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+The Project Gutenberg Etext of:
+
+History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom
+by Andrew Dickson White
+
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+History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom
+
+by Andrew Dickson White
+
+April, 1996  [Etext #505]
+
+
+History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom
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+
+
+HISTORY OF THE WARFARE OF SCIENCE WITH THEOLOGY IN CHRISTENDOM
+
+BY
+ANDREW DICKSON WHITE
+
+TWO VOLUMES COMBINED
+
+
+To the Memory of
+
+EZRA CORNELL
+I DEDICATE THIS BOOK.
+
+
+
+Thoughts that great hearts once broke for, we
+
+Breathe cheaply in the common air.--LOWELL
+
+Dicipulus est prioris posterior dies.--PUBLIUS SYRUS
+
+Truth is the daughter of Time.--BACON
+The Truth shall make you free.--ST.  JOHN, viii, 32.
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+My book is ready for the printer, and as I begin this preface my
+eye lights upon the crowd of Russian peasants at work on the Neva
+under my windows.  With pick and shovel they are letting the rays
+of the April sun into the great ice barrier which binds together
+the modern quays and the old granite fortress where lie the bones
+of the Romanoff Czars.
+
+This barrier is already weakened; it is widely decayed, in many
+places thin, and everywhere treacherous; but it is, as a whole,
+so broad, so crystallized about old boulders, so imbedded in
+shallows, so wedged into crannies on either shore, that it is a
+great danger.  The waters from thousands of swollen streamlets
+above are pressing behind it; wreckage and refuse are piling up
+against it; every one knows that it must yield.  But there is
+danger that it may resist the pressure too long and break
+suddenly, wrenching even the granite quays from their
+foundations, bringing desolation to a vast population, and
+leaving, after the subsidence of the flood, a widespread residue
+of slime, a fertile breeding-bed for the germs of disease.
+
+
+But the patient mujiks are doing the right thing.  The barrier,
+exposed more and more to the warmth of spring by the scores of
+channels they are making, will break away gradually, and the
+river will flow on beneficent and beautiful.
+
+My work in this book is like that of the Russian mujik on the
+Neva.  I simply try to aid in letting the light of historical
+truth into that decaying mass of outworn thought which attaches
+the modern world to mediaeval conceptions of Christianity, and
+which still lingers among us--a most serious barrier to religion
+and morals, and a menace to the whole normal evolution of
+society.
+
+For behind this barrier also the flood is rapidly rising --the
+flood of increased knowledge and new thought; and this barrier
+also, though honeycombed and in many places thin, creates a
+danger--danger of a sudden breaking away, distressing and
+calamitous, sweeping before it not only out worn creeds and
+noxious dogmas, but cherished principles and ideals, and even
+wrenching out most precious religious and moral foundations of
+the whole social and political fabric.
+
+My hope is to aid--even if it be but a little--in the gradual and
+healthful dissolving away of this mass of unreason, that the
+stream of "religion pure and undefiled" may flow on broad and
+clear, a blessing to humanity.
+
+And now a few words regarding the evolution of this book.
+
+It is something over a quarter of a century since I labored with
+Ezra Cornell in founding the university which bears his honored
+name.
+
+Our purpose was to establish in the State of New York an
+institution for advanced instruction and research, in which
+science, pure and applied, should have an equal place with
+literature; in which the study of literature, ancient and modern,
+should be emancipated as much as possible from pedantry; and
+which should be free from various useless trammels and vicious
+methods which at that period hampered many, if not most, of the
+American universities and colleges.
+
+We had especially determined that the institution should be under
+the control of no political party and of no single religious
+sect, and with Mr. Cornell's approval I embodied stringent
+provisions to this effect in the charter.
+
+It had certainly never entered into the mind of either of us that
+in all this we were doing anything irreligious or unchristian.
+Mr. Cornell was reared a member of the Society of Friends; he
+had from his fortune liberally aided every form of Christian
+effort which he found going on about him, and among the permanent
+trustees of the public library which he had already founded, he
+had named all the clergymen of the town--Catholic and Protestant.
+As for myself, I had been bred a churchman, had recently been
+elected a trustee of one church college, and a professor in
+another; those nearest and dearest to me were devoutly religious;
+and, if I may be allowed to speak of a matter so personal to my
+self, my most cherished friendships were among deeply religious
+men and women, and my greatest sources of enjoyment were
+ecclesiastical architecture, religious music, and the more devout
+forms of poetry.  So, far from wishing to injure Christianity, we
+both hoped to promote it; but we did not confound religion with
+sectarianism, and we saw in the sectarian character of American
+colleges and universities as a whole, a reason for the poverty of
+the advanced instruction then given in so many of them.
+
+It required no great acuteness to see that a system of control
+which, in selecting a Professor of Mathematics or Language or
+Rhetoric or Physics or Chemistry, asked first and above all to
+what sect or even to what wing or branch of a sect he belonged,
+could hardly do much to advance the moral, religious, or
+intellectual development of mankind.
+
+The reasons for the new foundation seemed to us, then, so cogent
+that we expected the co-operation of all good citizens, and
+anticipated no opposition from any source.
+
+As I look back across the intervening years, I know not whether
+to be more astonished or amused at our simplicity.
+
+Opposition began at once.  In the State Legislature it confronted
+us at every turn, and it was soon in full blaze throughout the
+State--from the good Protestant bishop who proclaimed that all
+professors should be in holy orders, since to the Church alone
+was given the command, "Go, teach all nations," to the zealous
+priest who published a charge that Goldwin Smith--a profoundly
+Christian scholar --had come to Cornell in order to inculcate the
+"infidelity of the Westminster Review"; and from the eminent
+divine who went from city to city, denouncing the "atheistic and
+pantheistic tendencies" of the proposed education, to the
+perfervid minister who informed a denominational synod that
+Agassiz, the last great opponent of Darwin, and a devout theist,
+was "preaching Darwinism and atheism" in the new institution.
+
+As the struggle deepened, as hostile resolutions were introduced
+into various ecclesiastical bodies, as honored clergymen solemnly
+warned their flocks first against the "atheism," then against the
+"infidelity," and finally against the "indifferentism" of the
+university, as devoted pastors endeavoured to dissuade young men
+from matriculation, I took the defensive, and, in answer to
+various attacks from pulpits and religious newspapers, attempted
+to allay the fears of the public.  "Sweet reasonableness" was
+fully tried.  There was established and endowed in the university
+perhaps the most effective Christian pulpit, and one of the most
+vigorous branches of the Christian Association, then in the
+United States; but all this did nothing to ward off the attack.
+The clause in the charter of the university forbidding it to give
+predominance to the doctrines of any sect, and above all the fact
+that much prominence was given to instruction in various branches
+of science, seemed to prevent all compromise, and it soon became
+clear that to stand on the defensive only made matters worse.
+Then it was that there was borne in upon me a sense of the real
+difficulty-- the antagonism between the theological and
+scientific view of the universe and of education in relation to
+it; therefore it was that, having been invited to deliver a
+lecture in the great hall of the Cooper Institute at New York, I
+took as my subject The Battlefields of Science, maintaining this
+thesis which follows:
+
+In all modern history, interference with science in the supposed
+interest of religion, no matter how conscientious such
+interference may have been, has resulted in the direst evils both
+to religion and science, and invariably; and, on the other hand,
+all untrammeled scientific investigation, no matter how dangerous
+to religion some of its stages may have seemed for the time to
+be, has invariably resulted in the highest good both of religion
+and science.
+
+The lecture was next day published in the New York Tribune at the
+request of Horace Greeley, its editor, who was also one of the
+Cornell University trustees.  As a result of this widespread
+publication and of sundry attacks which it elicited, I was asked
+to maintain my thesis before various university associations and
+literary clubs; and I shall always remember with gratitude that
+among those who stood by me and presented me on the lecture
+platform with words of approval and cheer was my revered
+instructor, the Rev. Dr. Theodore Dwight Woolsey, at that time
+President of Yale College.
+
+My lecture grew--first into a couple of magazine articles, and
+then into a little book called The Warfare of Science, for
+which, when republished in England, Prof. John Tyndall wrote a
+preface.
+
+Sundry translations of this little book were published, but the
+most curious thing in its history is the fact that a very
+friendly introduction to the Swedish translation was written by a
+Lutheran bishop.
+
+Meanwhile Prof. John W. Draper published his book on The
+Conflict between Science and Religion, a work of great ability,
+which, as I then thought, ended the matter, so far as my giving
+it further attention was concerned.
+
+But two things led me to keep on developing my own work in this
+field: First, I had become deeply interested in it, and could not
+refrain from directing my observation and study to it; secondly,
+much as I admired Draper's treatment of the questions involved,
+his point of view and mode of looking at history were different
+from mine.
+
+He regarded the struggle as one between Science and Religion.  I
+believed then, and am convinced now, that it was a struggle
+between Science and Dogmatic Theology.
+
+More and more I saw that it was the conflict between two epochs
+in the evolution of human thought--the theological and the
+scientific.
+
+So I kept on, and from time to time published New Chapters in the
+Warfare of Science as magazine articles in The Popular Science
+Monthly.  This was done under many difficulties.  For twenty
+years, as President of Cornell University and Professor of
+History in that institution, I was immersed in the work of its
+early development.  Besides this, I could not hold myself
+entirely aloof from public affairs, and was three times sent by
+the Government of the United States to do public duty abroad:
+first as a commissioner to Santo Domingo, in 1870; afterward as
+minister to Germany, in 1879; finally, as minister to Russia, in
+1892; and was also called upon by the State of New York to do
+considerable labor in connection with international exhibitions
+at Philadelphia and at Paris.  I was also obliged from time to
+time to throw off by travel the effects of overwork.
+
+The variety of residence and occupation arising from these causes
+may perhaps explain some peculiarities in this book which might
+otherwise puzzle my reader.
+
+While these journeyings have enabled me to collect materials over
+a very wide range--in the New World, from Quebec to Santo Domingo
+and from Boston to Mexico, San Francisco, and Seattle, and in the
+Old World from Trondhjem to Cairo and from St. Petersburg to
+Palermo-- they have often obliged me to write under circumstances
+not very favorable: sometimes on an Atlantic steamer, sometimes
+on a Nile boat, and not only in my own library at Cornell, but in
+those of Berlin, Helsingfors, Munich, Florence, and the British
+Museum.  This fact will explain to the benevolent reader not only
+the citation of different editions of the same authority in
+different chapters, but some iterations which in the steady quiet
+of my own library would not have been made.
+
+It has been my constant endeavour to write for the general
+reader, avoiding scholastic and technical terms as much as
+possible and stating the truth simply as it presents itself to
+me.
+
+That errors of omission and commission will be found here and
+there is probable--nay, certain; but the substance of the book
+will, I believe, be found fully true.  I am encouraged in this
+belief by the fact that, of the three bitter attacks which this
+work in its earlier form has already encountered, one was purely
+declamatory, objurgatory, and hortatory, and the others based
+upon ignorance of facts easily pointed out.
+
+And here I must express my thanks to those who have aided me.
+First and above all to my former student and dear friend, Prof.
+George Lincoln Burr, of Cornell University, to whose
+contributions, suggestions, criticisms, and cautions I am most
+deeply indebted; also to my friends U. G. Weatherly, formerly
+Travelling Fellow of Cornell, and now Assistant Professor in the
+University of Indiana,--Prof. and Mrs. Earl Barnes and Prof.
+William H. Hudson, of Stanford University,--and Prof. E. P
+Evans, formerly of the University of Michigan, but now of Munich,
+for extensive aid in researches upon the lines I have indicated
+to them, but which I could never have prosecuted without their
+co-operation.  In libraries at home and abroad they have all
+worked for me most effectively, and I am deeply grateful to them.
+
+This book is presented as a sort of Festschrift--a tribute to
+Cornell University as it enters the second quarter-century of its
+existence, and probably my last tribute.
+
+The ideas for which so bitter a struggle was made at its
+foundation have triumphed.  Its faculty, numbering over one
+hundred and, fifty; its students, numbering but little short of
+two thousand; its noble buildings and equipment; the munificent
+gifts, now amounting to millions of dollars, which it has
+received from public-spirited men and women; the evidences of
+public confidence on all sides; and, above all, the adoption of
+its cardinal principles and main features by various institutions
+of learning in other States, show this abundantly.  But there has
+been a triumph far greater and wider.  Everywhere among the
+leading modern nations the same general tendency is seen.  During
+the quarter-century just past the control of public instruction,
+not only in America but in the leading nations of Europe, has
+passed more and more from the clergy to the laity.  Not only are
+the presidents of the larger universities in the United States,
+with but one or two exceptions, laymen, but the same thing is
+seen in the old European strongholds of metaphysical theology.
+At my first visit to Oxford and Cambridge, forty years ago, they
+were entirely under ecclesiastical control.  Now, all this is
+changed.  An eminent member of the present British Government has
+recently said, "A candidate for high university position is
+handicapped by holy orders."  I refer to this with not the
+slightest feeling of hostility toward the clergy, for I have
+none; among them are many of my dearest friends; no one honours
+their proper work more than I; but the above fact is simply noted
+as proving the continuance of that evolution which I have
+endeavoured to describe in this series of monographs--an
+evolution, indeed, in which the warfare of Theology against
+Science has been one of the most active and powerful agents.  My
+belief is that in the field left to them--their proper field--the
+clergy will more and more, as they cease to struggle against
+scientific methods and conclusions, do work even nobler and more
+beautiful than anything they have heretofore done.  And this is
+saying much.  My conviction is that Science, though it has
+evidently conquered Dogmatic Theology based on biblical texts and
+ancient modes of thought, will go hand in hand with Religion; and
+that, although theological control will continue to diminish,
+Religion, as seen in the recognition of "a Power in the universe,
+not ourselves, which makes for righteousness," and in the love of
+God and of our neighbor, will steadily grow stronger and
+stronger, not only in the American institutions of learning but
+in the world at large.  Thus may the declaration of Micah as to
+the requirements of Jehovah, the definition by St. James of
+"pure religion and undefiled," and, above all, the precepts and
+ideals of the blessed Founder of Christianity himself, be brought
+to bear more and more effectively on mankind.
+
+I close this preface some days after its first lines were
+written.  The sun of spring has done its work on the Neva; the
+great river flows tranquilly on, a blessing and a joy; the mujiks
+are forgotten.
+A. D. W.
+LEGATION OF THE UNITED STATES, ST. PETERSBURG,
+April 14,1894.
+
+P.S.--Owing to a wish to give more thorough revision to
+some parts of my work, it has been withheld from the press until
+the present date.
+A. D. W.
+CORNELL UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N.Y.,
+August 15, 1895.
+
+
+
+CONTENTS OF THE FIRST VOLUME.
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+FROM CREATION TO EVOLUTION.
+I.  The Visible Universe.
+Ancient and medieval views regarding the manner of creation
+Regarding the matter of creation
+Regarding the time of creation
+Regarding the date of creation
+Regarding the Creator
+Regarding light and darkness
+Rise of the conception of an evolution: among the Chaldeans,the
+Hebrews, the Greeks, the Romans
+Its survival through the Middle Ages, despite the disfavour of
+the Church
+Its development in modern times.--The nebular hypothesis and its
+struggle with theology
+The idea of evolution at last victorious
+Our sacred books themselves an illustration of its truth
+The true reconciliation of Science and Theology
+
+II.  Theological Teachings regarding the Animals and Man.
+Ancient and medieval representations of the creation of man
+Literal acceptance of the book of Genesis by the Christian
+fathers
+By the Reformers
+By modern theologians, Catholic and Protestant
+Theological reasoning as to the divisions of the animal kingdom
+The Physiologus, the Bestiaries, the Exempila
+Beginnings of sceptical observation
+Development of a scientific method in the study of Nature
+Breaking down of the theological theory of creation
+
+III.  Theological and Scientific Theories of an Evolution in
+Animated Nature.
+Ideas of evolution among the ancients
+In the early Church
+In the medieval Church
+Development of these ideas from the sixteenth to the eighteenth
+centuries
+The work of De Maillet
+Of Linneus
+Of Buffon
+Contributions to the theory of evolution at the close of the
+eighteenth century
+The work of Treviranus and Lamarck
+Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire and Cuvier
+Development of the theory up to the middle of the nineteenth
+century
+The contributions of Darwin and Wallace
+The opposition of Agassiz
+
+IV.  The Final Effort of Theology.
+Attacks on Darwin and his theories in England
+In America
+Formation of sacro-scientific organizations to combat the theory
+of evolution
+The attack in France
+In Germany
+Conversion of Lyell to the theory of evolution
+The attack of Darwin's Descent of Man
+Difference between this and the former attack
+Hostility to Darwinism in America
+Change in the tone of the controversy.--Attempts at compromise
+Dying-out of opposition to evolution
+Last outbursts of theological hostility
+Final victory of evolution
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+GEOGRAPHY
+
+I.  The Form of the Earth.
+Primitive conception of the earth as flat
+In Chaldea and Egypt
+In Persia
+Among the Hebrews
+Evolution, among the Greeks, of the idea of its sphericity
+Opposition of the early Church
+Evolution of a sacred theory, drawn from the Bible
+Its completion by Cosmas Indicopleustes
+Its influence on Christian thought
+Survival of the idea of the earth's sphericity--its acceptance by
+Isidore and Bede
+Its struggle and final victory
+
+II.  The Delineation of the Earth.
+Belief of every ancient people that its own central place was the
+centre of the earth
+Hebrew conviction that the earth's centre was at Jerusalem
+Acceptance of this view by Christianity
+Influence of other Hebrew conceptions--Gog and Magog, the "four
+winds," the waters "on an heap"
+
+III.  The Inhabitants of the Earth.
+The idea of antipodes
+Its opposition by the Christian Church--Gregory Nazianzen,
+Lactantius, Basil, Ambrose, Augustine, Procopius of Gaza, Cosmas,
+Isidore
+Virgil of Salzburg's assertion of it in the eighth century
+Its revival by William of Conches and Albert the Great in the
+thirteenth
+Surrender of it by Nicolas d'Oresme
+Fate of Peter of Abano and Cecco d' Ascoli
+Timidity of Pierre d'Ailly and Tostatus
+Theological hindrance of Columbus
+Pope Alexander VI's demarcation line
+Cautious conservatism of Gregory Reysch
+Magellan and the victory of science
+
+
+IV.  The Size of the Earth.
+Scientific attempts at measuring the earth
+The sacred solution of the problem
+Fortunate influence of the blunder upon Columbus
+
+
+V.  The Character of the Earth's Surface.
+Servetus and the charge of denying the fertility of Judea
+Contrast between the theological and the religious spirit in
+their effects on science
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+ASTRONOMY.
+
+I.  The Old Sacred Theory of the Universe.
+The early Church's conviction of the uselessness of astronomy
+The growth of a sacred theory--Origen, the Gnostics, Philastrius,
+Cosmas, Isidore
+The geocentric, or Ptolemaic, theory, its origin, and its
+acceptance by the Christian world
+Development of the new sacred system of astronomy--the
+pseudo-Dionysius, Peter Lombard, Thomas Aquinas
+Its popularization by Dante
+Its details
+Its persistence to modern times
+
+II.  The Heliocentric Theory.
