian troops were routed, and Darius -himself was obliged to flee. Alexander went to Babylon, where he was -received as a conqueror. The storehouse of the Persian treasures -were at Susa, a strong city east of Babylon. Alexander then marched -to Susa, and took possession of the vast treasures collected there. -Besides these treasures, Alexander here found a number of trophies -which had been brought from Greece by Xerxes, some hundred years -before. Alexander sent them all back to Greece. He then proceeded -in a triumphal march to Persepolis, the great Persian capital. Here -Alexander exhibited another striking instance of wicked weakness. He -was giving a great banquet to his officers. Among the women at this -feast was a vain and foolish woman named Thais. While the guests were -half intoxicated from the effects of wine, this Thais, seizing a -burning torch and waving it above her head, proposed that they should -set fire to the great palace of Persepolis, which had been built by -Xerxes, and amuse themselves by watching the imposing conflagration. -Alexander, flushed with wine, consented; and the drunken guests -sallied forth, alarming the inhabitants with their boisterous shouts -and flaming torches. Arriving at the magnificent palace, they applied -their torches, and the gorgeous structure was soon a frightful mass of -lurid flames. Alexander, sobered by the sublime and awful spectacle, -repented of his wild folly. He ordered the fire to be extinguished; but -it was too late; the infamous deed was done; the grand old palace was a -hopeless mass of ruins, and another blot, which never can be effaced, -tarnished the fame and character of Alexander. - -Notwithstanding Alexander’s evil deeds, he was kind to his mother. He -sent her rich presents after his conquests; and though she was proud -and imperious, and made Antipater, whom Alexander had left in command -in Macedon, much trouble, so that Antipater was forced to complain of -her, Alexander said that a single tear of his mother’s would outweigh -ten thousand accusations against her. Olympias, however, did not -repay his devotion with equal nobleness; she wrote frequent letters -to him full of petty fault-finding, and making unkind comments upon -his officers and generals; and though Alexander showed her respect, -he evinced more love towards the mother of Darius, treating her -and the captive children of his foe with the greatest kindness and -consideration. After the battle of Arbela, while Alexander marched to -Babylon and Susa, Darius had fled to Ecbatana. He was thus in one of -the Persian royal palaces, while his family were with his conqueror -at another. The wife of Darius had died before this time, while still -a captive in the Grecian camp. Many of the forces of Darius had gone -over to Alexander’s side, about forty thousand remaining faithful to -him. But among these seeming friends were treacherous foes. A general, -names Bessus, formed the plan of seizing Darius, and making him a -prisoner, and then taking the command of the army himself. If Alexander -should be likely to conquer him, he would then try to save himself -by giving up Darius. If, on the other hand, their forces should be -successful, he would then get Darius out of his way by assassinating -him, and usurping the throne. Bessus communicated his plans to many -of the chief officers, who agreed to become parties in the plot. The -Grecian soldiers in the Persian army revealed this conspiracy to -Darius, but he would not believe in the treachery of his countrymen. As -Alexander advanced, Darius had retreated from Ecbatana, and Alexander -followed him. While halting for rest, a Persian nobleman came into the -Macedonian camp, and informed Alexander that the enemies’ forces were -two days’ march in advance. Bessus was in command, and Darius deposed, -the plot having been successfully carried out. Alexander immediately -set forward in pursuit of Bessus and his royal prisoner. Alexander -had now been two years advancing from Macedon into the heart of Asia, -in pursuit of Darius. His conquest would not be complete until that -monarch was captured. As soon as Bessus and the Persian army found -that Alexander was close upon them, they attempted to hurry forward in -the hope of escaping. Darius was in a chariot. They urged this chariot -on, but it was too cumbersome for rapid flight. Bessus and his chief -conspirators then called upon Darius to mount a horse and escape with -them, leaving the rest of the army to its fate. Darius refused. Having -become convinced of their treachery, he said he would rather trust -himself in the hands of Alexander than to such traitors as they. Bessus -and his confederates, exasperated by this reply, thrust their spears -into Darius’ body as he sat in the chariot, and galloped away. Darius -remained in his chariot, wounded and bleeding. His many sorrows had at -last overwhelmed him. His kingdom was lost; his beloved wife was in -the grave; his family were in captivity; his cities were sacked; his -palaces and treasures plundered; and now, betrayed and abandoned, he -was dying, slain by his treacherous countrymen, whom he had trusted -as his friends. Alone, deserted by all the world, he, the once mighty -monarch of vast dominions, now lay there, faint and bleeding, waiting -the coming of death or his victorious conqueror. - -The Macedonians at last discovered the chariot in which Darius was -lying pierced with spears. The floor of the chariot was covered with -blood. They raised him a little, and he spoke; he called for water. A -Macedonian soldier went to get some; others hurried to find Alexander, -and bring him to the spot where his long-pursued enemy was dying. When -the soldier returned with the water, Darius received the drink, and -then said to those about him, “That he charged them to tell Alexander -that he died in his debt, though he had never obliged him; that he gave -him a multitude of thanks for the great humanity he had exercised -towards his wife, mother, and his children, whose lives he had not only -spared, but treated them with the greatest consideration and care, -and had endeavored to make them happy; that he besought the gods to -give victory to his arms, and make him monarch of the universe; that -he thought it was not necessary to entreat him to revenge his murder, -as this was the common cause of kings.” Then taking Polystratus, one -of the Macedonians who had brought him the desired water to relieve -his agonizing thirst, he continued, “Give Alexander thy hand, as I -give thee mine, and carry him in my name the only pledge I am able -to offer,—of my gratitude and affection.” Saying these words, Darius -breathed his last. - -Alexander, coming up a moment after, was shocked at the spectacle -before him, and wept bitterly. He then spread his own military cloak -over the dead monarch. Having ordered the body to be embalmed, it was -then enclosed in a costly coffin, and sent to Sysigambis, the mother of -Darius, in order that it might be buried with the ceremonies usually -paid to Persian monarchs, and be entombed with his ancestors. - -The Persian generals under Bessus now resolved to betray him, as he -had betrayed his master. They sent word to Alexander that they would -deliver him into his hands if he would send a small force to the place -where they designated. Accordingly this command was entrusted to a -Macedonian officer named Ptolemy, who found Bessus in a small walled -town, to which he had fled for refuge. - -When Bessus was brought to Alexander, that monarch ordered the prisoner -to be publicly scourged, and then caused his face to be mutilated in -a manner customary in those days when a criminal was condemned to -be stamped with a perpetual mark of infamy. Alexander then sent the -traitor as a second present to Sysigambis, to be dealt with as her -revenge for the death of Darius might dictate. - -After being terribly tortured, the miserable Bessus paid the last -penalty of his crimes by a most shocking death, inflicted upon him by -Sysigambis, to avenge her murdered son. - -Alexander was now twenty-six years of age. He was now the undisputed -master of all western Asia. His wealth was boundless, his power was -supreme, but his character was fearfully demoralized. He lived in the -palaces of the Persian kings, and gave himself up to all sorts of -vices. He spent his time in drunken debaucheries. The strong sentiment -of love and respect with which he had formerly inspired all around him -was gone, and conspiracies and treason prevailed. When the suspicions -of Alexander were aroused, he put to death some of his most trusted -officers. - -At last there was a conspiracy, in which Philotas, the son of the -faithful Parmenio, was implicated. Being arrested and put to the -torture, Philotas accused his father, in the hopes of saving himself. -Though there was no evidence against that trusty general, Alexander -caused them both to be put to death. - -The death of Parmenio and his son, in this violent manner, raised much -unfavorable feeling against Alexander. - -Another case exemplifies the wicked deeds of Alexander when under the -influence of wine, and puffed up with vain-glorious pride. - -One of his oldest and most faithful generals, named Clitus, was present -at one of the frequent banquets given by Alexander. That monarch, -excited with wine, had been boastfully recounting his own exploits, and -had spoken disparagingly of those of his father Philip in comparison. -Clitus, also heated with wine, began to praise Philip, under whom he -had fought; and then growing bolder, he upbraided Alexander for the -death of Parmenio. Alexander, frenzied with wine and rage, seized a -javelin, hurled it at Clitus, and struck him down, saying, “Go then, -and join Philip and Parmenio.” Alexander, as soon as he came to -himself, was overwhelmed with remorse and shame. He could not, however, -restore Clitus to life, or remove the disgrace from his own name. - -Alexander continued for two or three years his expeditions and -conquests in Asia. He penetrated into India as far as the banks of the -Indus. But his soldiers refused to go further. He made an address to -his army, but he could not change their decision. At last one of his -officers said to him:— - -“We have done all for you that it was possible for man to do. We have -crossed seas and land. We have marched to the end of the world, and you -are now meditating the conquest of another, by going in search of new -Indias, unknown to the Indians themselves. Such a thought may be worthy -of your courage and resolution, but it surpasses ours, and our strength -still more. Look at these ghastly faces, and these bodies covered with -wounds and scars. Remember how numerous we were when first we set out -with you, and see how few of us remain. The few who have escaped so -many toils and dangers have neither courage nor strength to follow you -any further. They all long to revisit their country and their homes, -and to enjoy for the remainder of their lives the fruits of all their -toils. Forgive them these desires so natural to man.” - -Alexander was bitterly disappointed, but found himself obliged to -relinquish further conquest. He returned to Babylon, where his -triumphal entrance was a scene of magnificence and gorgeous splendor. - -But his life soon evinced the hopeless degradation into which he had -fallen. He not only indulged in vice himself, but encouraged others -to follow his evil example. He would offer prizes at his banquets to -those who would drink the most, thus causing forty deaths at one of his -entertainments. - -Alexander now entered upon a life of the most effeminate luxury and -profligate dissipation. He separated himself more and more from his old -Macedonian friends, and delighted in Persian associates. He married -Statira, the eldest daughter of Darius, and gave the youngest daughter -to his particular friend Hephæstion, who was his chosen companion in -all his drunken revels. - -Alexander’s habits of intoxication and vice rapidly increased. On one -occasion, after he had spent a whole night in drinking and carousing, -some of the guests proposed that they should begin a second banquet -instead of retiring. - -Alexander half intoxicated, agreed. There were twenty present at this -new feast. Alexander, to show how much he was able to drink, pledged -each one separately, and then all together. - -There was a very large cup, called the bowl of Hercules, which he now -called for, and having filled it to the brim, he drank it off, and -again filled the huge bowl, and again drank the entire contents. His -strength soon failed him, and he sank to the floor. - -They bore him away to his apartments. A violent fever followed this -terrible debauch, which his physicians in vain tried to allay. At -last, finding he must die, he drew his signet ring off from his finger; -this was the token that he felt all was over. He handed the ring to one -of his friends, saying, “When I am gone, take my body to the temple of -Jupiter Ammon, and inter it there.” - -Being asked to whom he left his kingdom, he replied: “To the most -worthy.” Thus died Alexander the Great, at the age of thirty-two. - -Preparations were now made to convey his body with royal pomp to its -last resting-place, in accordance with his orders. - -A very large and magnificent funeral carriage was built. “The spokes -of the wheels were overlaid with gold, and the axles were adorned upon -the outside with massive golden ornaments. The platform, or floor, of -the carriage was eighteen feet long and twelve feet wide. Upon this -there was erected a magnificent pavilion, supported by Ionic columns, -profusely ornamented, both within and without, with purple and gold. -The interior of the pavilion was resplendent with gems and precious -stones. - -“A throne was raised in the centre of the platform, richly carved and -gilded. It was empty; but the crowns of the various nations over which -Alexander had ruled were hung upon it. At the foot of the throne was -the coffin, made of solid gold, containing the remains of the great -conqueror. The arms of Alexander were placed between the throne and the -coffin. - -“On the four sides of the carriage were sculptured figures representing -Alexander. There were Macedonian soldiers, Persian squadrons, elephants -of India, troops of horse, and various other emblems of the departed -hero’s conquests, sculptured upon this magnificent funeral carriage. -Around the pavilion was a network of golden lace, to which bells were -attached, which tolled mournfully as the carriage moved slowly along. -Sixty-four mules, selected for their great size, drew this ponderous -car. Their harness was mounted with gold and enriched with precious -stones.” - -Notwithstanding all this gorgeous pomp, the body of Alexander never -reached its first destination. Ptolemy, the officer, to whom Egypt was -given in the division of Alexander’s empire, came forth to meet this -solemn procession, and preferring that the body of Alexander should -be buried in the city of Alexandria, it was interred there, and an -imposing monument was erected over his grave. This monument is said to -have remained standing for fifteen hundred years, though no remains of -it are to be found. - -The most fitting comment upon the life and character of Alexander the -Great will be found in these brief words of Napoleon Bonaparte, who -said of Alexander: “He commenced his career with the mind of Trajan, -but closed it with the heart of Nero and the morals of Heliogabalus.” - - - - -JULIUS CÆSAR. - -100-44 B.C. - - “The elements - So mix’d in him, that Nature might stand up - And say to all the world, This was a man!” - SHAKESPEARE. - - -THERE was wild tumult in the ancient city of Rome. The populace -thronged the streets, carrying stones and bludgeons. Armed troops -hurried hither and thither. The members of the Senate, a sort of -House of Lords, were assembled in confusion; and their blanched faces -denoted the terror which rendered them powerless to help. Several of -the principal citizens had been murdered, and the other Roman lords, -or patricians, knew not how soon their doom might come. But who was -their terrible foe? Had some wild barbarian horde invaded their land -and taken possession of their proud and magnificent city? Why did the -nobles and men of rank tremble; and why were the common people roused -to this wild outburst of fury? - -[Illustration: JULIUS CÆSAR.] - -It was no barbarian enemy, but civil discord amongst themselves, which -thus filled the streets with murderers and the patricians with terror. -Two powerful rivals were fighting for the possession of the Eternal -City, which, at that time, was mistress of the world. - -Marius, the plebian, or champion of the common people, had roused the -populace to fight against Sylla, the patrician, who had been absent -with his army in Italy. Sylla had been appointed by the Senate to -command the forces which were to wage war with Mithridates, a powerful -Asiatic monarch. But during his absence, his enemy, Marius, had -contrived to have this appointment revoked, and to gain for himself -this coveted command. Two officers, called tribunes, were sent to -Sylla’s camp, to inform him of this advantage which his rival had -gained over him. Sylla killed the two officers for daring to bring him -such a message, and immediately marched towards Rome. - -Marius, in retaliation, caused some of Sylla’s friends in the city to -be put to death, and with his bands of soldiers endeavored to resist -the entrance of Sylla and his army by throwing stones upon the troops -from the roofs of the houses as they entered the city. Sylla then -ordered every house to be set on fire, from which missiles had been -thrown, and thus the helpless citizens were endangered by lawless and -infuriated mobs on the one side, and relentless flames on the other. -Marius was conquered, and obliged to flee for his life. He was an old -man of seventy years of age. The Senate declared him a public enemy, -and offered a large sum for his head. Alone and friendless, Marius -wandered from place to place, enduring the greatest privations, and -encountering many dangers, till at last he crossed the Mediterranean -Sea, and took refuge in a poor hut among the ruins of ancient Carthage. -Surely it would seem that his days of conquest were over. Alone, -starving, helpless, old, and banished, with a heavy price set upon his -head, his fortunes seemed indeed hopeless. - -Leaving this fallen champion in his hut, amidst the ruins of a past -power which could only remind him of his own hopeless prospects, we -must return to the city of Rome, and look upon another scene. - -A religious procession is wending its way through the famous Forum. -This Forum was a magnificent square, surrounded by splendid edifices -and adorned with sculptures and statues and many gorgeous trophies of -past victories. There were vast colonnades forming covered porticoes, -where the populace assembled and where courts of justice were held. -This Forum was constantly embellished with new monuments, temples, -statues, arches, and columns by the successful generals, as they -returned in triumph from foreign campaigns. Here the various orators -delivered their famous orations which inflamed the people to arms, or -moved them to wild outbursts of enthusiastic applause in favor of some -successful candidate, or calmed their boisterous tumult into silent and -breathless attention to the impassioned and eloquent words which fell -from the lips of these intellectual monarchs over the minds of their -less gifted countrymen. It is night now in this great public square, -and as the procession of priests and attendants slowly pass beneath a -row of majestic colonnades and enter one of the temples, we note the -face and figure of the foremost one. He is scarcely more than a boy, -but he wears the purple robe called _læna_, and a conical mitre known -as the _apex_, which mark his distinguished rank as holding the office -of _Flamen Dialis_, or High Priest of Jupiter. This youth, seventeen -years of age, is tall and fair, and though slender in form, is handsome -and noble in bearing. He is descended from patrician families of -high rank and proud position; and as he passes within the portal of -the sacred temple, the beholder would involuntarily cast upon him an -admiring glance, and if a stranger, would surely inquire who was this -comely, noble youth who so early in life was distinguished by so high -an office and royal bearing. - -Again we enter the Forum, but it is now high noon. A noted orator -has ascended the pulpit, where public speakers were accustomed to -stand when addressing the assemblies. This pulpit was ornamented with -brazen beaks of ships, which had been taken by the Romans in their -many wars. Such a beak was named a rostrum, and the pulpit so adorned -was called the _Rostra_, or the Beaks,—often termed in modern books -a rostrum. As the orator of the day began to speak, a youth might -have been seen pressing through the crowd, and listening with wrapt -attention to the eloquent words which fell from the speaker’s lips. As -the burst of impassioned appeal became more persuasive, the dark eyes -of the youth flashed with responsive fire, and his cheek glowed with -a flush of kindling enthusiasm. Though he wears now the robes of a -Roman patrician, we recognize him as the same person whom we beheld at -midnight entering the temple in the attire of a High Priest of Jupiter. - -Again the scene changes to midnight, but it is not in the Roman Forum, -but at a grand feast in one of the sumptuous palaces of a Roman lord. -Amidst a party of gay and joyous young men, seemingly intent only upon -luxurious pleasures, we see once more the face and figure of this -same youth who has already so attracted our interest and admiration. -Priest, student, devotée of pleasure, little did his companions or -acquaintances imagine that this young Julius Cæsar, patrician born, -but at the same time personally inclined towards the plebeian party, -would become Julius Cæsar, future Master of Rome, and therefore ruler -of nearly all of the then known world. This Julius Cæsar became the -greatest hero of Roman history, and ranks as one of the three heroes of -ancient days,—Alexander of the Greeks, Hannibal of the Carthaginians, -and Julius Cæsar of the Romans, forming the famous trio. - -Again we must return to the old exile among the ruins of Carthage. -One day he is awakened from his hopeless despondency by wild rumors -from Rome. His rival and enemy, Sylla, had equipped a fleet and sailed -away to wage war with Mithridates. The friends of Marius now rally -again, and the old exile is brought back from Africa in triumph and -given the command of a large army. As he pretended to be the friend of -the common people, they flocked to his standard. Vast multitudes of -revolted slaves, outlaws, and desperadoes joined his forces, which now -advanced toward Rome. As soon as Marius gained possession of the city, -he began a dreadful work of murder and destruction. He beheaded one of -the consuls, and ordered his head to be set up as a spectacle of horror -in the public square. Blood ran like a red river in the streets of -Rome. Patricians of the highest rank and station were everywhere seized -without warning, without trial, and put to torture and death. - -It is midnight in the great city, and under cover of the darkness, the -evil deeds of blood-thirsty men, fired by hatred and lawless ambition, -are renewed with fresh ferocity. - -Against his bitterest enemies Marius contrived special modes of -execution, in order to wreak upon them his insatiable revenge for his -exile, and consequent sufferings and privations. - -See! a party of men, composed of soldiers, and an enfuriated mob of -people are dragging a lord of noble rank up to the top of a high rock, -known as the Tarpeian Rock, from the summit of which state criminals -were hurled down the precipice, upon sharp rocks below, where they -were left to die in awful torture. This patrician, or Roman noble, had -incurred the especial animosity of Marius, and so by his orders, the -proud old man is torn from family and friends; and without trial, with -the senate powerless to help, he is dragged here at midnight to suffer -the ignominious and terrible death of a state criminal. This noted -Tarpeian Rock still stands in Rome, and it received its name from this -ancient story. In early times there was a Roman girl, named Tarpeia, -living in the ancient city, when it was besieged by an army from a -neighboring country. The soldiers of the besieging forces wore golden -bracelets upon their arms, as well as shields; and upon demanding -that Tarpeia should open the gates to them, she declared that if they -would give her, “those things they wore upon their arms,” she would -comply with their demands. She meant, of course, their bracelets; but -not knowing the word by which they were designated, she brought upon -herself a fearful doom. The soldiers agreed to grant her desire, and -so she opened to them the gates. As they passed within, they threw -their shields upon the poor girl, in proud derision, instead of giving -her the coveted bracelets, exclaiming, “Here are the things we wear -upon our arms.” Tarpeia was crushed to death beneath the weight of the -ponderous shields; and so the spot where she fell became a rock of -blood, and was ever afterwards called, in remembrance of her sad fate, -the Tarpeian Rock. There is a further legend connected with this spot, -for some of the ignorant people believe that in the interior of one of -the many caverns, which have been found perforating this rock, Tarpeia -still sits, enchanted, covered with gold and jewels. But should any one -attempt to find her, he is fated to lose his way, and never to return -from his reckless adventure. But the bloody triumph of Marius was of -short duration. He was seized with a fatal sickness, and the cruel -tyrant was obliged to meet an enemy he could not conquer. Death meted -out to him some of the horrible torments he had inflicted upon others, -as he died in delirious ravings, haunted by the presence of phantom -foes. His son Marius assumed his father’s power; but Sylla, having -returned from the Asiatic wars, and in his turn taking possession of -the city of Rome, the followers of Marius were put to death with the -same ferocity with which they had murdered others, and Sylla even -exceeded the bloody deeds which had so brutally been performed by -his hated rival. Thus the city of Rome was again plunged into wild -confusion, and the scenes of murder and massacre, with all their -shocking horrors, were re-enacted. - -[Illustration: JULIUS CÆSAR. - -(From Photograph of Bust in Capitol, Rome.)] - -It is at this time that the young Julius Cæsar first becomes a -prominent figure in that bloody drama. Although Julius Cæsar was a -patrician by birth, he was favorable to the plebian party. The elder -Marius had married his aunt, and Cæsar himself had married a daughter -of Cinna, who was four times consul, and was a powerful and ardent -partisan of the party of Marius. Julius Cæsar, although at this time a -very young man, was too prominent a person to be overlooked by Sylla, -in his vengeance against the plebian party. The friends of Julius -Cæsar tried to plead his youth with Sylla, saying that surely such a -mere boy could do no harm. But Sylla had marked the aspiring spirit of -the young nobleman, who with all his love of gayety and pleasure had -not neglected his studies, and who was already gaining the dangerous -reputation of an eloquent orator. Sylla now demanded that Julius -Cæsar should divorce his wife Cornelia, the daughter of Cinna. Cæsar -absolutely refused, partly from devotion to his wife, and partly -from a proud indomitable spirit, which thus early was a prominent -trait in his character, and which made him brave any danger rather than -allow himself to be controlled. Knowing that punishment for his refusal -to comply with the commands of Sylla would be destruction, Cæsar fled -from Rome. Sylla deprived him of his rank and titles, confiscated the -property of his wife and his own estates, and placed his name on the -list of public enemies. - -Cæsar was now a fugitive and exile. He was also suffering from -intermittent fever, and was obliged to seek some new place of refuge -each day, as a price was set upon his head. He was at one time seized -by a centurion, but Cæsar offered him a bribe sufficient to secure -his release. After various adventures, he wandered into Asia Minor, -and coming to the kingdom of Bithynia, he joined himself to the -court of the king Nicomedes, and remained some time in that country. -After leaving Bithynia, Julius Cæsar, while sailing near the isle of -Pharmacusa, was taken prisoner by some pirates from a mountainous -country called Cilicia. These Cilician pirates were half sailors and -half mountaineers. They built swift galleys, and made excursions -over the Mediterranean Sea for conquest and plunder. Cæsar asked the -pirates what sum they demanded for his ransom. They replied twenty -talents, whereupon Cæsar laughed at such a paltry sum being considered -sufficient for his ransom, and told them they evidently did not know -who he was. He then declared he would give them fifty talents, and -forthwith sent all of his companions and attendants to the shore to -go to the cities where he was known, and secure the sum required. -Meanwhile he boldly remained among these rough men, with no attendants -but a physician and two servants. Cæsar now assumed command over his -very captors, giving orders, and demanding quiet when he wished to -sleep. He joined them in their sports, and wrote and read orations to -them as though he was their ruler. His boldness and skill elicited -their profound admiration. The pirates one day asked him what he would -do to them if he should ever capture them after obtaining his own -release. He replied laughingly that he would crucify them all. This, -though a seeming jest, was well fulfilled. His attendants, having -returned with the ransom money, Julius Cæsar was released. He proceeded -immediately to Miletus, equipped a small fleet, then sailed back to the -place where the ships of the pirates still lay at anchor, and having -attacked them, he recovered the ransom money, seized their ships, and -took all the men prisoners. He carried his captives to the land, and -having cut all their throats he hung their dead bodies upon crosses, in -fulfilment of his threat. - -Julius Cæsar then went to Rhodes, where his former teacher Apollonius, -a noted philosopher and rhetorician, resided. Cicero was also one of -the pupils of this philosopher. Cæsar at length obtained pardon from -Sylla, through the intercession of the vestal virgins and some of his -friends. When Sylla at last yielded to their importunity, he exclaimed, -“Your suit is granted; but know that this man, for whose safety you are -so extremely anxious, will some day or other be the ruin of the party -of the nobles, in defence of which you are leagued with me, for in -this one Cæsar you will find many a Marius.” Sylla had since died, and -though the aristocratical party were still in the ascendency, the party -of Marius were recovering somewhat from their overthrow. - -Julius Cæsar now returned to Rome, and boldly espoused the popular -cause. His first public act was the arraignment of Dolabella, -governor of the province of Macedonia. When the trial came on Cæsar -appeared in the Forum, and gained great applause for his eloquence and -daring. Dolabella was defended by noted orators, and was acquitted by -the Senate. But Julius Cæsar had displayed his marvellous powers of -eloquence, which immediately gave him great renown. - -Cæsar now devoted himself to public speaking in the Forum, and acquired -much celebrity. He pronounced a splendid panegyric upon the wife of -Marius at her funeral; and also upon his wife Cornelia, who died -soon after. Cæsar now became ambitious of securing public offices, -and lavished large sums in shows and spectacles to amuse the people -and secure their votes. He thus became deeply involved in debt, but -he was still successful in rising from one office to still higher -positions, until he obtained that of _quæstor_ in the province of -Spain. This was the second office in command, the first officer being -called a _prætor_. During his absence in Spain, Cæsar beheld a statue -of Alexander the Great, which adorned one of the public buildings in -the city of Cadiz, or Hades, as it was then called. Cæsar was now -about thirty-five years of age, and reflecting upon the conquests of -Alexander, who had died when only thirty-two years of age, Cæsar sighed -over his own tardy accomplishment of his lofty ambitions, and leaving -his post, returned to Rome, determined to seek higher honors. - -He was chosen _ædile_ by the people. He now had charge of the public -edifices of the city, and of the games and spectacles which were -exhibited in them. The arrangements made by him for the amusement of -the people were on the most magnificent and extravagant scale. He -exhibited three hundred and twenty pair of gladiators, and he made -great additions to the public buildings. He now endeavored to have -Egypt assigned to him as a province; but the senate resisted this plan, -and Cæsar was obliged to abandon it. About this time, Cæsar obtained -a triumph over the senate, who were very jealous of his increasing -power. He replaced the statues and trophies of Marius in the capital, -which had been taken down and destroyed by the order of Sylla when -he returned to power. In their place, Cæsar had ordered magnificent -new ones to be made, and put up secretly in the night. The senate -endeavored to take them down again, but the people rallied in such -vast numbers, as to prevent the work of destruction, and Cæsar was -triumphant. - -A dangerous conspiracy, headed by the notorious Catiline, was now -discovered, and several conspirators were arrested. It was when the -senate was debating whether they should be put to death, that Cæsar -made his noted speech which was replied to so hotly by Cato. - -Cæsar was by some accused of being cognizant of this plot, if he were -not indeed a participant. - -After the death of Cornelia, Cæsar had married Pompeia, but he -afterwards divorced her. Julius Cæsar now began to plan for a still -higher office, and upon the death of Metellus, the chief pontiff, Cæsar -solicited the office. - -He was now so heavily involved in debt, that he faced ruin if defeated, -or glory if elected. When the day of election came, Cæsar parted with -his mother, saving,—“You will see me this day either chief pontiff or -an exile.” - -But he succeeded in gaining the election. Having obtained this added -power, he desired to procure the position of _prætor_ in Spain. This -he also secured, but so large were his debts, that Crassus, a man of -immense wealth, was, by Cæsar’s promises of using his political power -in his behalf, persuaded to lend him the sum needed to satisfy his -creditors. - -Cæsar was very successful in his province in Spain, and he returned in -a short time with military glory, and with money sufficient to pay his -debts, and furnish fresh supplies for further bribes to secure still -higher positions. He now aspired to the office of consul, which was the -highest office in the Roman state. - -At this time, Pompey was the military idol of the people, and Crassus, -powerful on account of his vast wealth, was Pompey’s bitter enemy. -Cæsar conceived the plan of reconciling these two dangerous foes, -and availing himself of the aid of both to further his own ambitious -projects. - -Cæsar was successful in this plan, and they then formed a triple -league, binding themselves to promote the political elevation of each -other. Having secured such powerful adherents, Cæsar now pushed his -claims for consulship. He chose a man of great wealth, named Lucceius, -to be associated with himself, who agreed to pay all the expenses of -the election, for the sake of the honor of being consul with Cæsar. But -the political enemies of Cæsar, knowing that they could not defeat his -election, determined to place Bibulus, in the place of Lucceius, as the -associate of Cæsar. Accordingly they raised as much money to expend for -Bibulus as Lucceius should employ. The result was the election of Cæsar -and Bibulus as the two consuls. But having entered upon the duties -of that office, Cæsar so completely ignored Bibulus, and assumed so -entirely the whole control of the consular power, that Bibulus retired -to his house in chagrin and mortification, and allowed Cæsar to have -his own way. Two consuls were always required by law, and so the wags -of the city, in speaking of Cæsar’s consulship, instead of saying, “In -the year of Cæsar and Bibulus, consuls,” according to the usual form, -would often say, “In the year of Julius and Cæsar, consuls,” ignoring -the name of Bibulus, and taking the two names of Cæsar to denote his -supreme rule. - -[Illustration: CÆSAR IN GAUL.] - -Cæsar’s ambition was not yet satisfied. He had secured the highest -place in the state, and now he aspired to military glory and foreign -conquest. Having obtained the command of an army, he entered upon a -campaign in the heart of Europe, which he continued for eight years. - -The large tract of country now known as Northern Italy, Switzerland, -France, Germany, and England, was then spoken of as Gaul. The part on -the Italian side of the Alps was called Cisalpine Gaul, and that which -lay beyond was termed Transalpine Gaul. - -Cæsar now placed himself at the head of an army of three Roman legions, -and set out for Gaul. The first battle he fought was with the German -king Ariovistus. Cæsar was victorious, and the Germans were put in -complete subjection. Other provinces of Gaul now submitted without -resistance, and those who determined to league together to resist this -new military power were soon brought to submission. - -One of the most interesting of the various excursions made by Cæsar -during these eight years was his expedition into Great Britain. - -When Cæsar arrived on the northern shores of France, he began to -inquire of all the travelling merchants whom he met, and who in those -days journeyed from one nation to another to buy and sell goods, about -the best manner of crossing the channel, and regarding the people on -the English side of the water. But the merchants could give him little -information, and so he fitted out a galley, manned with many oarsmen, -and placing it under the command of an officer, he directed him to -cross the channel and discover the best harbors to land on the other -side, and then to return and report. This officer was gone five days, -and upon his return, Cæsar determined to transport his troops across -the channel. Cæsar had collected a large number of sailing vessels upon -which he embarked his forces, and upon a given day, at one o’clock in -the morning, the fleet set sail. - -The Britons had in the meantime learned of Cæsar’s intended invasion, -and they collected in vast numbers to guard the shore. - -When the Roman fleet approached the land, the cliffs were everywhere -lined with troops of Britons, and every available point was well -guarded. - -Cæsar now proceeded with his fleet along the shore, the Britons -following on the land until a level plain was reached. Here Cæsar -determined to attempt to disembark. A dreadful struggle ensued. The -Britons plunged into the water, and the Romans shot darts and arrows -from the decks of the vessels upon the assailants of their comrades, -who were endeavoring to make the landing. The Britons were at last -driven back, and Cæsar succeeded in obtaining possession of the shore. - -These campaigns of Cæsar, in a military point of view, were a -succession of magnificent exploits. The people at Rome were unbounded -in their enthusiastic praise, and decreed him triumph after triumph, -and were prepared to welcome him with high honors when he should -return. Plutarch says of these eight years of foreign conquest, that -Cæsar took eight hundred cities, conquered three hundred nations, -fought pitched battles, at separate times, with three millions of men, -took one million of them prisoners, and killed another million on the -field. - -[Illustration: THE LANDING OF JULIUS CÆSAR IN BRITAIN.] - -From a humane standpoint, however, what a fearful destruction of -human lives, to satisfy the insatiable ambition of one man. How much -more desirable would have been the fame of blessing, rather than -destroying and injuring three millions of his fellow men. The time -was now drawing near for Cæsar’s return to Rome. During his absence a -dangerous rival had become the idol of the fickle people. After the -death of Pompey’s wife Julia, who was the daughter of Julius Cæsar, the -former alliance between these two powerful rivals had been broken, and -they were now open foes. While Cæsar was absent in Gaul, he had not -neglected to endeavor to retain his hold upon the populace of Rome. He -had distributed vast sums for the adornment of the city. He expended -over four million dollars in purchasing ground for the enlargement of -the Forum; and when he heard of the death of his daughter Julia, the -wife of Pompey, he ordered her funeral to be celebrated with gorgeous -splendor. He distributed corn in immense quantities among the people, -and sent home many captives to be trained as gladiators to amuse the -populace in the theatres. Men were astounded at the magnitude of these -vast expenditures; but Pompey was, nevertheless, fast securing the -heart of the people. Pompey, in his vanity, imagined that he was so far -above Cæsar that he need feel no solicitude at the return of his rival, -and therefore took no precautions to resist any hostile designs. Cæsar -had now advanced toward the Rubicon, which was a little stream that -formed the boundary line between the north of Italy, which was a Roman -province called Hither Gaul, and the immediate jurisdiction of the city -of Rome. - -Generals commanding in Gaul were never allowed to pass this river -with an army. Hence, to cross the Rubicon with an armed force, was -rebellion and treason. When Cæsar arrived at the farther shore of this -small but significant stream, he halted at a small town called Ravenna, -and established his headquarters there. Pompey now sent to him to -demand the return of a legion he had lent him when they were friends. -Cæsar returned the legion immediately, adding some of his own troops to -show his indifference to the size of his own force. - -In the meantime, the partisans of Cæsar and Pompey in the city of Rome, -grew more threatening in their struggles. The friends of Cæsar demanded -that he should be elected consul. The friends of Pompey replied that -Cæsar must first resign the command of his army, and come to Rome and -present himself as a candidate in the character of a private citizen, -as the constitution of the state required. Cæsar replied that if -Pompey would lay down his arms, he would also do so; but otherwise, -it was unjust to require it of him. This privilege he demanded as a -recompense for the services he had rendered to the state. A large part -of the people sided with Cæsar; but the partisans of Pompey, with the -inflexible Cato at their head, withstood the demand. The city was much -excited over the impending conflict. Pompey displayed no fear, and -urged the Senate to resist all of Cæsar’s claims, saying, that if Cæsar -should presumptuously dare to march with his forces to Rome, he could -raise troops enough to subdue him by merely stamping on the ground. -Cæsar meanwhile had been quietly making his preparations at Ravenna. -It was his policy to move as privately as possible. Accordingly, he -sent some cohorts to march secretly to the banks of the river, and -encamp there, while he employed himself in his usual occupation. He had -established a fencing school, and on the very eve of his departure -he went as usual to this school, then feasted with his friends, going -afterwards with them to a public entertainment. As soon as it was -dark enough, and the streets were deserted, he stole away with a few -attendants. During the night, Cæsar and his guides found themselves -lost, and they wandered about until nearly break of day, when a peasant -guided them to the shore, where he found his troops awaiting him. -Having arrived at the banks of the stream, Cæsar stood for some moments -musing upon the step he was about to take. If he crossed that narrow -stream retreat would be impossible. The story is told that a shepherd -coming up took the trumpet from one of Cæsar’s trumpeters, and sounded -a charge, marching rapidly over the bridge at the same time. “An omen! -a prodigy!” exclaimed Cæsar. “Let us march where we are called by such -a divine intimation—_The die is cast!_” - -As soon as the bridge was crossed, Cæsar called an assembly of his -troops, and made an eloquent appeal to them, urging them to stand -faithful to him, and promising them large rewards should he be -successful. The soldiers responded with enthusiastic applause. As -Cæsar advanced towards Rome, several towns surrendered to him without -resistance. He met with but one opposition. The Senate had deposed -Cæsar from his command during the hot debates preceding his crossing of -the Rubicon, and had appointed Domitius to succeed him. That general -had crossed the Apennines at the head of an army, and had reached the -town of Corfinium. Cæsar advanced and besieged him there. The town was -soon captured; and Cæsar, to the surprise of everyone, who supposed he -would wreak vengeance upon his foes, received the troops into his own -service, and let Domitius go free. News had now reached the city of -Rome, of Cæsar’s crossing the Rubicon, and rapid advance. The Senate -were terribly alarmed, and looked to Pompey in vain for help. Pompey -himself was terrified, but could do nothing; and the Senate then -derisively called upon him to raise the promised army of which he had -boasted, telling him they thought it was high time to stamp with his -feet, as he declared that by so doing he could secure a force large -enough to defeat Cæsar. Cato and many of the prominent men fled from -the city. - -Pompey, calling upon all his partisans to follow him, set forth at -night to retreat across the country towards the Adriatic Sea. - -Cæsar was rapidly advancing toward Rome. As all supplies of money were -cut off by his crossing the Rubicon, which severed his connection -with the government, his soldiers voted to serve him without pay. His -treatment of Domitius was much applauded by the people. He himself -says, in a letter written to a friend at the time, “I am glad that you -approve of my conduct at Corfinium. I am satisfied that such a course -is the best one for us to pursue, as by so doing we shall gain the -good will of all parties, and thus secure a permanent victory. Most -conquerors have incurred the hatred of mankind by their cruelties, and -have all, in consequence of the enmity they have thus awakened, been -prevented from long enjoying their power. Sylla was an exception, but -his example of successful cruelty I have no disposition to imitate. I -will conquer after a new fashion, and fortify myself in the possession -of the power I acquire by generosity and mercy.” - -Cæsar now pursued Pompey to Brundusium, whither Pompey had retreated. -Cæsar laid siege to the city, but Pompey secretly made preparations -for embarking his troops. He caused all the streets to be barricaded, -except two, which led to the landing, and in the darkness of the -night, he began embarking his forces as fast as possible on board of -transports already provided. Cæsar was made aware of this fact, and -his army quickly brought ladders and scaled the walls of the city, but -the barricaded streets so impeded their progress through the darkness -of the night, that Pompey and his troops succeeded in sailing away. -As Cæsar had no ships, he continued his march to Rome, and entering -the city without opposition, re-established the government and took -control. After various subsequent campaigns in Italy, Spain, Sicily, -and Gaul, which resulted in completely subjugating these nations to his -dominion, he commenced the pursuit of Pompey, across the Adriatic Sea. - -As Pompey had cleared the seas of every vessel which could aid him in -his flight, Cæsar had great difficulty in procuring even a sufficient -number of galleys to transport a part of his army, and embarking with -these he landed on the opposite shore, and sent back the galleys for -the remainder of his forces, while he pursued Pompey with the troops -already with him. Some of Pompey’s generals intercepted a part of -Cæsar’s galleys, and destroyed them; the sea also, becoming very -boisterous, the troops were afraid to embark, not being stimulated to -courage by the presence and voice of Cæsar. Julius Cæsar still pursued -Pompey, who constantly retreated; and the winter wore away with no -decided battle, and leaving both armies in a suffering condition. -At last, one stormy night, Cæsar determined to embark upon a galley -and return to the Italian side, and bring the remainder of his army -over. Cæsar disguised himself in a long cloak, with his head muffled -in his mantle, and thus got aboard the galley and ordered the men -to row him across. A violent wind arose, and the waves were so high -that at last the rowers declared they could go no further; Cæsar then -came forward, threw off his mantle, and exclaimed: “Friends, you have -nothing to fear; you are carrying Cæsar!” Thus inspired the men put -forth herculean efforts, but all to no purpose, and Cæsar was obliged, -reluctantly, to turn back. His army on the Italian shore, however, -hearing of this brave deed were inspired with new courage, and making -another attempt, they were successful in joining Cæsar, who, thus -strengthened, planned for a vigorous attack in the spring. A parley had -been held several times between the hostile hosts, but to no effect; -and many skirmishes and partial conflicts took place, but no decided -battle. At one time, Pompey’s troops so hemmed in the army of Cæsar -that his forces suffered for want of food, but his soldiers bravely -made use of a sort of root which they dug from the ground, and made -into a kind of bread, telling Cæsar they would live upon the bark of -trees rather than abandon his cause. At length the army of Pompey was -in turn hemmed in by Cæsar’s forces, and becoming very desperate, on -account of the distress occasioned by want of food and water, Pompey -made some successful attacks upon Cæsar’s lines, and broke away from -his enemy’s grasp. - -At last, however, they came to open battle on the plain of Pharsalia. -As Pompey’s forces far outnumbered those of Cæsar he felt confident -of victory. “The hour at length arrived; the charge was sounded by -the trumpets, and Cæsar’s troops began to advance with loud shouts -and great impetuosity toward Pompey’s lines. There was a long and -terrible struggle, but the forces of Pompey began finally to give -way. Notwithstanding the precautions which Pompey had taken to guard -and protect the wing of his army which was extended toward the land, -Cæsar succeeded in turning his flank upon that side by driving off -the cavalry, and destroying the archers and slingers; and he was thus -enabled to throw a strong force upon Pompey’s rear. The flight then -soon became general, and a scene of dreadful confusion and slaughter -ensued. The soldiers of Cæsar’s army, maddened with the insane rage -which the progress of a battle never fails to awaken, and now excited -to frenzy by the exultation of success, pressed on after the affrighted -fugitives, who trampled one upon another or fell pierced with the -weapons of their assailants, filling the air with their cries of agony -and their shrieks of terror.” - -When Pompey perceived that all was lost he fled from the field, and -having disguised himself as a common soldier, he retreated with a few -attendants until he reached the Vale of Tempe in Thessaly. Here, in -this picturesque spot, noted for its beautiful scenery, the fallen -Pompey took his weary way. Having at length reached the Ægean Sea, he -took refuge in a fisherman’s hut; hearing still of Cæsar’s pursuit he -did not dare to rest, but embarked the next morning in a little vessel, -with three attendants. He was afterwards taken up by the commander of -a merchant ship, and was at length conveyed to the island of Lesbos, -where his wife, Cornelia, was residing; Pompey had married her after -the death of Julia, Cæsar’s daughter. Cornelia now provided a small -fleet, and, determining to accompany her husband, they set sail upon -the Mediterranean Sea. At last Pompey decided to seek refuge in Egypt. -Some years before Pompey had been the means of restoring a king of -Egypt to his throne; this king had since died, but had left his -daughter, the famous Cleopatra, on the throne, to rule, conjointly, -with a younger brother, named Ptolemy. At this time, the Egyptian -ministers, who acted for the young prince, who was not old enough to be -invested with the royal power, had dethroned Cleopatra that they might -thus govern alone. - -Cleopatra went into Syria to raise an army to recover her lost throne, -and Ptolemy’s ministers had gone forth to battle with her. It was -then that Pompey arrived in Egypt, and thinking that the young prince -Ptolemy would receive him on account of the services Pompey had -rendered to the Egyptian king, father of Ptolemy, Pompey and Cornelia, -with their little fleet, approached the shore intending to land. A -messenger was sent to the young king to solicit a kind reception. -The Egyptian ministers of Ptolemy persuaded him that it would be -dangerous either to grant or refuse Pompey’s request, and therefore, -counselled that he might be invited to their camp, and then that he -should be killed; this would please Cæsar, who was now so powerful, -and it would put Pompey out of their way. This ungrateful counsel -prevailed, and an Egyptian was appointed to perform the bloody deed. A -courteous invitation was sent to Pompey to land, who, however, parted -with his wife, Cornelia, with many forebodings of evil. As the boat -of the Egyptians reached Pompey’s galley the officers hailed him with -every mark of respect; bidding Cornelia farewell, Pompey, with two -centurions, stepped into the Egyptian boat and was rowed to the shore. -Just as he was about to step from the boat the assassins drew their -swords, and Pompey was slain before the very eyes of his wife, who -beheld the bloody scene from the deck of her galley, and her piercing -shriek was wafted to the ears of her dying husband. The Egyptians then -cut off the head of Pompey, leaving the headless body lying upon the -shore. The two centurions who had accompanied Pompey, afterwards burned -the body, and sent the ashes to the heartbroken Cornelia. - -Cæsar, in pursuit of Pompey, soon after reached Alexandria, where -he learned of his death; and the Egyptians, hoping to please him, -presented to him the bloody head of his late enemy. But though Cæsar -was very ambitious, he was not blood-thirsty, nor brutal in his wars. -Instead of being pleased with such a ghastly gift, Cæsar turned from -the shocking spectacle in horror. While Cæsar was in Alexandria many -of Pompey’s officers came and surrendered themselves to him; and -Cæsar, finding himself so powerful, determined to use his authority as -Roman consul, to settle the dispute between Cleopatra and her brother -Ptolemy. It was at this time that Cleopatra, in order to plead her -cause, was brought by her commands to Cæsar’s quarters, rolled up in a -bale of carpeting, and carried upon the shoulders of a slave. As all -the avenues of approach to Cæsar’s apartments were in the possession -of her enemies she feared falling into their hands. Cæsar espoused her -cause, and determined that she and her brother Ptolemy should reign -jointly. Ptolemy was so incensed against his sister, for thus securing -Cæsar’s allegiance, that a violent war was waged between the Egyptians -and Cæsar. This is called in history the Alexandrine War. In the course -of this contest Cæsar took possession of the famous lighthouse of -Pharos, one of the Seven Wonders of the world. During the progress of -this war a great disaster occurred, which was the burning of the famous -Alexandrian library. The number of volumes, or rolls of parchment -there collected, was said to have been seven hundred thousand. When we -remember that the people in those days possessed no printed books, and -that each one of these rolls had been written by hand, with immense -labor, and at vast expense, the loss to the world of works which could -never be reproduced was irreparable. Cæsar was victorious in this war. -The young king Ptolemy was defeated, and in attempting to retreat -across one of the branches of the Nile he was drowned. Cæsar finally -settled Cleopatra and a younger brother upon the throne of Egypt and -returned to Rome. While Cæsar was in Egypt three great powers had -arisen against him, in Asia Minor, in Africa, and in Spain. - -He first went to Asia Minor and so quickly defeated his enemies there, -that it was in reference to this battle that he wrote the famous -inscription for his banner, which appeared in his triumphal procession, -“_Veni, Vidi, Vici_,” I came, I saw, I conquered. Cæsar then proceeded -to Africa, where his old enemy Cato had raised a large force against -him. Cæsar was successful also in this contest, and finally shut up -Cato in the city of Utica. Cato, finding defence hopeless, killed -himself. - -From Africa, Cæsar returned to Rome for a short time, and then went -to Spain to put down the rebellion there which was led by the sons of -Pompey. Here also he was successful, and the conqueror returned to -Rome the undisputed master of the whole Roman world. Then came his -magnificent triumphs. Cæsar celebrated four triumphs for his four great -campaigns, in Egypt, in Asia Minor, in Africa, and in Spain. These were -celebrated upon separate days. These triumphs were gorgeous in the -extreme. Forty elephants were employed as torch-bearers in one triumph -which took place at night, each elephant holding a great blazing -flambeau in his proboscis and waving it proudly in the air. These -triumphal processions are thus described by one historian. “In these -triumphal processions everything was borne in exhibition which could -serve as a symbol of the conquered country or a trophy of victory. -Flags and banners, taken from the enemy; vessels of gold and silver -and other treasures loaded in vans; wretched captives conveyed in open -carriages, or marching sorrowfully on foot, and destined, some of -them, to public execution when the ceremony of the triumph was ended; -displays of arms and implements and dresses and all else which might -serve to give the Roman crowd an idea of the customs and usages of the -remote and conquered nations; the animals they used caparisoned in the -manner in which they used them; these and a thousand other trophies -and emblems were brought into the line to excite the admiration of -the crowd, and to add to the gorgeousness of the spectacle. In these -triumphs of Cæsar a young sister of Cleopatra, wearing chains of -gold, was in the line of the Egyptian procession. In that devoted to -Asia Minor was a great banner containing the words already referred -to, Veni, Vidi, Vici. There were great paintings, too, borne aloft, -representing battles and other striking scenes. Of course, all Rome was -in the highest state of excitement during the days of the exhibition of -this pageantry. - -“The whole surrounding country flocked to the capital to witness it, -and Cæsar’s greatness and glory were signalized in the most conspicuous -manner to all the world. After these triumphs, a series of splendid -public entertainments were given, over twenty thousand tables having -been spread for the populace of the city. Shows of every character -and variety were exhibited. There were dramatic plays and equestrian -performances in the circus, and gladiatorial combats, and battles with -wild beasts, and dances and chariot races and every other amusement -which could be devised to gratify a population highly cultivated in -all the arts of life, but barbarous and cruel in heart and character. -Some of the accounts which have come down to us of the magnificence of -the scale on which these entertainments were conducted are absolutely -incredible. It is said that an immense basin was constructed near the -Tiber, large enough to contain two fleets of galleys, which had on -board two thousand rowers each and one thousand fighting men. These -fleets were then manned with captives,—the one with Asiatics, and the -other with Egyptians,—and when all was ready, they were compelled to -fight a real battle for the amusement of the spectators who thronged -the shores, until vast numbers were killed, and the waters of the lake -were dyed with blood. It is also said that the entire Forum and some of -the great streets in the neighborhood, where the principal gladiatorial -shows were held, were covered with silken awnings to protect the vast -crowds of spectators from the sun, and thousands of tents were erected -to accommodate the people from the surrounding country, whom the -buildings of the city could not contain.” - -All open opposition to Cæsar’s power was now put down. The Senate -vied with the people to do him honor. He was first made consul for -ten years, and then perpetual dictator. They conferred upon him the -title of “The Father of his Country.” Cæsar now began to form plans -for immense improvements which should benefit his empire. He completed -the regulation of the calendar. “The system of months in use in his -day corresponded so imperfectly with the annual circuit of the sun, -that the months were moving continually along the year in such a manner -that the winter months came at length in the summer, and the summer -months in the winter. This led to great practical inconveniences. -For whenever, for example, anything was required by law to be done -in certain months, intending to have them done in the summer, and -the specified month came at length to be a winter month, the law -would require the thing to be done in exactly the wrong season. Cæsar -remedied all this by adopting a new system of months which should -give three hundred and sixty-five days to the year for three years, -and three hundred and sixty-six for the fourth; and so exact was the -system which he thus introduced that it went on unchanged for sixteen -centuries. The months were then found to be eleven days out of the -way, and a new correction was introduced by Pope Gregory XIII., and it -will now go on three thousand years before the error will amount to a -single day. Cæsar employed a Greek astronomer to arrange the system he -adopted, and for this improvement one of the months was called July, -after Julius Cæsar. Its former name was Quintilis.” - -Cæsar commenced the collection of vast libraries; formed plans for -draining the Pontine Marshes, and for bringing great supplies of water -into the city by an aqueduct; and he intended to cut a new passage -for the Tiber from Rome to the sea. He also planned a road along the -Apennines, and a canal through the Isthmus of Corinth, and intended to -construct other vast works which should make Rome the wonder of the -world. - -But in the midst of all these grand projects he was suddenly stricken -down. Although the Romans disliked the thought of being ruled by a -king, they preserved certain statues of their kings in some of the -public buildings, and the ambition of Cæsar led him very foolishly -to place his own statue among them. He also had a seat prepared for -himself in the Senate in the form of a throne. On one occasion, when -the members of the Senate were to come to him in a temple to announce -certain decrees they had passed to his honor, Cæsar received them -sitting upon a magnificent chair, which seemed a throne, so gorgeous -was it; and he did not even rise to welcome them, as was the usual -custom, thus showing that he would receive them as a monarch, who -never rises in the presence of inferiors. This incident, small as it -may seem, aroused much indignation. His statue was also found adorned -with a laurel crown, to which was fastened a white fillet, which was -an emblem of royalty. On another occasion, at a public entertainment, -an officer placed a diadem upon the head of Cæsar, who pretended to -be disinclined to receive it, and taking it off, it was offered twice -again, and refused, when Cæsar sent the diadem to a temple near by as -an offering to Jupiter. Although he thus appeared to reject the honor, -his manner indicated that he only desired to be more warmly pressed to -receive it. There was now formed a strong conspiracy against Cæsar, -headed by Cassius, who had for a long time been Cæsar’s enemy. Cassius -at last succeeded in persuading Marcus Brutus to join him. The plan was -then divulged to such men as the conspirators thought most necessary -to the success of their plot. It was agreed that Cæsar must be slain. -They at length decided that the Roman Senate was the proper place. -As it had been rumored that Cæsar’s friends were about to attempt to -crown him as a king on the Ides of March, that day was chosen by the -conspirators as a fitting one on which Julius Cæsar should meet his -doom. Cæsar received many warnings of his approaching fate, and the -soothsayers reported many strange omens which betokened some portentous -event. One of these soothsayers informed Cæsar that he had been -warned, by certain signs at a public sacrifice, that some terrible -danger threatened his life on the Ides of March; and he besought him -to be cautious until that day should have passed. The Senate were to -meet on the Ides of March in a new and magnificent edifice, which had -been erected by Pompey. In this Senate Chamber was a statue of Pompey. -The day before the Ides of March, some birds of prey from a neighboring -grove came flying into this hall, pursuing a little wren which had a -sprig of laurel in its beak. The birds tore the poor wren to pieces, -and the laurel fell from its bill to the marble pavement below. As -Cæsar had been crowned with laurel after his victories, and always -wore a wreath of laurel on public occasions, this event was thought -to portend some evil to him. The night before the Ides of March, both -Cæsar and his wife Calpurnia awoke from terrible dreams. Cæsar dreamed -that he ascended into the skies and was received by Jupiter, and -Calpurnia, awakening with a wild shriek, declared that she had dreamed -that the roof of the house had fallen in, and that her husband had been -stabbed by an assassin. When morning came, Calpurnia endeavored to -persuade Cæsar not to go to the Senate, and he had consented to comply -with her wish, until one of the conspirators, who had been appointed to -accompany Cæsar to the Senate, came to the house of Julius Cæsar, and -by his declarations that the people were waiting to confer upon their -dictator the title of king throughout all the Roman dominions excepting -Italy alone, he at length persuaded Cæsar to go with him. On the way -to the Senate, a Greek teacher, having learned something of the plot, -wrote a statement of it, and as Cæsar passed him he gave it to him, -saying, “Read this immediately; it concerns yourself, and is of the -utmost importance.” Cæsar made the attempt to do so, but the crowd of -people who pressed towards him and handed him various petitions, as was -the usual custom when a state officer appeared in public, prevented -Cæsar from thus learning of the dreadful fate awaiting him. There was -one warm friend of Cæsar, named Marc Antony, whom the conspirators -feared might interfere with the successful completion of their plot, -and so it was arranged that one of their number should engage the -attention of Antony, while the petitioner chosen should advance and -make his appeal to Cæsar, which should be the signal for the bloody -deed. This conspirator made a pretence of asking Cæsar for the pardon -of his brother, which request, as they had expected, Cæsar declined to -grant. This occasioned an outburst of pretended fury, under cover of -which the conspirators rushed upon Cæsar and stabbed him with their -swords. Cæsar at first attempted to defend himself, but as Brutus, his -former friend, also plunged his dagger into his side, he exclaimed, -“And you, too, Brutus?” and drawing his mantle over his face, he fell -at the feet of Pompey’s statue and expired. Now again the city of Rome -was in wild tumult. - -The conspirators marched boldly through the streets with their bloody -swords. They boasted of their shocking deed, and announced that they -had delivered their country from a tyrant. The people, stunned by -the daring of this terrible act, knew not what to think or do. Some -barricaded their houses in fear; others hurried through the streets -with blanched faces; and still others excitedly seized any kind of -weapon near at hand, and joined a mob, which threatened to break out in -awful violence, to avenge the death of Cæsar, their idol. - -During all this time the body of Cæsar lay unheeded at the foot of -Pompey’s statue, pierced with twenty-three wounds, made by the hands of -men he thought were his friends. Three slaves were his only guardians; -and at last they lifted the poor bruised, bleeding, and ghastly corpse, -and carried it home to the distracted Calpurnia. The next day, Brutus -and the other conspirators called the people together in the Forum, and -there addressed them, endeavoring to persuade them that the deed had -been committed only in the interests of the people, to rid them of a -tyrant. But the subsequent famous funeral speech of Marc Antony, roused -the people to such a wild frenzy of revenge, that the conspirators were -only saved from death with great difficulty by the intervention of the -Senate. - -The Field of Mars had been chosen as the place for the funeral pile; -but after the speech of Marc Antony in the Forum, where the body of -Cæsar had been placed on a gilded bed covered with scarlet and cloth of -gold, under a gorgeous canopy made in the form of a temple, the people -in their wild outbursts of love for Cæsar, as they had then learned -from his will, which Antony read aloud to them, of his munificent -bequests to the Roman citizens, became ungovernable in their desires -to do him reverence. As a crier, by Antony’s order, read the decrees -of the Senate, in which all honors, human and divine, had been been -ascribed to Cæsar, the gilded bed upon which he lay was lifted and -borne out into the centre of the Forum; and two men, having forced -their way through the crowd, with lighted torches set fire to the bed -on which the body of Cæsar lay, and the multitudes with shouts of -enthusiastic applause, seized everything within reach and placed them -upon the funeral pile. The soldiers then threw on their lances and -spears; musicians cast their instruments into the increasing flames; -women tore off their jewels to add to the gorgeous pile, and all -vied with each other to contribute something to enlarge the blazing -funeral pile. So fierce were the flames that they spread to some of the -neighboring buildings, and a terrible conflagration which would have -given Cæsar the most majestic funeral pile in the annals of the world, -for it would have been the blazing light from the burning city of Rome -itself, was only prevented by the most strenuous efforts. - -Some time after, Octavius Cæsar, the successor of Julius Cæsar, and -Marc Antony, waged war with Cassius and Brutus; and at the battle of -Philippi, where Cassius and Brutus were defeated, and while they were -fleeing from the field, hopeless of further defence, they both killed -themselves with their own swords. - -Cæsar died at the age of fifty-six. The Roman people erected a column -to his memory, on which they placed the inscription, “To the Father -of His Country.” A figure of a star was placed upon the summit of -this memorial shaft, and some time afterwards, while the people were -celebrating some games in honor of Cæsar’s memory, a great comet blazed -for seven nights in the sky, which they declared to be a sign that the -soul of Cæsar was admitted among the gods. - - - - -CHARLEMAGNE. - -742-814 A.D. - - “To whom God will, there be the victory.” - SHAKESPEARE. - - -THERE was great terror and dismay among the inhabitants of the city of -Paris, called in those early days, Lutetia. - -[Illustration: CHARLEMAGNE. - -(From Early Engraving.)] - -The Gauls, who dwelt in that part of the country, were now menaced by a -foe even more terrible than the Roman soldiers led by the famous Julius -Cæsar, who had invaded their land about 500 years before, and made -their country a Roman province. - -But now a fearful war-cry rings through the air; and as the frightened -Gauls hastily arm themselves for resistance, a horde of Teutonic -giants, with light complexions, long yellow hair waving in the wind, -and eyes so bright and cat-like that they fairly shone with a green -glare of animal-like ferocity, which was heightened by their clothing -made of the skins of the bear, the boar, and the wolf, making them -look in the distance like a herd of wild beasts, came rushing like an -avalanche of destruction over the peaceful homes of the Gauls. These -hordes advanced in a mighty wedge-like phalanx, formed of their bravest -warriors, each man carrying in his right hand a long lance, and in the -left a buckler, or skin-covered shield, while his girdle held a sharp -two-edged axe, which became, with dexterous handling, a most dangerous -weapon, and was hurled from a distance with marvellous aim. With -mounted warriors protecting the wings of this invincible phalanx, -on came this fierce, wild tribe, charging to battle with a terrible -war-whoop, which they made more shrill by placing the edge of the -buckler to the mouth. - -In vain the Gauls looked to Rome for help. There was too much trouble -in Italy for the Roman government to help any one. So these giant -Franks came rushing unchecked on to Paris, while the frightened Gauls -were powerless to resist them. The leader of this horde was called -Hilperik, the son of Meerwig; and having taken possession of Paris, and -several surrounding provinces, he founded the kingdom afterwards called -France, from this tribe who were called Franks. - -The story of kings is too often a story of blood and cruelty, and the -kingdom which the great Charlemagne inherited had been the scene of -fearful and continual conflicts. - -The Goths, one of the fierce German nations, had conquered a large part -of Gaul after it had become a Roman province, and in the year 451, -the Huns, a more terrible nation still, whose chief was the famous -Attila, who called himself the “Scourge of God,” invaded Gaul with -his army,—horrible looking men, whose faces had been gashed by their -savage parents in their infancy, that they might look more dreadful. -The poor Gauls thought rightly, that it was more fearful to fall -into their hands than into those of the Franks; but the Huns came no -further than Orleans, where an army, composed of Gauls, Franks, Goths, -Burgundians, all under the Roman general Ætius, attacked the Huns at -Châlons-sur-Marne, beat them, and drove them back. Châlons was the last -victory in Gaul, won under the Roman banners, and now the poor Gauls -were obliged to meet their enemies alone. The chief tribes of those -warlike races, who swarmed over Europe, both north and south, were -the Goths who conquered Rome, and settled in Spain; the Longbeards -or Lombards, who spread over the north of Italy; the Burgundians, or -town-livers, who held all the country around the Alps; the Swabians -and Germans, who stayed in the middle of Europe; the Saxons, who dwelt -south of the Baltic, and finally conquered South Britain; the Northmen, -who found a home in Scandinavia; and the Franks, who had been long -settled on the rivers Sale, Meuse, and Rhine. Their name meant freemen, -and they were noted for using an axe, called after them. Of the Franks -there were two noted tribes,—the Salian, from the river Sale, and the -Ripuarian. They were great horsemen, and the Salians had a family of -kings, who were supposed to have descended from one of their warlike -gods, called Odin. Although the Franks were a ferocious and sometimes -cruel race, they were in some respects superior to the other barbaric -tribes, and were liked better by the Gauls than any other of those -various nations. - -[Illustration: THE HUNS AT CHÂLONS.] - -After Cæsar’s conquest many of the Romans had remained in Gaul, and had -built and conquered cities, and lived under Roman laws. They taught the -Gauls to speak Latin, and organized many schools and colleges among -them. The Gauls adopted the Roman dress and religion. The religion of -the ancient Gauls had been taught to the people by priests, called -Druids. Druidism was a confusion of mingled ideas of Oriental dreams -and traditions, borrowed from the mythologies of the East and the -North; and although it was degraded by barbaric practices such as human -sacrifices in honor of the gods or of the dead, it possessed one germ -of truth, for the Druids believed in the immortality of the soul. Their -priests were old and wise men, who had studied often for twenty -years before they were considered wise enough to become “Men of the -Oak,” as the chief Druids were called. They made laws for the people -and settled questions of dispute. Once every year the Druids went out -to look for the mistletoe, which they considered a sacred plant. When -a mistletoe was found growing upon an oak, the people came from all -parts of the country and stood around the tree. Then a Druid, clothed -in white, climbed up the oak-tree, and cut off the sacred mistletoe -with a golden sickle, and the much prized plant was caught by the other -Druids below, in a white cloth, and was carried away to be preserved as -a great treasure. - -But the Gauls living in those provinces conquered by the Romans, had -given up their old Druidical religion, and adopted that of their -conquerors, which was no improvement, for it was also a paganism, and -was such a mass of superstition and idolatry, derived from Grecian -mythology and old traditions, that it did not even possess the vital -force of the Druidical belief. For the Druids worshipped, as they -thought, living deities, while the Græco-Roman paganism was a dead -religion, with only dead gods, buried beneath their still standing -altars. Such were the superstitions and false religions with which -the Christians of the early centuries had to contend in laboring to -convert the then known world to the worship of the one true and living -God and His Son Jesus Christ, who had already lived his holy life -upon this earth, and given himself a sacrifice for the salvation of -mankind. Already the disciples of Christ had founded Christian churches -in Asia Minor and Palestine, and many of them had died as martyrs for -the faith. St. Paul had preached at Athens and at Rome, and having -finished his glorious work he had received his crown of martyrdom. -And all down these early centuries teachers had been sent out by the -Christian churches, to endeavor to convert the heathen world around -to a belief in the one true and only religion which could secure the -salvation of the immortal soul. The Roman emperors had all persecuted -the Christians and sought to uphold paganism. But when A.D. 312, the -Emperor Constantine declared himself a Christian, “paganism fell, and -Christianity mounted the throne.” Previous to the conquest of Gaul by -the Franks, the Gauls had adopted Christianity, and when Hilperik, -king of the Franks, conquered Paris and the surrounding country, and -at his death left this kingdom to his son, named Hlodwig, or Clovis, -there were many Christians and churches and monasteries in Gaul. Clovis -conquered many of the surrounding provinces, and at last became the -ruler of nearly the whole of Gaul. Clovis had married a Burgundian -maiden, named Clothilda, and as she was a Christian he allowed her -to worship God in the Christian churches. But in the great battle of -Tolbiacum, which Clovis fought with the Germans, when it seemed as -though the Franks would be defeated, Clovis took an oath that if the -God of his wife would give him the victory he would become a Christian. -The Franks were victorious, and Clovis was baptized with all his chief -warriors. - -[Illustration: “THRUST HIM AWAY, OR THOU DIEST IN HIS STEAD.”] - -When Clovis died, he left four sons, among whom he divided his kingdom. -One was the king of Paris; another, king of Orleans; a third, king of -Soissons; and the fourth, who reigned over that part of Gaul nearest -Germany and the Rhine, was called king of Metz. In a battle with the -Burgundians, the king of Orleans, Clodomir, was killed, leaving three -young sons who were placed in the care of their grandmother Clothilda. -At length the kings of Paris and Soissons became jealous of these -children of their elder brother Clodomir, and sent for the children, -under pretence of placing them upon the throne of their father. But -as soon as they had them in their cruel power, they sent a pair of -scissors and a sword to Clothilda, with a message, saying: “We wait -thy wishes as to the three children; shall they be slain or shorn?” -meaning, shall they be killed or shut up in monasteries? Clothilda, in -despair, cried out: “Slain, rather than shorn!” and the messengers, -not waiting to hear her further words, returned to the cruel kings, -and announced that they had secured the consent of Clothilda for the -shocking deed. The wicked kings then hastily entered the room where the -three helpless boys were imprisoned, and having slain the eldest, the -second one clung to the knees of his uncle Childebert, king of Paris, -who was for a moment moved with pity, and asked his brother Clotaire -to spare the boy. But the wicked Clotaire, king of Soissons, exclaimed -in wrath, “Thrust him away or thou diest in his stead!” Whereupon, -Childebert tried no more to save him, and Clotaire seized the poor boy, -who was now shrieking with terror, and plunged a hunting-knife into his -side, as he had his brother’s, and slew him. These murdered children -were only ten and seven years old. The third brother was snatched up by -some brave friends, and hidden away where the cruel uncles could not -find him. He was afterwards placed in a monastery, and became a monk, -and founded