+Its rise among the Greeks--Pythagoras, Philolaus, Aristarchus
+Its suppression by the charge of blasphemy
+Its loss from sight for six hundred Years, then for a thousand
+Its revival by Nicholas de Cusa and Nicholas Copernicus
+Its toleration as a hypothesis
+Its prohibition as soon as Galileo teaches it as a truth
+Consequent timidity of scholars--Acosta, Apian
+Protestantism not less zealous in opposition than
+Catholicism--Luther Melanchthon, Calvin, Turretin
+This opposition especially persistent in England--Hutchinson,
+Pike, Horne, Horsley, Forbes, Owen, Wesley
+Resulting interferences with freedom of teaching
+Giordano Bruno's boldness and his fate
+The truth demonstrated by the telescope of Galileo
+
+III.  The War upon Galileo.
+Concentration of the war on this new champion
+The first attack
+Fresh attacks--Elci, Busaeus, Caccini, Lorini, Bellarmin
+Use of epithets
+Attempts to entrap Galileo
+His summons before the Inquisition at Rome
+The injunction to silence, and the condemnation of the theory of
+the earth's motion
+The work of Copernicus placed on the Index
+Galileo's seclusion
+Renewed attacks upon Galileo--Inchofer, Fromundus
+
+IV.  Victory of the Church over Galileo
+Publication of his Dialogo
+Hostility of Pope Urban VIII
+Galileo's second trial by the Inquisition
+His abjuration
+Later persecution of him
+Measures to complete the destruction of the Copernican theory
+Persecution of Galileo's memory
+Protestant hostility to the new astronomy and its champions
+
+V.  Results of the Victory over Galileo.
+Rejoicings of churchmen over the victory
+The silencing of Descartes
+Persecution of Campanella and of Kepler
+Persistence and victory of science
+Dilemma of the theologians
+Vain attempts to postpone the surrender
+
+VI.  The Retreat of the Church after its Victory over Galileo.
+The easy path for the Protestant theologians
+The difficulties of the older Church.--The papal infallibility
+fully committed against the Copernican theory
+Attempts at evasion--first plea: that Galileo was condemned not
+for affirming the earth's motion, but for supporting it from
+Scripture
+Its easy refutation
+Second plea: that he was condemned not for heresy, but for
+contumacy
+Folly of this assertion
+Third plea: that it was all a quarrel between Aristotelian
+professors and those favouring the experimental method
+Fourth plea: that the condemnation of Galileo was "provisory"
+Fifth plea: that he was no more a victim of Catholics than of
+Protestants
+Efforts to blacken Galileo's character
+Efforts to suppress the documents of his trial
+Their fruitlessness
+Sixth plea: that the popes as popes had never condemned his
+theory
+Its confutation from their own mouths
+Abandonment of the contention by honest Catholics
+Two efforts at compromise--Newman, De Bonald
+Effect of all this on thinking men
+The fault not in Catholicism more than in Protestantism--not in
+religion, but in theology
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+FROM "SIGNS AND WONDERS" TO LAW IN THE HEAVENS.
+
+I.  The Theological View.
+Early beliefs as to comets, meteors, and eclipses
+Their inheritance by Jews and Christians
+The belief regarding comets especially harmful as a source of
+superstitious terror
+Its transmission through the Middle Ages
+Its culmination under Pope Calixtus III
+Beginnings of scepticism--Copernicus, Paracelsus, Scaliger
+Firmness of theologians, Catholic and Protestant, in its support
+
+II.  Theological Efforts to crush the Scientific View.
+The effort through the universities.--The effort through the
+pulpits
+Heerbrand at Tubingen and Dieterich at Marburg
+Maestlin at Heidelberg
+Buttner, Vossius, Torreblanca, Fromundus
+Father Augustin de Angelis at Rome
+Reinzer at Linz
+Celichius at Magdeburg
+Conrad Dieterich's sermon at Ulm
+Erni and others in Switzerland
+Comet doggerel
+Echoes from New England--Danforth, Morton, Increase Mather
+
+III.  The Invasion of Scepticism.
+Rationalism of Cotton Mather, and its cause
+Blaise de Vigenere
+Erastus
+Bekker, Lubienitzky, Pierre Petit
+Bayle
+Fontenelle
+The scientific movement beneath all this
+
+IV.  Theological Efforts at Compromise.--The Final Victory of
+Science.
+The admission that some comets are supralunar
+Difference between scientific and theological reasoning
+Development of the reasoning of Tycho and Kepler--Cassini, Hevel,
+Doerfel, Bernouilli, Newton
+Completion of the victory by Halley and Clairaut
+Survivals of the superstition--Joseph de Maistre, Forster Arago's
+statistics
+The theories of Whiston and Burnet, and their influence in
+Germany
+The superstition ended in America by the lectures of Winthrop
+Helpful influence of John Wesley
+Effects of the victory
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+FROM GENESIS TO GEOLOGY.
+
+I.  Growth of Theological Explanations
+Germs of geological truth among the Greeks and Romans
+Attitude of the Church toward science
+Geological theories of the early theologians
+Attitude of the schoolmen
+Contributions of the Arabian schools
+Theories of the earlier Protestants
+Influence of the revival of learning
+
+II.  Efforts to Suppress the Scientific View.
+Revival of scientific methods
+Buffon and the Sorbonne
+Beringer's treatise on fossils
+Protestant opposition to the new geology---the works of Burnet,
+Whiston, Wesley, Clark,
+Watson, Arnold, Cockburn,and others
+
+III.  The First Great Effort of Compromise, based on the Flood of
+Noah.
+The theory that fossils were produced by the Deluge
+Its acceptance by both Catholics and Protestants--Luther, Calmet
+Burnet, Whiston, Woodward, Mazurier, Torrubia, Increase Mather
+Scheuchzer
+Voltaire's theory of fossils
+Vain efforts of enlightened churchmen in behalf of the scientific
+view
+Steady progress of science--the work of Cuvier and Brongniart
+Granvile Penn's opposition
+The defection of Buckland and Lyell to the scientific side
+Surrender of the theologians
+Remnants of the old belief
+Death-blow given to the traditional theory of the Deluge by the
+discovery of the Chaldean accounts
+Results of the theological opposition to science
+
+IV.  Final Efforts at Compromise--The Victory of Science
+complete.
+Efforts of Carl von Raumer, Wagner, and others
+The new testimony of the caves and beds of drift as to the
+antiquity of man
+Gosse's effort to save the literal interpretation of Genesis
+Efforts of Continental theologians
+Gladstone's attempt at a compromise
+Its demolition by Huxley
+By Canon Driver
+Dean Stanley on the reconciliation of Science and Scripture
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN, EGYPTOLOGY, AND ASSYRIOLOGY.
+
+I.  The Sacred Chronology.
+Two fields in which Science has gained a definite victory over
+Theology
+Opinions of the Church fathers on the antiquity of man
+The chronology of Isidore
+Of Bede
+Of the medieval Jewish scholars
+The views of the Reformers on the antiquity of man
+Of the Roman Church
+Of Archbishop Usher
+Influence of Egyptology on the belief in man's antiquity
+La Peyrere's theory of the Pre-Adamites
+Opposition in England to the new chronology
+
+II.  The New Chronology.
+Influence of the new science of Egyptology on biblical chronology
+
+Manetho's history of Egypt and the new chronology derived from it
+Evidence of the antiquity of man furnished by the monuments of
+Egypt
+By her art
+By her science
+By other elements of civilization
+By the remains found in the bed of the Nile
+Evidence furnished by the study of Assyriology
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN AND PREHISTORIC ARCHAEOLOGY.
+I.  The Thunder-stones.
+Early beliefs regarding "thunder-stones"
+Theories of Mercati and Tollius regarding them
+Their identification with the implements of prehistoric man
+Remains of man found in caverns
+Unfavourable influence on scientific activity of the political
+conditions of the early part of the nineteenth century
+Change effected by the French Revolution of to {??}
+Rallying of the reactionary clerical influence against science
+
+II.  The Flint Weapons and Implements.
+Boucher de Perthes's contributions to the knowledge of
+prehistoric man
+His conclusions confirmed by Lyell and others
+Cave explorations of Lartet and Christy
+Evidence of man's existence furnished by rude carvings
+Cave explorations in the British Islands
+Evidence of man's existence in the Drift period
+In the early Quaternary and in the Tertiary periods
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+THE "FALL OF MAN" AND ANTHROPOLOGY.
+
+The two antagonistic views regarding the life of man on the
+earth
+The theory of "the Fall" among ancient peoples
+Inheritance of this view by the Christian Church
+Appearance among the Greeks and Romans of the theory of a rise of
+man
+Its disappearance during the Middle Ages
+Its development since the seventeenth century
+The first blow at the doctrine of "the Fall" comes from geology
+Influence of anthropology on the belief in this doctrine
+The finding of human skulls in Quaternary deposits
+Their significance
+Results obtained from the comparative study of the remains of
+human handiwork
+Discovery of human remains in shell-heaps on the shores of the
+Baltic Sea
+In peat-beds
+The lake-dwellers
+Indications of the upward direction of man's development
+Mr. Southall's attack on the theory of man's antiquity
+An answer to it
+Discovery of prehistoric human remains in Egypt
+Hamard's attack on the new scientific conclusions
+The survival of prehistoric implements in religious rites
+Strength of the argument against the theory of "the Fall of Man"
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+THE "FALL OF MAN" AND ETHNOLOGY.
+
+The beginnings of the science of Comparative Ethnology
+Its testimony to the upward tendency of man from low beginning
+Theological efforts to break its force--De Maistre and DeBonald
+Whately's attempt
+The attempt of the Duke of Argyll
+Evidence of man's upward tendency derived from Comparative
+Philology
+From Comparative Literature and Folklore
+From Comparative Ethnography
+From Biology
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+THE "FALL OF MAN" AND HISTORY.
+
+Proof of progress given by the history of art
+Proofs from general history
+Development of civilization even under unfavourable circumstances
+Advancement even through catastrophes and the decay of
+civilizations
+Progress not confined to man's material condition
+Theological struggle against the new scientific view
+Persecution of Prof. Winchell
+Of Dr. Woodrow
+Other interferences with freedom of teaching
+The great harm thus done to religion
+Rise of a better spirit
+The service rendered to religion by Anthropology
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+FROM "THE PRINCE OF THE POWER OF THE AIR" TO METEOROLOGY.
+
+I.  Growth of a Theological Theory.
+The beliefs of classical antiquity regarding storms, thunder, and
+lightning
+Development of a sacred science of meteorology by the fathers of
+the Church
+Theories of Cosmas Indicopleustes
+Of Isidore
+Of Seville
+Of Bede
+Of Rabanus Maurus
+Rational views of Honorius of Autun
+Orthodox theories of John of San Geminiano
+Attempt of Albert the Great to reconcile the speculations of
+Aristotle with the theological views
+The monkish encyclopedists
+Theories regarding the rainbow and the causes of storms
+Meteorological phenomena attributed to the Almighty
+
+II.  Diabolical Agency in Storms.
+Meteorological phenomena attributed to the devil--"the prince of
+the power of the air"
+Propagation of this belief by the medieval theologians
+Its transmission to both Catholics and Protestants--Eck, Luther
+The great work of Delrio
+Guacci's Compendium
+The employment of prayer against "the powers of the air"
+Of exorcisms
+Of fetiches and processions
+Of consecrated church bells
+
+III.  The Agency of Witches.
+The fearful results of the witch superstition
+Its growth out of the doctrine of evil agency in atmospheric
+phenomena
+Archbishop Agobard's futile attempt to dispel it
+Its sanction by the popes
+Its support by confessions extracted by torture
+Part taken in the persecution by Dominicans and Jesuits
+Opponents of the witch theory--Pomponatius, Paracelsus, Agrippa
+of Nettesheim
+Jean Bodin's defence of the superstition
+Fate of Cornelius Loos
+Of Dietrich Flade
+Efforts of Spee to stem the persecution
+His posthumous influence
+Upholders of the orthodox view--Bishop Binsfeld, Remigius
+Vain protests of Wier
+Persecution of Bekker for opposing the popular belief
+Effect of the Reformation in deepening the superstition
+The persecution in Great Britain and America
+Development of a scientific view of the heavens
+Final efforts to revive the old belief
+
+IV.  Franklin's Lightning-Rod.
+Franklin's experiments with the kite
+Their effect on the old belief
+Efforts at compromise between the scientific and theological
+theories
+Successful use of the lightning-rod
+Religious scruples against it in America
+In England
+In Austria
+In Italy
+Victory of the scientific theory
+This victory exemplified in the case of the church of the
+monastery of Lerins
+In the case of Dr. Moorhouse
+In the case of the Missouri droughts
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+FROM MAGIC TO CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.
+
+I.  The Supremacy of Magic.
+Primitive tendency to belief in magic
+The Greek conception of natural laws
+Influence of Plato and Aristotle on the growth of science
+Effect of the establishment of Christianity on the development of
+the physical sciences
+The revival of thought in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries
+Albert the Great
+Vincent of Beauvais
+Thomas Aquinas
+Roger Bacon's beginning of the experimental method brought to
+nought
+The belief that science is futile gives place to the belief that
+it is dangerous
+The two kinds of magic
+Rarity of persecution for magic before the Christian era
+The Christian theory of devils
+Constantine's laws against magic
+Increasing terror of magic and witchcraft
+Papal enactments against them
+Persistence of the belief in magic
+Its effect on the development of science
+Roger Bacon
+Opposition of secular rulers to science
+John Baptist Porta
+The opposition to scientific societies in Italy
+In England
+The effort to turn all thought from science to religion
+The development of mystic theology
+Its harmful influence on science
+Mixture of theological with scientific speculation
+This shown in the case of Melanchthon
+In that of Francis Bacon
+Theological theory of gases
+Growth of a scientific theory
+Basil Valentine and his contributions to chemistry
+Triumph of the scientific theory
+
+II.  The Triumph of Chemistry and Physics.
+New epoch in chemistry begun by Boyle
+Attitude of the mob toward science
+Effect on science of the reaction following the French
+Revolution:  {?}
+Development of chemistry since the middle of the nineteenth
+century
+Development of physics
+Modern opposition to science in Catholic countries
+Attack of scientific education in France
+In England
+In Prussia
+Revolt against the subordination of education to science
+Effect of the International Exhibition of ii {?} at London
+Of the endowment of State colleges in America by the Morrill
+Act of 1862
+The results to religion
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+FROM MIRACLES TO MEDICINE.
+
+I.  THE EARLY AND SACRED THEORIES OF DISEASE.
+Naturalness of the idea of supernatural intervention in causing
+and curing disease
+Prevalence of this idea in ancient civilizations
+Beginnings of a scientific theory of medicine
+The twofold influence of Christianity on the healing art
+
+II.  GROWTH OF LEGENDS OF HEALING.--THE LIFE OF XAVIER AS A
+TYPICAL EXAMPLE.
+Growth of legends of miracles about the lives of great
+benefactors of humanity
+Sketch of Xavier's career
+Absence of miraculous accounts in his writings and those of his
+contemporaries
+Direct evidence that Xavier wrought no miracles
+Growth of legends of miracles as shown in the early biographies
+of him
+As shown in the canonization proceedings
+Naturalness of these legends
+
+III.  THE MEDIAEVAL MIRACLES OF HEALING CHECK MEDICAL SCIENCE.
+Character of the testimony regarding miracles
+Connection of mediaeval with pagan miracles
+Their basis of fact
+Various kinds of miraculous cures
+Atmosphere of supernaturalism thrown about all cures
+Influence of this atmosphere on medical science
+
+IV.  THE ATTRIBUTION OF DISEASE TO SATANIC INFLUENCE.-- "PASTORAL
+MEDICINE" CHECKS SCIENTIFIC EFFORT.
+Theological theory as to the cause of disease
+Influence of self-interest on "pastoral medicine"
+Development of fetichism at Cologne and elsewhere
+Other developments of fetich cure
+
+V.  THEOLOGICAL OPPOSITION TO ANATOMICAL STUDIES.
+Medieval belief in the unlawfulness of meddling with the bodies
+of the dead
+Dissection objected to on the ground that "the Church abhors the
+shedding of blood"
+The decree of Boniface VIII and its results
+
+VI.  NEW BEGINNINGS OF MEDICAL SCIENCE.
+Galen
+Scanty development of medical science in the Church
+Among Jews and Mohammedans
+Promotion of medical science by various Christian laymen of the
+Middle Ages
+By rare men of science
+By various ecclesiastics
+
+VII.  THEOLOGICAL DISCOURAGEMENT OF MEDICINE.
+Opposition to seeking cure from disease by natural means
+Requirement of ecclesiastical advice before undertaking medical
+treatment
+Charge of magic and Mohammedanism against men of science
+Effect of ecclesiastical opposition to medicine
+The doctrine of signatures
+The doctrine of exorcism
+Theological opposition to surgery
+Development of miracle and fetich cures
+Fashion in pious cures
+Medicinal properties of sacred places
+Theological argument in favour of miraculous cures
+Prejudice against Jewish physicians
+
+VIII.  FETICH CURES UNDER PROTESTANTISM.--THE ROYAL TOUCH.
+Luther's theory of disease
+The royal touch
+Cures wrought by Charles II
+By James II
+By William III
+By Queen Anne
+By Louis XIV
+Universal acceptance of these miracles
+
+IX.  THE SCIENTIFIC STRUGGLE FOR ANATOMY.
+Occasional encouragement of medical science in the Middle Ages
+New impulse given by the revival of learning and the age of
+discovery
+Paracelsus and Mundinus
+Vesalius, the founder of the modern science of anatomy.--His
+career and fate
+
+X.  THEOLOGICAL OPPOSITION TO INOCULATION, VACCINATION, AND THE
+USE OF ANAESTHETICS.
+Theological opposition to inoculation in Europe
+In America
+Theological opposition to vaccination
+Recent hostility to vaccination in England
+In Canada, during the smallpox epidemic
+Theological opposition to the use of cocaine
+To the use of quinine
+Theological opposition to the use of anesthetics
+
+XI.  FINAL BREAKING AWAY OF THE THEOLOGICAL THEORY IN MEDICINE.
+Changes incorporated in the American Book of Common Prayer
+Effect on the theological view of the growing knowledge of the
+relation between imagination and medicine
+Effect of the discoveries in hypnotism
+In bacteriology
+Relation between ascertained truth and the "ages of faith"
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+FROM FETICH TO HYGIENE.
+
+I.  THE THEOLOGICAL VIEW OF EPIDEMICS AND SANITATION.
+The recurrence of great pestilences
+Their early ascription to the wrath or malice of unseen powers
+Their real cause want of hygienic precaution
+Theological apotheosis of filth
+Sanction given to the sacred theory of pestilence by Pope Gregory
+the Great
+Modes of propitiating the higher powers
+Modes of thwarting the powers of evil
+Persecution of the Jews as Satan's emissaries
+Persecution of witches as Satan's emissaries
+Case of the Untori at Milan
+New developments of fetichism.--The blood of St. Januarius at
+Naples
+Appearance of better methods in Italy.--In Spain
+
+II.  GRADUAL DECAY OF THEOLOGICAL VIEWS REGARDING SANITATION.
+Comparative freedom of England from persecutions for
+plague-bringing, in spite of her wretched sanitary condition
+Aid sought mainly through church services
+Effects of the great fire in London
+The jail fever
+The work of John Howard
+Plagues in the American colonies
+In France.--The great plague at Marseilles
+Persistence of the old methods in Austria
+In Scotland
+
+III.  THE TRIUMPH OF SANITARY SCIENCE.
+Difficulty of reconciling the theological theory of pestilences
+with accumulating facts
+Curious approaches to a right theory
+The law governing the relation of theology to disease
+Recent victories of hygiene in all countries
+In England.---Chadwick and his fellows
+In France
+
+IV.  THE RELATION OF SANITARY SCIENCE TO RELIGION.