a monastery near Paris, called after him, St. Cloud. After -the sons of Clovis there followed a line of kings in France called the -Meerwings, or long-haired kings, known in history as the Merovingians; -and only two of them are important enough to be mentioned, and those -only on account of their crimes. One of the sons of Clovis left four -sons; and two of these, named Hilperik and Siegbert, married the two -daughters of the king of the Goths, in Spain. These sisters were -called Galswinth and Brunehild. Hilperik loved a slave girl he owned, -named Fredegond, and either with or without his consent, his wife -Galswinth was found strangled in her bed, and he afterwards married -the murderess, Fredegond, who, though most atrociously wicked, became -a powerful queen. Brunehild persuaded her husband Siegbert to make -war upon Hilperik, to avenge the death of her sister. Hilperik was -defeated, but the Queen Fredegond contrived to have Siegbert murdered, -and afterwards killed her husband’s other children, thus leaving her -own son heir to the throne. She then ordered her husband also to -be put to death, so that she could reign alone in the name of her -infant son. The four kingdoms left by Clovis had been now merged into -three,—Neustria, which is now the north of France; Austrasia, which is -now the north-east corner of France, and part of Belgium, and part of -the western side of Germany; and the third kingdom was called Burgundy. -The Neustrians and the Austrasians were usually at war with each other, -the Burgundians taking now one side of the quarrel and now the other. -Queen Fredegond’s part of Gaul was Neustria, while Queen Brunehild -governed Austrasia. But Brunehild quarrelled with the chiefs of the -country; and after many years of wars, plots, and murders, she was at -last brutally killed by the son of Fredegond, who became king of all -the Franks; and in Neustria every one obeyed him; but in Austrasia -the great chiefs and bishops were opposed to him. The bishops had by -this time become rich and powerful, for a great amount of land had -been left to the church by the wills of dying Christians, or as gifts -from kings and chiefs. When Clotaire, son of Fredegond, died, he left -two sons; one of them named Dagobert made himself master of Neustria -and Austrasia, and gave his brother land in the south part of the -country, which had not been visited before by a Frankish king. Dagobert -took Paris for his chief town; he made himself a splendid court, took -journeys through his kingdom, doing justice to his subjects, and -encouraged the building of churches, and had copies of the old Frankish -laws written out and sent throughout his kingdom. The people liked him; -but the powerful chiefs and the bishops, who had become so worldly that -they thought a great deal more about piling up riches than in turning -the people to Christianity, were filled with dismay to have so wise and -just a king, who was fast gaining a great power over the people. After -ten years Dagobert died and left two sons; one was king of Austrasia; -and the younger king of Neustria. After these, there followed three -more kings in Neustria, and four in Austrasia, but they had no power, -and were only called kings, while the government was really in the -hands of a new set of men, from which line the illustrious Charlemagne -sprang. The chief man next the king in these countries was called the -Mayor of the Palace. He had the chief command in times of war, and at -last became in truth the sovereign ruler; and they only put up one of -their do-nothing kings as a figure-head. After the death of Dagobert, -there was no other Frankish king of any importance in the line of the -Merovingians. The Fainéants, or do-nothing kings, as they were called, -sat on the throne and pretended to rule, but the mayor of the palace -told them what they must say to the people and what they must do. -This went on for nearly a hundred years. When Dagobert died, the mayor -of the palace was named Pepin, and through several reigns he really -governed both Austrasia and Neustria. He made war against the Germans, -and sometimes when they were very troublesome he went with an army and -subdued them; and at other times he sent monks to try and convert them -to Christianity. When Pepin died, his son Karl became the mayor of the -palace. Now Karl wished to secure money to give to his chiefs, so that -they would fight for him, and so he took away from the bishops the rich -lands which belonged to the church, and gave them to his warriors. -Karl had first to fight the Saxons, whom he defeated, and then there -appeared a new foe. The Arabs lived in Arabia, on the east side of the -Red Sea, in Asia. - -They had always been a poor, wandering people. But about one hundred -and fifty years before this time, an Arab had appeared among his -countrymen, claiming to be a mighty prophet, and teaching them a new -religion. It was not the Christian religion; but this man, who was -named Mohammed, claimed that he had been sent by God to teach the -people; and so the religion he proclaimed was called Mohammedanism. -Now the Arabs had never left their own country before, but they -determined to go forth and conquer the world, and make all the nations -Mohammedans. They conquered Persia, Egypt, Spain, and a part of Africa. -When they overcame any nation, if the people would consent to become -Mohammedans, the Arabs treated them with kindness; but if they refused, -they made slaves of them, and sometimes put them to death. Having -conquered Spain, the Arabs wished to become masters of France. - -When they had passed the Pyrenees, Karl went forth to meet them. There -was a great battle, known in history as the Battle of Tours, and at -length Karl conquered the Mohammedans, and drove them out of France. -Some accounts state that three hundred thousand Arabs were killed. - -This mayor of the palace has been called Karl the Hammer, or in -French, Charles Martel, in memory of the blows he inflicted upon these -Mohammedan enemies. He was afterwards called the Duke of the Franks. - -In the time of Charles Martel, several kings became monks. An English -monk named Winfrid had been sent by the Pope and Charles Martel to -preach to the Saxons. After persuading thousands of the people to be -baptized, this monk was made bishop and then archbishop. But he thought -more of converting the heathen than of wearing honors, and leaving his -bishopric to another, he went forth into a wild part of the country -to preach Christianity. When a large number of people had assembled -to be baptized, an armed force of the heathen attacked them, killing -Winfrid and all the Christian people. This good monk is called also St. -Boniface. - -After the death of Charles Martel his two sons ruled for six years -together, and then one of them went into a monastery, leaving the -younger, Pepin, who now became the only duke of the Franks. - -The people began to think it absurd to have a useless set of lazy, -do-nothing, Merovingian, or long-haired kings, who were only puppets in -the hands of the reigning duke. So Pepin, also called Le Bref, or the -Short, asked the Pope to make him king, instead of the figure-head who -sat upon the throne, who at that time bore the name of Hilperik. The -answer of the Pope was, “He who has the power ought also to have the -name of king.” - -[Illustration: CHARLEMAGNE.] - -As the Pope had thus consented to the change, all the Franks were -delighted, and they took the useless king from his throne, cut off -his long yellow hair, which was his sign of royalty, and shut him up -in a monastery. He died two years afterwards, and was the last of the -Merovingian kings. - -Pepin was now crowned by St. Boniface, as this event preceded the death -of that king, and thus he became the first of the Carlovingian kings, -so called from Carolus, the Latin for Charles, which was the name of -Pepin’s father, and his still greater son. - -Pepin now aided the Pope by marching into Italy and fighting the -Lombards; and having conquered them, he took their lands and gave them -to the Pope, which property afterwards descended from one pope to -another, so that the popes at last became masters of quite a kingdom in -Italy. Pepin also besieged a town in Southern Gaul, belonging to the -Arabs, and after seven years captured it, and drove the Arabs over the -Pyrenees, into Spain. He reigned for sixteen years, and dying left his -kingdom to his two sons Karl and Karloman, who divided it between them; -but Karloman lived but three years, when Karl became the king of France. - -While his Austrasian subjects, who spoke German, called him Karl, the -Neustrians, whose language was a mingling of the Latin and the German, -which has since become the French language, called him Charles; and -after he became so famous, the Latin word _magnus_, meaning great, was -added, and Charles-Magnus thus became the Charlemagne of history. - -Very little can be learned regarding the early life of Charlemagne. One -of the old writers, named Eginhard, who afterwards became the secretary -of Charlemagne, records that neither he himself, nor any one then -living, knew anything about the birth of this prince, nor about his -infancy, nor even youth. His father, King Pepin, had his two sons -associated with himself, when he received the title of king from the -Bishop of Rome; but neither of them received any separate government -during their father’s life. They were taught, with the other young -nobles, by Peter of Pisa, whom Pepin retained at his court for this -purpose. It is supposed that King Pepin took the young princes with -him in his Italian expeditions, and that Charlemagne accompanied his -father in the Aquitanian war. When King Pepin died, his eldest son was -twenty-six years and a half old, while the younger was barely nineteen. -Both were already married to wives of the Frank race. Charles, or -Charlemagne, to Himiltrude, and Carloman to Gerberge. - -The first battle in which Charlemagne engaged was soon after his -father’s death, with the Aquitanians, who were the people living in -the south-west part of France. The brother-kings raised troops to -meet them, but Carloman through jealousy withdrew his forces, leaving -Charlemagne to carry on the war alone. He was victorious, and the -Aquitanians submitted. The queen-mother Bertrada now used her influence -to secure a permanent alliance between the Lombards and the Franks, and -persuaded Charlemagne to divorce his wife and marry Desiderata, the -daughter of Didier the Lombard king. This Charlemagne consented to do, -even against the advice of the Pope, and he suffered for his folly, -or wickedness; for so it was, even though his mother did sanction -it, for he was so unhappy with Desiderata, that in about a year he -put her away and married Hildegarde. In those days kings married and -divorced their wives as often as they pleased, and Charlemagne, with -all his greatness and his aid to Christianity, was in this particular -very culpable, and his domestic life was not at all in keeping with -the majesty, and goodness, and uprightness of his public life. After -the death of Hildegarde, he married two other wives. One Fastrada, an -Austrasian, was a very wicked woman, and caused him much trouble. The -last one, whom he loved the most, was named Luitgarda. She was kind and -gentle, and her influence over Charlemagne was very beneficial after -the wicked Fastrada had led him into so much trouble. The French have -an old legend, which relates that the evil influence which Fastrada -exercised over the strong mind of the great king, leading him to acts -of injustice and tyranny, which alienated the affections of his nobles, -was due to the magic spell of a ring which she wore. On her death, the -ring came into possession of a bishop, for whom Charlemagne immediately -showed such admiration, that the bishop found it unpleasant, and cast -the ring into a neighboring lake. Here it also exercised its magic -charm, and the king would sit for hours gazing into the waters of the -lake, as though spell-bound. But this legend cannot disguise the weak -side of Charlemagne’s character, and we can only turn from it and fix -our attention upon his great career. - -He was one of the wisest and most powerful of kings. His life was one -of constant war. He fought the Saxons for thirty-three years, but -at last he conquered Witikind, the great Saxon leader, in 785, and -persuaded him to be baptized. Charlemagne made him Duke of Saxony, and -he lived in good faith to the new vows he had taken. Notwithstanding -this victory over the Saxons, Charlemagne foresaw the evils which -should come upon Europe through the formidable Northmen. The monk of -St. Gall relates this incident: “Charlemagne arrived unexpectedly in -a certain town of Narbonnese Gaul. Whilst he was at dinner, and was -as yet unrecognized of any, some corsairs of the Northmen came to ply -their piracies in the very port. When their vessels were descried, they -were supposed to be Jewish traders according to some, African according -to others, and British in the opinion of others; but the gifted monarch -perceiving by the build and lightness of the craft that they bare not -merchandise, but foes, said to his own folk, ‘These vessels be not -laden with merchandise, but manned with cruel foes.’ At these words, -all the Franks, in rivalry one with another, ran to their ships, but -uselessly, for the Northmen, indeed, hearing that yonder was he whom it -was still their wont to call Charles the Hammer, feared lest all their -fleet should be taken or destroyed in the port, and they avoided by a -flight of inconceivable rapidity not only the blows, but even the eyes -of those who were pursuing them. - -“Pious Charles, however, a prey to well-grounded fear, rose up from -table, stationed himself at a window looking eastward, and there -remained a long while, and his eyes were filled with tears. As none -durst question him, this warlike prince explained to the grandees who -were about his person the cause of his movement and of his tears. ‘Know -ye, my lieges, wherefore I weep so bitterly? Of a surety I fear not -lest these fellows should succeed in injuring me by their miserable -piracies; but it grieveth me deeply that whilst I live, they should -have been nigh to touching at this shore, and I am a prey to violent -sorrow when I foresee what evils they will heap upon my descendants and -their people.’” - -But during all the years of the Saxon wars, Charlemagne had been -carrying on various campaigns elsewhere. The Lombards were again at -war with the Popes, and the king of Lombards, Didier, whose daughter -Charlemagne had married and so soon divorced, had now become his bitter -foe. The new Pope, Adrian I., sought the aid of Charlemagne in this -war with the Lombards, and he prepared for this Italian expedition. He -raised two armies,—one to cross the Valais and descend upon Lombardy -by Mount St. Bernard, and the other, to be led by Charlemagne, was -to go by the way of Mount Cenis. Didier had with him a famous Dane, -named Ogier, who had quarrelled with Charlemagne and taken refuge in -Lombardy. One of the monks of that time thus describes Charlemagne’s -arrival before Pavia, where Didier and the Dane Ogier had shut -themselves up, as it was the strongest place in Lombardy. - -“When Didier and Ogger (for so the monk calls him) heard that the dread -monarch was coming, they ascended a tower of vast height, whence they -could watch his arrival from afar off and from every quarter. They -saw, first of all, engines of wars, such as must have been necessary -for the armies of Darius or Julius Cæsar. ‘Is not Charles,’ asked -Didier of Ogger, ‘with this great army?’ But the other answered, ‘No.’ -The Lombard, seeing afterwards an immense body of soldiery gathered -from all quarters of the vast empire, said to Ogger, ‘Certes, Charles -advanceth in triumph in the midst of this throng.’ ‘No, not yet; he -will not appear so soon,’ was the answer. ‘What should we do, then,’ -rejoined Didier, who began to be perturbed, ‘should he come accompanied -by a larger band of warriors?’ ‘You will see what he is when he comes,’ -replied Ogger; ‘but as to what will become of us I know nothing.’ As -they were thus parleying appeared the body of guards that knew no -repose, and at this sight the Lombard, overcome with dread, cried, -‘This time ’tis surely Charles.’ ‘No,’ answered Ogger, ‘not yet.’ In -their wake came the bishops, the abbots, the ordinaries of the chapels -royal, and the counts; and then Didier, no longer able to bear the -light of day or to face death, cried out with groans, ‘Let us descend -and hide ourselves in the bowels of the earth, far from the face and -the fury of so terrible a foe.’ Trembling the while, Ogger, who knew -by experience what were the power and might of Charles, and who had -learned the lesson by long usage in better days, then said, ‘When ye -shall behold the crops shaking for fear in the fields, and the gloomy -Po and the Ticino overflowing the walls of the city with their waves -blackened with steel (iron), then may ye think that Charles is coming.’ -He had not ended these words when there began to be seen in the west, -as it were, a black cloud, raised by the north-west wind or by Boreas, -which turned the brightest day into awful shadows. But as the emperor -drew nearer and nearer, the gleam of arms caused to shine on the people -shut up within the city a day more gloomy than any kind of night. And -then appeared Charles himself, that man of steel, with his head encased -in a helmet of steel, his hands garnished with gauntlets of steel, -his heart of steel and his shoulders of marble protected by a cuirass -of steel, and his left hand armed with a lance of steel which he held -aloft in the air, for as to his right hand, he kept that continually on -the hilt of his invincible sword. The outside of his thighs, which the -rest for their greater ease in mounting a horseback were wont to leave -unshackled even by straps, he wore encircled by plates of steel. What -shall I say concerning his boots? All the army were wont to have them -invariably of steel; on his buckler there was nought to be seen but -steel; his horse was of the color and the strength of steel. All those -who went before the monarch, all those who marched at his side, all -those who followed after, even the whole mass of the army, had armor of -the like sort, so far as the means of each permitted. The fields and -the highways were covered with steel; the points of steel reflected -the rays of the sun; and this steel, so hard, was borne by a people -with hearts still harder. The flash of steel spread terror throughout -the streets of the city. ‘What steel! alack, what steel!’ Such were -the bewildered cries the citizens raised. The firmness of manhood and -of youth gave way at sight of the steel, and the steel paralyzed the -wisdom of the gray beards. That which I, poor tale-teller, mumbling -and toothless, have attempted to depict in a long description, Ogger -perceived at one rapid glance, and said to Didier, ‘Here is what ye -have so anxiously sought’; and whilst uttering these words he fell down -almost lifeless.” - -But notwithstanding all King Didier’s fear, he and the Lombards evinced -such resistance, that Charlemagne was obliged to settle down before -Pavia in a long siege. His camp without the city became a town, so -that he sent for his wife, Queen Hildegarde, and her court, also his -children and their attendants, and said to the chiefs of his army, “Let -us begin by doing something memorable.” So men were at once set to -work to build a basilica, and within a week it was completed, with its -walls, roofs, and painted ceilings, which would seemingly have required -a year to erect. - -In this chapel, Charlemagne, and his family, court, and warriors, -celebrated the festival of Christmas, 773. But just before Easter, -774, Charlemagne determined to leave his lieutenants to continue the -siege, and attended by a numerous and brilliant retinue, he set off for -Rome. On Holy Saturday, when Charlemagne was about three miles from -Rome, the magistrates and citizens and pupils of the schools came forth -to meet him, bearing palm-branches and singing hymns. At the gate of -the city, Charlemagne dismounted before the cross, and entered Rome -on foot, and having ascended the steps of the ancient basilica of St. -Peter, he was received at the top by the Pope himself. Then a chant was -sung by the people all around him: “Blessed be he that cometh in the -name of the Lord.” - -According to the custom of pilgrims, Charlemagne visited all the -basilicas in Rome. He confirmed his father’s gift to the former Pope, -and added new gifts of his own. The Pope gave to Charlemagne a book -containing a collection of the canons written by the pontiffs from the -origin of the church. This he dedicated to Charlemagne, and wrote in -it, “Pope Adrian, to his most excellent son Charlemagne, king.” - -Charlemagne then returned to his camp before Pavia, and having -captured the city, received the submission of all the Lombards. In 778 -Charlemagne had a war with the Arabs in Spain. He crossed the Pyrenees -and went as far as the Ebro, but the Arabs gave him large gifts of gold -and jewels, and persuaded him to spare their fine cities. As he was -returning over the mountains, his army was attacked by a wild people -called the Basques; and several of his bravest leaders were killed, -among them the famous Roland, concerning whom various stories are told, -one being that he blew a blast on his bugle with his last breath, to -warn Charlemagne, who was far in the front, of this unexpected danger. -Another legend makes him to have possessed herculean strength, in -token of which a great cleft is shown in the Pyrenean Hills, said to -have been made by one stroke of his sword, and it bears the name of the -“La Brèche de Roland.” Pfalgraf, or Count of the Palace, was the name -given to some of the bravest Frank lords, and in old romances Roland -and others are called the Paladins. - -[Illustration: DEATH OF ROLAND.] - -Charlemagne had three sons, Carl, Pepin, and Lodwig, afterwards called -Louis le Débonnaire. In 781 Charlemagne took his two younger sons, -Pepin, aged four, and Louis, only three years of age, to Rome, where -they were anointed by Pope Adrian I.,—Pepin as king of Italy, and Louis -as king of Aquitaine. On returning from Rome, Charlemagne sent the baby -Louis at once to take formal possession of his kingdom. He was carried -to Orleans in a cradle, and then the little prince was clad in a tiny -suit of armor, and attendants held him up on horseback as he entered -his kingdom of Aquitaine. He was accompanied by many officers and men -of state who were to form his council of guardians. Afterwards the poor -baby king was taken back to his father’s palace to be educated. - -Charlemagne founded Aix-la-Chapelle and made it his favorite winter -residence. He went out to fight each summer, and came back to his -kingdom in the winter. He was very seldom defeated in war, for he was -wise and energetic, and moved his army about so quickly that he was -a match for much larger forces than his own. He held a council of -war every Easter when all his chiefs assembled, and Charlemagne made -known to them his plans for his coming campaign. He made improvements -in the armor and weapons of his soldiers. Their helmets were provided -with visors which could be brought down to protect their faces in -battle, and their shields were long and large, instead of the small -round skin-covered bucklers of the early Gauls. His soldiers fought -with sharp-pointed, two-handed swords, and they employed also heavy -clubs covered with iron knobs, which were most formidable weapons. -Charlemagne’s forces were mounted on strong fleet horses from the -Rhine, and so great was his knowledge of all the surrounding countries, -that he could despatch an army to any part of his kingdom at short -notice, and with perfect accuracy as to route. - -On the 23d of November, 800, Charlemagne arrived at Rome, where he was -met by Pope Leo III., whom he had several times aided in conflicts with -his enemies, at one time receiving Leo into his own palace for a year, -when conspirators at Rome were seeking the Pope’s life. In return for -these favors, and to secure the help of so mighty a warrior, Pope Leo -crowned Charlemagne Emperor of Rome. The ceremony was performed on -Christmas day, 800. Eginhard thus described the scene: “The king came -into the basilica of the blessed St. Peter, apostle, to attend the -celebration of mass. At the moment when in his place before the altar -he was bowing down to pray, Pope Leo placed upon his head a crown, -and all the Roman people shouted, ‘Long life and victory to Charles -Augustus, crowned by God, the great and pacific emperor of the Romans!’ -After this proclamation the pontiff prostrated himself before him, and -paid him adoration according to the custom established in the days of -the old emperors; and thenceforward Charles, giving up the title of -patrician, bore that of emperor and Augustus.” Charlemagne had now -become emperor of France, of Germany, and of Italy. - -But it is not only as a great warrior that Charlemagne is famous. His -government was a model for those times, and he held his subjects, so -diverse as to nationality and education, under a most wise and powerful -authority; and out of a chaos of different nations—the wild anarchy of -ruined Rome, and the ill-regulated force of barbaric hordes—he founded -a monarchy strong in him alone, and though it fell at his death, each -piece of his great empire possessed enough of the vitalizing force, -which his mind and wisdom had given to it, to enable it to rise an -empire by itself. So, though Charlemagne’s kingdom could not be -preserved by his successors, from that great power rose the separate -empires of France, Germany, and Italy. One of Charlemagne’s humane acts -was his care for the slaves in Gaul. At that time all the chiefs were -warriors, while their lands were tilled by serfs, or slaves, who went -with the land as part of the property, whether bought or captured. He -made laws to protect the slaves as far as possible against unjust and -cruel masters. - -Charlemagne was also fond of study. He learned Latin and Greek, and -improved his native German language by inventing German words for the -months and the winds. He paid great attention to astronomy and music, -and in theological studies evinced a strong interest. He caused to be -commenced the first Germanic grammar. But with all his learning there -was one thing he could not accomplish, which was to write a good hand, -though he zealously practiced the art, even putting his little tablets -under his pillow that he might catch at any odd moments day or night -to perfect his imperfect writing. At whatever palace Charlemagne was -residing, he always formed there a school called the School of the -Palace, where many learned men were gathered together, and where -members of the royal family, including Charlemagne himself, and his -children, took lessons in the different sciences, grammar, rhetoric, -and theology. Two names are famous among these wise men, who became -the particular advisers and confidants of Charlemagne, Alcuin and -Eginhard, who afterwards became the biographer of Charlemagne, and the -adviser of his son Louis le Débonnaire. It was the custom for members -of this school to assume other names than their own: thus Charlemagne -was called David; Alcuin, Flaccus; Angilbert, Homer; and Eginhard, -Bezaleel,—that nephew of Moses to whom God had granted the gift of -knowing how to work skilfully in wood and all materials needed for -the ark and tabernacle. All of these scholars afterwards became great -dignitaries in the church. Charlemagne was of a cheerful disposition, -and fond of hunting and other sports. He was especially expert in -swimming. He sometimes played jokes upon his chiefs and nobles, and the -old monks of his time tell several stories regarding his sly humor. -At one time when he thought his courtiers were too much given to fine -clothes, he commanded a party of them when decked out in their finest -trappings, to follow him in the chase through the rain, mud, and -brambles. He was of a tall figure, and though his dress was rich and -gorgeous when the occasion demanded it, he was not fond of finery. His -appearance is thus described by Eginhard:— - -“Charlemagne was large and robust in person, his stature was lofty, -though it did not exceed just proportion, for his height was not more -than seven times the length of his foot. The summit of his head was -round, his eyes large and bright, his nose a little long, beautiful -white hair, and a smiling and pleasant expression. There reigned -in his whole person, whether standing or seated, an air of grandeur -and dignity; and though his neck was thick and short, and his body -corpulent, yet he was in other respects so well proportioned that these -defects were not noticed. His walk was firm, and his whole appearance -manly, but his clear voice did not quite harmonize with his appearance. -His health was always good, except during the four years which preceded -his death. He then had frequent attacks of fever, and was lame of one -foot. In this time of suffering he treated himself more accordingly -to his own fancies than by the advice of the physicians, whom he had -come to dislike because they would have had him abstain from the roast -meats he was accustomed to, and would have restricted him to boiled -meats. His dress was that of his nation; that is to say, of the Franks. -He wore a shirt and drawers of linen, over them a tunic bordered with -silken fringe, stockings fastened with narrow bands, and shoes. In -winter, a coat of otter or martin fur covered his shoulders and breast. -Over all he wore a long blue mantle.” - -He would not adopt the short mantle worn by the later Franks, but -preferred the long cloak of the ancient Franks, which made him a -distinguished and royal-looking person amidst his short-cloaked -courtiers. He was always girded with his sword, which became so famous -that it received the name of Joyeuse, whose hilt was of gold and -silver, his girdle being also of gold. Upon solemn festive occasions -this sword was replaced by one enriched with precious stones. After -he became Emperor he sometimes wore the long tunic, the chlamys, and -the sandals of the Romans. At great feasts or festivals his dress was -embroidered with gold, and his shoes adorned with precious stones. His -mantle was fastened with a brooch of gold, and he wore upon his head -a glistening diadem of gold and gems; but his usual dress was simple. -He avoided all excesses at the table, particularly that of drinking, -for he abhorred drunkenness. While he was dining he liked to have -histories or poems read to him. He took great pleasure in the works of -St. Augustine. He was endowed with a natural eloquence which rendered -his speech delightful. His chosen name of David was not inappropriate, -for he was a founder and benefactor of the church, and was very -devout in the outward observances of the Christian religion; but his -domestic life was an irretrievable blot upon his character, which no -plea of the laxity of those times can remove. It is true that the same -fault mars the greatness of Alexander, Julius Cæsar, and other famous -rulers; but Alexander and Cæsar were not Christians, while Charlemagne -stands forth as the great champion and upholder of the religion of the -spotless Christ. Charlemagne caused to be erected at Aix-la-Chapelle a -magnificent basilica, or chapel, which he adorned with gold and silver, -and with screens and gates of brass from Rome, and marbles and columns -from Ravenna. He always attended service here night and morning, -and often arose to assist at some especial worship in the night. He -introduced great improvements in the lessons and the psalmody, and -is said to have composed several hymns, among them the “Veni Creator -Spiritus,” that invocation of the Holy Spirit which is sung at -ordinations. Charlemagne was always ready to help poor Christians, not -only in his own kingdom, but in Syria, Egypt, in Africa, at Jerusalem, -Alexandria, Carthage, and elsewhere. Of all the holy places he had -most veneration for the Church of St. Peter at Rome. He sent rich -gifts of gold and silver and precious stones to that cathedral, for -he desired to make it surpass all other churches in its decorations -and riches. But he was only able to go four times during his reign -of forty-seven years, to visit that cherished place. Toward the end -of his vigorous life and magnificent career, the Emperor Charlemagne -met with severe family losses. In less than two years his sister, -daughter, and his sons, the two Pepins, one of whom was a hunchback, -died; and lastly his son Charles, whom he intended should be crowned -emperor, also died, leaving only Louis and several daughters. But -Louis was the worthiest of all the sons of Charlemagne to succeed his -illustrious father. In the year 813 Charlemagne, fearing that his end -was drawing near, assembled all his chief men at Aix-la-Chapelle, and -in a grand ceremonial in the chapel he caused his son to be declared -emperor, bidding him take the diadem himself from the altar, and place -it on his own head, whereupon Charlemagne exclaimed, “Blessed be the -Lord, who hath granted me to see my son sitting on my throne!” But he -did not at that time resign the crown. Louis went back to his kingdom -in Aquitaine; and Charlemagne, in spite of his growing infirmities, -continued through the autumn his usual hunting excursions, returning -to Aix in November. In January Charlemagne was seized with a fever, -but he determined to doctor himself, as was his usual method, which -was to “starve” the fever. But pleurisy set in, and still refusing to -be ministered to by physicians, on the seventh day after he had taken -to his bed, having received communion, he expired about nine o’clock -in the morning on the 28th of January, 814, in the seventy-first year -of his age, and the forty-seventh year of his reign. He was buried -with unusual grandeur. A large and beautifully carved sarcophagus of -classical workmanship, was lying empty in the basilica of Aix. But -they placed Charlemagne in a large marble chair in the crypt beneath -the dome of his great basilica. The chair was ornamented with gold, -and Charlemagne was clad in his royal robes with his sparkling crown -upon his head, and his royal sceptre in his hand, and the good sword -Joyeuse, which had served him in so many famous battles, was girded to -his side, while his pilgrim’s pouch was suspended from his girdle, and -a copy of the Gospels was laid upon his knees. Thus was he seated on -the throne chair, with his feet resting in the carved sarcophagus, as -though the great emperor was not to be shut up in a coffin like common -mortals, but even in death still sat upon his throne in royal state. -Beneath the dome, on the stone which closed the entrance to the tomb, -was carved the following epitaph in Latin:— - -“In this tomb reposeth the body of Charles, great and orthodox emperor, -who did gloriously extend the kingdom of the Franks, and did govern it -happily for forty-seven years. He died at the age of seventy years, in -the year of the Lord, 814, in the seventh year of the Indication, on -the fifth of the Kalends of February.” - -This crypt was opened two hundred years afterwards by the Emperor Otho -III., when he found the remains of Charlemagne, as described above. A -huge black flagstone now lies under the dome, bearing the inscription, -“Carolo Magno,” and it is supposed to cover the entrance to the tomb of -Charlemagne. Over it hangs a large golden candelabrum which the Emperor -Barbarossa gave to burn above the grave. In the time of Barbarossa, the -church enrolled the name of the great emperor in its Calendar as St. -Charlemagne. - -No sovereign ever rendered greater service to the civilized world -than Charlemagne, by stopping in the north and south the flood of -barbarians and Arabs, Paganism and Islamism. This was his great -success, and although he ultimately failed in founding a permanent -empire which should exist in unity and absolute power after his death, -though at one time he seemed to be Cæsar, Augustus, and Constantine -combined, his death ended his empire; but he had opened the way for -the Christian religion and human liberty to establish other and more -lasting governments. The illustrious French writer, Guizot, thus sums -up the life and achievements of Charlemagne. “Great men are at one and -the same time instruments and free agents in a general design which -is infinitely above their ken, and which, even if a glimpse of it be -caught, remains inscrutable to them,—the design of God towards mankind. -Charlemagne had this singular good fortune, that his misguided attempt -at imperialism perished with him, whilst his salutary achievement, the -territorial security of Christian Europe, has been durable to the great -honor, as well as great profit, of European civilization.” - - - - -ALFRED THE GREAT. - -849-901 A.D. - - “An honest man’s the noblest work of God.” - POPE. - - -STORY and song have immortalized the romantic traditions regarding the -early inhabitants of the British realm, and although many of them are -no doubt fabulous tales, the romantic history of Alfred the Great would -be robbed of much of its weird fascination if no mention were made of -these fantastic but charming traditions. King Alfred’s reign was eight -hundred years after the Christian Era. Authentic history takes us back -through those eight hundred years to the time of Julius Cæsar and his -invasion of Great Britain, and traditions carry us still farther back, -for eight hundred years more, to the days of Solomon. - -There is a story that at the close of the Trojan war, which we have -described in the life of Agamemnon, Æneas landed in Italy with a -company of Trojans. They settled near the spot upon which Rome was -afterwards built. One day, while Brutus, the great-grandson of Æneas, -was hunting in the forests, he accidentally killed his father with an -arrow. Brutus, fearing evil consequences from this terrible accident, -fled from Italy. Going to Greece, he collected a band of Trojans, and -they made war upon a king named Pandrasus. Brutus conquered this king -but promised to make peace with him if he would agree to provide a -fleet of ships for Brutus, and give him his daughter in marriage. This -Pandrasus did, and Brutus sailed with his bride and fleet, until they -arrived at a deserted island, upon which they found the ruins of a city -and an ancient temple of Diana, where there still remained an image of -the goddess. - -[Illustration: ALFRED] - -The story goes that Brutus consulted this oracle of Diana, and received -the following answer:— - - “Far to the West, in the ocean wide, - Beyond the realm of Gaul, a land there lies; - Sea-girt it lies, where giants dwelt of old. - Now void, it fits thy people; thither bend - Thy course; there shalt thou find a lasting home.” - -Brutus followed this direction, and proceeded westward through the -Mediterranean Sea. He arrived at the Pillars of Hercules, which was the -name given in those days to the Rock of Gibraltar, and then he turned -northward and coasted along Spain. At length they arrived on the shores -of Britain. They found the island covered with rich verdure, and in the -forests were many wild beasts and the remnants of a race of giants. - -Brutus and his forces drove the wild beasts into the mountains of Wales -and Scotland, and killed the giants, and seized upon the island as -their own. Many wild adventures are told of his successors, down to the -time of the invasion of Julius Cæsar. Such is the story in brief of the -early Britons. - -After the conquest by Cæsar, the Romans retained possession of the -island for four hundred years. During this time there were many -rebellions in the various provinces, until at last the Britons -submitted to their sway. Now another enemy advanced against this -picturesque island. The Picts and Scots, hordes of lawless barbarians, -who inhabited the mountains of Ireland and Scotland, made continual -expeditions for plunder into the fair land of the Britons. At length -one of the Roman emperors named Severus, visited the island of Britain, -and endeavored to conquer the Picts and Scots. It was at this time -that the famous Wall of Severus was built. The wall extended across -the island, from the mouth of the Tyne on the German Ocean, to the -Solway Frith, nearly seventy miles. This wall was a good defence -against the barbarians, as long as Roman soldiers remained to guard -it. But about two centuries after the time of Severus, the Roman -soldiers were required by their own government at home, and the Britons -were left to fight with the Picts and Scots alone. During this time -another brave and warlike race had arisen. The Anglo-Saxons had now -become powerful sea-rulers on the German Ocean and Baltic Sea. They -delighted in storms and tempests, and cared not whether it was summer -or winter when they sailed the seas, so brave and fearless were they. -They would build small vessels of osiers, covering them with skins, -and in these frail boats they courageously sailed amidst the rough -winds and foaming surges of the German Ocean, in search of conquest -and wild adventure. If they fought they conquered, and if they pursued -their enemies they were sure to overtake them, and if they retreated -they successfully made their escape. Neither winds, waves, nor enemies -could quell this adventurous and brave race, which was fast rising into -power and renown. They were clothed in loose and flowing garments, and -wore their hair long, floating about their shoulders. They had much -skill in fabricating arms of superior workmanship, which gave them a -great advantage over their enemies. The landing of a few boat-loads of -these determined and fearless Anglo-Saxons, on a small island near -the mouth of the Thames, was an event which marks an important epoch -in English history, as it was the real beginning of British greatness -and power. The names of the commanders who headed the expedition of the -Anglo-Saxons which first landed in Britain, were Hengist and Horsa. -They were brothers. The island where they landed was called Thanet. -The name of the king of Britain at this time was Vortigern. When the -Anglo-Saxons arrived, his kingdom was distracted by the constant -incursions of the Picts and Scots. In this danger, Vortigern appealed -to the Anglo-Saxons for help. He offered to give them a large tract -of territory in the part of the island where they had landed, if they -would aid him in his contest with his enemies. Hengist and Horsa -agreed to this proposal, and they thereupon engaged in battle with the -Picts and Scots, and defeated them, and they were driven back to their -mountains in the north. The Anglo-Saxons now established themselves in -the part of the island assigned to them, and it is related that Hengist -gave his daughter Rowena in marriage to King Vortigern, to strengthen -the alliance more closely. At last the Britons became alarmed at the -increasing power of the Anglo-Saxons, and the result was a fierce -contest. It is related that King Vortigern, with three hundred of his -officers, were invited by Hengist to a feast, and a quarrel having -arisen, an affray occurred in which the Britons were all killed, except -Vortigern who was taken prisoner, and was only ransomed by ceding three -whole provinces to his captors. - -The famous King Arthur, whose Knights of the Round Table have been so -celebrated in fable and song, was a king of the Britons during these -wars between his people and the Saxons. He is said to have performed -marvellous exploits of strength and valor. He was of prodigious size, -and undaunted courage. He slew giants, killed the most ferocious wild -beasts, gained many splendid victories, and is said to have made long -expeditions into foreign countries, once even going to Jerusalem on -a pilgrimage to obtain the Holy Cross. He was afterwards killed in a -combat with his nephew, who had gained the affections of Arthur’s wife -during his absence. Arthur had been a deadly enemy of the Saxons. He -fought twelve great pitched battles with them, in every one of which -he gained the victory. It is related that he killed with his own hand, -four hundred and seventy men in one of these contests. The landing of -the Saxons, under Hengist and Horsa, is supposed to have been in the -year 449. It was more than two hundred years after this before the -Britons were entirely subdued, and the Saxon power became supreme. In -one or two centuries more the Saxons had, in their turn, to meet an -implacable and powerful enemy. These new invaders were the Danes. - -The territory of Britain was divided into seven or eight Saxon -kingdoms, each under a separate king. This power is known in history -as the Saxon Heptarchy. The Danes were not exclusively the natives of -Denmark. They came from all the shores of the Northern and Baltic Seas. -They were a race of bold naval adventurers, as the Saxons themselves -had been two or three centuries before. They were banded together in -large hordes, each ruled by a chieftain, called a sea-king. One of the -most famous of these sea-kings was named Ragnar Lodbrog. His father was -a prince of Norway, and Ragnar had married a Danish princess, and had -acquired a sort of right to a Danish kingdom, which right was disputed -by one Harald. The Franks aided Harald in this contest, and Ragnar was -defeated. But he now brought the other sea-kings under his control, -and raising a large force, he invaded France, and landing at Rouen he -marched to Paris. The king of the Franks finding himself completely in -his power, bought off the sea-kings by paying a large sum of money, -and Ragnar and his hordes returned to the Baltic Sea with riches and -wide renown for their daring adventures. Ragnar afterwards invaded -Spain, and finally grew bold enough to attack the Anglo-Saxons on the -island of Britain. For this contest, Ragnar had prepared two enormous -ships, and, filling them with picked men, he sailed down the coast of -Scotland until he reached Northumbria. Here he encountered a large -force of Saxons under their king Ella. A terrible struggle ensued. -Ragnar was defeated and taken prisoner, and was afterwards put to death -in a barbarous manner by the Saxons. They filled a den with poisonous -snakes, and drove the captive Ragnar amongst these horrid reptiles, -by whose venomous fangs he was killed. In 851 a large horde of Danes -landed on the island of Thanet, and afterwards advanced boldly up the -Thames. They plundered London and Canterbury, and marched thence into -one of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, called Mercia. Although the Danes were -there defeated by a large force of Saxons, new hordes were continually -arriving, and becoming more formidable. At length an immence force -of Danes landed, under the command of Guthrum and Hubba. This horde -was led by eight kings and twenty earls. Hubba was one of Ragnar’s -sons, and many of the horde were his relatives and friends, who swore -vengeance for his cruel death. It was at this time that young Alfred -appears prominently upon the scene of English history. - -[Illustration: THE NORTHMEN INVADING FRANCE.] - -Alfred was the youngest child of Ethelwolf, king of the West Saxons. -Under Egbert, the father of Ethelwolf, the kingdoms of the West Saxons -had been united; and Egbert is called king of the English, he having -given the name of Anglia to the whole kingdom. - -When young Alfred was five years old, his father sent him to Rome to -see the Pope, and to be anointed by him as king of the West Saxons; -as Ethelwolf intended to pass over his elder sons and give his throne -to his favorite son Alfred. This journey was made with great pomp and -splendor; and a large train of nobles and ecclesiastics accompanied -the young prince, who was received with splendid entertainments as he -passed through France. Two years after this journey, Alfred’s father -Ethelwolf determined himself to go to Rome, and his favorite son -accompanied him. Ethelwolf placed his elder sons in command of his -affairs at home, and with a magnificent retinue crossed the channel, -and landed in France on his way to Rome. King Ethelwolf and Prince -Alfred were received with great distinction by King Charles of France, -and after a short stay in the French court they proceeded to Rome. The -king of England carried most costly presents to the Pope. Ethelwolf -had been educated for the monastery, as he was a younger son, but the -death of his father and elder brother placed him on the throne instead -of in an ecclesiastical office. Therefore his religious inclinations -were always very strong, and this pilgrimage to Rome was made as a -religious ceremony as well as for political objects, and his offerings -were very magnificent. One gift was a crown of pure gold, weighing four -pounds. Another was a sword richly mounted in gold. There were also -many vessels of gold and silver, and several robes richly adorned. King -Ethelwolf also distributed money to all the inhabitants of Rome; giving -gold to the nobles and clergy, and silver to the people. So great was -his munificence, and so magnificent was his courtly retinue, that this -visit attracted universal attention, and made the little Alfred, on -whose especial account the journey was performed, an object of great -interest. King Ethelwolf remained a year at Rome, to give young Alfred -the benefit of the advantages of the schools which had been established -there. As they returned home through France, King Ethelwolf was married -to the young daughter of the king of France, Princess Judith, who was -only twelve or fourteen years of age. The mother of Alfred had died -about three years before, and although this marriage occasioned much -trouble in the kingdom of Ethelwolf, the young bride Judith was a kind -and affectionate stepmother to Alfred, who was at this time about eight -years of age. The story is related, that on one occasion Judith was -showing Alfred and his older brothers a manuscript of some Saxon poems. -Although much care had been bestowed upon the education of Alfred, he -could not yet read. Indeed, very few even of the princes or kings in -those days ever learned to read. Reading was considered as a necessary -art, only for those who were to become professional teachers. Alfred -expressed so much delight in this manuscript, which was beautifully -illuminated with hand drawings, that Judith promised the volume to the -one who should first learn to read it. Alfred’s brothers, although much -older, did not aspire to this honor, and Alfred made such diligent -use of his time, that with the help of his teachers he was soon able -to read the poems fluently, and so claimed and received the prize. -About two years after, the father of Alfred died, and Judith became -the wife of Ethelbald, the eldest brother of Alfred, who succeeded -to the throne. He died soon after, however, and Judith returned to -France, where she married a Flemish noble, whom her father afterwards -made Count of Flanders. We cannot stop to trace the life of Judith any -farther, but we must mention that Alfred the Great afterwards gave his -daughter Elfrida in marriage to the second count of Flanders, who was -the eldest son of Judith. Through this marriage the English sovereigns -trace their descent from Alfred the Great. - -There is a strange story connected with the youth of Alfred, which is -best given in the quaint language of one of the biographers of this -good and brave king. “As he advanced through the years of infancy and -youth, his form appeared more comely than those of his brothers, and -in look, speech, and manners he was more graceful than they. He was -already the darling of the people, who felt that in wisdom and other -qualities he surpassed all the royal race. Alfred, then, being a youth -of this fair promise, while training himself diligently in all such -learning as he had the means of acquiring, and especially in his own -mother tongue and the poems and songs which formed the chief part of -Anglo-Saxon literature, was not unmindful of the culture of his body, -and was a zealous practiser of hunting in all its branches, and hunted -with great perseverance and success. But before all things he was -wishful to strengthen his mind in the keeping of God’s commandments; -and finding that worldly desires and proud and rebellious thoughts -which the devil, who is ever jealous of the good, is apt to breed in -the minds of the young, were likely to have the mastery of him, he -used often to rise at cock-crow in the early mornings, and repairing -to some church or holy place, there cast himself before God in prayer, -that he might do nothing contrary to His holy will. But finding himself -still hard tempted, he began at such times to pray, as he lay prostrate -before the altar, that God in his great mercy would strengthen his -mind and will by some sickness, such as would be of use to him in -the subduing of his nature, but would not show itself outwardly, or -render him powerless or contemptible in worldly duties, or less able -to benefit his people. For King Alfred from his earliest years held in -great dread leprosy and blindness, and every disease which would make a -man useless or contemptible in the conduct of affairs. And when he had -often, and with much fervor, prayed to this effect, it pleased God to -afflict him with a very painful disease, which lay upon him with little -respite until he was in his twentieth year. At this age he became -betrothed to her who was afterwards his wife, Elswitha, the daughter -of Ethelred, the Earl of the Gaini in Mercia. Alfred, then, at that -time being on a visit to Cornwall for the sake of hunting, turned aside -from his sport, as his custom often was, to pray in a certain chapel -in which was buried the body of St. Guerir. There he entreated God -that he would exchange the sickness with which he had been up to that -time afflicted for some other disease, which should in like manner not -render him useless or contemptible. And so, finishing his prayers, he -got up and rode away, and soon after perceived within himself that he -was made whole of his old sickness. So his marriage was celebrated in -Mercia, to which came great numbers of people, and there was feasting -which lasted through the night as well as by day. In the midst of which -revelry Alfred was attacked by sudden and violent pain, the cause of -which neither they who were then present, nor indeed any physician -in after years, could rightly ascertain. At the time, however, some -believed that it was the malignant enchantment of some person amongst -the guests; others, that it was the special spite of the devil; others -again, that it was the old sickness come back on him, or a strange kind -of fever. In any case, from that day until his forty-fourth year he -was subject to this same sickness, which frequently returned, giving -him the most acute pain, and, as he thought, making him useless for -every duty. But how far the king was from thinking rightly in this -respect, those who read of the burdens that were laid upon him, and -the work which he accomplished, can best judge for themselves.” Such -is this quaint account of Alfred’s religious devotion, and his patient -endurance of suffering. - -According to the will of Ethelwolf, the father of Alfred, Ethelbald, -his eldest son, was to retain the throne of Wessex until his death, -when he should be succeeded by his two youngest brothers, Ethelred -and Alfred, in succession; while Ethelbert, the second son, should be -king of Kent, Sussex, and Surrey. His estates and other property were -divided amongst his children. From 858 until 860 Ethelred and Alfred -lived in Kent with their brother Ethelbert. Upon the death of Ethelbald -in 860, Ethelred and Alfred both waived their rights, and allowed -Ethelbert to ascend the throne of Wessex. In 866 Ethelbert also died, -and Ethelred now became the sovereign, and Alfred the crown prince. -Alfred was very fond of study, and also very devout, as the above -description from the old annals shows. During his youth he had gathered -together the Services of the Hours, called _Celebrationes Horarum_, -with many of the Psalms, which he had written in a small handbook that -he always carried with him; and on battle-field, or exiled in the wild -forests, or ruling the nation as a proud king, this little book of -devotion was always within reach, and constantly perused. - -Within six weeks after his marriage he was called to arms by the -invasion of the Danes, already mentioned, under Guthrum and Hubba; -and within a few short months his brother Ethelred had been killed in -battle, he himself had become king, and nine pitched battles had been -fought in his own kingdom of Wessex under his leadership. - -To understand more clearly the character of the Danes, a slight -description of their weird and fantastic religious ideas is necessary. -Woden was the chief figure in their ancient mythology. He was the -god of battles, “who giveth victory, who re-animates warriors, who -nameth those who are to be slain.” This Woden had been an inspired -teacher as well as a conqueror, and had given to these wild Northmen a -Scandinavian alphabet, and songs of battle. Their traditions related -that Woden had led them from the shores of the Black Sea to the fiords -of Norway, the far shores of Iceland. Having departed from them, he -drew their hearts after him, and lived ever after in Asgard, the garden -of the gods. There in his own great hall, Valhalla, the hall of Odin, -he dwelt. And it was believed that the brave slain in battle should be -permitted to go to Valhalla, and feast there with the mighty Odin. - -There were also supposed to be other gods in this hall of Valhalla. -Chief of these was Balder, the sun-god, white, beautiful, benignant; -and Thor, the thunder-god, with terrible smiting hammer and awful -brows, engaged mainly in expeditions into Jotun land, a chaotic world, -the residence of the giants, or devils, known as frost, fire, tempest, -and the like. Thor’s attendant was Thealfi, or manual labor. This -thunder-god was described to be full of unwieldly strength, simplicity, -and rough humor. There was supposed to be a tree of life also in the -unseen world,—Igdrasil, with its roots in Hela, the kingdom of death, -at the foot of which sit the three Nornas, known as the past, present, -and future. They also believed that there would some day be a struggle -of the gods and Jotuns, or dwellers in the chaotic world, and that -at last the gods, Jotuns, and Time himself would all sink down into -darkness, from which in due season there should issue forth a new -heaven and a new earth, in which a higher god and supreme justice shall -at last reign. - -So their religion was only a religion of war; and, to be brave in -battle, they thought the most pleasing devotion they could show to -their warlike gods. So this contest between the Danes and Saxons was -not only one for the possession of the fruitful land of England, but -was a contest between Paganism and Christianity. King Alfred was a -devout Christian, and although the Saxons’ ideas of religion were -mixed with much superstition and bigotry, they believed in the true -God, Jehovah, and in salvation through the redemption of Jesus Christ; -although the pure Gospel, as taught by Christ himself when on the earth -more than eight hundred years before this time, had become mixed with -all sorts of legends of saints and marvellous stories fabricated by -the priests, and handed down as traditions among the people, whose -ignorance placed them completely under the sway of the only class of -men who were educated sufficiently to read and write, and by whom all -copies were made of such books as they possessed at that day, which -consisted only of rolls of parchment, penned laboriously by hand in -the various monasteries, scattered throughout the different kingdoms of -the then civilized world. The most famous battle between the Saxons and -the Danes is known as the battle of Ashdown, and is thus described in -the old English annals:— - -[Illustration: ALFRED. - -_Roy d’Angleterre,_ - -_Né en 849. Mort le 28.8bre. 899._] - -“At early dawn the hosts were on foot. Alfred marched up promptly with -his men to give battle, but King Ethelred stayed long time in his tent -at prayer hearing the mass. Now the Christians had determined that King -Ethelred with his men should fight the two pagan kings, and that Alfred -his brother, with his men, should take the chance of war against the -earls. Things being so arranged, the king remained long time in prayer, -while the pagans pressed on swiftly to the fight. Then Alfred, though -holding the lower command, could no longer support the onslaught of -the enemy without retreating, or charging upon them without waiting -for his brother. A moment of fearful anxiety was this for the young -prince, who thus no doubt mused: ‘Bagsac and the two Sidrocs at the -top of the down with double my numbers, already overlapping my flanks: -Ethelred still at mass—dare I go up at them? In the name of God and St. -Cuthbert, yes!’ and with a strong heart, brave for this great crisis, -Alfred puts himself at the head of his men, and leads them up the slope -against the whole pagan host, ‘With the rush of a wild boar.’ For he -too relied on the help of God. He formed his men in a dense phalanx to -meet the foe, which was never broken in that long fight. Mass being -over, Ethelred comes up to the help of his brother, and the battle -raged along the whole hillside. The pagans occupied the higher ground, -and the Christians came up from below. There was also in that place, -a single stunted thorn-tree. Round this tree the opposing hosts -came together with loud shouts from all sides, the one party to pursue -their wicked course, the other to fight for their lives, their wives -and children, and their country. And, when both sides had fought long -and bravely, at last the pagans, by God’s judgment, gave way, being no -longer able to abide the Christian onslaught; and after losing a great -part of their army, broke in shameful flight. One of their two kings -and five earls were there slain, together with many thousand pagans, -who covered with their bodies the whole plain of Ashdown. And all the -pagan host pursued its flight, not only until night, but through the -next day, even until they reached the stronghold from which they had -come forth. The Christians followed, slaying all they could reach until -dark. Neither before nor since was ever such slaughter known since the -Saxons first gained England by their arms.” - -Alfred’s decision and promptness, in that time of emergency, not only -won the day, but hardened his own nerve to flint, and his judgment, -amid the clash of arms, to steel. Through all the weary years of -battle and misfortune that followed, there was no sign of indecision -and faint-heartedness. He had conquered fear and hesitancy there, as -valiantly as he had conquered temptations to evil in his earlier youth. -About two months after the battle of Ashdown, Ethelred and Alfred -fought for the last time together, against their unwearied foes. In -this contest Ethelred was mortally wounded, and died soon after, and -was buried by Alfred with kingly honors in Wimborne Minster. - -Alfred, now at the age of twenty-three, ascended the throne of -his fathers, which seemed at that time tottering, and was not an -inheritance to be desired in the year of 871, when Alfred succeeded -his brother. It would not be surprising if for a moment he lost heart -and hope, and allowed himself to doubt whether God would by his hand -deliver his afflicted people from their relentless foes. In the eight -pitched battles which had been fought with the pagan army, the flower -of the youth of the Saxon nation had fallen. Kent, Sussex, and Surrey -were at the mercy of the Danes. London had been pillaged and was in -ruins, and several provinces in his own Wessex had been desolated. The -Danes were even then striking into new districts, and if the rich lands -yet unplundered were to be saved from their voracious grasp, it would -only be by prompt and decisive action. - -A month has passed since the death of Alfred’s brother and his -succession to this tottering throne. Alfred, with the greatest -difficulty, collects enough men to take the field openly. The first -great battle that Alfred fought, as king, was at Wilton. At first -Alfred’s troops carried all before them, but the tide turned in favor -of the Danes, and Alfred and the Saxons were driven from the field. -There was immense loss upon both sides, and a treaty was agreed upon -between Alfred and Hubba, the Danish chieftain. By this treaty, the -Danes were to retire from Alfred’s dominions, provided that he would -not interfere with their conquests in other parts of England. Alfred -has been censured for making this treaty; but he was obliged to -choose between protection for his own realm, and perhaps the entire -destruction and overthrow of not only his dominions, but of all -England. He had no power to aid others, and therefore endeavored to -protect, if possible, his own subjects. The Danes then went to Mercia. -The king of Mercia was Buthred, the brother-in-law of Alfred. Buthred -paid the Danes large sums of money to leave his kingdom. The Danes -departed for a while, but treacherously returned, and were again -bought off. Hubba scarcely left the kingdom this time, but spent the -money received, and then went to plundering as before, regardless of -all promises. Buthred, in despair, fled the country and went to Rome, -where he died soon after of grief. The Danes then took possession -of Mercia, and set over the people a king from whom they demanded -an annual tribute. In the meantime, new hordes of Danes arrived in -England; and one place after another was plundered by them, and they -obtained possession of the town of Exancester (now Exeter), which was -a great loss to Alfred. King Alfred then determined to meet the Danes -upon their own element; and he built and equipped a small fleet, and -was successful in his first encounter with his enemies, having defeated -a fleet of Danish ships in the channel, and having captured one of the -largest of their vessels. - -But after all, Alfred gained no decisive victory over his foes. He -then tried to bind the Danes by Christian oaths, in making a treaty -with them. The Danes were accustomed to swear by a certain ornament -which they wore, when they wished to impose a very solemn religious -oath; and to swear by this bracelet was to place themselves under the -most solemn obligations they could assume. Alfred, however, was not -satisfied with this pagan ceremony, but obliged them, in one treaty, -to swear by certain Christian relics, which were held in great awe and -sacredness by the Saxons. But the Danes broke their treaties with the -most reckless defiance; and, as years passed, Alfred found his army -broken, his resources exhausted, his towns and castles taken, until -about eight years after his coronation at Winchester, as monarch of -the most powerful of all the Saxon kingdoms, he found himself unable -to resist the further attacks of the Danes, who had come over in fresh -hordes, and captured his kingdom of Wessex; which calamity Alfred was -powerless to prevent. - -[Illustration: ALFRED AND THE CAKES.] - -The Saxon chieftains and nobles fled in terror, and Alfred himself, -with only one or two trusty friends, retired to the vast forests, which -skirted the remote western frontiers of his once proud realm. It was -during these homeless wanderings that the incident is said to have -occurred, which has ever since been related of this bitter experience -of want and misery in the life of Alfred the Great. The story is, that -Alfred, weary and hungry, sought shelter in the miserable hut of a -cow-herd, who gave him such poor fare as his lowly lot allowed. Alfred, -while remaining with these simple folks, was one day engaged in mending -his arrows, when the cow-herd’s wife, totally unconscious of the rank -and station of her guest, requested him, in no polite terms, to watch -her cakes which were baking in the coals, while she employed herself in -other labors. King Alfred, absorbed in his sorrowful musings, forgot -the injunctions of the ill-natured woman, and so allowed her cakes to -burn; which, when she perceived, she gave him a good scolding; saying, -“You man! you will not turn the bread you see burning, but you will be -very glad to eat it when it is done!” This unlucky woman little thought -she was addressing the great King Alfred. - -Alfred, though restless and wretched in his apparently hopeless -seclusion, bore his privations with patience and fortitude, and did -not cease to plan some way by which he might reorganize his forces -and rescue his country from the ruin into which it had fallen. Alfred -now established himself at a place called Ethelney; and, having -gradually collected a few followers, they built a kind of fortress, -where Alfred’s family at length joined him, and to which numbers of -his old troops began to repair. The following incident is recorded in -the old annals concerning this time in King Alfred’s life. It was very -difficult to supply his little garrison with food, and sometimes they -found themselves in sore want. At one time the provisions in the house -were nearly exhausted, and to add to their distress, it was also in -the winter. All of Alfred’s little band having gone away with their -fishing apparatus and bows and arrows in the hope of securing some -food, Alfred was left alone with only one attendant. King Alfred was -sitting reading, when a beggar came to the door and asked for food. -Alfred, looking up from his book, inquired of his attendant what food -there was in the house. It was found that there was only a single loaf -of bread remaining, and a little wine in a pitcher. This would not -be half enough for their own wants, should the hunting party return -unsuccessful. Alfred ordered half of the loaf to be given to the -stranger; but when he had been served he was seen no more, and the loaf -remained whole, as though none had been taken from it, and the pitcher -was now full to the brim. Alfred, meantime, had turned to his reading, -over which he fell asleep, and dreamed that St. Cuthbert stood by him -and told him it was he who had been his guest; and that God had seen -his afflictions and those of his people, which were now about to end, -in token whereof his people would return that day from their expedition -with a great take of fish. And while Alfred yet mused on this strange -dream from which he had awakened, his servants came in, bringing fish -enough to have fed an army. The legend also goes on to say, that on -the next morning King Alfred went forth in the forests and wound his -horn thrice, which drew to him before noon five hundred men. Another -story is told of the manner in which King Alfred discovered the number -and power of his enemies’ forces. It is said that he assumed the garb -of a minstrel, and with one attendant visited the camp of the Dane -Guthrum. Here he stayed, amusing the Danish king and nobles with his -songs and harp, boldly venturing into their very tents, until he had -learned all he desired to know concerning their plans. - -Whereupon he returned to Ethelney; and the time having arrived for a -great effort, he sent word to his people to meet him at a place called -Egbert’s Stone. Here, on the 12th of May, 878, King Alfred met his -gathered forces, and losing no time, moved forward toward Guthrum’s -camp. Alfred encamped for the night on an eminence from which he could -watch the movements of his enemies. That night, as he was sleeping in -his tent, he had a remarkable dream. St. Neot appeared to him, and told -him to have no fear of the immense army of pagans whom he was about -to encounter on the morrow, as God had taken him under his special -protection, having accepted his penitence for all his faults; he might -now go forward into the battle without fear, as God was about to give -him the victory over all his enemies. - -The king related this dream to his army the next morning, and the -men were inspired with new ardor and enthusiasm as Alfred led them -to the camp where their enemies lay; for it was Alfred’s intention -to surprise the Danes. The Saxons advanced to the attack; and the -Danes, surprised and terror-stricken, soon began to yield. At last -the flight among the pagans became general. They were pursued by -Alfred’s victorious columns. The retreating army was in a short time -reduced to a small force, which, with Guthrum at their head, reached a -castle, where they took refuge. Guthrum, shut up in this castle, was -now besieged by Alfred’s forces; and when many of his men were raving -in the delirium of famine and thirst, or dying in dreadful agony, he -could resist no longer, but surrendered to Alfred. Thus King Alfred was -once more in possession of his kingdom. The treaty which Alfred now -made with the Danes evinces his generous Christian forgiveness; and -perhaps even the pagan Guthrum, in accepting the terms proposed, was -influenced by emotions of gratitude and admiration for the example of -Christian virtue which Alfred exhibited. As the Danes had now become -so intermingled with the Saxons by their long residence in England -and frequent intermarriages, Alfred determined to expel only the -armed forces from his dominions, allowing those peaceably disposed to -remain in quiet possession of such lands in other parts of the island -as they already occupied. Instead, therefore, of treating Guthrum -with harshness and severity as a captive enemy, he told him that he -was willing to give him his liberty, and to regard him, on certain -conditions, as a friend and an ally, and to allow him to reign as king -over that part of England which his countrymen already possessed. The -conditions were that Guthrum was to go away with his forces out of -Alfred’s kingdom under solemn oaths never to return; that he was to -give hostages for the faithful fulfilment of these stipulations; and -that Guthrum should become a convert to Christianity, and publicly -avow his adhesion to the Saxon faith by being baptized in the presence -of the leaders of both armies in the most open and solemn manner. -These conditions were accepted, and some weeks after the surrender, -the baptism was performed in the presence of many chieftains of both -nations. Guthrum’s Christian name which he received at this ceremony -was Ethelstan. King Alfred was his god-father. The various ceremonies -connected with the baptism were protracted through several days, -and were followed by a number of festivities and public rejoicings. -The admission of the pagan chieftain into the Christian church did -not mark, perhaps, any real change in his personal opinions, but it -prepared the way for the reception of the Christian faith by his -followers; and Alfred, in leading Guthrum to the baptismal font, was -achieving, in the estimation of all England, France, and Rome, a far -greater and nobler victory than when he conquered his enemies on the -field of battle. A full and formal treaty of peace was now concluded -between the two sovereigns; for Guthrum received the title of king, -and was to hold a separate kingdom in the dominions assigned to him. -Guthrum endeavored to keep this treaty faithfully, and whenever other -parties of Danes came upon the coast of England, they found no favor or -assistance from him against the Saxons. - -The generosity and nobleness of mind displayed in his treatment of -Guthrum made a great impression on the world at that time, and has -never ceased to throw a halo of glory around the memory of this good -and great king. Many stories are told to illustrate the kindness of -Alfred the Great. It is said that once, while hunting in the forest -with a party, he heard the cries of a child, which seemed to come -from the air above their heads. It was found, after much searching, -that the sounds proceeded from an eagle’s nest in the top of a lofty -tree. On climbing to the nest, it was discovered that a child had been -carried by the eagle to its nest, and the infant was screaming with -pain and terror. Alfred ordered the boy to be brought to his castle, -and not being able to find the parents of the child, he adopted him -as his own son, gave him a good education, and provided for him well -when he grew to manhood. King Alfred manifested great interest in the -arts of peace, notwithstanding the warlike influences and habits of his -life. He was the ruler of a race capable of appreciating intelligence, -order, justice, and system; and, foreseeing the future power of this -people, his chief attention during all the years of his reign was -devoted to their advancement in learning, setting them an example in -his own case by pressing forward diligently in his own studies, even -in the midst of his overwhelming cares. It was not possible in those -days to educate the masses, as there were no books; but Alfred made -great efforts to promote the intellectual improvement of his people, -which was all the more remarkable at that time when all other monarchs -were ambitious only of their own power and personal glory. King Alfred -wrote and translated many books, which were copied and, so far as it -was possible, circulated amongst those who could read them. These -writings of King Alfred exerted a wide influence. They remained in -manuscript until the art of printing was invented, when many of them -were printed. Some of the original manuscripts may still be seen in -various English museums. One of the greatest of King Alfred’s measures -was the founding of the great university of Oxford. He also repaired -the castles, which had become dilapidated in the wars. He rebuilt -the ruined cities, organized governments for them, restored the -monasteries, and took pains to put men of learning and piety in charge -of them. He revised the laws of his kingdom. Through all his reign, -his desire was to lay lasting foundations for the permanent prosperity -of his realm. His own life was governed by fixed principles of justice -and of duty; and his calm, patient, unselfish character gave him a wide -influence over his people, and made him a shining example of the truths -he endeavored to impress upon them. King Alfred invented a plan for -marking the different hours of the day by the burning of wax candles, -so exactly made as to size that they would each burn a certain fixed -time. The candles were each a foot long, and would burn four hours. -They were divided into inches by marks upon them, and each inch would -last twenty minutes. A large number of these candles were prepared, -and a person was appointed to keep a succession of them burning in a -chapel, and to ring bells to designate the successive periods of time -denoted by their burning. There was one difficulty, however, which -interfered somewhat with their exactness, which was that the blowing -of any slight breeze or draught would make the burning uncertain. To -obviate this trouble, King Alfred contrived a kind of lantern made of -sheets of horn so thin that they were almost transparent. A plate of -horn was set in each of the four sides of a box, which was fastened -over the candle, thus forming a sort of rude lantern. This was the -first lantern in England, and King Alfred is generally credited with -being their first inventor; but as Diogenes, the Greek philosopher, was -said to have carried a lantern in the old story, the English lantern -of King Alfred may not have been the earliest ever invented. Alfred -the Great was very systematic about the employment of his own time. -He was accustomed to give one-third of the twenty-four hours to sleep -and refreshment, one-third to business, and one-third to religious -duties. Under this last head was probably included study, writing, and -the management of ecclesiastical affairs. At length, however, at the -close of King Alfred’s life, a famous Northman leader, named Hastings, -landed in England, at the head of a large force, so that Alfred’s reign -ended as it had begun,—in desperate and protracted conflicts with -the Danes. Hastings had made one previous invasion into England, but -Guthrum, faithful to his promise to Alfred, repulsed him. But Guthrum -was now dead, and so King Alfred was forced to meet this tireless and -implacable foe again. Year after year passed, during which a succession -of battles were fought between the two nations, now the Danes gaining -an advantage, now the Saxons. Hastings was finally expelled from -England in 897, and once more Alfred’s kingdom was at peace. But King -Alfred’s life was now drawing very near its close. His children had -now grown to manhood, and repaid his love and care by endeavoring to -imitate their illustrious father’s example. His eldest son Edward -was to succeed King Alfred on the English throne. A daughter named -Ethelfleda, who was married to a prince of Mercia, was famed all over -England for the superiority of her mind, her many accomplishments, and -her devoted piety. Alfred the Great was fifty-two years of age when he -died. His body was interred in the great cathedral at Winchester, and -the kingdom passed peacefully to his son. His own dying farewell to his -son Edward is the best memorial encomium which can be passed upon his -life, and he most truly earned the title of Alfred the Great,—great in -wisdom, great in power, and, best of all, great in goodness; and his -purified spirit passed from earth with these truly great words upon his -dying lips:— - -“Thou, my dear son, sit thee now beside me, and I will deliver thee -true instructions. I feel that my hour is coming. My strength is -gone; my countenance is wasted and pale; my days are almost ended. -We must now part. I go to another world, and thou art left alone in -the possession of all that I have thus far held. I pray thee, my dear -child, to be a father to thy people. Be the children’s father and the -widow’s friend. Comfort the poor, protect and shelter the weak, and, -with all thy might, right that which is wrong. And, my son, govern -_thyself_ by _law_. Then shall the Lord love thee, and God himself -shall be thy reward. Call thou upon Him to advise thee in all thy need, -and He shall help thee to compass all thy desires.” - - - - -RICHARD CŒUR DE LION. - -A.D. 1157-1199. - - “Yet looks he like a king; behold his eye, - As bright as is the eagle’s, lightens forth - Controlling majesty.”