+The process of sanitary science not at the cost of religion
+Illustration from the policy of Napoleon III in France
+Effect of proper sanitation on epidemics in the United States
+Change in the attitude of the Church toward the cause and cure of
+pestilence
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+FROM "DEMONIACAL POSSESSION" TO INSANITY.
+
+I.  THEOLOGICAL IDEAS OF LUNACY AND ITS TREATMENT.
+The struggle for the scientific treatment of the insane
+The primitive ascription of insanity to evil spirits
+Better Greek and Roman theories--madness a disease
+The Christian Church accepts the demoniacal theory of insanity
+Yet for a time uses mild methods for the insane
+Growth of the practice of punishing the indwelling demon
+Two sources whence better things might have been hoped.--The
+reasons of their futility
+The growth of exorcism
+Use of whipping and torture
+The part of art and literature in making vivid to the common mind
+the idea of diabolic activity
+The effects of religious processions as a cure for mental disease
+Exorcism of animals possessed of demons
+Belief in the transformation of human beings into animals
+The doctrine of demoniacal possession in the Reformed Church
+
+II.  BEGINNINGS OF A HEALTHFUL SCEPTICISM.
+Rivalry between Catholics and Protestants in the casting out of
+devils
+Increased belief in witchcraft during the period following the
+Reformation
+Increase of insanity during the witch persecutions   II  {?}
+Attitude of physicians toward witchcraft    I
+Religious hallucinations of the insane    I
+Theories as to the modes of diabolic entrance into the possessed
+Influence of monastic life on the development of insanity
+Protests against the theological view of insanity--Wier,
+Montaigue Bekker
+Last struggles of the old superstition
+
+III.  THE FINAL STRUGGLE AND VICTORY OF SCIENCE.--PINEL AND TUKE.
+Influence of French philosophy on the belief in demoniacal
+possession
+Reactionary influence of John Wesley
+Progress of scientific ideas in Prussia
+In Austria
+In America
+In South Germany
+General indifference toward the sufferings of madmen
+The beginnings of a more humane treatment
+Jean Baptiste Pinel
+Improvement in the treatment of the insane in England.--William
+Tuke
+The place of Pinel and Tuke in history
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+FROM DIABOLISM TO HYSTERIA.
+
+I.  THE EPIDEMICS OF "POSSESSION."
+Survival of the belief in diabolic activity as the cause of such
+epidemics
+Epidemics of hysteria in classical times
+In the Middle Ages
+The dancing mania
+Inability of science during the fifteenth century to cope with
+such diseases
+Cases of possession brought within the scope of medical research
+during the sixteenth century
+Dying-out of this form of mental disease in northern Europe
+In Italy
+Epidemics of hysteria in the convents
+The case of Martha Brossier
+Revival in France of belief in diabolic influence
+The Ursulines of Loudun and Urbain Grandier
+Possession among the Huguenots
+In New England.--The Salem witch persecution
+At Paris.--Alleged miracles at the grave of Archdeacon Paris
+In Germany.--Case of Maria Renata Sanger
+More recent outbreaks
+
+II.  BEGINNINGS OF HELPFUL SCEPTICISM.
+Outbreaks of hysteria in factories and hospitals
+In places of religious excitement
+The case at Morzine
+Similar cases among Protestants and in Africa
+
+III.  THEOLOGICAL "RESTATEMENTS."--FINAL TRIUMPH OF THE
+SCIENTIFIC VIEW AND METHODS.
+Successful dealings of medical science with mental diseases
+Attempts to give a scientific turn to the theory of diabolic
+agency in disease
+Last great demonstration of the old belief in England
+Final triumph of science in the latter half of the present
+century
+Last echoes of the old belief
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+
+FROM BABEL TO COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY.
+
+I.  THE SACRED THEORY IN ITS FIRST FORM.
+Difference of the history of Comparative Philology from that of
+other sciences as regards the attitude of theologians
+Curiosity of early man regarding the origin, the primitive form,
+and the diversity of language
+The Hebrew answer to these questions
+The legend of the Tower of Babel
+The real reason for the building of towers by the Chaldeans and
+the causes of their ruin
+Other legends of a confusion of tongues
+Influence upon Christendom of the Hebrew legends
+Lucretius's theory of the origin of language
+The teachings of the Church fathers on this subject
+The controversy as to the divine origin of the Hebrew vowel
+points
+Attitude of the reformers toward this question
+Of Catholic scholars.--Marini Capellus and his adversaries
+The treatise of Danzius
+
+II.  THE SACRED THEORY OF LANGUAGE IN ITS SECOND FORM.
+Theological theory that Hebrew was the primitive tongue, divinely
+revealed
+This theory supported by all Christian scholars until the
+beginning of the eighteenth century
+Dissent of Prideaux and Cotton Mather
+Apparent strength of the sacred theory of language
+
+III.  BREAKING DOWN OF THE THEOLOGICAL VIEW.
+Reason for the Church's ready acceptance of the conclusions of
+comparative philology
+Beginnings of a scientific theory of language
+Hottinger
+Leibnitz
+The collections of Catharine the Great, of Hervas, and of Adelung
+Chaotic period in philology between Leibnitz and the beginning of
+the study of Sanskrit
+Illustration from the successive editions of the Encyclopaedia
+Britannica
+
+IV.  TRIUMPH OF THE NEW SCIENCE.
+Effect of the discovery of Sanskrit on the old theory
+Attempts to discredit the new learning
+General acceptance of the new theory
+Destruction of the belief that all created things were first
+named by Adam
+Of the belief in the divine origin of letters
+Attempts in England to support the old theory of language
+rogress of philological science in France
+In Germany
+In Great Britain
+Recent absurd attempts to prove Hebrew the primitive tongue
+
+V.  SUMMARY.
+Gradual disappearance of the old theories regarding the origin of
+speech and writing
+Full acceptance of the new theories by all Christian scholars
+The result to religion, and to the Bible
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.
+FROM THE DEAD SEA LEGENDS TO COMPARATIVE MYTHOLOGY,
+
+I.  THE GROWTH OF EXPLANATORY TRANSFORMATION MYTHS.
+Growth of myths to account for remarkable appearances in
+Nature--mountains, rocks, curiously marked stones, fossils,
+products of volcanic action
+Myths of the transformation of living beings into natural objects
+Development of the science of Comparative Mythology
+
+II.  MEDIAEVAL GROWTH OF THE DEAD SEA LEGENDS.
+Description of the Dead Sea
+Impression made by its peculiar features on the early dwellers in
+Palestine
+Reasons for selecting the Dead Sea myths for study
+Naturalness of the growth of legend regarding the salt region of
+Usdum
+Universal belief in these legends
+Concurrent testimony of early and mediaeval writers, Jewish and
+Christian, respecting the existence of Lot's wife as a "pillar of
+salt," and of the other wonders of the Dead Sea
+Discrepancies in the various accounts and theological
+explanations of them
+Theological arguments respecting the statue of Lot's wife
+Growth of the legend in the sixteenth century
+
+III.  POST-REFORMATION CULMINATION OF THE DEAD SEA
+LEGENDS.--BEGINNINGS OF A HEALTHFUL SCEPTICISM.
+Popularization of the older legends at the Reformation
+Growth of new myths among scholars
+Signs of scepticism among travellers near the end of the
+sixteenth century
+Effort of Quaresmio to check this tendency
+Of Eugene Roger
+Of Wedelius
+Influence of these teachings
+Renewed scepticism--the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries
+Efforts of Briemle and Masius in support of the old myths
+Their influence
+The travels of Mariti and of Volney
+Influence of scientific thought on the Dead Sea legends during
+the eighteenth century
+Reactionary efforts of Chateaubriand
+Investigations of the naturalist Seetzen
+Of Dr. Robinson
+The expedition of Lieutenant Lynch
+The investigations of De Saulcy
+Of the Duc de Luynes.--Lartet's report
+Summary of the investigations of the nineteenth
+century.--Ritter's verdict
+
+
+IV.  THEOLOGICAL EFFORTS AT COMPROMISE.-- TRIUMPH OF THE
+SCIENTIFIC VIEW.
+Attempts to reconcile scientific facts with the Dead Sea legends
+Van de Velde's investigations of the Dead Sea region
+Canon Tristram's
+Mgr.  Mislin's protests against the growing rationalism
+The work of Schaff and Osborn
+Acceptance of the scientific view by leaders in the Church
+Dr. Geikie's ascription of the myths to the Arabs
+Mgr.  Haussmann de Wandelburg and.his rejection of the scientific
+view
+Service of theologians to religion in accepting the conclusions
+of silence in this field
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX.
+
+FROM LEVITICUS TO POLITICAL ECONOMY
+
+I.  ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF HOSTILITY TO LOANS AT INTEREST.
+Universal belief in the sin of loaning money at interest
+The taking of interest among the Greeks and Romans
+Opposition of leaders of thought, especially Aristotle
+Condemnation of the practice by the Old and New Testaments
+By the Church fathers
+In ecclesiastical and secular legislation
+Exception sometimes made in behalf of the Jews
+Hostility of the pulpit
+Of the canon law
+Evil results of the prohibition of loans at interest
+Efforts to induce the Church to change her position
+Theological evasions of the rule
+Attitude of the Reformers toward the taking of interest
+Struggle in England for recognition of the right to accept
+interest
+Invention of a distinction between usury and interest
+
+II.  RETREAT OF THE CHURCH, PROTESTANT AND CATHOLIC.
+Sir Robert Filmer's attack on the old doctrine
+Retreat of the Protestant Church in Holland
+In Germany and America
+Difficulties in the way of compromise in the Catholic Church
+Failure of such attempts in France
+Theoretical condemnation of usury in Italy
+Disregard of all restrictions in practice
+Attempts of Escobar and Liguori to reconcile the taking of
+interest with the teachings of the Church
+Montesquieu's attack on the old theory
+Encyclical of Benedict XIV permitting the taking of interest
+Similar decision of the Inquisition at Rome
+Final retreat of the Catholic Church
+Curious dealings of theology with public economy in other fields
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX.
+
+FROM THE DIVINE ORACLES TO THE HIGHER CRITICISM.
+
+
+I.  THE OLDER INTERPRETATION.
+Character of the great sacred
+books of the world
+General laws governing the development and influence of sacred
+literature.--The law of its origin
+Legends concerning the Septuagint
+The law of wills and causes
+The law of inerrancy
+Hostility to the revision of King James's translation of the
+Bible
+The law of unity
+Working of these laws seen in the great rabbinical schools
+The law of allegorical interpretation
+Philo
+Judaeus
+Justin Martyr and Clement of Alexandria
+Occult significance of numbers
+Origen
+Hilary of Poitiers and Jerome
+Augustine
+Gregory the Great
+Vain attempts to check the flood of allegorical interpretations
+Bede.--Savonarola
+Methods of modern criticism for the first time employed by
+Lorenzo Valla
+Erasmus
+Influence of the Reformation on the belief in the infallibility
+of the sacred books.--Luther and Melanchthon
+Development of scholasticism in the Reformed Church
+Catholic belief in the inspiration of the Vulgate
+Opposition in Russia to the revision of the Slavonic Scriptures
+Sir Isaac Newton as a commentator
+Scriptural interpretation at the beginning of the eighteenth
+century
+
+II.  BEGINNINGS OF SCIENTIFIC INTERPRETATION.
+Theological beliefs regarding the Pentateuch
+The book of Genesis
+Doubt thrown on the sacred theory by Aben Ezra
+By Carlstadt and Maes
+Influence of the discovery that the Isidorian
+Decretals were forgeries
+That the writings ascribed to Dionysius the Areopagite were
+serious
+Hobbes and La Peyrere
+Spinoza
+Progress of biblical criticism in France.--Richard Simon
+LeClerc
+Bishop Lowth
+Astruc
+Eichhorn's application of the "higher criticism" to biblical
+research
+Isenbiehl
+Herder
+Alexander Geddes
+Opposition to the higher criticism in Germany
+Hupfeld
+Vatke and Reuss
+Kuenen
+Wellhausen
+
+III.  THE CONTINUED GROWTH OF SCIENTIFIC INTERPRETATION.
+Progress of the higher criticism in Germany and Holland
+Opposition to it in England
+At the University of Oxford
+Pusey
+Bentley
+Wolf
+Niebuhr and Arnold
+Milman
+Thirlwall and Grote
+The publication of Essays and Reviews, and the storm raised by
+book
+
+IV.  THE CLOSING STRUGGLE.
+Colenso's work on the Pentateuch
+The persecution of him
+Bishop Wilberforce's part in it
+Dean Stanley's
+Bishop Thirlwall's
+Results of Colenso's work
+Sanday's Bampton Lectures
+Keble College and Lux
+Mundi
+Progress of biblical criticism among the dissenters
+In France.--Renan
+In the Roman Catholic Church
+The encyclical letter of Pope Leo XIII
+In America.--Theodore Parker
+Apparent strength of the old theory of inspiration
+Real strength of the new movement
+
+V.  VICTORY OF THE SCIENTIFIC AND LITERARY METHODS.
+Confirmation of the conclusions of the higher criticism by
+Assyriology and Egyptology
+Light thrown upon Hebrew religion by the translation of the
+sacred books of the East
+The influence of Persian thought.--The work of the Rev. Dr. Mills
+The influence of Indian thought.--Light thrown by the study of
+Brahmanism and Buddhism
+The work of Fathers Huc and Gabet
+Discovery that Buddha himself had been canonized as a Christian
+saint
+Similarity between the ideas and legends of Buddhism and those of
+Christianity
+The application of the higher criticism to the New Testament
+The English "Revised Version" of Studies on the formation of the
+canon of Scripture
+Recognition of the laws governing its development
+Change in the spirit of the controversy over the higher criticism
+
+VI.  RECONSTRUCTIVE FORCE OF SCIENTIFIC CRITICISM.
+Development of a scientific atmosphere during the last three
+centuries
+Action of modern science in reconstruction of religious truth
+
+Change wrought by it in the conception of a sacred literature
+
+Of the Divine Power.--Of man.---Of the world at large
+Of our Bible
+
+
+
+I.  THE VISIBLE UNIVERSE.
+
+
+Among those masses of cathedral sculpture which preserve so much
+of medieval theology, one frequently recurring group is
+noteworthy for its presentment of a time-honoured doctrine
+regarding the origin of the universe.
+
+The Almighty, in human form, sits benignly, making the sun, moon,
+and stars, and hanging them from the solid firmament which
+supports the "heaven above" and overarches the "earth beneath."
+
+The furrows of thought on the Creator's brow show that in this
+work he is obliged to contrive; the knotted muscles upon his arms
+show that he is obliged to toil; naturally, then, the sculptors
+and painters of the medieval and early modern period frequently
+represented him as the writers whose conceptions they embodied
+had done--as, on the seventh day, weary after thought and toil,
+enjoying well-earned repose and the plaudits of the hosts of
+heaven.
+
+In these thought-fossils of the cathedrals, and in other
+revelations of the same idea through sculpture, painting,
+glass-staining, mosaic work, and engraving, during the Middle
+Ages and the two centuries following, culminated a belief which
+had been developed through thousands of years, and which has
+determined the world's thought until our own time.
+
+Its beginnings lie far back in human history; we find them among
+the early records of nearly all the great civilizations, and they
+hold a most prominent place in the various sacred books of the
+world.  In nearly all of them is revealed the conception of a
+Creator of whom man is an imperfect image, and who literally and
+directly created the visible universe with his hands and fingers.
+
+Among these theories, of especial interest to us are those which
+controlled theological thought in Chaldea.  The Assyrian
+inscriptions which have been recently recovered and given to the
+English-speaking peoples by Layard, George Smith, Sayce, and
+others, show that in the ancient religions of Chaldea and
+Babylonia there was elaborated a narrative of the creation which,
+in its most important features, must have been the source of that
+in our own sacred books.  It has now become perfectly clear that
+from the same sources which inspired the accounts of the creation
+of the universe among the Chaldeo-Babylonian, the Assyrian, the
+Phoenician, and other ancient civilizations came the ideas which
+hold so prominent a place in the sacred books of the Hebrews.  In
+the two accounts imperfectly fused together in Genesis, and also
+in the account of which we have indications in the book of Job
+and in the Proverbs, there, is presented, often with the greatest
+sublimity, the same early conception of the Creator and of the
+creation--the conception, so natural in the childhood of
+civilization, of a Creator who is an enlarged human being working
+literally with his own hands, and of a creation which is "the
+work of his fingers."  To supplement this view there was
+developed the belief in this Creator as one who, having
+
+
+
+.  .  .  "from his ample palm
+Launched forth the rolling planets into space."
+
+sits on high, enthroned "upon the circle of the heavens,"
+perpetually controlling and directing them.
+
+From this idea of creation was evolved in time a somewhat nobler
+view.  Ancient thinkers, and especially, as is now found, in
+Egypt, suggested that the main agency in creation was not the
+hands and fingers of the Creator, but his VOICE.  Hence was
+mingled with the earlier, cruder belief regarding the origin of
+the earth and heavenly bodies by the Almighty the more impressive
+idea that "he spake and they were made"--that they were brought
+into existence by his WORD.[1]
+
+[1] Among the many mediaeval representations of the creation of
+the universe, I especially recall from personal observation those
+sculptured above the portals of the cathedrals of Freiburg and
+Upsala, the paintings on the walls of the Campo Santo at Pisa,
+and most striking of all, the mosaics of the Cathedral of
+Monreale and those in the Capella Palatina at Palermo.  Among
+peculiarities showing the simplicity of the earlier conception
+the representation of the response of the Almighty on the seventh
+day is very striking.  He is shown as seated in almost the exact
+attitude of the "Weary Mercury" of classic sculpture--bent, and
+with a very marked expression of fatigue upon his countenance and
+in the whole disposition of his body.
+
+The Monreale mosaics are pictured in the great work of Gravina,
+and in the Pisa frescoes in Didron's Iconographie, Paris, 1843,
+p. 598.  For an exact statement of the resemblances which have
+settled the question among the most eminent scholars in favour of
+the derivation of the Hebrew cosmogony from that of Assyria, see
+Jensen, Die Kosmologie der Babylonier, Strassburg, 1890, pp.
+304,306; also Franz Lukas, Die Grundbegriffe in den Kosmographien
+der alten Volker, Leipsic, 1893, pp. 35-46; also George Smith's
+Chaldean Genesis, especially the German translation with
+additions by Delitzsch, Leipsic, 1876, and Schrader, Die
+Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament, Giessen, 1883, pp. 1-54,
+etc.  See also Renan, Histoire du peuple d'Israel, vol. i, chap
+i, L'antique influence babylonienne.  For Egyptian views
+regarding creation, and especially for the transition from the
+idea of creation by the hands and fingers of the Creator to
+creation by his VOICE and his "word," see Maspero and Sayce, The
+Dawn of Civilization, pp. 145-146.
+
+
+Among the early fathers of the Church this general view of
+creation became fundamental; they impressed upon Christendom more
+and more strongly the belief that the universe was created in a
+perfectly literal sense by the hands or voice of God.  Here and
+there sundry theologians of larger mind attempted to give a more
+spiritual view regarding some parts of the creative work, and of
+these were St.  Gregory of Nyssa and St.  Augustine.  Ready as
+they were to accept the literal text of Scripture, they revolted
+against the conception of an actual creation of the universe by
+the hands and fingers of a Supreme Being, and in this they were
+followed by Bede and a few others; but the more material
+conceptions prevailed, and we find these taking shape not only in
+the sculptures and mosaics and stained glass of cathedrals, and
+in the illuminations of missals and psalters, but later, at the
+close of the Middle Ages, in the pictured Bibles and in general
+literature.