—SHAKESPEARE. - - -THE history of Richard Cœur de Lion is a history of the third crusade, -and the most memorable one of all. Upon the side of the Mussulmans -was Saladin, sultan of Egypt and Syria. Saladin, whose name means -“splendor of religion,” was a noble and generous man, and though a -Mohammedan, he often evinced a far more humane and commendable spirit -than many of his foes, who called themselves Christians. Upon the side -of the Mohammedans, as well as that of the Christians, this conflict -was regarded as a holy war; for the Christians were fighting to obtain -Jerusalem and the Holy Sepulchre, where the body of Jesus Christ was -supposed to have lain, while the Mohammedans were just as zealously -fighting to retain Jerusalem; and Saladin’s answer to the Christians, -when they demanded the surrender of that city was, “Jerusalem never -was yours, and we may not without sin give it up to you; for it is the -place where the mysteries of our religion were accomplished; and the -last one of my soldiers will perish before the Mussulmans renounce -conquests made in the name of Mohammed.” - -[Illustration: RICHARD CŒUR DE LION.] - -Before the time of Richard the Lion-Hearted, Jerusalem had been -conquered by the Christians, and they had set up in it a king. This -was in 1099, when the crusaders elected Godfrey de Bouillon as king -of Jerusalem. But he reigned but one year and died. In the space of -one hundred and seventy-one years, from the coronation of Godfrey de -Bouillon as king of Jerusalem in 1099, to the last crusade under Louis -IX. of France, in 1270, there were seven crusades which were undertaken -by the kings of France and England, the emperors of Germany, the king -of Denmark, and various princes of Italy. They all failed in the end -of accomplishing the permanent possession of the city of Jerusalem by -the Christians; but these various crusades called forth a number of -devout and self-sacrificing monks and bishops, and gave occasion for -brave and valiant deeds by many knights and kings, and none were so -brave, and none became so famous in the annals of these holy wars as -Richard I., king of England, called by the Christians Cœur de Lion, the -Lion-hearted, on account of his valor, and for the same reason feared -among the Mohammedans, and called by them Malek-Rik; and so great a -terror did this name become, that when St. Louis, more than fifty -years after, led the French to another crusade, they heard the Saracen -mothers scolding their children, and threatening them with punishment -by the dreadful Malek-Rik, who had never been forgotten. The first of -the crusades had been inspired by a zealous monk, called Peter the -Hermit. From the earliest days of Christianity, many pious persons -had made pilgrimages to Palestine, to visit the graves of saints and -other places. After a time, these pilgrimages had been extended to -Jerusalem; and that city at length, having fallen into the hands of the -Turks, the Christian people were treated with cruelty, and many of the -clergy were imprisoned and even killed. Peter the Hermit had been -to Jerusalem, and having himself been an eye-witness of the cruelties -of the Turks towards the Christians, he obtained permission of the -Pope to go to the principal courts in Europe, and exhort all Christian -warriors to take up arms against the infidels in the Holy Land. Peter -the Hermit walked from court to court, barefoot and clothed in rags. He -was listened to as a prophet, and succeeded in inspiring many knights -and crowds of people to enlist in what they considered a sacred cause. -The symbol of this enlistment was a cross of red stuff sewed to the -shoulder of the cloak; hence the name crusade. France was at this time -roused to great excitement. The barons sold and pledged their lands to -obtain the means of joining the expedition. The Pope promised a full -remission of sins to all who assumed the cross; and as the mass of -the people were so ignorant in those days that the word of the Pope -was held to be as sacred as a voice from heaven, and his blessing or -excommunication was regarded by them as powerful enough to raise them -to Paradise, or call down upon them everlasting destruction, thousands -of wicked persons, whose sins were so many that it would have required -years of penance to have gained the much-coveted absolvance from the -Pope, eagerly seized upon this method of winning earthly glory, and, -as they supposed, heavenly honor. It is said that a crowd of more than -a million of persons, including beggars, women and children, soon -pledged themselves to this crusade. Three hundred thousand of such a -motley company started, with Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless -marching at their head. Nearly the entire number fell victims to the -fury of their assailants in the countries through which they passed. -This company of helpless beggars, women and children, were followed -by three hundred thousand fighting men, who had been preparing in the -different kingdoms, mostly in France. Of this large host, only a small -remnant under Godfrey de Bouillon, arrived at Jerusalem, and captured -that city in 1099, and planted the standard of the cross on its walls. - -St. Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux, roused the people again for the -second crusade, for it was discovered that the Turks had massacred -the Christians in Palestine, and that Jerusalem was in danger. -King Louis VII. of France, and the emperor Conrad III. of Germany, -espoused the cause. Although Louis and Conrad entered the city of -Jerusalem and determined upon the siege of Damascus, nothing permanent -was accomplished. The siege of Damascus was abandoned, and the -crusade-sovereigns returned to their respective kingdoms. - -During the forty years’ interval between the end of the second and -the beginning of the third crusades, the relative positions of the -West and East, Christian Europe and Mussulman Asia, remained much the -same. But in 1187, news again reached Europe of repeated disasters to -the Christians in Asia. Egypt had become the goal of ambition, and -Saladin, the most illustrious as well as the most powerful of Mussulman -sovereigns, being sultan of Egypt and Syria, had fought against a -Christian army near Tiberias. The oriental chronicles thus describe -the conflict: “The Christian army was surrounded by the Saracens, and -also, ere long, by the fire, which Saladin had ordered to be set to -the dry grass which covered the plain. The flames made their way and -spread beneath the feet of men and horses. There the sons of Paradise -and the children of fire settled their terrible quarrel. Arrows hurtled -in the air like a noisy flight of sparrows, and the blood of warriors -dripped upon the ground like rain-water. Hill, plain, and valley -were covered with their dead; their banners were stained with dust -and blood, their heads were laid low, their limbs scattered, their -carcasses piled on a heap like stones.” Four days after the battle of -Tiberias in July, 1187, Saladin took possession of St. Jean d’Acre, -and in the following September, of Ascalon. In the same month he laid -siege to Jerusalem. The Holy City contained at that time, it is said, -nearly one hundred thousand Christians, who had fled for safety from -all parts of Palestine. Saladin’s taking of Jerusalem is thus described -by Guizot. “On approaching its walls, Saladin sent for the principal -inhabitants, and said to them, ‘I know as well as you that Jerusalem -is the house of God, and I will not have it assaulted if I can get it -by peace and love. I will give you thirty thousand byzants of gold if -you promise me Jerusalem, and you shall have liberty to go whither you -will and do your tillage, to a distance of five miles from the city. -And I will have you supplied with such plenty of provisions that in no -place on earth shall they be so cheap. You shall have a truce from now -to Whitsuntide, and when this time comes, if you see that you may have -aid, then hold on. But if not, you shall give up the city, and I will -have you conveyed in safety to Christian territory, yourselves and your -substance.’ ‘We may not yield up to you a city where died our God,’ -answered the envoys, ‘and still less may we sell you.’ The siege lasted -fourteen days. After having repulsed several assaults, the inhabitants -saw that effectual resistance was impossible, and the commandant of -the place, a knight, named Balian d’Ibelin, an old warrior who had -been at the battle of Tiberias, returned to Saladin, and asked for -the conditions back again which had been at first rejected. Saladin, -pointing to his own banner already planted upon several parts of the -battlements, answered, ‘It is too late, you surely see that the city -is mine.’ ‘Very well, my lord,’ replied the knight, ‘we will ourselves -destroy our city, and the mosque of Omar, and the stone of Jacob, -and when it is nothing but a heap of ruins, we will sally forth with -sword and fire in hand, and not one of us will go to Paradise without -having sent ten Mussulmans to hell.’ Saladin understood enthusiasm and -respected it, and to have had the destruction of Jerusalem connected -with his name would have caused him deep displeasure. He therefore -consented to the terms of capitulation demanded of him. The fighting -men were permitted to retreat to Tyre or Tripolis, which cities were in -the power of the Christians, and the simple inhabitants of Jerusalem -had their lives preserved, and permission given them to purchase their -freedom on certain conditions; but, as many amongst them could not find -the means, Malek-Adhel, the sultan’s brother, and Saladin himself, paid -the ransom of several thousands of captives. All Christians, however, -with the exception of Greeks and Syrians, had orders to leave Jerusalem -within four days. When the day came, all the gates were closed except -that of David, by which the people were to go forth, and Saladin, -seated upon a throne, saw the Christians defile before him. First came -the patriarch, followed by the clergy carrying the sacred vessels and -the ornaments of the church of the Holy Sepulchre. After him came -Sibylla, queen of Jerusalem, who had remained in the city, whilst her -husband, Guy de Lusignan, had been a prisoner at Nablous since the -battle of Tiberias. Saladin saluted her respectfully, and spoke to her -kindly. He had too great a soul to take pleasure in the humiliation -of greatness.” The capture of Jerusalem again roused Europe to arms, -but the story of this third crusade will be more fully narrated, as -we proceed with the personal history of Richard the Lion-hearted, who -became the chief and most illustrious figure in the annals of this -third holy war. - -Eleanor, the mother of Richard Cœur de Lion, had herself participated -in the second crusade. Eleanor’s grandfather was duke of Aquitaine, a -rich kingdom in the south of France. His son, the father of Eleanor, -had been killed in the first crusade, and the duke of Aquitaine -determined to resign his kingdom in favor of his grand-daughter, and -marry her to Prince Louis VII., then heir to the throne of France. -This was accomplished, and King Louis VI. of France, dying soon after -the marriage, Eleanor became queen of France, as well as duchess of -Aquitaine. This princess had been well educated for those times, -and was even celebrated for her learning, as she possessed the rare -accomplishments of being able to read and write, as well as to sing -the songs of the Troubadours, which was the fashionable music of the -courts. King Louis VII., her husband, was a very pious man, much more -fond of devotion than of pleasure, so he determined to go on a crusade, -and Queen Eleanor, from a gay love of adventure, resolved to accompany -him. Eleanor and her court ladies laid aside their feminine attire, and -clothed themselves as Amazons, taking good care, however, to provide a -most cumbersome amount of baggage, containing their usual rich costumes -and delicate luxuries, which proved so great a burden in transportation -that the king remonstrated against such a needless and troublesome -excess of useless finery. But the ladies carried their point, and the -crusading expedition, which should have been composed of an army -of valiant warriors, became an immense train of women and baggage, -requiring the constant care of the princes, barons, and knights, many -of them reluctant participants, who had been shamed by the taunts of -these ladies into joining an expedition which had been organized upon -so wild and heedless a plan as to insure only disaster and failure. But -the gay ladies exclaimed to any man who dared to express any thoughts -of remaining at home, “We will send you our distaffs as presents. We -have no longer any use for them, but as you are intending to stay at -home and make women of yourselves, we will send them to you, so that -you may occupy yourselves with spinning while we are gone.” - -Notwithstanding this apparent zeal which Eleanor and her court ladies -displayed, their caprices and freaks continued to harass and interfere -with the expedition, during the entire crusade, and Queen Eleanor so -displeased King Louis by her gay and frivolous conduct, that a long -and serious quarrel arose between them, and he declared that he would -obtain a divorce from her. But his ministers tried to prevent this, -as Eleanor possessed the rich kingdom of Aquitaine in her own right, -which would be lost to Louis by a separation. So they returned from -the Holy Land to Paris, still as king and queen of France. But in -about two years after, Eleanor determined to be divorced from King -Louis of France, so that she might marry Prince Henry Plantagenet, -who afterwards became Henry II., of England. Prince Henry’s father -had received the name Plantagenet from a habit he had of wearing a -spray of broom blossom in his cap. The French name for this plant is -_genet_, and so he was nicknamed Plantagenet, and his son Henry II. -was the first king in that family, also called the House of Anjou. -Although Henry II. was king of England, by his marriage with Eleanor, -which took place only a short time after she obtained a divorce from -King Louis of France, Henry gained the great dukedom of Aquitaine, -and as he already possessed Normandy and Anjou, he really was lord of -nearly half of France. He ruled England well, but he cared more for -power than what was right, and he often indulged in such exhibitions -of fierce rage, that he would roll on the floor and bite the rushes -with which it was strewn. At the time of his marriage with Eleanor, -Henry was duke of Normandy, and was only twenty years of age, while -Eleanor was thirty-two; but she was very much in love with him, and as -she could bring him such a rich kingdom, and furnish him men and money -to help him secure the crown of England, which was at that time held -by King Stephen, whom Henry declared was a usurper, he was willing to -accept Eleanor as his wife, although she was nearly twice his own age, -and was also the divorced wife of King Louis. Some historians place -the blame of the divorce upon Eleanor, some upon Louis; but all unite -in condemning her previous conduct, for she occasioned many scandalous -remarks by her undignified, unwifely, and even culpable actions. After -she became queen of England, however, she changed in this respect, and -her after quarrels with Henry were occasioned by her ambitions and -his conduct regarding a lady called the Fair Rosamond, who afterwards -became a nun in a convent near Oxford. Some historians think that -Henry was in reality married to Rosamond before he was persuaded to -espouse Eleanor, in order to gain her rich possessions. Though Eleanor -had equally wronged her former husband, Louis, she made no excuse for -King Henry’s devotion to Rosamond, and when she discovered Henry’s -affection for her, she ordered that she should be shut up in a convent -out of the way. To this King Henry consented, but the jealousy of the -queen against her rival was never abated, and added great bitterness -to the other causes of discord between herself and King Henry, which -at last broke out in the open rebellion of Queen Eleanor and her sons -against the king, so that Henry would often be obliged to raise armies -to put down the various disturbances caused by first one son, then -another, then all together, encouraged by their mother Eleanor, who -however seemed to have inspired more love and devotion in the hearts -of her sons than their father. Almost all the early years of the life -of Richard were spent in wars which were waged by different members -of his father’s family against each other. These wars originated -in the quarrels between King Henry and his sons, in respect to the -family property. As Henry II. held a great many possessions which he -had inherited through his father, grandfather, and his wife Eleanor, -he was duke of one country, earl of a second, king of a third, and -count of a fourth. Henry had five sons, of whom Richard was the third, -and he was born about three years after Eleanor was crowned queen -of England, when, upon the death of King Stephen, Henry became king -of that country. Henry II. was a generous father, and as his sons -became old enough, he gave them provinces of their own. But they were -not contented with the portions allotted to them, and demanded more. -Sometimes Henry would yield, at other times resist, when the sons would -raise armies and rebel against their father, and then would follow the -shocking spectacle of husband, wife, and sons, all fighting against -each other. These wars continued for many years, the mother usually -taking sides with her sons, until King Henry shut her up in a castle, -in a sort of imprisonment, where he kept her confined for sixteen years. - -It was during the reign of Henry II. that the famous archbishop, Thomas -à Becket, was murdered, under the following circumstances: Thomas -à Becket had been one of Henry’s most devoted friends and intimate -counsellors, and Henry had raised him to the office of Chancellor. -Afterwards Henry made Thomas à Becket bishop of Canterbury, but from -that time serious differences arose between them. The king made many -laws, one being, that if a priest or monk was thought to have committed -any crime, he should be tried by civil judges, like other men; whereas -Becket, in the name of the church, maintained that the clergy should -be tried only by the bishops. This quarrel was so serious that Becket -was forced to leave England and take refuge with the king of France. -After six years, a half reconciliation took place, and the archbishop -of Canterbury returned to England. Thomas à Becket soon again incurred -the king’s displeasure, and Henry exclaimed in anger, “Will no one rid -me of this turbulent priest?” Whereupon four of his knights who had -heard this remark, and thought that they would gain power over the king -by carrying out this wish, immediately went to Canterbury, and finding -the archbishop in the cathedral by the altar, they slew him. At first -Henry was secretly glad, but the people and priests considered Thomas -a martyr, and raised such an outcry of indignation, that three years -after, King Henry went to the cathedral of Canterbury, and in order to -show his penitence, he entered barefoot, and kneeling by the tomb of -Thomas à Becket, he commanded every priest to strike him with a knotted -rope upon his bare back. This he endured as an act of penance for -causing the death of the archbishop. - -The first important event of Richard’s childhood was his betrothment. -When he was about four years of age he was formally affianced to -Alice, the child of Louis, king of France. Alice was three years of -age. Another of King Louis’ children had been married in the same way -to Richard’s eldest brother Henry, and the English king complained -that the dowry of the young French princess was not sufficient, and -this quarrel was settled by an agreement that King Louis should give -his other daughter Alice to Richard, and with her another province. -These infant marriages, or betrothments, were made by kings in order -to get possession of rich territories, for the father of the husbands -became the guardians of the provinces, and received any sum of money -agreed upon, which they usually appropriated to their own use. This -betrothment of Richard became the cause of future differences between -himself and Philip, the brother of Alice, when Richard had become king -of England, and Philip king of France. At length, in the midst of one -of the frequent wars between the king of England and his sons, his -eldest son Henry was taken very sick, and being at the point of death, -he sent to his father to obtain his forgiveness, and to beg that he -would come to see him. The king, fearing it was only some stratagem to -get him into the power of the rebellious young prince, who had often -broken his word, did not dare to go, but sent an archbishop to Prince -Henry, with a ring as a token of his forgiveness. The poor prince -who was really dying, and very penitent for his unfilial conduct, -pressed the ring to his dying lips with frantic tears of remorse, and -commanded his attendants to lay him upon a bed of ashes, which he had -ordered prepared, that he might die there as a sign of his sincere -repentance. When King Henry heard of the sad death of his eldest son, -he was moved to tears, and releasing his wife Queen Eleanor from her -imprisonment, he became reconciled to her for a time. But soon again -the family dissensions arose. Prince Geoffrey, the second son of King -Henry, was killed in a tournament, and Richard, who had now reached -manhood, demanded that his father should give him the Princess Alice in -marriage, and with her the lands and money intrusted to his care by the -king of France. This King Henry refused to do. Some said, because he -wished to keep the rich lands himself; others said, because he himself -loved the Princess Alice, and that he was determined to seek a divorce -from Queen Eleanor, so that he might marry the young princess. Whatever -was his motive, King Henry refused to have Richard’s marriage with -Alice consummated, and kept the princess shut up in a castle. Whereupon -Richard rebelled against his father, and persuaded his younger brother -John to espouse his cause. Of course Eleanor took sides with her sons, -so she was again shut up in a castle by King Henry, and Richard and -John set off for Paris and gained the support of Philip II., of France, -who was now king, as Louis was dead. King Henry had determined to -divide his kingdom, and as John was his favorite as well as youngest, -he resolved to have him crowned king of England, leaving his French -possessions to Richard. Whereupon Richard carried off his young -brother, and with the help of Philip, raised an army to fight against -his father. In this war King Henry, who was now old and broken-spirited -by his many sorrows, was so far defeated that he was obliged to submit -to negotiations for peace. While the terms were being arranged, King -Henry fell very ill, and when the articles of treaty were brought to -his bedside, he found that the name of his youngest son John, his -darling, who had never rebelled against him before, now headed the -list of the princes, barons, and nobles who had gone over to Richard’s -side. This quite broke his heart, and he exclaimed with tears, “Is it -possible that John, the child of my heart, he whom I have cherished -more than all the rest, and for love of whom I have drawn down on my -own head all these troubles, has verily betrayed me? Then,” said he, -falling back helplessly upon the bed, “let everything go on as it will, -I care no longer for myself, nor for anything else in the world.” The -king grew more and more excited, until at last he died in a raving -delirium, cursing his rebellious children with his last breath. Thus -Richard I. became king of England when he was about thirty-two years of -age. The sad death of his father occasioned some remorse in the heart -of Richard, and he joined in the funeral solemnities. King Henry had -died in Normandy, and was buried in an abbey there. - -[Illustration: RICHARD I] - -King Richard now sent at once to England, and ordered the release of -his mother Queen Eleanor, and invested her with power to act as regent -there, while he himself remained in Normandy to secure his French -possessions. Queen Eleanor was regent in England for two months, and -employed her power in a very beneficent manner. Her imprisonment and -sorrows had no doubt disposed her to kindness towards others, and -remorse for her past evil deeds prompted her to many acts of mercy. - -King Richard now arranged with King Philip of France, to go upon a -crusade. Richard was brave, though he was not a good man. His greatest -delight was in fighting, and as his claims to his own kingdom were now -undisputed, he was eager to enter into a campaign in the Holy Land. -His brother Prince John was very willing that Richard should go, and -made no claims to any of the provinces of his father, for he hoped that -Richard would be killed in the Holy War, and thus the rich kingdoms of -England and Normandy would fall to him. Though Richard was brave, he -was neither wise nor provident in the administration of his government. -His one absorbing idea was how to gain fresh glory as a valiant knight -in the war with the Saracens, and he levied heavy taxes upon all his -dominions to raise the necessary funds required for the equipment of -his army. - -These Holy Wars were very costly expeditions. The princes, barons, and -knights required very expensive armor, and rich trappings for their -horses, and ships were to be bought and equipped, arms and ammunition -provided, and large supplies of food purchased. Though the pretense -was religious zeal in going out to fight for the recovery of the Holy -Sepulchre, the real motive which animated most of the participants in -the several crusades, was love of glory and display. - -Upon King Richard’s arrival in England, he proceeded at once to -Winchester, where his father had kept his treasures. Richard found here -a large sum of money, rich plate, and precious gems of great value. -These he placed under the care of trusty officers. - -The former adherents of Richard, when he was a prince rebelling against -the lawful king his father, now supposed that they would be held -by him in high esteem. But in this they were greatly disappointed. -King Richard was wise enough to know that those who had aided his -rebellions, might likewise aid others against his own supremacy. So he -retained his father’s officers and experienced men of state. - -The day upon which the coronation of Richard I. was celebrated by a -very magnificent ceremony in Westminster Abbey, has become historical -not only on that account, but in consequence of a great massacre of -the Jews, which resulted from a riot that broke out in Westminster -and London immediately after the crowning of the king. The Jews had -been persecuted by all the Christian nations of Europe, and the people -imagined that they were serving the cause of religion in oppressing -them, as they were considered little better than infidels and heathen. -As Philip had banished the Jews from France, and confiscated their -property, the Jews in England determined to send a delegation to -conciliate Richard’s favor, and they accordingly came to Westminster -at the time of his coronation, bearing rich presents. As Richard had -commanded that no Jew or woman should be present at this ceremony, when -the Jewish deputation came in and offered their presents amongst the -rest, there was loud murmuring throughout the crowd. - -King Richard gladly accepted their rich gifts, but as a Jew was -attempting to enter at the gate, a bystander cried out, “Here comes a -Jew!” and struck him a blow. Others now assailed him, and as he was -escaping, bruised and bleeding, the cry was raised that the Jews were -expelled by the king’s orders, and as a riot was now raised in the -streets, which became a bloody fight between Jews and Christians, the -rumor went forth that the king had ordered all the Jews to be killed. -The mob instantly attempted to carry out this supposed order, and Jews -were murdered everywhere, in the streets, in their homes; and when they -barricaded their dwellings, the mob set fire to them, and men, women, -and children perished in the flames. - -The king and his nobles were meanwhile feasting in the great -banqueting-hall at Westminster, and for a time took no notice of the -disturbance. At length officers were sent to suppress the mob, but -it was too late. The enfuriated people paid no attention to the few -soldiers sent to quell them, and only rested from their bloody work, -from sheer exhaustion, about two o’clock the next day. - -A few of the men engaged in the riot were afterwards brought to trial -and punished, but King Richard found that so many of his chief men -were implicated, that he let the matter drop, only issuing an edict, -forbidding the Jews to be injured any more. - -King Richard now entered upon his preparations for the crusade, with -intense zeal. His great need was money, and he seemed to think that -the sacred cause was an excuse for most unkingly measures. Richard was -endowed with a sort of reckless lion-like courage, which led him to -look upon fighting as a sport, and as he had no one to fight at home, -he espoused eagerly any pretense of a sacred cause which would give him -the pleasure of killing as many men as he pleased, and thereby winning -not disapprobation from the world, but loud plaudits for bravery, and -zealous devotion to a holy enterprise. Strange delusion! That men -should go forth to murder, rob, and devastate the land in the name -of the meek and lowly Christ. Only ignorance and superstition could -allow the human soul to be so infatuated with not only false, but most -atrociously wicked, ideas, which were in entire opposition to the -teachings of the Divine Leader whom they professed to follow. - -In securing money for the crusade, King Richard resorted to many very -questionable expedients. He proceeded to sell the royal domains which -he had inherited from his father, and in this manner disposed of -castles, fortresses, and towns to the highest bidder. When remonstrated -with for thus diminishing the crown property, he replied, “I would sell -the city of London itself, if I could find a purchaser rich enough to -buy it.” - -Richard also sold high offices and titles of honor; and the historians -state that King Richard’s presence-chamber became a regular place of -trade, where castles, titles, offices, and honors were for sale, to -whomsoever would give the best bargain. But the most disreputable -manner of raising money was by imposing fines as a punishment for -crimes, and then endeavoring to fix crimes upon the wealthy, so that -they would be obliged to pay large sums to free themselves. Lastly, -Richard sold the nominal regency of England to two wealthy courtiers, -one a bishop, the other an earl. Or if he did not sell it to them -outright, he arranged that they were to receive the power, and were to -give him a large sum of money. He, however, stipulated that his brother -John and his mother should have their share of influence in deciding -upon measures concerning the government. - -Notwithstanding Richard’s quarrels with his father, regarding his -marriage with the Princess Alice when he became king, Richard seemed -in no hurry to fulfil his engagement, and even determined to set it -aside altogether, for he had met and loved a Spanish princess named -Berengaria. But, lest this should cause a fresh quarrel with Philip, -the brother of Alice, Richard resolved to keep his plans a secret. So -he sent his mother Queen Eleanor to Spain to secure Berengaria for -his wife, and Eleanor having been successful in her mission, the two -ladies, with a train of barons and knights, set out for Italy, where -Richard intended to meet them. - -Meanwhile, the two kings, Philip and Richard, had continued their -preparations for the crusade. As Philip had no ships of his own, he -made arrangements with the republic of Genoa to furnish him with ships, -and so he departed for that place. Richard, having a large fleet, which -he had sent round to Marseilles with orders to await him there, marched -his army across France by land. So little reliance did either Philip or -Richard place in each other, that neither of them would have thought it -safe to leave his own dominions unless the other had been going also. -They made a final treaty of alliance before starting, that they would -defend the life and honor of the other upon all occasions; that neither -would desert the other in time of danger; and that they would respect -the dominions of each other. - -When King Richard reached Marseilles, he found that his fleet had not -arrived. It had been delayed by a storm. Richard, not waiting for his -fleet, hired ten large vessels and twenty galleys, and embarked with a -portion of his forces, leaving orders for the remainder to follow in -the fleet, and to meet him at Messina, in Sicily. - -Joanna, the sister of King Richard, had married the king of Sicily. He -was now dead, and the throne had been seized by one Tancred, and Joanna -had been shut up in a castle. King Richard determined to redress his -sister’s wrongs, and after arriving at Genoa, where he found Philip, -Richard set out on his way to Messina, stopping at Ostia, Naples, and -Salerno, by the way. Having arrived at Messina, where Philip had also -landed, Richard, having met his own fleet on the Italian side of the -strait, entered the harbor with his ships and galleys fully manned and -gayly decorated, while musicians were stationed on the decks, to blow -trumpets and horns as the fleet sailed along the shore. The Sicilians -were quite alarmed to behold such a formidable host of foreign -soldiers, and his allies, the French, did not like this grand display -any better, for Philip had arrived with disabled ships, and immediately -began to be very jealous of the growing fame of King Richard. Philip -determined to leave Messina as speedily as possible, and proceed on his -way towards the Holy Land, but having attempted it, and encountered -a severe storm, he was obliged to turn back again. As winter had now -set in, both kings found that they must remain there until spring. -As soon as Richard landed his troops at Messina, he formed a great -encampment on the seashore near the town, and then sent an embassy to -Tancred, demanding Joanna’s release. Tancred, awed by Richard’s power, -immediately complied with this demand, and Joanna being safely out of -the power of her enemy, Richard forthwith attacked the city of Messina, -and having captured it, Tancred made peace with Richard upon the -following terms:— - -Richard had a nephew about two years of age, named Arthur. Tancred -had an infant daughter. So it was agreed that Arthur and this young -daughter of Tancred should be affianced, and that Tancred should pay -to Richard twenty thousand pieces of gold as her dowry. Richard was to -receive this money as guardian of his nephew, and also twenty thousand -pieces of gold besides, in full settlement of all claims of Joanna. - -This treaty was drawn up in due form and signed, and sent for safe -keeping to the Pope at Rome, and Richard having received the money, -began immediately to lavish it in costly presents to the barons and -knights in both armies, which gave King Philip cause for suspicions, -as he thought Richard was endeavoring to buy the allegiance of his -troops, and soon an open quarrel occurred between the two sovereigns. -Richard’s use of this trust money demonstrates the small regard he -had for the just rights and claims of others. But the distrust which -existed between Richard and Philip was no longer concealed. Tancred -showed Richard a letter, which was said to have been written by Philip, -in which Richard was bitterly denounced as a treacherous foe. Richard -indignantly showed this letter to Philip, who denied having written it, -and the two kings were soon in a hot dispute. Philip then declared that -Richard was endeavoring to break his engagement with his sister Alice. -Whereupon Richard retorted that he would never marry her. - -The matter was finally settled by a compromise. Richard promised to pay -a large sum of money to Philip, who agreed to relinquish all claims -on the part of Alice. So Philip sailed away in March, and Richard -selected from his fleet a few of his most splendid galleys, and with a -chosen company of knights and barons, proceeded to the port in Italy, -where Berengaria was staying, under the care of Joanna, Queen Eleanor -having returned to England; and King Richard conducted the ladies to -Messina. It being the season of Lent, the marriage was still postponed; -and Joanna and Berengaria were provided with a strong and well-manned -ship, and sailed with the expedition; it being the purpose of Richard -to land at some port, after Lent, where the marriage ceremony would -be performed. King Richard’s fleet consisted of nearly two hundred -vessels. There were thirteen great ships, and over fifty galleys, -besides a large number of smaller vessels. Richard sailed at the head -of his fleet, in a splendid galley, called the _Sea-Cutter_. This fine -fleet sailed out of the harbor with flying banners, affording the -Sicilians an imposing spectacle. - -But storms overtook this brilliant array of ships, and soon the fleet -was dispersed. Some of the vessels were driven to Rhodes; others -took refuge in Cyprus. Richard’s galley went to Rhodes; but the ship -containing Berengaria and Joanna was swept onward by the gale to the -mouth of the harbor of Limesol, the principal port of Cyprus. The king -of Cyprus, in accordance with the custom of those times, had seized -upon the wrecks of several vessels belonging to Richard’s fleet; and -the commander of the ship in which the princess and queen had sailed, -feared to land, lest some harm should come to the royal ladies. - -After the storm, Richard set out with his part of the fleet, to find -the missing vessels; and having arrived before Cyprus, he found the -galley of Berengaria and Joanna safe, but learned that the king of -Cyprus had seized upon several of his wrecked vessels, and claimed -them as his prize. This was a common practice at that time, and the -king of Cyprus had acted in accordance with a customary law, which, -though a violation of the real rights of property, gave a person the -liberty to confiscate wrecked vessels or goods. In later times, this -law was annulled, but the king of Cyprus had the law upon his side; -notwithstanding, Richard immediately prepared for war, for he was -only too glad to find some pretext for attacking and capturing the -fair isle of Cyprus. Richard’s assault upon Limesol was successful; -and King Richard, having signaled the galley of Joanna to advance, -the whole army landed, and the ladies were lodged in one of the most -magnificent of the palaces of the king of Cyprus. The daughter of the -king of Cyprus was very beautiful, and was greatly terrified when she -was brought into the presence of her father’s conqueror. Richard gave -her as an attendant to Berengaria, and sent the defeated king of Cyprus -to Tripoli, in Syria, where he was shut up in a dungeon, and secured -with chains, which, however, in honor of his rank, were made of silver, -overlaid with gold. But what mattered it to the poor imprisoned monarch -that his galling chains were of costly metals, when he was shut up in a -gloomy dungeon, and his daughter a prisoner in the hands of his enemy? - -This poor king died in captivity, broken-hearted, four years after. -Now, at last, the marriage of King Richard and Berengaria was -celebrated with royal splendor. After the marriage ceremony, there was -a coronation, when Richard was crowned king of Cyprus, and Berengaria -as queen of both England and Cyprus. - -The appearance of King Richard and Berengaria on this occasion was -very striking. King Richard wore a rose-colored satin tunic, which was -fastened by a jeweled belt about his waist. Over this was a mantle of -striped silver tissue, brocaded with silver half-moons. He wore also -a costly sword; the blade was of Damascus steel, the hilt of gold, -and the scabbard was of silver, richly engraved. On his head was a -scarlet bonnet, brocaded in gold, with figures of animals. He carried -in his hand a truncheon, which was a sort of sceptre, very elaborately -adorned. He was tall and well-formed, with yellow curls and a bright -complexion; and when mounted upon his magnificent charger, he appeared -a perfect model of military and manly grace. This horse was named -Faunelle, and became quite a historical character, acquiring great -fame by his strength and courage, and by the marvellous sagacity he -displayed in the various battles in which he was engaged with his -master. His trappings were very rich; the bit, stirrups, and all -the metallic mountings of the saddle and bridle were of gold, and -the crupper was adorned with two golden lions. The costume of Queen -Berengaria was equally magnificent. The veil was fastened to her head -by a royal diadem, resplendent with gold and gems, and was surmounted -by a _fleur de lis_, with so much foliage added to it that it had the -appearance of being a double crown, symbolizing her double queenship, -both of England and Cyprus. - -The chief landing-point for expeditions of crusaders to the Holy Land -was Acre, called also St. Jean d’Acre. It received its name from -a military order, known as the Knights of St. John, who founded a -monastery there for the safety and entertainment of pilgrims. This -place was at this time in the hands of the Saracens; and Philip, the -French king, who arrived before Richard, had in vain tried to capture -it. King Richard, having left Cyprus, together with his bride and -sister, proceeded on his way to join Philip at Acre; but he met with -one adventure which is worthy of note. In sailing along, his fleet -fell in with a ship of large size. Richard ordered his galleys to -press on, as the ship seemed to be endeavoring to escape. As they -came nearer, they perceived that the strange ship was filled with -Saracens. King Richard thereupon ordered his men to board the ship and -capture it. The Saracens, feeling that escape was hopeless, scuttled -the ship, determined to sink with her rather than fall into the hands -of the Christians. Then a dreadful combat ensued. Each side fought -with ferocious energy; for although the Saracens expected to die, they -were resolved to first wreak their fury upon their foes. The Saracens -employed Greek fire, which was a celebrated means of warfare in those -days. It was some kind of combustible matter, which was set on fire -and thrown at the enemy. Nothing could extinguish it, and besides the -great heat it produced, it threw forth dense volumes of poisonous and -stifling gases, which soon suffocated those near by. It was thrown -on the ends of darts and arrows, and even water did not extinguish -it; so that the sea all around this Saracen ship was a mass of lurid -flames. Although many of Richard’s men were killed, the Saracen ship -was captured before it had time to sink, and the Christians, rushing -on board, transferred to their own vessels nearly all of its valuable -cargo. But their treatment of their Saracen foes was barbarous in the -extreme. They killed and threw into the sea all but about thirty-five -men out of twelve or fifteen hundred. These were saved, not from -humanity, but in the hope of securing large sums for their ransom. King -Richard afterwards defended this brutal conduct by declaring that they -had found on board the Saracen ship large jars filled with poisonous -snakes, which the infidels were about taking to Acre, to let them loose -near the crusaders’ camp. - -When Richard’s fleet arrived at Acre, the crusaders encamped there were -much encouraged; for their situation was getting very critical, and -they had accomplished little or nothing. - -The crusaders were not as well disciplined as the Saracen army, which -was united under the command of the valiant and powerful Saladin. -Among the Christians there were constant quarrels, caused by the -petty jealousies and hostilities of the knights and barons. There -was one great wrangling over the title of King of Jerusalem, which, -although it was an empty title (for the city was still in the hands -of the Saracens), there were many claimants for; and each one of them -intrigued incessantly to gain partisans to his side. A short time -after Richard landed with his bride and army at Acre, fresh quarrels -arose between the two kings; and so serious was the difference, that -when Philip planned an assault, Richard would not assist him; and when -Richard, likewise, made an attack, Philip refused to aid. So that -neither assault was successful against their common foe, while large -numbers of their own men were killed. - -[Illustration: RICHARD TEARING DOWN THE AUSTRIAN BANNER.] - -Although the allies failed to capture Acre by assault, the town was -at length obliged to surrender to the Christians on account of the -famine, which caused such distress that the Saracens entered into -negotiations for surrender, which were as follows: “The city was to -be surrendered to the allied armies, and all the arms, ammunition, -military stores, and property of all kinds which it contained, were to -be forfeited to the conquerors. The troops and the people of the town -were to be allowed to go free on payment of a ransom. The ransom by -which the besieged purchased their lives and liberty was to be made -up as follows: The wood of the cross on which Christ was crucified, -which was alleged to be in Saladin’s possession, was to be restored. -Saladin was to set at liberty the Christian captives which he had -taken in the course of the war from the various armies of crusaders, -and which he now held as prisoners. The number of these prisoners was -about fifteen hundred. Saladin was to pay two hundred thousand pieces -of gold. Richard was to retain a large body of men—it was said that -there were five thousand in all—consisting of soldiers of the garrison, -or inhabitants of the town, as hostages for the fulfilment of these -conditions. These men were to be kept forty days, or, if at the end of -that time Saladin had not fulfilled the conditions of the surrender, -they were all to be put to death.” - -Saladin was not within the city, but was encamped with his army upon -the surrounding mountains; and finding that he could not aid the -besieged inhabitants, he agreed to these overbearing terms, which King -Philip had in vain tried to make more honorable. Although the treaty -had been made in the names of both the kings, Richard entered the city -as the conqueror, assigning to Philip a secondary place; and having -taken possession, Richard established himself and Berengaria in the -principal palace, leaving Philip to secure quarters as best he might. -Richard also enraged the archduke of Austria, who was also one of -the crusaders, by pulling down the banner of the duke, which he had -ventured to place on one of the towers. - -Now, again, the disputes regarding the title of the King of Jerusalem -were renewed. Two knights, Guy of Lusignan and Conrad of Montferrat, -claimed this title, and Philip and Richard espoused opposite sides, -Philip agreeing to help Conrad’s claims, and Richard taking part -with Guy. This occasioned so much hard feeling that Philip, who had -been sick, announced that he was too ill to remain longer in such an -unhealthy climate; and leaving ten thousand French troops under the -command of the duke of Burgundy, King Philip returned to France. - -We now come to the barbarous massacre of the five thousand Saracen -prisoners, by the orders of King Richard, which shocking deed has left -a dark blot upon the fame of Richard, even though he gloried in the -act and considered it a proof of his zeal in the cause of Christ. The -writers of those days praised it, and maintained that, as the Saracens -were the enemies of God, whoever killed them did God service. How they -could be so blinded by ignorance and superstition we cannot understand; -and it appears very amazing that the religion of love which Jesus of -Nazareth preached, by his words and his example, could have been so -misunderstood by the perverted minds of men; that such a diabolical -spirit of ferocious brutality could be esteemed as commendable worship -of Almighty God. - -The time which had been agreed upon for Saladin to comply with the -stipulations of the surrender of Acre having expired, Richard ordered -the five thousand prisoners, which he held as hostages, to be brutally -beheaded; and a false rumor having been raised, that Saladin had put -to death his Christian prisoners, the soldiers of Richard were easily -infuriated to be willing to execute this barbarous order. In the -face of Saladin’s humane treatment of the inhabitants of Jerusalem, -when he captured that city, Mussulman though he was, this shocking -barbarity of the crusading army, while calling themselves Christians, -was an atrocious crime, which no plea of supposed zeal or ignorant -superstition can excuse. - -Saladin and his army were now retreating towards Jerusalem, which city -was his chief point to defend. Richard, having repaired the walls of -Acre, and placed a garrison to hold it, proceeded with thirty thousand -men in pursuit of the Saracens. The recovery of the Holy Sepulchre was -the great object of the crusaders. All their efforts were considered of -no avail, if they failed to accomplish this important end. Richard’s -army were to follow the sea-shore to Jaffa, which was a port nearly -opposite Jerusalem. This band of crusaders presented a brilliant -appearance. The knights wore costly armor, and were mounted on horses -richly caparisoned. Some of the horses were protected like their -riders, with armor of steel. The columns were preceded by trumpeters -and bearers of flags and banners, with very gorgeous decorations. When -the expedition halted at night, heralds passed through the several -camps, to the sound of trumpets, and at a signal all the soldiers -knelt, and the heralds exclaimed, “God save the Holy Sepulchre!” and -all the soldiers shouted, “Amen.” - -Thus the Christian army advanced to Jaffa. The two armies, Christian -and Saracen, then met on a plain near the seashore, called Azotus. -Saladin commenced the attack upon the wing of Richard’s army, composed -of the French troops under the command of the duke of Burgundy. They -resisted and drove the Saracens back. Then Richard gave the signal for -a charge, and rode forward at the head of his troops, mounted on his -famous charger, and flourishing his heavy battle-axe. This axe was a -ponderous weapon. Richard had ordered it made before leaving England, -and it was so immense that few men could lift it. But as Richard Cœur -de Lion was a man of marvellous strength, he wielded this huge weapon -with prodigious force. When it came down upon the head of a steel-clad -knight, on his horse, it often crushed both man and steed to the -ground. The darts and javelins of the Mohammedans glanced off from King -Richard’s steel armor, without inflicting any wound, while Saracen -after Saracen was felled to the earth by the blows from his ponderous -battle-axe. - -It was not long before Saladin’s army was flying in all directions, -pursued by the crusaders. After this battle Richard established his -army in Jaffa. In the meantime Saladin was collecting forces for a -more vigorous resistance. Historians have condemned this inactivity -of Richard’s army for so many weeks at Jaffa, thus enabling Saladin -to rally his men and become more determined in his defence. During -the time while Richard’s army was resting and feasting at Jaffa, -King Richard and Saladin entered upon several negotiations, which -were carried on through Saphadin, the brother of Saladin, who was -provided with a safe conduct through the enemies’ lines. One of these -propositions was that Richard and Saladin should cease hostilities -and become allies, and that their difficulties should be settled by a -marriage between Joanna, Richard’s sister, the ex-queen of Sicily, and -Saphadin, the brother of Saladin. But this, and all other propositions, -at length came to naught, and in November, Richard advanced with his -army as far as Bethany, with a forlorn hope that they might find -themselves strong enough to attack Jerusalem. But this hope was vain. -Richard’s men were dying from sickness and famine, caused by a large -amount of their provisions being spoiled by the fall rains which had -now set in, and many of the discouraged soldiers deserted. These losses -so thinned King Richard’s ranks, that he was obliged to retreat to -Acre. While they were at Bethany, a band of crusaders had ascended a -mountain overlooking Jerusalem. King Richard was asked to come and see -the holy city in the distance. “No,” said he, covering his face with -his cloak, “those who are not worthy of conquering Jerusalem should not -look upon it.” - -While at Acre, Richard learned that Saladin was besieging Jaffa. The -historian Guizot thus describes the rescue of Jaffa from the Saracens:— - -“When King Richard arrived at Jaffa, the crescent already shone upon -the walls; but a priest who had cast himself into the water in front -of the royal vessel told Richard that he could yet save the garrison, -although the town was already in the hands of the enemy. The ship had -not yet reached the landing-stage, and already the king was in the -water, which reached to his shoulders, and was uttering the war-cry -‘St. George!’ The infidels, who were then plundering the city, took -fright, and three thousand men fled, pursued by four or five knights of -the cross. The little corps of Christians intrenched themselves behind -planks of wood, and tuns; ten tents held the whole of the army. Day had -scarcely dawned, when a soldier flew to Richard’s bedside. ‘O king, we -are dead men!’ he cried; ‘the enemy is upon us.’ The king sprang up -from his bed, scarcely allowing himself time to buckle on his armor, -and omitting his helmet and shield. ‘Silence!’ he said to the bearer -of the bad news, ‘or I will kill you.’ Seventeen knights had gathered -round Cœur de Lion, kneeling on the ground, and holding their lances; -in their midst were some archers, accompanied by attendants who were -recharging their arquebuses. The king was standing in the midst. The -Saracens endeavored in vain to overawe this heroic little band; not -one of them stirred. At length, under a shower of arrows, the knights -sprang on their horses, and swept the plain before them. They entered -Jaffa towards evening, and drove the Mussulmans from it. From the time -of daybreak Richard had not ceased for a moment to deal out his blows, -and the skin of his hand adhered to the handle of his battle-axe.” - -Still more graphically do the old chronicles thus describe this battle:— - -“Where the fight was fiercest there rode King Richard, and the Turks -fell beneath his flashing sword. Then the galley-men, fearing for their -lives, left the battle and took refuge in their boats, and the Turks -thought to seize the town while the army was fighting in the field. But -the king, taking with him but two knights and two crossbowmen, entered -the town and dispersed the Turks who had entered, and set sentinels to -guard it, and then, hasting to the galleys, gathered together the men, -and encouraging them with his words, brought them back to the fight. -And as he led them to the field, he fell upon the enemy so fiercely, -that he cut his way all alone into the midst of the ranks, and they -gave way before him. But they closed around him, and he was left alone, -and at that sight our men feared greatly. But alone in the midst of his -enemies he remained unmoved, and all as they approached him were cut -down like corn before the sickle. And there rode against him a great -admiral, distinguished above all the rest by his rich caparisons, and -with bold arrogance assayed to attack him, but the king with one blow -of his sword cut off his head and shoulder and right arm. Then the -Turks fled in terror at the sight, and the king returned to his men, -and lo! the king was stuck all over with javelins, like the spines of a -hedgehog, and the trappings of his horse with arrows. The battle lasted -that day from the rising to the setting sun, but the Turks returned to -Saladin, and he mocked his men, and asked them where was Malek-Rik, -whom they had promised to bring him. But one of them answered, ‘There -is no knight on earth like Malek-Rik; nay, nor ever was from the -beginning of the world.’” - -King Richard’s forces were now so weakened, that he found it would -be hopeless to endeavor to take Jerusalem. The Archduke Leopold, of -Austria, had left the army with his men and gone home. This was caused -by a quarrel between himself and King Richard. Saladin having left -Ascalon, Richard hastened to repair its fortifications. In order to -encourage his soldiers, he himself carried stones to the workers, -urging the archduke to do the same. “I am not the son of a mason,” -replied the Austrian, haughtily. Whereupon, Richard, in anger, struck -him a blow in the face, which indignity so enraged the archduke, that -he immediately took his forces and returned to Austria. - -Another event occurred at this time, the blame of which some historians -lay upon King Richard. Conrad of Montferrat, one of the claimants to -the title of King of Jerusalem, was murdered by two emissaries, sent -by the “Old Man of the Mountain,” who was a famous chieftain, living -with his band of bold robbers among the mountains. The men under this -chieftain were trained to obey without any dissent the commands given -by their leader. A story was spread abroad that these men were hired by -King Richard to kill Conrad. The friends of Richard declared, however, -that it was caused by a quarrel between Conrad and the Old Man of the -Mountain. - -Two incidents are related of Saladin’s generosity towards Richard, -his foe. At one time King Richard was very sick with fever, and -Saladin supplied him with cooling drinks and fresh fruits, thus kindly -ministering to the comfort of his sick enemy. At another time, during -a battle with the Saracens, Saladin beheld King Richard standing on a -little knoll, surrounded by his knights. “Why is he on foot?” asked -Saladin, for Richard’s famous charter had been killed that day in the -battle. “The king of England should not fight on foot, like a common -soldier,” exclaimed Saladin, and forthwith he sent Richard a splendid -horse as a present. When the steed was brought to the king, one of his -knights mounted him to try his speed. Whereupon, the intelligent animal -immediately turned and ran with his rider to the camp of the Saracens. -Saladin was so chagrined at this unlooked-for occurrence, and fearing -lest Richard should imagine his kindly present had only been sent as a -treacherous stratagem, immediately placed the Christian knight upon a -more gentle horse, and sent with him a still handsomer charger, as a -present to the English king, which Richard gladly received. - -[Illustration: “MOST HOLY LAND, FAREWELL!”] - -Disquieting news now reached King Richard from England. His brother -John, aided by Philip of France, had deposed the chancellor, and -caused himself to be made governor-general of the kingdom. Under these -circumstances, and the hopelessness of capturing Jerusalem, King -Richard concluded a truce with Saladin, giving up Ascalon to him, but -keeping Jaffa, Tyre, and the fortresses along the coast, and promising -to refrain from any hostilities during a period of three years, three -months, three weeks, three days, and three hours. “Then I will come -back,” said Richard, “with double the men that I now possess, and will -reconquer Jerusalem.” Saladin answered: “that if the Holy City was -to fall into the hands of the Christians, no one was more worthy of -conquering it than Malek-Rik.” - -On the 9th of October, 1192, Richard Cœur de Lion left Palestine to -return to his own kingdom. The queens embarked first in their vessel, -followed soon after by Richard in his war-ship. As the shore of the -Holy Land was receding from view, Richard gazed upon it from the deck -of his galley; and stretching out his arms towards it, exclaimed,— - -“Most holy land, farewell! I commend thee to God’s keeping and care. -May He give me life and health to return and rescue thee from the hands -of the infidels.” - -A storm soon arose, and the vessels of King Richard’s fleet were -separated. The queens arrived safely in Sicily, but King Richard was -driven to the Island of Corfu. Here he hired three small vessels to -take him to the head of the Adriatic Sea, and then he endeavored to -cross through Germany by land. He assumed the garb of a merchant, lest -his many enemies should discover him. Thus he travelled through the -mountains of the Tyrol. But having sent a ring with a messenger to the -governor of Goritz, seeking a passport, the governor exclaimed, “This -ring belongs to no merchant, but only to the king of England.” - -Thus was King Richard discovered; and he was seized by his old enemy, -Duke Leopold of Austria, and put into prison. Which event, coming -to the knowledge of the emperor of Germany, he himself claimed the -illustrious captive, saying, “A duke cannot possibly keep a king.” - -So King Richard was shut up in the castle of Trifels by the emperor, -where he languished for two years. Meanwhile neither his wife nor -mother could obtain any trace of him; and even after his brother -John learned that Richard was imprisoned by the emperor of Germany, -he joined King Philip of France in making propositions to the German -emperor, promising to pay him large sums of money if he would keep the -king of England in prison. The place of King Richard’s imprisonment -was said to have been discovered by a celebrated troubadour named -Blondel, who had known Richard in Palestine, and was now travelling -through Germany. As he went along in front of the castle where Richard -was confined, he was singing one of the troubadour songs. When he had -finished one stanza, King Richard, who knew the song, sang the next -verse through the bars of his prison window. Blondel recognized the -voice, and perceiving that Richard was a prisoner, he made all speed to -go to England and inform King Richard’s friends of his sad situation. -It is said that the first news Berengaria received of Richard’s fate -was by seeing a jewelled belt offered for sale in Rome. This belt -she recognized as one which King Richard wore when he left Acre. -But upon inquiry, she could only learn that Richard was somewhere -in Germany. The news that King Richard Cœur de Lion was a prisoner -in Germany roused great excitement in England and in Rome. The Pope -excommunicated Duke Leopold for having seized Richard, and threatened -to excommunicate the emperor if he did not release him. Finally the -emperor agreed to set the king of England free upon the payment of a -certain sum of money, two-thirds of which were to be received before -the king should be released. At length, in February, 1194, about two -years after Richard was first imprisoned, the first payment was made, -and King Richard Cœur de Lion was allowed to go free; and he arrived in -England in March, when the people gave him a magnificent reception. As -soon as Richard had arranged his affairs, he determined to be crowned -a second time as king of England, lest the two years of his captivity -might have weakened his claims. He was accordingly recrowned with the -greatest pomp and splendor. At the request of his mother he pardoned -his brother John, saying, “I hope that I shall as easily forget the -injuries he has done me as he will forget my forbearance in pardoning -him.” But Richard treated Berengaria with great unkindness and open -neglect, until he was suddenly seized with a severe illness, which so -alarmed him that he called for a great number of monks and priests, and -began to confess his sins, vowing, if God would spare his life, he -would abandon his profligate and wicked habits, and treat his wife with -kindness. He recovered, and he so far kept his vows as to send for his -wife, and become, outwardly at least, reconciled to her. But the fault -was all on his side; for poor Berengaria had given him no cause for his -cruel treatment of her. The reign of Richard Cœur de Lion was soon to -end, however, and the cause was one which shed neither glory nor honor -upon his fame. A rich treasure had been found by one of his vassals, -the viscount of Limoges. Richard at once claimed it, and the viscount -sent him half. But Richard determined to secure the whole of it, and -accordingly went to the castle of Chaluz, where the treasure was, and -laid siege to the place. It was well defended, but provisions becoming -short, the garrison wished to capitulate. “No,” said Richard, “I will -take your place by storm, and cause you all to be hanged on the walls.” - -[Illustration: JOHN] - -While King Richard was examining the point of attack, a young archer, -named Bertrand de Gourdon, shot an arrow at the king, and wounded him -upon the shoulder. The town was taken and all the garrison were hung. -King Richard’s wound, through the unskilful handling of the surgeons, -proved to be fatal. As he was dying he sent for Gourdon. “Wretch!” said -Richard to the archer, “what had I done to you that you should have -attempted my life?” - -“You have put my father and two brothers to death,” said Bertrand, “and -you wanted to hang me.” - -The dying king, at last struck with remorse for his many cruel deeds, -said, “I forgive you,” and he ordered the chains of the archer to be -removed, and that he should receive one hundred shillings. This humane -command, however, was not obeyed, and Bertrand was flayed alive. -Richard Cœur de Lion died on the 6th of April, 1199, at the age of -forty-two, and was buried, according to his request, at the foot of -the grave of Henry II., his father, in Fontevraud Abbey. The figures -in stone of the father, mother, and son, who quarrelled so much while -living, all lie now on one monument. Richard Cœur de Lion was well -called the Lion-Hearted. His glory consisted in his reckless and brutal -ferocity. He pretended to be the champion and defender of the cause of -Christ, but he used the sacred name of Christianity only as a means of -gratifying his own wild ambitions and his inhuman thirst for blood. -Though he won the fame of a brave and valorous knight, his savage -barbarity and reckless cruelties tarnished all the brightness of his -glory, and brought disgrace and dishonor upon the sacred cause of true -religion, of which he pretended to be the most zealous upholder. - - - - -ROBERT BRUCE. - -1274-1329 A.D. - - “Scots, wha hae wi’ Wallace bled, - Scots, whom Bruce has aften led, - Welcome to your gory bed, - On to victorie!”—BURNS. - - -“BRUCE to the rescue! Bruce to the rescue!” was the war-cry of the -valiant little band of Scottish chiefs who gathered under the banner of -Robert Bruce, who was the seventh lord of Annandale, and also earl of -Garrick. - -The heroic William Wallace had already endeavored to free his country -from the yoke of bondage in which they were held by the English king, -Edward I. - -Alexander III., the ninety-fifth king of Scotland, had died in 1286, -leaving his grand-daughter Margaret, the Fair Maid of Norway, heir to -the Scottish throne. This child-princess was betrothed to the son of -the English king; but when quite young, as she sailed from her father’s -castle in Norway to her future home in Scotland, she died on the voyage -thither. Thus the crown of Scotland became the cause of dispute amongst -thirteen noblemen, descendants of members of the royal family, who set -up claims to the vacant throne. - -There were but two claimants whose pretensions were based upon -sufficient grounds to insure any prospect of success. These were John -Baliol and Robert Bruce, grandson and son of the two elder daughters -of David, earl of Huntingdon, who was the younger brother of King -William, the Lion, who was the ninety-third king of Scotland. This -Robert Bruce was the grandfather of the hero who is the subject of this -sketch. - -[Illustration: WARREN, EARL OF SURREY, GOVERNOR OF SCOTLAND UNDER -EDWARD I.] - -King Edward of England, having been requested by the Scots to act as -arbitrator amongst all these claimants, decided to give the preference -to John Baliol, who was crowned king in November, 1292, having sworn -fealty to Edward, king of England. Thus did the wily English sovereign -place upon the Scottish throne a king weak enough to be used as his -tool. And poor John Baliol soon found, to his sorrow, that he was a -king only in name; but in reality a slave in the hands of his ambitious -and powerful neighbor. - -Edward, having placed the feeble Baliol upon the throne of Scotland, -spared him no humiliation. Every time any Scottish petitioner appealed -to Edward, Baliol’s liege lord, regarding any decision of the king of -Scotland which had failed to satisfy his subject, Edward would summon -Baliol to appear at his court, to render an account of his judgment. -This occurred four times the first year of his reign. At length Baliol -refused to comply longer with these demands of Edward, whereupon the -English king advanced with an army against the Scots. After a fearful -massacre at Berwick, and the capture of several castles by the English, -Baliol begged for peace, and was sent to the Tower in honorable -captivity. He subsequently ended his life in his domains in Normandy. -Robert Bruce at once claimed the crown. But Edward exclaimed, angrily, -“Do you think that I have nothing else to do but to conquer kingdoms -for you?” - -Scotland was now treated as a conquered country; and Warrene, earl of -Surrey, was appointed governor, Hugh de Cressingham, treasurer, and -William Ormesby, chief justicier. - -Robert Bruce the grandfather, and also Robert Bruce the father of -our hero, considered it the better part of discretion to resign all -pretensions to the throne of Scotland. They therefore swore fealty to -King Edward. - -Robert de Bruce, the sixth lord of Annandale, had accompanied Edward, -when prince of England, and Louis I. of France, to the Holy Land, where -he acquired great renown. A romantic story is told of his courtship and -marriage. - -One day this knight of the crusades was riding through the domains of -Turnberry. As he was proceeding leisurely along through the majestic -forests, charmed with the beauty of the sylvan scenery, watching the -glinting sunbeams dance athwart the leaves, and play hide-and-seek -with the shadows, in the cosey nooks where moss-banks nestled, he was -startled by the sound of a hunting-horn; and shortly a gay cavalcade of -lords and ladies dashed through the forest on their way to the castle -near by. One of the ladies, Margaret, countess of Garrick, the owner of -this castle, and hostess of this splendid retinue, being captivated by -the lordly bearing of the handsome, unknown knight, with the freedom -and natural courtesy of one who felt her independence upon her own -domain, reined in her high-bred steed, whose wild spirits were curbed -by slightest touch of her fair fingers, and, bowing to the knight -with queenly dignity, she invited him to join her visitors, and share -her hospitality. Robert de Bruce, knowing the high position of this -gracious lady, and fearing to accept too eagerly such an unexpected -honor, courteously declined the kind invitation, which he supposed had -been offered only out of a courtly hospitality, as he had been found a -stranger within her own domains. But the beautiful countess, moved by -some strange attraction, which she did not stop to analyze, gaily laid -hold of the reins of his steed, and laughingly replied:— - -“Ah, noble knight! no trespasser on my grounds ever escapes -imprisonment in my castle;” and thereupon she led him away, like a -captive knight, to her castle of Turnberry. - -For fifteen days he was the honored guest amidst all the festivities at -the castle, and the first in the chase, by the side of the bewitching -countess; and, having obtained her heart, as well as her hand, they -were married, without the consent of the king, whose ward she was, or -the knowledge of her relatives; in consequence of which the estates and -castle of the young countess were seized by the sovereign, and were -only saved to her by the payment of a large fine to the crown. - -The eldest son of this brave knight and beautiful countess, who had -risked so much for love, and whose marriage was as romantic as any -described in Scottish tales of fiction, was Robert the Bruce, our hero, -who was afterwards King Robert I. of Scotland. He was born on the 21st -of March, 1274. He spent his early youth at Carrick, where he was -distinguished for his brave spirit and persevering energy. - -The grandfather of Robert the Bruce, Robert, lord of Annandale, -refusing to take the oath of homage to his rival, John Baliol, when -King Edward of England decided in his favor, gave up his Scottish -domains in Annandale to his son, the earl of Carrick, lest he should -hold them as Edward’s minion. This proceeding was also followed by -the earl in 1293, in behalf of his son, Robert the Bruce, who was -then serving the king of England. Notwithstanding the sympathy of -young Bruce with the cause of Scotland, and his resolve to assert his -claims to the Scottish crown, he had, during the greater part of the -reign of his weak rival, adhered to the fortunes of Edward, deeming -it better policy to yield himself to the uncontrollable necessity of -circumstances, rather than risk his cause by undue haste. Sometimes -he appeared to assert his own pretensions to the crown, and the -independence of his country; and then, again, he yielded submission -to the superior power of the English king, whose good-will he wished -to keep until a favorable opportunity should offer itself of openly -asserting his rights. Robert might have obtained the crown if he would -have acknowledged the superior power of England, and submitted himself -as a vassal to the English king, as Baliol had done. But he would not -receive it on any other terms than as a free crown, which had been worn -by his ancestors, and of right belonged to him. - -When John Baliol was raised to sovereign power, the family of Bruce, -although looking upon his elevation with envy, deemed it prudent to -conceal their dissatisfaction, and the father of young Robert, who -possessed the earldom of Carrick, in right of the countess his wife, -resigned to his son these possessions, who was admitted to do homage to -Baliol, the Scottish king, and thus became earl of Carrick. - -When John Baliol had rebelled against Edward, king of England, young -Bruce deemed it unsafe to rank under the banner of his natural -sovereign, and therefore joined the side of Edward. Whereupon, the -Scottish king, John Baliol, confiscated his estate of Annandale, as -that of a traitor, and gave it to one of his followers, Comyn, earl of -Buchan. Some of the English peers, suspecting the fidelity of young -Bruce, who had now retired to the family estate in England, summoned -him to Carlisle to do homage. He forthwith obeyed, and swore fidelity -to the cause of Edward, and in order to show his loyalty, he assembled -some of his followers, and overran the lands of Sir William Douglas, a -Scottish patriot, and even carried away his wife and children. Stung -with remorse, however, for this treacherous act, which was really -extorted from him, young Bruce then joined the Scottish army, which -Wallace, the brave patriot, together with the bishop of Glasgow, and -steward of Scotland, had raised. The Scottish leaders were too much -at variance amongst themselves to make a resolute stand. The English, -knowing of their dissensions, sent messengers to treat with them. -With the exception of William Wallace, they sued for peace, and threw -down their arms without striking a blow. Bruce deemed it prudent to -submit with his countrymen to the English king, but such had been the -inconstancy of this nobleman, that the English demanded security for -his future fidelity. Whereupon the bishop of Glasgow, the lord steward, -and Alexander de Lindesay, came forward as his securities, until he -should deliver over his daughter Marjory as an hostage for his loyalty. -The conduct of young Bruce seems to us vacillating and unpatriotic, -viewed from the present age; but he must be judged by the spirit of -those troublesome times, and his after heroic deeds in his country’s -behalf must soften a stern judgment regarding his changeable and -uncertain conduct at this time. By the side of the staunch patriotism -of the brave William Wallace, various acts of Robert Bruce, at this -period of his life, are thrown into an unfavorable light, but his -seeming treachery he regarded as actuated by a prudent policy. Whether -he would have gained the deliverance of his country sooner, or suffered -irretrievable defeat, had he earlier and more steadfastly espoused the -patriotic cause, we find ourselves at a loss to determine, after a -careful study of that conflicting epoch. - -[Illustration: BRUCE. - -ROBERTUS I. REX SCOTORUM. - -ANNO DOM. MCCCVI.] - -The history of Robert Bruce would not be complete without a brief -account of William Wallace, which will help to give a clearer idea of -the affairs of Scotland at that time. - -William Wallace was descended from an ancient family in the west of -Scotland. Having been provoked and insulted by an English officer, -Wallace had put him to death, and therefore was obliged to flee for -safety to the forests. Here he collected a large band of bold men. Some -of these were outlawed for crimes; others, on account of bad fortune -or hatred of the English, were willing participants in this daring -scheme. William Wallace possessed gigantic strength of body as well as -heroic courage, and so was admirably suited to become a leader in such -a perilous enterprise. - -This little band of Scottish warriors made many successful raids -upon their English foes, until the fame of their exploits became -so wide-spread that the English were filled with terror, and their -enslaved countrymen were inspired with hopes of freedom from the -galling yoke of oppression which fettered their hitherto independent -country. - -Wallace now determined to strike a decisive blow against the English -government. Warrene, the governor of Scotland, had retired to England -on account of his health, so that the administration of Scotland was -left in the hands of Ormesby, the justiciary, and Cressingham, who -held the office of treasurer. Wallace formed a plan of attacking -Ormesby, at Scone; but the justiciary being informed of such -intentions, fled in terror to England. All the other English officers -imitated his example. The Scots, encouraged by these events, sprang to -arms. - -Many of the principal barons, including Sir William Douglas, openly -countenanced the party of Wallace. Meanwhile, Warrene, earl of Surrey, -collected an army of forty thousand men, in the north of England, and -invaded Scotland. He suddenly entered Annandale, and came up with -the enemy at Irvine, before the Scottish forces were prepared for -battle. Many of the Scottish nobles, alarmed at this unforeseen event, -submitted to the English, and renewed their oaths of fealty, and gave -hostages for their fidelity, whereupon they received pardon for their -rebellion. Others, who had not openly declared themselves, thought best -to side with the English, and wait a better opportunity for avowing -themselves as partisans of the Scottish cause. But Wallace persevered -in his bold enterprise, and marched northwards and established his -little army at Cambuskenneth. When Warrene advanced to Stirling, he -found Wallace on the opposite banks of the Forth. Wallace had chosen -a position near a narrow bridge which spanned the Forth, and as the -English, with thoughtless precipitation, commenced to cross, Wallace -attacked them before they were fully formed, and put them to rout, -gaining a complete victory. Among the slain was Cressingham, who -was so hated by the Scots that they flayed his dead body, and made -saddle-girths of his skin. Warrene, finding his remaining forces much -dismayed by this defeat, returned again to England. - -Wallace was now made regent, or guardian of the country, by his -enthusiastic followers; and his brave band, not content with their past -exploits, invaded England, and laid waste many counties, returning to -their native land loaded with spoils, and crowned with glory. - -But now factions amongst the Scots themselves caused a disaster -which deprived them of all they had gained. The Scottish nobles were -unwilling that Wallace should be placed over them in power; and that -patriot, to avoid jealousies and dissensions, resigned his authority -as regent, retaining only his command over that body of warriors who -refused to follow any other leader than the brave Wallace, under whose -banner they had so often been led to victory. - -The Scottish army was now divided into three bands. The chief power -devolved on the steward of Scotland, and Comyn of Badenoch. The third -band was commanded by the valiant Wallace. Edward, having collected -the entire military force of England, Wales, and Ireland, marched into -Scotland with an army of nearly one hundred thousand men. - -When the two forces met in battle at Falkirk, the English archers -chased the Scottish bowmen off the field, then shooting their arrows -amongst the pikemen, they were thrown into confusion, and the English -cavalry soon put the Scots to rout, with great slaughter. Some -historians state that the loss of the Scots, upon this occasion, was -fifty or sixty thousand men. In this general rout of the Scottish army, -Wallace’s superior military skill and presence of mind enabled him to -keep his band together, and retiring to the farther bank of a small -river called the Carron, he marched along its banks protected from -the enemy. Bruce, who was serving in the English army, recognized -the valiant Scottish chief, and calling out to him, desired a -conference. This being granted, he endeavored to convince Wallace of -the helplessness of his rash enterprise, and advised him to submit. But -the intrepid Wallace replied, that if he had hitherto acted alone as -the champion of his country, it was because no other would assume the -place. He exhorted Bruce to espouse the cause of his enslaved land, -representing to him the glory of the enterprise, and hope of opposing -successfully the power of the English. With enthusiasm he declared that -he would prefer to give his own life, and the existence of the nation, -when they could only be preserved by receiving the chains of a haughty -victor. - -[Illustration: “BRUCE WAS NOT SLOW IN TAKING THE WARNING.”] - -Bruce was greatly moved by these sentiments of brave patriotism, and -regretting his engagements to Edward, the enemy of his people, resolved -to embrace the cause of his oppressed country. - -We cannot follow the brave and valiant Wallace through his after -career, and will but note his sad and unworthy fate. He was betrayed -into Edward’s hands by Sir John Monteith, who had been his friend. -Edward ordered Wallace to be carried in chains to London, where he -was tried as a rebel or traitor, though he had never sworn fealty to -England; and he was executed on Tower Hill. This barbarous cruelty of -the English king only inflamed the Scots to fresh rebellions; and they -now again sprang to arms, shouting, “Bruce to the rescue!” - -Robert Bruce had long resolved to attempt to free his enslaved -country. The death of William Wallace, and the memory of his patriotic -exhortation after the battle of Falkirk, on the banks of the river -Carron, added fresh impetus to this resolve; and his open avowal could -be no longer delayed on account of two incidents which happened about -this time. - -Bruce had ventured to disclose this resolve to John Comyn, surnamed the -Red, a powerful nobleman and warm friend. He found Comyn apparently in -full accord with his avowed sentiments. But that nobleman afterwards -treacherously revealed the secret to the English king. Edward did -not immediately seize and imprison Bruce, because he desired also to -ensnare his three brothers, who resided in Scotland. But he placed -spies over Bruce; and a nobleman, Gilbert de Clare, one of the lords in -Edward’s court, but also a friend of Robert Bruce, having learned of -the danger which threatened him, and fearing to risk his own position -by an open warning, sent Bruce a pair of golden spurs and a purse -of gold by his servant, with this message: “My master sent these to -thee, and bid me say, that the receiver would have sagacity enough to -determine quickly to what use they should be put.” - -Bruce was not slow in taking the warning. Evidently, some one at court -had betrayed him! Ah, he had it! surely it could be no other than the -Red Comyn! - -There is a story told, that three days previous to this event, Robert -Bruce was praying at the altar, in a chapel where afterwards stood St. -Martin’s church. It was midnight, and Bruce was alone. With tearful -eyes he exclaimed,— - -“Yes, at the foot of this high altar, I’ll swear forthwith to fling the -yoke from off me, in spite of hostile man and misleading fiend; knowing -that if I put trust in, and pay obedience to, the King of kings, my -triumph shall be sure, my victory complete!” - -“Amen to that!” whispered a sweet and plaintive voice in the ear of the -kneeling earl. - -Bruce sprang to his feet, exclaiming, “Who art thou?” But he saw -only a muffled figure glide swiftly behind one of the pillars. Bruce -pursued; but the same soft voice replied:— - -“I am neither foe to Scotland’s cause, nor shall be to him whose it -is to see her righted, laggard although he be in responding to the -urgent call. Farewell to the valiant Bruce! We may meet again, yet -nevermore in this holy place; for even three days must not elapse and -find him loitering near the stern and subtle Edward, or it will be woe -to Scotland and to Scotland’s mightiest lord! Let the Bruce find his -way to the altar, upon which I place a token for his keeping and his -use—the bugle-horn of the immortal Wallace; with which he summoned to -his standard his faithful countrymen, and led them to victory, till he -was overcome by treachery and death. Take this sacred bugle-horn, and -sound the call for Scotland’s freedom!” - -Ere the astonished Bruce could answer, a figure shot past him, and -was lost in the darkness. The earl, groping his way in the dim light -to the altar, found there the precious relic promised; and he went -forth under the starlit midnight sky, vowing to strike a blow for his -enslaved country. Bruce needed no second warning of his danger, but the -very night upon which he received the gilt spurs and purse of gold, he -ordered two of his horses to be shod with reversed shoes, so that their -course might not be traced, as snow had fallen, and the prints of the -horses’ feet would therefore be plainly visible. Then Bruce and one -faithful attendant, named Walter Kennedy, hastily mounted their horses, -and rode out of London under cover of the darkness of the night. - -As they left the great city behind them, Walter Kennedy ventured to -say,— - -“If I may be so bold, good master, where gang we on sic a night? Thou -bidst me tell our talkative host at the inn, that Garrick’s lord had a -love adventure on foot. But me thinkst thou art too true a knight for -that.” - -“Well said, my faithful Walter!” replied Bruce. “’Tis in truth a love -adventure, but concerns no lady fair, for my good wife is fairer to me -than all other women. But ’tis for love of country we go forth,—to free -our bonny Scotland. Surely that were love adventure worthy of both a -valiant knight and loyal husband. Still it is for sake of lovely woman -also; for my sweet wife and fair daughters are e’en now in Scotland, -and I fear me that their liberty, if not their lives, will soon be in -danger, as I am warned that the wily King Edward is my bitter enemy and -treacherous spy.” - -“Ha! ’tis well spoken, good master!” exclaimed Kennedy, with -enthusiasm, and lifting his Scotch bonnet from his head, he cried -aloud, “Bruce to the rescue.” - -“Hist, man!” said Bruce, laying his hand upon the bridle-rein of his -faithful and loyal retainer; “knowest thou not that these English -forests secrete hostile ears, to whom thy wild cry wouldst betray us? -Not till I have gathered my forces and blown the bugle-horn of the -valiant Wallace, will it be safe to openly sound that war-cry.” - -The snow still fell thickly, and it was difficult to follow the right -route through the blinding storm; but ere long the moon shone out with -brightness, and seemed to smile upon their perilous adventure, and -promise success. - -After a few days Bruce arrived at Dumfries, in Annandale, the chief -seat of his family interests. Here he found a great number of the -Scottish noblemen assembled, and among the rest the treacherous John -Comyn. These noblemen were astonished at the appearance of Bruce -amongst them, and still more when he avowed his determination to live -or die with them in the defence of the liberty of Scotland. All the -nobles declared their unanimous resolution to rise to arms in the cause -of their enslaved country. Comyn alone opposed this measure. Bruce, -already sure of his treachery, followed Comyn on the dissolution of the -assembly, and attacked him in the cloisters of the Gray Friars, through -which he passed, and piercing him with his sword, left him bleeding on -the ground. As Bruce rushed into the street, pale and agitated, Sir -Thomas Kirkpatrick, one of his friends, asked him if all was well. “I -fear I have slain Comyn,” replied Bruce, as he hastily mounted his -horse. - -“Such a matter must not be left to doubt,” exclaimed Kirkpatrick; “I’ll -mak sicker!”