+
+Into the Anglo-Saxon mind this ancient material conception of the
+creation was riveted by two poets whose works appealed especially
+to the deeper religious feelings.  In the seventh century Caedmon
+paraphrased the account given in Genesis, bringing out this
+material conception in the most literal form; and a thousand
+years later Milton developed out of the various statements in the
+Old Testament, mingled with a theology regarding "the creative
+Word" which had been drawn from the New, his description of the
+creation by the second person in the Trinity, than which nothing
+could be more literal and material:
+
+"He took the golden compasses, prepared
+In God's eternal store, to circumscribe
+This universe and all created things.
+One foot he centred, and the other turned
+Round through the vast profundity obscure,
+And said, `Thus far extend, thus far thy bounds:
+This be thy just circumference, O world!'"[2]
+
+
+[2] For Gregory of Nyssa, Augustine, and the general subject of
+the development of an evolution theory among the Greeks, see the
+excellent work by Dr. Osborn, From the Greeks to Darwin, pp.33
+and following; for Caedmon, see any edition--I have used
+Bouterwek's, Gutersloh, 1854; for Milton, see Paradise Lost, book
+vii, lines 225-231.
+
+
+So much for the orthodox view of the MANNER of creation.
+
+The next point developed in this theologic evolution had
+reference to the MATTER of which the universe was made, and it
+was decided by an overwhelming majority that no material
+substance existed before the creation of the material
+universe--that "God created everything out of nothing."  Some
+venturesome thinkers, basing their reasoning upon the first
+verses of Genesis, hinted at a different view--namely, that the
+mass, "without form and void," existed before the universe; but
+this doctrine was soon swept out of sight.  The vast majority of
+the fathers were explicit on this point.  Tertullian especially
+was very severe against those who took any other view than that
+generally accepted as orthodox: he declared that, if there had
+been any pre-existing matter out of which the world was formed,
+Scripture would have mentioned it; that by not mentioning it God
+has given us a clear proof that there was no such thing; and,
+after a manner not unknown in other theological controversies, he
+threatens Hermogenes, who takes the opposite view, with the woe
+which impends on all who add to or take away from the written
+word."
+
+St.  Augustine, who showed signs of a belief in a pre-existence
+of matter, made his peace with the prevailing belief by the
+simple reasoning that, "although the world has been made of some
+material, that very same material must have been made out of
+nothing."
+
+In the wake of these great men the universal Church steadily
+followed.  The Fourth Lateran Council declared that God created
+everything out of nothing; and at the present hour the vast
+majority of the faithful--whether Catholic or Protestant--are
+taught the same doctrine; on this point the syllabus of Pius IX
+and the Westminster Catechism fully agree.[3]
+
+
+[3] For Tertullian, see Tertullian against Hermogenes, chaps. xx
+and xxii; for St. Augustine regarding "creation from nothing,"
+see the De Genesi contra Manichaeos, lib, i, cap. vi; for St.
+Ambrose, see the Hexameron, lib, i,cap iv; for the decree of the
+Fourth Lateran Council, and the view received in the Church to-
+day, see the article Creation in Addis and Arnold's Catholic
+Dictionary.
+
+
+Having thus disposed of the manner and matter of creation, the
+next subject taken up by theologians was the TIME required for
+the great work.
+
+Here came a difficulty.  The first of the two accounts given in
+Genesis extended the creative operation through six days, each of
+an evening and a morning, with much explicit detail regarding the
+progress made in each.  But the second account spoke of "THE
+DAY" in which "the Lord God made the earth and the heavens."
+The explicitness of the first account and its naturalness to the
+minds of the great mass of early theologians gave it at first a
+decided advantage; but Jewish thinkers, like Philo, and Christian
+thinkers, like Origen, forming higher conceptions of the Creator
+and his work, were not content with this, and by them was
+launched upon the troubled sea of Christian theology the idea
+that the creation was instantaneous, this idea being strengthened
+not only by the second of the Genesis legends, but by the great
+text, "He spake, and it was done; he commanded, and it stood
+fast"--or, as it appears in the Vulgate and in most translations,
+"He spake, and they were made; he commanded, and they were
+created."
+
+As a result, it began to be held that the safe and proper course
+was to believe literally BOTH statements; that in some
+mysterious manner God created the universe in six days, and yet
+brought it all into existence in a moment.  In spite of the
+outcries of sundry great theologians, like Ephrem Syrus, that the
+universe was created in exactly six days of twenty-four hours
+each, this compromise was promoted by St. Athanasius and St.
+Basil in the East, and by St. Augustine and St. Hilary in the
+West.
+
+Serious difficulties were found in reconciling these two views,
+which to the natural mind seem absolutely contradictory; but by
+ingenious manipulation of texts, by dexterous play upon phrases,
+and by the abundant use of metaphysics to dissolve away facts, a
+reconciliation was effected, and men came at least to believe
+that they believed in a creation of the universe instantaneous
+and at the same time extended through six days.[4]
+
+[4] For Origen, see his Contra Celsum, cap xxxvi, xxxvii; also
+his De Principibus, cap. v; for St. Augustine, see his De Genesi
+conta Manichaeos and De Genesi ad Litteram, passim; for
+Athanasius, see his Discourses against the Arians, ii, 48,49.
+
+
+Some of the efforts to reconcile these two accounts were so
+fruitful as to deserve especial record.  The fathers, Eastern and
+Western, developed out of the double account in Genesis, and the
+indications in the Psalms, the Proverbs, and the book of Job, a
+vast mass of sacred science bearing upon this point.  As regards
+the whole work of creation, stress was laid upon certain occult
+powers in numerals.  Philo Judaeus, while believing in an
+instantaneous creation, had also declared that the world was
+created in six days because "of all numbers six is the most
+productive"; he had explained the creation of the heavenly bodies
+on the fourth day by "the harmony of the number four"; of the
+animals on the fifth day by the five senses; of man on the sixth
+day by the same virtues in the number six which had caused it to
+be set as a limit to the creative work; and, greatest of all, the
+rest on the seventh day by the vast mass of mysterious virtues in
+the number seven.
+
+St. Jerome held that the reason why God did not pronounce the
+work of the second day "good" is to be found in the fact that
+there is something essentially evil in the number two, and this
+was echoed centuries afterward, afar off in Britain, by Bede.
+
+St. Augustine brought this view to bear upon the Church in the
+following statement: "There are three classes of numbers--the
+more than perfect, the perfect, and the less than perfect,
+according as the sum of them is greater than, equal to, or less
+than the original number.  Six is the first perfect number:
+wherefore we must not say that six is a perfect number because
+God finished all his works in six days, but that God finished all
+his works in six days because six is a perfect number."
+
+Reasoning of this sort echoed along through the mediaeval Church
+until a year after the discovery of America, when the Nuremberg
+Chronicle re-echoed it as follows: "The creation of things is
+explained by the number six, the parts of which, one, two, and
+three, assume the form of a triangle."
+
+This view of the creation of the universe as instantaneous and
+also as in six days, each made up of an evening and a morning,
+became virtually universal.  Peter Lombard and Hugo of St.
+Victor, authorities of vast weight, gave it their sanction in the
+twelfth century, and impressed it for ages upon the mind of the
+Church.
+
+Both these lines of speculation--as to the creation of everything
+out of nothing, and the reconciling of the instantaneous creation
+of the universe with its creation in six days--were still further
+developed by other great thinkers of the Middle Ages.
+
+St. Hilary of Poictiers reconciled the two conceptions as
+follows: "For, although according to Moses there is an appearance
+of regular order in the fixing of the firmament, the laying bare
+of the dry land, the gathering together of the waters, the
+formation of the heavenly bodies, and the arising of living
+things from land and water, yet the creation of the heavens,
+earth, and other elements is seen to be the work of a single
+moment."
+
+St. Thomas Aquinas drew from St. Augustine a subtle distinction
+which for ages eased the difficulties in the case: he taught in
+effect that God created the substance of things in a moment, but
+gave to the work of separating, shaping, and adorning this
+creation, six days.[5]
+
+[5] For Philo Judaeus, see his Creation of the World, chap. iii;
+for St. Augustine on the powers of numbers in creation, see his
+De Genesi ad Litteram iv, chap. ii; for Peter Lombard, see the
+Sententiae, lib. ii, dist. xv, 5; and for Hugo of St. Victor, see
+De Sacrementis, lib i, pars i; also, Annotat, Elucidat in
+Pentateuchum, cap. v, vi, vii; for St. Hilary, see De Trinitate,
+lib. xii; for St. Thomas Aquinas, see his Summa Theologica, quest
+lxxxiv, arts. i and ii; the passage in the Nuremberg Chronicle,
+1493, is in fol. iii; for Vousset, see his Discours sur
+l'Histoire Universelle; for the sacredness of the number seven
+among the Babylonians, see especially Schrader, Die
+Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament, pp. 21,22; also George
+Smith et al.; for general ideas on the occult powers of various
+numbers, especially the number seven, and the influence of these
+ideas on theology and science, see my chapter on astronomy.  As
+to medieaval ideas on the same subject, see Detzel, Christliche
+Ikonographie, Frieburg, 1894, pp. 44 and following.
+
+
+The early reformers accepted and developed the same view, and
+Luther especially showed himself equal to the occasion.  With his
+usual boldness he declared, first, that Moses "spoke properly and
+plainly, and neither allegorically nor figuratively," and that
+therefore "the world with all creatures was created in six days."
+And he then goes on to show how, by a great miracle, the whole
+creation was also instantaneous.
+
+Melanchthon also insisted that the universe was created out of
+nothing and in a mysterious way, both in an instant and in six
+days, citing the text: "He spake, and they were made."
+
+Calvin opposed the idea of an instantaneous creation, and laid
+especial stress on the creation in six days: having called
+attention to the fact that the biblical chronology shows the
+world to be not quite six thousand years old and that it is now
+near its end, he says that "creation was extended through six
+days that it might not be tedious for us to occupy the whole of
+life in the consideration of it."
+
+Peter Martyr clinched the matter by declaring: "So important is
+it to comprehend the work of creation that we see the creed of
+the Church take this as its starting point.  Were this article
+taken away there would be no original sin, the promise of Christ
+would become void, and all the vital force of our religion would
+be destroyed."  The Westminster divines in drawing up their
+Confession of Faith specially laid it down as necessary to
+believe that all things visible and invisible were created not
+only out of nothing but in exactly six days.
+
+Nor were the Roman divines less strenuous than the Protestant
+reformers regarding the necessity of holding closely to the
+so-called Mosaic account of creation.  As late as the middle of
+the eighteenth century, when Buffon attempted to state simple
+geological truths, the theological faculty of the Sorbonne forced
+him to make and to publish a most ignominious recantation which
+ended with these words: "I abandon everything in my book
+respecting the formation of the earth, and generally all which
+may be contrary to the narrative of Moses."
+
+Theologians, having thus settled the manner of the creation, the
+matter used in it, and the time required for it, now exerted
+themselves to fix its DATE.
+
+The long series of efforts by the greatest minds in the Church,
+from Eusebius to Archbishop Usher, to settle this point are
+presented in another chapter.  Suffice it here that the general
+conclusion arrived at by an overwhelming majority of the most
+competent students of the biblical accounts was that the date of
+creation was, in round numbers, four thousand years before our
+era; and in the seventeenth century, in his great work, Dr. John
+Lightfoot, Vice-Chancellor of the University of Cambridge, and
+one of the most eminent Hebrew scholars of his time, declared, as
+the result of his most profound and exhaustive study of the
+Scriptures, that "heaven and earth, centre and circumference,
+were created all together, in the same instant, and clouds full
+of water," and that "this work took place and man was created by
+the Trinity on October 23, 4004 B. C., at nine o'clock in the
+morning."
+
+Here was, indeed, a triumph of Lactantius's method, the result of
+hundreds of years of biblical study and theological thought since
+Bede in the eighth century, and Vincent of Beauvais in the
+thirteenth, had declared that creation must have taken place in
+the spring.  Yet, alas! within two centuries after Lightfoot's
+great biblical demonstration as to the exact hour of creation, it
+was discovered that at that hour an exceedingly cultivated
+people, enjoying all the fruits of a highly developed
+civilization, had long been swarming in the great cities of
+Egypt, and that other nations hardly less advanced had at that
+time reached a high development in Asia.[6]
+
+[6] For Luther, see his Commentary on Genesis, 1545,
+introduction, and his comments on chap. i, verse 12; the
+quotations from Luther's commentary are taken mainly from the
+translation by Henry Cole, D.D., Edinburgh, 1858; for
+Melanchthon, see Loci Theologici, in Melanchthon, Opera, ed.
+Bretschneider, vol. xxi, pp. 269, 270, also pp. 637, 638--in
+quoting the text (Ps. xxiii, 9) I have used, as does Melanchthon
+himself, the form of the Vulgate; for the citations from Calvin,
+see his Commentary on Genesis (Opera omnia, Amsterdam, 1671, tom.
+i, cap. ii, p. 8); also in the Institutes, Allen's translation,
+London, 1838, vol. i, chap. xv, pp. 126,127; for the Peter
+Martyr, see his Commentary on Genesis, cited by Zockler, vol. i,
+p. 690; for articles in the Westminster Confession of Faith, see
+chap. iv; for Buffon's recantation, see Lyell, Principles of
+Geology, chap iii, p. 57. For Lightfoot's declartion, see his
+works, edited by Pitman, London, 1822.
+
+
+But, strange as it may seem, even after theologians had thus
+settled the manner of creation, the matter employed in it, the
+time required for it, and the exact date of it, there remained
+virtually unsettled the first and greatest question of all; and
+this was nothing less than the question, WHO actually created the
+universe?
+
+Various theories more or less nebulous, but all centred in texts
+of Scripture, had swept through the mind of the Church.  By some
+theologians it was held virtually that the actual creative agent
+was the third person of the Trinity, who, in the opening words of
+our sublime creation poem, "moved upon the face of the waters."
+By others it was held that the actual Creator was the second
+person of the Trinity, in behalf of whose agency many texts were
+cited from the New Testament.  Others held that the actual
+Creator was the first person, and this view was embodied in the
+two great formulas known as the Apostles' and Nicene Creeds,
+which explicitly assigned the work to "God the Father Almighty,
+Maker of heaven and earth."  Others, finding a deep meaning in
+the words "Let US make," ascribed in Genesis to the Creator, held
+that the entire Trinity directly created all things; and still
+others, by curious metaphysical processes, seemed to arrive at
+the idea that peculiar combinations of two persons of the Trinity
+achieved the creation.
+
+In all this there would seem to be considerable courage in view
+of the fearful condemnations launched in the Athanasian Creed
+against all who should "confound the persons" or "divide the
+substance of the Trinity."
+
+These various stages in the evolution of scholastic theology were
+also embodied in sacred art, and especially in cathedral
+sculpture, in glass-staining, in mosaic working, and in missal
+painting.
+
+The creative Being is thus represented sometimes as the third
+person of the Trinity, in the form of a dove brooding over chaos;
+sometimes as the second person, and therefore a youth; sometimes
+as the first person, and therefore fatherly and venerable;
+sometimes as the first and second persons, one being venerable
+and the other youthful; and sometimes as three persons, one
+venerable and one youthful, both wearing papal crowns, and each
+holding in his lips a tip of the wing of the dove, which thus
+seems to proceed from both and to be suspended between them.
+
+Nor was this the most complete development of the medieval idea.
+The Creator was sometimes represented with a single body, but
+with three faces, thus showing that Christian belief had in some
+pious minds gone through substantially the same cycle which an
+earlier form of belief had made ages before in India, when the
+Supreme Being was represented with one body but with the three
+faces of Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva.
+
+But at the beginning of the modern period the older view in its
+primitive Jewish form was impressed upon Christians by the most
+mighty genius in art the world has known; for in 1512, after four
+years of Titanic labour, Michael Angelo uncovered his frescoes
+within the vault of the Sistine Chapel.
+
+They had been executed by the command and under the sanction of
+the ruling Pope, Julius II, to represent the conception of
+Christian theology then dominant, and they remain to-day in all
+their majesty to show the highest point ever attained by the
+older thought upon the origin of the visible universe.
+
+In the midst of the expanse of heaven the Almighty Father--the
+first person of the Trinity--in human form, august and venerable,
+attended by angels and upborne by mighty winds, sweeps over the
+abyss, and, moving through successive compartments of the great
+vault, accomplishes the work of the creative days.  With a simple
+gesture he divides the light from the darkness, rears on high the
+solid firmament, gathers together beneath it the seas, or summons
+into existence the sun, moon, and planets, and sets them circling
+about the earth.
+
+In this sublime work culminated the thought of thousands of
+years; the strongest minds accepted it or pretended to accept it,
+and nearly two centuries later this conception, in accordance
+with the first of the two accounts given in Genesis, was
+especially enforced by Bossuet, and received a new lease of life
+in the Church, both Catholic and Protestant.[7]
+
+[7] For strange representations of the Creator and of the
+creation by one, two, or three persons of the Trinity, see
+Didron, Iconographie Chretienne, pp. 35, 178, 224, 483, 567-580,
+and elsewhere; also Detzel as already cited.  The most naive of
+all survivals of the mediaeval idea of creation which the present
+writer has ever seen was exhibited in 1894 on the banner of one
+of the guilds at the celebration of the four-hundredth
+anniversary of the founding of the Munich Cathedral.  Jesus of
+Nazareth, as a beautiful boy and with a nimbus encircling his
+head, was shown turning and shaping the globe on a lathe, which
+he keeps in motion with his foot.  The emblems of the Passion are
+about him, God the Father looking approvingly upon him from a
+cloud, and the dove hovering between the two.  The date upon the
+banner was 1727.
+
+
+But to these discussions was added yet another, which, beginning
+in the early days of the Church, was handed down the ages until
+it had died out among the theologians of our own time.
+
+In the first of the biblical accounts light is created and the
+distinction between day and night thereby made on the first day,
+while the sun and moon are not created until the fourth day.
+Masses of profound theological and pseudo-scientific reasoning
+have been developed to account for this--masses so great that for
+ages they have obscured the simple fact that the original text is
+a precious revelation to us of one of the most ancient of
+recorded beliefs--the belief that light and darkness are entities
+independent of the heavenly bodies, and that the sun, moon, and
+stars exist not merely to increase light but to "divide the day
+from the night, to be for signs and for seasons, and for days and
+for years," and "to rule the day and the night."
+
+Of this belief we find survivals among the early fathers, and
+especially in St. Ambrose.  In his work on creation he tells us:
+"We must remember that the light of day is one thing and the
+light of the sun, moon, and stars another--the sun by his rays
+appearing to add lustre to the daylight.  For before sunrise the
+day dawns, but is not in full refulgence, for the sun adds still
+further to its splendour."   This idea became one of the
+"treasures of sacred knowledge committed to the Church," and was
+faithfully received by the Middle Ages.  The medieval mysteries
+and miracle plays give curious evidences of this: In a
+performance of the creation, when God separates light from
+darkness, the stage direction is, "Now a painted cloth is to be
+exhibited, one half black and the other half white."   It was
+also given more permanent form.  In the mosaics of San Marco at
+Venice, in the frescoes of the Baptistery at Florence and of the
+Church of St. Francis at Assisi, and in the altar carving at
+Salerno, we find a striking realization of it--the Creator
+placing in the heavens two disks or living figures of equal size,
+each suitably coloured or inscribed to show that one represents
+light and the other darkness.  This conception was without doubt
+that of the person or persons who compiled from the Chaldean and
+other earlier statements the accounts of the creation in the
+first of our sacred books.[8]
+
+[8] For scriptural indications of the independent existence of
+light and darkness, compare with the first verses of the chapter
+of Genesis such passages as Job xxxviii, 19,24; for the general
+prevalence of this early view, see Lukas, Kosmogonie, pp. 31, 33,
+41, 74, and passim; for the view of St. Ambrose regarding the
+creation of light and of the sun, see his Hexameron, lib. 4, cap.
+iii; for an excellent general statement, see Huxley, Mr.
+Gladstone and Genesis, in the Nineteenth Century, 1886, reprinted
+in his Essays on Controverted Questions, London, 1892, note, pp.
+126 et seq.; for the acceptance in the miracle plays of the
+scriptural idea of light and darkness as independent creations,
+see Wright, Essays on Archeological Subjects, vol. ii, p.178; for
+an account, with illustrations, of the mosaics, etc.,
+representing this idea, see Tikkanen, Die Genesis-mosaiken von
+San Marco, Helsingfors, 1889, p. 14 and 16 of the text and Plates
+I and II.  Very naively the Salerno carver, not wishing to colour
+the ivory which he wrought, has inscribed on one disk the word
+"LUX" and on the other "NOX." See also Didron, Iconographie, p.
+482.
+
+
+Thus, down to a period almost within living memory, it was held,
+virtually "always, everywhere, and by all," that the universe, as
+we now see it, was created literally and directly by the voice or
+hands of the Almighty, or by both--out of nothing--in an instant
+or in six days, or in both--about four thousand years before the
+Christian era--and for the convenience of the dwellers upon the
+earth, which was at the base and foundation of the whole
+structure.
+
+But there had been implanted along through the ages germs of
+another growth in human thinking, some of them even as early as
+the Babylonian period.  In the Assyrian inscriptions we find
+recorded the Chaldeo-Babylonian idea of AN EVOLUTION of the
+universe out of the primeval flood or "great deep," and of the
+animal creation out of the earth and sea.  This idea, recast,
+partially at least, into monotheistic form, passed naturally into
+the sacred books of the neighbours and pupils of the
+Chaldeans--the Hebrews; but its growth in Christendom afterward
+was checked, as we shall hereafter find, by the more powerful
+influence of other inherited statements which appealed more
+intelligibly to the mind of the Church.
+
+Striking, also, was the effect of this idea as rewrought by the
+early Ionian philosophers, to whom it was probably transmitted
+from the Chaldeans through the Phoenicians.  In the minds of
+Ionians like Anaximander and Anaximenes it was most clearly
+developed: the first of these conceiving of the visible universe
+as the result of processes of evolution, and the latter pressing
+further the same mode of reasoning, and dwelling on agencies in
+cosmic development recognised in modern science.
+
+This general idea of evolution in Nature thus took strong hold
+upon Greek thought and was developed in many ways, some
+ingenious, some perverse.  Plato, indeed, withstood it; but
+Aristotle sometimes developed it in a manner which reminds us of
+modern views.
+
+Among the Romans Lucretius caught much from it, extending the
+evolutionary process virtually to all things.
+
+In the early Church, as we have seen, the idea of a creation
+direct, material, and by means like those used by man, was
+all-powerful for the exclusion of conceptions based on evolution.
+From the more simple and crude of the views of creation given in
+the Babylonian legends, and thence incorporated into Genesis,
+rose the stream of orthodox thought on the subject, which grew
+into a flood and swept on through the Middle Ages and into modern
+times.  Yet here and there in the midst of this flood were high
+grounds of thought held by strong men.  Scotus Erigena and Duns
+Scotus, among the schoolmen, bewildered though they were, had
+caught some rays of this ancient light, and passed on to their
+successors, in modified form, doctrines of an evolutionary
+process in the universe.
+
+In the latter half of the sixteenth century these evolutionary
+theories seemed to take more definite form in the mind of
+Giordano Bruno, who evidently divined the fundamental idea of
+what is now known as the "nebular hypothesis"; but with his
+murder by the Inquisition at Rome this idea seemed utterly to
+disappear--dissipated by the flames which in 1600 consumed his
+body on the Campo dei Fiori.
+
+Yet within the two centuries divided by Bruno's death the world
+was led into a new realm of thought in which an evolution theory
+of the visible universe was sure to be rapidly developed.  For
+there came, one after the other, five of the greatest men our
+race has produced--Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, Descartes, and
+Newton--and when their work was done the old theological
+conception of the universe was gone.  "The spacious firmament on
+high"--"the crystalline spheres"--the Almighty enthroned upon
+"the circle of the heavens," and with his own lands, or with
+angels as his agents, keeping sun, moon, and planets in motion
+for the benefit of the earth, opening and closing the "windows of
+heaven," letting down upon the earth the "waters above the
+firmament," "setting his bow in the cloud," hanging out "signs
+and wonders," hurling comets, "casting forth lightnings" to scare
+the wicked, and "shaking the earth" in his wrath: all this had
+disappeared.
+
+These five men had given a new divine revelation to the world;
+and through the last, Newton, had come a vast new conception,
+destined to be fatal to the old theory of creation, for he had
+shown throughout the universe, in place of almighty caprice,
+all-pervading law.  The bitter opposition of theology to the
+first four of these men is well known; but the fact is not so
+widely known that Newton, in spite of his deeply religious
+spirit, was also strongly opposed.  It was vigorously urged
+against him that by his statement of the law of gravitation he
+"took from God that direct action on his works so constantly
+ascribed to him in Scripture and transferred it to material
+mechanism," and that he "substituted gravitation for Providence."
+
+But, more than this, these men gave a new basis for the theory of
+evolution as distinguished from the theory of creation.
+
+Especially worthy of note is it that the great work of Descartes,
+erroneous as many of its deductions were, and, in view of the
+lack of physical knowledge in his time, must be, had done much to
+weaken the old conception.  His theory of a universe brought out
+of all-pervading matter, wrought into orderly arrangement by
+movements in accordance with physical laws--though it was but a
+provisional hypothesis--had done much to draw men's minds from
+the old theological view of creation; it was an example of
+intellectual honesty arriving at errors, but thereby aiding the
+advent of truths.  Crippled though Descartes was by his almost
+morbid fear of the Church, this part of his work was no small
+factor in bringing in that attitude of mind which led to a
+reception of the thoughts of more unfettered thinkers.
+
+Thirty years later came, in England, an effort of a different
+sort, but with a similar result.  In 1678 Ralph Cudworth
+published his Intellectual System of the Universe.  To this day
+he remains, in breadth of scholarship, in strength of thought, in
+tolerance, and in honesty, one of the greatest glories of the
+English Church, and his work was worthy of him.  He purposed to
+build a fortress which should protect Christianity against all
+dangerous theories of the universe, ancient or modern.  The
+foundations of the structure were laid with old thoughts thrown
+often into new and striking forms; but, as the superstructure
+arose more and more into view, while genius marked every part of
+it, features appeared which gave the rigidly orthodox serious
+misgivings.  From the old theories of direct personal action on
+the universe by the Almighty he broke utterly.  He dwelt on the
+action of law, rejected the continuous exercise of miraculous
+intervention, pointed out the fact that in the natural world
+there are "errors" and "bungles," and argued vigorously in favour
+of the origin and maintenance of the universe as a slow and
+gradual development of Nature in obedience to an inward
+principle.  The Balaks of seventeenth-century orthodoxy might
+well condemn this honest Balaam.
+
+Toward the end of the next century a still more profound genius,
+Immanuel Kant, presented the nebular theory, giving it, in the
+light of Newton's great utterances, a consistency which it never
+before had; and about the same time Laplace gave it yet greater
+strength by mathematical reasonings of wonderful power and
+extent, thus implanting firmly in modern thought the idea that
+our own solar system and others--suns, planets, satellites, and
+their various movements, distances, and magnitudes--necessarily
+result from the obedience of nebulous masses to natural laws.
+
+Throughout the theological world there was an outcry at once
+against "atheism," and war raged fiercely.  Herschel and others
+pointed out many nebulous patches apparently gaseous.  They
+showed by physical and mathematical demonstrations that the
+hypothesis accounted for the great body of facts, and, despite
+clamour, were gaining ground, when the improved telescopes
+resolved some of the patches of nebulous matter into multitudes
+of stars.  The opponents of the nebular hypothesis were
+overjoyed; they now sang paeans to astronomy, because, as they
+said, it had proved the truth of Scripture.  They had jumped to
+the conclusion that all nebula must be alike; that, if SOME are
+made up of systems of stars, ALL must be so made up; that none
+can be masses of attenuated gaseous matter, because some are not.
+
+Science halted for a time.  The accepted doctrine became this:
+that the only reason why all the nebula are not resolved into
+distinct stars is that our telescopes are not sufficiently
+powerful.  But in time came the discovery of the spectroscope and
+spectrum analysis, and thence Fraunhofer's discovery that the
+spectrum of an ignited gaseous body is non-continuous, with
+interrupting lines; and Draper's discovery that the spectrum of
+an ignited solid is continuous, with no interrupting lines.  And
+now the spectroscope was turned upon the nebula, and many of them
+were found to be gaseous.  Here, then, was ground for the
+inference that in these nebulous masses at different stages of
+condensation--some apparently mere pitches of mist, some with
+luminous centres--we have the process of development actually
+going on, and observations like those of Lord Rosse and Arrest
+gave yet further confirmation to this view.  Then came the great
+contribution of the nineteenth century to physics, aiding to
+explain important parts of the vast process by the mechanical
+theory of heat.
+
+Again the nebular hypothesis came forth stronger than ever, and
+about 1850 the beautiful experiment of Plateau on the rotation of
+a fluid globe came in apparently to illustrate if not to confirm
+it.  Even so determined a defender of orthodoxy as Mr. Gladstone
+at last acknowledged some form of a nebular hypothesis as
+probably true.
+
+Here, too, was exhibited that form of surrendering theological
+views to science under the claim that science concurs with
+theology, which we have seen in so many other fields; and, as
+typical, an example may be given, which, however restricted in
+its scope, throws light on the process by which such surrenders
+are obtained.  A few years since one of the most noted professors
+of chemistry in the city of New York, under the auspices of one
+of its most fashionable churches, gave a lecture which, as was
+claimed in the public prints and in placards posted in the
+streets, was to show that science supports the theory of creation
+given in the sacred books ascribed to Moses.  A large audience
+assembled, and a brilliant series of elementary experiments with
+oxygen, hydrogen, and carbonic acid was concluded by the Plateau
+demonstration.  It was beautifully made.  As the coloured globule
+of oil, representing the earth, was revolved in a transparent
+medium of equal density, as it became flattened at the poles, as
+rings then broke forth from it and revolved about it, and,
+finally, as some of these rings broke into satellites, which for
+a moment continued to circle about the central mass, the
+audience, as well they might, rose and burst into rapturous
+applause.
+
+Thereupon a well-to-do citizen arose and moved the thanks of the
+audience to the eminent professor for "this perfect demonstration
+of the exact and literal conformity of the statements given in
+Holy Scripture with the latest results of science."  The motion
+was carried unanimously and with applause, and the audience
+dispersed, feeling that a great service had been rendered to
+orthodoxy.  Sancta simplicitas!
+
+What this incident exhibited on a small scale has been seen
+elsewhere with more distinguished actors and on a broader stage.
+Scores of theologians, chief among whom of late, in zeal if not
+in knowledge, has been Mr. Gladstone, have endeavoured to
+"reconcile" the two accounts in Genesis with each other and with
+the truths regarding the origin of the universe gained by
+astronomy, geology, geography, physics, and chemistry.  The
+result has been recently stated by an eminent theologian, the
+Hulsean Professor of Divinity at the University of Cambridge.  He
+declares, "No attempt at reconciling genesis with the exacting
+requirements of modern sciences has ever been known to succeed
+without entailing a degree of special pleading or forced
+interpretation to which, in such a question, we should be wise to
+have no recourse."[9]
+
+[9] For an interesting reference to the outcry against Newton,
+see McCosh, The Religious Aspect of Evolution, New York, 1890,
+pp. 103, 104; for germs of an evolutionary view among the
+Babylonians, see George Smith, Chaldean Account of Gensis, New
+York, 1876, pp. 74, 75; for a germ of the same thought in
+Lucretius, see his De Natura Rerum, lib. v,pp.187-194, 447-454;
+for Bruno's conjecture (in 1591), see Jevons, Principles of
+Science, London, 1874, vol. ii, p. 36; for Kant's statement, see
+his Naturgeschichte des Himmels; for his part in the nebular
+hypothesis, see Lange, Geschichte des Materialismus, vol. i,
+p.266; for the value of Plateau's beautiful experiment, very
+cautiously estimated, see Jevons, vol. ii, p. 36; also Elisee
+Reclus, The Earth, translated by Woodward, vol. i, pp. 14-18, for
+an estimate still more careful; for a general account of
+discoveries of the nature of nebulae by spectroscope, see Draper,
+Conflict between Religion and Science; for a careful discussion
+regarding the spectra of solid, liquid, and gaseous bodies, see
+Schellen, Spectrum Analysis, pp. 100 et seq.; for a very thorough
+discussion of the bearings of discoveries made by spectrum
+analysis upon the nebular hypothesis, ibid., pp. 532-537; for a
+presentation of the difficulties yet unsolved, see an article by
+Plummer in the London Popular Science Review for January, 1875;
+for an excellent short summary of recent observations and
+thoughts on this subject, see T. Sterry Hunt, Address at the
+Priestley Centennial, pp. 7, 8; for an interesting modification
+of this hypothesis, see Proctor's writings; for a still more
+recent view see Lockyer's two articles on The Sun's Place in
+Nature for February 14 and 25, 1895.
+
+
+The revelations of another group of sciences, though sometimes
+bitterly opposed and sometimes "reconciled" by theologians, have
+finally set the whole question at rest.  First, there have come
+the biblical critics--earnest Christian scholars, working for the
+sake of truth--and these have revealed beyond the shadow of a
+reasonable doubt the existence of at least two distinct accounts
+of creation in our book of Genesis, which can sometimes be forced
+to agree, but which are generally absolutely at variance with
+each other.  These scholars have further shown the two accounts
+to be not the cunningly devised fables of priestcraft, but
+evidently fragments of earlier legends, myths, and theologies,
+accepted in good faith and brought together for the noblest of
+purposes by those who put in order the first of our sacred books.
+
+Next have come the archaeologists and philologists, the devoted
+students of ancient monuments and records; of these are such as
+Rawlinson, George Smith, Sayce, Oppert, Jensen, Schrader,
+Delitzsch, and a phalanx of similarly devoted scholars, who have
+deciphered a multitude of ancient texts, especially the
+inscriptions found in the great library of Assurbanipal at
+Nineveh, and have discovered therein an account of the origin of
+the world identical in its most important features with the later
+accounts in our own book of Genesis.
+
+These men have had the courage to point out these facts and to
+connect them with the truth that these Chaldean and Babylonian
+myths, legends, and theories were far earlier than those of the
+Hebrews, which so strikingly resemble them, and which we have in
+our sacred books; and they have also shown us how natural it was
+that the Jewish accounts of the creation should have been
+obtained at that remote period when the earliest Hebrews were
+among the Chaldeans, and how the great Hebrew poetic accounts of
+creation were drawn either from the sacred traditions of these
+earlier peoples or from antecedent sources common to various
+ancient nations.
+
+In a summary which for profound thought and fearless integrity
+does honour not only to himself but to the great position which
+he holds, the Rev. Dr. Driver, Professor of Hebrew and Canon of
+Christ Church at Oxford, has recently stated the case fully and
+fairly.  Having pointed out the fact that the Hebrews were one
+people out of many who thought upon the origin of the universe,
+he says that they "framed theories to account for the beginnings
+of the earth and man"; that "they either did this for themselves
+or borrowed those of their neighbours"; that "of the theories
+current in Assyria and Phoenicia fragments have been preserved,
+and these exhibit points of resemblance with the biblical
+narrative sufficient to warrant the inference that both are
+derived from the same cycle of tradition."
+
+After giving some extracts from the Chaldean creation tablets he
+says: "In the light of these facts it is difficult to resist the
+conclusion that the biblical narrative is drawn from the same
+source as these other records.  The biblical historians, it is
+plain, derived their materials from the best human sources
+available....The materials which with other nations were
+combined into the crudest physical theories or associated with a
+grotesque polytheism were vivified and transformed by the
+inspired genius of the Hebrew historians, and adapted to become
+the vehicle of profound religious truth."
+
+Not less honourable to the sister university and to himself is
+the statement recently made by the Rev. Dr. Ryle, Hulsean
+Professor of Divinity at Cambridge.  He says that to suppose that
+a Christian "must either renounce his confidence in the
+achievements of scientific research or abandon his faith in
+Scripture is a monstrous perversion of Christian freedom."  He
+declares: "The old position is no longer tenable; a new position
+has to be taken up at once, prayerfully chosen, and hopefully
+held."  He then goes on to compare the Hebrew story of creation
+with the earlier stories developed among kindred peoples, and
+especially with the pre-existing Assyro-Babylonian cosmogony, and
+shows that they are from the same source.  He points out that any
+attempt to explain particular features of the story into harmony
+with the modern scientific ideas necessitates "a non-natural"
+interpretation; but he says that, if we adopt a natural
+interpretation, "we shall consider that the Hebrew description of
+the visible universe is unscientific as judged by modern
+standards, and that it shares the limitations of the imperfect
+knowledge of the age at which it was committed to writing."
+Regarding the account in Genesis of man's physical origin, he
+says that it "is expressed in the simple terms of prehistoric
+legend, of unscientific pictorial description."
+
+In these statements and in a multitude of others made by eminent
+Christian investigators in other countries is indicated what the
+victory is which has now been fully won over the older theology.
+
+Thus, from the Assyrian researches as well as from other sources,
+it has come to be acknowledged by the most eminent scholars at
+the leading seats of Christian learning that the accounts of
+creation with which for nearly two thousand years all scientific
+discoveries have had to be "reconciled"--the accounts which
+blocked the way of Copernicus, and Galileo, and Newton, and
+Laplace--were simply transcribed or evolved from a mass of myths
+and legends largely derived by the Hebrews from their ancient
+relations with Chaldea, rewrought in a monotheistic sense,
+imperfectly welded together, and then thrown into poetic forms in
+the sacred books which we have inherited.
+
+On one hand, then, we have the various groups of men devoted to
+the physical sciences all converging toward the proofs that the
+universe, as we at present know it, is the result of an
+evolutionary process--that is, of the gradual working of physical
+laws upon an early condition of matter; on the other hand, we
+have other great groups of men devoted to historical,
+philological, and archaeological science whose researches all
+converge toward the conclusion that our sacred accounts of
+creation were the result of an evolution from an early chaos of
+rude opinion.
+
+The great body of theologians who have so long resisted the
+conclusions of the men of science have claimed to be fighting
+especially for "the truth of Scripture," and their final answer
+to the simple conclusions of science regarding the evolution of
+the material universe has been the cry, "The Bible is true."  And
+they are right--though in a sense nobler than they have dreamed.
+Science, while conquering them, has found in our Scriptures a far
+nobler truth than that literal historical exactness for which
+theologians have so long and so vainly contended.  More and more
+as we consider the results of the long struggle in this field we
+are brought to the conclusion that the inestimable value of the
+great sacred books of the world is found in their revelation of
+the steady striving of our race after higher conceptions,
+beliefs, and aspirations, both in morals and religion.  Unfolding
+and exhibiting this long-continued effort, each of the great
+sacred books of the world is precious, and all, in the highest
+sense, are true.  Not one of them, indeed, conforms to the
+measure of what mankind has now reached in historical and
+scientific truth; to make a claim to such conformity is folly,
+for it simply exposes those who make it and the books for which
+it is made to loss of their just influence.