—and dashing into the sanctuary, he ran his dagger into the -heart of the dying Comyn. - -This deed of Bruce and his friend, which would be justly condemned -in the present age, was at that time regarded as an act of valiant -patriotism and commendable policy. The family of Kirkpatrick were so -proud of the deed that they took for the crest of their arms a hand -with a bloody dagger, and chose for their motto those words, “I’ll mak -sicker!” meaning, “I will make sure of it.” - -Bruce now raised the standard of independence. Some priests and lords -gathered round him, and boldly crowned him at Scone. On the day of the -Annunciation, 1306, Scotland received her ninety-seventh king in the -person of the valiant Robert Bruce; and all Scotland rang with the -joyful war-cry, “Bruce to the rescue!” - -The undertaking of Bruce was one of a gigantic nature. Yet amidst all -the seemingly insurmountable obstacles which surrounded him from -English foes and Scottish grandees,—who were many of them in league -against him, for the faction of Baliol and the powerful family of -Comyn were his avowed enemies,—and though he was subjected to frequent -perils, dangerous ambuscades and escapes, and many individual conflicts -of daring courage, Robert Bruce persisted firmly in his patriotic -design of restoring his enslaved country to freedom, and giving -protection to the people who had formerly called his ancestor their -king. - -Edward I. had now become aged and unwieldly, so that he could not -readily mount on horseback. When he was informed of this daring attempt -of Bruce to wrest from his power a kingdom which had cost him so much -to gain and hold, he despatched a messenger to the Pope, praying him -to issue the thunders of the Vatican against this bold traitor and -murderer of Comyn, and that he would place under interdict all who -should endeavor to aid him or draw a sword in defence of liberty. This -sentence of interdict, which the Pope often issued against sovereigns -for the most trivial offences, involved a nation in the greatest -misery. The people were deprived of all the services of the church; no -sacred rite was performed for them except the baptism of infants, and -the administration of the communion to the dying. - -The churches were deserted, and the altars were stripped of all the -sacred ornaments. The dead lay uninterred, for the consecrated ground -was prohibited; and when at last the corpses must be buried, they were -hurriedly piled up in ditches and covered over, without any church -service to soothe the surviving mourners or hallow the last rites to -the dead. The thunders of the Roman pontiff, however, fell powerless -upon Robert the Bruce, for he had previously secured the alliance -of the Scottish clergy; and as they wished to remain independent -of the English bishops, they braved the thunders of the hierarchy, -and persisted in celebrating divine worship, notwithstanding its -prohibition by the head of the church. - -In spite of old age and sickness, King Edward began to make extensive -preparations for marching personally against the Scots. Prince Edward, -his son, was twenty-two years of age, and having not yet been knighted, -the king conferred this distinction upon him and bestowed upon him -his spurs. Whereupon the young knight then conferred the same honor -upon two hundred and seventy young lords who were about to become his -comrades in arms. All the company then met at a magnificent banquet. -A golden net was placed upon the table, containing two swans, emblems -of constancy and fidelity. Then the king, placing his hands upon their -heads, swore to avenge the death of Comyn and to punish the rebels of -Scotland, without sleeping for two nights in the same place, and to -start immediately afterwards for Palestine, in order to rescue the Holy -Sepulchre. The young men swore the same oath as the king, and then they -started for the frontiers, the king following more slowly, as he was -too feeble to travel except upon a litter. - -The earl of Pembroke had been sent by King Edward, with a small army, -into Scotland while the king was preparing his forces. Pembroke met -the Scots at Methven, where a battle was fought in which the Scots -were defeated, and many of them killed and taken prisoners; these were -afterwards put to death with great cruelty by Edward’s orders. Bruce -retired into the mountains with five hundred men. King Edward had only -been able to proceed as far as Carlisle; but on his dying bed he was -cruelly ordering the Scottish prisoners to be beheaded, and still -directing the operations of his troops. Bruce was living in the forests -with a few faithful companions. His wife, daughter, and sister shared -his adventuresome life. - -But as winter approached, the ladies were sent to the castle of -Keldrummie, but they met with a sad fate here. The castle was stormed -and taken by the English; Nigel Bruce, Robert’s younger brother, was -cruelly put to death, and the queen of Scotland and her daughter, and -also the sister of Bruce, were sent to England, where the queen was -imprisoned, and the daughter and sister of King Robert were shut up in -wooden cages at Berwick and Roxburgh, and were exposed to the public -gaze. - -Bruce’s little band were attacked by Lord Lorn, the Red Comyn’s nephew, -and therefore a bitter foe. Finding that his faithful followers were -falling under the battle-axes of their enemies, King Robert sounded -a retreat; and with marvellous bravery Robert Bruce, mounted upon -his war-horse and clad in armor, took his position in the defile and -defended the approach alone. At length three men, famous for their -strength, sprang forward together upon the royal champion, who calmly -held his long sword on guard, and whose bright eyes glittered beneath -his helmet. One seized the bridle of the horse; but Bruce raised his -sword, and the arm of the assailant fell helpless, his hand being -severed. Another fastened himself on the leg of the horseman; but the -fiery war-horse reared, and again the invincible sword split his head -open. The third now clutched the king’s cloak; but again the sword -dealt its fatal blow, and the three assailants soon lay dead, while the -valiant king escaped without a wound. Robert Bruce was now obliged to -flee, and he took refuge in the small island of Rachrin. His retreat -was unknown to his enemies, and a large reward was offered to whoever -would give news of “Robert Bruce, lost, strayed, or stolen.” - -During this time the Scottish king met with many adventures. One day, -leaving the island of Rachrin, he sailed with his little band in some -small boats to the isle of Arran. On landing they met a woman, of whom -the king inquired if there had been any military arrivals. - -“Surely, sir,” she replied, “I can tell you of some who lately -blockaded the English governor’s castle. They maintain themselves in -the woods near by.” - -Robert Bruce, thinking that it was of brave Douglas of whom she spoke, -blew his horn. It was answered by Sir James Douglas, who recognized -the bugle of his sovereign, and when he hastily approached the king, -they kissed for joy at such fortunate meeting. The small bands of King -Robert and Douglas now crossed in boats to the opposite shore, and -concealed themselves in a cavern, called the Cave of Colean. Learning -that a large party of English were settled in the town of Turnberry, -Bruce made a bold attack upon them, with three hundred men, and put -two hundred of the English to the sword. The garrison, in the castle -near by, were afraid to sally forth, as it was a dark night, and Bruce -carried off the spoil, among which were the war-horses and household -plate of the governor. Bruce now retired with his brave band to a green -hill, called afterwards the “Weary Neuk.” Here they rested for three -days, when they returned to the mountains to wait for reinforcements. -It was then that King Robert learned of the sad fate of his wife, -daughter, and sister, and the cruel death of his brother. But he -humanely spared the life of every captive who fell into his hands, -and did not yield to the temptation to revenge himself by their death, -in retaliation for the wrongs he had suffered. In consequence of his -privations and exposures, he was attacked with a severe sickness, -and having found relief from a certain medicinal spring, when he had -afterwards established himself upon his throne, he founded a priory of -Dominican monks there, and ordered houses to be built around the spring -for eight lepers, and a certain sum of money and meal was settled upon -the lands of Fullarton, for their support. In compliment to Sir William -Wallace, the relatives and descendants of that knight were invested -with the right of placing the lepers upon this establishment, known -as the “King’s Ease.” This was secured by charter, and the leper’s -charter-stone, which was a large stone of elliptical shape, has been -handed down to modern times. - -King Robert had some very narrow escapes from death. It is reported -that at one time, Sir Ingram Umfraville bribed an inhabitant of -Carrick, with his two sons, to kill Bruce. These peasants, knowing -that the king was accustomed at an early hour every morning to retire -for meditation, accompanied by a single page, who carried his bow -and arrows, determined to select such time for the attack. As the -assailants approached, Bruce suspecting their design, took his bow and -arrows from his attendant, bidding him retire to a place of safety, -saying, “If I vanquish these traitors, you will have a sufficiency of -arms, and if I fall, you can flee for you life.” - -As the peasants drew near, the king discharged an arrow, which hit the -father in the eye; upon which, the son, brandishing his battle-axe, -rushed to the combat, but missing his blow, he stumbled and fell, and -Robert severed his head in two at one stroke. The third peasant, -with spear in hand, then rushed upon the king, but Bruce cut off the -steel-head of the spear, and laid him also dead at his feet. When the -page approached, he found the king wiping his good sword, while he -remarked, “These would have been three gallant men had they not fallen -victims to covetousness.” - -At another time, King Robert was surprised by a party of two hundred -men with bloodhounds. Bruce was accompanied by only two men. The king -was in a most perilous situation, but he stationed himself in a narrow -gorge and despatched his companions in haste for succor. But before his -band of brave Scots arrived, King Robert had slain with his dreadful -sword, fourteen of his enemies, who were found piled up in the gorge, -men and horses above each other. - -A party of English, under the command of John Lorn, now determined to -search for the brave Bruce among the mountains of Carrick, where he -was intrenched; and in order to track the valiant Scottish king, Lorn -carried with him a sagacious bloodhound which belonged to Bruce. This -bloodhound proved of great use to Lorn, for it discovered his master by -its scent, and the English pursued him so closely that Bruce divided -his men in small bands and dispersed them, that they might thus more -easily flee. Still being pressed sorely by the relentless foe, Robert -dismissed all his men, each one to look out for his own safety; and -attended only by his foster-brother, who would not leave him, the -brave Scottish king fled, still pursued by five of Lorn’s men, led on -by the bloodhound who tracked his master with sure scent. Meanwhile -the dog was outrun by the five powerful mountaineers, and the king and -his foster-brother at last stood at bay to receive them. Bruce singled -three of these assailants, leaving his companion to combat with two. -As the first approached, the king cleft him through the skull with -one blow of his weapon, and as the other two fell back for a moment, -stunned by this unexpected disaster, Bruce sprang to the assistance of -his foster-brother, whom he saw was in danger, and severing the head -of one of his assailants from his body, he quickly laid his other two -enemies dead, while the fifth was killed by his companion. When the -king graciously thanked his faithful foster-brother for his aid, “It’s -like you to say so,” he replied, “but you yourself slew four of the -five.” - -But now the cry of the hound was heard again, for Lorn and his band -were on the trail. The king and his companion hastily entered a small -stream near by, to break the scent of the hound, and as the dog bounded -up and down the banks, having lost all scent of his master, the -foster-brother of King Robert shot him dead with an arrow, from their -retreat in the forest. They then fled in safety from their pursuers, -who gave up the chase. But King Robert had escaped from the bloodhound -only to fall into other dangers. Three freebooters, pretending to be -friends of the Scottish king, joined him and his foster-brother in -their retreat through the forest. Bruce, suspecting these companions, -desired them to walk at some distance before. - -“We seek the Scottish king,” said the strangers: “you need not mistrust -us.” - -“Neither do I,” replied Robert; “but until we are better acquainted, -you must walk thus.” - -When they came to a ruinous hut, where they rested for the night, the -king ordered the strangers to remain at the other end of the room. But -the past fatigues overcoming them, at last Bruce and his foster-brother -fell asleep. The king was roused from his slumbers by the approach of -the three villanous freebooters, with arms in their hands, intent on -his assassination. Robert laid hold of his sword, and stepping heavily -over his foster-brother, to awaken him, he rushed upon the assassins. -After a fierce combat, in which his faithful foster-brother was killed, -Bruce succeeded in overcoming these three villains, and left them dead -on the spot. - -It was during these wanderings that Bruce was one day resting in a -ruined hut in the forests. He was lying upon a handful of straw, -and considering whether he should continue this strife to maintain -his right to the Scottish throne, or if it were best to abandon an -enterprise attended with such danger, and seeming at times almost -hopeless, and go to the Holy Land and end his days in the wars with -the Saracens. While thus musing, his attention was arrested by the -movements of a spider on the roof of the hut above his head. This -spider was trying to fix its web on the rafters, and was swinging -itself from one eave to another. The king was amused with the patience -and energy displayed by the tiny insect. It had tried six times to -reach one place, and failed. Suddenly the thought struck the Scottish -monarch, “I have fought six times against the enemies of my country.” -He thereupon resolved that he would be guided in his future actions by -the failure or success of this indefatigable little insect. The next -effort of the spider was successful, and King Robert then determined -that he would make the seventh attempt to free his country, feeling -confident that he should yet achieve the liberty of Scotland. It is -hence esteemed unlucky for a Bruce to kill a spider. Meantime Edward, -the brother of Robert Bruce, and Sir James Douglas had made many -successful raids against the English. They now joined their forces -with those of King Robert, and they then overran Kyle, Carrick, and -Cunningham, which places had been in the possession of the English. - -In 1307 Pembroke advanced against Bruce with three thousand men. But -though the Scottish king’s band numbered but six hundred men, they -charged so valiantly with their long Scottish spears, that Pembroke’s -forces were completely routed, and he himself was obliged to flee for -safety to the castle of Ayr. King Edward was so enraged by these events -that he determined to march himself against this bold foe. But the -English king had not proceeded three leagues from Carlisle when death -met him. With his dying breath he ordered his remains to be carried -with the army, and not to be interred until the enemy was conquered. He -had previously caused his son to swear in the most solemn manner, that -when he should die, he would boil his body in a caldron and separate -the flesh from the bones, and having buried the former, the bones were -to be carried with the army to inspire his men with hatred against the -Scots, while his heart was to be taken to the Holy Land. But Edward -II., instead of obeying his father’s dying commands, interred his -body in Westminster; and disbanding the army, the troops returned to -England. The death of Edward I. gave new courage to the Scots. By this -inglorious retreat of the English king, he lost all the advantages -which his father had so dearly purchased for him. Edward Bruce, the -brother of Robert, one of the most chivalrous knights, had conquered -the English in Galloway, taking, in one year, thirteen castles. -Meanwhile, Lord Douglas had recovered his ancient estate of Douglas -from the English and made many conquests. - -The north and the south being now reduced to obedience, the united -troops of Bruce and Douglas proceeded to the west to subdue the proud -lord of Lorn. By a series of well-contested engagements in which no -ordinary degree of skill as a general was displayed, and the greatest -personal courage, Bruce succeeded in wresting his much-injured -country from the power of the English. Twice had the king of England -attempted an expedition to reconquer Scotland, but he had returned -without result. The authority of Bruce was rapidly being established -throughout his country. The castles of Perth, Dunbar, and Edinburgh -were in his hands. Many stories are told of his heroic bravery in -these contests, but we can only stop to note the taking of Perth. -This was a strongly fortified garrison. The fortress was enclosed by -a lofty wall and towers, surrounded by a deep moat filled with water, -which set at defiance the efforts of the Scots for several weeks. At -last, King Robert made a feint of raising the siege, struck his tents, -and departed to some distance. But one night, when least expected, -he approached unperceived to the foot of the rampart, and walking up -to his throat in the water, he seized a ladder and mounted to the -wall’s parapet, where he found a Scottish maiden whom the English had -imprisoned, and who had escaped to the top of the wall, but could get -no farther, as the frightful moat surrounded her on all sides. - -“It is but now to descend by these corded steps,” whispered Bruce to -the captive maiden, “and I’ll ferry you across this muddy water.” -But the maiden was as brave as she was fair, and knowing that any -delay would risk the taking of the fortress by the brave Bruce, she -heroically answered:— - -“Please your Grace, no! Allow me the keeping of your dagger till you -return with further scaling-gear and your valiant band. Thus armed, -I’ll know how to defend myself, and I will watch these enemies till you -return.” - -So King Robert, leaving the brave girl as a sentinel upon the parapet, -quickly waded again through the murky waters of the moat, and having -regained his band, reported his experience. Immediately fifty of his -most daring men, selected for their great height, plunged into the dark -waters of the moat, led by the valiant Bruce. - -“Saw ye ever the like of that?” exclaimed a French knight who had -lately joined the Scottish patriots. “What shall we say to our lords, -when so worthy a knight and noble a monarch exposeth himself to such -great peril to win a wretched hamlet?” - -With this he gaily threw himself into the water, followed by the rest -of the Scottish army. When Bruce again reached the maiden she said, -“The late revellers are now in their slumbers; the watchword with them -is ‘_The Lost Standard._’” The brave maiden then aided the king to -adjust the rope ladders, by which the Scots scaled the wall, one by -one, until a strong force stood at their side. “‘The Lost Standard’ -is the word,” said the king; “and now for the citadel!” It was, -indeed, a _Lost Standard_ to the drowsy guards and sleeping revellers. -The fortress was soon taken, and the captives set free. King Robert -afterwards besieged the fortress of Stirling, when the governor, Sir -Philip Mowbray, contrived to make his appeals for succor reach the -English king. Edward roused himself from his natural indolence, and -raised a large army to march against Scotland. The forces of the -English amounted to nearly one hundred thousand men. This brilliant -army, with banners flying and lances glistening in the sunlight, -presented a grand array. Meanwhile, King Robert was concealed in the -forests with an army of only forty thousand men, nearly all on foot, -awaiting the enemy, and preparing barriers to check the onslaught -of the English. On the morning of the 23d of June, 1313, the two -armies met near Bannockburn. The night had been passed in prayer in -the Scottish camp, and in feasting and drunkenness by the English. -At daybreak the young English king was astonished at the good order -observed in the Scottish ranks. - -“Do you think they will fight?” he asked of Sir Ingletram d’Umfreville. -Just then the abbot of Inchaffray appeared before the Scottish troops, -holding a crucifix in his hand; all bent their knees with uncovered -heads. - -“They are asking for mercy,” cried King Edward. - -“Yes, sire,” replied Umfreville, with a bitter smile; “but of God, not -of you, sire. These men will win the battle or die at their posts.” - -The sight of the vast English army might well cause the brave hearts -of the small band of Scots to tremble; but with the intrepid Bruce at -their head, they awaited their foes with dauntless courage. So vast -were the English forces, that it is said the country seemed on fire by -the brightness of the shields and burnished helmets gleaming in the -morning light. So vast was the multitude of embroidered banners, of -standards, of pennons, and spears; so apparently endless the crowds of -knights, blazing in their rich-colored and gemmed surcoats; so large -the extent of country occupied by their numerous tents,—that one might -have thought all the warriors of the world were marching against this -handful of valiant Scots. The English had hastened their march and -arrived with some disorder in front of the Scottish army. King Robert -Bruce, with a golden crown on his helmet, was riding slowly before the -line of his troops. As the brave king thus rode along upon his favorite -palfrey, clad in armor and carrying his battle-axe in his hand, -encouraging his men by his calm voice and brave words, the English king -took special note of him, and remarked, “Doubtless yonder solitary -rider is of the foe, although he is almost as nigh to our front as to -that of the rebels. Canst tell, Sir Knight, of what account he is, and -wherefore this manœuvre?” - -“My liege,” replied Sir Giles d’Argentine, to whom King Edward had -spoken, “he who yonder marshalleth the Scottish host was once my -frequent associate, and is well known to me, as I clearly descry from -the jewelled diadem which glittereth on his helmet. It is none other -than Bruce himself.” - -“If it is the arch-traitor Bruce,” exclaimed Edward, “I marvel that no -knight amongst you all is brave enough to challenge so audacious a foe.” - -Whereupon Sir Henry Bohun, mounted on a magnificent war-horse, came -dashing against the Scottish monarch, whose small palfrey seemed an -ill match for so strong and large a steed. “See! the foeman coucheth -his lance and pusheth at full speed against his victim, who recklessly -advanceth, and now doth take his stand motionless as a rock, awaiting -the onset of his enemy. Breathlessly the Scots and English watch the -two combatants. On comes the impetuous Bohun. Surely some half score -more plunges of the superb animal that bears him will unhorse the -hero-king, unless unwonted presence of mind, nimbleness of movement, -and dexterity of arm shall save him from the onrush of the powerful -horse and gleaming spear. But the gallant Bruce has risen in his -stirrups, and as his enemy rushes upon him, the lance is driven aside -by the sweep of his strong arm, and the battle-axe, wielded with rare -dexterity, stops not in its swing of meteor-like speed till down it -falls upon the helmet of his foe with such true aim and mighty force -that the weapon shatters the helmet and fractures the skull of Sir -Henry Bohun, whose fiery steed bears his dead body back to the English -ranks. Bruce returned slowly to his forces, and while some of his -friends surrounded him, reproaching him for so rashly risking his life, -the Scottish hero laughingly answered, while looking sorrowfully at his -notched axe, ‘See! I have spoiled my good battle-axe.’” - -[Illustration: “SEE! I HAVE SPOILED MY GOOD BATTLE-AXE.”] - -The battle was commenced by the English at the order of King Edward. -The shock of the first charge of the English cavalry was terrible; -and as they were received on the spears of the Scottish infantry, the -crash was heard at a great distance, and many English knights were -dashed from their saddles by their furious steeds, which had been -stabbed by the invincible spears of the Scots. The centre division, -under the gallant Randolph, stood in a steady body to receive the -charge of the English. These compact squares of the Scottish army were -well calculated to break the masses which were opposed to them, and -they suffered only from the arrows of the archers. The English cavalry -charged with the greatest impetuosity, and endeavored to pierce through -the phalanx of the Scottish spearmen; but they received them like a -wall of iron, while the English receded from the shock like broken -waves which had spent their fury on the rocks. When both armies joined -battle, the great horses of England rushed upon the Scottish lances as -if upon a thick wood, and one mighty sound arose from the breaking of -the lances, the shock of falling horsemen, and the shrieks of the -dying. The knights sang their war-cries, and rushed on to the charge. -Groom fought like squire, and squire like knight, and yet Scotland’s -lion waved proudly over her bands, while the English banners rose and -fell, and many of them were dyed in blood. At last the English began -to hesitate. “They fly! they fly!” cried the Scots. Just then the camp -followers of the Scottish army, who had been posted on an adjacent -hill, excited by the ardor of the struggle, began to descend in a mass -towards the field of battle. The English imagined themselves about -to be attacked by a fresh army, and began a disorderly retreat. Upon -which Robert Bruce charged valiantly with his reserves, and quickly -decided the fate of the day. The earl of Pembroke seized the bridle of -King Edward’s horse and dragged him away from the battle-field. Sir -Giles d’Argentine accompanied his king out of danger, and then rode -back fearlessly amidst the conflict, exclaiming, “It is not my custom -to fly!” This brave knight was cut down by the Scots. The victory was -complete. The fortress of Stirling surrendered immediately. The earl -of Hereford, who had shut himself up in Bothwell castle, offered to -capitulate, and was exchanged for the wife, daughter, and sister of the -king of Scotland, who had been imprisoned in England for several years. -Thus had the independence and freedom of Scotland been obtained by the -brave Bruce and his dauntless little band of patriot warriors. The -swords of those who fought at Bannockburn were hung up in the halls of -their descendants, and handed down to modern times as trophies of the -liberty and independence which they achieved. The beneficial effects -of this signal victory secured forever the independence of Scotland; -and when the two kingdoms were afterwards united, Scotland received -equal rights with England, and the national church of Scotland, with -her universities and schools, were guaranteed to the people of Scotland -forever. This famous battle taught the Scottish nation a lesson which -it never forgot: that a phalanx of Caledonian spears, wielded by brave -and disciplined men on foot, was superior to all the vaunted chivalry -of the most renowned cavaliers. In 1327 King Edward II. of England -was dethroned, and his young son was crowned in his place. The young -prince was but fifteen years of age. Scotland had been recovering from -her misfortunes under the firm and wise government of Robert Bruce. -The independence of that kingdom had been acknowledged by England. The -crown jewels, which had been formerly seized by Edward I., had been -returned, and the little princess Joan, who was betrothed to David, the -young son of Robert Bruce, had been taken to Berwick, accompanied by -the queen-dowager of England and a splendid retinue of attendants. The -marriage was soon after celebrated with great magnificence. Englishmen -and Scots, who for half a century had met only as foes upon the -field of battle, were now joined in friendly courtesies through this -marriage. King Robert’s wife Elizabeth had died before she saw this -happy termination of the long hostilities. - -The Scottish king did not long survive these events. He was seized with -a severe complaint, then supposed to have been leprosy, which at length -proved fatal. When upon his death-bed he called around him his earls -and barons, and commended to their care his young son David; and the -prince was thereupon crowned king of Scotland. Robert Bruce, having -settled the affairs of his kingdom and throne, summoned to his bedside -his brave and faithful friend and gallant knight, Sir James Douglas, -and entreated him to take his heart from his body after death, and -have it embalmed, and carry it to the Holy Land, and leave it there -in the Holy Sepulchre, in obedience to a vow he had made. “When I was -hard beset,” said the dying king, “I vowed to God that if I should -live to see an end of my wars and Scotland free, I would raise the -sacred standard against the enemies of my Lord and Saviour. But as I -cannot myself accomplish this vow, I know no knight more worthy for the -mission of bearing the heart of King Robert of Scotland to the Holy -Land.” To this affecting request Lord Douglas replied, with tears in -his eyes, “Ah, most gentle and noble king! A thousand times I thank -you for the great honor you have done me in making me the bearer of -so great and precious a treasure. Most faithfully and willingly, to -the best of my power, shall I obey your commands.” Then the dying king -answered,— - -“Now praised be God! for I shall die in peace, since I am assured, by -the faith you owe to your God and the order of knighthood, that the -best and most valiant knight of my kingdom has promised to achieve for -me that which I myself could never accomplish.” - -Thus died Robert Bruce, king of Scotland, in the fifty-fifth year of -his age and the twenty-fourth of his reign. His remains were deposited -in the church of Dumfermline, where he was enshrined under a rich -marble monument from Paris. The censures of excommunication pronounced -by the Pope having been removed some time before, the religious -services at his burial were performed by many prelates and bishops. - -Many years afterwards his tomb was opened, and the lead in which his -body had been wrapped was found twisted into the shape of a rude -crown, covered with a rich cloth of gold, which had been thrown over -it. It was ascertained that the breast-bone had been sawn asunder in -order to fulfil his request of taking out his heart; but that proud -form, before which the king of England had trembled on his throne, had -crumbled into dust. Robert Bruce, king of Scotland, is one of the most -exalted warriors to be found in those early times. The virtues of his -character were formed, and acquired their bright polish, in the school -of adversity. One of the early writers says of him, “If any one should -undertake to describe his individual conflicts and personal success, -those courageous and single-handed combats in which, by the favor of -God and his own great strength and courage, he would often penetrate -into the thickest of the enemy, now becoming the assailant and cutting -down all who opposed him, at another time acting on the defensive, -and escaping from inevitable death,—if any writer shall do this, he -will prove, if I am not mistaken, that he had no equal in his own time -either in knightly prowess or in strength and vigor of body.” The -true greatness of Robert Bruce appeared in his humanity, moderation, -and pity for the sufferings of others, which led him in the hour of -victory to be generous to his prisoners even though he had suffered -such bitter wrongs at the hands of his English foes. His manners were -kingly and engaging, his disposition singularly gentle, courteous, -and without selfishness. Yet he was high-spirited, and full of noble -energy and enthusiasm. In person he was tall and well proportioned, -being five feet ten inches high. His shoulders were broad, his chest -capacious, and his limbs powerful and possessing marvellous strength. -He possessed an open and cheerful countenance, shaded by short curled -hair. His forehead was low, his cheek-bones strong and prominent, with -a wound on his lower jaw. Though the expression of his face was usually -pleasing and kindly, he could assume a look of stern, kingly dignity, -which awed his enemies, and gained him the necessary respect due to his -rank and commanding position as Scotland’s king, and also her bravest -and most valiant knight. He was one of the most successful military -leaders of the age. Well may Scotland boast of her brave Robert Bruce, -the most famous of all her rulers, the deliverer of her enslaved -people, the upholder of her liberty, her hero-king and most chivalrous -knight! - - - - -FERDINAND V. OF SPAIN. - -1452-1516 A.D. - - “Every monarch is subject to a mightier one.”—SENECA. - - -FOR many years after the great Saracen invasion in the eighth century, -Spain was divided into various small states. In the fifteenth century -these were so united as to form four,—Castile, Aragon, Navarre, and -the Moorish kingdom of Granada. The province of Granada was all -that remained to the Moslems of their once vast possessions in the -peninsula. On the 10th of March, 1452, in the little town of Sos, -Ferdinand, son of King John of Aragon, was born. The early Spanish -historians note with care the good omens attending this event. The sun, -which had been obscured with clouds during the whole day, suddenly -broke forth with unwonted splendor. A crown was also beheld in the sky, -composed of various brilliant colors, like those of a rainbow. All -which appearances were interpreted by the spectators as an omen that -the child then born would be the most illustrious among men. As this -event was also nearly contemporary with the capture of Constantinople, -it was afterwards regarded by the Catholic Church as a providential -provision in behalf of the religion of which Ferdinand became such a -staunch supporter, as his zealous life might be regarded as an ample -counterbalance to the loss of the capital of Christendom. One year -before this time, in the palace of the king of Castile, on the 22d -of April, 1451, a little princess had been born, and christened -Isabella. This Spanish princess was descended, both on her father’s and -mother’s side, from the famous John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster. - -[Illustration: FERDINAND OF ARAGON.] - -But around the cradles of these two royal babies many contentions -arose, which we cannot stop to note. When Isabella was four years -of age, her father died, and her half-brother Henry became king of -Castile; and, as she had still another brother, Alfonso, there did not -seem to be much probability that she would succeed to the throne. She -retired with her mother to the small town of Arevalo, where she was -educated with care, and instructed in lessons of practical piety, until -she reached her fourteenth year. - -Meanwhile, the little Prince Ferdinand, in Aragon, was surrounded -with constant contentions between his father, king of Aragon, and his -half-brother Carlos. Joan, the mother of Ferdinand, was the second -wife of King John. She was a proud, ambitious woman, much younger than -her husband, and was of the blood royal of Castile, being the daughter -of Don Frederic Henriquez, admiral of that kingdom. She hated her -step-son Carlos, who was heir to the throne, as she regarded him as an -obstacle to the advancement of her own child, Ferdinand. We cannot stop -to note all the family broils occasioned by Joan’s jealousy. Prince -Carlos seems to have been a youth of many attractions of mind and -body, and was the idol of the people. So, when King John, influenced -by his wife Joan, succeeded in having Carlos arrested, and placed in -strict confinement, the entire kingdom was thrown into excitement. The -people sprang to arms, determined to release the prince; and they were -so threatening that King John fled with his wife to Saragossa. The -insurrection now spread throughout Aragon, Valencia, and Navarre, and -even into King John’s possessions in Sardinia and Sicily. At length, -the frightened king saw the necessity of releasing his prisoner. Prince -Carlos was received by the people with wild enthusiasm; and the king -could only make peace with his subjects by a public acknowledgment of -Carlos as his rightful heir and successor. But Carlos did not long -survive this triumph. He fell sick of a fever, and died in 1461. Some -historians hint that the prince was poisoned, to make way for the -youthful Ferdinand, now ten years of age, and who was immediately -declared heir to the throne. The queen-mother then took Ferdinand to -Catalonia, to receive the homage of that province; but the Catalonian -nobles, who were exasperated against the king on account of his -treatment of Carlos, displayed so much hostility that the young prince -and his mother were obliged to take refuge in the fortress of Gerona. -Here they were at last relieved by King John. But the Catalans then -seceded from the authority of the king of Aragon, and they presented -the crown to the duke of Lorraine, who marched with an army of eight -thousand men against the old king of Aragon, whose treasury was empty, -and who had become totally blind. In this emergency, the mother of -Ferdinand, who was a brave woman, placed herself at the head of such -forces as she could collect; and, with her young son Ferdinand riding -by her side, she heroically marched against the enemies of her husband, -and attacked the duke of Lorraine with such impetuosity that she drove -him in confusion from Gerona. In this encounter, young Ferdinand came -near being taken captive. - -[Illustration: ISABELLA OF CASTILE.] - -Meanwhile, the Princess Isabella was nearly sacrificed to the ambition -of her half-brother, who was king of Castile. The beautiful -princess, who had now been brought from her retirement in Arevalo to -her brother’s court, had many suitors for her hand. Her half-brother, -King Henry, promised his sister in marriage to a rich but wicked old -nobleman; and great preparations were made for the wedding. The anguish -of the poor Princess Isabella was so great that she shut herself up in -her apartment, praying to God, with groans and tears, that He would -deliver her from this impending doom. Still, the wedding preparations -went on. Meanwhile, the wicked old nobleman set out from his palace to -claim his youthful and beautiful bride. But God had heard the prayers -of the afflicted princess; and, as the aged bridegroom reached a small -village, at the end of the first day’s travel, he was suddenly seized -with an attack of quinsy, which terminated his life. - -The nobles of Castile now entreated Isabella to allow herself to be -proclaimed Queen of Castile, in opposition to her brother, whom they -all hated. Her other brother, Alfonso, who would have been heir, had -previously died. But Isabella was too noble to seek such revenge upon -her cruel brother; but the nobles forced the king to declare her his -successor to the throne, and to promise that she should not be forced -to marry against her will. - -The king of Portugal now desired to secure Isabella for his bride; -and her brother threatened to imprison her unless she would yield. As -overtures had been made by the young and handsome Prince Ferdinand of -Aragon for the hand of the fair Isabella, and as her heart was also -inclined towards this handsome prince, she determined, in spite of -her brother, to accept the proffered hand of Ferdinand. The marriage -articles were signed on the 7th of January, 1469. Isabella was aided -by the archbishop of Toledo, who raised a regiment of dragoons, and -carried her in triumph to Valladolid, where she was greeted by the -people with the wildest enthusiasm. Meanwhile, her brother attempted -to prevent Ferdinand from entering Castile to marry Isabella. As the -father of Ferdinand was so pressed by a war with his nobles, he could -not afford his son an armed escort sufficient to secure his safety. So -Ferdinand resolved to go disguised as a merchant. With half a dozen -companions, Ferdinand started upon this adventuresome expedition to -secure his lovely bride, in spite of hostile foes. Amidst many perils -they pressed on their way. One night, at an inn, they lost their purse, -containing all their money. At length they were met by an escort, sent -by Isabella for their protection. The fair princess, with her little -court, was at Valladolid. Ferdinand, accompanied by four attendants, -rode privately to Valladolid, where he was received by the bishop of -Toledo, and conducted to the presence of Isabella. The young prince -was very handsome, tall and fair, with an intelligent countenance and -intellectual brow. He was eighteen years of age. He was well educated, -and of temperate habits. He was graceful and courtly in manner, and -seemed a fitting mate for the beautiful princess of nineteen, of whom -a contemporary writer says, “She was the handsomest lady whom I ever -beheld, and the most gracious in her manners.” - -[Illustration: SEGOVIA: THE ALCAZAR AND CATHEDRAL.] - -Isabella was highly educated for those times, and spoke the Castilian -language with grace and purity. After a brief lover’s interview -of two hours, Ferdinand returned to Duenas, where he had left his -companions. Preparations were immediately made for the marriage, which -was solemnized at the palace of one of the nobles in Valladolid, -on the morning of the 19th of October, 1469. Ferdinand, having -lost his slender purse by the way, was without money; and Isabella, -being a fugitive from her brother’s court, was also without means. -But the royal couple readily borrowed the money necessary to defray -the expenses of the wedding. King Henry now determined to cast aside -Isabella, and place upon the throne Joanna, the daughter of his second -wife. This was a blow to Isabella, for now the court of Castile, -aided by the king of France, were combined against her. Ferdinand and -Isabella held their little court at Duenas, in humble style. In 1474, -the brother of Isabella, Henry IV., king of Castile, died, and she was -proclaimed queen. Isabella was at that time in Segovia. Attended by an -imposing retinue, she rode upon a beautiful steed, whose bridle was -held by two high officers of the crown, and she was escorted to her -seat upon the splendid throne, which had been erected in one of the -public squares of the city. As the people gazed with admiration upon -their beautiful queen, a herald cried,— - -“Castile, Castile, for the king Don Ferdinand, and his consort Dona -Isabella, queen proprietor of these kingdoms!” - -The queen took the oath of office, and then repaired to the cathedral, -to pray at the altar. Ferdinand was at this time in Aragon, and when -he returned he was greatly displeased with the document prepared by -the dignitaries of Castile, in which Isabella alone was declared heir -to the throne of Castile, but Ferdinand was associated with her in the -performance of many acts of royalty. But, persuaded by his wife, he -agreed to submit. - -Alfonso V., the king of Portugal, now invaded Castile. Ferdinand and -Isabella raised an army and met the foe at Toro. The powerful bishop -of Toledo, exasperated by the independence of opinion which Ferdinand -and Isabella displayed, whom he had supposed would be pliant tools in -his hands, joined Alfonso against them. The strife was too desperate -to last long. There was a hand-to-hand fight along the entire line. -At length a storm arose. A dark night came down upon the conflicting -hosts. A deluge of rain fell, and the field was flooded with mingled -blood and water. The Portuguese were utterly routed. Ferdinand -displayed great humanity to his prisoners, furnishing them with food, -clothing, and a safe return to their own country. - -Isabella was awaiting the issue of the battle at Tordisillas, twenty -miles above on the river. When she received tidings of the victory, she -ordered a procession to the Church of St. Paul, as an expression of -her gratitude to God, and she herself walked barefoot in the garb of a -penitent. In a few months, the entire kingdom of Castile acknowledged -the supremacy of Ferdinand and Isabella. - -In 1479, the king of Aragon died, leaving the kingdoms of Aragon and -Navarre to his son Ferdinand. Aragon, Castile, and Navarre, being thus -united under these two illustrious monarchs, the great Spanish monarchy -was thereby founded. - -Ferdinand and Isabella now commenced the enterprise of conquering -Granada, thus expelling the Moors from their last foothold in Spain. -Malaga, on the coast of the Mediterranean, was one of the principal -Moorish towns. The Moors were aware of the importance of this -position, and had strongly fortified it. The Moors were as brave as -the Christians, and were led by famous chieftains. In April, 1487, -Ferdinand, at the head of fifty thousand men, arrived before Malaga, -and commenced its siege. There were continual ambuscades, and nightly -sallies. One day, while Ferdinand was dining in his tent, which -commanded a view of the field of conflict, he perceived a party of -Christians, who had been sent to fortify an eminence, retreating in -confusion, pursued by the Moors. King Ferdinand leaped upon his horse, -not delaying for any defensive armor, rallied his men, and charged -against the enemy. Having thrown his lance, he endeavored to draw his -sword from its scabbard. But the sword held fast, the scabbard having -been by some accident, indented. Just then several Moors surrounded -him. The king would have been slain had not two brave cavaliers rushed -to his rescue. The nobles remonstrated with the king for so risking his -life, but Ferdinand unselfishly answered,— - -“I cannot stop to calculate chances, when my subjects are perilling -their lives for my sake.” - -After a siege of ten days, one of the outposts of Malaga was captured -by the Spaniards, who now pressed triumphantly forward to assault -the city itself. Ferdinand first attempted to induce the Moors to -capitulate, by generous offers, to the commander. But he loyally -replied, “I am stationed here to defend the place to the last -extremity. The Christian king cannot offer a bribe large enough to -induce me to betray my trust.” Ferdinand then encompassed the city by -sea and by land. Queen Isabella joined him, and her presence inspired -the Spaniards with fresh courage. When she arrived with a brilliant -train of ladies and cavaliers, an imposing escort was sent to meet her, -and she was conducted to the encampment with great magnificence of -parade, and many demonstrations of joy. - -The assault was now renewed more fiercely than ever. Famine at length -caused great suffering amongst the Moors. They had consumed most of -their ammunition, while the Spanish army was constantly re-enforced by -new volunteers. King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella maintained strict -religious discipline in their camp. Neither oaths nor gambling was -allowed, and the rites of the Roman Catholic Church were performed -with imposing ceremony. Gradually the Christians gained ground. They -succeeded in blowing up one of the towers, thereby obtaining entrance -into the city. The citizens of Malaga, suffering from pestilence and -famine, had been reduced to living upon the flesh of horses, dogs, and -cats. Everywhere the most appalling misery was seen. Many were dying -in the streets. In view of their sufferings, Hamet Zeli, the Moorish -commander, gave the citizens permission to make the best terms they -could with their conqueror. Ferdinand would listen to nothing, however, -but unconditional surrender. At length the citizens sent a deputation -to Ferdinand, declaring that they were willing to resign to him the -city, the fortifications, and all the property, if he would spare their -lives, and give them their freedom. “If these terms are refused,” they -added, “we will take the six hundred Christian captives, who are in our -hands, and hang them like dogs on the battlements. We will then enclose -our old men, women, and children in the fortress, set fire to the town, -and sell our lives as dearly as possible, in the attempt to cut our way -through our enemies. Thus if you gain a victory, it shall be such a one -as will make the name of Malaga ring throughout the world, to ages yet -unborn.” - -[Illustration: THE CATHEDRAL AND PORT OF MALAGA.] - -In answer, Ferdinand replied, “If a single hair of a Christian’s head -is harmed, I will put to the sword every man, woman, and child in the -city.” - -The citizens in hopeless despair, cast themselves upon the mercy of -Ferdinand, unconditionally surrendering the city. - -On the 18th day of August, 1487, the Spanish army, headed by Ferdinand -and Isabella, with great military and ecclesiastical pomp, entered -the city, and repaired to the cathedral, where the _Te Deum_ was for -the first time performed within its walls. The Christian captives -were liberated from the Moorish dungeons. They presented a dreadful -spectacle, which drew tears from all eyes. This band of sufferers, many -of whom had languished in dark cells for fifteen years, were brought -forth, haggard, emaciated, and heavily manacled with chains. Being -freed from their fetters, Ferdinand and Isabella addressed to them kind -words of sympathy, and dismissed them with rich gifts. - -The heroic Moorish chieftain, who had so gallantly defended the -city, was brought loaded with chains before his conqueror. Upon -being questioned why he had so long persisted, he replied, “I was -commissioned to defend the place to the last extremity. Had I been -properly supported, I would have died sooner than have surrendered.” - -Then came the doom of the Moors. The entire population of the city, -amounting to about twenty thousand, were condemned to slavery. Men, -women, and children were alike sentenced by the Christians. One-third -were sent to Africa in exchange for Christians imprisoned there. -Another portion were sold to the highest bidder, to procure money to -defray the expenses of the war. The Pope at Rome received one hundred -Moorish soldiers. The Moorish girls were renowned for their great -beauty; fifty of the most beautiful of these were sent by Isabella as a -gift to the Queen of Naples, and thirty to the Queen of Portugal. All -the property of the victims was seized by the crown. Cruel as this doom -appears to us, it was regarded at that time as mild and humane, though -now one shudders at such unchristian barbarity. But in justice, the -excuse must be made for Ferdinand and Isabella, that they supposed that -thereby the Moslem Moors would be more likely to become converts to the -Christian religion, even in slavery. It is said that Isabella was urged -by the clergy to put all the captured Moors to death, as a warning to -others. The city of Malaga was now re-inhabited by the Spaniards. - -In the next year, Ferdinand, with a force of twenty thousand men, -marched against Granada, the capital of the Moorish kingdom. The -Christians were driven back in confusion into their own territory. -The year following, King Ferdinand collected an army of ninety-five -thousand men. The cavalry was composed of the highest nobility of the -realm. The Christians advanced upon Baza. The Moors sallied forth -from the city to meet their foes; a fierce battle lasted for twelve -hours, when the Moors were forced to retreat within the city walls. -The conflict had been so severe, however, that the Spanish generals -counselled an abandonment of the siege. Ferdinand, relying upon the -wisdom and great mental endowments of his wife, sent dispatches to -Jaen, where Isabella then was, asking her advice. Her reply was so -encouraging that the siege was renewed. The summer and winter passed -away; the Christians suffered much during the floods of rain which -inundated their camp. The energetic queen, however, came to their -rescue, and sent six thousand pioneers to repair the roads; and she -even pawned the crown jewels and her own ornaments, to raise money to -furnish her husband’s forces with supplies. The Moorish women within -the city displayed heroism equal to that of the Christian queen. At -length, as the Spanish troops began to despond, Ferdinand sent for -his brave wife to come to the camp, that her presence might inspire -them with fresh courage. An historian thus describes the coming of the -queen:— - -“On the 7th of November, the queen, accompanied by her daughter -Isabella, several ladies of honor, a choir of beautiful maidens, and -a brilliant escort, entered the camp of Ferdinand. The inhabitants of -Baza crowded their walls and towers to gaze upon the glittering pageant -as it wound its way through the defiles of the mountains and emerged -upon the plain, with gold-embroidered banners and strains of martial -music. The Spanish cavaliers sallied forth in a body from their camp -to receive their beloved queen and to greet her with an enthusiastic -reception. The presence of this extraordinary woman, in whose character -there was combined with feminine grace so much of manly self-reliance -and energy, not only reanimated the drooping spirits of the besiegers, -but convinced the besieged that the Spanish army would never withdraw -until the place was surrendered. Though there was no want of food for -the beleagured Moors, their ammunition was nearly expended, and the -garrison was greatly reduced by sickness, wounds, and death.” - -Soon after the arrival of Isabella, the Moorish garrison offered to -capitulate. Ferdinand was so anxious to secure the place, that he -agreed to allow the army to march out with the honors of war, and the -citizens to retire with their property at their pleasure. The fall of -Baza secured the surrender of many other important strongholds of the -Moslems. Granada, the capital of the Moorish kingdom, was still in the -possession of the Moors. Ferdinand, in 1491, having raised another -army, encamped within six miles of this city. Abdallah, the king of the -Spanish Moors, was in personal command at Granada. The city possessed a -population of two hundred thousand people. - -The situation of Granada was exceedingly picturesque. A wild, rugged -mountain range, whose summits were crowned with snow, protected the -city upon the south. On the north was a beautiful plain, blooming with -flowers, and beyond, groves and vineyards reached for thirty leagues. -But upon this lovely spot occurred scenes of blended heroism and -revolting carnage, which have made the fall of Granada famous for all -time. - -Sometimes a company of Moors, clad in armor, and mounted upon their -fiery Arabian chargers, would ride forth from the gates, while -bugle-blasts rang shrill upon the air, and challenge an equal number -of Christian knights to combat. Promptly the defiance was met. All the -citizens of Granada crowded the house-tops, battlements, and towers of -the city, to watch the exciting conflict. Both armies rested upon their -arms, breathlessly awaiting the issue. Again, some brave Christian -knight would ride forth alone and challenge a Moorish cavalier to -combat. The ladies of the two hostile courts cheered their respective -champion with their fair presence and encouraging smiles; and never did -knight or cavalier fight more valiantly to win the prize of victory. -The memory of these brilliant but deadly tourneys still inspires -the songs of the Castilians. Spanish ballads glow with thrilling -descriptions of these knightly tourneys; and the prowess of Moslem, as -well as Christian warriors, sheds undying glory over the conquest of -Granada. - -Queen Isabella took an active part in all the military operations of -the Spanish army. She often appeared upon the field, encased in full -armor, mounted upon a splendid steed; and her presence always inspired -her troops to fresh deeds of valor. Isabella occupied in the camp a -pavilion, richly draped with silken hangings. One night, a gust of -wind blew the fringes of one of the curtains into the flame of a lamp, -and soon the entire pavilion was in a blaze. The conflagration spread -to other tents, and it was only with great difficulty that the entire -camp was preserved from destruction. The queen and her children were -in great danger of being destroyed. In consequence of this accident, -Ferdinand, to prevent a like occurrence, ordered a city of substantial -houses to be built upon the spot occupied by his army. In three -months, a large and stately city arose. The soldiers wished to call it -Isabella, in honor of their idolized queen, but she named it Santa Fé, -in recognition of her faith in Providence. The city still stands. - -The Moors were now convinced that their Spanish foes were determined to -remain until the Crescent should give place to the Cross. The citizens -of Granada were suffering from famine. Abdallah, therefore, surrendered -Granada to the Christians on the second day of January, 1492. - -This last great act in one of the sublimest of historical dramas—the -invasion of Spain by the Moors—was performed with the most imposing -martial and religious rites. The Alhambra was first taken possession -of by veteran Christian troops, including the body-guard of the king. -Ferdinand, surrounded by a very brilliant _cortège_ glittering in -polished armor, took his station near an Arabian mosque, now called the -hermitage of St. Sebastian. At a short distance in the rear the queen -Isabella took her position, accompanied by a no less splendid retinue, -her high-born warriors proudly displaying the armorial bearings of -their families. The immense column of the Christian army commenced -its march up the Hill of Martyrs into the city. Abdallah, accompanied -by fifty cavaliers, passed them, descending the hill to make the -surrender of himself to Ferdinand. The heart-broken Moor threw himself -from his horse, and would have seized the hand of Ferdinand to kiss it -in token of homage, but the Christian king magnanimously spared him -the humiliation, and threw his arms around the deposed monarch in a -respectful and affectionate embrace. Abdallah then presented the keys -of the Alhambra to the conqueror, saying,— - -“They are thine, O king, since Allah so decrees it. Use thy success -with clemency and moderation.” - -[Illustration: PATIO DE LOS LEONES (COURT OF LIONS), ALHAMBRA.] - -He then, not waiting for the words of consolation which the king was -about to utter, rode on to offer the same acts of submission and homage -to Queen Isabella. In the mean time the Castilian army, winding slowly -up the hill and around the walls, entered the city by the gate of Los -Molinos. The large silver cross which Ferdinand had ever borne with him -in his crusade against the Moors was now elevated upon the Alhambra, -while the banners of the conqueror were proudly unfurled from its -towers. “It was the signal for the whole army to fall upon its knees -in recognition of that providence which had granted them so great a -victory. The solemn strains of the _Te Deum_, performed by the choir of -the royal chapel, then swelled majestically over the prostrate host. -The Spanish grandees now gathered around Isabella, and kneeling, kissed -her hand, in recognition of her sovereignty as queen of Granada.” - -Abdallah, however, did not remain as a sad witness of these scenes. -With a small band he took his way to the mountains. From one of the -rocky eminences he sorrowfully gazed upon the beautiful realms over -which his ancestors had reigned for more than seven hundred years. With -eyes filled with tears he exclaimed, “Alas! when were woes ever equal -to mine!” - -Whereupon his mother cruelly replied, “You do well to weep as a woman -for what you could not defend like a man!” - -Thus “The Last Sigh of the Moor,” and the cruel yet Spartan-like -heroism of the Moorish queen-mother, have passed into the romantic -annals of history. - -While Ferdinand and Isabella were at Santa Fé, Columbus arrived at -their camp. We have not space to give here a history of Christopher -Columbus. We can but note a few important incidents. The Atlantic Ocean -was then unexplored. Columbus, who was employed in the construction -of maps and charts, became convinced that countries existed upon the -other side of the globe. He was laughed at as an enthusiast, and when -he declared that the world was round, one of the sages of the fifteenth -century replied, “Can any one be so foolish as to believe that the -world is round, and that there are people on the side opposite to ours -who walk with their heels upward and their heads hanging down, like -flies clinging to the ceiling? that there is a part of the world where -trees grow with their branches hanging downwards, and where it rains, -hails, and snows upwards?” - -The doctrine of Columbus was not only regarded as absurd, but it was -thought to be heretical. Columbus, fully convinced of the truth of his -ideas, appealed first to the king of Portugal for means to fit out a -fleet to start out on a voyage of discovery. Meeting with refusal, he -visited the Spanish court in 1487. At this time Ferdinand and Isabella -were with the army, encamped before Malaga. The war with the Moors -continuing, the Spanish sovereigns declared that they could give the -matter no attention until the conclusion of the war. Disheartened, -Columbus was about to apply to the king of France, when the prior -of the convent of La Rabida, at Palos, who firmly believed in the -scheme of Columbus, and who had formerly been confessor to Isabella, -wrote to the queen, urging that Spain might not lose so great an -opportunity. Isabella was so much impressed by the letter of the worthy -prior that she immediately requested that Columbus should come to -Santa Fé, where she was then residing, as the Spanish army were still -besieging Granada. Columbus arrived there just as the Moorish banner -was torn down, and the flag of Spain was unfurled upon the towers of -the Alhambra. In the midst of these rejoicings Columbus presented -his plans. “I wish,” said he, “for a few ships and a few sailors to -traverse between two and three thousand miles of the ocean, thus to -point out a new and short route to India, and reveal new nations, -majestic in wealth and power. These realms are peopled by immortal -beings, for whom Christ has died. It is my mission to search them out, -and to carry to them the Gospel of salvation. Wealth will also flow in -from this discovery. With this wealth we can raise armies, and rescue -the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem from the hands of the infidels. I -ask only in return that I may be appointed viceroy over the realms I -discover, and that I shall receive one-tenth of the profits which may -accrue.” - -[Illustration: COLUMBUS.] - -The Spanish courtiers were astonished at what they deemed audacious -demands, and persuaded the queen to refuse. Whereupon, Columbus sadly -saddled his mule to retrace his steps, and to offer his services to the -king of France. Isabella was troubled, as she thought over these -offers and requests of Columbus, and she expressed to Ferdinand her -perplexities. He replied, “The royal finances are exhausted by the war. -We have no money in the treasury for such an enterprise.” The queen -then enthusiastically exclaimed,— - -“I will undertake the enterprise for my own crown of Castile; and I -will pledge my private jewels to raise the necessary funds.” - -Thus the discovery of a continent hung upon the vanity, or heroism, -of a woman! But the character of Isabella was equal to the emergency. -The matter was quickly settled. A courier was sent to overtake the -disappointed Columbus, who was pursuing his weary way through the -sand, overwhelmed with gloom. For eighteen years he had been in vain -endeavoring to carry out his cherished plans. Joyfully he returned -to Santa Fé, where the queen received him with great kindness, and -assented to his demands. Columbus succeeded in obtaining three small -vessels,—two furnished by the Spanish government, and one by Martin -Alonzo Pinzon, a wealthy Spaniard. The total number who joined the -expedition was one hundred and fifty. - -The enterprise was deemed so hazardous that it was with great -difficulty that a crew could be obtained. This was in the fifteenth -century. In view of the marvellous progress in knowledge, discovery, -invention, and an enlightened Christianity, in the past four hundred -years, in comparison with the ignorance and superstitions of preceding -epochs, any student of history will be led most emphatically to -exclaim, Surely the world was never so advanced in knowledge, true -civilization, and pure religion as to-day! With all the wickedness at -the present time, the study of history reveals the fact, that the -world was never so good, pure, and Christian as now. - -On the 3d of August, 1492, the small squadron unfurled its sails for -the momentous voyage. At the close of a week they arrived at the Canary -Islands, which were on the frontiers of the known world. On the 6th of -September, they again set sail. - -Day after day passed; but no land came in sight. Sixty-seven days had -now passed since the Highlands of Spain had disappeared from their -view. They had met with indications which made them hope that land -was near. A branch of a shrub, with leaves and berries upon it, had -been picked up; and a small piece of wood, curiously carved, had been -found drifting upon the water. It was the 11th of October. As the sun -went down, and the stars appeared, Columbus took his stand upon the -poop of his vessel. About ten o’clock, he was startled by the gleam -of what seemed to be a torch far in the distance. For a moment it -blazed, then disappeared. Was it a meteor, or a light from the land? -Not an eye was closed on the ships that night. At two o’clock in the -morning, a sailor at the mast-head shouted, “Land, land, land!” The day -dawned; and a glimpse of paradise seemed to have been unveiled before -their enraptured gaze. A beautiful island was spread out, luxuriously -green, and adorned with every variety of tropical vegetation. The -boats were lowered, and manned. The banner of Spain, emblazoned with -the cross, floated from every prow. Columbus, richly attired in a -scarlet dress, entered his boat, and was rowed towards the shore, -where multitudes of the natives stood, gazing, spell-bound, upon the -strange sight. Columbus leaped upon the shore, and, falling upon his -knees, gave thanks to God. With imposing ceremony, the banner of Spain -was planted upon the soil; and the island was called San Salvador, in -recognition of the protecting care of Providence. We have not space to -note the other discoveries of Columbus upon this voyage. Continuing his -explorations in that part of the country, he discovered the islands -of Exuma, Yuma, and Cuba. Of Cuba, Columbus wrote, “It is the most -beautiful island that eyes ever beheld.” During a short tour up one -of the picturesque streams of Cuba, Columbus met with a bulbous root, -about as large as an apple, which the natives used as food, roasting -it in the ashes. They called it _batatas_. Columbus and his men were -hunting for gold; but this discovery of the indispensable potato has -proved a much richer prize to mankind. Here, also, he saw the natives -rolling up in their hands dried leaves of a certain plant, which they -lighted and smoked. These leaves they called tobacco. This discovery -has proved a curse, rather than a blessing, to the world. - -After discovering the islands of the Nativity and Hayti, or Saint -Domingo, Columbus determined to return to Spain, to secure a more -efficient fleet. The return voyage was extremely tempestuous. During -the gloomy hours of storm and danger, fearing that they should -never see land again, Columbus wrote an account of his discoveries -upon parchment, wrapped it in waxed cloth, and, enclosing it in a -water-tight cask, set it adrift. A copy, similarly prepared, was kept -upon the ship. On the 15th of March, not quite seven months and a half -from the time of his departure, Columbus, with his little crew, entered -the harbor of Palos. Ferdinand and Isabella were at Barcelona. They -immediately wrote to Columbus, requesting him to repair to their court. -His journey thither was a triumphal march. Ferdinand and Isabella -were seated beneath a silken canopy, to receive him with the most -imposing ceremonies of state. As a remarkable act of condescension, -both Ferdinand and Isabella rose, upon the approach of Columbus, and -offered him their hands to kiss. The Indians and other trophies from -the New World which he had brought back with him, occasioned the -greatest surprise. Then Columbus narrated to the Spanish sovereigns -the story of his voyage. But we are obliged to give an account of -the shame, as well as glory, of the Spanish court. Ferdinand and -Isabella were rigid Catholics; so much so, that Ferdinand is called -in history “Ferdinand the Catholic,” and Isabella received also the -same title. The Inquisition, which had existed somewhat mildly before, -was re-established by them. We cannot give the details of those -persecutions here, which we narrate more fully when the Inquisition -appears with greater cruelty and ferocity in the life of Philip II. -During the reign of Ferdinand, the persecution fell mostly upon -the Jews. Just as the Spanish sovereigns were about entering into -engagements with Columbus to send him in search of a new world, that -Christianity might be carried to the heathens there, the unchristian -and cruel edict was issued for the expulsion of the Jews from Spain. -We have not space to describe the heart-rending sufferings of this -persecuted people. - -[Illustration: PRISON OF THE INQUISITION AT BARCELONA.] - -While at Barcelona, in 1492, Ferdinand narrowly escaped being killed -by an assassin. King Ferdinand had not much intellectual culture; and -Isabella was far superior to her husband in literary attainments. But -Ferdinand was a capable man in the military and practical affairs of -his kingdom. The children of Ferdinand and Isabella received unusual -education for those times, and acquired rare attainments. Prince -John, heir to their throne, was reared with the greatest care. But -just after the marriage of the young prince to Princess Margaret, -daughter of the Emperor Maximilian of Austria, which was celebrated -with great magnificence, Prince John was stricken with a fever, and -died. Thus perished their only son. Their eldest daughter, Isabella, -who had married the king of Portugal, died soon after the death of -her brother, Prince John. This daughter left a babe, who thus became -heir to Portugal, Aragon, and Castile; but ere a year had passed the -infant also sank into the grave. Their daughter Joanna was married to -the archduke Philip, son and heir of Maximilian. This unhappy princess -was the mother of Charles V. of Spain. But her life was clouded with -gloom, occasioned by her husband’s neglect, which at last caused her -insanity. The youngest daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, Catharine -of Aragon, afterwards had the misfortune to marry the infamous Henry -VIII. of England. Thus, the last days of these illustrious sovereigns -were overshadowed with heart-rending sorrows. We can barely note the -subsequent discoveries of Columbus. Before his second voyage, while at -Barcelona, he was invited by the grand cardinal of Spain to dine with -him. An envious guest inquired of Columbus if he thought that there was -no man in Spain capable of discovering the Indies, if he had not made -the discovery. Columbus, without replying to the question, took an egg -from the table, and asked if there was any one who could make it stand -on one end. They all tried, but failed. Whereupon Columbus, by a slight -blow, crushed the end of the egg, and left it standing before them, -saying, “You see how easy it is to do a thing after some one has shown -you how.” - -In his second voyage he discovered the island of Jamaica and several -other islands. Ferdinand and Isabella received him with kindness -upon his return; but two years passed before he could obtain another -squadron. It was during this third voyage that complaints reached -Isabella that Columbus was enslaving the inhabitants of Hayti. An -officer named Bobadilla was sent to Hayti to investigate the matter. -He was unscrupulous and envious; and, falsely using his official -authority, he ordered Columbus to be sent back to Spain in chains. -These outrages, inflicted upon a man so illustrious, roused indignation -throughout the world. Ferdinand and Isabella were shocked and alarmed -upon hearing of this outrageous treatment, and sent in the greatest -haste to release him from his fetters, and to express their sympathy -and regret for the indignities he had suffered. Some months after, -Columbus started upon his fourth and last voyage. After encountering -storms and perils, Columbus reached the continent at what is now called -Central America, near Yucatan. Notwithstanding the importance of having -at last touched the American continent, this voyage was a series of -disappointments and disasters. He was detained for a year on the island -of Jamaica, on account of the loss of his ships, which were wrecked in -the storms. At length, two vessels arrived at the island, and Columbus -embarked for his return to Spain. When he at last reached that country, -he was broken down by old age, sickness, and mental suffering. Poverty -stared him in the face. Isabella was upon her death-bed; and Ferdinand -was heartless, and would not offer him any relief. After all his -achievements in behalf of mankind, Columbus thus sadly writes to his -son: “I live by borrowing. Little have I profited by twenty years of -service, with such toils and perils, since at present I do not own a -roof in Spain. If I desire to eat or sleep, I have no resort but -an inn, and for the most times have not wherewithal to pay my bill.” -In the midst of such sorrow and poverty, the heroic Columbus passed -his last days on earth. He was buried in the Convent of St. Francisco, -at Seville. Thirty years afterwards, his remains were removed to St. -Domingo, on the island of Hayti. Upon the cession of the island to the -French, in 1795, they were transferred by the Spanish authorities to -the Cathedral of Havana, in Cuba. - -[Illustration: TOMB OF FERDINAND AND ISABELLA IN THE CATHEDRAL OF -GRANADA.] - -Queen Isabella was now broken in health, from her many domestic -sorrows. She died in November, 1504. The last years of Ferdinand afford -a sad contrast to his early life and brilliant manhood. As the death of -Queen Isabella took from Ferdinand the crown of Castile, Philip, the -husband of the poor crazy Joanna, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, -seized upon the throne of Castile. A bitter family quarrel ensued. -In order to secure the help of France, Ferdinand, though it was only -eleven months after the death of his deeply loved wife, was married to -the princess Germaine, a gay and frivolous girl of eighteen, daughter -of one of the sisters of Louis XII. - -“It seemed hard,” says one writer, “that these nuptials should take -place so soon, and that, too, in Isabella’s own kingdom of Castile, -where she had lived without peer, and where her ashes are still held in -as much veneration as she enjoyed while living.” The marriage ceremony -took place at Duenas, where, thirty-six years before, he had pledged -his faith to Isabella. In 1513 the health of Ferdinand began to fail. -Dropsy and partial paralysis made his life a torment. Hoping to gain -relief, he travelled southward; but, having reached the small village -of Madrigalejo, he was unable to proceed farther. On the 22d of -January, 1516, in the sixty-fourth year of his age, Ferdinand breathed -his last. He died in a small room in an obscure village. “In so -wretched a tenement did the lord of so many lands close his eyes upon -the world.” Thus ended the lives of Ferdinand and Isabella, shrouded -with gloom and disappointment. - - “A crown! What is it? - It is to bear the miseries of a people, - To hear their murmurs, feel their discontents, - And sink beneath a load of splendid care.” - -[Illustration: PHILIP. II. - -_King of_ - -SPAIN.] - - - - -PHILIP II. OF SPAIN. - -1527-1598 A.D. - - “Princes who would their people should do well, - Must at themselves begin, as at the head; - For men, by their example, pattern out - Their imitations and regard of laws: - A virtuous court a world to virtue draws.”