+
+That to which the great sacred books of the world conform, and
+our own most of all, is the evolution of the highest conceptions,
+beliefs, and aspirations of our race from its childhood through
+the great turning-points in its history.  Herein lies the truth
+of all bibles, and especially of our own.  Of vast value they
+indeed often are as a record of historical outward fact; recen
+researches in the East are constantly increasing this value; but
+it is not for this that we prize them most: they are eminently
+precious, not as a record of outward fact, but as a mirror of the
+evolving heart, mind, and soul of man.  They are true because
+they have been developed in accordance with the laws governing
+the evolution of truth in human history, and because in poem,
+chronicle, code, legend, myth, apologue, or parable they reflect
+this development of what is best in the onward march of humanity.
+To say that they are not true is as if one should say that a
+flower or a tree or a planet is not true; to scoff at them is to
+scoff at the law of the universe.  In welding together into noble
+form, whether in the book of Genesis, or in the Psalms, or in the
+book of Job, or elsewhere, the great conceptions of men acting
+under earlier inspiration, whether in Egypt, or Chaldea, or
+India, or Persia, the compilers of our sacred books have given to
+humanity a possession ever becoming more and more precious; and
+modern science, in substituting a new heaven and a new earth for
+the old--the reign of law for the reign of caprice, and the idea
+of evolution for that of creation--has added and is steadily
+adding a new revelation divinely inspired.
+
+In the light of these two evolutions, then--one of the visible
+universe, the other of a sacred creation-legend--science and
+theology, if the master minds in both are wise, may at last be
+reconciled.  A great step in this reconciliation was recently
+seen at the main centre of theological thought among
+English-speaking people, when, in the collection of essays
+entitled Lux Mundi, emanating from the college established in
+these latter days as a fortress of orthodoxy at Oxford, the
+legendary character of the creation accounts in our sacred books
+was acknowledged, and when the Archbishop of Canterbury asked,
+"May not the Holy Spirit at times have made use of myth and
+legend?"[10]
+
+[10] For the first citations above made, see The Cosmogony of
+Genesis, by the Rev. S. R. Driver, D.D., Canon of Christ Church
+and Regius Professor of Hebrew at Oxford , in the Expositor for
+January, 1886; for the second series of citations, see the Early
+Narratives of Genesis, by Herbert Edward Ryle, Hulsean Professor
+of Divinity at Cambridge, London, 1892.  For evidence that even
+the stiffest of Scotch Presbyterians have come to discard the old
+literal biblical narrative of creation and to regard the
+declaration of the Westminster Confession thereon as a "disproved
+theory of creation," see Principal John Tulloch, in Contemporary
+Review, March, 1877, on Religious Thought in Scotland--especially
+page 550.
+
+
+
+II.  THEOLOGICAL TEACHINGS REGARDING THE ANIMALS AND MAN.
+
+In one of the windows of the cathedral at Ulm a mediaeval
+glass-stainer has represented the Almighty as busily engaged in
+creating the animals, and there has just left the divine hands an
+elephant fully accoutred, with armour, harness, and housings,
+ready-for war.  Similar representations appear in illuminated
+manuscripts and even in early printed books, and, as the
+culmination of the whole, the Almighty is shown as fashioning the
+first man from a hillock of clay and extracting from his side,
+with evident effort, the first woman.
+
+This view of the general process of creation had come from far,
+appearing under varying forms in various ancient cosmogonies.  In
+the Egyptian temples at Philae and Denderah may still be seen
+representations of the Nile gods modelling lumps of clay into
+men, and a similar work is ascribed in the Assyrian tablets to
+the gods of Babylonia.  Passing into our own sacred books, these
+ideas became the starting point of a vast new development of
+theology.[11]
+
+[11] For representations of Egyptian gods creating men out of
+lumps of clay, see Maspero and Sayce, The Dawn of History, p.
+156; for the Chaldean legends of the creation of men and animals,
+see ibid., p. 543; see also George Smith, Chaldean Accounts of
+Genesis, Sayce's edition, pp. 36, 72, and 93; also for similar
+legends in other ancient nations, Lenormant, Origines de
+l'Histoire, pp. 17 et seq.; for mediaeval representations of the
+creation of man and woman, see Didron, Iconographie, pp. 35, 178,
+224, 537.
+
+
+The fathers of the Church generally received each of the two
+conflicting creation legends in Genesis literally, and then,
+having done their best to reconcile them with each other and to
+mould them together, made them the final test of thought upon the
+universe and all things therein.  At the beginning of the fourth
+century Lactantius struck the key-note of this mode of
+subordinating all other things in the study of creation to the
+literal text of Scripture, and he enforces his view of the
+creation of man by a bit of philology, saying the final being
+created "is called man because he is made from the ground--homo
+ex humo."
+
+In the second half of the same century this view as to the
+literal acceptance of the sacred text was reasserted by St.
+Ambrose, who, in his work on the creation, declared that "Moses
+opened his mouth and poured forth what God had said to him."  But
+a greater than either of them fastened this idea into the
+Christian theologies.  St. Augustine, preparing his Commentary
+on the Book of Genesis, laid down in one famous sentence the law
+which has lasted in the Church until our own time: "Nothing is to
+be accepted save on the authority of Scripture, since greater is
+that authority than all the powers of the human mind."  The
+vigour of the sentence in its original Latin carried it ringing
+down the centuries: "Major est Scripturae auctoritas quam omnis
+humani ingenii capacitas."
+
+Through the mediaeval period, in spite of a revolt led by no
+other than St. Augustine himself, and followed by a series of
+influential churchmen, contending, as we shall hereafter see, for
+a modification of the accepted view of creation, this phrase held
+the minds of men firmly.  The great Dominican encyclopaedist,
+Vincent of Beauvais, in his Mirror of Nature, while mixing ideas
+brought from Aristotle with a theory drawn from the Bible, stood
+firmly by the first of the accounts given in Genesis, and
+assigned the special virtue of the number six as a reason why all
+things were created in six days; and in the later Middle Ages
+that eminent authority, Cardinal d' Ailly, accepted everything
+regarding creation in the sacred books literally.  Only a faint
+dissent is seen in Gregory Reisch, another authority of this
+later period, who, while giving, in his book on the beginning of
+things, a full length woodcut showing the Almighty in the act of
+extracting Eve from Adam's side, with all the rest of new-formed
+Nature in the background, leans in his writings, like St.
+Augustine, toward a belief in the pre-existence of matter.
+
+At the Reformation the vast authority of Luther was thrown in
+favour of the literal acceptance of Scripture as the main source
+of natural science.  The allegorical and mystical interpretations
+of earlier theologians he utterly rejected.  "Why," he asks,
+"should Moses use allegory when he is not speaking of allegorical
+creatures or of an allegorical world, but of real creatures and
+of a visible world, which can be seen, felt, and grasped?  Moses
+calls things by their right names, as we ought to do....I hold
+that the animals took their being at once upon the word of God,
+as did also the fishes in the sea."
+
+Not less explicit in his adherence to the literal account of
+creation given in Genesis was Calvin.  He warns those who, by
+taking another view than his own, "basely insult the Creator, to
+expect a judge who will annihilate them."  He insists that all
+species of animals were created in six days, each made up of an
+evening and a morning, and that no new species has ever appeared
+since.  He dwells on the production of birds from the water as
+resting upon certain warrant of Scripture, but adds, "If the
+question is to be argued on physical grounds, we know that water
+is more akin to air than the earth is."  As to difficulties in
+the scriptural account of creation, he tells us that God "wished
+by these to give proofs of his power which should fill us with
+astonishment."
+
+The controlling minds in the Roman Church steadfastly held this
+view.  In the seventeenth century Bossuet threw his vast
+authority in its favour, and in his Discourse on Universal
+History, which has remained the foundation not only of
+theological but of general historical teaching in France down to
+the present republic, we find him calling attention to what he
+regards as the culminating act of creation, and asserting that,
+literally, for the creation of man earth was used, and "the
+finger of God applied to corruptible matter."
+
+The Protestant world held this idea no less persistently.  In the
+seventeenth century Dr. John Lightfoot, Vice-Chancellor of the
+University of Cambridge, the great rabbinical scholar of his
+time, attempted to reconcile the two main legends in Genesis by
+saying that of the "clean sort of beasts there were seven of
+every kind created, three couples for breeding and the odd one
+for Adam's sacrifice on his fall, which God foresaw"; and that
+of unclean beasts only one couple was created.
+
+So literal was this whole conception of the work of creation that
+in these days it can scarcely be imagined.  The Almighty was
+represented in theological literature, in the pictured Bibles,
+and in works of art generally, as a sort of enlarged and
+venerable Nuremberg toymaker.  At times the accounts in Genesis
+were illustrated with even more literal exactness; thus, in
+connection with a well-known passage in the sacred text, the
+Creator was shown as a tailor, seated, needle in hand, diligently
+sewing together skins of beasts into coats for Adam and Eve.
+Such representations presented no difficulties to the docile
+minds of the Middle Ages and the Reformation period; and in the
+same spirit, when the discovery of fossils began to provoke
+thought, these were declared to be "models of his works approved
+or rejected by the great Artificer," "outlines of future
+creations," "sports of Nature," or "objects placed in the strata
+to bring to naught human curiosity"; and this kind of
+explanation lingered on until in our own time an eminent
+naturalist, in his anxiety to save the literal account in
+Genesis, has urged that Jehovah tilted and twisted the strata,
+scattered the fossils through them, scratched the glacial furrows
+upon them, spread over them the marks of erosion by water, and
+set Niagara pouring--all in an instant--thus mystifying the world
+"for some inscrutable purpose, but for his own glory."[12]
+
+[12] For the citation from Lactantius, see Divin. Instit., lib.
+ii, cap. xi, in Migne, tome vi, pp. 311, 312; for St. Augustine's
+great phrase, see the De Genes. ad litt., ii, 5; for St. Ambrose,
+see lib. i, cap. ii; for Vincent of Beauvais, see the Speculum
+Naturale, lib. i, cap. ii, and lib. ii, cap. xv and xxx; also
+Bourgeat, Etudes sur Vincent de Beauvais, Paris, 1856, especially
+chaps. vii, xii, and xvi; for Cardinal d"ailly, see the Imago
+Mundi, and for Reisch, see the various editions of the Margarita
+Philosophica; for Luther's statements, see Luther's Schriften,
+ed. Walch, Halle, 1740, Commentary on Genesis, vol. i; for
+Calvin's view of the creation of the animals, including the
+immutability of Species, see the Comm. in Gen., tome i of his
+Opera omnia, Amst., 1671, cap. i, v, xx, p. 5, also cap. ii, v,
+ii, p. 8, and elsewhere; for Bossuet, see his Discours sur
+l'Histoire universelle (in his Euvres, tome v, Paris, 1846); for
+Lightfoot, see his works, edited by Pitman, London, 1822; for
+Bede, see the Hexaemeron, lib. i, in Migne, tome xci, p.21; for
+Mr. Gosse'smodern defence of the literal view, see his Omphalos,
+London, 1857, passim.
+
+
+The next important development of theological reasoning had
+regard to the DIVISIONS of the animal kingdom.
+
+Naturally, one of the first divisions which struck the inquiring
+mind was that between useful and noxious creatures, and the
+question therefore occurred, How could a good God create tigers
+and serpents, thorns and thistles? The answer was found in
+theological considerations upon SIN.  To man's first
+disobedience all woes were due.  Great men for eighteen hundred
+years developed the theory that before Adam's disobedience there
+was no death, and therefore neither ferocity nor venom.
+
+Some typical utterances in the evolution of this doctrine are
+worthy of a passing glance.  St. Augustine expressly confirmed
+and emphasized the view that the vegetable as well as the animal
+kingdom was cursed on account of man's sin.  Two hundred years
+later this utterance had been echoed on from father to father of
+the Church until it was caught by Bede; he declared that before
+man's fall animals were harmless, but were made poisonous or
+hurtful by Adam's sin, and he said, "Thus fierce and poisonous
+animals were created for terrifying man (because God foresaw that
+he would sin), in order that he might be made aware of the final
+punishment of hell."
+
+In the twelfth century this view was incorporated by Peter
+Lombard into his great theological work, the Sentences, which
+became a text-book of theology through the middle ages.  He
+affirmed that "no created things would have been hurtful to man
+had he not sinned; they became hurtful for the sake of
+terrifying and punishing vice or of proving and perfecting
+virtue; they were created harmless, and on account of sin became
+hurtful."
+
+This theological theory regarding animals was brought out in the
+eighteenth century with great force by John Wesley.  He declared
+that before Adam's sin "none of these attempted to devour or in
+any wise hurt one another"; "the spider was as harmless as the
+fly, and did not lie in wait for blood."  Not only Wesley, but
+the eminent Dr. Adam Clarke and Dr. Richard Watson, whose ideas
+had the very greatest weight among the English Dissenters, and
+even among leading thinkers in the Established Church, held
+firmly to this theory; so that not until, in our own time,
+geology revealed the remains of vast multitudes of carnivorous
+creatures, many of them with half-digested remains of other
+animals in their stomachs, all extinct long ages before the
+appearance of man upon earth, was a victory won by science over
+theology in this field.
+
+A curious development of this doctrine was seen in the belief
+drawn by sundry old commentators from the condemnation of the
+serpent in Genesis--a belief, indeed, perfectly natural, since it
+was evidently that of the original writers of the account
+preserved in the first of our sacred books.  This belief was
+that, until the tempting serpent was cursed by the Almighty, all
+serpents stood erect, walked, and talked.
+
+This belief was handed down the ages as part of "the sacred
+deposit of the faith" until Watson, the most prolific writer of
+the evangelical reform in the eighteenth century and the standard
+theologian of the evangelical party, declared:   "We have no
+reason at all to believe that the animal had a serpentine form in
+any mode or degree until its transformation; that he was then
+degraded to a reptile to go upon his belly imports, on the
+contrary, an entire loss and alteration of the original form."
+Here, again, was a ripe result of the theologic method diligently
+pursued by the strongest thinkers in the Church during nearly two
+thousand years; but this "sacred deposit" also faded away when
+the geologists found abundant remains of fossil serpents dating
+from periods long before the appearance of man.
+
+Troublesome questions also arose among theologians regarding
+animals classed as "superfluous."  St. Augustine was especially
+exercised thereby.  He says:   "I confess I am ignorant why mice
+and frogs were created, or flies and worms....All creatures are
+either useful, hurtful, or superfluous to us....As for the
+hurtful creatures, we are either punished, or disciplined, or
+terrified by them, so that we may not cherish and love this
+life."  As to the "superfluous animals," he says, "Although they
+are not necessary for our service, yet the whole design of the
+universe is thereby completed and finished."  Luther, who
+followed St. Augustine in so many other matters, declined to
+follow him fully in this.  To him a fly was not merely
+superfluous, it was noxious--sent by the devil to vex him when
+reading.
+
+Another subject which gave rise to much searching of Scripture
+and long trains of theological reasoning was the difference
+between the creation of man and that of other living beings.
+
+Great stress was laid by theologians, from St. Basil and St.
+Augustine to St. Thomas Aquinas and Bossuet, and from Luther to
+Wesley, on the radical distinction indicated in Genesis, God
+having created man "in his own image."  What this statement meant
+was seen in the light of the later biblical statement that "Adam
+begat Seth in his own likeness, after his image."
+
+In view of this and of well-known texts incorporated from older
+creation legends into the Hebrew sacred books it came to be
+widely held that, while man was directly moulded and fashioned
+separately by the Creator's hand, the animals generally were
+evoked in numbers from the earth and sea by the Creator's voice.
+
+A question now arose naturally as to the DISTINCTIONS OF SPECIES
+among animals.  The vast majority of theologians agreed in
+representing all animals as created "in the beginning," and named
+by Adam, preserved in the ark, and continued ever afterward under
+exactly the same species.  This belief ripened into a dogma.
+Like so many other dogmas in the Church, Catholic and Protestant,
+its real origins are to be found rather in pagan philosophy than
+in the Christian Scriptures; it came far more from Plato and
+Aristotle than from Moses and St. Paul.  But this was not
+considered:  more and more it became necessary to believe that
+each and every difference of species was impressed by the Creator
+"in the beginning," and that no change had taken place or could
+have taken place since.
+
+Some difficulties arose here and there as zoology progressed and
+revealed ever-increasing numbers of species; but through the
+Middle Ages, and indeed long after the Reformation, these
+difficulties were easily surmounted by making the ark of Noah
+larger and larger, and especially by holding that there had been
+a human error in regard to its measurement.[13]
+
+[13] For St. Augustine, see De Genesis and De Trinitate, passim;
+for Bede, see Hexaemeron, lib. i, in Migne, tome xci, pp. 21, 36-
+38, 42; and De Sex Dierum Criatione, in Migne, tome xciii, p.
+215; for Peter Lombard on "noxious animals," see his Sententiae,
+lib. ii, dist. xv, 3, Migne, tome cxcii, p. 682; for Wesley,
+Clarke, and Watson, see quotations from them and notes thereto in
+my chapter on Geology; for St. Augustine on "superfluous
+animals," see the De Genesi, lib. i, cap. xvi, 26; on Luther's
+view of flies, see the Table Talk and his famous utterance, "Odio
+muscas quia sunt imagines diaboli et hoereticorum"; for the
+agency of Aristotle and Plato in fastening the belief in the
+fixity of species into Christian theology, see Sachs, Geschichte
+der Botanik, Munchen, 1875, p. 107 and note, also p. 113.
+
+
+But naturally there was developed among both ecclesiastics and
+laymen a human desire to go beyond these special points in the
+history of animated beings--a desire to know what the creation
+really IS.
+
+Current legends, stories, and travellers' observations, poor as
+they were, tended powerfully to stimulate curiosity in this
+field.
+
+Three centuries before the Christian era Aristotle had made the
+first really great attempt to satisfy this curiosity, and had
+begun a development of studies in natural history which remains
+one of the leading achievements in the story of our race.
+
+But the feeling which we have already seen so strong in the early
+Church--that all study of Nature was futile in view of the
+approaching end of the world--indicated so clearly in the New
+Testament and voiced so powerfully by Lactantius and St.
+Augustine--held back this current of thought for many centuries.
+Still, the better tendency in humanity continued to assert
+itself.  There was, indeed, an influence coming from the Hebrew
+Scriptures themselves which wrought powerfully to this end; for,
+in spite of all that Lactantius or St. Augustine might say as to
+the futility of any study of Nature, the grand utterances in the
+Psalms regarding the beauties and wonders of creation, in all the
+glow of the truest poetry, ennobled the study even among those
+whom logic drew away from it.
+
+But, as a matter of course, in the early Church and throughout
+the Middle Ages all such studies were cast in a theologic mould.
+Without some purpose of biblical illustration or spiritual
+edification they were considered futile too much prying into the
+secrets of Nature was very generally held to be dangerous both to
+body and soul; only for showing forth God's glory and his
+purposes in the creation were such studies praiseworthy.  The
+great work of Aristotle was under eclipse.  The early Christian
+thinkers gave little attention to it, and that little was devoted
+to transforming it into something absolutely opposed to his whole
+spirit and method; in place of it they developed the Physiologus
+and the Bestiaries, mingling scriptural statements, legends of
+the saints, and fanciful inventions with pious intent and
+childlike simplicity.  In place of research came authority--the
+authority of the Scriptures as interpreted by the Physio Cogus
+and the Bestiaries--and these remained the principal source of
+thought on animated Nature for over a thousand years.
+
+Occasionally, indeed, fear was shown among the rulers in the
+Church, even at such poor prying into the creation as this, and
+in the fifth century a synod under Pope Gelasius administered a
+rebuke to the Physiologus; but the interest in Nature was too
+strong:  the great work on Creation by St. Basil had drawn from
+the Physiologus precious illustrations of Holy Writ, and the
+strongest of the early popes, Gregory the Great, virtually
+sanctioned it.
+
+Thus was developed a sacred science of creation and of the divine
+purpose in Nature, which went on developing from the fourth
+century to the nineteenth--from St. Basil to St. Isidore of
+Seville, from Isidore to Vincent of Beauvais, and from Vincent to
+Archdeacon Paley and the Bridgewater Treatises.
+
+Like all else in the Middle Ages, this sacred science was
+developed purely by theological methods.  Neglecting the wonders
+which the dissection of the commonest animals would have afforded
+them, these naturalists attempted to throw light into Nature by
+ingenious use of scriptural texts, by research among the lives of
+the saints, and by the plentiful application of metaphysics.
+Hence even such strong men as St. Isidore of Seville treasured
+up accounts of the unicorn and dragons mentioned in the
+Scriptures and of the phoenix and basilisk in profane writings.
+Hence such contributions to knowledge as that the basilisk kills
+serpents by his breath and men by his glance, that the lion when
+pursued effaces his tracks with the end of his tail, that the
+pelican nourishes her young with her own blood, that serpents lay
+aside their venom before drinking, that the salamander quenches
+fire, that the hyena can talk with shepherds, that certain birds
+are born of the fruit of a certain tree when it happens to fall
+into the water, with other masses of science equally valuable.
+
+As to the method of bringing science to bear on Scripture, the
+Physiologus gives an example, illustrating the passage in the
+book of Job which speaks of the old lion perishing for lack of
+prey.  Out of the attempt to explain an unusual Hebrew word in
+the text there came a curious development of error, until we find
+fully evolved an account of the "ant-lion," which, it gives us to
+understand, was the lion mentioned by Job, and it says:  "As to
+the ant-lion, his father hath the shape of a lion, his mother
+that of an ant; the father liveth upon flesh and the mother upon
+herbs; these bring forth the ant-lion, a compound of both and in
+part like to either; for his fore part is like that of a lion
+and his hind part like that of an ant.  Being thus composed, he
+is neither able to eat flesh like his father nor herbs like his
+mother, and so he perisheth."
+
+In the middle of the thirteenth century we have a triumph of this
+theological method in the great work of the English Franciscan
+Bartholomew on The Properties of Things.  The theological method
+as applied to science consists largely in accepting tradition and
+in spinning arguments to fit it.  In this field Bartholomew was a
+master.  Having begun with the intent mainly to explain the
+allusions in Scripture to natural objects, he soon rises
+logically into a survey of all Nature.  Discussing the
+"cockatrice" of Scripture, he tells us:  "He drieth and burneth
+leaves with his touch, and he is of so great venom and perilous
+that he slayeth and wasteth him that nigheth him without
+tarrying; and yet the weasel overcometh him, for the biting of
+the weasel is death to the cockatrice.  Nevertheless the biting
+of the cockatrice is death to the weasel if the weasel eat not
+rue before.  And though the cockatrice be venomous without remedy
+while he is alive, yet he looseth all the malice when he is burnt
+to ashes.  His ashes be accounted profitable in working of
+alchemy, and namely in turning and changing of metals."
+
+Bartholomew also enlightens us on the animals of Egypt, and says,
+"If the crocodile findeth a man by the water's brim he slayeth
+him, and then he weepeth over him and swalloweth him."
+
+Naturally this good Franciscan naturalist devotes much thought to
+the "dragons" mentioned in Scripture.  He says:  "The dragon is
+most greatest of all serpents, and oft he is drawn out of his den
+and riseth up into the air, and the air is moved by him, and also
+the sea swelleth against his venom, and he hath a crest, and
+reareth his tongue, and hath teeth like a saw, and hath strength,
+and not only in teeth but in tail, and grieveth with biting and
+with stinging.  Whom he findeth he slayeth.  Oft four or five of
+them fasten their tails together and rear up their heads, and
+sail over the sea to get good meat.  Between elephants and
+dragons is everlasting fighting; for the dragon with his tail
+spanneth the elephant, and the elephant with his nose throweth
+down the dragon....The cause why the dragon desireth his blood is
+the coldness thereof, by the which the dragon desireth to cool
+himself.  Jerome saith that the dragon is a full thirsty beast,
+insomuch that he openeth his mouth against the wind to quench the
+burning of his thirst in that wise.  Therefore, when he seeth
+ships in great wind he flieth against the sail to take the cold
+wind, and overthroweth the ship."
+
+These ideas of Friar Bartholomew spread far and struck deep into
+the popular mind.  His book was translated into the principal
+languages of Europe, and was one of those most generally read
+during the Ages of Faith.  It maintained its position nearly
+three hundred years; even after the invention of printing it
+held its own, and in the fifteenth century there were issued no
+less than ten editions of it in Latin, four in French, and
+various versions of it in Dutch, Spanish, and English.  Preachers
+found it especially useful in illustrating the ways of God to
+man.  It was only when the great voyages of discovery substituted
+ascertained fact for theological reasoning in this province that
+its authority was broken.
+
+The same sort of science flourished in the Bestiaries, which
+were used everywhere, and especially in the pulpits, for the
+edification of the faithful.  In all of these, as in that
+compiled early in the thirteenth century by an ecclesiastic,
+William of Normandy, we have this lesson, borrowed from the
+Physiologus:  "The lioness giveth birth to cubs which remain
+three days without life.  Then cometh the lion, breatheth upon
+them, and bringeth them to life....Thus it is that Jesus Christ
+during three days was deprived of life, but God the Father raised
+him gloriously."
+
+Pious use was constantly made of this science, especially by
+monkish preachers.  The phoenix rising from his ashes proves the
+doctrine of the resurrection; the structure and mischief of
+monkeys proves the existence of demons; the fact that certain
+monkeys have no tails proves that Satan has been shorn of his
+glory; the weasel, which "constantly changes its place, is a
+type of the man estranged from the word of God, who findeth no
+rest."
+
+The moral treatises of the time often took the form of works on
+natural history, in order the more fully to exploit these
+religious teachings of Nature.  Thus from the book On Bees, the
+Dominican Thomas of Cantimpre, we learn that "wasps persecute
+bees and make war on them out of natural hatred"; and these, he
+tells us, typify the demons who dwell in the air and with
+lightning and tempest assail and vex mankind--whereupon he fills
+a long chapter with anecdotes of such demonic warfare on mortals.
+In like manner his fellow-Dominican, the inquisitor Nider, in his
+book The Ant Hill, teaches us that the ants in Ethiopia, which
+are said to have horns and to grow so large as to look like dogs,
+are emblems of atrocious heretics, like Wyclif and the Hussites,
+who bark and bite against the truth; while the ants of India,
+which dig up gold out of the sand with their feet and hoard it,
+though they make no use of it, symbolize the fruitless toil with
+which the heretics dig out the gold of Holy Scripture and hoard
+it in their books to no purpose.
+
+This pious spirit not only pervaded science; it bloomed out in
+art, and especially in the cathedrals.  In the gargoyles
+overhanging the walls, in the grotesques clambering about the
+towers or perched upon pinnacles, in the dragons prowling under
+archways or lurking in bosses of foliage, in the apocalyptic
+beasts carved upon the stalls of the choir, stained into the
+windows, wrought into the tapestries, illuminated in the letters
+and borders of psalters and missals, these marvels of creation
+suggested everywhere morals from the Physiologus, the Bestiaries,
+and the Exempla.[14]
+
+[14] For the Physiologus, Bestiaries, etc., see Berger de Xivrey,
+Traditions Teratologiques; also Hippeau's edition of the Bestiare
+de Guillaume de Normandie, Caen, 1852, and such medieaval books
+of Exempla as the Lumen Naturae; also Hoefer, Histoire de la
+Zoologie; also Rambaud, Histoire de la Civilisation Francaise,
+Paris, 1885, vol i, pp. 368, 369; also Cardinal Pitra, preface to
+the Spicilegium Solismense, Paris, 1885, passim; also Carus,
+Geschichte der Zoologie; and for an admirable summary, the
+article Physiologus in the Encyclopedia Britannica.  In the
+illuminated manuscripts in the Library of Cornell University are
+some very striking examples of grotesques.  For admirably
+illustrated articles on the Bestiaries, see Cahier and Martin,
+Melanges d'Archeologie, Paris, 1851, 1852, and 1856, vol. ii of
+the first series, pp. 85-232, and second series, volume on
+Curiosities Mysterieuses, pp. 106-164; also J. R. Allen, Early
+Christian Symbolism in Great Britain and Ireland (London, 1887),
+lecture vi; for an exhaustive discussion of the subject, see Das
+Thierbuch des normannischen Dichters Guillaume le Clerc,
+herausgegeben von Reinisch, Leipsic, 1890; and for an Italian
+examlpe, Goldstaub and Wendriner, Ein Tosco-Venezianischer
+Bestiarius, Halle, 1892, where is given, on pp. 369-371, a very
+pious but very comical tradition regarding the beaver, hardly
+mentionable to ears polite.  For Friar Bartholomew, see (besides
+his book itself) Medieval Lore, edited by Robert Steele, London,
+1893, pp. 118-138.
+
+
+Here and there among men who were free from church control we
+have work of a better sort.  In the twelfth and thirteenth
+centuries Abd Allatif made observations upon the natural history
+of Egypt which showed a truly scientific spirit, and the Emperor
+Frederick II attempted to promote a more fruitful study of
+Nature; but one of these men was abhorred as a Mussulman and the
+other as an infidel.  Far more in accordance with the spirit of
+the time was the ecclesiastic Giraldus Cambrensis, whose book on
+the topography of Ireland bestows much attention upon the animals
+of the island, and rarely fails to make each contribute an
+appropriate moral.  For example, he says that in Ireland "eagles
+live for so many ages that they seem to contend with eternity
+itself; so also the saints, having put off the old man and put
+on the new, obtain the blessed fruit of everlasting life."
+Again, he tells us:  "Eagles often fly so high that their wings
+are scorched by the sun; so those who in the Holy Scriptures
+strive to unravel the deep and hidden secrets of the heavenly
+mysteries, beyond what is allowed, fall below, as if the wings of
+the presumptuous imaginations on which they are borne were
+scorched."
+
+In one of the great men of the following century appeared a gleam
+of healthful criticism:  Albert the Great, in his work on the
+animals, dissents from the widespread belief that certain birds
+spring from trees and are nourished by the sap, and also from the
+theory that some are generated in the sea from decaying wood.
+
+But it required many generations for such scepticism to produce
+much effect, and we find among the illustrations in an edition of
+Mandeville published just before the Reformation not only careful
+accounts but pictured representations both of birds and of beasts
+produced in the fruit of trees.[15]
+
+[15] For Giraldus Cambrensis, see the edition in the Bohn
+Library, London, 1863, p. 30; for the Abd Allatif and Frederick
+II, see Hoefer, as above; for Albertus Magnus, see the De
+Animalibus, lib. xxiii; for the illustrations in Mandeville, see
+the Strasburg edition, 1484; for the history of the myth of the
+tree which produces birds, see Max Muller's lectures on the
+Science of Language, second series, lect. xii.
+
+
+This general employment of natural science for pious purposes
+went on after the Reformation.  Luther frequently made this use
+of it, and his example controlled his followers.  In 1612,
+Wolfgang Franz, Professor of Theology at Luther's university,
+gave to the world his sacred history of animals, which went
+through many editions.  It contained a very ingenious
+classification, describing "natural dragons," which have three
+rows of teeth to each jaw, and he piously adds, "the principal
+dragon is the Devil."
+
+Near the end of the same century, Father Kircher, the great
+Jesuit professor at Rome, holds back the sceptical current,
+insists upon the orthodox view, and represents among the animals
+entering the ark sirens and griffins.
+
+Yet even among theologians we note here and there a sceptical
+spirit in natural science.  Early in the same seventeenth century
+Eugene Roger published his Travels in Palestine.  As regards the
+utterances of Scripture he is soundly orthodox:  he prefaces his
+work with a map showing, among other important points referred to
+in biblical history, the place where Samson slew a thousand
+Philistines with the jawbone of an ass, the cavern which Adam and
+Eve inhabited after their expulsion from paradise, the spot where
+Balaam's ass spoke, the place where Jacob wrestled with the
+angel, the steep place down which the swine possessed of devils
+plunged into the sea, the position of the salt statue which was
+once Lot's wife, the place at sea where Jonah was swallowed by
+the whale, and "the exact spot where St. Peter caught one
+hundred and fifty-three fishes."
+
+As to natural history, he describes and discusses with great
+theological acuteness the basilisk.  He tells us that the animal
+is about a foot and a half long, is shaped like a crocodile, and
+kills people with a single glance.  The one which he saw was
+dead, fortunately for him, since in the time of Pope Leo IV--as
+he tells us--one appeared in Rome and killed many people by
+merely looking at them; but the Pope destroyed it with his
+prayers and the sign of the cross.  He informs us that Providence
+has wisely and mercifully protected man by requiring the monster
+to cry aloud two or three times whenever it leaves its den, and
+that the divine wisdom in creation is also shown by the fact that
+the monster is obliged to look its victim in the eye, and at a
+certain fixed distance, before its glance can penetrate the
+victim's brain and so pass to his heart.  He also gives a reason
+for supposing that the same divine mercy has provided that the
+crowing of a cock will kill the basilisk.
+
+Yet even in this good and credulous missionary we see the
+influence of Bacon and the dawn of experimental science; for,
+having been told many stories regarding the salamander, he
+secured one, placed it alive upon the burning coals, and reports
+to us that the legends concerning its power to live in the fire
+are untrue.  He also tried experiments with the chameleon, and
+found that the stories told of it were to be received with much
+allowance:  while, then, he locks up his judgment whenever he
+discusses the letter of Scripture, he uses his mind in other
+things much after the modern method.
+
+In the second half of the same century Hottinger, in his
+Theological Examination of the History of Creation, breaks from
+the belief in the phoenix; but his scepticism is carefully kept
+within the limits imposed by Scripture.  He avows his doubts,
+first, "because God created the animals in couples, while the
+phoenix is represented as a single, unmated creature"; secondly,
+"because Noah, when he entered the ark, brought the animals in by
+sevens, while there were never so many individuals of the phoenix
+species"; thirdly, because "no man is known who dares assert
+that he has ever seen this bird"; fourthly, because "those who
+assert there is a phoenix differ among themselves."
+
+In view of these attacks on the salamander and the phoenix, we
+are not surprised to find, before the end of the century,
+scepticism regarding the basilisk:  the eminent Prof.
+Kirchmaier, at the University of Wittenberg, treats phoenix and
+basilisk alike as old wives' fables.  As to the phoenix, he
+denies its existence, not only because Noah took no such bird
+into the ark, but also because, as he pithily remarks, "birds
+come from eggs, not from ashes."  But the unicorn he can not
+resign, nor will he even concede that the unicorn is a
+rhinoceros; he appeals to Job and to Marco Polo to prove that
+this animal, as usually conceived, really exists, and says, "Who
+would not fear to deny the existence of the unicorn, since Holy
+Scripture names him with distinct praises?" As to the other great
+animals mentioned in Scripture, he is so rationalistic as to
+admit that behemoth was an elephant and leviathan a whale.
+
+But these germs of a fruitful scepticism grew, and we soon find
+Dannhauer going a step further and declaring his disbelief even
+in the unicorn, insisting that it was a rhinoceros--only that and
+nothing more.  Still, the main current continued strongly
+theological.  In 1712 Samuel Bochart published his great work
+upon the animals of Holy Scripture.  As showing its spirit we may
+take the titles of the chapters on the horse:
+
+"Chapter VI.  Of the Hebrew Name of the Horse."
+
+"Chapter VII.  Of the Colours of the Six Horses in Zechariah."
+
+"Chapter VIII.  Of the Horses in Job."
+
+"Chapter IX.  Of Solomon's Horses, and of the Texts wherein the
+Writers praise the Excellence of Horses."
+
+"Chapter X.  Of the Consecrated Horses of the Sun."
+
+Among the other titles of chapters are such as:  Of Balaam's Ass;
+Of the Thousand Philistines slain by Samson with the Jawbone of
+an Ass; Of the Golden Calves of Aaron and Jeroboam; Of the
+Bleating, Milk, Wool, External and Internal Parts of Sheep
+mentioned in Scripture; Of Notable Things told regarding Lions
+in Scripture; Of Noah's Dove and of the Dove which appeared at
+Christ's Baptism.  Mixed up in the book, with the principal mass
+drawn from Scripture, were many facts and reasonings taken from
+investigations by naturalists; but all were permeated by the
+theological spirit.[16]
+
+[16] For Franz and Kircher, see Perrier, La Philosophie
+Zoologique avant Darwin, 1884, p. 29; for Roger, see his La Terre
+Saincte, Paris, 1664, pp. 89-92, 130, 218, etc.; for Hottinger,
+see his Historiae Creatonis Examen theologico-philologicum,
+Heidelberg, 1659, lib. vi, quaest.lxxxiii; for Kirchmaier, see
+his Disputationes Zoologicae (published collectively after his
+death), Jena, 1736; for Dannhauer, see his Disputationes
+Theologicae, Leipsic, 1707, p. 14; for Bochart, see his
+Hierozoikon, sive De Animalibus Sacre Scripturae, Leyden, 1712.
+
+
+The inquiry into Nature having thus been pursued nearly two
+thousand years theologically, we find by the middle of the
+sixteenth century some promising beginnings of a different
+method--the method of inquiry into Nature scientifically--the
+method which seeks not plausibilities but facts.  At that time
+Edward Wotton led the way in England and Conrad Gesner on the
+Continent, by observations widely extended, carefully noted, and
+thoughtfully classified.
+
+This better method of interrogating Nature soon led to the
+formation of societies for the same purpose.  In 1560 was founded
+an Academy for the Study of Nature at Naples, but theologians,
+becoming alarmed, suppressed it, and for nearly one hundred years
+there was no new combined effort of that sort, until in 1645
+began the meetings in London of what was afterward the Royal
+Society.  Then came the Academy of Sciences in France, and the
+Accademia del Cimento in Italy; others followed in all parts of
+the world, and a great new movement was begun.
+
+Theologians soon saw a danger in this movement.  In Italy, Prince
+Leopold de' Medici, a protector of the Florentine Academy, was
+bribed with a cardinal's hat to neglect it, and from the days of
+Urban VIII to Pius IX a similar spirit was there shown.  In
+France, there were frequent ecclesiastical interferences, of
+which Buffon's humiliation for stating a simple scientific truth
+was a noted example.  In England, Protestantism was at first
+hardly more favourable toward the Royal Society, and the great
+Dr. South denounced it in his sermons as irreligious.
+
+Fortunately, one thing prevented an open breach between theology
+and science:  while new investigators had mainly given up the
+medieval method so dear to the Church, they had very generally
+retained the conception of direct creation and of design
+throughout creation--a design having as its main purpose the
+profit, instruction, enjoyment, and amusement of man.
+
+On this the naturally opposing tendencies of theology and science
+were compromised.  Science, while somewhat freed from its old
+limitations, became the handmaid of theology in illustrating the
+doctrine of creative design, and always with apparent deference
+to the Chaldean and other ancient myths and legends embodied in
+the Hebrew sacred books.