—BEN JONSON. - - -CHARLES V. of Spain, the father of Philip II., was the grandson of -Ferdinand and Isabella. Through his father he inherited the Netherlands -and part of Burgundy, and at the age of nineteen became emperor of -Germany. He had received the throne of Spain when sixteen years of age. -When his son Philip had attained sufficient age to assume the throne, -Charles V. abdicated in his favor, and retired to a convent, where he -died in 1558 in the fifty-ninth year of his age. Philip II., his son, -was born at Valladolid in 1527. His mother, Isabella, was the daughter -of Emanuel, king of Portugal. Philip was but twelve years old at the -time of his mother’s death. In 1543 Philip married Mary, daughter of -the king of Portugal. Both bride and bridegroom were eighteen years of -age. Mary died in a short time, leaving an infant son named Don Carlos. -Catharine of Aragon, the youngest daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, -married King Henry VIII. of England. Their daughter Mary became the -second wife of King Philip II. of Spain. She was eleven years older -than Philip, and was unattractive in person and a bigot in religion. -Her cruelty in persecuting those whom she regarded as heretics has -given her in history the name of “Bloody Mary.” - -[Illustration: QUEEN MARY PLIGHTING HER TROTH TO PHILIP.] - -The marriage contract was signed before either of them had seen each -other. As the son of an emperor, Philip set out in royal state to -obtain his bride. The marriage ceremony was performed in the cathedral -at Winchester. Philip was dressed in a suit of white satin, the gift -of Mary. It was richly decorated with golden embroidery, and encrusted -with precious stones. Mary’s wedding dress was also white satin -embroidered with gold. It was thickly studded and fringed with costly -jewels. - -As Mary was at this time queen of England, her marriage was celebrated -with the greatest magnificence. The pompous rites of the wedding -ceremony occupied four hours, during which time Philip and Mary were -seated upon a throne draped with a royal canopy. The vast edifice was -thronged with the nobility of England, Flanders, and Spain. After a -few days, devoted to public festivities in Winchester, Philip and -Mary went to London, and were received by the people and court with -great demonstrations of rejoicing. Her father, King Henry VIII., had -quarrelled with the Pope at Rome, but Mary and Philip were zealous -Catholics, and desired to re-establish the relations of the English -Church with Rome. Parliament met at Whitehall. Mary, the queen of -England, sat with Philip under a canopy. By her side sat the Pope’s -legate. A petition was presented by the chancellor of the realm, -praying for reconciliation with the Papal See. The whole assembly knelt -before the Pope’s legate, who pronounced upon them absolution and a -benediction. Then began the fires of persecution. Many who would not -consent to become Catholics were burned at the stake. - -Philip, who had now wearied of his elderly and unattractive wife, and -also of being regarded as only the husband of the queen, was rejoiced -at the summons of his father, Charles V., who desired him to return to -Spain to receive the kingdom, that Charles might retire into convent -life. By the abdication of Charles V., Philip II. became one of the -most powerful monarchs in the world. He was king of united Spain; he -was also king of Naples and Sicily, and duke of Milan; he was sovereign -of the Low Countries; and as husband of the queen of England, who was -devotedly attached to him, he had great influence in the affairs of -that nation. The Cape Verde Islands and the Canaries were under his -sway. A large portion of the Mediterranean coast in Africa was under -his dominion; also the Philippine and Spice Islands, in Asia. He -inherited those islands which Columbus had conferred upon Spain in the -West Indies, and also the vast realms of Mexico and Peru. - -Such was the immense power now placed in the hands of this young prince -not yet thirty years of age. Philip II. established his court at -Madrid, and from his palace there sent forth his edicts over his wide -domains. In 1558 Queen Mary of England died, being succeeded by her -half-sister Elizabeth. - -Philip’s only regret for his wife was, no doubt, the loss of his hold -upon the English crown. Before a year had elapsed he was married to the -daughter of the king of France. This young princess, Elizabeth,—called -in Spain, Isabella,—was only fourteen years of age, and had been -previously betrothed to the son of Philip, Don Carlos, who was of the -same age. - -The death of this young prince a few years afterwards, under very -suspicious circumstances, caused many to think that he had been -poisoned by the command of his father, who had imprisoned the prince at -the time. Don Carlos and his father had frequent quarrels, and at last -Carlos was said to have confessed to a priest that he desired to kill -his father, and he asked absolution, which the priest refused to grant. -The king was informed of all this. The young prince was thereupon -imprisoned, with a strong guard to watch him, and he was reported to be -mad. In the course of a few months Don Carlos died. - -Two stories regarding that event were told. Some historians consider -Philip innocent of any attempt upon the life of his son, but others -state that the physician of the prince was informed that it was very -desirable that the death of Carlos should appear to result from natural -causes; and that medicine was administered to the unsuspecting patient -in such doses as slowly to accomplish the desired end. Philip II. was -a fanatic in religion, and the terrible persecution of the Protestants -during his reign has filled the world with horror, as the shocking -stories have been told. - -Philip had not forgotten his father’s command to punish heretics -with the utmost rigor. The Reformation had been silently and rapidly -advancing in Spain. Now the terrible persecutions of the Inquisition -were turned against this heroic little band of fearless Christians by -those professing to worship the same merciful God, and to be followers -of the same loving and sinless Christ. How such awful crimes could -have been perpetrated in the sacred name of religion seems at the -present day incomprehensible, and we shudder at the recital of such -savage barbarity, more especially when committed by the enlightened and -civilized nations of the world less than four centuries ago. - -The bigoted Philip issued an edict “that all who bought, sold, or read -prohibited works were to be burned alive.” Every person suspected of -heresy was arrested and thrown into prison. In Seville alone, eight -hundred were arrested in one day. The accused were then dragged from -their dungeons and subjected to the horrors of the most merciless -tortures to induce them to give up their Protestant faith; and these -shocking deeds were performed in the name of religion. The awful -details of those barbarous crimes are too horrible to relate. What must -the reality have been to the poor victims of this inhuman persecution! - -The first act of burning, under the decrees of the Pope, Philip II., -and the Spanish inquisitor-general, Valdés, took place in May, 1559, at -Valladolid. This terrible ceremony was called _auto de fé_, or act of -faith; and so common did they at length become, that Catholics would -engage to meet each other at the _“auto de fé,”_ as in modern times -appointments are made to meet at the theatre, opera, or other place of -public gathering. One of the historians thus describes the second _auto -de fé_ in Valladolid, in October, 1559: “The Pope wished to invest the -scene with all the terrors of the Day of Judgment. That he might draw -an immense crowd, an indulgence of forty days was granted to all who -should be present at the spectacle. - -“The tragedy was enacted in the great square of the city. At one end of -the square a large platform was erected, richly carpeted and decorated, -where seats were arranged for the inquisitors. A royal gallery was -constructed for the king and his court. Two hundred thousand spectators -surrounded the arena. At six o’clock in the morning all the bells -of the city began to toll the funeral knell. A solemn procession -emerged from the dismal fortress of the Inquisition. A body of troops -led the van. Then came the condemned. There were two classes: the -first consisting of those who were to be punished with confiscation -and imprisonment; and the second, of those who were to suffer death. -The latter were covered with a loose gown of yellow cloth, and wore -upon the head a paper cap of conical form. Both the gown and cap -were covered with pictures of flames fanned and fed by demons. Two -priests were by the side of each one of the victims, urging him to -abjure his errors. Those who were merely to endure loss of property -and to be thrown into the dungeons of the Inquisition were clothed -in garments of black. A vast concourse of dignitaries of state, and -of the common people, closed the procession. The fanaticism of the -times was such, that probably but few of the people had any sympathy -with the sufferers. The ceremonies were opened with a sermon by the -bishop of Zamora. Then the whole assembled multitude took an oath, upon -their knees, to defend the Inquisition and the purity of the Catholic -faith, and to inform against any one who should swerve from the faith. -Then those who, to escape the flames, had expressed penitence for -their errors, after a very solemn recantation, were absolved from -death. But heresy was too serious a crime to be _forgiven_, even upon -penitence. All were doomed to the confiscation of property, and to -imprisonment—some for life—in the dungeons of the Inquisition. Their -names were branded with infamy, and in many cases their immediate -descendants were rendered ineligible to any public office. These first -received their doom, and under a strong guard were conveyed back to -prison. - -“And now all eyes were turned to the little band of thirty, who, in -the garb of ignominy, and with ropes around their necks, were waiting -their sentence. Many of these were men illustrious for rank, and still -more renowned for talents and virtues. Their countenances were wan -and wasted, their frames emaciated, and many of them were distorted -by the cruel ministry of the rack. Those who were willing to make -confession were allowed the privilege of being strangled before their -bodies were exposed to the torture of the fire. After being strangled -by the _garrote_, their bodies were thrown into the flames. Enfeebled -by suffering, all but two of them thus purchased exemption from being -burned alive. - -“One of these, Don Carlos de Seso, was a Florentine noble. He had -married a Spanish lady of high rank, and had taken up his residence -in Spain, where he had adopted the principles of the Reformation. -For fifteen months, with unshaken constancy, he had suffered in the -dungeons of the Inquisition. When sentence of death at the stake was -pronounced upon him, he called for pen and paper in his cell. His -judges supposed that he intended to make confession. Instead of that he -wrote a very eloquent document, avowing his unshaken trust in the great -truths of the Reformation. De Seso had stood very high in the regards -of Philip’s father, Charles V. As he was passing before the royal -gallery to be chained to the stake, he looked up to Philip, and said, -‘Is it thus that you allow your innocent subjects to be persecuted?’ -The king replied, ‘If it were my own son, I would fetch the wood to -burn him, were he such a wretch as thou art.’ - -“He was chained to the stake. As the flames slowly enveloped him in -their fiery wreaths, he called upon the soldiers to heap up the fagots, -that his agonies might sooner terminate. Soon life was extinct, and -the soul of the noble martyr was borne on angel wings to heaven. The -fellow-sufferer of De Seso was Domingo de Rexas, son of the marquis of -Posa. Five of this noble family, including the eldest son, had been -victims of the Inquisition. De Rexas had been a Dominican monk. In -accordance with usage, he retained his sacerdotal habit until he stood -before the stake. Then in the midst of the jeers of the populace his -garments were one by one removed, and the vestments of the condemned, -with their hideous picturings, were placed upon him. He attempted to -address the spectators. Philip angrily ordered him to be gagged. A -piece of cleft wood was thrust into his mouth, causing great pain. -He was thus led to the stake and burned alive. The cruel exhibition -occupied from six o’clock in the morning until two o’clock in the -afternoon.” - -Such were some of the shocking and barbarous scenes connected with the -notorious Spanish Inquisition. This persecution raged year after year. -So fiercely did these fires of persecution burn throughout all Spain, -that nearly all traces of the Protestant religion were eradicated from -the kingdom. The Spaniards degenerated into semi-barbarism. Education -was discouraged, all human rights were trampled upon, and Spain became -one of the most debased, impoverished, and miserable nations in Europe. -Thus had religious fanaticism turned this fair province of Philip’s -into a desert. In regard to the blame which rests upon Philip II., for -this deplorable state of things, his own words will answer. He wrote to -his sister, whom he had appointed his regent in the Netherlands, thus:— - -“I have never had any object in view than the good of my subjects! In -all that I have done I have trod in the footsteps of my father, under -whom the people of the Netherlands must admit that they lived contented -and happy. As to the Inquisition, whatever people may say of it, I -have never attempted anything new. With regard to the edicts, I have -been always resolved to live and die in the Catholic faith. I could not -be content to have my subjects do otherwise. Yet I see not how this -can be compassed without punishing the transgressors. God knows how -willingly I would avoid shedding a drop of Christian blood; but I would -rather lose a hundred thousand lives, if I had so many, than allow a -single change in matters of religion.” - -In the Netherlands persecutions and rebellions caused constant strife. -Scarcely forty years had elapsed since Luther had publicly burned -the papal bull at Wittenburg. Since that time his doctrines had been -received in Denmark and Sweden. In England, under Queen Elizabeth, -Protestantism had become the established religion of the state. The -Reformation had reached the hills and valleys of Scotland, and tens -of thousands had gathered to hear the preaching of Knox. The Low -Countries, or Netherlands, which now constitute Holland and Belgium, -were the “debatable land,” on which the various sects of reformers, -the Lutherans, the Calvinists, and the English Protestants, contended -for mastery over the Roman Catholic Church. Calvinism was embraced by -some of the cantons of Switzerland, and had also spread widely through -France, where the adherents to the Protestant faith were known as the -Huguenots. The cry of the Reformation had passed the Alps, and was -heard even under the walls of the Vatican, and had crossed the Pyrenees. - -The king of Navarre declared himself a Protestant, and the spirit of -the Reformation, as we have related, had also secretly spread into -Spain. But there already the terrible Inquisition, with Philip II. -at its head, had crushed out Protestantism from Spain. It was not to -be expected that Philip, having exterminated heresy in one part of -his dominions, would tolerate its existence in any other, least of -all in so important a country as the Netherlands. So the persecutions -commenced there. During the latter part of the fifteenth century, and -the beginning of the sixteenth, the pontifical throne had been filled -by a succession of popes, notorious for their religious indifference, -and the carelessness and profligacy of their lives. This was one of -the prominent causes of the Reformation. But before the close of the -sixteenth century, a line of popes had arisen, of stern and austere -natures, without a touch of sympathy for the joys and sorrows of -mankind, and entirely devoted to the work of regaining the lost powers -of the Roman Catholic Church. Pope Pius the Fifth was such a pontiff. -He wrote to Philip, urging him not to falter in the good cause, and -to allow no harm to the Catholic faith, but to march against his -rebellious vassals at the head of his army, and wash out the stain of -heresy in the blood of the heretic. To him Philip replied: that the -Pope might rest assured that the king would consent to nothing that -could prejudice the service of God, or the interests of religion. He -deprecated force, as that would involve the ruin of the country. Still -he would march in person, without regard to his own peril, and employ -force, though it should cost the ruin of the provinces; but he would -bring his vassals to submission. “For he would sooner lose a hundred -lives, and every rood of empire, than reign a lord over heretics.” - -With such a pope, and such a king, no wonder that the Inquisition -flourished. - -The situation of the Netherlands was such that the various opinions -of the surrounding nations were easily transferred to their shores. -On the south were the Lutherans of Germany; on the west, the French -Huguenots; while by the ocean, they held communication with England and -the nations of the Baltic. The soldier quartered on their territory, -the seaman who visited their shores, the trader who trafficked in their -towns, brought with them different forms of the “_New Religion_.” As -most of the people were able to read, books from France and Germany -were circulated amongst them. Philip II. understood the importance of -his position. His whole life proves that he felt it to be his especial -mission to restore the tottering fortunes of Catholicism, and stay the -torrent which was sweeping away the Roman Catholic faith. Philip had -made his half-sister, Margaret, regent in the Netherlands. - -In order to a clearer understanding of the revolt in the Netherlands, -a brief sketch of William, prince of Orange, will be necessary. He -was descended from ancestors who had given an emperor to Germany; -William’s parents were both Lutherans, and he was educated in that -faith. But Charles V. obtained the consent of his parents to remove him -to Brussels, when in his twelfth year, and he was brought up in the -family of the Emperor’s sister. In this household, the young prince was -instructed in the Catholic faith. When fifteen years of age, William -became the page of Charles V. On the abdication of that monarch, he -commended William to Philip II., who at first received the prince of -Orange with much favor. William married for his second wife, Anne, the -daughter of Maurice, the great Lutheran champion; and though he did -not openly espouse the cause, but continued in the service of Philip, -a writer of the times says of him: “The prince of Orange passed for -a Catholic among Catholics, and a Lutheran among Lutherans.” But this -portrait of him was by an unfriendly hand, and a truer declaration is -that of Prescott, “that he possessed a spirit of toleration, the more -honorable that in that day it was so rare. He condemned the Calvinists -as restless and seditious, and the Catholics for their bigoted -attachment to a dogma. Persecution, in matters of faith, he totally -condemned, for freedom of judgment in such matters he regarded as the -inalienable right of man. These conclusions, at which the world, after -an incalculable amount of human suffering, has been three centuries in -arriving, must be allowed to reflect great credit on the character of -William, prince of Orange.” - -There was now formed in the Netherlands a league called “The Gueux.” -Some of this party of confederates demanded entire liberty of -conscience; others would not have stopped short of a revolution, that -would enable the country to shake off the Spanish yoke. Though this -party was a political rather than a religious organization, they joined -hands with the Lutherans and Calvinists, and became, for a time, a -great aid to the Reformation. The origin of their name, which became -the fanatical war-cry of the insurgents, happened thus: Two or three -hundred of these confederates went to Brussels, to petition Margaret, -the regent, to mediate with Philip in their behalf, that they should -have more political liberty, and be freed from the edicts and the -Inquisition. During the week spent by the league in Brussels, a banquet -was given, where three hundred of the confederates were present. During -the repast, Brederode, one of their number, described the manner in -which their petition had been received by the regent. “She seemed at -first disconcerted,” he said, “by the number of the confederates, but -was reassured by Barlaimont, who told her that ‘they were nothing but a -crowd of beggars.’” - -Some of the company were much incensed at this treatment, but -Brederode, taking it good-humoredly, said, “that he and his friends -had no objection to the name, since they were ready at any time to -become beggars for the service of their king and country.” This witty -sally was received by the company with great applause, who shouted, -“_Vivent les Gueux!_”—“long live the beggars!” Brederode, finding the -jest took so well, left the room, and soon returned with a beggar’s -wallet and a wooden bowl, such as were used by the mendicant fraternity -in the Netherlands. Then pledging the company in a bumper, he swore -to devote his life and fortune to the cause. The wallet and the bowl -went round the table, and as each of the merry guests drank, the shout -arose, “_Vivent les Gueux!_” In every language in which the history of -these acts has been recorded, the French term, Gueux, is employed to -designate this party of malcontents in the Netherlands. - -The league now adopted the dress and symbols of mendicants. They -affected their garments as a substitute for their family liveries, -dressing their retainers in the ash-gray habiliments of the begging -friars. Wooden bowls, spoons, and knives became in great request, -though they were richly inlaid with silver, according to the wealth -of the possessor. Pilgrims’ staffs were carried, elaborately carved. -Medals resembling those stuck by the beggars in their bonnets were -worn as a badge. The “Gueux penny,” as it was called, a gold or silver -coin, was hung from the neck, bearing on one side the effigy of Philip, -with the inscription, “_Fideles au roi_,” and on the other, two -hands grasping a beggar’s wallet, and the words, “_jusques a porter -la besace_,”—“Faithful to the king, even to carrying the wallet.” The -war-cry of “_Vivent les Gueux_” soon resounded through the Netherlands. - -[Illustration: DESTROYING STATUES, ETC., IN THE CATHEDRAL AT ANTWERP.] - -Philip paid little or no attention to the frequent appeals of Margaret, -his regent, that he should come to some concessions which should -satisfy the people and bring the rebellion to an end. But while Philip -was procrastinating, the Iconoclasts rose in fury, and inspired by a -false zeal, committed many terrible, sacrilegious outrages, which cast -dishonor upon the upholders of the Reformation. These Iconoclasts, -or image-breakers, were simply armed mobs of ignorant people, who -imagined they were doing a service to God by breaking into the Catholic -churches, and ruthlessly destroying everything they could lay their -hands on. Prescott thus describes the destruction caused by this band -of rioters in Antwerp:— - -“When the rest of the congregation had withdrawn, after vespers, the -mob rushed forward, as by a common impulse, broke open the doors of the -chapel, and dragged forth the image of the Virgin. Some called on her -to cry, ‘_Vivent les Gueux!_’ while others tore off her embroidered -robes and rolled the dumb idol in the dust, amidst the shouts of the -spectators. - -“This was the signal for havoc. The rioters dispersed in all directions -on the work of destruction. High above the great altar was an image of -the Saviour, curiously carved in wood, and placed between the effigies -of the two thieves crucified with him. The mob contrived to get a rope -round the neck of the statue of Christ, and dragged it to the ground. -They then fell upon it with hatchets and hammers, and it was soon -broken into a hundred fragments. The two thieves, it was remarked, were -spared, as if to preside over the work of rapine below. - -“Their fury now turned against the other statues, which were quickly -overthrown from their pedestals. The paintings that lined the walls of -the cathedral were cut into shreds. Many of these were the choicest -specimens of Flemish art, even then, in its dawn, giving promise of -the glorious day which was to shed a lustre over the land. But the -pride of the cathedral and of Antwerp was the great organ, renowned -throughout the Netherlands, not more for its dimensions than its -perfect workmanship. With their ladders the rioters scaled the lofty -fabric, and with their implements soon converted it, like all else they -laid their hands on, into a heap of rubbish. - -“The ruin was now universal. Nothing beautiful, nothing holy, was -spared. The altars—and there were no less than seventy in the vast -edifice—were overthrown one after another, their richly embroidered -coverings rudely rent away, their gold and silver vessels appropriated -by the plunderers. The sacramental bread was trodden under foot, the -wine was quaffed by the miscreants, in golden chalices, to the health -of one another, or of the Gueux, and the holy oil was profanely used to -anoint their shoes and sandals. The sculptured tracery on the walls, -the costly offerings that enriched the shrines, the screens of gilded -bronze, the delicately carved woodwork of the pulpit, the marble and -alabaster ornaments, all went down under the fierce blows of the -Iconoclasts. The pavement was strewed with the ruined splendors of a -church, which in size and magnificence was perhaps second only to St. -Peter’s among the churches of Christendom. - -“As the light of day faded, the assailants supplied its place with -such light as they could obtain from the candles which they snatched -from the altars. It was midnight before the work of destruction was -completed. The whole number engaged in this work is said not to have -exceeded a hundred, men, women, and boys. - -“When their task was completed, they sallied forth in a body from the -doors of the cathedral, roaring out the fanatical war-cry of “_Vivent -les Gueux!_” Flushed with success, and joined on the way by stragglers -like themselves, they burst open the doors of one church after another, -and by the time morning broke, the principal temples in the city had -been dealt with in the same ruthless manner as the cathedral. - -“No attempt, all this time, was made to stop these proceedings, on -the part of the magistrates or citizens. As they beheld from their -windows the bodies of armed men hurrying to and fro, by the gleam of -their torches, and listened to the sound of violence in the distance, -they seem to have been struck with a panic. The Catholics remained -within doors, fearing a general uprising of the Protestants. The -Protestants feared to move abroad, lest they should be confounded -with the rioters. For three days these dismal scenes continued.... -The fate of Antwerp had its effect on the country. The flames of -fanaticism, burning fiercer than ever, quickly spread over the northern -as they had done over the western provinces.... In Holland, Utrecht, -Friesland,—everywhere in short, with a few exceptions on the southern -borders,—mobs rose against the churches.” - -Cathedrals, chapels, monasteries, and nunneries, and even hospitals, -were destroyed by these ignorant fanatics. The great library of -Vicogne, one of the noblest collections in the Netherlands, perished -in the flames kindled by the mob. Four hundred churches were sacked -by the insurgents in Flanders alone. The damage to the cathedral at -Antwerp was said to amount to four hundred thousand ducats. The whole -work of this terrible devastation, occupied less than a fortnight. -This wholesale destruction, perpetrated by the Iconoclasts, cannot be -estimated. It is a melancholy fact that they pretended to be actuated -by a zeal for the Reformation, thus dishonoring the great and glorious -cause, by their ignorant fanaticism. An irreparable loss was occasioned -by the destruction of manuscripts, statuary, and paintings. But the -misguided Iconoclasts, ruthless as was their terrible destruction of -magnificent cathedrals and priceless gems of art, must in justice have -this excuse offered in their behalf, that they had been enfuriated by -the infamous Inquisition which had turned Spain into one great _auto -de fé_ of burning martyrs, and which threatened, through the bigotry -of Philip II., to invade their own land with its fiendish cruelties. -Compared with the Inquisition, with its scarlet hands reeking with the -life-blood of its tortured victims, the retaliation of the Iconoclasts -is scarcely to be wondered at. - -The tidings of the tumult in the Netherlands was received by Philip -with the greatest indignation, and he exclaimed: “It shall cost them -dear; by the soul of my father, I swear it, it shall cost them dear!” - -These troubles in the Netherlands caused a change in the mind of -William, prince of Orange. He saw the workings of Catholicism under a -fearful aspect. He beheld his countrymen dragged from their firesides, -driven into exile, thrown into dungeons, burned at the stake; and all -this for no other cause than because they dared to dissent from the -dogmas of the Romish Church. His parents had been Lutherans, his wife -also was a Protestant, and William of Orange embraced the doctrines of -the Reformation. We cannot follow his career. After quelling a mob at -Antwerp, which threatened to destroy the city, realizing that he could -place no reliance upon Philip, or Margaret his regent, and as they now -looked upon him with suspicion, William of Orange determined to retire -to his estates in Germany. He there occupied himself with studying the -Lutheran doctrine, and making himself acquainted with the principles -of the glorious Reformation of which he was one day to become the -champion. The regency of Margaret continued in the Netherlands from -1559 to 1567; and in the last years she succeeded in putting down -the revolt. Philip, through his regent, and the aid of the Pope, had -now, by several successful contests in the Netherlands, quelled the -rebellion, and the party of reform had disappeared, and its worship -was everywhere proscribed. On its ruins the Catholic party had risen -in greater splendor than ever. Margaret now resigned the regency, and -the duke of Alva was appointed in her place. He created a new tribunal, -which is known in history by the terrible name it received from the -people, as the “Council of Blood.” - -[Illustration: PHILIP II., KING OF SPAIN.] - -In order to justify his cruel proceedings against the Netherlands, -Philip now submitted the case to the Inquisition at Madrid, and that -ghostly tribunal came to the following decision: “All who had been -guilty of heresy, apostasy, or sedition, and all, moreover, who, though -professing themselves good Catholics, had offered no resistance to -these, were, with the exception of a few specified individuals, thereby -convicted of treason in the highest degree.” This sweeping judgment -was followed by a royal edict, dated on the same day, in which, after -reciting the language of the Inquisition, the whole nation, with -the exception above stated, was sentenced, without distinction of -sex or age, to the penalties of treason,—death and confiscation of -property; and this, the decree went on to say, “without any hope of -grace whatever, that it might serve for an example and a warning to all -future time!” - -Then followed the awful work of the “Council of Blood.” Men, women, and -children were dragged to the gallows. Blood ran through the streets -of the cities like a red river. The poor martyrs were tortured with -horrible contrivances even at the scaffold, that their dying cries -might cause merriment for their fiendish foes. - -And thus Philip II. vindicates his conduct during this reign of terror: -“What I have done has been for the repose of the provinces, and for -the defence of the Catholic faith. If I had respected justice less, -I should have despatched the whole business in a single day. No one -acquainted with the state of affairs, will find reason to censure my -severity. Nor would I do otherwise than I have done, though I should -risk the sovereignty of the Netherlands,—no, though the world should -fall in ruins around me!” - -The young Queen Isabella having died, Philip II. married for his fourth -wife, Anne of Austria, who had also been affianced to his son Carlos. -Then came the rebellions of the Moriscoes, who were the descendants of -the Moors in southern Spain. In 1569, the Moriscoes rose in a general -insurrection against the Christians. Many a Moor had perished in the -flames of the Inquisition, and they now retaliated with bloodthirsty -ferocity. The horrors which ensued cannot be described. Before these -Moors had been goaded by the cruel edicts of Philip, they had been kind -neighbors. The cruelties committed by the Spanish troops sent against -the Moors, were as shocking as the deeds of the barbarians. The Spanish -army, before entering into a battle, knelt in prayer, invoking God’s -blessing; and after a victory, reeking with the blood of their victims, -they marched, under the banner of the cross, to the cathedrals, and -chanted the _Te Deum_. Thus was religion turned into a mockery of a -merciful God, and a cloak for the vilest of crimes. - -Philip brought his fourth bride, Anne of Austria, to the magnificent -palace or monastery of the Escurial. She lived ten years. Her children -all died in infancy, except one son, who lived to succeed his father on -the throne as Philip III. Spain was now rapidly on the decline. Civil -war, persecution, banishment and emigration, were fast depopulating the -country. The population diminished from ten to six millions. - -As Queen Elizabeth of England had warmly espoused the Protestant cause, -there was enmity between that nation and Spain. In 1558, Philip II., -of Spain, who had been for three years preparing the famous Spanish -Armada, ordered the fleet to sail against England. This splendid armada -set sail from Lisbon with high hopes. But next day they met with a -violent storm, which scattered some of the ships, and sunk others, and -forced the rest to take shelter in the Groine. After the damages had -been repaired, the armada again set forth. The fleet consisted of one -hundred and thirty vessels, and many of them were of greater size than -had ever before been employed in Europe. The plan of the king of Spain -was, that the fleet should sail to the coast opposite to Dunkirk and -Newport, and having joined the fleet of the duke of Parma, should make -sail to the Thames, and having landed the whole Spanish army, complete -at one blow the conquest of England. The armada reached Calais. Here -the English admiral practised a stratagem upon the Spaniards. He took -eight of his smaller vessels and filled them with combustibles, and -setting them on fire, sent them amongst the Spanish fleet. In the -confusion caused by this incident, the English fell upon the Spanish, -and captured or destroyed twelve of their ships. The Spanish admiral -thereupon started to return home. A violent tempest overtook the armada -after it passed the Orkneys. The ships were driven upon the western -isles of Scotland, and coast of Ireland, and were miserably wrecked. -Thus was the famous Spanish armada destroyed. It was almost a death -blow to the Spanish monarchy. At length Philip II., with a bankrupt -treasury, while his mind was filled with gloom and his body tortured -with a loathsome and terrible disease, died on the 13th of September, -1598. In view of his great opportunities, vast power, and the hopeful -promise of his early career, and the miserable ending of his wrecked -life, brought upon himself by his barbarous cruelties and religious -bigotry and superstitions, we are reminded of the saying quoted at the -commencement of the sketch, and are more fully convinced that no people -can be prosperous unless their rulers are humane and virtuous. In the -light of such shocking events as we have just been describing, and of -such barbarous deeds performed in the name of religion, it seems to be -an indisputable fact that the world has surely made vast progress in an -enlightened civilization and in true Christianity. - - - - -GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. - -1594-1632 A.D. - - “Ay, every inch a king!”—SHAKESPEARE. - - -THE oldest account of the nations of Europe in the far north is that -given by Pytheas, who lived three hundred and fifty years before -the Christian Era. His voyages carried him to the shores of Britain -and Scandinavia. The Goths were the most ancient inhabitants of -Scandinavia, occupying the south, and were earlier in Sweden than the -Sueones. These two tribes were at war for many years, but finally -united and formed the Swedish nation. During twelve centuries after -the visit of Pytheas to northern countries, nothing was known of the -Scandinavian people in their own homes, although wild tribes from -the north overran southern Europe, and were known as the Cimbri, -Teutons, Germans, and Goths. But in the time of Alfred the Great, two -travellers from Scandinavia visited the court of the English king. -From the account they gave of their travels, King Alfred wrote a brief -history and made a chart of modern Europe. In this book Scandinavia was -described. - -[Illustration: GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS.] - -Of the three Scandinavian countries, Sweden did not become known to -the nations of southern Europe as soon as Denmark and Norway. Like the -Danes, the Swedes traced the descent of their early kings back to Odin. -Olaf was the first Christian king of Sweden, and received Christian -baptism about the year 1000 A.D. - -The son and successor of Charlemagne, Louis le Débonnaire, took an -ardent interest in sending Christian missionaries to the pagans of the -north. The union of the kingdoms of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway was -consummated in 1387. In 1523 the union with Denmark was dissolved, and -Gustavus Vasa was proclaimed king of Sweden. This king was one of the -ablest of the monarchs of the sixteenth century. He was the grandfather -of Gustavus Adolphus. Charles IX., the father of Adolphus, came to the -throne of Sweden in 1604. During the reigns of the elder brothers of -Charles, there had been constant conflicts with Denmark. Charles IX. -died in 1611, leaving an unfinished war with Denmark to be completed by -his illustrious son, Gustavus Adolphus, then seventeen years of age. -His father, Charles, had entered into friendly alliances with all the -principal Protestant powers, and for the first time Sweden had been -brought into important political relations with the more influential -European nations. Gustavus Adolphus was born at the royal palace in -Stockholm, Dec. 9, 1594. His mother, Christine, was the daughter of -Adolphus, duke of Schleswig-Holstein, and grand-daughter of Frederic -I., king of Denmark. - -Tycho Brahe, the famous astronomer, had announced, when a comet -appeared in 1572, that there would spring up in Finland a prince -destined to accomplish great changes in Germany, and deliver the -Protestant people from the oppression of the popes. His countrymen -applied to Gustavus this prediction of the Danish astronomer. Gustavus -possessed a vigorous constitution, which was rendered robust by his -childish experiences and manner of life. His early years were passed in -the midst of constant wars between Sweden and Denmark. This account is -given of the education and boyhood of Gustavus Adolphus:— - -“To be the tutor of the prince was appointed Master John Skytte, and -Otto von Mörner his chamberlain. The last named was marshall of the -court of Charles IX., and born of noble parents in Brandenburg. He had -acquired extensive learning and distinguished manners in the numerous -countries in which he had travelled. John Skytte, after having employed -nine years in visiting foreign lands, had become one of the secretaries -of the king’s government. Gustavus received all the instructions -necessary to a prince destined to reign. Skytte directed him in the -study of Latin, of history, and of the laws of his country. - -“As Charles was a strict ruler and martial prince, and as Christine -had, besides her beauty, the soul proud and courageous, the education -of the prince was free from softness. He was habituated to labor. At -times in his early youth, particularly after he had arrived at his -tenth year, he was more and more allowed by his father to attend the -deliberations of the Council. He was habituated also to be present at -the audiences of the foreign embassies, and was finally directed by -his royal father to answer these foreign dignitaries in order thus to -accustom him to weighty affairs and their treatment. - -“As it was a period of warlike turmoils, there was much resort to -the king’s court, especially by officers,—not only Swedes, but also -Germans, French, English, Scots, Netherlanders, and some Italians and -Spaniards,—who, after the twelve years’ truce then just concluded -between Spain and Holland, sought their fortune in Sweden. These -often waited upon the young prince by the will and order of the king. -Their conversation relating to the wars waged by other nations, -battles, sieges, and discipline, both by sea and land as well as -ships and navigation, did so arouse and stimulate the mind of the -young prince, by nature already thus inclined, that he spent almost -every day in putting questions concerning what had happened at one -place and another in the wars. Besides, he acquired in his youthful -years no little insight into the science of war, especially into the -mode and means,—how a regular war, well directed and suited to the -circumstances of Sweden, should be carried on, having the character and -rules of Maurice, prince of Orange, as a pattern before his eyes. By -the intercourse and converse of these officers, in which each told the -most glorious acts of his own nation, the young prince was enkindled to -act like others, and if possible, to excel them. In his early years he -gained also a complete and ready knowledge of many foreign languages; -so that he spoke Latin, German, Dutch, French, and Italian as purely -as a native, and besides had some knowledge of the Russian and Polish -tongues. When he was of the age of sixteen years, his father made -him grand duke of Finland, and duke of Esthonia and Westmanland, and -presently bestowed upon him the town of Vesteras, with the principal -portion of Westmanland, over which was placed John Skytte to be -governor.” - -It is also stated that Gustavus knew Greek, and read Xenophon in that -tongue, of whom he said “that he knew of no writer better than he for a -true military historian.” - -For some years after Gustavus ascended the throne, he is said to have -devoted an hour each day to reading, preferring to all others the works -of Grotius, especially his treatise on “War and Peace.” - -Young Gustavus possessed great courage, to which was joined striking -benignity of character which he did not inherit from his parents. -King Charles was stern and somewhat heartless, and he was persuaded -by his wife, the mother of Adolphus, to great acts of cruelty towards -the victims of his civil wars, which obscured his nobler qualities. -The mother of Gustavus, though possessed of a strong and positive -character, was too tyrannical to be attractive, and too unrelenting -to exert a loving influence in her household, and the severity of -both husband and wife came often in collision. Adolphus was the only -member of the royal family who dared attempt to pacify his father when -he was angry. Though Gustavus inherited the strong characteristics of -his parents, and possessed his father’s failing of a quick temper, -his nature was so sympathetic and unselfish that his winning manners -attracted the hearts of all as much as the unrelenting sternness of his -parents repelled. Their sternness became in the household only exacting -selfishness; whereas all the severity of his character manifested -itself only in unflinching allegiance to the right and true, and the -steadfast upholding of high and noble principles of state or religion. -Gustavus was scarcely fifteen years of age when he requested to be -placed in command of troops in the war against Russia. But his father, -deeming him too young, refused. When he was seventeen years of age, war -having been declared with Denmark, young Gustavus was pronounced in -the Diet—as the assembly of the Swedish nobles was called—fit to bear -the sword, and he was, according to ancient custom, invested with this -dignity with most splendid ceremony. - -In this expedition young Gustavus endured his first trial of warfare, -being present at all the remarkable encounters, holding chief command -in most of them. For during this war King Charles died, and the -command was left to Gustavus, then seventeen years of age. In the first -month of his eighteenth year, he received the crown in the presence -of all the representatives of the estates of Sweden, at the Diet of -Nyköping. He took the title of his father,—king-elect and hereditary -prince of Sweden, of the Goths, and of the Wends. Since the death of -Gustavus Vasa, his grandfather, a period of more than fifty years, -Sweden had not enjoyed a single year of peace. - -When Gustavus Adolphus ascended the Swedish throne, in 1611, being then -in his eighteenth year, he found an exhausted treasury, an alienated -nobility, and not undisputed succession, and, with all this, no less -than three wars upon his hands,—one with Denmark then raging,—also -the seeds of two other wars, with Russia and with Poland, which soon -after burst forth. The first fifteen years of his reign were occupied -in bringing these wars to a conclusion; and in these struggles he -won an experience which afterwards proved of great service in making -him illustrious upon a more conspicuous battle-field. We have not -space to describe at length the wars between Sweden and Denmark, nor -her conflicts with Russia and Poland, but must pass on to the more -important period of the history of Gustavus Adolphus, which gives him -a place in the foremost ranks of leadership, and places his name with -Napoleon I., Alexander the Great, Julius Cæsar, and Charlemagne. It was -not so much what he himself personally accomplished,—though that was -much, for death met him long before the glorious end was reached,—but -it was on account of the vast and momentous train of circumstances he -set in motion, because he stood forth, the only man capable of taking -the helm of the great ship of the Reformation, which, but for him, -aided by the almighty ruling of an Omniscient Providence, seemed to -the finite vision of mankind doomed to destruction. It was not as a -conqueror of vast empires, like Alexander, Julius Cæsar, and Napoleon, -that Gustavus Adolphus is illustrious; but it is because, through the -providence of God, he was made the instrument in helping to achieve -the more important conquest of gaining spiritual liberty of soul -from the bondage of bigotry and superstition. As the champion of the -Reformation, the name of Gustavus Adolphus must be placed amongst the -foremost of the famous rulers of the world. - -[Illustration: GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS, FROM A PICTURE BY VAN DYCK.] - -Gustavus was now thirty-four years of age. He had prosecuted wars with -Denmark, Russia, and Poland, and secured advantageous terms of peace -with these nations. Before he had reached his twentieth year, he had -driven back the invaders of his country, and gained independence for -Sweden. In four years more, his victories over his eastern enemies -enabled him to declare, “Russia cannot now, without our consent, launch -a single boat on the Baltic.” - -For twelve years Gustavus had watched the bloody strife between -the defenders of the Reformed Faith in Germany and the powers of -the Catholic league of the Empire and of Spain. What Philip II. of -Spain was to the Catholics as a leader and upholder of the infamous -Inquisition, such a power did Gustavus Adolphus become, in behalf of -the Protestants, as a leader and defender of the Reformation. Holland, -England, and France had earnestly pressed him to conclude the Polish -wars; for the eyes of the suffering adherents of the Reformed Faith in -Germany were turned in hope toward the youthful king of Sweden as their -deliverer. In setting out upon this distant enterprise, Gustavus -Adolphus encountered the gravest obstacles, which he himself did not -fail to realize; for when his resolution was fully formed, and the -consent of his Estates obtained, he exclaimed, “For me there remains -henceforth no more rest but the eternal.” - -Though he left Sweden full of hope and courage, it was with the sure -presentiment that he would never return. Gustavus had married Marie -Eleonore, daughter of the elector of Brandenburg; and at the time -of his German expedition left a little daughter behind him, only -four years of age, who was sole heir to the Swedish throne. Gustavus -Adolphus was one of the most skilful commanders of his age. Napoleon I. -was wont to set him among the eight greatest generals whom the world -has ever seen, placing him in the same rank with Alexander the Great, -Hannibal, Julius Cæsar, in the ancient world, with Turenne, Prince -Eugene, Frederic the Great, and himself, in the modern. - -Before his time, the only artillery brought into the open field -consisted of huge, heavy guns, slowly dragged along by twelve, sixteen, -or twenty horses or oxen, which, once placed, could only remain in one -position, even though the entire battle had shifted elsewhere. Gustavus -was the first who introduced flying artillery, capable of being rapidly -transferred from one part of the field to another. At a siege, this -valiant Swedish king would in the same day “be at once generalissimo, -chief engineer to lay out the lines, pioneer, spade in hand and in -his shirt digging in the trenches, and leader of a storming party to -dislodge the foe from some annoying outwork. If a party of the enemy’s -cavalry were to be surprised in a night attack, he would himself -undertake the surprise. He, indeed, carried this quite too far, obeying -overmuch the instinct and impulses of his own courageous heart. And -yet there was also a true humility in it all,—a feeling that no man -ought to look at himself as indispensable. ‘God is immortal,’ he was -wont to reply, when remonstrated with on this matter, and reminded of -the fearful chasm, not to be filled by any other, which his death would -assuredly leave.” Richelieu said of him, “The king of Sweden is a new -sun which has just risen, young, but of vast renown. The ill-treated or -banished princes of Germany in their misfortunes have turned their eyes -towards him as the mariner does to the polar star.” - -Gustavus was admitted by the ablest statesmen of Europe to be the -ablest general of his time. He was familiar with the military tactics -of ancient and modern times, and he devised a more effective system of -warfare than his predecessors had known. In answer to the question, Why -did Gustavus Adolphus enter into the religious contests of Germany, -and assume the commanding place he filled in that terrible struggle -known as the “Thirty Years’ War”? an able writer gives thus briefly the -reason:— - -“First, a deep and genuine sympathy with his co-religionists in -Germany, and with their sufferings, joined to a conviction that he was -called of God to assist them in this hour of their utmost need. - -“Secondly, a sense of the most real danger which threatened his own -kingdom, if the entire liberties, political and religious, of northern -Germany were trodden out, and the free cities of the German Ocean, -Stralsund and the rest, falling into the hands of the emperor, became -hostile outposts from which to assail him. He felt that he was only -going to meet a war which, if he tarried at home, would sooner or later -inevitably come to seek him there. - -“And, lastly, there was working in his mind, no doubt, a desire to -give to Sweden a more forward place in the world, with a consciousness -of mighty powers in himself, which craved a wider sphere for their -exercise.” - -In answer to John Skytte, who remarked that war put his monarchy at -stake, he responded: “All monarchies have passed from one family to -another. That which constitutes a monarchy is not men, it is the law.” - -At length, in 1630, Gustavus landed on the island of Usedom, at the -mouth of the Oder. - -“So we have got another kingling on our hands,” the emperor exclaimed -in scorn, when the news reached Vienna. Little did the enemies of the -Reformation then imagine what a terrible and irresistible foe this -despised “kingling” would prove to be. The army of Gustavus consisted -of only fifteen thousand men; but, if his army was small, the material -was indeed valuable. Gustavus said of his staff of officers, “All these -are captains, and fit to command armies.” And when his early death left -them without a leader, these same officers led the Swedish armies so -successfully that, even after France had become her ally, Sweden was -not obscured, but still held a prominent place in the mighty contest. -Gustavus had determined not to hazard a battle until he was joined -by German allies. As soon as they landed on the island of Usedom, -Gustavus, having leaped first upon the shore, at once fell upon his -knees, and sought the aid and blessing of God; and then the working and -the praying went hand in hand. He was the first to seize a spade; and, -as the troops landed, one half were employed in raising intrenchments, -while the other half stood in battle array, to repel any attacks of -the enemy. It was a long time before any German ally appeared; for, -though gallant little Hesse Cassel boldly announced its allegiance, -it was a power too small and too distant to count for much. The two -most powerful of the German Protestant princes were his brother-in-law, -the elector of Brandenburg, and the elector of Saxony. John George of -Saxony was a great hunter, having killed with his own hand or seen -killed 113,629 wild animals. He was, however, such a great drunkard -that he was called the Beer King. But this bold Nimrod, who could fight -wild animals so courageously, was too cowardly to come forward against -the enemies of his country, and only joined Gustavus when the terrors -of the Catholic league forced him to seek safety in such an alliance. - -As to the brother-in-law of Gustavus, little was to be obtained from -him. He was so vacillating in character and in politics that Carlyle -says of him, “Poor man, it was his fate to stand in the range of these -huge collisions, when the Titans were hurling rocks at one another, and -he hoped by dexterous skipping to escape share of the game.” - -The arrival of Gustavus Adolphus in Germany was at first looked upon -with indifference by the imperial court. The emperor Ferdinand said -carelessly, “We have another little enemy before us.” At Vienna they -made sport of Gustavus and of his pretensions to require himself -to be called “Your majesty,” like the other kings of Europe. “The -snow-king will melt as he approaches the southern sun,” they exclaimed -derisively. But the valiant Swedes worked on at their fortifications -at Pomerania, indifferent to the sneers of their foes, inspired by the -example of their loved leader, whose watchword was, “to pray often to -God with all your heart is almost to conquer.” In a short time, the -army was enclosed in an intrenched camp, defended by cannon. The king -of Sweden then addressed these stirring words to his soldiers:— - -“It is as much on your account as for your religious brethren in -Germany that I have undertaken this war. You will there gather -imperishable glory. You have nothing to fear from the enemy; they are -the same whom you have already conquered in Prussia. Your bravery has -imposed on Poland an armistice of six years; if you continue to fight -as valiantly, I hope to obtain an honorable peace for your country and -guaranties of security for the German Protestants. Old soldiers, it is -not of yesterday you have known war; for you have shared with me all -the chances of fortune. You must not lose courage if you experience -some wants. I will conduct you to an enemy who has enriched himself at -the expense of that unhappy country. It is only with the enemy you can -find money, abundance, and all which you desire.” - -Thus did Gustavus appeal to their courage, their patriotism, their -religious enthusiasm, and their personal necessities, and inspire his -soldiers with irresistible valor. - -The severe discipline of the Swedish troops excited not less admiration -than the personal virtue of their king. Richelieu, in his memoirs, -says, “As to the king of Sweden personally, there was seen in his -actions but an inexorable severity towards the least excess of his -soldiers, an extraordinary mildness towards the people, and an exact -justice on all occasions.” - -It was at the time of the landing of the Swedes that the noted general -Wallenstein had fallen into disgrace with the German emperor, and had -been discharged from the imperial service. His place was filled by -Tilly, a military chieftain of high renown. Tilly had made himself -the terror of the Protestants by his bigoted zeal for the Catholic -religion and his fierce spirit of persecution towards the Reformed -Faith; but his military insight made him just enough to thus generously -describe his famous antagonist:— - -“The king of Sweden is an enemy both prudent and brave, inured to war, -and in the flower of his age. His plans are excellent, his resources -considerable, his subjects enthusiastically attached to him. His -army,—composed of Swedes, Germans, Livonians, Finlanders, Scots, and -English,—by its devoted obedience to their leader, is blended into one -nation. He is a gamester, in playing with whom not to have lost is to -have won a great deal.” - -Gustavus was beginning to make a strong position in northern Germany, -when he received an envoy from the elector of Brandenburg, urging him -to consent to an armistice, the elector offering himself as a mediator -between the Swedish king and the Catholic league. Gustavus thus -answered this weak and cowardly advice of the elector:— - -“I have listened to the arguments by which my lord and brother-in-law -would seek to dissuade me from the war, but could well have expected -another communication from him; namely, that God having helped me thus -far, and come, as I am, into this land for no other end than to deliver -its poor and oppressed estates and people from the horrible tyranny of -the thieves and robbers who have plagued it so long, above all, to free -his highness from like tribulation, he would rather have joined himself -with me, and thus not failed to seize the opportunity which God has -wonderfully vouchsafed him. Or does not his highness yet know that the -intention of the emperor and of the league is this,—not to cease till -the evangelical religion is quite rooted out of the empire, and that -he himself has nothing else to look forward to than to be compelled -either to deny his faith or to forsake his land? For God’s sake, let -him bethink himself a little, and for once grasp manly counsels. For -myself, I cannot go back.... I seek in this work not mine own things, -no profit at all except the safety of my kingdom; else have I nothing -from it but expense, weariness, toil, and danger of life and limb.... -For this, I say plainly beforehand, I will hear and know nothing of -neutrality; his highness must be friend or foe. When I come to his -borders, he must declare himself hot or cold. The battle is one between -God and the devil. Will his highness hold with God, let him stand on my -side; if he prefer to hold with the devil, then he must fight with me.” - -The elector of Brandenburg still vacillating, the king of Sweden was -as good as his word, and advanced with his army, with loaded cannon -and matches burning, to the gates of Berlin. Whereupon, the treaty of -alliance was quickly signed by the elector of Brandenburg; and not long -after, the outrages of the imperial commander obliged the elector of -Saxony also to join the Swedish king. During the first year in Germany, -the Swedes had captured Greiffenhagen and Gartz; and soon after New -Brandenburg, Loitz, Malchin, and Demmin were in their power. We have no -space to note the particulars regarding these important conquests, and -can only mention the taking of Demmin. The Imperialists had placed the -garrison here under the command of Duke Savelli, who had been ordered -to defend the place three weeks, when Tilly had promised to come to his -aid. Among the Imperialists was Del Ponte, a man who had been deep in a -conspiracy to assassinate the king of Sweden, which had come near being -successful. As Del Ponte feared the vengeance of the king whose life -he had thus sought, he left the fortress secretly, leaving his baggage -and wealth behind him. Savelli offered to capitulate, on condition that -he might pass out with arms and baggage. As Gustavus was now on the eve -of meeting Tilly, he did not think best to prolong the siege, and so -agreed to the proposal of Savelli. The entire garrison passed out with -ensigns flying, followed by the baggage train. As Savelli, brilliantly -and carefully dressed, passed the Swedish king, Gustavus addressed -him: “Tell the emperor I make war for civil and religious liberty. As -to you, duke, I thank you for having taken the trouble to quit the -splendid feasts of Rome to combat against me, for your person seems to -me more in its place at courts than in the camps.” After the Italian -general passed, Gustavus remarked to his officers, “That man reckons -much on the good nature of the emperor; if he was in my service, he -would lose his head for his cowardice.” - -As the baggage of the treacherous Del Ponte was noticed in the train, -some of the Swedish officers suggested that it would be well to retain -what belonged to that traitor, to which Gustavus responded, “I have -given my word, and no one shall have the right to reproach me for -having broken it.” As to the energy and bravery of Gustavus, one of -his Scotch officers thus testifies: “I serve with great pleasure such -a general, and I could find with difficulty a similar man who was -accustomed to be the first and the last where there is danger; who -gained the love of his officers by the part he took in their troubles -and fatigues; who knew so well how to trace the rules of conduct for -his warriors according to times and circumstances; who cared for their -health, their honor; who was always ready to aid them; who divined -the projects and knew the resources of his enemies, their plans, -their forces, their discipline, likewise the nature and position of -the places they occupied. He never hesitated to execute what he had -ordered. He arrested an officer who, while the fortifications of Settin -were being repaired, stated that the earth was frozen. In affairs which -had relation to the needs of the war, he did not admit of excuses. The -lack of good charts and the great importance he attached to knowledge -of the ground, caused him to go _en reconnaissance_ in person, and -expose himself very near to danger, for he was short-sighted.” - -At the siege of Demmin he had gone to reconnoitre, and held a spy-glass -in hand, when he plunged half-leg deep in the marsh, in consequence -of the breaking of the ice. The officer nearest to him prepared to -come to his aid. Gustavus made a sign to him to remain tranquil, so -as not to draw the attention of the enemy who, not less, directed his -fire upon him. The king raised himself up in the midst of a shower -of projectiles, and went to dry himself at the bivouac fire of the -officer, who reproached him for having thus exposed his precious life. -The king listened to the officer with kindness and acknowledged his -imprudence, but added, “It is my nature not to believe well done except -what I do myself; it is also necessary that I see everything by my own -eyes.” Gustavus now advanced boldly into the heart of Germany, and met -the forces of the Catholic League on the plains of Leipsic. As the -Swedes drew up in line of battle, Gustavus rode from point to point, -encouraging his soldiers, telling them “not to fire until they saw the -white of the enemies’ eyes.” - -Then the Swedish king rode to the centre of his line, halted, removed -his cap with one hand and lowered his sword with the other. His -example was followed by all near him. Gustavus then offered this brief -prayer in a powerful voice, which enabled him to be heard by a large -number of his army:— - -“Good God, thou who holdest in thy hand victory and defeat, turn thy -merciful face to us thy servants. We have come far, we have left our -peaceful homes to combat in this country for liberty, for the truth, -and for thy gospel. Glorify thy holy name in granting us victory.” - -Then the Swedish king sent a trumpeter to challenge Tilly and his army. -The battle ensued, in which Gustavus defeated Tilly, the victor on -more than twenty battle-fields. The king of Sweden so shattered and -scattered the Catholic army in this conflict, that for a while all -Germany was open to him. Gustavus was now everywhere hailed by the -down-trodden Protestants of Germany, whose worship he re-established, -and whose churches he restored to them, as their saviour and deliverer. -The very excess of their gratitude would sometimes make him afraid. -Only three days before his death he said to his chaplain, “They make a -god of me; God will punish me for this.” - -The appearance of Gustavus at this time is thus described: “He was one -‘framed in the prodigality of nature.’ His look proclaimed the hero, -and at the same time, the genuine child of the North. A head taller -than men of the ordinary stature, yet all his limbs were perfectly -proportioned.” Majesty and courage shone out from his clear gray eyes; -while, at the same time, an air of mildness and _bonhommie_ tempered -the earnestness of his glance. He had the curved eagle nose of Cæsar, -of Napoleon, of Wellington, of Napier,—the conqueror’s nose as we may -call it. His skin was fair, his hair blonde, almost gold-colored, so -that the Italians were wont to call him, _Re d’oro_ or the Gold-king. -In latter years he was somewhat inclined to corpulence, though not so -much as to detract from the majesty of his appearance. This made it, -however, not easy to find a horse which was equal to his weight. - -Gustavus now carried his victorious arms to the banks of the Rhine, -where there still stands, not far from Mayence, what is known as the -Swedish column. On the banks of the Lech he again met Tilly, who -would have barred the way. Some of the officers in the Swedish army -counselled that the king should not meet Tilly, but should march to -Bohemia. - -The Lech was deep and rapid, and to cross it in the face of an enemy -was very hazardous. In case of failure the entire Swedish army would -be lost. But Gustavus exclaimed, “What! have we crossed the Baltic, -the Oder, the Elbe, and the Rhine, to stop stupefied before this mere -stream, the Lech? Remember that the undertakings the most difficult are -often those which succeed best, because the adverse party regard them -as impossible.” - -Gustavus threw over the Lech a bridge under the crossfire of -seventy-two pieces of cannon. The king stimulated his troops by his own -example, making with his own hand more than sixty cannon discharges. -The enemy did their utmost to destroy the works, and Tilly was -undaunted in his exertions to encourage his men, until he was mortally -wounded by a cannon-ball, and victory soon was on the side of the -heroic Swedes. - -This crossing of the Lech in the face of an enemy is esteemed the most -signal military exploit of Gustavus. The emperor was now forced to -recall Wallenstein to lead the hard-pressed Imperialists against this -invincible Swedish king. - -But with the battle of Lützen, where the Swedes encountered the -Imperialists under Wallenstein, we come also to the lamentable but -heroic death of Gustavus Adolphus. We cannot recount the further -conflicts of the Thirty Years’ War. - -The work of Gustavus Adolphus in Germany was continued by his able -generals and allies, until at length the treaty, concluded at -Westphalia in 1648, gave security and permanence to the work which the -king of Sweden and his brave soldiers had in a large degree achieved -before his death. A wound which Gustavus had received in his Polish -wars, made the wearing of armor very painful to him, and upon the -morning of the day upon which the battle of Lützen was fought, when his -armor was brought to him, he declined to put it on, saying, “God is my -armor.” - -His death is thus described. Learning that the centre of the Swedish -lines were wavering, Gustavus hastened thither. “Arriving at the -wavering centre, he cried to his troops, ‘Follow me, my brave boys!’ -and his horse at a bound bore him across the ditch. Only a few of his -cavaliers followed him, their steeds not being equal to his. Owing to -his impetuosity, perhaps also to his nearsightedness and the increasing -fog, he did not perceive to what extent he was in advance, and became -separated from the troops he was so bravely leading. An imperial -corporal, noticing that the Swedes made way for an advancing cavalier, -pointed him out to a musketeer, saying, he must be a personage of high -rank, and urged him to fire on him. The musketeer took aim, his ball -broke the left arm of the king, causing the bone to protrude, and the -blood to run freely. ‘The king bleeds!’ cried the Swedes near him. ‘It -is nothing; march forward my boys!’ responded the wounded hero, seeking -to calm their disquietude by assuming a smiling countenance. But soon -overcome by pain and loss of blood, he requested Duke Lauenburg, in -French, to lead him out of the tumult without being observed, which was -sought to be done by making a _détour_, so as to conceal the king’s -withdrawal from his brave Smolanders he was leading to the charge. -Scarcely had they made a few steps, when one of the imperial regiment -of cuirassiers encountered them, preceded by Lieut.-Col. Falkenberg, -who, recognizing the king, fired a pistol shot, hitting him in the -back. ‘Brother,’ said he to Lauenburg, with a dying voice; ‘I have -enough. Look to your own life.’ Falkenberg was immediately slain by -the equerry of the duke of Lauenburg. At the same moment the king fell -from his horse, struck by several more balls, and was dragged some -distance by the stirrups. The duke of Lauenburg fled. Of the king’s -two orderlies, one lay dead and the other wounded. Of his attendants, -only a German page, named Leubelfing, remained by him. The king having -fallen from his horse, the page jumped from his own, and offered it to -the dying hero. The king stretched out his hands, but the young man -had not strength sufficient to lift him from the ground. Meanwhile -the imperial cuirassiers hastened forward, and demanded the name of -the wounded officer. The loyal page would not reveal it, and received -wounds from which he died soon after. But the dying Gustavus bravely -answered, ‘I am the king of Sweden.’ Whereupon his cruel enemies shot -a ball through his head, and thrust their swords through his bleeding -body. His hat, blackened with the powder and pierced with the ball, -is still to be seen in the arsenal at Vienna; his bloody buff coat as -well. More is not known of the final agony, except that, when the tide -of battle had a little ebbed, the body of the hero-king was found with -the face to the ground, despoiled and stripped to the shirt, trodden -under the hoofs of horses, trampled in the mire, and disfigured with -all these wounds.” - -[Illustration: DEATH OF GUSTAVUS AND HIS PAGE.] - -Such was the end of the imposing and kingly bodily presence; but this -was not the end of the accomplishment of that heroic soul. When the -horse of the fallen Gustavus, with its empty saddle covered with blood, -came running amongst the Swedish troops, they knew what had happened -to their king. Duke Bernhard, riding through the ranks, exclaimed, -“Swedes, Finlanders, and Germans! your defender, the defender of -our liberty, is dead. Life is nothing to me if I do not draw bloody -vengeance from this misfortune. Whoever wishes to prove he loved the -king, has only to follow me to avenge his death.” The whole Swedish -army, fired by a common enthusiasm nerved by desperation, advanced -to the attack, and so valiantly did they fight, that their gallant -charge completed the victory of Lützen. Thus died the “Gold-king of -the North”; but his dying hours were gilded by the sunset glories of -immortal fame, and the “Snow-king,” of Sweden, leaves a name as pure -and glistening as the starry snow-flakes. - -“Great men, far more than any Alps or coliseums, are the true -world-wonders, which it concerns us to behold clearly, and imprint -forever on our remembrance. Great men are the fire-pillars in this -dark pilgrimage of mankind; they stand as heavenly signs, ever-living -witnesses of what has been,—prophetic witnesses of what may still -be; the revealed embodied possibilities of human nature, which -greatness he who has never with his whole heart passionately loved and -reverenced, is himself forever doomed to be little.” - - - - -LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. - -1638-1715 A.D. - - “To do what one pleases with impunity, - That is to be King.”—SALLUST. - - -THE reign of Louis XIV., whether regarded politically, socially, or -morally, was undoubtedly the most striking which France has ever -known. The splendor of his court, the successes of his armies, and the -illustrious names that embellished the century over which he ruled, -drew the attention of all Europe to the person of the monarch who, -every inch a king, assumed the authority and power of regality as well -as its mere visible attributes. All Europe looked to France, all France -to Paris, all Paris to Versailles, all Versailles to Louis XIV. - -[Illustration: LOUIS XIV.] - -The centre of all attraction, he, like the eagle, embraced the whole -glory of the orb upon which he gazed; and seated firmly upon the throne -of France, ruling by the “right divine,” he ushered in the golden age -of literature, himself the theme and gaze and wonder of a dazzled world. - -The morning of the 5th of September, 1638, dawned bright and clear. In -the forest of St. Germain, the birds sang merrily in the trees, and the -timid deer sought shelter in the deepest shade, all unconscious that -ere the setting of the sun a royal prince would look upon it for the -first time. - -The park and palace were filled with an eager and excited throng; -earls, princes, dukes, and bishops anxiously awaited the announcement -that an heir was born to the crown of France. In the grand salon -of Henry IV., King Louis XIII., the Duke d’Orleans, the bishops of -Lisieux, Meaux, and Beauvais, impatiently awaited the long-expected -tidings. And now the folding-doors are thrown back, and the king is -greeted with the welcome intelligence that he is the father of a -_dauphin_. Tenderly he takes the child, and stepping upon the balcony, -exhibits him to the crowd, exclaiming joyfully, “A son, gentlemen! a -son!” and park and palace re-echo with the shouts of “_Vive le Roi!_” -“_Vive le Dauphin!_” - -Thus this baby prince, when first he saw the light, was greeted by -the homage of a court—an homage which, during a life of seventy-seven -years, he ever exacted and received, until as Louis XIV., the _Grand -Monarque_, in obedience to Him who is King of kings and Lord of lords, -he laid aside his sceptre and his crown, and slept with his fathers -in the royal vaults of St. Denis. The birth of the dauphin afforded -Louis XIII. such delight that for a time he threw aside his melancholy -manner; but his health, never robust, failed rapidly, and on the 20th -of April, 1643, feeling that his end could not be far distant, he -declared the regency of the queen, and desired the christening of the -dauphin. It accordingly took place on the following day with much pomp -in the chapel at St. Germain. The king desired he should be called -Louis, and after the ceremony, when the little prince was carried to -his bedside in order to ascertain if his wishes had been fulfilled, he -demanded, “What is your name, my child?” And the little dauphin replied -promptly, “I am Louis XIV.” - -“Not yet, my son, not yet!” said the dying king; “but I pray to God -that it may soon be so.” - -From this time his health failed rapidly, and on the 14th of May, 1643, -he expired, having reigned thirty-three years. - -The little dauphin early displayed that haughtiness and self-will which -were to be the ruling principles of his life. His education had been -grossly neglected, and through this came many of his after faults; and -though he excelled in every punctilio of court etiquette, and was the -very essence of politeness, yet in other things he was far behind the -other youths of his age. This was exactly as Cardinal Mazarin intended -that it should be, that by thus dwarfing the intellect of the king, he -might the longer grasp the reins of government. The wily cardinal fully -understood the character of the young prince with whom he had to deal, -and upon one occasion, when some one remonstrated with him concerning -the course he had adopted toward the king, he replied, “Ah, you do not -know His Majesty! he has the stuff in him to make four kings and an -honest man.” - -The hatred and dislike of Louis for the cardinal increased day by -day. The state affected by him jarred upon his natural haughtiness, -and, boy as he was, it was impossible that he could contrast the -extreme magnificence of his mother’s minister with his own neglected -condition without feeling how insultingly the cardinal had profited by -his weakness and want of power. On one occasion at Compiègne, as the -cardinal was passing with a numerous suite along the terrace, the king -turned away, saying contemptuously, without any attempt to lower his -voice, “There is the Grand Turk going by.” - -A few days afterwards, as he was traversing a passage in which he -perceived one of the cardinal’s household named Bois Fermé, he turned -to M. de Nyert, who was following him, and observed, “So the cardinal -is with mamma again, for I see Bois Fermé in the passage. Does he -always wait there?” - -“Yes, sire,” replied Nyert; “but in addition to Bois Fermé there is -another gentleman upon the stairs and two in the corridor.” - -“There is one at every stride, then,” said the young; king dryly. - -But the boy-king was not the only one who found the arrogance of the -haughty cardinal unbearable. There had gradually sprung up a deadly -feud between the court and Mazarin on one side, and the Parliament on -the other. - -The people of Paris were in sympathy with the Parliament; and nobles, -even of royal blood, out of enmity to Mazarin, joined the popular cause. - -Thus commenced the famous civil war of the Fronde; for as the cardinal -contemptuously remarked, “The Parliament are like school-boys _fronding -in the Paris ditches_,” and the Parliament of Paris accepted the title, -and adopted the _Fronde_, or sling, as the emblem of their party. There -were riots in Paris, and affairs grew threatening. Mazarin and the -court party were alarmed and fled to St. Germain. - -Thus there were two rival courts in France,—the one at St. Germain, -where all was want and destitution; the other at the Hotel de Ville in -Paris, where all was splendor, abundance, and festive enjoyment. The -court and Mazarin soon tired of the life at St. Germain, and the king; -sent a herald to the Parliament. The Parliament refused to receive -the herald, but sent a deputation to the king, and at last, after a -lengthy conference, a not very satisfactory compromise was agreed upon, -and on the 5th of April, 1650, the royal fugitives returned to Paris. - -“Thus ended the first act of the most singular, bootless, and we are -almost tempted to add, burlesque war, which in all probability, Europe -ever witnessed. Through its whole duration society appeared to have -been smitten with some moral hallucination. Kings and cardinals slept -on mattresses; princesses and duchesses on straw; market-women embraced -princes; prelates governed armies; court-ladies led the mob, and the -mob in its turn ruled the city.” - -On the 5th of September, 1651, the minority of the dauphin ceased, he -had now entered upon his fourteenth year, and, immature boy as he was, -he was declared to be the absolute monarch of France. On the seventh of -the month, the king held his bed of justice. The ceremony was attended -with all the pomp the wealth of the empire could furnish. The young -king left the Palais Royal attended by a numerous and splendid retinue. -Observed of all observers, “handsome as Adonis, august in majesty, the -pride and joy of humanity,” he sat his splendid steed; and when the -horse, frightened by the long and enthusiastically prolonged cries of, -“_Vive le Roi!_” reared and plunged with terror, Louis managed him with -a skill and address which called forth the admiration of all beholders. -After attending mass, the young king took his seat in the Parliament. -Here the boy of thirteen, covering his head while all the notabilities -of France stood before him with heads uncovered, repeated the following -words:— - -“Gentlemen, I have attended my Parliament in order to inform you -that, according to the law of my kingdom, I shall myself assume its -government. I trust that by the goodness of God it will be with piety -and justice.” - -The chancellor then made a long address, after which the oath of -allegiance was taken by all the civil and ecclesiastical notabilities. -The royal procession then returned to the gates of the Palais Royal. -Thus, a stripling, who had just completed his thirteenth year, was -accepted by the nobles and by the populace as the absolute and -untrammelled sovereign of France. “He held in his hands, virtually, -unrestrained by constitution or court, their liberties, their fortunes, -and their lives.” Two years later, in 1653, the coronation of the king -took place at Rheims. France at this time was at war with Spain, and, -immediately after the coronation, the king, then sixteen years of -age, set out from Rheims to place himself at the head of the army. He -went to Stenay, on the northeastern frontier of France. This ancient -city, protected by strong fortifications, was held by the Prince de -Condé. The royal troops were besieging it. There were marches and -counter-marches, battles and skirmishes. The young king displayed -intrepidity which secured for him the admiration of the soldiers. -Turenne and Fabert fought the battles and gained the victories. Stenay -was soon taken, and the army of the Prince de Condé driven from all -its positions. “There is nothing so successful as success;” and the -young king, a hero and a conqueror, returned to Paris to enjoy the -congratulation of the populace, and to offer public thanksgiving in the -cathedral of Nôtre Dame. Though the king was nominally the absolute -ruler of France, still there was the influence of his mother, Anne of -Austria, which up to this time had exerted over him a great control; -but this was soon to end. - -Henrietta Maria, the widowed queen of the unfortunate Charles I., -was then residing at the French court. Her daughter Henrietta, as -grand-daughter of Henry IV. and daughter of Charles I., was entitled, -through the purity of her royal blood, to the highest consideration at -the court. When, then, at a ball given for these unfortunate guests, -the music summoned the dancers upon the floor, and the king, in total -disregard of his young and royal cousin, advanced, according to his -custom, to lead out the Duchesse de Mercœur, the queen was shocked at -so gross a breach of etiquette, and, rising hastily, she withdrew his -hand from that of the duchess, and said in a low voice, “You should -dance first, my son, with the princess of England.” - -Louis replied sullenly, “I am not fond of little girls.” - -[Illustration: ANNE OF AUSTRIA AND CARDINAL MAZARIN.] - -Both Henrietta and her daughter overheard this discourteous remark. -The English queen hastened to Anne of Austria, and entreated her not -to attempt to constrain the wishes of his majesty. The position was -exceedingly awkward for all parties; but the proud spirit of Anne of -Austria was aroused. Resuming her maternal authority, she declared -that if her niece, the princess of England, remained a spectator at -the ball, her son should do the same. Thus constrained, the king very -ungraciously led out the English princess upon the floor. After the -departure of the guests, the mother and son had their first serious -quarrel. Severely Anne of Austria rebuked the king for his shameful -and uncourteous conduct. Louis faced his mother haughtily. “Madam, who -is lord of France, Louis the king or Anne of Austria? Too long,” he -said, “I have been guided by your leading strings. Henceforth, I will -be my own master; and do not you, madam, trouble yourself to criticise -or correct me. I am the king.” And this was no idle boast; for from -that tearful evening of the queen’s ball to the day of his death, -sixty-one years after, Louis of Bourbon, called The Great, ruled as -absolute lord over his kingdom of France; and the boy who could say so -defiantly, “Henceforth, I will be my own master,” was fully equal to -that other famous declaration of arrogant authority, made years after -in the full tide of his power, “_I am the state!_” - -But Anne of Austria was not the only one destined to feel the imperious -will of the young sovereign. The Parliament of Paris refused to -register certain decrees of the king. Louis heard of it while preparing -to hunt in the woods of Vincennes. He leaped upon his horse, and -galloped to Paris. At half-past nine o’clock in the morning, the king -entered the Chamber of Deputies, in full hunting dress. He heard mass, -and, whip in hand, addressed the body: “Gentlemen of the Parliament, it -is my will that in future my edicts be _registered_, and not discussed. -Should the contrary occur, I shall return, and enforce obedience.” - -The trumpet sounded, and the king and his courtiers galloped back to -the forest of Vincennes. The decrees were registered. Parliament had -ventured to try its strength against Cardinal Mazarin, but did not dare -to disobey its king. - -The marriage of the king was a matter of much importance, and was much -talked of. The aspirants for his hand and the throne of France were -numberless. Maria Theresa, the daughter of the king of Spain, was very -beautiful. Spain and France were then engaged in petty and vexatious -hostilities, and a matrimonial alliance would secure friendship. - -So negotiations were begun; and on the 10th of June, 1660, Louis, -then in the twenty-second year of his age, was joined in marriage, -at the Isle of Pheasants, to Maria Theresa, infanta of Spain. On the -26th of August, the king and his young bride made their public entry -into Paris. Triumphal arches spanned the thoroughfares, garlands of -flowers and hangings of tapestry covered the fronts of the houses, -and sweet-scented herbs strewed the pavements, upon which passed an -apparently interminable procession of carriages, horsemen, and footmen; -and in the midst of the clangor of trumpets, the boom of cannon, and -the shouts and acclamations of the multitude, came the chariot of the -young queen, who, radiant and sparkling with brilliant gems, beheld -from her lofty height all Paris striving to do her honor. By her side -rode the king. His garments, of velvet richly embroidered with gold, -and covered with jewels, had been prepared at an expense of over a -million of dollars. The gorgeousness of this gala day lived long in -the minds of the splendor-loving Parisians. For succeeding weeks and -months, the court luxuriated in one continued round of gayety. “There -was a sound of revelry by night” in the _salons_ of the Louvre and -the Tuileries, while lords and ladies trod the floors in the mazy -evolutions of the dance. And yet, to maintain all this state, all this -splendor, all this reckless extravagance, thousands of the peasantry -of France were compelled to live in mud hovels, to wear the coarsest -garb, to eat the plainest food, while their wives and daughters toiled -barefoot in the fields. - -The Cardinal Mazarin was old and dying. For eighteen years he had -been virtually monarch of France. Avaricious and penurious to the -last degree, he had amassed enormous wealth. Cursed by the peasantry -whom he had ground to the earth, hated by the king whom he had tried -to rule, despised by the court which he had attempted to humble, on -the 9th of March, 1661, at his Chateau Mazarin, the cardinal breathed -his last. From that moment until the day of his death, Louis XIV. -sat all-powerful upon his throne. And when the president of the -Ecclesiastical Assembly inquired of the king to whom he must hereafter -address himself on questions of public business, the emphatic and -laconic response was, “_To myself_.” - -M. Fouquet, the Minister of the Treasury, was rolling in ill-gotten -wealth. His palace of Vaux le Vicomte, upon which he had expended -fifteen millions of francs, eclipsed in splendor the royal palaces of -the Tuileries and Fontainebleau. The king disliked him. He knew he was -robbing the treasury, and it was more than his self-love could endure, -that a subject should live in state surpassing that of his sovereign. -Fouquet most imprudently invited the king and all the court to a fête -at the chateau. No step could have been more ill-advised; for the -king was little likely to forget, as he looked upon the splendors of -Vaux le Vicomte, by which St. Germain and Fontainebleau were utterly -eclipsed, that its owner had derived all his wealth from the public -coffers; and at a time, too, when he was himself in need of the funds -here lavished with such reckless profusion. Every one in France, who -bore a distinguished name, was bidden to the princely festival, which -was destined to be commemorated by La Fontaine and by Benserade, by -Pelisson and by Molière. Fouquet met the king at the gates of the -chateau, and conducted him to the park. Here, notwithstanding all he -had heard of the splendors of Vaux le Vicomte, the king was unprepared -for the scene of magnificence which burst upon his view. The play -of the fountains, the beauty of the park, and the splendor of the -chateau were long remembered by the guests at this princely festival. -But to Louis XIV. it was gall and wormwood; and when he took leave -of his obsequious host, he remarked bitterly: “I shall never again, -sir, venture to invite you to visit me. You would find yourself -inconvenienced.” - -[Illustration: LOUIS XIV. TAKING LEAVE OF FOUQUET.] - -Fouquet felt the keen rebuke, and turned pale. The king and his -courtiers returned to Paris, but in the mind of Louis XIV. there loomed -up distant visions of the palaces of Versailles and the great hydraulic -machine at Marly. On the 8th of January, 1666, Anne of Austria died. -It was a gloomy winter’s night when the remains of her who had been -both queen and regent of France were borne to their last resting-place -in the vaults of St. Denis. In his previous campaigns, Louis had taken -Flanders in three months, and Franche-Comté in three weeks. Alarmed -by these rapid conquests, Holland, Switzerland, and England entered -into an alliance to resist further encroachments, should they be -attempted. That such a feeble state as Holland should think of limiting -his conquests, aroused the anger of the _Grand Monarque_. Armies were -mustered, munitions of war got together, and ships prepared; and on the -12th of June, 1672, at the head of an army of one hundred and thirty -thousand men, Louis crossed the Rhine, and made his triumphal entry -into the city of Utrecht. Then, indeed, Holland trembled; Amsterdam -trembled; Louis was at the gates. But, rising in the frenzy of despair, -they pierced the dikes, which alone protected the country from the -sea. In rushed the flood, and Amsterdam rose like a mighty fortress in -the midst of the waves, surrounded by ships of war, which found depth -to float where ships never floated before. Thus suddenly Louis XIV. -found himself checked in his proud career. Chagrined at seeing his -conquest at an end, he left his army under the command of Turenne, and -returned to his palaces in France. - -Louis XIV. had never recovered from the mortification he had -experienced at the fête at Vaux. He resolved to rear a palace so -magnificent that no subject, whatever might be his resources, could -approach it; so magnificent that, like the pyramids of Egypt, it should -be a lasting monument of the splendor of his reign. In 1664, Louis -selected Versailles as the site for this stupendous pile of marble, -which, reared at a cost of thousands of lives, and two hundred millions -of money, decorated by the genius of Le Notre, of Mansard, and Le Brun, -twenty-five years after its commencement, was ready to receive its -royal occupants; and, resting proudly upon its foundations, presented -to admiring Europe the noblest monument of the reign of Louis XIV. The -splendors of the fêtes which attended the completion of this palace -transformed it into a scene of enchantment, and filled all Europe with -wonder. - -The most magnificent room in the palace, the Gallerie des Glaces, -called the Grand Gallery of Louis XIV., is two hundred and forty-two -feet long, thirty-five feet broad, and forty-three feet high. Germany, -Holland, Spain, Rome even, bend the knee in the twenty-seven paintings -which ornament this grand gallery. But to whom do they bow? Is it to -France? No; it is to Louis XIV. - -“Louis XIV. and his palace not only afforded conversation for Europe, -but their fame penetrated the remote corners of Asia. The emperor -of Siam sent him an embassy. Three o’pras, high dignitaries of the -empire, eight mandarins, and a crowd of servitors landed at Brest, -charged with magnificent presents and a letter from the emperor. -Arrived at Versailles, they were fêted with unheard-of splendor. The -day of their public audience, the fountains played in the gardens; -flowers were strewn in the paths; the sumptuous Gobelin carpets were -paraded, as well as the richest works of the goldsmith. The _cortège_ -of ambassadors was received with the most refined forms of etiquette, -and led through apartments filled with the court, glittering in -diamonds and embroidery, and at length reached the end of the grand -gallery, where Louis XIV., clad in a costume that cost twelve millions, -stood on a throne of silver placed on an estrade elevated nine steps -above the floor, and covered with Gobelin carpets and costly vases. -There the Siamese prostrated themselves three times, with hands -clasped, before the Majesty of the West, and then lifted their eyes to -him.” - -Louis spent millions on Versailles, millions on his pleasures, millions -on his pomps, millions in his wars; he lavished gold on his favorites, -his generals, and his lackeys. And all ended in national bankruptcy. - -Let us, then, in imagination look upon the grand _gallerie_ of Louis -XIV. during one of those gorgeous fêtes which attracted the attention -of all Europe. Before us is the grand _salon_, with its glittering -candelabra and thousand brilliant lights, reflected in prismatic rays -from the costly mirrors which line the walls. Under foot, a pavement -of variegated marble, shining and polished as a floor of glass; and -overhead the gorgeous frescoes of Le Brun, setting forth in glowing -colors the great achievements of the _Grand Monarque_. The highest -nobility of the realm, the _grande noblesse_ of France, throng this -splendid gallery. - -The costly costumes of the cavaliers and the gorgeous robes of the -_Grande Dames_, the waving plumes and flashing jewels, all conspire -to render the scene of marvellous magnificence. And now, as the -impatient throng turn their gaze in the direction of the Salon of -War, in expectation of the approach of royalty, the folding-doors are -thrown back, and the stentorian voice of the usher resounds throughout -the gallery: “His Majesty the King!” and upon the threshold, in a -costume resplendent with sparkling gems, stands Louis XIV., the _Grand -Monarque_. As a _parterre_ of blooming flowers bends low before a -rushing gust of wind, so bow these titled lords and ladies before his -piercing glance; while Louis, full conscious of his kingly majesty, -walks slowly, and with measured step, all down the long and glittering -lines, pausing ever and anon to address those whose rank entitles them -to this inestimable boon. - -“It was not only on festive occasions that Versailles wore an air of -grand gala. It was its habitual aspect. At Vaux, nature had contributed -quite as much as art, to the marvellous beauty of the scene. At -Versailles, she had done nothing, and Louis’ pleasure was the greater, -in that he considered it the unrivalled creation of his own genius. -Versailles, with its palace, its gardens, its fountains, its statues, -and water-works, Trianon, and appendages, was a work of art to gaze -upon with wonder. Let us ascend; for, in whatever place you may be, -it is necessary to mount, to reach this palace; at whatever point you -may stand to look at it, you see its roofs, apparently touching the -clouds. It crowns the hill like a diadem. If you come from Paris, it -rises above the town, which lies prostrate at the feet of its majesty; -if you approach from the park, it lifts itself above the gigantic -trees, above the terraces which pile themselves up towards it, above -the jets of water which surround it; the groves seem to support it upon -their tall heads, and the whole forest serves as its footstool. Let -us ascend, for the doors are open; people are going and coming. The -ladies smile, the mirrors reflect them, the chandeliers light them, the -ceilings throw their golden coloring upon them. The courtiers stare in -the midst of the riches of this magnificent dwelling; but, amid all -this stir, all these surprises, all these wonders, only one man is -calm,—this man Louis XIV. - -“He feels as much at ease in this palace as in a vestment made for him; -and, contemplating the work to which his pride gave birth, he exclaims, -in the fulness of his satisfaction, ‘Versailles is myself!’ - -“Yet, upon a bright spring day, or soft summer evening, when Louis, -disposed for one of those long promenades he was accustomed to take -sometimes twice a day, descended to the gardens from the grand terrace -of the palace, followed by his numerous court, the _coup d’œil_ from -a distance must have been charmingly effective. And, when enlivened -by sauntering, chatting, flirting, laughing groups of picturesquely -dressed ladies and gentlemen of the court,—a numerous retinue of -lackeys following, no less resplendent in dress than their masters,—the -admirable fitness of the gardens and grounds of Versailles for the -purpose which Louis, no doubt, had in his mind when the designs were -approved, must have been very striking. In the centre of this throng -of feathers and swords, satins and laces, flashing jewels, fans and -masks, solemnly paced the magnificent Louis, with the air of lord of -the universe, monarch of all he surveyed, and of all who surveyed him; -for his courtiers lived only in the light of his countenance. Yet the -countenance of this god was grandly cold, serene, and unchangeable, as -that of any of the marble deities that presided over his fountains. -It was no mean advantage to him that nature had kindly exalted him, -at least, three inches above almost every other man of his court. The -French were not generally a fine race of men; but the dress of the -period—the high heels, the wig, the lofty plume, and the looped-up, -broad-brimmed hat—gave to the _grandees_ an appearance of height, -which, as a rule, they had not. And above them all towered their king, -like Jupiter, in Olympus, in the midst of the inferior gods, or as the -sun, with lesser lights revolving around him, and shining only in the -refulgence of his rays. - -“Red-heeled boots, slashed doublets, and flowing wigs, cordeliers -of pearls, Moorish fans, masques, patches and paint, monumental -head-dresses, and the thousand other items indispensable to the toilets -of the lords and ladies of the Louis XIV. period, have a charmingly -picturesque effect, seen through the long vista of two centuries, -and heightened by the glamour of _la grande politesse, et la grande -galanterie_ of the _Grand Monarque_ and his court. Life seems to have -been with them, one long fancy-dress ball, a never-ending carnival, a -perpetual whirl, an endless succession of fêtes and carousals.” - -Louis XIV. now found nearly all Europe in arms against him. He sent -twenty thousand men, under Marshal Turenne, to encounter the forces of -the emperor of Germany; and forty thousand, under the Prince de Condé, -to assail William, prince of Orange. In his defence of the frontiers -of the Rhine, Turenne acquired a reputation which has made his name -famous in military annals. With twenty thousand men, he defeated and -dispersed the Imperial army of seventy thousand; and it adds not a -little to his celebrity, that, following his own judgment, he achieved -the victory in direct opposition to the orders from the minister of -war. A merciless warrior, he allowed no consideration of humanity to -interfere with his military operations. He laid in ashes the beautiful -country of the Palatinate, embracing, on both sides of the Rhine, -about sixteen hundred square miles, and having a population of over -three hundred thousand souls, in order that the armies of his enemies -might be deprived of sustenance; while the wail of widows and orphans -rose over the smouldering ruins of their dwellings, over the bleak and -barren fields. - -[Illustration: DEATH OF TURENNE.] - -On the 27th of June, 1675, a cannon ball struck Turenne, and closed, -in an instant, his earthly career. Few men have ever lived who have -caused such wide-spread misery. For two years the war continued, with -sometimes varying success, but with unvarying blood and misery. At -last, on the 14th of August, 1678, peace, the peace of Nimegeun, was -made. Louis XIV. dictated the terms. - -Now, at the height of his grandeur, having enlarged his dominions -by the addition of Franche-Comté, Dunkirk, and half of Flanders, -worshipped by his courtiers as a demi-god, the court of France -conferred upon him, with imposing solemnities, the title of _Louis le -Grand_. In 1685, the Queen, Maria Theresa, breathed her last. Amiable, -unselfish, warm-hearted, from the time of her marriage she devoted -herself to the promotion of her husband’s happiness. His neglect caused -her to shed many tears. The king could not be insensible to her many -virtues, and perhaps remorse, mingled with the emotions which compelled -him to weep bitterly over her death, caused him to exclaim, as he -gazed upon the lifeless remains, “Kind and forbearing friend, this is -the first sorrow you have caused me throughout twenty years.” For ten -days the royal corpse lay in state at Versailles, and perpetual masses -were performed for the soul of the departed. On the day of the funeral, -the king, in the insane endeavor to obliterate from his mind all -thoughts of death and burial, ordered out the hounds, and plunged into -the excitement of the chase. His horse pitched the monarch over his -head into a ditch of stagnant water, dislocating one of his shoulders. - -In 1685, also died Jean Baptiste Colbert, the king’s minister of -finance. As superintendent of buildings, arts, and manufactures, he had -enlarged the Tuileries and the Louvre, completed gorgeous Versailles, -reared the magnificent edifice of the Invalides, and founded the -Gobelins. As minister of finance, he had furnished the king with the -money he needed for his expensive wars and luxurious indulgence. Now -old, forgotten, exhausted by incessant labor, he was on his dying bed. -The heavy taxes he had imposed upon the people rendered him unpopular. -The curses and imprecations of a starving peasantry rose around his -dying couch. The king condescended in courtesy to send a messenger -inquiring after the condition of his minister, but the dying sufferer -turned away his face, saying, “I will not hear that man spoken of -again. If for God I had done what I have for him, I should have been -saved ten times over. What my fate now may be, I know not.” - -And so worn out by toil, anxiety, and grief, he died. On the following -day, without any marks of honor, his remains were conveyed to the -church of St. Eustache. - -Genoa had offended the king by giving assistance to the Algerines. -He seized, by a _lettre de cachet_, the Genoese ambassador, and -plunging him into one of the dungeons of the Bastile, sent a fleet of -fifty vessels to chastise those who had offended him, with terrible -severity. On the 19th of May, 1684, the ships entered the harbor of -Genoa, and immediately opened upon the city a terrific fire, so that -in a few hours, a large portion of those marble edifices, which had -given to the city the name of “Genoa the Superb,” were crumbled into -powder. The city was threatened with total destruction, and in terror -the authorities implored the clemency of the conqueror. Haughtily the -_Grand Monarque_ demanded that the doge of Genoa, and four of his -principal ministers, should repair to the palace of Versailles, and -humbly implore his pardon. Utterly powerless, the doge was compelled to -submit to these humiliating terms. - -[Illustration: JEAN BAPTISTE COLBERT.] - -On the 15th of May, 1685, Louis ordered his throne to be placed at the -end of the grand gallery, by the side of the “Salon of Peace.” The doge -entered with four senators Genoa had sent to accompany him. He was -dressed in red velvet, with a cap of the same. In order to preserve -all the dignity his misfortune allowed him, the doge remained covered -until he entered the presence of the king. The king allowed the princes -to remain covered during the audience. The doge discharged his sad -mission with a firmness that created astonishment. His bearing was more -impressive than his discourse. A few days after he attended the levee, -dined with the king, was shown the park and all the fountains, and -was present at a ball given in the grand apartment. Afterwards he had -his audience of leave-taking, and when one of the senators asked him -what surprised him most at Versailles, he replied with an air of more -chagrin than usual, “At seeing myself there.” The doge and senators -did not stay long in France. They saw in haste the wonders shown them, -and then returned to Genoa. Arrived at home, they talked over the -things they had seen. One senator spoke of the dazzling spectacles, -the vast apartments, the sumptuous ornaments; and said no mind was -powerful enough to carry away the remembrance of all the riches of -the palace, its paintings, its statues, its tapestry, its ceilings, -its gold, and its marble. The doge replied, there was more than its -exterior magnificence, and luxury of its interior; that the palace was -the whole French monarchy. You read the origin of the monarchy in the -chateau built by Louis XIII. The architects wished to pull it down; the -king replied, that, if it would not last, they must take it down, but -reconstruct it on its first plan. He wished the work of his father to -remain, to contrast with the edifice he was going to erect. One part -of the building only projects immensely in the long outline, that is -where the master dwells. The king walks alone in the first rank, the -courtiers follow, and support the train of the royal mantle. If you -mount by the grand staircase, you find a suite of immense _salons_, -covered with beautiful paintings. The Salon of Plenty, then Venus, then -Diana, then Mars, then Mercury, and then Apollo. Of what use are they? -The master does not inhabit them. But go on farther, pass through empty -galleries, you will at length find his apartments. All this suite of -magnificent _salons_, all these galleries, serve as an ante-chamber -only to the place in which he dwells. Mars and Apollo, gods formerly, -are nothing now but lackeys to the king of France. - -In the year 1598, King Henry IV., feeling the need of the support of -the Protestants to protect his kingdom from the perils by which it was -surrounded, and having himself been educated a Protestant, had granted -to the Protestants the world-renowned edict of Nantes. By this edict, -Protestants were allowed liberty of conscience; were permitted, in -certain designated places, to hold public worship; were declared to be -eligible to offices of state, and in certain places, were allowed to -publish books. Louis XIV. was a Catholic, a bigoted Catholic; hoping -in some measure to atone for his sins, by his supreme devotion to the -interests of the church, and while assuring the Protestant powers -of Europe that he would continue to respect the edict of Nantes, he -commenced issuing a series of ordinances in direct opposition to that -contract. In 1680 he excluded Protestants from all public offices, -whatsoever. A Protestant could not be employed as a physician, lawyer, -apothecary, bookseller, printer, or even as a nurse. - -[Illustration: REVOCATION OF THE EDICT OF NANTES.] - -In some parts of the kingdom, the Protestants composed nearly the -entire population. Here it was impossible to enforce the atrocious -decree. Riots and bloodshed followed. Affairs went from bad to worse, -and on the 18th of October, 1685, the king, yielding to the wishes -of his confessor and other high dignitaries of the Church, signed -the _Revocation of the Edict of Nantes_. In this act of revocation, -it was declared that, “the exercise of the Protestant worship should -nowhere be tolerated in the realm of France. All Protestant pastors -were ordered to leave the kingdom within fifteen days, under pain of -being sent to the galleys. Parents were forbidden to instruct their -children in the Protestant religion. Every child in the kingdom was -to be baptized and educated by a Catholic priest. All Protestants who -had left France, were ordered to return within four months, under -penalty of confiscation of their possessions. Any Protestant man -or woman who should attempt to emigrate, incurred the penalty of -imprisonment for life.” - -This infamous ordinance caused an amount of misery which can never be -gauged, and inflicted upon the prosperity of France the most terrible -blow it had ever received. Only one year after the revocation, Marshal -Vauban wrote, “France has lost one hundred thousand inhabitants, sixty -millions of coined money, nine thousand sailors, twelve thousand -disciplined soldiers, six hundred officers, and her most flourishing -manufactures.” - -The Revocation of the Edict of Nantes was the great blot upon the reign -of Louis XIV. From that hour the fortunes of the _Grand Monarque_ began -manifestly to decline. - -Louvois, minister of war, had for a long time been all-powerful at -court. Through his influence, the king had been induced to revoke the -Edict of Nantes, and to order the utter devastation of the Palatinate. -But that influence was upon the wane. The king had become weary of his -haughty assumptions, and the conflagration of the Palatinate had raised -a cry of indignation that even he could not fail to hear. Treves had -escaped the flames. Louvois solicited an order to burn it. The king -refused. Louvois insolently gave the order himself, and entering the -royal presence, exclaimed calmly, “Sire, I have commanded the burning -of Treves, in order that I might spare your Majesty the pain of issuing -such an edict.” - -Louis was furious; and springing up, with flashing eyes, forgetful -of all the restraints of etiquette, he seized the tongs from the -fireplace, and would have broken the head of his minister, had not -Madame de Maintenon rushed between them. The king despatched a -messenger to countermand the order, and declared that if but a single -house were burned, the head of the minister should be the forfeit. -Treves was saved. - -On one occasion, when Louis XIV. went to examine the progress of the -building of the Trianon, accompanied by Louvois, he remarked that a -particular window was out of proportion, and did not harmonize with the -rest; but the minister, jealous of his dignity as controller of the -royal works, would not admit the objection, but maintained that it was -similar to the others. - -The king desired Le Notre to declare his opinion as to the size of the -disputed window. Le Notre, fearful of offending either the monarch or -his minister, endeavored to give an evasive answer. Upon which, Louis -commanded him to measure it carefully, and he was reluctantly compelled -to obey. The result of the trial proved that the king was right, the -window was too small; and the monarch had no sooner ascertained the -fact, than he turned angrily to his minister, exclaiming, “M. Louvois, -I am weary of your obstinacy. It is fortunate that I myself have -superintended the work of building, or the façade would have been -ruined.” - -As this scene had taken place not only in the presence of the workmen, -but of all the courtiers who followed the king upon his promenade, -Louvois was stung to the quick; and on entering his own house, he -exclaimed furiously, “I am lost if I do not find some occupation for a -man who can interest himself in such trifles. There is nothing but a -war which can divert him from his building, and war he shall have. I -will soon make him abandon his trowel.” - -He kept his word: and Europe was once more plunged into a general war, -because a window had been made a few inches too narrow, and a king had -convicted a minister of error. - -In 1691, the French were besieging Mons. The haughty minister, -unintimidated even by the menace of the tongs, ventured to countermand -an order which the king had issued. The lowering brow of the monarch -convinced him that his ministerial reign was soon to close. The health -of the minister began rapidly to fail. A few subsequent interviews -with the king satisfied him that his disgrace and ruin were decided -upon; and about the middle of June, meeting the monarch in his -council-chamber, although he was unusually complaisant, Louvois so -thoroughly understood him, that he retired to his residence in utter -despair. He ordered that his son, the Marquis de Barbesieux, might be -requested to follow him to his chamber. In five minutes the summons was -obeyed, but it was too late; for when the marquis entered the room, his -father had already expired. Louvois had judged rightly, for the king -had already drawn up the _lettre de cachet_ which was to consign him to -the _oubliettes_ of the Bastile. - -“Civil war was now also desolating unhappy France. The Protestants, -bereft of their children, robbed of their property, driven from their -homes, dragged to the gallows, plunged into dungeons, broken upon the -wheel, hanged upon scaffolds, rose in several places in insurrectionary -bands; and the man who was thus crushing beneath the iron heel of his -armies the quivering hearts of the Palatinate, and who was drenching -his own realms with tears and blood, was clothed in purple, and -faring sumptuously, and reclining upon the silken sofas of Marly and -Versailles.” - -On the 1st of November, 1700, Charles II. of Spain died, having no -heirs. Urged by the Pope, he left the throne to the children of the -dauphin of France. As the duke de Bourgoyne was direct heir to the -throne of France, the dauphin’s second son, the duke d’Anjou, was -proclaimed king of Spain, under the title of Philip V. On the 14th of -the month, Louis XIV. summoned the Spanish ambassador to an audience at -Versailles. The king presented his grandson to the minister, saying, -“This, sir, is the duke d’Anjou, whom you may salute as your king.” -Then, contrary to his custom, he ordered the folding doors of his -cabinet to be thrown back, and the crowd of courtiers assembled in the -grand gallery poured into the apartment. - -The Spanish ambassador dropped upon his knee before the young prince -with expressions of profound homage; while the king, embracing the neck -of his grandson with his left arm, and pointing to him with his right -hand, presented him to the assembled court, exclaiming, “Gentlemen, -this is the king of Spain. His birth calls him to the crown. The late -king has recognized his right by his will. All the nation desires his -succession, and has entreated it at my hands. It is the will of heaven, -to which I conform with satisfaction.” - -To his grandson he added, “Be a good Spaniard, but never forget that -you were born a Frenchman. Carefully maintain the union of the two -nations. Thus only can you render them both happy.” - -Preparations were immediately made for the departure of the boy-king to -take possession of the Spanish throne. The _Grand Monarque_ regarded -it as a signal stroke of policy, and a great victory on his part, that -notwithstanding the remonstrances of other nations, he had placed a -French Bourbon prince upon the throne of Spain. He saw the domain of -France extending far southward to the Straits of Gibraltar. - -“Henceforth,” exclaimed Louis XIV., exultingly, “there are no more -Pyrenees!” - -Louis XIV. reigned everywhere,—over his people, over his age, often -over Europe,—but nowhere did he reign so completely as over his -court. Never were the wishes, the defects, and the vices of a man so -completely a law to other men, as at the court of Louis XIV. during -the whole period of his long life. When near to him in the palace at -Versailles, men lived, hoped, trembled, everywhere else in France, even -at Paris, men vegetated. The existence of the nobles was concentrated -in the court about the person of the king; and so abject was their -submission, that Louis XIV. looked on all sides for a great lord, and -found about him only courtiers. - -When the king learned that certain of the nobility affected to despise -the plebian genius of the great dramatist, Molière, he invited the -comedian to his table; and when at the _grande entrée_ the nobles -thronged the apartment, he turned to them haughtily, exclaiming, -“Gentlemen of the court, you see me breakfasting with Molière, whom my -nobles do not consider worthy of their notice.” It was enough. From -that moment the great dramatist found all the nobility of France at his -feet. - -Never did man give with better grace than Louis XIV., or augment so -much in this way the price of his benefits. Never did man sell to -better profit his words, even his smiles,—nay, his looks. - -Never did disobliging words escape him; and if he had to blame, to -reprimand, or correct, which was very rare, it was nearly always with -goodness, never with anger or severity. Never was man so naturally -polite, or of a politeness so measured, so graduated, so adapted, -to person, time, and place. Towards women his politeness was without -parallel. Never did he pass the humblest petticoat without raising -his hat. For ladies he took his hat off completely, but to a greater -or less extent; for titled people half off, holding it in his hand, -or against his ear, some instants. He took it off for the princes of -the blood as for the ladies. If he accosted ladies, he did not cover -himself until he had quitted them. His reverences, more or less marked, -but always light, were incomparable for their grace and manner. As, -after the battle of Seneff, fought Aug. 11, 1674, against William of -Orange, Monsieur le Prince, le Grand Condé, was walking slowly, from -the effects of gout, up the grand staircase at Versailles, he exclaimed -to the king, who awaited him upon the landing above, “Sire, I crave -your majesty’s pardon, if I keep you waiting;” to which Louis replied, -“Do not hurry, my cousin; no one could move more quickly who was so -loaded with laurels as you are.” It was the language of the court; -and again, when in May, 1706, Marshal Villeroi returned worsted at -the battle of Ramillies, in his encounter with Marlborough and Prince -Eugene, the _Grand Monarque_ gave utterance to one of those delicate -remarks he knew so well how to make, and which sounded almost like -a compliment: “Ah, Monsieur le Marshal,” exclaimed the king, when -he presented himself at Versailles, “at our age one is no longer -fortunate.” - -“The king loved air and exercise very much, as long as he could make -use of them. He had excelled at dancing, at tennis, and at mall. -On horseback he was admirable, even at a late age. He liked to see -everything done with grace and address. To acquit yourself well or ill -before him was a merit or a fault. He was very fond of shooting, and -there was not a better or more graceful shot than he. He was very fond, -also, of stag-hunting, but in a _caléche_, since he broke his arm while -hunting at Fontainebleau, immediately after the death of the Queen. -He rode alone in a species of “box,” drawn by four little horses, -and drove himself with an accuracy and address unknown to the best -coachmen. He liked splendor, magnificence, and profusion in everything; -you pleased him if you shone through the brilliancy of your houses, -your clothes, your table, and your equipages. As for the king himself, -nobody ever approached his magnificence.” - -Old age had crept fast upon Louis XIV. For seventy-two years he had -proudly sat upon the throne of his ancestors; but the time was near -at hand when he must lay aside his sceptre and his crown. Still the -more deeply he became conscious of his physical weakness, the more -determined and extraordinary were his efforts to preserve intact the -interests of the state. - -Richard, in his war-tent on the bloody field of Bosworth, never -contemplated a train of more appalling shadows than those evoked by the -memory of Louis XIV., as he sat, supported by cushions and pillowed -upon velvet, in his sumptuous apartment. Maria Theresa, the Queen; -the grand-dauphin; his son, the duke de Bourgoyne; and last of all, -the duke de Berri, the sole prop to that throne which must soon be -empty, dead, all dead, save a frail infant,—such were the thoughts that -crowded upon his last reveries; and well might the poor old man in his -solitary moments bend down that proud head which had no longer strength -to bear a crown, and laying aside the arrogance of those years in which -he had assumed the bearing of a demi-god, confess to his own heart that -he was but human. - -On the third of May, 1715, the king rose at an early hour, to witness -an eclipse of the sun. Strange coincidence that he, who had taken for -his emblem a rising sun, should witness the eclipse of that brilliant -orb, while he himself was sinking toward the grave. In the evening he -retired early, complaining of extreme fatigue. The advanced age of the -king and his many infirmities rendered even a slight indisposition -alarming. The report spread rapidly that the king was dangerously -sick. The foreign ambassadors promptly despatched the news to their -respective courts,—a circumstance which soon reached the ears of the -monarch, who, indignant at such indecent precipitancy, and to prove, -not only to the court, but to all Europe, that he was still every inch -a king, commanded that preparations should forthwith be commenced for -a grand review of the household troops at Marly. On the twentieth of -June this magnificent exhibition took place, when for the last time -the troops of gendarmes and light-horse, in their splendid uniforms, -defiled before the terrace of Marly; which they had no sooner done, -than the monarch appeared at the principal entrance of the palace, -habited in the costume of his earlier years; and, descending the marble -steps, mounted his horse, and for four long hours sat proudly in his -saddle, under the eyes of those foreign envoys who had announced his -approaching death to their sovereigns. It was the expiring effort of -his pride. During the whole of the last year of his life, it had been -the study of Louis XIV. to deceive himself, and, above all, to deceive -others, as to the extent of the physical debility induced by his great -age. He rose at a late hour, in order to curtail the fatigues of the -day; received his ministers, and even dined, in his bed; and once, -having prevailed upon himself to leave it, passed several hours in -succession in his cushioned chair. In vain his physician urged upon -him the necessity of exercise, in order to counteract his tendency -to revery and somnolency; the swollen state of his feet and ankles -rendered it impossible for him to rise from his chair without severe -pain, and he never attempted to do so until all his attendants had -left the room, lest they should perceive the state of weakness to -which he was reduced. Great, therefore, had been the effort we have -described, when the monarch had for a time conquered the man, and where -pride had supplied the place of strength. The only exercise which -he ultimately consented to take was in the magnificent gardens of -Versailles, where he was wheeled through the stately avenues, which he -had himself planted, in a bath-chair; a prey to pain, which was visibly -depicted upon his countenance, but which he supported with cold and -silent dignity, too haughty to complain. The king grew daily worse. -The disease was mortal, and he felt he was beyond the power of human -aid. Bitterly Louis XIV. upon his death-bed expiated the faults and -excesses of his past life. He wept over the profligacy of his youth, -deplored the madness of his ambition, by which he had brought mourning -into every corner of his kingdom. On the twenty-sixth of August, the -king commanded all the great dignitaries and officers of the household -to meet in his apartment, and addressed them in a firm voice, saying, -“Gentlemen, I die in the faith and obedience of the Church. I desire -your pardon for the bad example which I have set you. I have greatly to -thank you for the manner in which you have served me, and request from -you the same zeal and the same fidelity toward the dauphin. Farewell, -gentlemen; I feel that this parting has affected not only myself, but -you also. Forgive me. I trust that you will sometimes think of me when -I am gone.” - -How sad the scene! “The gray-haired king, half-sitting, half-lying, -in his gorgeous bed, whose velvet hangings, looped back with their -heavy ropes and tassels of gold, were the laborious offering of the -pupils of St. Cyr; the groups of princes in their gorgeous costumes, -dispersed over the vast apartment; the gilded cornices, the priceless, -the tapestried hangings, the richly-carpeted floor, the waste of luxury -on every side, the pride of man’s intellect and of man’s strength; and -in the midst, decay and death, a palsied hand and a dimmed eye.” For -a few moments there was unbroken silence. The king then requested his -great-grandchild, who was to be his successor, to be brought to him. -A cushion was placed at the bedside, and the little prince, clinging -to the hand of his governess, knelt upon it. Louis XIV. gazed for a -moment upon him with mingled anxiety and tenderness, and then said -impressively, “My child, you are about to become a great king; do -not imitate me, either in my taste for building, or in my love of -war. Endeavor, on the contrary, to live in peace with the neighboring -nations; render to God all that you owe him, and cause his name to be -honored by your subjects. Strive to relieve the burdens of your people, -in which I have been unfortunate enough to fail; and never forget the -gratitude that you owe to Madame de Ventadour.” - -Louis XV. caused these last words, addressed to him by his grandfather, -to be inscribed on vellum, and attached to the head-cloth of his bed. -Words to which his life for fifty years was but a hollow mockery. The -following days were ones of agony to the expiring king. His intervals -of consciousness were rare and brief. Mortification extended rapidly, -and toward midday, on the 31st of August, his condition became so -much exasperated that it was found necessary to perform the service -for the dying without further delay. The mournful ceremony aroused -him from his lethargy, and his voice was heard, audibly and clearly, -mingled with those of the priests. At the termination of the prayers, -he recognized the Cardinal de Rohan, and said calmly, “These are the -last favors of the Church.” He then repeated several times, “_Nunc et -in hora mortis_”; and finally he exclaimed, with earnest fervor, “O, -my God, come to my aid, and hasten to help me!” He never spoke again; -his head fell back upon the pillow, one long-drawn sigh, and all was -over. The spirit of Louis XIV. had passed the earthly veil, and entered -the vast unknown. An immense concourse had assembled in the marble -court at Versailles, anticipating the announcement of his death. The -moment he breathed his last, the captain of the body-guard approached -the great balcony, threw open the massive windows, and, looking down -upon the multitude below, raised his truncheon above his head, broke it -in the centre, and, throwing the fragments down into the court-yard, -he cried sadly, “The king is dead!” Then, instantly seizing another -staff from the hands of an attendant, he waved it joyfully above his -head, and shouted triumphantly, “Long live the king, Louis XV.!” And -a multitudinous echo from the depths of the lately-deserted apartment -answered as buoyantly, “Long live the king!” - -Thus, on the 1st of September, 1715, in his palace, at Versailles, died -“one of the world’s most powerful monarchs, Louis of Bourbon, Louis -the Great, Louis the God-given, Louis the _Grand Monarque_, Louis the -worn-out, unloving, and unloved old man, of magnificent Versailles.” -And when Massillon, called to preach the funeral sermon of Louis XIV., -as he looked upon the magnificent draperies and insignia of royalty -around him, and thought of the title the deceased king had borne during -his life, he began his discourse, with the simple and striking words, -which amazed the pleasure-loving courtiers of Versailles, “God alone is -great, my brothers.” And now, after two hundred years have rolled away, -at this present time, in this nineteenth century, after the scaffold of -Louis XVI., after the downfall of Napoleon, after the exile of Charles -X., after the flight of Louis Philippe, after the French Revolution,—in -a word, that is to say, after this renewal, complete, absolute, -prodigious, of principles, opinions, situations, influences, and facts; -standing upon the terrace of magnificent Versailles, and looking upon -those scenes, where, for so many years, he was the central light and -figure,—we bid a last adieu to Louis XIV., the _Grand Monarque_, -greatest of all the Bourbons. - - - - -PETER THE GREAT. - -A.D. 1672-1725. - - “No true and permanent fame can be founded, except in labors - which promote the happiness of mankind.” - CHARLES SUMNER. - - -ONE thousand years ago, Russia was inhabited by disunited, Slavonic -tribes, who were frequently at war with each other. Then Scandinavian -tribes were called in, and the Russian nation grew from the two centres -of Novgorod and Kíef. Christianity was introduced from Constantinople. -Trade had been commenced with the west of Europe, when the whole -country was over-run by the Mongols and Tartars, and the people were -obliged to submit to their yoke. The country had been divided into -various Russian states, which were not ruled directly by the Mongols, -but became vassals. These states were each governed by its own prince, -who were all subject to Tartary. One state after another was at length -swallowed up by the Grand Duchy of Moscow, and the autocracy was -established; which, after freeing Russia from the Mongol yoke, reached -its highest development, under Iván the Terrible, in 1533. The death of -Iván gave a blow to autocracy, and brought the nobility into power. In -1598, nearly the whole of the Russian people were reduced to serfdom, -which was an institution then first legally established. Then came a -period, called the Troublous Time, when pretender vied with pretender, -and the son of the king of Poland was crowned Czar of Moscow. Finally, -the Poles were turned out, and young Michael Románof was elected Czar. -Then followed continual wars with Poland and Sweden. In the reign of -Alexis, in 1645-76, an arbitrary government was formed. Henceforth, -the Czar managed all matters, both great and small, according to his -own will and pleasure. The Czar Alexis was of a gentle and amiable -nature, and was called by his subjects, “The most Debonnair.” But his -good qualities, in the end, rendered him one of the worst sovereigns -of Russia; for he was entirely in the hands of wicked men, who, as -his favorites, exercised all the power, and, in reality, governed the -country. - -[Illustration: PIERRE I.] - -Then arose the dissent in the Russian Church. The Patriarch, Nikon, -undertook the correction of all the printed and manuscript copies -of the liturgy; and by a decree of an Ecclesiastical Council, the -corrected books were ordered to be the only ones used, and the command -was given that all others should be destroyed. This measure excited -the greatest hostility. It seems strange that passions should be -roused, and people be found willing to suffer martyrdom, for such -seemingly unimportant questions,—as to whether the name of Jesus should -be pronounced, “Isus,” or “Yisus”; whether, in a certain portion of -the morning service, the word “Hallelujah” should be repeated twice -or thrice; and whether the sign of the cross should be made with the -two fore-fingers extended, or with the fore-fingers and the thumb, -as denoting the Trinity. But such was the case; and so great was the -commotion, that arms were resorted to by the Court, at Moscow, to -enforce these innovations; and some of the most obstinate opposers -were even executed. In the east of Russia, the inhabitants of whole -villages shut themselves up in their houses, and setting fire to them, -perished in the flames, rather than accept a new, and what they called -a diabolical, religion. The government was at length successful, -however, and revised service-books were introduced into the churches. - -At the present day, nearly one-half of the Russians belong in spirit, -if not openly, to the Dissenters; and the reconciliation between -them and the official church has only been accomplished by relaxing -the rigor of the laws of persecution. During the reign of Alexis, -the father of Peter the Great, much importance was attached to the -length and fulness of the Czar’s title. An accidental omission of a -single word or letter from this long and cumbrous official title was -considered an act of personal disrespect to the prince, almost equal -to high treason, and was punished far more severely than many terrible -crimes. The shortest title of the Czar that could possibly be used, -and which it was necessary to repeat every time that the Czar’s name -was mentioned in document, petition, or discourse, was “The Great Lord -Czar and Grand Duke Alexis Micháilovitch, of all Great and Little and -White Russia Autocrat.” The complete title contained one hundred and -twenty-three words, which we have not space to give. Alexis, having -lost his first wife, in 1669, married for his second wife Natalia -Narýshkin, who was a ward of Matvéief, the chief minister of the Czar. -Their meeting was in this manner: One evening, when the Czar was at -Matvéief’s house, the wife and pretty ward of the prime minister came -into the room, bringing the usual refreshments of cups of _vodka_, -the caviare, and smoked fish, which are eaten by the Russians before -dinner or supper. The widowed Czar was struck by the pretty face of -the tall, shapely, black-eyed girl, and, on going away, said to -Matvéief that he would find a bridegroom for his pretty ward. It was -the custom, when the Czar was in want of a bride, for all the Russian -maidens, of suitable position and beauty, to assemble at the palace -on a certain day, that a bride might be chosen from their number for -the prince. Word was now sent to Natalia Narýshkin to appear with the -other maidens, and it was soon reported that she was the chosen bride. -The daughters of the Czar objected to so young a step-mother; but, in -spite of opposition, both political and from his family, Alexis was -married to Natalia, on the 1st of February, 1671. The Czar had several -daughters of his first wife still living, and two sons, Theodore, -who was very infirm and sickly, and John, or Iván, who was almost -blind, and had a defect of speech, and was nearly an idiot. But his -favorite child was Peter, the son of his second wife, Natalia, who -was born June 9, 1672. The birth of Peter was hailed with great joy, -and Alexis ordered a most splendid ceremonial in honor of the event. -Then came the christening. The ceremony was performed at the Cathedral -of the Annunciation; and the infant Peter was borne to the church in -a cradle placed on wheels, while the priest most venerated for his -sanctity sprinkled the path with holy water. The next day after the -christening the feast occurred. The expense and account books, which -have been preserved, show that on this occasion the tables were loaded -with large pieces of sugar-work, representing eagles, swans, and other -birds, larger than life; also representations of the Muscovite arms -and a model of the Krémlin, the palace of the Czar, and also a large -fortress with cannon. One of the first ceremonies after the birth of a -Russian prince was what was called “taking his measure.” The measure -of Peter was taken on the third day after his birth, and was performed -in this manner: a board of either cypress or linden-wood was cut the -exact length and breadth of the child, which in his case was nineteen -and a quarter inches long and five and a quarter inches broad. Upon -this board a picture, representing the Holy Trinity, together with -the Apostle Peter, was painted by a famous artist. This birth-measure -of Peter was carefully preserved, and now hangs over his tomb in the -Cathedral of Saints Peter and Paul, in the fortress at St. Petersburg. -A nurse and governess were then selected for the infant Peter; and -he had a special staff of dwarfs who should be his companions and -servants. The infant prince had his own apartments, some of which were -hung with leather, stamped with silver, and others with fine red cloth; -while the furniture was covered with crimson, embroidered with blue and -yellow, and the walls and ceilings were decorated with paintings. - -The curious books of accounts enumerate some of the articles ordered -for him in the first years of his childhood. Among them were “cradles -covered with gold-embroidered Turkish velvet; sheets and pillows -of white silk; coverlets of gold and silver stuffs; coats, caps, -stockings, and shoes of velvet, silk, and satin, embroidered with -gold and pearls; buttons and tassels of pearls and emeralds; a chest -for his clothes, covered with dark blue velvet, ornamented with -mother-of-pearl; and a miniature carriage, drawn by ponies, in which -he was taken out to drive. Among his toys were musical instruments -of various kinds, and all sorts of military equipments.” Peter grew -rapidly. He was able to walk when six months old. Being the pet of his -parents, he accompanied them in all their excursions and visits. When -he was three years of age, he was presented with a small carriage -drawn by four ponies, in which he was driven by the court dwarfs, and -he began to take part in the public processions of the court. One scene -is thus described: “Immediately after the carriage of the Czar, there -appeared from another gate of the palace the carriage of the Czarina. -In front went the chamberlains with two hundred runners, after which -twelve large snow-white horses, covered with silk housings, drew the -Czarina. Then followed the small carriage of the youngest prince, all -glittering with gold, drawn by four dwarf ponies. At the side of it -rode four dwarfs on ponies, and another one behind.” The presentation -of Peter at court is thus described:— - -“The door on one side suddenly opened, and Peter, three years old, a -curly-headed boy, was seen for a moment, holding his mother’s hand, and -looking at the reception.” - -[Illustration: THE KRÉMLIN OF MOSCOW.] - -At this time, there were a dozen princesses living at the palace,—the -sisters and the aunts and the six daughters of the Czar Alexis. All -were unmarried. They were forbidden to marry any below their own rank; -and since the Tartar invasion, only two attempts had been made to -marry a Russian princess to a foreigner. None of these princesses, -except Sophia, who had shared the lessons of her brother Theodore, had -more than the rudiments of an education. Most of the princesses were -disposed of by placing them in convents. Natalia, the mother of Peter, -having been brought up by a Scotchwoman, had seen more of society than -the other royal ladies; and she was allowed a greater degree of freedom -than had been vouchsafed to her predecessors, who had been rigidly -secluded within their own apartments. - -In 1676, the Czar Alexis died, and the throne descended to his -eldest son, Theodore. It was the custom in Russia for the relations of -the Czar’s wife to have great power at court; and when Theodore came to -the throne, the Miloslávsky family, who were his mother’s relations, -assumed great power, while the family of Peter’s mother, the Czarina -Natalia, lost their influence for the time. - -Both Theodore and Iván were feeble and sickly children, while Peter was -strong and robust. But the law of descent was inexorable, and on the -death of Alexis, Theodore became Czar. As he was only fourteen years -of age, the administration of the government was left to the ministers -of state. Now his sister, the Princess Sophia, who was very ambitious, -formed schemes for getting the power into her own hands. She therefore -so devoted herself to the care of Theodore, who was sick most of the -time, that she gained complete ascendency over him; and she met all the -courtiers, who came to visit the sick Czar, with such affable manners, -and showed such intelligence, that she won a strong party of the -nobles over to her support. There was in Russia, at this time, a very -powerful body of troops, which had been organized by the emperors as -an imperial guard. These troops were called the Streltsi. The Princess -Sophia paid great attention to the officers of these guards, and thus -gained their good-will. Theodore soon after died, and named Peter as -his successor, passing over his brother Iván, as his many infirmities -rendered it impossible for him to reign. It is probable that it was -through the influence of some of the nobles who were opposed to Sophia, -that Theodore was induced to name Peter as his successor. Peter, -although but ten years of age, was proclaimed emperor by the nobles, -immediately after Theodore’s death. Sophia now determined to resist -the transfer of the supreme power to Peter. She secretly engaged the -Streltsi, or guards, on her side. She caused a report to be spread, -that the late emperor had been poisoned, and that the Narýshkins had -murdered the Czarewitz Iván, and that the Narýshkins wished to kill all -the royal family. Thus were the relations of the Czarina Natalia, the -mother of Peter, accused of desiring the death of all the children of -the first wife of Alexis, that Peter might gain the throne. Such was -the falsehood that the Princess Sophia is said to have originated in -order to secure the power. The cry then arose, “To arms! Punish the -traitors! To the Krémlin! Save the Czar!” A general alarm was sounded. -The Streltsi, fully armed, advanced from all sides towards the Krémlin, -and surrounded the palace, demanding the Czarewitz Iván. The Czarina -Natalia was advised to go out on the red staircase with the Czar Peter -and the Czarewitz Iván, that the Streltsi might be convinced of the -falsity of the rumor. Trembling with terror, Natalia took by the hand -her son and stepson, and accompanied by the nobles, went out upon the -red staircase. “Here is the Czar Peter and the Czarewitz Iván!” cried -the nobles, to the mob below. “There are no traitors in the royal -family!” The Streltsi placed ladders against the rails, and some of -them climbed up to the platform where the little Czar stood. Peter -looked at them without blanching, or showing any signs of fear. But -even this did not quiet the disturbance, and the Streltsi burst into -the palace. Natalia took Peter and fled for safety to the monastery of -the Trinity. The soldiers pursued her even into the sanctuary, and to -the foot of the altar; but there the sacredness of the spot arrested -their vengeance, and they left their victims with sullen oaths. In -the meantime, the commotion in the city continued for several days, -and the brother of the Empress Natalia, and others of her friends, -were slain. At last a compromise was effected, and it was agreed that -Iván should be proclaimed Czar in conjunction with his brother Peter, -and that the Princess Sophia should be regent. Sophia, knowing that -Iván, the poor idiot, would be but a tool in her hands, endeavored in -every way possible to prevent her half-brother Peter from becoming so -intelligent and energetic that he would take the power away from her. -She therefore caused his teacher to be dismissed, and commenced to -carry out her plan to ruin the bright and talented boy, by taking away -from him all restraint, and indulging him in every pleasure and whim. -Peter was now established in a household of his own, at a palace in -a small village some distance from Moscow, and Sophia selected fifty -boys to live with him as playmates. These boys were provided with every -possible means of indulgence, subject to little restraint. It was the -intention of Sophia that they should do just as they chose, so that -they would all grow up idle, vicious, and good-for-nothing; and she had -also the hope that Peter might so impair his health as to bring him to -an early grave. - -[Illustration: PETER SAVED FROM SLAUGHTER BY HIS MOTHER.] - -But Peter had already been too well instructed, or possessed too much -native good sense, to fall into this snare, and instead of giving up -his studies, he even contrived to turn his companions into scholars -also. He organized a kind of military school, where they practised the -evolutions and discipline necessary in a camp. He caused himself to be -taught to drum, so that he could execute all the signals used in camp -and on the battle-field. He studied fortification, and set the boys -to work with him to construct a battery in a regular and scientific -manner. He learned the use of tools, and the wheelbarrow he used in -making the fortification was one he made himself. - -As he grew older, he continued to introduce higher branches of military -art into the school, and he adopted the uniforms and equipments for -the pupils, such as were used in the military schools of other nations -of Europe. The result was, that when he was eighteen years of age, and -the time came for him to leave the place, the institution had become -a well-organized and well-appointed military school, and it continued -in successful operation for a long time afterwards. So this wicked -plan of the ambitious Sophia had completely failed. The energy and -talent that Peter had displayed caused many of the leading nobles to -attach themselves to his cause, by which means he was finally enabled -to depose Sophia from her regency, and to take the power into his own -hands. But before this took place, we must note a still more wicked and -evil design of the ambitious princess. - -The party of nobles who now espoused Peter’s cause thought it -expedient that he should marry, and the councillors accordingly chose -for his wife, Eudoxia Lopúkhin, a young lady of noble birth. The -Princess Sophia did all in her power to prevent this match, but she -was unsuccessful, and the marriage took place in February, 1689. It -was thought that a good stay-at-home wife would be likely to keep -him from taking his long excursions for military manœuvres, and for -ship-building, of which he was so fond. But he had scarcely been -married two months before he started off again for his boat-building on -Lake Plestchéief. Here he immediately set to work with his carpenters -to complete the boats, and he wrote to his mother as follows:— - -“To my most beloved and, while bodily life endures, my dearest little -mother, Lady Tsaritsa and Grand Duchess Natalia Kirílovna. Thy little -son, now here at work. Petrúshka, I ask thy blessing, and desire to -hear about thy health; and we, through thy prayers, are all well, and -the lake is all got clear from the ice to-day, and all the boats, -except the big ship, are finished, only we are waiting for ropes; and -therefore I beg your kindness that these ropes, seven hundred fathoms -long, be sent from the artillery department without delaying, for the -work is waiting for them, and our sojourn here is being prolonged.” - -And again he writes:— - -“Hey! I wish to hear about thy health, and beg thy blessing. We are all -well, and about the boats, I say again that they are mighty good, and -Tíkhon Nikítitch will tell you about all this himself. Thy unworthy -Petrus.” - -Peter with his young wife resided in a country palace a few miles -from Moscow. This place was called Obrogensko. Meanwhile, the Russian -government had been engaged in the Crimean War. - -The Poles, having become involved in a war with the Turks, proposed -to the Russians, or Muscovites as they were often called, that they -should aid them in an attempt to conquer the Crimea. In this war -occurred the incident relating to the famous Mazeppa, whose frightful -ride through the tangled thickets of a wild country, bound naked to an -untamed horse, was so graphically described by the poet Byron. Mazeppa -was a Polish gentleman, and having offended a Polish nobleman, he was -thus cruelly punished by his enemy. Some Cossack peasants rescued the -poor Mazeppa from his terrible position, and he afterwards became a -chieftain amongst them. He distinguished himself in these campaigns -in the Crimean war, fought by the Muscovites against the Turks and -Tartars during the regency of the Princess Sophia. This war was not -successful, and Prince Golítsyn, who led the Russian forces, was -obliged to retreat; but fearing to have the state of the case known, -he sent word to Moscow that he had been successful, and was received -by Sophia upon his return with great honors. But the young Peter, who -had been studying military tactics, was so displeased and disgusted -with the military operations of Golítsyn that, when that general was -received by Sophia at Moscow with great state, the rewards could not -then be read, as Peter had refused to sign them. He, however, was -afterwards persuaded to grant them. But this unfortunate campaign -of Golítsyn’s was the turning point in the struggle between the -aristocratic party which espoused the side of Peter, and the government -of Sophia. Now there was formed a dark and wicked plot, and some -historians accuse Sophia of being a party to it, if she did not even -propose it. This was the assassination of the young Czar Peter. - -The commander of the Streltsi selected a band of six hundred of the -imperial guards to go with him to Obrogensko. Their plan was to seize -Peter at night while in his bed. This plot was, however, frustrated -by two of the soldiers who revealed it to Peter. He could not at -first believe that Sophia would resort to such a terrible crime, and -messengers were sent to the city to learn the truth of the matter. -These messengers met the imperial guards when they had gone half-way to -Moscow; and, concealing themselves by the wayside until the troops had -passed, they hastened back by a shorter route to inform Peter of his -impending danger. Peter had just time to flee with his wife and mother -to the monastery of the Trinity, when the Streltsi reached his palace, -and sought him in vain. They returned, discomfited and alarmed, to -the Princess Sophia, and reported that Peter had escaped. From his -retreat in the monastery, Peter sent a message to Sophia, charging her -with having sent the imperial guards to take his life. The princess, -greatly alarmed, denied her guilt. The excitement increased. The -leading nobles flocked to the monastery to declare their adherence to -Peter. Sophia endeavored to keep the Streltsi upon her side, but they -at last went over to Peter, and he demanded that the leader of the band -who attempted his assassination should be delivered into his hands. -This Sophia was obliged to do; and the man was put to the torture, -and revealed the plot. He said that the design had been to kill Peter -himself, his mother, and several other near relations. The Princess -Sophia was accused of being the originator of the plot, and many other -persons were also implicated, including Prince Golítsyn, the commander -of the Russian forces in the Crimean War. The leader of the band of -guards who thus attempted the life of Peter was beheaded, Prince -Golítsyn and his family were banished to Siberia, and many others -implicated were put to death, imprisoned for life, or banished. Thus -ended this conspiracy against the young Czar Peter. The Princess Sophia -was shut up in a convent, where she was imprisoned for fifteen years, -when she died. Iván, the brother-Czar with Peter, was too feeble and -inefficient to take any part in the government, and he died about seven -years after this time. The aristocratic party now filled the offices of -state, and administered the government. - -As Peter was yet so young, he left everything in the hands of his -counsellors, and for several years took merely a formal part in -the administration. He employed himself in military exercises and -boat-building, and in the indulgence of his mechanical tastes. As -Peter grew older, and took more direction of the affairs of the -government, he made choice of two very able men, whom he afterwards -raised to positions of great honor. The name of one of these statesmen -was Le Fort, and the other was Menshikóf. Le Fort was the son of a -merchant of Geneva. He had from childhood evinced a strong desire -to be a soldier; but his father preferred that he should become a -merchant, and he was taken into the counting-house of one of the great -merchants of Amsterdam. This merchant was constantly sending vessels -to different parts of the world, and Le Fort was sent in charge of -the cargo of one vessel to Copenhagen. At this time, an ambassador -was to be sent from Denmark to Russia; and, as Le Fort knew something -of the Russian language, he secured the place of interpreter in the -suite of the ambassador, and went with him to Moscow. On one occasion, -when the Czar Peter was dining at the house of the ambassador, he -noticed Le Fort, and observed that he spoke the Russian language -remarkably for a foreigner. He was at once interested in him, and -soon secured Le Fort as his own interpreter, as he found that he -also spoke other languages. Le Fort became a great favorite of the -emperor’s, and continued in his service until his death. The first -improvement which Le Fort introduced into Russia related to the dress -and equipment of the troops. The imperial guards had been accustomed -to wear an old-fashioned Russian uniform, consisting of a long outer -coat or gown, which much impeded their movements. In conversing with -the Czar, Le Fort suggested that the dress of the soldiers of the -western nations was more convenient for military use. Peter at once -desired to see it; and Le Fort immediately repaired to the tailor of -the Danish ambassador, and ordered him to make two military suits in -the style worn by the royal guards at Copenhagen, one for an officer -and the other for a soldier in the ranks. Peter was so pleased with -these suits, when they were shown to him, that he said he should like -to have a company of guards dressed and equipped in that manner, and -drilled according to the western style. Le Fort undertook the task of -organizing and equipping such a band. When this company was completed, -and clothed in the new uniform, and had been properly drilled, Le Fort -placed himself at their head, and marched them, with drums beating and -colors flying, before the palace gates. The Czar came to the window -to see them pass, and was so pleased that he said he would join the -company himself. He accordingly ordered a dress to be made for his -own use, and he took his place in the ranks, and drilled as a common -soldier. From this beginning, the entire imperial army was reformed. -The Czar now proposed to Le Fort to make arrangements for bringing into -the country a great number of mechanics and artisans from Denmark, -Germany, France, and other European countries, in order that their -improved methods might be introduced into Russia. To accomplish this -end, the tariff of duties on the products and manufactures of foreign -countries was greatly reduced. This increased the importation of goods -from foreign countries, and promoted the intercourse of the Russians -with foreign merchants, manufacturers, and artisans, and accustomed the -people to a better style of living by improving their dress, furniture, -and equipages. Also, the new system greatly increased the revenues of -the empire. Among other reforms instituted by Peter, was that of the -dress of his people. The Russians had been accustomed to wear long -gowns, similar to those worn now in Oriental countries. As this costume -was inconvenient for soldiers, workmen, and artisans, Peter required it -to be changed. This description is given of one strange style of dress -among the ancient Russian ladies:— - -“They wore a sort of dress, of which the sleeves were ten or twelve -yards long. These sleeves were made very full, and were drawn up upon -the arm, in a sort of puff; it being the fashion to have as great a -length of sleeve as could possibly be crowded on, between the shoulder -and the wrist. The customary salutation between ladies and gentlemen -in society, when this dress was in fashion, was performed through the -intervention of the sleeves. On the approach of the gentleman, the -lady, by a sudden and dexterous motion of her arm, would throw off the -end of her sleeve to him. The sleeve, being so very long, could be -thrown in this way half across the room. The gentleman would take the -end of the sleeve which represented, we are to suppose, the hand of the -lady, and, after kissing and saluting it in a most respectful manner, -he would resign it, and the lady would draw it back again upon her arm.” - -Peter required the people to change this dress, and he sent patterns -of the coats worn in Western Europe, to all parts of the country. He, -however, met with a good deal of difficulty in inducing the people -to follow these new fashions, especially regarding the shaving of -their mustaches and beards. He thereupon assessed a tax upon beards, -requiring every gentleman who wore one to pay a hundred rubles a year; -and if any peasant entered the city wearing a beard, he was stopped at -the gates, and rerequired to pay a fine of a penny. The officers of the -customs, who were stationed at the gates of the towns, were ordered to -stop every man who wore a long dress, and compel him to pay a fine -of fifty cents, or else kneel down, and have all the part of his coat -which lay upon the ground cut off with a pair of big shears. The Czar -first set an example also, of rapid motion through the streets. It had -been the custom for all the nobles to move about attended by a vast -retinue; and as it was considered more stately to move slowly, and -as all those lower in rank must stand, with uncovered heads, in the -presence of their masters, the streets were often blocked in the snow -and rain by these vast cavalcades of royalty; and crowds were obliged -to stand in the cold and wet, with bare heads exposed to the inclemency -of the weather. Peter the Great was attended, therefore, only by a -few persons, when going out in carriage or sleigh, and his coachman -was ordered to drive at a quick pace; and he limited the attendants -of his nobles to a certain number. This story is told of the manner -in which the Czar’s attention was attracted to young Menshikóf, who -became one of his chief officers. Alexander Menshikóf was the son of a -laboring man, in the service of a monastery, on the banks of the Volga. -Young Menshikóf afterwards went to Moscow, and was there employed in -a pastry-cook’s shop. It was his part of the work to go out in the -streets and sell pies and cakes. In order to attract customers, he -often sang songs. At one time Peter was passing, and stopped to listen -to the songs of the young pastry-boy. Finally, the Czar asked him what -he would take for his whole stock of cakes and pies, basket and all. -The boy promptly stated the sum he would take for his wares, but as -for the basket, as it belonged to his master, he could not sell it; -but he dryly added: “Still, everything belongs to Your Majesty, and -Your Majesty has, therefore, only to give me the command, and I shall -deliver it up to you.” - -[Illustration: CATHEDRAL OF ST. PETER AND PAUL IN THE FORTRESS.] - -This reply so pleased the Czar, that he took the boy into his service. -When Peter the Great first became the sole ruler of Russia, after the -downfall of Sophia, he was about twenty years of age. His word was -law. Life and death hung upon his will. His dominions extended so far, -that, when he wished to send an ambassador to one of his neighbors—the -emperor of China—it took the messenger more than eighteen months of -constant travelling to go from the capital to the frontier. As to -Peter’s character, he was talented, ambitious, energetic, and resolute; -but he was also quick-tempered, imperious, merciless, towards his -enemies, and possessed an indomitable will. Peter thus describes his -first trial of the open sea:— - -“For some years I had the fill of my desires on Lake Pereyaslávl, but -finally it grew too narrow for me. I then went to the Kúbensky Lake, -but that was too shallow. I then decided to see the open sea, and -began often to beg the permission of my mother to go to Archangel. She -forbade me such a dangerous journey, but, seeing my great desire, and -my unchangeable longing, allowed it, in spite of herself.” - -So, in 1693, Peter set out from Moscow, with a suite of a hundred -persons, to go to Archangel. Having arrived there, the smell of the -salt water was too inviting to be resisted; and Peter put out to sea -on a little yacht, called St. Peter, which had been built for him. His -mother, who had exacted a promise that he would not go to sea, hearing -that he had gone on a sea journey, was much alarmed, and wrote to him, -urging his return. She even had a letter written to him, in the name of -his little son, Alexis, then three years old, begging him to come back. -To this he replied:— - -“By thy letter I see, oh! oh! that thou hast been mightily grieved, and -why? Why dost thou trouble thyself about me? Thou hast deigned to write -that thou hast given me into the care of the Virgin. When thou hast -such a guardian for me, why dost thou grieve?” - -While at Archangel, besides the time which Peter gave to the study of -commerce and ship-building, he found leisure for inspecting various -industries and for practising both at the forge and at the lathe. A -chandelier made of walrus teeth, turned by him, hangs now over his -tomb in the Cathedral of Saints Peter and Paul, at St. Petersburg; -and carved work in bone and wood, and iron bars forged by him at this -time, are still preserved. Besides the balls and dinners which he -attended at Archangel, to which he had also been much given at Moscow, -he frequently attended a neighboring church, where he himself read -the Epistle, sang with the choir, and made great friends with the -archbishop. In 1694 his mother Natalia died, and soon he repudiated his -wife Eudoxia and shut her up in a convent, where he kept her confined -all the rest of her life. Peter had only married this wife to please -his mother and his nobles, and having never loved her, soon tired of -her. She had been brought up in the old-fashioned Russian way, and was -very ignorant; but as she appeared to love him devotedly, his treatment -of her was wicked and cruel, and in his after domestic life there is -much to condemn. Although he did much for the advancement of Russia, -and his public enterprise and achievements are greatly to be admired, -in character he was brutal and selfish, and his tastes were low and -vicious. He was fond of drunken carousals, and sank the dignity of his -rank in his associations with inferior and profligate companions. As a -man, there is little to admire in him, but as a public benefactor of -his country, he is greatly to be commended. As an artisan, statesman, -and general, he introduced wise and good reforms into his realms, and -raised his people from semi-barbarism to rank with the other civilized -nations of Europe. - -Though he was not a scholar, he encouraged learning. There was, about -this time, a second attempt made to assassinate the Czar. As Peter was -often accustomed to attend conflagrations in Moscow, these conspirators -formed the plan of setting fire to some building near the royal -palace, and when the emperor, as was his wont, should come out to help -extinguish the flames, he was to be assassinated. They then determined -to go to the convent where Sophia was confined, release her, and -proclaim her empress. This plot was, however, revealed to the Czar, and -he thereupon ordered a small body of men to attend him, and he went at -once to the houses of the various conspirators and arrested them. They -were afterwards executed in a most barbarous manner. The criminals were -brought out one by one. First their arms were cut off, then their legs, -and finally their heads. The amputated limbs and heads were then hung -upon a column in the market-place in Moscow, where they were left as a -bloody warning to others, as long as the weather remained cold enough -to keep them frozen. Thus ended the second conspiracy against the -life of Peter the Great. In 1695 the Czar, in conjunction with other -European powers, declared war again against the Turks and Tartars. -Peter acquired great renown throughout Europe for his successful siege -against Azof, to obtain which was one of the chief objects of the -campaign. This success also increased Peter’s interest in the building -of ships. He determined to establish a large fleet on the Black Sea, -and in order to ascertain the best modes of ship-building, Peter -resolved to make a journey to Western Europe. - -That he might not be burdened by fêtes and ceremonies, he adopted -a disguise. Macaulay said of this journey, “It is an epoch in the -history, not only of his own country, but of ours and of the world.” - -Various reasons have been given by different writers for this step -of the Czar. Pleyer, the secret Austrian agent, wrote to the Emperor -Leopold that the whole embassy was “merely a cloak for the freedom -sought by the Czar, to get out of his own country and divert himself a -little.” A document in the archives at Vienna states that the “cause of -the journey was a vow made by Peter, when in danger on the White Sea, -to make a pilgrimage to the tombs of the apostles St. Peter and St. -Paul at Rome.” Voltaire said, “He resolved to absent himself for some -years from his dominions, in order to learn how better to govern them.” -Napoleon said, “He left his country to deliver himself for a while from -the crown, so as to learn ordinary life, and remount by degrees to -greatness.” But later writers say, “Peter went abroad, not to fulfil a -vow, not to amuse himself, not to become more civilized, not to learn -the art of government, but simply to become a good shipwright.” - -His mind was filled with the idea of creating a navy on the Black Sea, -and his tastes had always been mechanical. In order to give the Czar -greater freedom of action, the purpose of his journey was concealed -by means of a great embassy, which should visit the chief countries -of western Europe. In the suite of the ambassadors were twenty nobles -and thirty-five called volunteers, who were going for the study of -ship-building. Among these was the Czar himself. These volunteers were -chiefly young men who had been comrades of Peter in his play-regiments -and boat-building. During the absence of the Czar the government was -intrusted to a regency of three persons, the uncle of the Czar and -two princes. We have not space to describe this journey in full, and -can only mention certain incidents. The Czar is thus described by the -electress of Hannover and her daughter, whom Peter met at Koppenbrügge:— - -“My mother and I began to pay him our compliments, but he made Mr. -Le Fort reply for him, for he seemed shy, hid his face in his hands, -and said, ‘_Ich kann nicht sprechen_.’ But we tamed him a little, and -then he sat down at the table between my mother and myself, and each -of us talked to him in turn. Sometimes he replied with promptitude, at -others, he made two interpreters talk, and assuredly he said nothing -that was not to the point on all subjects that were suggested. As to -his grimaces, I imagined them worse than I found them, and some are not -in his power to correct. One can see also that he has had no one to -teach him how to eat properly, but he has a natural unconstrained air -which pleases me.” - -[Illustration: PETER THE GREAT IN THE DUTCH SHIPYARD.] - -Her mother also wrote: “The Czar is very tall, his features are fine, -and his figure very noble. He has great vivacity of mind, and a ready -and just repartee. But, with all the advantages with which nature has -endowed him, it could be wished that his manners were a little less -rustic. I asked him if he liked hunting. He replied that his father had -been very fond of it, but that he himself, from his earliest youth, had -had a real passion for navigation and for fireworks. He told us that -he worked himself in building ships, showed us his hands, and made us -touch the callous places that had been made by work. He has quite the -manners of his country. If he had received a better education, he -would be an accomplished man, for he has many good qualities, and an -infinite amount of native wit.” - -The Czar proceeded to Holland, and in the little town of Saardam, not -far from Amsterdam, may still be seen the shop which Peter occupied -while there. The historians say, he entered himself as a common -ship-carpenter, at Amsterdam, and worked for several months among -the other workmen, wearing the same dress they wore. In moments of -rest, the Czar, sitting down on a log, with his hatchet between his -knees, was willing to talk to any one who addressed him simply as -carpenter Peter, but turned away without answering if called Sire or -Your Majesty. Peter’s curiosity was insatiable. He visited workshops, -factories, cabinets of coins, anatomical museums, botanical gardens, -hospitals, theatres, and numerous other places; and inquired about -everything he saw, until he was recognized by his usual questions, -“What is that for? How does that work? That will I see.” He made -himself acquainted with Dutch home and family life. Every market day -he went to the Botermarkt, mingled with the people, and studied their -trades. - -He took lessons from a travelling dentist, and experimented on his -servants. He mended his own clothes, and learned enough of cobbling to -make himself a pair of slippers. He visited Protestant churches, and -did not forget the beer-houses. The frigate upon which Peter worked so -long, was at last launched, and proved a good ship. He had seen some -English ships which pleased him so much, that he determined to set out -for England, which he did in 1698, leaving his embassy in Holland. - -King William of England made Peter a present of an English yacht, -with which he was much delighted. Peter spent much of his time in -England, looking for suitable persons to employ in arts and mechanics -in Russia. He avoided all court pomp and etiquette during this -journey, and travelled incognito, as much as possible. He visited also -the mint in England, for he was pleased with the excellence of the -English coinage, and he designed recoining the Russian money, which -he afterwards accomplished, coining copper, silver, and gold to the -extent of $18,000,000 in the space of three years, to replace the bits -of stamped leather formerly used. At length he returned to Amsterdam, -where his embassy awaited him. When Peter the Great was excited by -anger or emotion, the ugly aspect of his countenance and demeanor was -greatly aggravated by a nervous affection of the head and face, which -attacked him, particularly when he was in a passion, and which produced -convulsive twitches of the muscles, that drew his head by jerks to one -side, and distorted his face in a manner dreadful to behold. It was -said that this disorder was first induced in his childhood, by some -one of the terrible frights through which he passed. This distortion, -together with the coarse and savage language he employed when in a -passion, made him appear at times more like some ugly monster of -fiction than like a man. He disliked court etiquette, and avoided -pompous ceremonies. Of course there was much curiosity to see him in -the various cities he visited, but he generally avoided the crowds; -and when his splendid embassy entered a city in royal state, and the -people collected in vast numbers to behold the famous Czar, while they -were straining their eyes, and peering into every carriage of the royal -procession in hopes of seeing him, Peter himself would slip into the -city by some quiet street, in disguise, and meeting the merchants, with -whom he delighted to associate, he would go to some inn and indulge in -his pipe and beer, leaving his embassy to represent royalty. At last -his disguise was discovered, and then the news was circulated that -the Czar could be easily recognized by his great height,—nearly seven -feet,—by the twitching of his face, by his gesturing with his right -hand, and by a small mole on the right cheek. His appearance is thus -described by one who saw him at this time:— - -“He is a prince of very great stature, but there is one circumstance -which is unpleasant. He has convulsions, sometimes in his eyes, -sometimes in his arms, and sometimes in his whole body. He at times -turns his eyes so that one can see nothing but the whites. I do not -know whence it arises, but we must believe that it is a lack of good -breeding. Then he has also movements in the legs, so that he can -scarcely keep in one place. He is very well made, and goes about -dressed as a sailor, in the highest degree simple, and wishing nothing -else than to be on the water.” - -But the Cardinal Kollonitz, primate of Hungary, gives a more flattering -picture of Peter the Great:— - -“The Czar is a youth of from twenty-eight to thirty years of age, -is tall, of an olive complexion, rather stout than thin, in aspect -between proud and grave, and with a lively countenance. His left eye, -as well as his left arm and leg, were injured by the poison given him -during the life of his brother; but there remain now only a fixed and -fascinated look in his eye, and a constant movement of his arm and -leg, to hide which, he accompanies this forced motion with continual -movements of his entire body, which, by many people in the countries -which he has visited, has been attributed to natural causes, but really -it is artificial. His wit is lively and ready; his manners rather -civil than barbarous, the journey he has made having improved him, -and the difference from the beginning of his travels and the present -time being visible, although his native roughness may still be seen in -him; but it is chiefly noticeable in his followers, whom he holds in -check with great severity. He has a knowledge of geography and history, -and, what is most to be noticed, he desires to know these subjects -better; but his strongest inclination is for maritime affairs, at which -he himself works mechanically, as he did in Holland; and this work, -according to many people who have to do with him, is indispensable to -divert the effects of the poison, which still very much troubles him. -In person and in aspect, as well as in his manners, there is nothing -which would distinguish him or declare him to be a prince.” - -[Illustration: PETER I., CZAR OF RUSSIA. - -(From Original Copperplate Engraving.)] - -During his visit to Paris, the Czar often astonished the polite -Parisians. “On one occasion he went with the duke of Orleans to the -opera, where he sat on the front bench of the large box. During the -performance the Czar asked if he could not have some beer. A large -goblet on a saucer was immediately brought. The regent rose, took it, -and presented it to the Czar, who, with a smile and bow of politeness, -took the goblet without any ceremony, drank, and put it back on the -saucer, which the regent kept holding. The duke then took a plate with -a napkin, which he presented to the Czar, who, without rising, made use -of it, at which scene the audience seemed astonished.” - -Notwithstanding his rough manners, the history, character, and -achievements of the Czar, together with his exact knowledge in so many -directions, and his interest in everything that was scientific and -technical, made a deep impression upon those who met him. St. Simon -thus describes him: “He was a very tall man, well made, not too stout, -with a roundish face, a high forehead, and fine eyebrows, a short -nose—but not too short—large at the end; his lips were rather thick, -his complexion a ruddy brown; fine black eyes, large, lively, piercing, -and well apart; a majestic and gracious look when he wished, otherwise -severe and stern, with a twitching which did not often return, but -which disturbed his look and his whole expression, and inspired fear. -That lasted but a moment, accompanied by a wild and terrible look, -and passed away as quickly. His whole air showed his intellect, his -reflection, and his greatness, and did not lack a certain grace. He -wore only a linen collar, a round brown peruke without powder, which -did not touch his shoulders; a brown, tight-fitting coat, plain, with -gold buttons; a waistcoat, breeches, stockings, no gloves nor cuffs; -the star of his order on his coat, and the ribbon underneath, his coat -often quite unbuttoned; his hat on a table, and never on his head even -out of doors. With all this simplicity, and whatever bad carriage -or company he might be, one could not fail to perceive the air of -greatness that was natural to him.” - -While at Vienna, Peter learned of another revolt of the Streltsi, and -thereupon hastened back to Moscow to put down the insurrection. The -rebellion was soon quelled; but the tortures and executions which -followed were barbarous. Some were beheaded; some were broken on the -wheel, and then left to die in horrible agonies; many were buried -alive, their heads only being left above the ground. It is said -that Peter took such a savage delight in these punishments that he -executed many of the victims with his own hand. At one time, when half -intoxicated, at a banquet, he ordered twenty prisoners to be brought -in, and between his drinks of brandy cut off their heads himself, being -an hour in cutting off the twenty heads. - -As Peter thought Sophia was implicated in this revolt, he ordered the -arm of the ringleader of the plot to be cut off, and an address which -he found, written to Sophia, to be placed in the stiffened hand, and -by his order this ghastly relic was fastened to the wall in Sophia’s -apartment. When the trials were over, a decree was issued, abolishing -the Streltsi; and they were all sent into exile. Peter was now involved -in a war with Sweden for the possession of the eastern shore of the -Baltic Sea. At first, the Swedes were victorious; but in about a year -the Czar gained possession of a considerable portion of the Baltic -shore, and he thereupon determined to build a new city there, with the -view of making it the naval and commercial capital of his kingdom. This -plan was successfully carried out, and the building of the great city -of St. Petersburg was one of the most important events in the reign of -Peter the Great. - -At length, Charles XII., king of Sweden, began to be alarmed at the -increasing power of the Czar in that part of the country, and he -invaded Russia with an army. The famous battle of Pultowa, by which the -invasion of the Swedes was repelled, was fought in 1709; and this was -almost the only serious danger from any foreign source which threatened -the dominions of Peter the Great during his reign. - -Peter, having been previously privately married to Catherine, -determined, in 1712, to have a public ceremony. Peter’s first wife had -one son, Alexis, who occasioned his father the most serious trouble. -Alexis was indolent and most vicious in his habits of life; and so -outrageous was his conduct that at last his father caused him to be -imprisoned. It was then discovered that Alexis had been planning -a revolt, and Peter referred his case to a grand council of civil -authorities, and also a convocation of the clergy to determine upon -the sentence to be pronounced upon this rebellious son. The council -declared that he was worthy of death, and the Czar confirmed the -judgment of the council, and a day was appointed on which Alexis was -to be arraigned in order that sentence of death might be solemnly -pronounced upon him. But before the appointed day arrived, Alexis was -attacked with convulsions, caused by his terror; and the Czar visited -him in the fortress where he was dying. - -The dying prince besought forgiveness of his father with such prayers -and tears that Peter and his ministers were overcome with emotion. The -Czar gave Alexis his forgiveness and his blessing, and took his leave -with tears and lamentations. Soon after, Alexis expired. The funeral -rites were performed by the Czar and his family with much solemnity. At -the service in the church a funeral sermon was pronounced by the priest -from the appropriate text, “O Absalom! my son! my son Absalom!” Thus -ended this dreadful tragedy. - -The heir to the throne was now the little son of Catherine, Peter -Petrowitz. The birth of this son, which occurred about three years -before the death of Alexis, was such a delight to Peter the Great that -he celebrated the event with public rejoicings. At the baptism of the -babe, two kings—those of Denmark and of Prussia—acted as godfathers. -The christening was attended with most gorgeous banquets. Among other -curious contrivances were two enormous pies,—one served in the room of -the gentlemen and the other in that of the ladies. From the ladies’ -pie, there stepped out, when it was opened, a young dwarf, very small, -and clothed in a fantastic manner. The dwarf brought out with him from -the pie some glasses and a bottle of wine, and he walked around the -table, drinking to the health of the ladies, who were intensely amused -by his droll manners. In the gentlemen’s room the pie was similar, from -which a female dwarf stepped forth and performed the same ceremony. -Peter the Great was much attached to his wife Catherine, whose romantic -life we have not space to describe. Her influence over the Czar was -most beneficial. - -About a year after the death of Alexis, the little Peter Petrowitz, the -idolized son of the Czar, also died. Peter the Great was completely -overwhelmed with grief at this new calamity. Even Catherine, who -usually had power to soothe his fits of frenzy, anger, or grief, and -whose touch would often stop the contortions of his face, could not -comfort him now; for the sight of her only reminded him more keenly of -his loss. It was feared at this time that grief would kill the Czar; -for he shut himself up alone, and would not allow any one to come -near him for three days and nights. Peter the Great, however, lived -sixteen years after this event. During these last years he continued -the reforms in his empire and increased the power and influence of his -government among surrounding nations. As both of his sons were dead, -he determined to leave the government in the hands of Catherine, and -she was crowned empress with most imposing ceremonies. In less than -a year after this event, the Czar was attacked with a sudden illness -during the ceremonies of rejoicings connected with the betrothal of -one of his daughters to a foreign duke. His death took place on the -28th of January, 1725. Another of his daughters having died a short -time after her father, their bodies were interred together. The funeral -obsequies were so protracted, and were conducted with so much pomp and -ceremony, that six weeks elapsed before the remains of Peter the Great -were finally committed to the tomb. The fame of Peter the Great differs -from that attained by other famous rulers of the world; for it was not -consequent upon renowned foreign conquests, but the triumph which Peter -achieved was the commencement of a work of internal improvement and -reform which now, after a century and a half has passed, is still going -on. - - - - -FREDERICK THE GREAT. - -A.D. 1712-1786. - - “Kings are like stars,—they rise and set, they have - The worship of the world, but no repose.”—SHELLEY. - - “A man’s a man; - But when you see a king, you see the work - Of many thousand men.”—GEORGE ELIOT. - - -CARLYLE accused Schiller of “oversetting fact, disregarding reality, -and tumbling time and space topsy-turvy.” That there is great danger -of doing the latter, in condensing such a life as that of Frederick -the Great into the small space allotted to these sketches, cannot be -denied; but fiction itself could scarcely overstate the facts connected -with this weird but most fascinating glimpse of historical events. -Carlyle says: “With such wagon-loads of books and printed records as -exist on the subject of Frederick, it has always seemed possible, even -for a stranger, to acquire some real understanding of him; though -practically, here and now, I have to own it proves difficult beyond -conception. Alas! the books are not cosmic; they are chaotic.” - -[Illustration: FREDERICK II., KING OF PRUSSIA, ÆT. 58.] - -True it is, it is not want of material, but the overwhelming -multiplicity of documents, which renders it difficult to trace out a -clear-cut sketch of Frederick the Great; and that we may do it more -concisely, and yet entertainingly, a series of panoramic pictures will -perhaps be the best method of achieving the desired end. - -“About one hundred years ago there used to be seen sauntering on the -terraces of Sans Souci for a short time in the afternoon—or you might -have met him elsewhere at an earlier hour, riding or driving in a -rapid business manner on the open roads, or through the scraggy woods -and avenues of that intricate, amphibious Potsdam region—a highly -interesting, lean little old man, of alert though slightly stooping -figure, whose name among strangers was _King Friedrich the Second_, or -Frederick the Great of Prussia, and at home among the common people, -who much loved and esteemed him, was _Vater Fritz_, Father Fred. - -“He is a king, every inch of him, though without the trappings of a -king. He presents himself in a Spartan simplicity of vesture: no crown -but an old military cocked hat, generally old, or trampled and kneaded -into absolute softness if new; no sceptre but one like Agamemnon’s—a -walking-stick cut from the woods, which serves also as a riding-stick; -and for royal robes a mere soldier’s blue coat with red facings, coat -likely to be old, and sure to have a good deal of Spanish snuff on the -breast of it; rest of the apparel dim, unobtrusive in color or cut, -ending in high over-knee military boots, which may be brushed, but are -not permitted to be blackened or varnished. - -“The man is not of god-like physiognomy, any more than of imposing -stature or costume: close-shut mouth with thin lips, prominent jaws and -nose, receding brow, by no means of Olympian height; head, however, is -of long form, and has superlative gray eyes in it; not what is called a -beautiful man, nor yet, by all appearance, what is called a happy. The -face bears evidence of many sorrows, of much hard labor done in this -world. Quiet stoicism, great unconscious, and some conscious, pride, -well tempered with a cheery mockery of humor, are written on that -old face, which carries its chin well forward in spite of the slight -stoop about the neck; snuffy nose rather flung into the air, under its -old cocked hat, like an old snuffy lion on the watch, and such a pair -of eyes as no man, or lion, or lynx, of that century bore elsewhere. -Those eyes, which, at the bidding of his great soul, fascinated you -with seduction or with terror; most excellent, potent, brilliant eyes, -swift-darting as the stars, steadfast as the sun; gray, we said, of -the azure-gray color; large enough, not of glaring size; the habitual -expression of them vigilance and penetrating sense, and gives us the -notion of a lambent outer radiance springing from some great inner -sea of light and fire in the man. The voice, if he speak to you, is -clear, melodious, and sonorous; all tones are in it: ingenuous inquiry, -graceful sociality, light-flowing banter up to definite word of -command, up to desolating word of rebuke and reprobation.” - -Such is the picture of Frederick the Great in his later days; but -now we will turn back our panoramic views, and behold the setting of -his early years: and, to a clearer understanding of those events, -an aid may be found in glancing at his native country, Prussia. For -many centuries the country on the southern coasts of the Baltic Sea -was inhabited by wild tribes of barbarians, almost as savage as the -beasts which roamed in their forests. After a time the tribes, tamed -and partly civilized, produced a race of tall and manly proportions, -fair in complexion, with flaxen hair, stern aspect, great physical -strength, and most formidable foes in battle. Centuries passed, -of which history notes only wars and woes, when from this chaotic -barbarism order emerged. Small states were organized, and a political -life began. In 1700 one of the petty provinces was called the -Marquisate of Brandenburg, whose marquis was Frederick, of the family -of Hohenzollern. To the east of this province was a duchy, called -Prussia, which was at length added to the domains of Frederick, the -marquis of Brandenburg, and he obtained from the emperor of Germany the -recognition of his dominions as a kingdom, and assumed the title of -Frederick I. of Prussia. On the 16th of November, 1700, his ambassador -returned triumphantly from Vienna. “The Kaiser has consented; we are -to wear a royal crown on the top of our periwig.” Thus Prussia became -a kingdom. When Frederick was crowned king of Prussia, most gorgeous -was the pomp, most royal was the grandeur, of the imposing ceremonies. -Carlyle says:— - -“The magnificence of Frederick’s processionings into Konigsburg, and -of his coronation ceremonials there, what pen can describe it! what -pen need! Folio volumes with copper-plates have been written on it, -and are not yet all pasted in band-boxes or slit into spills. ‘The -diamond buttons of his majesty’s coat’ (snuff-colored or purple, I -cannot recollect) cost £1,500 apiece. By this one feature judge what -an expensive Herr. Streets were hung with cloth, carpeted with cloth, -no end of draperies and cloth; your oppressed imagination feels as if -there was cloth enough of scarlet and other bright colors to thatch -the Arctic Zone; with illuminations, cannon-salvos, fountains running -wine. Frederick himself put the crown on his head, ‘King here in my own -right, after all,’ and looked his royalest, we may fancy,—the kind eyes -of him, almost fierce for moments, and the ‘cheerfulness of pride’ well -blending with something of awful.” - -And now we must hang up the picture of Frederick the grandfather, for -there has another Frederick come to claim our attention. “Courage, -poor old grandfather! Poor old man! he got his own back half broken by -a careless nurse letting him fall, and has slightly stooped ever since, -much against his will, for he would fain have been beautiful. But here -is a new edition of a Frederick, the first having gone off with so -little effect. This one’s back is still unbroken. Who knows but Heaven -may be kinder to this one? Heaven was much kinder to this one. Him -Heaven had kneaded of a more potent stuff; a mighty fellow, this one, -and a strange; of a swift, far-darting nature this one, like an Apollo -clad in sunbeams and in lightnings, and with a back which all the world -could not succeed in breaking.” - -Between the old grandfather and this famous Frederick there -hangs the picture of still another Frederick, only a little less -famous,—Frederick Wilhelm, crown prince of Prussia when his famous -son was born, afterwards second king of Prussia, and withal most -ferocious in his nature, part bear and part maniac; his picture is thus -graphically sketched. - -“The new monarch, who assumed the crown with the title of Frederick -William, not with that of Frederick II., to the utter consternation -of the court dismissed nearly every honorary official of the palace, -from the highest dignitary to the humblest page. His flashing eye -and determined manner were so appalling that no one ventured to -remonstrate. A clean sweep was made, so that the household was -reduced to the lowest footing of economy consistent with the supply -of indispensable wants. Eight servants were retained at six shillings -a week. His father had thirty pages; all were dismissed but three. -There were one thousand saddle-horses in the royal stables; Frederick -William kept thirty. Three-fourths of the names were struck from the -pension list. For twenty-seven years this strange man reigned. He -was like no other monarch. Great wisdom and shrewdness were blended -with unutterable folly and almost maniacal madness. Though a man of -strong powers of mind, he was very illiterate. ‘For spelling, grammar, -penmanship, and composition, his semi-articulate papers resemble -nothing else extant,—are as if done by the paw of a bear; indeed, -the utterance generally sounds more like the growling of a bear than -anything that could be handily spelled or parsed. But there is a -decisive human sense in the heart of it, and such a dire hatred of -empty bladders, unrealities, and hypocritical forms and pretenses, -which he calls wind and humbug, as is very strange indeed.’ - -“His energy inspired the whole kingdom, and paved the way for the -achievements of his son. The father created the machine with which the -son attained such wonderful results. He commuted the old feudal service -into a fixed money payment. He goaded the whole realm into industry, -compelling even the apple-women to knit at the stalls. - -“The crown lands were farmed out. He drained bogs, planted colonies, -established manufactures, and in every way encouraged the use of -Prussian products. He carried with him invariably a stout rattan cane. -Upon the slightest provocation, like a madman, he would thrash those -who displeased him. He was an arbitrary king, ruling at his sovereign -will, and disposing of the liberty, the property, and the lives of -his subjects at his pleasure. Every year he accumulated large masses -of coin, which he deposited in barrels in the cellar of his palace. -He had no powers of graceful speech, but spent his energetic, joyless -life in grumbling and growling. He would allow no drapery, no stuffed -furniture, no carpets in his apartments. He sat upon a plain wooden -chair. He ate roughly of roast beef, despising all delicacies. His -dress was a close military blue coat, with red cuffs and collar, buff -waistcoat and breeches, and white linen gaiters to the knee. His -sword was belted around his waist. A well-worn, battered triangular -hat covered his head. He walked rapidly through the streets which -surrounded his palaces at Potsdam and Berlin. If he met any one, he -would abruptly inquire, ‘Who are you?’ When his majesty took a walk, -every human being fled before him, as if a tiger had broken loose -from a menagerie. If he met a lady in the street, he gave her a kick, -and told her to go home and mind her children. If he saw a clergyman -staring at the soldiers, he admonished the reverend gentleman to betake -himself to study and prayer, and enforced his pious advice by a sound -caning administered on the spot. But it was in his own house that he -was most unreasonable and ferocious. His palace was hell, and he the -most execrable of fiends.” - -And now we will turn this unlovely picture of the bearish Frederick -William to the wall, while we examine a portrait of the young Fritz, -afterwards Frederick the Great. - -In the palace of Berlin, on the 24th of January, 1712, a small infant -opened its eyes upon this world. Though small, he was of great promise -and possibility, “and thrice and four times welcome to all sovereign -and other persons in the Prussian court and Prussian realms in those -cold winter days. His father, they say, was like to have stifled him -with his caresses, so overjoyed was the man, or at least to have -scorched him in the blaze of the fire, when happily some much suitabler -female nurse snatched this little creature from the rough paternal -paws, and saved it for the benefit of Prussia and mankind.” - -Then they christened this wee fellow, aged one week, with immense -magnificence and pomp of ceremony, Karl Frederick; but the Karl dropped -altogether out of practice, and Frederick (_Rich in Peace_) became -his only title; until his father became king of Prussia, and Fritz -stepped into the rank of crown prince, and subsequently became the most -renowned sovereign of his nation, and took his place in the foremost -rank of the famous rulers of the world. - -Frederick William had married, when eighteen years of age, his pretty -cousin, Sophie Dorothee, daughter of George I. of England. Little Fritz -had an elder sister, named Wilhelmina. There were several younger -children afterwards, but our story mostly concerns Fritz and his sister -Wilhelmina, for whom he showed greater affection than for any other -person. - -Frederick William was very desirous that Fritz should be a soldier, but -the beautiful laughing Fritz, with his long golden curls and sensitive -nature, was fonder of books and music than of war and soldiering, -which much offended his stern father; and so great was his abhorrence -of such a feminine employment as he esteemed music, that little Fritz -and Wilhelmina must needs practice in secret; and had it not been for -the aid of their mother, the Queen Sophie Dorothee, they would have -been denied this great pleasure. But the music-masters were sent to -the forests or caves by the queen, and there the prince Fritz and -Wilhelmina took their much-prized music-lessons. But one day the -stern king found Fritz and Wilhelmina marching around together, while -the laughing prince was proudly beating a drum, much to his own and -sister’s delight. The king was so overjoyed at this manifestation -of supposed military taste in his son, that he immediately called -the queen to witness the performance, and then employed an artist to -transfer the scene to canvas. This picture still hangs upon the walls -of the Charlottenburg Palace. - -When Fritz was but six years old, a military company was organized for -him, consisting of about three hundred lads. This band was called “The -Crown Prince Cadets.” Fritz was very thoroughly drilled in his military -duties, and a uniform was provided for him. An arsenal was built on the -palace grounds at Potsdam, where he mounted batteries and practised -gunnery with small brass ordnance. Until Fritz was seven years of age, -his education had been under the care of a French governess; but at -that age he was taken from his lady teachers and placed under tutors. -These tutors were military officers of great renown. - -The following directions were drawn up by Frederick William, regarding -his son’s education:— - -“My son must be impressed with love and fear of God, as the foundation -of our temporal and eternal welfare. No false religions or sects of -Atheist, Arian, Socinian, or whatever name the poisonous things have, -which can easily corrupt a young mind, are to be even named in his -hearing. He is to be taught a proper abhorrence of Papistry, and to -be shown its baselessness and nonsensicality. Impress on him the true -religion, which consists essentially in this: that Christ died for -all men. He is to learn no Latin, but French and German, so as to -speak and write with brevity and propriety. Let him learn arithmetic, -mathematics, artillery, economy, to the very bottom; history in -particular; ancient history only slightly, but the history of the -last one hundred and fifty years to the exactest pitch. He must be -completely master of geography, as also of whatever is remarkable in -each country. With increasing years you will more and more, to an -especial degree, go upon fortification, the formation of a camp, and -other war sciences, that the prince may from youth upward be trained to -act as officer and general, and to seek all his glory in the soldier -profession.” - -Frederick William took little Fritz with him from early childhood on -all his military reviews, and in going from garrison to garrison the -king employed a common vehicle called a sausage-car. This consisted of -a mere stuffed pole, some ten or twelve feet long, upon which they sat -astride. It rested upon wheels, and the riders, ten or a dozen, were -rattled along over the rough roads through dust and rain, in winter’s -cold and summer’s heat. This iron king robbed his child even of sleep, -saying, “Too much sleep stupefies a fellow.” Sitting astride of this -log carriage, the tender and delicate Fritz, whose love was for music, -poetry, and books, was forced to endure all kinds of hardship and -fatigue. When Fritz was ten years of age, his exacting father made out -a set of rules which covered all the hours of this poor boy’s life. Not -even Saturday or Sunday was left untrammelled by his stern requirements. - -Fritz was a remarkably handsome boy, with a fine figure, small and -delicate hands and feet, and flowing blonde hair. His father, despising -all the etiquette and social manners of life and dress, ordered his -beautiful hair to be cut off, and denied him every luxury of the toilet -and adornment. Frederick William early displayed an aversion for his -handsome son, which soon amounted to actual hatred. As Wilhelmina and -the mother of Fritz both took his part against the angry and brutal -king, the wrath of that almost inhuman monster was also meted out to -them. - -When Fritz was fourteen years of age, he was appointed by his father as -captain of the Potsdam Grenadier Guards. This regiment was the glory -of the king, and was composed entirely of giants. The shortest of the -men were nearly seven feet high, and the tallest nearly nine feet in -height. Frederick William did not scruple to take any means of securing -these coveted giants, and his recruiting officers were stationed in -many places for the purpose of seizing any large men, no matter what -their nationality or position. When the rulers of neighboring realms -complained at this unlawful seizure of their subjects, the Prussian -king pretended that it was done without his knowledge. If any young -woman was found in his kingdom of remarkable stature, she was compelled -to marry one of the king’s giants. This guard consisted of 2,400 men. - -The queen-mother, Sophie Dorothee, had set her mind upon bringing -about a double marriage, between Wilhelmina and her cousin Fred, son -of the king of England, and Fritz and his cousin, the princess Amelia, -the sister of Fred. But though all her schemes came to naught, they -occasioned much trouble in her family, and brought down upon the heads -of poor Wilhelmina and Fritz much brutal persecution from their inhuman -father. - -Frederick William took his son Fritz to visit Augustus, king of Poland. -This king was an exceedingly profligate man, and the young Fritz -learned vicious habits at this court, which lured him into evil ways -which ever after left their blot upon his character and morals. This -fatal visit to Dresden occurred when Fritz was sixteen years of age, -and the dissipation of those four weeks introduced the crown prince -to habits which have left an indelible stain upon his reputation, and -which poisoned his life. The king’s previous dislike to his son was -now converted into contempt and hatred, as he became aware of his -vicious habits; for though the iron king was a maniac in temper, and -cruel as a savage, he had no weakness towards an immoral life. King -Frederick William was now confined to his chair with gout, and poor -Wilhelmina and Fritz were the victims upon whom his severest tyrannies -fell. The princess Wilhelmina was very beautiful, and had it not -been for his love for this sister, upon whom the whole weight of his -father’s resentment would then fall, Fritz would have escaped from his -home and the terrible ill-treatment he there received. - -We have not space to give the pictures of the family broils in this -unhappy household. Now the crabbed old man would snatch the plates -from the table at dinner and fling them at the heads of his children, -usually at hapless Wilhelmina or Fritz; then, angered at Wilhelmina -because she refused to take whatever husband her cruel father might -select, irrespective of her inclination or wishes, he shut the poor -princess up in her apartment, and tried to starve her into submission; -for, as she writes, “I was really dying of hunger, having nothing to -eat but soup made with salt and water and a ragout of old bones, full -of hairs and other dirt.” At last she yielded to her father’s demands; -but then she incurred the anger of her mother, who had set her heart -upon the match with the prince of Wales. - -So the poor princess’ days were full of bitterness. But, fortunately, -the prince of Baireuth, whom she married, turned out to be a kind -husband; but as he was absent most of the time on regimental duty, -and had but his small salary, and the old marquis of Baireuth, her -husband’s father, was penurious, irascible, and an inebriate, -she often suffered for the necessaries of life. The home of her -step-parents was unendurable, and the home of her childhood was still -more so. Unhappy princess! and yet, in the midst of all this misery, -her bright and graphic letters form one of the greatest delights to -students of history, and give true pictures of the home of Frederick -the Great, which can be found nowhere else. - -Fritz had now so seriously offended his father, that the king openly -exposed him to contempt. He even flogged the prince with his rattan in -the presence of others; and the young heir-apparent to the throne of -Prussia, beautiful in person, high-spirited, and of superior genius, -was treated by his father with studied insult, even in the presence of -monarchs, of lords and ladies, of the highest dignitaries of Europe; -and after raining blows upon his head, he exclaimed in diabolical -wrath, as if desirous of goading his son to suicide: “Had I been so -treated by my father, I would have blown my brains out. But this fellow -has no honor. He takes all that comes.” - -But at last Fritz decided not to take longer all that came, and so he -prepared for flight. On the 15th of July, 1730, the king of Prussia -set out with a small train, accompanied by Fritz, to take a journey to -the Rhine. When near Augsburg, Fritz wrote to Lieutenant Katte, one -of his profligate friends, stating that he should embrace the first -opportunity to escape to the Hague; that there he should assume the -name of the Count of Alberville. He wished Katte to join him there, -and to bring with him the overcoat and the one thousand ducats which -he had left in his hands. Just after midnight the prince stole out to -meet his valet, who had been commanded to bring some horses to the -village green. But as Keith, the valet, appeared with the horses, he -was accosted by one of the king’s guard; and the prince, although -disguised with a red overcoat, was recognized and forced to withdraw to -his own quarters and give up the attempt for that time. The king was -informed of these things, and now the poor prince was put in the care -of three of the guard, and they were informed if the prince was allowed -to escape, death would be their doom. Upon the king’s arrival at Wesel, -he ordered his culprit son to be brought before him. A terrible scene -ensued. As the king would give no assurance that his friends who had -aided him should be pardoned, the crown prince evaded all attempts to -extort from him confessions which would implicate them. “Why,” asked -the king, furiously, “did you attempt to desert?” - -“I wished to escape,” the prince boldly replied, “because you did not -treat me like a son, but like an abject slave.” - -“You are a cowardly deserter,” the father exclaimed, “devoid of all -feelings of honor.” - -“I have as much honor as you have,” the son replied; “and I have only -done that which I have heard you say a hundred times you would have -done yourself, had you been treated as I have been.” - -The infuriated king was now beside himself with rage. He drew his sword -and seemed upon the point of thrusting it through the heart of his son, -when General Mosel threw himself before the king, exclaiming, “Sire, -you may kill me, but spare your son.” The prince was then placed in a -room where two sentries watched over him with fixed bayonets. As the -prince had held the rank of colonel in the army, his unjust father -declared he was a deserter, and merited death. Frederick William, whose -brutal cruelty exceeds our powers of belief, then sent a courier with -the following despatch to his wife:— - -“I have arrested the rascal Fritz. I shall treat him as his crime and -his cowardice merit. He has dishonored me and all my family. So great a -wretch is no longer worthy to live.” - -His Majesty is in a flaming rage. He arrests, punishes, and banishes -where there is trace of co-operation with deserter Fritz and his -schemes. It is dangerous to have spoken kindly to the crown prince, -or even to have been spoken to by him. Doris Ritter, a young girl who -was a good musician, and whom the unfortunate Fritz had presented -with music and sometimes joined in her singing in the presence of the -girl’s mother, is condemned to be publicly whipped through the streets -by the beadle, and to be imprisoned for three years, forced to the -hard labor of beating hemp. The excellent tutor of the crown prince -is banished, the accusation against him being that he had introduced -French literature to the prince, which had caused him to imbibe infidel -notions. The wicked old king never seemed to think that his own brutal -conduct might have influenced the prince to be indifferent to the -religion which he hypocritically professed to believe, but so poorly -practised. - -Meanwhile the crown prince was conveyed from Wesel to the castle of -Mittenwalde, where he was imprisoned in a room without furniture or -bed. Here Grumkow, one of the king’s ministers, was sent to interrogate -him. Though the cruel old minister threatened the rack of torture to -force him to confess, Fritz had the nerve to reply:— - -“A hangman, such as you, naturally takes pleasure in talking of his -tools and of his trade, but on me they will produce no effect. I have -owned everything, and almost regret to have done so. I ought not to -degrade myself by answering the questions of a scoundrel such as you -are.” - -The next day the crown prince was sent to the fortress of Cüstrin, -about seventy miles from Berlin. - -“The strong, dungeon-like room in which he was incarcerated consisted -of bare walls, without any furniture, the light being admitted by a -single aperture so high that the prince could not look out of it. He -was divested of his uniform, of his sword, of every mark of dignity. -Coarse brown clothes of plainest cut were furnished him. His flute -was taken from him, and he was deprived of all books but the Bible -and a few devotional treatises. He was allowed a daily sum amounting -to twelve cents for his food,—eight cents for his dinner and four for -his supper. His food was purchased at a cook-shop near by and cut for -him. He was not permitted the use of a knife. The door was opened three -times a day for ventilation,—morning, noon, and night,—but not for more -than four minutes each time. A single tallow candle was allowed him; -but that was to be extinguished at seven o’clock in the evening.” - -For long months this prince of nineteen was imprisoned in absolute -solitude, awaiting the doom of his merciless father. But the savage -king had reserved still greater torture for the unfortunate Fritz. By -the order of the king, Fritz, who also had been condemned to die, was -brought down into a lower room of the fortress, and there compelled -to witness the execution of Lieutenant Katte, his friend, whom the -king had condemned as guilty of high treason. As Fritz was led into -the lower apartment of the fortress, the curtains which concealed the -window were drawn back, and Fritz, to his horror, beheld the scaffold -draped in black placed directly before the window. The frantic young -prince was in an agony of despair, and exclaimed, with eyes full of -tears, “In the name of God, I beg you to stop the execution till I -write to the king! I am ready to renounce all my rights to the crown -if he will pardon Katte.” But the attendants knew the iron will of -the merciless monarch, and his cries and tears were unheeded. As the -condemned was led by the window to ascend the scaffold, Fritz cried out -to him, in tones of deepest anguish, “Pardon me, my dear Katte, pardon -me! Oh, that this should be what I have done for you!” - -“Death is sweet for a prince I love so well,” replied the heroic Katte -with calm fortitude, and ascending the scaffold, the bloody execution -was performed, while four grenadiers held Fritz with his face to the -window so that he must perforce look upon the ghastly scene. But as -Katte’s gory head rolled upon the scaffold, the prince fainted. - -When the poor tortured prince regained his consciousness, his misery -plunged him into a fever, and in his wild delirium he sought to take -his life. When the fever abated, he sank into hopeless despair, looking -forward to nothing but a like horrible death. - -With strange inconsistency, the ferocious king, who could thus torture -the body and mind of the prince, expressed the greatest anxiety for -the salvation of his soul. It is not strange that the example of such -a father staggered the faith of his son, and failing to see that the -religion professed by his father was bigoted fanaticism instead of the -religion of the pure and saving truths inculcated by a sinless Christ, -the crown prince became in after-life an infidel. - -In accordance with a promise made by the king that his life should be -spared if he would acknowledge his guilt, which word was brought to -the lonely captive by Chaplain Müller, the crown prince took an oath of -submission to the king, and soon after wrote this letter to his father:— - -“All-serenest and All-graciousest Father,—To your royal majesty, my -all-graciousest father, I have, by my disobedience as their subject and -soldier, not less than by my undutifulness as their son, given occasion -to a just wrath and aversion against me. With the all-obedientest -respect I submit myself wholly to the grace of my most all-gracious -father, and beg him most all-graciously to pardon me, as it is not so -much the withdrawal of my liberty in a sad arrest as my own thoughts -of the fault I have committed that have brought me to reason, who, -with all-obedientest respect and submission, continue till my end my -all-graciousest king’s and father’s faithfully-obedient servant and -son, Frederick.” - -Though the prince had been brought by his terrors and sorrows to make -such an humble appeal, his father’s anger was not entirely removed. The -prince was still forced to dwell in the town of Cüstrin, in a house -poorly furnished; and though allowed to wear his sword, his uniform was -forbidden him. He was debarred all amusements, and was forbidden to -read, write, or speak French, and was denied his flute, of which he was -exceedingly fond. Three persons were appointed constantly to watch him. -His only recreation was the order to attend the sittings of the Chamber -of Counsellors in that district. At last, through the intercession of -his sister Wilhelmina, the king consented to allow Fritz to come home. - -In March, 1732, the crown prince was betrothed to Princess Elizabeth, -the daughter of the duke of Bevern. The sufferings of this unhappy -princess cannot now be related. The queen of Prussia received her -with bitter hatred because this match would crush her cherished plans -of marrying her son to Princess Amelia of England; and Fritz himself, -forced to be betrothed against his will, treated her with utter neglect. - -In June, 1733, the crown prince was married to Elizabeth, she being -eighteen, and he twenty-one years of age. - -Frederick I. of Prussia had reared a very magnificent palace in Berlin; -and in spite of all his stinginess in his household, Frederick William -added masses of silver to the ornamentation of this palace, for he -prided himself on his army and his money, as giving him power and -influence in Europe. He had stored away many barrels of money in the -vaults of his palace, and as there do not seem to have been banking -institutions in his realms in those days, he ordered vast quantities of -silver to be wrought into chandeliers, mirror-frames, and balconies, -which gave him a great reputation for wealth, and could at any time be -converted into money. This hoarded wealth saved his son from ruin, when -involved in after wars which exhausted his treasury. - -The crown prince having married a niece of the emperor of Germany, -and being also of age, his father lost much of his control over him. -Frederick was now the rising sun, and his father the setting luminary. -All the courts of Europe were anxious to gain the favor of the coming -king of Prussia. The king allowed his son a petty income, but the crown -prince borrowed large sums of money from the empress of Germany, from -Russia, and from England, who were quite ready to supply his wants, -being assured of payment when he should receive the throne. Fritz did -not forget his sister Wilhelmina, but gave her money to relieve her -wants. War now broke out between France and Germany, and Frederick -William became an ally of the emperor. - -The crown prince accompanied the king of Prussia to the siege of -Philipsburg. The campaign continued for some time, but the prince saw -little of active service. The king of Prussia being broken down in -health by gout and intemperance, now became very ill, and was obliged -to return home. - -Though Frederick returned from this campaign neither socially nor -morally improved, he had become very ambitious of high intellectual -culture and of literary renown. He was now living at the village of -Reinsburg, in a castle which the king had purchased and assigned to -his son. He here gathered around him a number of scholarly men, and -commenced and persevered in a severe course of study, devoting his -mornings to his books, and the remainder of the day to recreation and -music. The old king grumbled at his son’s studies and his recreations, -but Frederick was now a full-grown man, whose heirship to the crown -made him a power in Europe; and the snarling old king was confined -to his room with dropsy and gout, growling away his last hours. The -companions of Frederick’s hours of recreation were gay and profligate -young men, who scoffed at religion and every virtue. No wonder that -with such godless companions, and with such an inconsistent and -irreligious example in his father, even while professing the most -fanatical devotion to the church and religion, the mind of the talented -young prince should have been turned into the wandering wilds of -unbelief. Voltaire was at this time about forty years of age. His -renown as a man of genius already filled Europe. Frederick became an -ardent admirer of Voltaire, and a correspondence was commenced between -them. - -[Illustration: FREDERICK THE GREAT.] - -But now the grim old king of Prussia is forced to meet a still grimmer -antagonist, who will not take “no” for an answer. He has fought the -world, fought all human affections, fought all feelings of humanity, -fought every good spirit within his heart except a brutal fanaticism, -which he ignorantly and superstitiously called religion; fought -gout, dropsy, and manifold complaints of the flesh; fought his wife, -fought his children, tried to fight the devil, but ended in being his -slave; but he cannot fight grim Death, which now clutches him in his -ghastly grasp. But not to be outdone, even by _this enemy_, while the -death-gurgle was even rattling in his throat, he solemnly _abdicated_ -in favor of his son Frederick, and with his fingers trembling with the -chill of the grave, he signed the deed, and falling back, expired. So -the obstinate old king was determined that _his will_, not _death_, -should hand over the crown of Prussia, which he could no longer clutch -with his own cruel hands. - -Voltaire said of his reign, “It must be owned Turkey is a republic in -comparison to the despotism exercised by Frederick William.” - -Frederick the Great was twenty-eight years of age when he became king -of Prussia. He was very handsome and of graceful presence. In rapid -succession the young king announced certain sentiments which were so -amazing in the eyes of the rulers of that age as to be considered -phenomena. The day after his accession to the throne he summoned -his ministers and declared, “Our grand care will be to further the -country’s well-being, and to make every one of our subjects contented -and happy.” - -Strange ideas! when all sovereigns had hitherto thought only of their -own contentment. Next, he abolished the use of _torture_ in criminal -trials. More wonderful still, the world said. Soon he issued this -marvellous edict, which struck consternation in the midst of the -upholders of bigotry and fanatical superstition:— - -“All religions must be tolerated, and the king’s solicitor must have an -eye that none of them make unjust encroachments on the other; for in -this country every man must get to heaven his own way.” - -Europe was electrified, priests trembled, bigotry and religious -persecution hung their heads and slunk away. But more surprises! -“The press is free!” thundered forth this powerful young Frederick -the Great; and all these phenomena accomplished in the first year of -his reign. No wonder Europe turned their eyes to the rising monarch. -Sad pity that he did not continue in this line of action, bringing -blessings instead of woes upon mankind. But the angel of wise reform -was soon driven from his heart and mind by the subtle and poisonous -demon of selfish ambition. - -The young king soon abolished the Giant Guards. He no longer coveted -fine clothes, no longer indulged in the luxury of slippers and French -dressing-gown, which had raised the ire of his ease-hating father. -His hours were rigidly counted, and various duties assigned them, in -regular routine. - -Though he treated his nominal wife, Queen Elizabeth, politely in -company, he utterly neglected her in his domestic life, and in later -years rarely ever addressed a word to her. - -On the south-west frontier of Prussia was an Austrian realm, Silesia. -For more than a century it had been a portion of the Austrian kingdom. -Maria Theresa had inherited the crown of Austria. Frederick, wishing -to enlarge his own domains, determined to invade Silesia. History has -severely condemned this unprovoked invasion. In January, 1741, the -Prussian army were encamped before Neisse. On Sunday morning, Jan. 15, -the deadly fire of shot and shell was opened upon the crowded city, -where women and children, wounded and bleeding, ran to and fro, frantic -with terror. For five days the deadly missiles rained down upon the -city almost without intermission. - -Not wishing entirely to destroy the city, Frederick then converted -the siege into a blockade, and leaving his troops before the place, -returned to Berlin. Frederick, in this six weeks’ campaign, had let -loose the dogs of war, and he must now meet the consequences. The -chivalry of Europe were in sympathy with the young and beautiful -Austrian queen. Every court in Europe was aware of the fact that it was -owing to the intervention of the father of Maria Theresa that the life -of Frederick was spared, and that he was rescued from the scaffold, -when the exasperated and ferocious Frederick William had condemned his -own son to death. France had no fear of Prussia, but France did fear -the supremacy of Austria over Europe; therefore, France was leaning -towards the side of Frederick. England was the foe of France, therefore -England sympathized with Austria. The puerile king of England, George -II., hated his nephew, Frederick of Prussia, which hatred Frederick -vigorously returned. Spain was at war with England and ready for -alliance with her foes. The father of the infant czar of Russia was -the brother of Frederick’s neglected wife Elizabeth. Russia had not -yet displayed her partisanship to either side. Minor powers might be -constrained by terror or led by bribes. - -Meanwhile the heroic Maria Theresa was resolved not to part with one -inch of her territory, and the patriotism of the Austrian court, -inspired by her, determined them to seek to drive the Prussians -out of Silesia. A rumor comes that England, Poland, and Russia are -contemplating invasion of the Prussian realms. Frederick immediately -despatched a force to Hanover to seize upon that continental possession -of the king of England upon the slightest indication of hostility. -This menace alarmed George II. Young Prince Leopold had assaulted -and captured Glogau from the Austrians, which Frederick considered -an important achievement, and sent Prince Leopold a present of ten -thousand dollars. - -Frederick next proceeded to push the siege of Neisse, but upon nearing -that place, he found that General Neipperg, with a large force of -Austrians, were coming against him. The siege of Neisse was abandoned, -and the entire Prussian army gathered around the king. The night before -the contemplated battle, Frederick wrote to his brother, Augustus -William,—who, as Frederick had no children, was heir to the throne and -crown prince of Prussia,—informing him of his danger, of the coming -battle, and bidding farewell to himself and his mother in case of his -death. No word of affectionate remembrance was sent to his neglected -wife. - -On the morrow, which was Sunday, a snow-storm raged so furiously that -neither army could move. On Monday the battle began. The Prussians -advanced boldly with waving banners and martial music, and valiantly -charged the enemy. But the Austrians returned the charge with such -fury that the Prussian right wing, where Frederick himself commanded, -was routed and put to flight. Frederick, struck with terror, lost -his presence of mind, and ingloriously fled with the rest. As with -his little band of fugitives he rushed into the gloom of night, he -exclaimed in despair, “O my God, my God, this is too much!” - -But as the crestfallen king waits under the shelter of a mill, a -courier rides up and cries, _“The Prussian army has gained the -victory!”_ Thus the Prussian king had been galloping from the -battle-field in fear and terror, while his valiant troops were -achieving the victory. This incident caused unlimited merriment amongst -the sarcastic foes of Frederick, and he himself was never known to -allude to this humiliating adventure. The picture of the heroic and -intrepid Maria Theresa encouraging her troops to patriotism and -valor in the very face of her foes, and that of the terror-stricken -Frederick rushing from the field of battle, do not form a comparison -very flattering to the bravery of the young Prussian king. But as -some actors on the stage who have had the worst stage-frights have -afterwards made the most brilliant stars, so the ignominious flight of -the king did not prevent him from becoming one of the greatest generals -of the world. Gradually the secret alliance of France, Bavaria, and -Prussia was made known. Under the threatening danger which menaced -ruin, Maria Theresa, urged by her council and by the English court, -consented to propose terms of compromise to Frederick. To the English -ministers, sent from Vienna to offer a million dollars to the Prussian -king if he would consent to relinquish this enterprise and retire from -Silesia, Frederick answered: “Retire from Silesia, and for money? Do -you take me for a beggar? Retire from Silesia in the conquest of which -I have expended so much blood and treasure! No, sir, no! I am at the -head of an army which has already vanquished the enemy, and which is -ready to meet the enemy again. The country which alone I desire is -already conquered and securely held. If the queen do not now grant me -all I require, I shall in four weeks demand four principalities more. -I now demand the whole of Lower Silesia, Breslau included. With that -answer you can return to Vienna.” - -These tidings caused consternation in the Austrian council. Again the -high-spirited queen was forced by her circumstances and influenced by -her council and England to accede to the compromise, and she agreed to -surrender the whole of Lower Silesia to Frederick. But when such word -was brought to the Prussian camp, the king replied, “I will not see the -minister; the time has past. I will not now listen to a compromise.” -Now followed a dark and deceitful manœuvre on the part of Frederick, -which even the stratagems of war cannot warrant. He entered into -secret negotiations with Austria that if Silesia was delivered to him, -he would form an alliance with them against the French, whose armies -were already joined with his own; at the same time apparently keeping -faith with the French, but promising to betray them to the Austrians, -meanwhile stating that he must keep up sham attacks to deceive the -French. - -Frederick now invested Neisse, and pretending a sham attack, he really -so vigorously assaulted it that it surrendered, and having thus -obtained the last fortress in Silesia, he caused himself to be crowned -sovereign duke of Lower Silesia, and returned to Berlin in triumph. - -Having by this stratagem obtained Silesia, he assured the French of -his unchanging fidelity, and denied that he had ever entered into -any arrangements with Austria. In commencing this war he had said, -“Ambition, interest, and the desire to make the world speak of me -vanquished all, and war was determined on.” He had indeed made the -world speak of him. All Europe spoke of him. Some extolled him, others -denounced his amazing perfidy. Admiration for his sagacity and fear of -his power made many courts of Europe seek his alliance. Carlyle thus -comments on these events:— - -“Of the political morality of this game of fast-and-loose, what have -we to say, except that the dice on both sides seem to be loaded; that -logic might be chopped upon it forever; that a candid mind will settle -what degree of wisdom (which is always essential veracity) and what of -folly (which is always falsity) there was in Frederick and the others; -and, in fine, it will have to be granted that you cannot work in pitch -and keep hands evidently clean. Frederick has got into the enchanted -wilderness populous with devils and their work. Alas! it will be long -before he get out of it again; his life waning toward night before he -get victoriously out.” - -This selfish rapacity of the Prussian king set the example to others. -The whole world sprang to arms. Macaulay says: “On the head of -Frederick is all the blood which was shed in a war which raged during -many years, and in every quarter of the globe,—the blood of the column -of Fontenoy, the blood of the brave mountaineers who were slaughtered -at Culloden. The evils produced by this wickedness were felt in lands -where the name of Prussia was unknown. In order that he might rob a -neighbor whom he had promised to defend, black men fought on the coast -of Coromandel, and red men scalped each other by the great lakes of -North America.” - -In the winter of 1742 Frederick was engaged in a campaign to deliver -Moravia, which was overrun by the Austrians. But in this he was not -successful. On the morning of the 17th of May, 1742, Frederick again -faced the Austrians at the battle of Chotusitz. In this famous battle -Frederick was victorious, and the Austrians, under Prince Charles, were -obliged to retreat. It required nine acres of ground to bury the dead -after this bloody conflict. - -Frederick did not pursue the Austrians after this victory, and on the -11th of June the treaty of Breslau was signed. By this treaty Silesia -was ceded to Frederick, and he agreed to withdraw from the French -alliance and enter into friendly relations with Maria Theresa. In -1744, however, Maria Theresa, having been joined by England, had been -achieving so many victories on the field, that Frederick, deciding -that she was gathering her forces to reconquer Silesia, again entered -into an alliance with France and took the field against the Austrians. -But in this campaign Frederick himself narrowly escaped being taken -prisoner, and returned a defeated monarch, leaving a shattered army -behind him. He had already exhausted nearly all the resources which his -father had accumulated. Already the sumptuous chandeliers and silver -balconies had been melted up. His disastrous Bohemian campaign had -cost him three hundred and fifty thousand dollars a month. The least -sum with which he could commence a new campaign for the protection of -Silesia was four million five hundred thousand dollars. In spite of -these apparently insurmountable difficulties, the administrative genius -of Frederick made a way by which he succeeded in raising another army. -On the 4th of June, 1745, the battle of Hohenfriedberg was fought, by -which victory Frederick escaped utter destruction, and the Austrians -were forced sullenly to retire. All Europe was now in war, caused by -the personal ambition of one man, who did not pretend that it involved -any question of human rights. Frederick had openly avowed that he -drew his sword and led his hundred thousand soldiers to death and -destruction that he might enlarge his territories and achieve renown. -All the nations of Europe wished to borrow. None but England had money -to lend, and England was fighting Frederick, and supplying his foes -with aid and money. Frederick realized that Maria Theresa, whom he had -despised as a woman, was fully his equal in ability to raise and direct -armies and in diplomatic intrigue. Berlin was almost defenceless. All -Saxony was rising behind Frederick. In this hour of peril, with an army -of twenty-six thousand men, Frederick was obliged to meet his foes at -Sohr. Defeat to Frederick would have been utter ruin; but the brave -determination of the Prussian king animated his troops with desperate -valor to conquer or die. And conquer they did, and the victory of -Frederick was complete. - -[Illustration: ARREST OF VOLTAIRE BY ORDER OF FREDERICK.] - -On the 25th of December, 1745, the peace of Dresden was signed. The -demands of Frederick were acceded to. Augustus III. of Saxony, Maria -Theresa of Austria, and George II. of England became parties to the -treaty. Frederick now entered upon a period of ten years of peace. -The Prussian king now constructed for himself a beautiful villa, on -a pleasant hilltop near Potsdam, which he called _Sans Souci_, which -Carlyle quaintly translates “No Bother.” He had three other palaces, -far surpassing Sans Souci in magnificence,—Charlottenburg, at Berlin, -the new palace at Potsdam, and his palace at Reinsberg. - -Voltaire made a long visit to the Prussian king. Frederick had been for -many years greatly fascinated with that talented writer, but gradually -Voltaire lost favor with the king. Frederick prided himself upon -his literary abilities, and at first Voltaire flattered him; but on -one occasion, when the king had sent him a manuscript to revise, he -sarcastically exclaimed to the royal messenger, “When will his Majesty -be done with sending me his dirty linen to wash?” - -This speech was repeated to the king. Frederick did not lose his -revenge. Voltaire had been made chamberlain. His duties were to give an -hour a day to the Prussian king, and, as Voltaire said, “to touch up a -bit his works in prose and verse.” - -But Voltaire used his sarcastic pen against the king, and especially -against the president of the academy founded by the king at Berlin. A -bitter pamphlet, entitled _La Diatribe du Docteur Akakia_, appeared, -and the satire was so scathing that the Prussian king ordered all -copies to be burned. Voltaire, though allowing the whole edition to -be destroyed before his eyes, managed to send a copy to some safe -place, where it was again published, and arrived at Berlin by post -from Dresden. People fought for the pamphlet. Everybody laughed; the -satire was spread over all Europe. Frederick was enraged, and Voltaire -thought it safe to leave Prussia. The king had previously presented -him with a copy of his own poems, and fearing that Voltaire had -him now in his power—as this volume contained some very wicked and -licentious burlesques, in which Frederick had scoffed at everything -and everybody—he ordered Voltaire to be arrested at Frankfort, and the -book of poems recovered. Either by Frederick’s malice or the stupidity -of his agent, Freytag, Voltaire and his friends were subjected to an -imprisonment for twelve days in a miserable hostelry. The intimacy -between Frederick and Voltaire was thus destroyed, and a lasting -friendship made impossible. - -In 1756 Frederick invaded Saxony. Thus was commenced the Seven Years’ -War, which proved to be one of the most bloody and cruel strifes ever -waged. It gave Frederick the renown of being one of the ablest generals -of the world. In 1757 France, Russia, Austria, Poland, and Sweden -were combined against Frederick. The entire force of the Prussian -king did not exceed eighty thousand men. There were marching against -him combined armies amounting to four hundred thousand men. On the -battle-field of Leuthen Frederick met and conquered his foes. - -But still, peace was out of the question without further fighting. -England, at last alarmed at the growing power of France, came to the -aid of Frederick. But France, Austria, Sweden, and Russia prepared for -a campaign against him. - -On Aug. 25, 1758, occurred the bloody battle of Zorndorf, between -the Russians and the Prussians. It was an awful massacre. The stolid -Russians refused to fly. The Prussians sabred them and trampled them -beneath their horses’ feet. It is considered the most bloody battle -of the Seven Years’ War, and some claim it was the most furious ever -fought. Frederick was again victorious. But in October, 1758, on the -field of Hochkirch, Frederick was defeated by the Austrians. Just -after the dreadful defeat came the tidings of the death of his sister -Wilhelmina. Thus ended the third campaign in clouds and darkness for -the Prussian king. - -The destinies of Europe were now held in the hands of three women: -Maria Theresa, who by common consent had good cause for war, and was -fighting in self-defence; Madame de Pompadour, who, virtually sovereign -of France, by reason of her supreme control of the infamous Louis XV., -as Frederick had stung her by some insult, did not hesitate to deluge -Europe in blood; and Catherine II., empress of Russia, who was also -Frederick’s foe on account of personal pique. - -Frederick himself was undeniably an unscrupulous aggressor, and some -call him “a highway robber.” - -The cause of Maria Theresa alone could have been called honorable. -In the fourth campaign of 1759 the terrible battle of Kunersdorf was -fought in August. At first the Prussians were victorious, but the -Russians at length routed them with fearful loss. So great was the -despair of Frederick that it is said he contemplated suicide. - -For a year the struggle continued. The Prussian army left in Silesia -was utterly destroyed by the Austrians. But at length the tide turned, -and Frederick routed the Austrians at the battle of Liegnitz. But the -position of Frederick was still most hazardous. He was in the heart of -Silesia, surrounded by hostile armies, three times larger than his own. -Weary weeks of marching, fighting, blood, and woe, passed on. Sieges, -skirmishes, battles innumerable, ensued. - -At length the allies captured Berlin; whereupon Frederick marched -quickly to the rescue of his capital. At his dread approach the allies -fled. Frederick followed the Austrians. - -We have no space to give details of the end of the bloody war. -Frederick attacked the Austrians, under Marshal Daun, at Torgan, saying -to his soldiers:— - -“This war has become tedious. If I beat him, all his army must be taken -prisoners or drowned in the Elbe. If we are beaten we must all perish.” - -After a day of hard fighting the Prussians held the field. Frederick, -who was a very profane man, replied to a soldier, who inquired if they -should go into winter quarters, “By all the devils I shall not till we -have taken Dresden.” But Dresden he did not take at that time, and went -into winter quarters at Leipsic. The fifth campaign of the Seven Years’ -War closed with the winter of 1760. - -[Illustration: EQUESTRIAN STATUE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT, ÆT. 73.] - -The Russians and Austrians had concentrated in Bohemia. The summer and -autumn wore away with little accomplished; the allies feared to attack -Frederick, and the Russians retreated for winter quarters. But the -Austrians captured Schweidnitz and so could winter in Silesia. This -was a terrible blow to Frederick, but no word betrayed the anguish of -the hard-pressed Prussian king. Taking his weary, suffering troops to -Breslau, Frederick sought shelter for the winter of 1761-62. At this -dark time he wrote:— - -“The school of patience I am at is hard, long-continued, cruel; nay, -barbarous. I have not been able to escape my lot. All that human -foresight could suggest has been employed, and nothing has succeeded. -If Fortune continues to pursue me, doubtless I shall sink. It is only -she that can extricate me from the situation I am in. I escape out of -it by looking at the universe on the great scale like an observer from -some distant planet. All then seems to me so infinitely small, and I -could almost pity my enemies for giving themselves such trouble about -so very little.” - -Poor blinded Frederick! He could not even see that his own selfish -ambition had tempted him to commence an unjust war, and thus to bring -upon his own head all these sorrows. - -On the 24th of November, 1762, the belligerents entered into an -armistice until the 1st of March. All were exhausted. On the 15th of -February, 1763, peace was concluded. The bloody Seven Years’ War was -over, and its immense result was, _Frederick the Great had captured -and retained Silesia_. - -The expense of the war had been eight hundred and fifty-three thousand -lives, which had perished on the battle-field. Of the hundreds of -thousands of men, women, and children who had died from exposure, -famine, and pestilence, no note is taken. The population of Prussia had -diminished five hundred thousand. The world had run red with blood. -The air had resounded with wails and cries and groans. Prussia was -laid waste by the ravages of the war; and what had been accomplished? -Frederick had achieved his renown; he had made himself _talked of_. -Silesia had been captured, and Frederick the Great had been placed in -the foremost ranks of the world’s generals. - -Compared with the achievements of Gustavus Adolphus, whose victories -had laid the foundation for the success of the Reformation, how petty -had been the prize! One, a Christian king, upholding liberty of -conscience and religious freedom; the other, an infidel king fighting -in an unjust war for his own glory and aggrandizement. But the world -applauded. Berlin blazed with illuminations and rang with the shouts -of rejoicing. For twenty-three years Frederick the Great still lived -to bear his honors. He must have the credit of endeavoring, during the -remainder of his life, to repair the terrible desolation and ruin which -his wars had brought upon Prussia. - -We have but space to glance at his last hours. Dark was the gloom -which shrouded his closing days. His worst enemies were the scoffing -devils of unbelief he had let loose within his own soul. No Christian -hopes illuminated the vast unknown into which he must so soon pass. -To him the grave was but the awful portal to the direful abyss of -annihilation. - -To his patient, cruelly neglected wife, he penned these last cold -words: “Madam, I am much obliged by the wishes you deign to form, but a -heavy fever I have taken hinders me from answering you.” - -With no companions near him but his servants and his dogs, he -awaited the coming of his last despairing end. And thus this lonely, -hopeless old man fought his last battle of life; and on the 17th of -August, 1786, the fight was ended, the battle lost, and Frederick -the Second—Frederick the Great—was carried to the tomb, and laid by -the side of his father. What a warning to the world! What a warning -to parents! The inconsistent, brutal life of his father made him an -infidel. - -His own selfish ambition made him more of a curse than a blessing to -mankind. In the eyes of the Great and Just Judge of the world, both -lives were _terrible failures_. - -History has decreed that Frederick the Great gained a foremost place -amongst the famous rulers of the world, and that his name stands in the -first rank of the world’s conquerors. - -But history has also written over his career the verdict,—He was an -ambitious aggressor in an unjust war, which plunged all Europe into -the horrors of famine, pestilence, bloody conflicts, and desolated -battle-fields piled up with heaps of ghastly corpses, above which rose -the direful wails of anguished hearts and the relentless flames of -ruined homes. - - - - -NAPOLEON I. - -1769-1821 A.D. - - “He doth bestride the narrow world like a Colossus.” - SHAKESPEARE. - - “Fame comes only when deserved, and then is as - inevitable as destiny; for it is destiny.”—LONGFELLOW. - - -IT was not physical force, it was the magnetic majesty of mind, which -looked forth from those awe-inspiring eyes, and gave him Jovesque -grandeur and dignity and sovereign pre-eminence among mankind. No -merely mortal man stands beside him upon the same level on the heights -of fame. Upon the highest mountain peak of human achievement and -earthly greatness he stands alone, looking with calm, deep eyes and -eagle glance upon the rolling centuries which preceded his marvellous -career. - -In spite of all the contradictory views which have been presented of -Napoleon; in spite of hostile historians who have stigmatized him -as a usurper; in spite of foes who have denounced him as a tyrant, -inexorable as Nero; in spite of calumny which has proclaimed him a -blood-thirsty monster; in spite of English literature and English -criticism, which have denounced him as a scourge of the race, as a -“_cook_ roasting whole continents and populations in the flames of -war”; in spite of many a Judas, such as Bourrienne, Augereau, Marmont, -Berthier, Bernadotte, Moreau, and others among those whom his own -genius had lifted into prominence and power; in spite of obstacles, -such as no other mortal man ever conquered, Napoleon the Great stands -forth the most amazing phenomenon of human achievement, personal -magnetism, and mortal greatness. - -[Illustration: NAPOLEON.] - -“A man who raised himself from obscurity to a throne; who changed the -face of the world; who made himself felt through powerful and civilized -nations; who sent the terror of his name across seas and oceans; whose -will was pronounced and feared as destiny; whose donatives were crowns; -whose ante-chamber was thronged by submissive princes; who broke down -the awful barrier of the Alps, and made them a highway; and whose fame -was spread beyond the boundaries of civilization to the steppes of the -Cossack and the deserts of the Arab,—a man who has left this record -of himself in history has taken out of our hands the question whether -he shall be called great. All must concede to him a sublime power of -action, an energy equal to great effects.” - -“Whether we think of his amazing genius, his unparalleled power of -embracing vast combinations, while he lost sight of none of the details -necessary to insure success, his rapidity of thought and equally sudden -execution, his tireless energy, his ceaseless activity, his ability -to direct the movements of half a million of soldiers in different -parts of the world, and at the same time reform the laws, restore the -finances, and administer the government of his country, or whether we -trace his dazzling career from the time he was a poor, proud charity -boy at the military school of Brienne to the hour when he sat down on -the most brilliant throne of Europe, he is the same wonderful man,—the -same grand theme for human contemplation.” - -In this short sketch we have no space for arguments; nor does Napoleon -need arguments to substantiate his claims to greatness. Facts -only can prove the supremacy of his fame, and _facts_ proclaim him -unparalleled in history. _Lies_ only defame him and make him out a -tyrant. That he was without fault or blemish we would not maintain; -that sad mistakes brought upon him evil consequences which he himself -was the first to trace to their source, we do not deny. But that -amongst all these famous rulers of the world, his is the greatest name, -unprejudiced history has decreed. - -Of all these mighty conquerors of the world, Napoleon stands second to -none. - -“When the sword of Alexander overthrew the Persian throne and -subjugated the East as far as the Indus, he did but extend the -civilization of Athens. The refinement of the age of Pericles, the -acquirements of Attica, the philosophy of the academy and the lyceum, -followed in the train of his victories. - -“When Cæsar subjugated Parthia and Germany, and carried the Roman -eagles from the summit of Caucasus to the hills of Caledonia; when he -passed from Gaul to Italy, from Rome to Greece, from the plains of -Pharsalia to the shores of Africa, from the ruins of Carthage to the -banks of the Nile and the Euxine; when he traversed the Bosphorus and -the Rhine, the Taurus and the Alps, the Atlas and the Pyrenees,—in -all these triumphal courses lie propagated under the protection of -his personal glory, the name, the language, and manners of civilized -Rome. If Alexander carried with him the Age of Pericles, and Cæsar -that of Augustus, if they were accompanied in their triumphs by the -genius of Homer and of Sophocles, of Plato and Aristotle, of Virgil and -Horace, Napoleon carried with him an age that the arts, sciences, and -philosophy have rendered equally illustrious, and his enterprise is no -less than that of his predecessors.” - -Though the aristocracy of Europe denounced him as an odious despot -and an insatiable conqueror, in the hearts of his people—the artisan, -the laborer, and the soldier—he is still cherished as the “Man of -the people, as the personification of that spirit of equality which -pervaded both his administration and the camp.” His name is still -religiously respected by the peasant in his cottage. His tomb is still -cherished as the most sacred spot on earth by the French people. -Never did mortal man inspire such love and adoration in the hearts -of his soldiers. This unprecedented idolatry of a nation is the best -refutation of the malign accusations of his enemies, “that Napoleon -_usurped_ the sovereignty of France; that having attained the supreme -power, he was a tyrant, devoting that power to the promotion of his -own selfish aggrandizement; that the wars in which he was incessantly -engaged were provoked by his arrogance.” - -Should the testimony of disappointed sycophants, whose pens are dipped -in the venom of thwarted ambition and vanity, or the accusations of -bitter foes, whose opinions are biassed by political intrigues, be -believed against the character of Napoleon, rather than his own noble -utterances, and the testimony of his incorruptible friends? - -That his invasion of Egypt was aggressive and unjust, we will admit; -but should England be the one to make the loudest outcry against -this expedition, when it was only following her own policy when she -increased her possessions by her conquests in India? And even the -superiority of English literature and English writers should not make -us blind to the unjust prejudices of English critics. Had Napoleon -not quelled the insurrection, and given the final death-blow to the -Revolution, how can any monarchy in Europe be certain that all thrones -in Europe might not have tottered and fallen; that all European -kingdoms might not have had to face a revolution? Had Napoleon died -upon the throne of France, even his English foes, who feared the lonely -exile, whom their duplicity and treachery had banished to the dreary -rock of St. Helena, more than they feared any European monarch, would -doubtless have joined the plaudits of the world in honor of the _Hero -of Success_, irrespective of methods or motives. It is only because -Napoleon outlived his marvellous and almost miraculous success that -the world condemns, and his enemies malign him. Had our own Washington -been unsuccessful, then would he have been hung as a rebel, and our own -glorious Revolution would have been called a rebellion, and none would -have been so loud in the outcry against us as England. - -But our success has compelled her recognition, and our marvellous -growth in strength, power, and resources has gained her reluctant -admiration. It is hardly to be expected that England should ever forget -how Napoleon made her tremble, and how near she came to being the -conquered rather than the conqueror. - -From an earthly point of view, his was the greatest life of mortal man; -but from a heavenly standpoint, even his greatness crumbles into dust, -and his own higher nature was true enough to realize and acknowledge -the instability of earthly renown, and the failure of even such -phenomenal greatness as his own, to satisfy the higher cravings of the -immortal soul. - -To properly estimate the genius of Napoleon, and his achievements in -behalf of France, a glance must be given to the bloody background of -the Revolution, which rises up with all its ghastliness and horrors. -The rights and liberties of the French people had been trampled under -foot by despotic and profligate kings and nobles; and then brute force -arose against oppression; and brute force for a time conquered. - -Mobs surge like a mighty ocean through the streets of Paris. Men, -women, and children are turned into wild beasts of fury, thirsting only -for blood. And blood they get—till Paris runs red like a river, and all -the demons of hades seem to have been let loose upon the world. Such -was the hydra-headed monster of bloody, lawless license and ignorant -defiance which confronted the dawning manhood of Napoleon Bonaparte. -Such was the ferocious fury which the genius of this small, slender, -pale-faced, smooth-cheeked youth of twenty-five encountered with -such dauntless courage and quelled by his irresistible foresight and -execution. - -The monarchy of France had been dethroned. Louis XVI. and Marie -Antoinette had paid with their lives the forfeit of oppression which -was not all their own. The Royalists and the Jacobins had joined the -howling mob of insurgents, and all together were rushing onward to -attack the Convention, which was the only representative of government -then in France. The troops of the Convention had been sent to meet the -mob, but retired in fear and panic. The mob advanced with demoniacal -shouts of menace. The Convention trembled. In the midst of the terror -and confusion one member exclaims,— - -“I know the man who can defend us if any can. It is a young Corsican -officer, Napoleon Bonaparte.” The Convention immediately sent for -him. All expected to see a stalwart soldier, of gigantic frame and -imperious bearing. Their surprise was unbounded, when a young slender -man of boyish presence appeared before them. The astonished president -incredulously inquired,— - -“Are you willing to undertake the defence of the Convention?” - -“Yes,” was the laconic and calm reply. With half-disdainful contempt -the president continued,— - -“Are you aware of the magnitude of the undertaking?” - -Sweeping the assembly with his magnetic glance, and fixing his eagle -eye upon the president, Napoleon replied, “Perfectly; and I am in the -habit of accomplishing what I undertake.” - -And accomplish he did. But how? By the same measures he had declared -should have been taken when, a short time before, he had watched the -furious mob rush unrestrained through the palace of the imprisoned -monarch. Then he had exclaimed, “They should have swept down the first -five hundred with grapeshot, and the rest would have soon taken to -flight.” And his own successful quelling of the insurgents proved the -correctness of his plans and the marvellous executive force of his -genius. So Napoleon established the new government of France called -the Directory. We have space only for a glance at his boyhood. He was -born upon the island of Corsica, on the 15th of August, 1769. His -father died while Napoleon was quite young, and his mother, Madame -Letitia Bonaparte, was left with small means to provide for eight -children,—Joseph, Napoleon, Lucien, Louis, Jerome, Eliza, Pauline, and -Caroline. - -When Napoleon was about ten years of age, Count Marbœuf obtained his -admission to the military school at Brienne, near Paris. Regarded as a -charity student by his companions, he was here subjected to neglects -and taunts which stung his sensitive nature to the quick. When Napoleon -was fifteen, he was promoted to the military school at Paris. On one -occasion a mathematical problem of great difficulty was given to his -class. Napoleon secluded himself in his room for seventy-two hours -and solved the problem. Napoleon did not blunder into greatness. His -achievements were not accidents. That he possessed native genius cannot -be denied; but he also possessed that perseverance and application -which alone can win the success which genius aspires to, but which only -energy and perseverance can make possible. When Napoleon was sixteen -years of age, he was examined for an appointment in the army. At the -close of this examination, one of the professors wrote opposite the -signature of Napoleon, “This young man will distinguish himself in the -world, if favored by fortune.” - -Napoleon secured the position of second lieutenant in a regiment of -artillery. He was ordered to Lyons with his regiment. While there, -the Academy at Lyons offered a prize for the best dissertation upon -the question, “What are the institutions most likely to contribute to -human happiness?” Napoleon won the prize. The English, uniting with the -Royalists of France, had seized Toulon, a naval depot and arsenal of -France. The Convention, the revolutionary government, promoted Napoleon -to the rank of brigadier-general, and gave him the command of the -artillery train at Toulon. It was here that his military abilities were -noticed by the member of the Convention who afterwards proposed him as -being the only man who could defend them against the mob, as we have -already narrated. After quelling this formidable insurrection, Napoleon -was enthusiastically received by the Convention. Five Directors were -now chosen by the Convention, who should constitute the new Directory, -and the Convention dissolved itself, surrendering the government -into the hands of the Directory. Napoleon was appointed by them -commander-in-chief of the Army of the Interior, and intrusted with the -military defence and government of the metropolis. Having attained this -high dignity, Napoleon placed his mother and the rest of his family in -comfort. - -Famine was great in Paris. The Revolution had left all industries -paralyzed. The poor were perishing. - -Napoleon immediately organized the National Guards, established order, -and distributed wood and bread to the perishing citizens. It was at -this time that he met his future wife, Josephine. She was a widow with -two children. Her husband, the Viscount Beauharnais, had perished on -the scaffold during the Revolution. On the 6th of March, 1796, Napoleon -and Josephine were married. Napoleon was twenty-six years of age, -Josephine being two years older. This marriage was one of ideal love. -When Napoleon was crowned Emperor, he was privately married again by -Cardinal Fesch, in accordance with the forms of the Church, which the -Emperor had re-established. - -Napoleon turned with disgust from the profligacy and dissipation -which ever disgrace an army. To the defamations of his enemies who -endeavored to malign his character, by accusing him of immorality, let -his own words answer: “When I took command of the army of Italy, my -extreme youth rendered it necessary that I should evince great reserve -of manners and the utmost severity of morals. My supremacy could be -retained only by proving myself a better man than any other man in the -army. Had I yielded to human weaknesses, I should have lost my power.” - -Napoleon was temperate in the extreme, and manifested the strongest -disapproval for gaming. Napoleon’s first campaign in Italy was one of -self-defence on the part of the French. France had renounced a monarchy -and established a republic. The kings of Europe trembled. England was -hovering around the coasts of France assailing every available point. -Austria had marched an army of nearly two hundred thousand men to -the banks of the Rhine. She had called into requisition her Italian -possessions, and in alliance with the British navy the armies of the -king of Sardinia together with the legions of Naples and Sicily, -prepared to attack the French Republic. - -[Illustration: NAPOLEON IN THE PRISON OF NICE, 1794.] - -The Directory said to the young commander-in-chief: “We can furnish you -only men. The troops are destitute of everything, but we have no money -to provide supplies.” - -“Give me only men enough,” replied the undaunted Napoleon; “I will be -answerable for the result.” - -Leaving his bride in Paris, Napoleon hastened to Nice, the headquarters -of the army of Italy. - -Now the first of those wonderful proclamations rings out in the ears -of the astonished troops. “Soldiers, you are hungry and naked; the -government owes you much, and can pay you nothing. I come to lead you -into the most fertile plains the sun beholds. There you will find -abundant harvests, honor, and glory. Soldiers of Italy, will you fail -in courage?” - -This apparent stripling then assembles his generals, all war-worn -chiefs. Amazed and speechless, they listen to his plans. - -“The time has passed in which enemies are mutually to appoint the place -of combat, advance, hat in hand, and say, ‘_Gentlemen, will you have -the goodness to fire?_’ The art of war is in its infancy. Experienced -generals conduct the troops opposed to us. So much the better, so -much the better. It is not their experience which will avail against -me. Mark my words: they will soon burn their books on tactics and -know not what to do. Yes, gentlemen, the first onset of the Italian -army will give birth to a new epoch in military affairs. As for us, -we must hurl ourselves on the foe like a thunderbolt, and smite it. -Disconcerted by our tactics, and not daring to put them into execution, -they will fly before us as the shades of night before the uprising sun.” - -And fly before him they did at the battle of Montenotte, regarding -which Napoleon afterwards proudly said, “My title of nobility dates -from the battle of Montenotte.” - -The Austrians fled in one direction, the Sardinians in another, before -this invincible conqueror, and Europe, amazed, inquired, Who is this -young general who has blazed forth in such sudden and appalling -splendor? - -Meanwhile Napoleon issues this stirring proclamation:— - -“Soldiers, you have gained in fifteen days six victories, taken -one-and-twenty standards, fifty-five pieces of cannon, many strong -places, and have conquered the richest part of Piedmont. You have -gained battles without cannon; passed rivers without bridges; made -forced marches without shoes; bivouacked without bread. The phalanxes -of the republic, the soldiers of liberty, were alone capable of such -services.” - -The humiliated king of Sardinia sued for peace. It was the evening of -the 10th of May, 1796. The Austrians had intrenched themselves on the -banks of the River Po. As the French were making the terrible passage -of the bridge of Lodi, in the face of the enemies’ fire, Napoleon -seized a standard, shouting to his men, “Follow your general!” and -plunging through the blinding smoke, he led his bleeding column -forward, and the bridge was carried. - -“This beardless youth,” said an Austrian general, indignantly, “ought -to have been beaten over and over again; for whoever saw such tactics! -The blockhead knows nothing of the rules of war. To-day he is in our -rear, to-morrow on our flank, and the next day again in our front. Such -gross violations of the principles of war are insufferable.” - -And more insufferable still would his enemies find the tactics of -the invincible Napoleon. Some of the veterans of the army jocosely -promoted Napoleon to the rank of corporal, in honor of his bravery at -the bridge of Lodi. When their general next appeared before his army, -he was greeted with the shouts, “_Long live our little corporal!_” and -even in the dignity of consul and emperor, Napoleon never lost this -affectionate nickname amongst his troops, of whom he was the idol. - -We have no space for details; the battles of Castiglione, Arcola, -and the bloody conflict of Rivoli had been fought. The imperial -court had sent out five armies against the French Republicans, and -had encountered defeat and destruction at the hands of the beardless -general, who they had disdainfully declared knew nothing about war -tactics. Mantua had fallen, and the Austrians were driven from Italy. -The Pope implored the clemency of the conqueror. But the Italian people -everywhere hailed him as their deliverer. Still Austria refused to make -peace with republican France, and the march to Vienna was commenced. -Again one of those soul-stirring, inspiring proclamations was issued to -his troops. - -“Soldiers, the campaign just ended has given you imperishable renown. -You have been victorious in fourteen pitched battles and seventy -actions. You have taken more than a hundred thousand prisoners, five -hundred field-pieces, two thousand heavy guns, and four pontoon trains. -You have maintained the army during the whole campaign. In addition to -this, you have sent six millions of dollars to the public treasury, -and have enriched the National Museum with three hundred masterpieces -of the art of ancient and modern Italy, which it has required thirty -centuries to produce. You have conquered the finest countries of -Europe. The French flag waves for the first time upon the Adriatic, -opposite to Macedon, the native country of Alexander. Still higher -destinies await you. I know that you will not prove unworthy of them. -Of all the foes that conspired to stifle the Republic in its birth, the -Austrian emperor alone remains before you. To obtain peace we must seek -it in the heart of his hereditary state. You will there find a brave -people, whose religion and customs you will respect, and whose property -you will hold sacred. Remember that it is liberty you carry to the -brave Hungarian nation.” - -As he had to the Italian people, so also to the Austrian people -Napoleon issued one of his glowing proclamations, assuring them that -he was fighting not for conquest but for peace; that the _people_ of -Austria would find in him a protector, who would respect their religion -and defend all their rights. - -All was consternation in Vienna. The people clamored for peace, and the -Austrian emperor sent ambassadors to Napoleon. A treaty was signed, and -Austria was conquered. Not a year had elapsed since this nameless young -man of twenty-six, with thirty thousand ragged, starving troops, had -dauntlessly undertaken this seemingly impossible enterprise. Now Italy -was at his feet. Austria was forced to come to terms. All his foes were -stunned into terror-stricken inaction. - -Before the treaty of Campo Formio was signed, every possible endeavor -was made to bribe Napoleon to make terms which should conduce to the -advantage of his foes. The wealth of Europe was laid at his feet. -Millions upon millions of gold were offered to him, but his noble -spirit could not thus be tarnished. - -Napoleon arrived in Paris on the 7th of December, 1797, having been -absent about eighteen months. The Directory, jealous of Napoleon’s -power and popularity, were forced by the enthusiasm of the people to -prepare a triumphal festival for the delivery of the treaty of Campo -Formio. - -The magnificent palace of the Luxembourg was adorned for this -gorgeous show. The walls were hung with glittering trophies; the vast -galleries were crowded with those illustrious in rank; martial music -rang out upon the air, and the thunders of the cannon mingled with -the enthusiastic shouts of the rejoicing multitudes. Napoleon was -introduced by Talleyrand in an eloquent speech. Calmly the great hero -stood before the assembled multitude. His imposing presence required -not the trappings of the bedecked and bejewelled grandees of the court. -Majestic was his calm dignity as he addressed the people:— - -“Citizens! the French people in order to be free had kings to combat. -To obtain a constitution founded on reason, it had the prejudices of -eighteen centuries to overcome. Priestcraft, feudalism, despotism, have -successively, for two thousand years, governed Europe. From the peace -you have just concluded dates the era of representative governments. -You have succeeded in organizing a great nation, whose vast territory -is circumscribed only because Nature herself has fixed its limits. You -have done more. The two finest countries in Europe—formerly so renowned -for the arts, the sciences, and the illustrious men whose cradle they -were—see with the greatest hopes genius and freedom issuing from the -tomb of their ancestors. I have the honor to deliver to you the treaty -signed at Campo Formio, and ratified by the emperor. Peace secures the -liberty, the prosperity, and the glory of the Republic. As soon as the -happiness of France is secured by the best organic laws, the whole of -Europe will be free.” - -A wild burst of enthusiasm filled the air as Napoleon ceased speaking. -The people shouted, “Live Napoleon, the conqueror of Italy, the -pacificator of Europe, the saviour of France!” - -Napoleon now laid aside the dress of a soldier. He attended constantly -the meetings of the Institute, and immediately assumed a pre-eminence -amongst those distinguished scholars as marked as he had already -attained as a general. - -Republican France was now at peace with all the world, England alone -excepted. The Directory raised an army for the invasion of England, -and gave Napoleon the command. Republicans all over Europe, England -included, adored Napoleon as the great champion of popular rights. -England trembled. It was necessary that the people should be taught to -hate this man whom they now worshipped. The English press came to the -rescue of the English government. The most malign and atrocious lies -were published regarding Napoleon. He was represented as a demon in -human form; a monster of profligacy and tyrannical ambition; a robber, -plundering the nations for his own selfish aggrandizement. Regarding -these bitter and false libels Napoleon said: “There is not one which -will reach posterity. When I have been asked to cause answers to be -written to them, I have uniformly replied, ‘My victories and my works -of public improvement are the only response which it becomes me to -make.’ When there shall not be a trace of these libels to be found, -the great monuments of utility which I have reared, and the code of -laws that I have formed, will descend to the most remote ages, and -future historians will avenge the wrongs done me by my contemporaries.” -Napoleon deeming an attack upon England too hazardous, the project was -abandoned. - -Then followed Napoleon’s expedition into Egypt. Volumes could be -written upon each one of Napoleon’s marvellous campaigns, but we can -merely give a slight outline. The famous battle of the Pyramids made -Napoleon the undisputed conqueror of Egypt. “Soldiers!” he exclaimed, -as he rode along the ranks, “from those summits forty centuries -contemplate your actions.” - -The name of Napoleon became suddenly as renowned in Asia and Africa as -it had previously become in Europe. But twenty-one days had elapsed -since he landed at Alexandria, and now he was sovereign of Egypt. The -Egyptians welcomed him as a friend and liberator. He disclaimed all -sovereignty over Egypt, and organized a government to be administered -by the people themselves. In the mean time Lord Nelson learned that -the French had landed in Egypt. He immediately proceeded thither. -The famous battle of the Nile followed, in which the English were -victorious. The French fleet had been destroyed, and Napoleon was cut -off from Europe. All monarchical Europe rejoiced; all republican -Europe mourned. Napoleon now undertook the Syrian expedition. With ten -thousand men he commenced his march over the desert. We cannot describe -their weary march through the burning sands, their sufferings from -want, and the dreadful plague which soon broke out in the army. We can -only note the siege of Acre. The subjugation of this fortress would -have made Napoleon master of Syria. Sir Sidney Smith conducted the -defence with the combined English and Turkish troops. It was here that -the marvellous affection of Napoleon’s soldiers for their general was -tested. Sir Sidney Smith circulated a proclamation, offering to convey -every French soldier safely to France who would desert Napoleon. It is -not known that a single man was false to Napoleon, whom all adored as a -being seemingly more than mortal. - -The siege had continued for sixty days. Napoleon had lost three -thousand men by the sword and the plague. At this time fresh Turkish -troops arrived to join his enemies; and deeming the enterprise -hopeless, Napoleon abandoned the siege. Napoleon was as great in defeat -as in success. Speaking of his power to endure trials, he said: “Nature -seems to have calculated that I should endure great reverses. She has -given me a mind of marble. Thunder cannot ruffle it. The shaft merely -glides along.” - -At midnight, on the 25th of July, 1799, Napoleon, with six thousand -men, arrived within sight of the camp of the Turks, upon the shores -of the Bay of Aboukir. Napoleon knew that the Turks were awaiting the -arrival of the Mameluke cavalry from Egypt and of re-enforcements from -Acre and other parts of Syria. Defeat to Napoleon now would have been -utter ruin. But the terrific conflict which followed was not a defeat, -but a victory so complete that the whole Turkish army was destroyed. -Sir Sidney Smith fled in terror to his ships. Not a foe remained. In -the enthusiasm of the moment, Kleber, who had just arrived with a -division of two thousand men, for whom Napoleon had not waited, threw -his arms around the neck of his adored chieftain, exclaiming, “Let me -embrace you, my general; you are great as the universe!” - -Napoleon now learned that France was in a terrible state of confusion. -The imbecile government was despised. Plots, conspiracies, and -assassinations filled the land. Napoleon determined to return to -France. As he had no fleet, he could not take his army. The matter was -therefore concealed from them. With a small retinue, Napoleon embarked, -and sailed to France. Then followed the overthrow of the Directory. -France had tried republicanism, and the experiment had failed. The -people were too ignorant to govern themselves. The next morning after -the overthrow of the Directory, the three consuls, Napoleon, Sièyes, -and Ducos, met in the palace of the Luxembourg. - -There was but one arm-chair in the room. Napoleon had seated himself in -it. Sièyes exclaimed, “Gentlemen, who shall take the chair?” - -“Bonaparte, surely,” said Ducos; “he already has it. He is the only man -who can save us.” - -“Very well, gentlemen,” said Napoleon, promptly; “let us proceed to -business.” - -And important business he soon despatched. The revolutionary tribunals -had closed the churches and prohibited the observance of the Sabbath. -Napoleon recalled the banished priests, opened the churches, and -restored religious worship. The treasury was bankrupt. Napoleon -replenished it. The army was starving and ragged. Napoleon addressed -them with his thrilling words of sympathy, and clothed and fed them. -The navy was dilapidated. In every port in France, at the magic word -of this magnetic man, the sound of the ship-hammer was heard, and a -fleet was prepared to send to Egypt to convey to France his soldiers -left there. The Constitution was framed and adopted, and Napoleon was -elected First Consul of France. Civil war was now at an end. Napoleon -wrote two letters, one to the king of England, and the other to the -emperor of Germany, endeavoring to arrange a general peace. Austria was -inclined to listen to this appeal, but England demanded war. She would -have no peace while France continued a republic. So Napoleon was forced -to prepare for war. - -“Moreau was sent with a magnificent army into Swabia, to drive back the -Austrians towards their capital; Massena was appointed over the army -of Italy, while Napoleon himself swept down from the heights of San -Bernard, upon the plains of Lombardy. - -“At the fierce-fought battle of Marengo he reconquered Italy, while -Moreau chased the vanquished Austrians over the Danube. Victory -everywhere perched on the French standards, and Austria was ready to -agree to an armistice, in order to recover from the disasters she had -suffered. The slain at Montibello, around Genoa, on the plains of -Marengo, in the Black Forest, and along the Danube are to be charged -over to the British government, which refused peace in order to fight -for the philanthropic purpose of giving security to governments. - -“Austria, though crippled, let the armistice wear away, refusing to -make a treaty because she was bound for seven months longer to England. -Bonaparte, in the mean time, was preparing to recommence hostilities. -Finding himself unable to conclude a peace, he opened the campaign of -Hohenlinden, and sent Macdonald across the Splugen. Moreau’s victorious -march through Austria, and the success of the operations in Italy, soon -brought Austria to terms, and the celebrated peace of Luneville, of -1801, was signed. The energy and ability, and above all, the success of -the First Consul had now forced the continental powers to regard him -with respect, and in some cases with sympathy, while England, by her -imperious demands, had embroiled herself with all the northern powers -of Europe.” - -At length a general peace was concluded at Amiens, and the world was -at rest. Napoleon was now the idol of France. Although his title was -only that of First Consul, and France was nominally a republic, yet he -was in reality the most powerful monarch in Europe. He ruled in the -_hearts_ of forty millions of people. In 1803 the peace of Amiens was -broken, and all impartial historians admit, and even English writers -cannot deny the responsibility of this rupture rests with England. In -that treaty it was expressly stipulated that England should evacuate -Egypt and Malta, while France was to evacuate Naples, Tarento, and the -Roman States. Napoleon had fulfilled his part of the agreement within -two months after the peace. But the English were still in Alexandria -and Malta. Napoleon was right, and England was entirely wrong. If a -violation of a solemn treaty is a just cause for war, Napoleon was -free from blame. England now drew Russia into this new alliance, then -Austria and Sweden. Prussia refused to join the alliance, and sided -with France. The bloody conflict began. For the slain left on the -plains of Italy, for the tens of thousands strewn on the battle-field -of Austerlitz, who is chargeable? Neither Napoleon nor France. Napier, -in his “Peninsular War,” says: - -“Up to the peace of Tilsit, the wars of France were _essentially -defensive_; for the bloody contest that wasted the continent for so -many years was not a struggle for pre-eminence between ambitious -powers, nor for the political ascendency of one or other nation, _but -a deadly conflict to determine whether aristocracy or democracy should -predominate,—whether equality or privilege should henceforth be the -principle of European governments_.” - -“But how much does this ‘up to the peace of Tilsit’ embrace? First, -all the first wars of the French Republic,—the campaigns of 1792, ’93, -’94, ’95, and the carnage and woe that made up their history; second, -eleven out of the eighteen years of Bonaparte’s career,—the campaigns -of 1796, in Italy and Germany, the battles of Montenotte, Millesimo, -Dego, Lodi, Arcola, Castiglione, and Rivoli, the campaigns of 1797, -and the bloody battle-fields that marked their progress. It embraces -the wars in Italy and Switzerland while Bonaparte was in Egypt; the -campaign of Marengo, and its carnage; the havoc around and in Genoa; -the slain thousands that strewed the Black Forest and the banks of -the Danube, where Moreau struggled so heroically; the campaign of -Hohenlinden, and its losses. And yet this is but a fraction to what -remains. This period takes in also the campaign of Austerlitz and its -bloody battle, and the havoc the hand of war was making in Italy; the -campaign of Jena, and the fierce conflicts that accompanied it; the -campaign of Eylau and the battles of Pultusk, Golymin, Heilsberg, -crowned by the dreadful slaughter of Eylau; the campaigns of Friedland -and Tilsit, and the multitudes they left on the plains of Europe. All -these terrible campaigns, with their immense slaughter, does an English -historian declare to be the result of a defensive war on the part of -France, not merely a defence of territory, _but of human rights against -tyranny_. Let republicans ponder this before they adopt the sentiments -of prejudiced historians, and condemn as a monster the man who was -toiling over battle-fields to save his country from banded oppressors.” - -The 2d of December, 1804, dawned clear and cold. It was Sunday, and -upon this day Napoleon was to be crowned emperor at the church of Nôtre -Dame. All Paris assembled to witness this imposing ceremony. The church -was draped in costly velvet of richest hues. At one end a gorgeous -throne was erected. The Emperor left the Tuileries in a splendid -carriage, whose sides were of glass, thus allowing his magnificent -robes to be seen. He wore a golden laurel wreath upon his head. - -The acclamations of the immense crowds thronging the streets filled the -air. As Napoleon entered the church, five hundred musicians intoned a -solemn chant. The Pope anointed the Emperor and blessed the sword and -the sceptre. Then Napoleon lifted the crown and placed it upon his own -head. Napoleon then took up the crown intended for the Empress, and -approaching Josephine as she knelt before him, he placed it tenderly -upon her brow. Their eyes met for one moment in a long and loving -gaze of mutual affection, and tears filled the eyes of the beautiful -Josephine as she glanced with undisguised adoration upon the husband -she so reverenced and worshipped. And the lofty arches of Nôtre Dame -resounded with shouts of “_Vive l’Empereur!_” - -The Cisalpine Republic had witnessed the change of France from a -republic to an empire with great satisfaction. A deputation from -Italy was now sent to Napoleon, begging him to assume the crown of -Charlemagne. On the 20th of May, the coronation took place in the -Cathedral of Milan. The ceremony was conducted with a magnificence not -exceeded at Nôtre Dame. The iron crown of Charlemagne had reposed for -a thousand years in the church of Monza. The Empress first appeared -gorgeously dressed and glittering with jewels. Then Napoleon entered, -arrayed in imperial robes, with the diadem upon his brow and the -sceptre and crown of Charlemagne in his hands. He placed the crown upon -his own head, saying, solemnly, “God has given it to me; woe to him who -touches it!” - -Meanwhile, hostilities had commenced in the midst of Germany. Austria -and Russia had united with England. The Austrians had passed the Inn; -Munich was invaded; war was inevitable. - -Then followed the campaign of Ulm. Napoleon writes to Josephine, Dec. -5, 1805:— - -“I have concluded a truce. The Russians have implored it. The victory -of Austerlitz is the most illustrious of all which I have gained. We -have taken forty-five flags, 150 pieces of cannon, and twenty generals. -More than 20,000 are slain. It is an awful spectacle. I have beaten the -Russian and Austrian armies commanded by the two emperors.” - -In 1806 England, Russia, and Prussia formed a new alliance against the -French. Then followed the bloody battles of Jena and Auerstadt. On -the 28th of October Napoleon made a triumphal entry into Berlin, and -established himself in the king’s palace. While there he visited the -tomb of Frederick the Great, at Potsdam. The sword of the Prussian was -suspended over his grave. Napoleon took it down, saying, “I will send -it to the governor of the Invalides.” General Rapp ventured to reply, -“Were I in your place, I should not be willing to part with this sword. -I should keep it for myself.” - -Napoleon jestingly answered, “_Have I not then a sword of my own, -Mr. Giver of Advice?_” The Prussian monarchy was destroyed upon the -fields of Jena and of Auerstadt. But England and Russia were yet -clamorous for war. Again Napoleon tried to make overture for peace, -again he was repulsed. Then followed the terrible battle-field of -Eylau. Amid winter’s snow and ice and storms this famous battle was -won. As Napoleon passed over the gory field after the awful carnage, -he exclaimed with deep emotion, “To a father who loses his children -victory has no charms.” - -A dragoon, dreadfully shattered and bleeding from the effects of a -cannon ball, raised his head from the bloody snow, and faintly said, -“Turn your eyes this way, please your Majesty. I believe that I have -got my death wound. I shall soon be in the other world. But no matter -for that; _vive l’Empereur!_” - -Napoleon immediately dismounted from his horse and took the hand of -the wounded man, telling his aids to carry him to the ambulance. Large -tears rolled down the cheeks of the dying dragoon, as he fixed his -eyes upon that loved face, fervently exclaiming, “I only wish I had a -thousand lives to lay down for your majesty.” Amidst a heap of dead, -a feeble voice was heard crying, “_Vive l’Empereur!_” Half-concealed -beneath a tattered flag lay a young officer. As Napoleon approached, he -raised himself upon his elbow, though pierced with numerous wounds, -and faintly cried: “God bless your majesty! farewell, farewell! Oh, my -poor mother! To dear France my last sigh!” and falling back, was dead. -Upon this dreadful battle-field, though it was after midnight, he wrote -this fond note to Josephine:— - - MY LOVE,—There was a great battle yesterday. Victory - remains with me, but I have lost many men. The loss of - the enemy, still more considerable, does not console - me. I write these two lines myself, though greatly - fatigued, to tell you that I am well, and that I love - you. Wholly thine, - - NAPOLEON. - -The peace of Tilsit was finally concluded, and Napoleon returned to -Paris. - -The French government at this time was composed of three houses,—the -Senate, the Tribunate, and the Legislature. Napoleon blended the -Tribunate and the Legislature in one. He formed the Council of State, -or Cabinet, with the greatest care, choosing the most able men in every -department. The meetings of the Council were held in the palace of -the Tuileries or at St. Cloud. The most perfect freedom of discussion -prevailed in the Council. - -In September, 1808, occurred the memorable meeting of the emperors at -Erfurth. Kings, princes, and courtiers came from all parts of Europe to -witness the extraordinary spectacle. Napoleon was the gracious host who -received them as his guests. No more gorgeous retinue had ever followed -a monarch of the blood royal than surrounded the Emperor Napoleon as -he left Paris for the appointed place of meeting. Amid all the royal -magnificence which attended these imperial sovereigns, none appeared -so majestic, so supremely commanding in their personal presence as -Napoleon the Plebeian Monarch, who had raised himself by his own -surprising and irresistible genius to the proudest place amidst the -courts of Europe. - -All the other sovereigns trembled before his amazing power; the -imperialism of mind and genius compelled the homage of royal titles and -royal blood. - -We do not uphold that Napoleon’s career was free from error, and no -greater blot tarnishes the brightness of his fame than his divorce of -Josephine. From that moment Napoleon fell. From that moment Josephine -mounted an eminence of self-sacrificing, unselfish devotion, of -heart-martyrdom, never reached by woman before. Women have died for -their husbands; but this was worse than death. Women have slaved -and toiled, and been down-trodden by brutal husbands; but this was -worse than that. Never before had woman stepped from so high an -eminence of bliss into so deep an abyss of heart-desolating woe, -and with self-renouncing, almost inconceivable, womanly devotion, -allowed her royal place as wife to be taken by another, that thus a -supposed political power might be gained by the idolized object of her -affection; who, even though his cruel demand thus shattered her hopes, -her heart, and her life, she was still unselfish enough to glory in -her self-renunciatory sacrifice, for the still adored object of her -love. No political excuse can cover this crime committed by Napoleon -at the instigation of Fouché and other ambitious adherents, and worst -of all, at the instigation of his own relations, whom historians -acknowledge were the bitter enemies of his wife. No laxity of the -times, in the sacred laws of marriage, which are the most solemn vows -that human beings can take upon themselves, next to their vows to God, -can excuse this blot upon Napoleon’s fame. By the very eminence of -his genius above all other men, by the very exaltation of his lofty -position, should he have made himself the model as an _upholder_, not a -_desecrator_, of the most sacred human relation ever ordained by God. - -“What God hath joined together, let not man put asunder!” was a -weightier obligation than any supposed political advantage, more -binding than any patriotism, more encumbent upon him than any duty of -state or country. No political reasons can palliate in the least degree -this crime; they only weakly _explain_, but do not in any manner excuse -it. That Napoleon, with his marvellous self-sufficiency of will, and -genius, and wise forethought, and keen-eyed intuition, could have been -led into such a deplorable act, is past all comprehension. That it was -the cruel and bitter mistake of his life, he himself has acknowledged. -Napoleon said afterwards, “In separating myself from Josephine, and in -marrying Maria Louisa, I placed my foot upon an abyss which was covered -with flowers.” - -It was an abyss deep and awful; and from this dark and direful abyss -issued forth the horrible reptiles of disappointment, sorrow, and -remorse, which thrust their cruel fangs into the quivering heart of -the lonely exile at St. Helena. Perchance, in the silent anguish of -his agonized but heroic soul, a dumb wail broke forth, “Ah, Josephine! -my only love! bright star of my destiny! when I no longer gazed upward -to thy heavenly light, but tempted by the demons of false counsel, -followed an _ignis fatuus_ o’er the treacherous quicksands of political -ambition, then did I find myself ingulfed in sorrows, and my heart was -shrouded in the black darkness of a rayless night of hopeless despair. -Had I been true to thee, perchance a just and righteous Providence -might have been more merciful to me. Thou wert my star of hope and -love! Thou wert ordained by heaven, my star of destiny! Bitterly do I -remember thy prophetic words upon that memorable night, when the tie -which bound us together was shattered by my blind ambition, ‘Bonaparte, -behold that bright star; it is mine! and remember, to mine, not to -thine, has sovereignty been promised. Separate, then, our fates, and -your star fades!’ - -“Ah, Josephine, you were right! It is to you alone that I owe the only -few moments of happiness I have known in the world!” - -Yes, Josephine was right; that hour marked the commencement of the -downfall of Napoleon. His star, which once blazed forth in matchless -splendor in the heavens, was soon to sink forever. The two greatest -errors of Napoleon were the conquest of Spain and the invasion of -Russia. The first was unjust, the second was unfortunate. We can but -give one picture of the Russian campaign. Napoleon and his army had -marched in triumph more than two thousand miles from his capital. -Victory had accompanied him. He had taken the metropolis of the most -powerful nation on the continent, though that nation had been aided by -England, Spain, Portugal, and Sweden. Moscow was in the possession of -the French. Napoleon was established in the Krémlin. - -It was the 16th of September, 1812. At midnight the cry of “Fire!” -resounded through the streets. Moscow was in flames! Mines were sprung, -shells burst, cannons were discharged, wagons of powder exploded; -earthquake succeeded earthquake; volcano followed volcano of flame and -smoke and burning projectiles, until the whole vast city was wrapped -in one wild ocean of flame. Napoleon said of this awful sight: “It -was a spectacle of a sea and billows of fire, a sky and clouds of -flame; mountains of red rolling flames, like immense waves of the sea, -alternately bursting forth and elevating themselves to skies of fire, -and then sinking into the ocean of flame below. Oh! it was the most -grand, the most sublime, the most terrific sight the world ever beheld.” - -Nothing was left of Moscow save the remembrance of its former grandeur. -Then followed the terrible retreat of the French army, through the -cold and snow and winter storms. During this unfortunate expedition -the entire army of Napoleon had been destroyed. “During the Russian -campaign France is believed to have lost about three hundred and fifty -thousand soldiers: a hundred thousand were killed in the advance and -retreat, a hundred and fifty thousand died from hunger, fatigue, and -the severity of the climate, and about a hundred thousand remained -prisoners in the hands of the Russians, not more than half of whom ever -returned to France.” - -Still, notwithstanding the enormous wars in which Napoleon had been -engaged, he had expended in works of public improvement, for the -embellishment of France, in the course of nine years, more than two -hundred millions of dollars. “These miracles,” says a French writer, -“were all effected by steadiness of purpose, talent armed with power, -and finances wisely and economically applied. If a man of the age of -the Medici, or of Louis XIV., were to revisit the earth, and at the -sight of so many marvels, ask how many ages of peace and glorious -reigns had been required to produce them, he would be answered, -‘_Twelve years of war, and a single man!_’” - -But the war was not over. With an army formed of fresh recruits, -again Napoleon was forced to meet his foes. Then followed the battle -of Lützen, which is regarded as one of the most brilliant proofs of -Napoleon’s genius. But now many a Judas appeared in the midst of his -supposed friends. General Jomini deserted the staff of Marshal Ney, and -went over to the Emperor Alexander. Bernadotte, of Sweden, took up arms -against the French; and General Moreau went over to the camp of the -Allies. - -[Illustration: NAPOLEON AT FONTAINEBLEAU.] - -After the disaster of Leipsic, and the losses sustained by different -divisions of the army in that campaign, and the mortality which thinned -so dreadfully the French armies on the Rhine, France felt herself -exhausted and weak. - -In this depressed state, the civilized world was preparing its last -united onset upon her. From the Baltic to the Bosphorus, from the -Archangel to the Mediterranean, Europe had banded itself against -Napoleon. Denmark and Sweden had struck hands with Austria and Russia -and Prussia and England; while, to crown all, the princes of the -Confederation of the Rhine put their signatures to the league, and _one -million and twenty-eight thousand men_ stood up in battle array on -the plains of Europe to overthrow this mighty spirit that had shaken -so terribly their thrones. And all this resistless host were pointing -their bayonets towards Paris. What man or nation could meet such an -overwhelming foe? Never did Napoleon’s genius shine forth with greater -splendor than in the almost super-human exertions he put forth in this -last great struggle for his empire. The Allies entered the capital, -and Napoleon was compelled to abdicate, preferring exile, rather -than involve France in more terrible bloodshed. He then penned this -memorable abdication:— - -“The allied sovereigns having declared that the Emperor Napoleon is the -sole obstacle to the re-establishment of a general peace in Europe, -the Emperor Napoleon, faithful to his oath, declares that he renounces, -for himself and his heirs, the throne of France and Italy; and that -there is no personal sacrifice, not even that of life itself, which he -is not willing to make for the interests of France.” - -Then followed his mournful farewell to his soldiers. - -“As Napoleon arrived at the landing of the grand staircase, he stood -for a moment and looked around upon the Guard drawn up in the court, -and upon the innumerable multitude which thronged its surroundings. -Every eye was fixed on him. It was a funereal scene, over which -was suspended the solemnity of religious awe. Acclamations in that -hour would have been a mockery. The silence of the grave reigned -undisturbed. Tears rolled down the furrowed cheeks of the warriors, and -their heads were bowed in overwhelming grief. Napoleon cast a tender -and a grateful look over the battalions and the squadrons who had ever -proved so faithful to himself and to his cause. Before descending to -the courtyard, he hesitated for a moment, as if his fortitude were -forsaking him. But immediately rallying his strength, he approached -the soldiers. The drums commenced beating the accustomed salute. With -a gesture Napoleon arrested the martial tones.” A breathless stillness -prevailed. With a voice clear and firm,—every articulation of which was -heard in the remotest ranks,—he said:— - -“Generals, officers, and soldiers of my Old Guard, I bid you farewell. -For five and twenty years I have ever found you in the path of honor -and of glory. In these last days, as in the days of our prosperity, you -have never ceased to be models of fidelity and of courage. Europe has -armed against us. Still, with men such as you, our cause never could -have been lost. We could have maintained a civil war for years. But it -would have rendered our country unhappy. I have therefore sacrificed -our interests to those of France. I leave you; but, my friends, _be -faithful to the new sovereign whom France has accepted_. The happiness -of France was my only thought; it shall ever be the object of my most -fervent prayers. Grieve not for my lot; I shall be happy so long as I -know that you are so. If I have consented to outlive myself, it is with -the hope of still promoting your glory. I trust to write the deeds we -have achieved together. Adieu, my children! I would that I could press -you all to my heart. Let me at least embrace your general and your -eagle.” - -“Every eye was now bathed in tears. At a signal from Napoleon, General -Petit, who then commanded the Old Guard, advanced and stood between -the ranks of the soldiers and their emperor. Napoleon, with tears -dimming his eyes, encircled the general in his arms, while the veteran -commander, entirely unmanned, sobbed aloud. All hearts were melted, and -a stilled moan was heard through all the ranks. - -“Again the Emperor recovered himself, and said, ‘Bring me the eagle.’ A -grenadier advanced, bearing one of the eagles of the regiment. Napoleon -imprinted a kiss upon its silver beak, then pressed the eagle to his -heart, and said, in tremulous accents, ‘Dear eagle, may this last -embrace vibrate forever in the hearts of all my faithful soldiers! -Farewell, again, my old companions, farewell!’” - -But Elba could not long hold that daring, restless spirit. The next -year he again unrolled his standard in the capital of France, and the -army opened its arms to receive him. He at length staked all on the -field of Waterloo. There the star of his destiny again rose over the -horizon, and struggled with its ancient strength to mount the heavens -of fame. The battle-cloud rolled over it, and when it again was swept -away, that star had gone down, sunk in blood and carnage, to rise no -more forever. - -“Volumes have been written on this campaign and last battle; but every -impartial mind must come to the same conclusion,—that Napoleon’s -plans never promised more complete success than at this last effort. -Wellington was entrapped, and with the same co-operation on both sides, -he was lost beyond redemption. Had Blücher stayed away as Grouchy did, -or had Grouchy come up as did Blücher, victory would once more have -soared with the French eagles. It is in vain to talk of Grouchy’s -having obeyed orders. It was plainly his duty, and his only duty, to -detain Blücher or to follow him.” - -Even yet Napoleon could have placed himself at the head of fifty -thousand men in a few hours. He was entreated by his friends to grasp -these powerful resources and again attack the foe. But treachery had -already invaded the Chamber of Deputies. The wily Fouché—the same -who had largely instigated the divorce of Josephine—had obtained the -control, and joining with the Bourbons, persuaded the Chamber to demand -the second abdication of the Emperor. - -“Two regiments of volunteers from the Faubourg St. Antoine, accompanied -by a countless multitude, marched to the gates of the Elysée. A -deputation waited upon the Emperor, stating that the traitorous -Chamber of Deputies was about to sell France again to the Bourbons, -and entreating him to take the reins of government into his own hands, -as on the 18th Brumaire.” The Emperor replied, “You recall to my -remembrance the 18th Brumaire, but you forget that the circumstances -are not the same. On the 18th Brumaire the nation was unanimous in -desiring a change. A feeble effort only was necessary to effect what -they so much desired. Now it would require floods of French blood, and -never shall a single drop be shed by me in defence of a cause purely -personal. Putting the brute force of the mass of the people into action -would doubtless save Paris and insure me the crown without incurring -the horrors of civil war, but it would likewise be risking thousands of -French lives. _No! I like the regrets of France better than her crown._” - -[Illustration: NAPOLEON ON BOARD THE BELLEROPHON.] - -And so Napoleon, sacrificing himself to save the lives of the French -people, dictated his second act of abdication, and resigned himself -with amazing calmness to this overwhelming disaster. But when he threw -himself upon the generosity of England, she treacherously entrapped him -on the _Bellerophon_, and afterwards conveyed him as a captive to the -desolate island of St. Helena, where she set spies over him to torture -and insult him, and gloated with demoniacal cruelty over the reports -they gave of his sufferings. - -But England, with all her cunning and her base treachery, could not -imprison the matchless mind and soul of the great Napoleon. Though his -body was chained to a dreary rock-prison, his genius was still the -royal emperor of the world. His wondrous sayings at St. Helena have -become the text-books for the students of all climes. - -An English writer, who holds the position of a professor in the -University at Cambridge, in a work lately published, thus gives to -Napoleon his place in history: “There are times—and these are the most -usual—when the most wonderful abilities would not have availed to raise -any man from such a station as that in which Napoleon was born to the -head of affairs. But the last years of the eighteenth century formed -an exceptional period, in which such an ascent was not only possible in -France, but was quite possible without very extraordinary abilities. -That particular part of Napoleon’s career to which the Alexanders and -Hannibals can show nothing parallel, is, in fact, just the part which, -in that exceptional time, was within the reach of an ordinary man. -Thus the miracle of Bonaparte’s rise to power lies not so much in his -personality as in the time.” - -What a pity that this _English professor_ could not have happened to -have lived when _ordinary_ men might have become so great! - -One great secret of Napoleon’s success was the union of two striking -qualities which are not often found together. His imagination was as -ardent, and his mind as impetuous, as the most rash warrior; at the -same time his judgment was as cool and correct as the ablest tactician. -“His mind moved with the rapidity of lightning, and yet with the -precision and steadiness of naked reason.” This power of thinking -quick and thinking right is one of the rarest and yet most important -qualities to insure success. As a military leader he has no superior in -ancient or modern times. Instead of following what was then considered -the scientific mode of warfare, he fell back upon his own genius, and -originated tactics which filled his foes with horrified surprise. His -power of combination was unequalled; his mind seemed vast enough for -the management of the globe. And yet so perfect was the system and -arrangement of his plans and thoughts that the slightest detail was -never overlooked. His bravery amounted to rashness where his own life -was concerned. He feared neither shot nor shell, and carelessly exposed -himself whenever he thought his presence was needed, replying to his -soldiers, who often besought him not to risk his life so recklessly, -“Courage! the bullet that is to kill me is not yet cast.” - -As a thinker and statesman, Napoleon was as remarkable as he was as a -politician and general. His genius was universal. Had he not been a -Napoleon, he might have been a Shakespeare or a Bacon. He condensed -a volume into a sentence; his words were as keen as the blade of a -Damascus sword, and as freighted with ominous meaning as the tides of -the ocean. He knew men; he knew books; he knew nature. In twenty-five -lessons Napoleon became so familiar with the English language that he -could read any English book without difficulty. - -Another remarkable trait in Napoleon was his self-sufficiency. That -self-confidence, which in smaller men would have been mad folly, was -in him the most far-seeing wisdom. He needed no opinions of other men -to govern his actions. He was sufficient unto himself. He took counsel -only of his own genius and reason and marvellous intuitions. - -His self-reliance was his power in the midst of danger and -difficulties. He believed God had given him a great part to play in the -world’s drama, and he meant to play it well. His plans were almost the -inspirations of prophetic foreknowledge. - -Napoleon was also the greatest of statesmen. His conversations at St. -Helena display his wonderful knowledge of men and governments and -laws and administrative legislation. Nowhere else can be found such -profound thoughts upon politics, war, sciences, arts, or religion. -He has been accused of infidelity. But few declarations of the -Divinity of Christ, ever uttered by mortal lips, have equalled in -far-reaching apprehension, and also acknowledgment of the divine -incomprehensibility of the mystery of the Godhead, as the sayings of -Napoleon. Conversing with General Bertrand at St. Helena, Napoleon -said:— - -“I know men, and I tell you that Jesus Christ is not a man. Superficial -minds see a resemblance between Christ and the founders of empires and -the gods of other religions. That resemblance does not exist. There is -between Christianity and all other religions whatsoever the distance -of infinity. Paganism was never accepted as truth by the wise men -of Greece, neither by Socrates, Pythagoras, Plato, Anaxagoras, nor -Pericles. But on the other side, the loftiest intellects since the -advent of Christianity have had faith, a living faith, a practical -faith, in the mysteries and doctrines of the Gospel. Paganism is the -work of man. What do these gods so boastful know more than other -mortals? these legislators, Greek or Roman? this Numa? this Lycurgus? -these priests of India or of Memphis? this Confucius? this Mohammed? -Absolutely nothing. They have made a perfect chaos of morals. There is -not one among them all who has said anything new in reference to our -future destiny, to the soul, to the essence of God, to the creation. As -for me, I recognize the gods and these great men as beings like myself. -They have performed a lofty part in their times, as I have done. -Nothing announces them divine. On the contrary, there are numerous -resemblances between them and myself,—foibles and errors which ally -them to me and to humanity. - -“It is not so with Christ. Everything in him astonishes me. His spirit -overawes me, and his will confounds me. Between him and whoever else in -the world there is no possible term of comparison; his birth, and the -history of his life; the profundity of his doctrine, which grapples -the mightiest difficulties, and which is of those difficulties the -most admirable solution; his Gospel, his apparition, his empire, his -march across the ages and the realms,—everything is to me a prodigy, an -insoluble mystery, which plunges me into a reverie from which I cannot -escape, a mystery which is there before my eyes, a mystery which I can -neither deny nor explain. Here I see nothing human. - -“Jesus borrowed nothing from our sciences. His religion is a revelation -from an intelligence which certainly is not that of man. One can -absolutely find nowhere, but in him alone, the imitation or the example -of his life. He is not a philosopher, since he advances by miracles, -and from the first his disciples worshipped him. He persuades them -far more by an appeal to the heart, than by any display of method and -of logic. Neither did he impose upon them any preliminary studies or -any knowledge of letters. All his religion consists in _believing_. -In fact, the sciences and philosophy avail nothing for salvation. He -has nothing to do but with the soul, and to that alone he brings his -Gospel. The soul is sufficient for him, as he is sufficient for the -soul. I search in vain in history to find a parallel to Jesus Christ, -or anything which can approach the Gospel. Neither history, nor -humanity, nor the ages, nor nature, can offer me anything with which I -am able to compare it or explain it. The more I consider the Gospel, -the more I am assured that there is nothing there which is not beyond -the march of events, and above the human mind. - -“You speak of Cæsar, of Alexander, of their conquests, and of the -enthusiasm they enkindled in the hearts of their soldiers; but can -you conceive of a dead man making conquests with an army faithful and -entirely devoted to his memory? My armies have forgotten me, even -while living, as the Carthaginian army forgot Hannibal. Such is our -power! A single battle lost crushes us, and adversity scatters our -friends. - -“Can you conceive of Cæsar, the eternal emperor of the Roman Senate, -from the depths of his mausoleum governing the empire, watching over -the destinies of Rome? Such is the history of the invasion and conquest -of the world by Christianity. Such is the power of the God of the -Christians, and such is the perpetual miracle of the progress of the -faith and of the government of his Church. Nations pass away, thrones -crumble, but the Church remains. In every other existence but that of -Christ, how many imperfections! From the first day to the last he is -the same, always the same, majestic and simple, infinitely firm and -infinitely gentle. Christ proved that he was the Son of the Eternal -by his disregard of time. All his doctrines signify one and the same -thing,—_Eternity_. - -“The Gospel is not a book; it is a living being, with an action, a -power which invades everything that opposes its extension. Behold it -upon this table, this Book surpassing all others” (here he solemnly -placed his hand upon it); “I never omit to read it, and every day with -the same pleasure. Nowhere is to be found such a series of beautiful -ideas, admirable moral maxims, which defile like the battalions of a -celestial army, and which produce in our soul the same emotion which -one experiences in contemplating the infinite expanse of the skies, -resplendent in a summer’s night with all the brilliance of the stars. -Not only is our mind absorbed; it is controlled, and the soul can never -go astray with this Book for its guide. Once master of our spirit, the -faithful Gospel loves us. God even is our Friend, our Father, and -truly our God. - -“What a proof of the divinity of Christ! With an empire so absolute, he -has but one single end,—the spiritual amelioration of individuals, the -purity of conscience, the union to that which is true, the holiness of -the soul. So that Christ’s greatest miracle undoubtedly is the reign of -charity. - -“Behold the destiny near at hand of him who has been called the great -Napoleon! What an abyss between my deep misery and the eternal reign of -Christ, which is proclaimed, loved, adored, and which is extending over -all the earth. Is this to die? Is it not rather to live? The death of -Christ! It is the death of God.” Turning to General Bertrand, “If you -do not perceive that Jesus Christ is God, very well; then I did wrong -to make you a general.” At length came the last, though to Napoleon -most welcome, summons. A few days before his death, he awoke one -morning, saying, “I have just seen my good Josephine, but she would not -embrace me. She disappeared at the moment when I was about to take her -in my arms. She was seated there. It seemed to me that I had seen her -yesterday evening. She is not changed. She is still the same, full of -devotion to me. She told me that we were about to see each other again, -never more to part.” - -The disease progressed rapidly, and the dying hour drew near. It was -the month of May, 1821. A violent storm raged with wild fury on that -rocky prison-isle, as the spirit of the great Napoleon was freeing -itself from its earthly fetters. His few faithful friends who shared -his exile, stood weeping around his couch. In the solemn silence -of that sacred hour his loved voice was once more faintly heard: -“_France! Army! Head of the Army! Josephine!_” and the heart of -Napoleon I. ceased to beat. “_Isle of Elba! Napoleon!_” had been the -last words of the loving and forgiving Josephine. “France! the Army! -Josephine!” were the last images which lingered in the heart, and the -last words which trembled on the lips of the dying emperor. - -“When the prejudice, and falsehood, and hatred of his enemies shall -disappear, and the world can gaze impartially on this plebeian soldier, -rising to the throne of an empire, measuring his single intellect -with the proudest kings of Europe, and coming off victorious from the -encounter, rising above the prejudices and follies of his age, ‘making -kings of plebeians, and plebeians of kings,’ grasping, as by intuition, -all military and political science, expending with equal facility his -vast energies on war or peace, turning with the same profound thought -from fierce battles to commerce, and trade, and finances; when the -world can calmly thus contemplate him, his amazing genius will receive -that homage which envy and ignorance and hatred now withhold. - -“And when the intelligent philanthropist shall understand the political -and civil history of Europe, and see how Napoleon broke up its systems -of oppression and feudalism, proclaiming human rights in the ears -of the world, till the continent shook with the rising murmurs of -oppressed man; study well the changes he introduced, without which -human progress must have ceased; see the great public works he -established, the institutions he founded, the laws he proclaimed, and -the civil liberty he restored; and then, remembering that the bloody -wars that offset all these were waged by him in self-defence, and were -equal rights struggling against exclusive despotism, he will regret -that he has adopted the slanders of his foemen and the falsehoods of -monarchists.” - -[Illustration: THE ROCK AT ST. HELENA.] - -Alexander’s conquests were only for selfish glory; he cared not for his -people, and little for his soldiers. Cæsar’s triumphs were for his own -personal honor and power. The wars of Frederick the Great were nearly -all unjust and aggressive, and he openly asserted his selfish ambition. -But Napoleon, equalling them all in the brilliancy of his conquests, -stands so far above them, as the idol of his people and his soldiers, -as a man of incorruptible character, in the midst of temptations as -great as any which have beset mortal men, as an intellectual genius, -with a mind so phenomenal as to make him almost a miracle in far-seeing -intuitions and marvellous accomplishment,—that he must be acknowledged, -not only as the most famous of all the rulers of the world, but as -the greatest uninspired man that ever lived. The history of most men -terminates with the grave. But Napoleon’s story ended not with his -lonely death upon the dreary Isle of St. Helena. Each year his memory -was growing brighter. Each year the French people realized more and -more the irreparable loss they had sustained. The heart-melting story -of his hardships at St. Helena was told over and over again in his -beloved France, till at last the nation rose as one man to do his -memory honor. Just twenty-five years from the time when Napoleon was -landed a captive upon the Island of St. Helena, his sacred remains -were brought from their humble resting-place upon that rocky isle, and -placed in the magnificent mausoleum prepared for them in the Church of -the Invalides. On the anniversary of the great victory of Austerlitz, -the two funeral frigates entered the harbor of Cherbourg. Three ships -of war, the _Austerlitz_, the _Friedland_, and the _Tilsit_, -immediately encircled the ship which bore the sacred remains. All the -forts, batteries, and warships fired a salute. All France flocked to -the cities and villages through which the funeral cortège was to pass. - -At four o’clock, on the afternoon of the 14th of December, 1840, -the flotilla arrived at Courbevoie, a small village four miles from -Paris. Here the remains were to be transferred from the steamer to the -shore. As the funeral barge sailed up the Seine, a colossal statue of -Josephine, which had been erected on the shore, offered an appropriate -and fitting welcome. Her fair form and face seemed to greet the return -of her idolized husband. Maria Louisa, the daughter of the Cæsars, -was then living ingloriously at Parma. No one thought of her. But at -last Josephine and Napoleon were united together in sacred memories on -earth, as their spirits had already been reunited in heaven. - -“A Grecian temple one hundred feet high was constructed at the -termination of the wharf, under which the body was to lie in state -until transferred to the funeral car. Here Sergeant Hubert, who for -nineteen years had kept watch at the solitary grave of Napoleon at -St. Helena, landed. All the generals gathered around him, and he was -welcomed by the people with deep emotion. The imperial funeral car -was composed of five distinct parts, the basement, the pedestal, the -Caryatides, the shield, and the cenotaph. The basement rested on four -massive gilt wheels. It was profusely adorned with rich ornaments which -were covered with frosted gold. Upon this basement stood groups of -cherubs, seven feet high, supporting a pedestal eighteen feet long, -covered with burnished gold. This pedestal was hung with purple velvet -embroidered with gold. Upon it stood fourteen Caryatides, antique -figures larger than life, and entirely covered with gold, supporting -with their heads and hands an immense shield of solid gold. This -shield was of oval form, and eighteen feet in length, and was richly -decorated. Upon the top of this shield, nearly fifty feet from the -ground, was placed the cenotaph, an exact copy of Napoleon’s coffin. It -was slightly veiled with purple crape embroidered with golden bees. On -the cenotaph, upon a velvet cushion, were placed the sceptre, the sword -of justice, the imperial crown, in gold and embellished with precious -stones. - -“The Church of the Invalides had been magnificently adorned for the -solemn ceremony. Thirty-six thousand spectators were seated upon -immense platforms on the esplanade of the Invalides. Six thousand -spectators thronged the seats of the spacious portico. In the interior -of the church were assembled the clergy, the members of the Chambers -of Deputies and of Peers, and all the members of the royal family and -other distinguished personages from France and Europe. - -“As the coffin, preceded by the Prince de Joinville, was borne along -the nave upon the shoulders of thirty-two of Napoleon’s Old Guard, -all rose and bowed in homage to the mighty dead.” Louis Philippe, -surrounded by the great officers of state, then stepped forward to -receive the remains. - -“Sire,” said the prince, “I present to you the body of the Emperor -Napoleon.” - -“I receive it,” replied the king, “in the name of France.” Then taking -from the hand of Marshal Soult the sword of Napoleon, and presenting -it to General Bertrand, he said, “General, I charge you to place this -glorious sword of the Emperor upon his coffin.” - -Beneath the lofty dome of the church, where the massive tomb of -Napoleon has since been erected, a magnificent cenotaph in the form of -a temple had been reared. Within this richly decorated catafalque the -coffin of Napoleon was reverently and solemnly placed, thus fulfilling -the last wish of the Emperor, expressed in these memorable words, “It -is my wish that my ashes may repose on the banks of the Seine, in the -midst of the French people whom I have loved so well.” - -“He who united in himself alone the glory of Alexander, of Cæsar, of -Charlemagne, and of Louis XIV., took his place in the Invalides, which, -during his life, he had marked as the place of heroes.” His devoted -Generals Bertrand and Duroc now lie beside him. A few aged veterans -of the Old Guard still watch over him. The sunlight, softened by the -rich tints of the costly windows, falls lovingly upon his tomb, and his -cherished memory lives in the hearts of his beloved people, growing -more beautiful, more triumphantly venerated, and sacredly respected -with each passing year. As his faithful veterans cast their crowns of -flowers at the foot of his coffin, with trembling voices they lovingly -though mournfully cried, “_Vive l’Empereur!_” and this loved Emperor -still lives in the hearts of his people, royally enshrined in a -nation’s undying love. - - * * * * * - -Transcriber’s Notes: - -Obvious punctuation errors repaired. Warenne, Earl of Surrey, was -spelled both as Warren and Warrene throughout the text. This was -retained. Varied hyphenation retained as printed. - -Page xi, “Kremlin” changed to “Krémlin” (The Krémlin of Moscow) - -Page 15, “Aphrodite” changed to “Aphrodité” (mother, Aphrodité, caught -him) - -Page 80, “enthusiam” changed to “enthusiasm” (enthusiasm of Alexander’s) - -Page 157, “guantlets” changed to “gauntlets” (garnished with gauntlets) - -Page 160, “Debonnaire” changed to “Débonnaire” (called Louis le -Débonnaire) - -Page 163, “Debonnaire” changed to “Débonnaire” (his son Louis le -Débonnaire) - -Page 272, “seige” changed to “siege” (and commenced its siege) - -Page 279, “cortége” changed to “cortège” (brilliant _cortège_ -glittering) - -Page 372, illustration caption, “KREMLIN” changed to “KRÉMLIN” (THE -KRÉMLIN OF MOSCOW) - -Page 441, “endeavord” changed to “endeavored” (enemies who endeavored) - -Page 442, “Sardina” changed to “Sardinia” (king of Sardinia together) - -Page 445, “pontroon” changed to “pontoon” (and four pontoon trains) - -Page 446, “striction” changed to “stricken” (terror-stricken inaction) - -Page 454, “Friendland” changed to “Friedland” (of Friedland and Tilsit) - -Page 454 “Tuilieries” changed to “Tuileries” (Tuileries in a splendid) - -Page 460, “Kremlin” changed to “Krémlin” (established in the Krémlin) - -Page 461, “Lutzen” changed to “Lützen” (of Lützen, which is) - -Page 473, “falshood” changed to “falsehood” (prejudice, and falsehood) - -Page 475, “cortege” changed to “cortège” (funeral cortège was to pass) - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's The Boys' Book of Rulers, by Lydia Hoyt Farmer - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOYS' BOOK OF RULERS *** - -***** This file should be named 50510-0.txt or 50510-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/0/5/1/50510/ - -Produced by Emmy, Chris Curnow and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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