+
+About the middle of the seventeenth century came a great victory
+of the scientific over the theologic method.  At that time
+Francesco Redi published the results of his inquiries into the
+doctrine of spontaneous generation.  For ages a widely accepted
+doctrine had been that water, filth, and carrion had received
+power from the Creator to generate worms, insects, and a
+multitude of the smaller animals; and this doctrine had been
+especially welcomed by St. Augustine and many of the fathers,
+since it relieved the Almighty of making, Adam of naming, and
+Noah of living in the ark with these innumerable despised
+species.  But to this fallacy Redi put an end.  By researches
+which could not be gainsaid, he showed that every one of these
+animals came from an egg; each, therefore, must be the lineal
+descendant of an animal created, named, and preserved from "the
+beginning."
+
+Similar work went on in England, but under more distinctly
+theological limitations.  In the same seventeenth century a very
+famous and popular English book was published by the naturalist
+John Ray, a fellow of the Royal Society, who produced a number of
+works on plants, fishes, and birds; but the most widely read of
+all was entitled The Wisdom of God manifested in the Works of
+Creation.  Between the years 1691 and 1827 it passed through
+nearly twenty editions.
+
+Ray argued the goodness and wisdom of God from the adaptation of
+the animals not only to man's uses but to their own lives and
+surroundings.
+
+In the first years of the eighteenth century Dr. Nehemiah Grew,
+of the Royal Society, published his Cosmologia Sacra to refute
+anti-scriptural opinions by producing evidences of creative
+design.  Discussing "the ends of Providence," he says, "A crane,
+which is scurvy meat, lays but two eggs in the year, but a
+pheasant and partridge, both excellent meat, lay and hatch
+fifteen or twenty."  He points to the fact that "those of value
+which lay few at a time sit the oftener, as the woodcock and the
+dove."  He breaks decidedly from the doctrine that noxious things
+in Nature are caused by sin, and shows that they, too, are
+useful; that, "if nettles sting, it is to secure an excellent
+medicine for children and cattle"; that, "if the bramble hurts
+man, it makes all the better hedge"; and that, "if it chances to
+prick the owner, it tears the thief."  "Weasels, kites, and other
+hurtful animals induce us to watchfulness; thistles and moles,
+to good husbandry; lice oblige us to cleanliness in our bodies,
+spiders in our houses, and the moth in our clothes."  This very
+optimistic view, triumphing over the theological theory of
+noxious animals and plants as effects of sin, which prevailed
+with so much force from St. Augustine to Wesley, was developed
+into nobler form during the century by various thinkers, and
+especially by Archdeacon Paley, whose Natural Theology exercised
+a powerful influence down to recent times.  The same tendency
+appeared in other countries, though various philosophers showed
+weak points in the argument, and Goethe made sport of it in a
+noted verse, praising the forethought of the Creator in
+foreordaining the cork tree to furnish stoppers for wine-bottles.
+
+Shortly before the middle of the nineteenth century the main
+movement culminated in the Bridgewater Treatises.  Pursuant to
+the will of the eighth Earl of Bridgewater, the President of the
+Royal Society selected eight persons, each to receive a thousand
+pounds sterling for writing and publishing a treatise on the
+"power, wisdom, and goodness of God, as manifested in the
+creation."  Of these, the leading essays in regard to animated
+Nature were those of Thomas Chalmers, on The Adaptation of
+External Nature to the Moral and Intellectual Condition of Man;
+of Sir Charles Bell, on The Hand as evincing Design; of Roget,
+on Animal and Vegetable Physiology with reference to Natural
+Theology; and of Kirby, on The Habits and Instincts of Animals
+with reference to Natural Theology.
+
+Besides these there were treatises by Whewell, Buckland, Kidd,
+and Prout.  The work was well done.  It was a marked advance on
+all that had appeared before, in matter, method, and spirit.
+Looking back upon it now we can see that it was provisional, but
+that it was none the less fruitful in truth, and we may well
+remember Darwin's remark on the stimulating effect of mistaken
+THEORIES, as compared with the sterilizing effect of mistaken
+OBSERVATIONS:  mistaken observations lead men astray, mistaken
+theories suggest true theories.
+
+An effort made in so noble a spirit certainly does not deserve
+the ridicule that, in our own day, has sometimes been lavished
+upon it.  Curiously, indeed, one of the most contemptuous of
+these criticisms has been recently made by one of the most
+strenuous defenders of orthodoxy.  No less eminent a
+standard-bearer of the faith than the Rev. Prof. Zoeckler says of
+this movement to demonstrate creative purpose and design, and of
+the men who took part in it, "The earth appeared in their
+representation of it like a great clothing shop and soup kitchen,
+and God as a glorified rationalistic professor."  Such a
+statement as this is far from just to the conceptions of such men
+as Butler, Paley, and Chalmers, no matter how fully the thinking
+world has now outlived them.[17]
+
+[17] For a very valuable and interesting study on the old idea of
+the generation of insects from carrion, see Osten-Sacken, on the
+Oxen-born Bees of the Ancients, Heidelberg, 1894; for Ray, see
+the work cited, London, 1827, p. 153; for Grew, see Cosmologia
+Sacra, or a Discourse on the Universe, as it is the Creature and
+Kingdom of God; chiefly written to demonstrate the Truth and
+Excellency of the Bible, by Dr. Nehemiah Grew, Fellow of the
+College of Physicians and of the Royal Society of London, 1701;
+for Paley and the Bridgewater Treatises, see the usual editions;
+also Lange, History of Rationalism.  Goethe's couplet ran as
+follows:
+
+"Welche Verehrung verdient der Weltenerschopfer, der Gnadig,
+Als er den Korkbaum erschuf, gleich auch die Stopfel erfand."
+
+For the quotation from Zoeckler, see his work already cited, vol.
+ii, pp. 74, 440.
+
+
+But, noble as the work of these men was, the foundation of fact
+on which they reared it became evidently more and more insecure.
+For as far back as the seventeenth century acute theologians had
+begun to discern difficulties more serious than any that had
+before confronted them.  More and more it was seen that the
+number of different species was far greater than the world had
+hitherto imagined.  Greater and greater had become the old
+difficulty in conceiving that, of these innumerable species, each
+had been specially created by the Almighty hand; that each had
+been brought before Adam by the Almighty to be named; and that
+each, in couples or in sevens, had been gathered by Noah into the
+ark.  But the difficulties thus suggested were as nothing
+compared to those raised by the DISTRIBUTION of animals.
+
+Even in the first days of the Church this had aroused serious
+thought, and above all in the great mind of St. Augustine.  In
+his City of God he had stated the difficulty as follows:  "But
+there is a question about all these kinds of beasts, which are
+neither tamed by man, nor spring from the earth like frogs, such
+as wolves and others of that sort,....as to how they could find
+their way to the islands after that flood which destroyed every
+living thing not preserved in the ark....Some, indeed, might be
+thought to reach islands by swimming, in case these were very
+near; but some islands are so remote from continental lands that
+it does not seem possible that any creature could reach them by
+swimming.  It is not an incredible thing, either, that some
+animals may have been captured by men and taken with them to
+those lands which they intended to inhabit, in order that they
+might have the pleasure of hunting; and it can not be denied
+that the transfer may have been accomplished through the agency
+of angels, commanded or allowed to perform this labour by God."
+
+But this difficulty had now assumed a magnitude of which St.
+Augustine never dreamed.  Most powerful of all agencies to
+increase it were the voyages of Columbus, Vasco da Gama,
+Magellan, Amerigo Vespucci, and other navigators of the period of
+discovery.  Still more serious did it become as the great islands
+of the southern seas were explored.  Every navigator brought home
+tidings of new species of animals and of races of men living in
+parts of the world where the theologians, relying on the
+statement of St. Paul that the gospel had gone into all lands,
+had for ages declared there could be none; until finally it
+overtaxed even the theological imagination to conceive of angels,
+in obedience to the divine command, distributing the various
+animals over the earth, dropping the megatherium in South
+America, the archeopteryx in Europe, the ornithorhynchus in
+Australia, and the opossum in North America.
+
+The first striking evidence of this new difficulty was shown by
+the eminent Jesuit missionary, Joseph Acosta.  In his Natural and
+Moral History of the Indies, published in 1590, he proved
+himself honest and lucid.  Though entangled in most of the older
+scriptural views, he broke away from many; but the distribution
+of animals gave him great trouble.  Having shown the futility of
+St. Augustine's other explanations, he quaintly asks:  "Who can
+imagine that in so long a voyage men woulde take the paines to
+carrie Foxes to Peru, especially that kinde they call `Acias,'
+which is the filthiest I have seene?  Who woulde likewise say
+that they have carried Tygers and Lyons?  Truly it were a thing
+worthy the laughing at to thinke so.  It was sufficient, yea,
+very much, for men driven against their willes by tempest, in so
+long and unknowne a voyage, to escape with their owne lives,
+without busying themselves to carrie Woolves and Foxes, and to
+nourish them at sea."
+
+It was under the impression made by this new array of facts that
+in 1667 Abraham Milius published at Geneva his book on The Origin
+of Animals and the Migration of Peoples.  This book shows, like
+that of Acosta, the shock and strain to which the discovery of
+America subjected the received theological scheme of things.  It
+was issued with the special approbation of the Bishop of
+Salzburg, and it indicates the possibility that a solution of the
+whole trouble may be found in the text, "Let the earth bring
+forth the living creature after his kind."  Milius goes on to
+show that the ancient philosophers agree with Moses, and that
+"the earth and the waters, and especially the heat of the sun and
+of the genial sky, together with that slimy and putrid quality
+which seems to be inherent in the soil, may furnish the origin
+for fishes, terrestrial animals, and birds."  On the other hand,
+he is very severe against those who imagine that man can have had
+the same origin with animals.  But the subject with which Milius
+especially grapples is the DISTRIBUTION of animals.  He is
+greatly exercised by the many species found in America and in
+remote islands of the ocean--species entirely unknown in the
+other continents--and of course he is especially troubled by the
+fact that these species existing in those exceedingly remote
+parts of the earth do not exist in the neighbourhood of Mount
+Ararat.  He confesses that to explain the distribution of animals
+is the most difficult part of the problem.  If it be urged that
+birds could reach America by flying and fishes by swimming, he
+asks, "What of the beasts which neither fly nor swim?"  Yet even
+as to the birds he asks, "Is there not an infinite variety of
+winged creatures who fly so slowly and heavily, and have such a
+horror of the water, that they would not even dare trust
+themselves to fly over a wide river?"  As to fishes, he says,
+"They are very averse to wandering from their native waters," and
+he shows that there are now reported many species of American and
+East Indian fishes entirely unknown on the other continents,
+whose presence, therefore, can not be explained by any theory of
+natural dispersion.
+
+Of those who suggest that land animals may have been dispersed
+over the earth by the direct agency of man for his use or
+pleasure he asks:  "Who would like to get different sorts of
+lions, bears, tigers, and other ferocious and noxious creatures
+on board ship? who would trust himself with them? and who would
+wish to plant colonies of such creatures in new, desirable
+lands?"
+
+His conclusion is that plants and animals take their origin in
+the lands wherein they are found; an opinion which he supports
+by quoting from the two narrations in Genesis passages which
+imply generative force in earth and water.
+
+But in the eighteenth century matters had become even worse for
+the theological view.  To meet the difficulty the eminent
+Benedictine, Dom Calmet, in his Commentary, expressed the belief
+that all the species of a genus had originally formed one
+species, and he dwelt on this view as one which enabled him to
+explain the possibility of gathering all animals into the ark.
+This idea, dangerous as it was to the fabric of orthodoxy, and
+involving a profound separation from the general doctrine of the
+Church, seems to have been abroad among thinking men, for we find
+in the latter half of the same century even Linnaeus inclining to
+consider it.  It was time, indeed, that some new theological
+theory be evolved; the great Linnaeus himself, in spite of his
+famous declaration favouring the fixity of species, had dealt a
+death-blow to the old theory.  In his Systema Naturae, published
+in the middle of the eighteenth century, he had enumerated four
+thousand species of animals, and the difficulties involved in the
+naming of each of them by Adam and in bringing them together in
+the ark appeared to all thinking men more and more
+insurmountable.
+
+What was more embarrassing, the number of distinct species went
+on increasing rapidly, indeed enormously, until, as an eminent
+zoological authority of our own time has declared, "for every one
+of the species enumerated by Linnaeus, more than fifty kinds are
+known to the naturalist of to-day, and the number of species
+still unknown doubtless far exceeds the list of those recorded."
+
+Already there were premonitions of the strain made upon Scripture
+by requiring a hundred and sixty distinct miraculous
+interventions of the Creator to produce the hundred and sixty
+species of land shells found in the little island of Madeira
+alone, and fourteen hundred distinct interventions to produce the
+actual number of distinct species of a single well-known shell.
+
+Ever more and more difficult, too, became the question of the
+geographical distribution of animals.  As new explorations were
+made in various parts of the world, this danger to the
+theological view went on increasing.  The sloths in South America
+suggested painful questions:  How could animals so sluggish have
+got away from the neighbourhood of Mount Ararat so completely and
+have travelled so far?
+
+The explorations in Australia and neighbouring islands made
+matters still worse, for there was found in those regions a whole
+realm of animals differing widely from those of other parts of
+the earth.
+
+The problem before the strict theologians became, for example,
+how to explain the fact that the kangaroo can have been in the
+ark and be now only found in Australia:  his saltatory powers are
+indeed great, but how could he by any series of leaps have sprung
+across the intervening mountains, plains, and oceans to that
+remote continent? and, if the theory were adopted that at some
+period a causeway extended across the vast chasm separating
+Australia from the nearest mainland, why did not lions, tigers,
+camels, and camelopards force or find their way across it?
+
+The theological theory, therefore, had by the end of the
+eighteenth century gone to pieces.  The wiser theologians waited;
+the unwise indulged in exhortations to "root out the wicked heart
+of unbelief," in denunciation of "science falsely so called," and
+in frantic declarations that "the Bible is true"--by which they
+meant that the limited understanding of it which they had
+happened to inherit is true.
+
+By the middle of the nineteenth century the whole theological
+theory of creation--though still preached everywhere as a matter
+of form--was clearly seen by all thinking men to be hopelessly
+lost:  such strong men as Cardinal Wiseman in the Roman Church,
+Dean Buckland in the Anglican, and Hugh Miller in the Scottish
+Church, made heroic efforts to save something from it, but all to
+no purpose.  That sturdy Teutonic and Anglo-Saxon honesty, which
+is the best legacy of the Middle Ages to Christendom, asserted
+itself in the old strongholds of theological thought, the
+universities.  Neither the powerful logic of Bishop Butler nor
+the nimble reasoning of Archdeacon Paley availed.  Just as the
+line of astronomical thinkers from Copernicus to Newton had
+destroyed the old astronomy, in which the earth was the centre,
+and the Almighty sitting above the firmament the agent in moving
+the heavenly bodies about it with his own hands, so now a race of
+biological thinkers had destroyed the old idea of a Creator
+minutely contriving and fashioning all animals to suit the needs
+and purposes of man.  They had developed a system of a very
+different sort, and this we shall next consider.[18]
+
+[18] For Acosta, see his Historia Natural y moral de las Indias,
+Seville, 1590--the quaint English translation is of London, 1604;
+for Abraham Milius, see his De Origine Animalium et Migratione
+Popularum, Geneva, 1667; also Kosmos, 1877, H. I, S. 36; for
+Linnaeus's declaration regarding species, see the Philosophia
+Botanica, 99, 157; for Calmet and Linnaeus, see Zoeckler, vol.
+ii, p. 237.  As to the enormously increasing numbers of species
+in zoology and botany, see President D. S. Jordan, Science
+Sketches, pp. 176, 177; also for pithy statement, Laing's
+Problems of the Future, chap. vi.
+
+
+
+III.  THEOLOGICAL AND SCIENTIFIC THEORIES, OF AN
+EVOLUTION IN ANIMATED NATURE.
+
+
+We have seen, thus far, how there came into the thinking of
+mankind upon the visible universe and its inhabitants the idea of
+a creation virtually instantaneous and complete, and of a Creator
+in human form with human attributes, who spoke matter into
+existence literally by the exercise of his throat and lips, or
+shaped and placed it with his hands and fingers.
+
+We have seen that this view came from far; that it existed in
+the Chaldaeo-Babylonian and Egyptian civilizations, and probably
+in others of the earliest date known to us; that its main
+features passed thence into the sacred books of the Hebrews and
+then into the early Christian Church, by whose theologians it was
+developed through the Middle Ages and maintained during the
+modern period.
+
+But, while this idea was thus developed by a succession of noble
+and thoughtful men through thousands of years, another
+conception, to all appearance equally ancient, was developed,
+sometimes in antagonism to it, sometimes mingled with it--the
+conception of all living beings as wholly or in part the result
+of a growth process--of an evolution.
+
+This idea, in various forms, became a powerful factor in nearly
+all the greater ancient theologies and philosophies.  For very
+widespread among the early peoples who attained to much thinking
+power was a conception that, in obedience to the divine fiat, a
+watery chaos produced the earth, and that the sea and land gave
+birth to their inhabitants.
+
+This is clearly seen in those records of Chaldaeo-Babylonian
+thought deciphered in these latter years, to which reference has
+already been made.  In these we have a watery chaos which, under
+divine action, brings forth the earth and its inhabitants; first
+the sea animals and then the land animals--the latter being
+separated into three kinds, substantially as recorded afterward
+in the Hebrew accounts.  At the various stages in the work the
+Chaldean Creator  pronounces it "beautiful," just as the Hebrew
+Creator in our own later account pronounces it "good."
+
+In both accounts there is placed over the whole creation a solid,
+concave firmament; in both, light is created first, and the
+heavenly bodies are afterward placed "for signs and for seasons";
+in both, the number seven is especially sacred, giving rise to a
+sacred division of time and to much else.  It may be added that,
+with many other features in the Hebrew legends evidently drawn
+from the Chaldean, the account of the creation in each is
+followed by a legend regarding "the fall of man" and a deluge,
+many details of which clearly passed in slightly modified form
+from the Chaldean into the Hebrew accounts.
+
+It would have been a miracle indeed if these primitive
+conceptions, wrought out with so much poetic vigour in that
+earlier civilization on the Tigris and Euphrates, had failed to
+influence the Hebrews, who during the most plastic periods of
+their development were under the tutelage of their Chaldean
+neighbours.  Since the researches of Layard, George Smith,
+Oppert, Schrader, Jensen, Sayce, and their compeers, there is no
+longer a reasonable doubt that this ancient view of the world,
+elaborated if not originated in that earlier civilization, came
+thence as a legacy to the Hebrews, who wrought it in a somewhat
+disjointed but mainly monotheistic form into the poetic whole
+which forms one of the most precious treasures of ancient thought
+preserved in the book of Genesis.
+
+Thus it was that, while the idea of a simple material creation
+literally by the hands and fingers or voice of the Creator
+became, as we have seen, the starting-point of a powerful stream
+of theological thought, and while this stream was swollen from
+age to age by contributions from the fathers, doctors, and
+learned divines of the Church, Catholic and Protestant, there was
+poured into it this lesser current, always discernible and at
+times clearly separated from it--a current of belief in a process
+of evolution.
+
+The Rev. Prof. Sayce, of Oxford, than whom no English-speaking
+scholar carries more weight in a matter of this kind, has
+recently declared his belief that the Chaldaeo-Babylonian theory
+was the undoubted source of the similar theory propounded by the
+Ionic philosopher Anaximander--the Greek thinkers deriving this
+view from the Babylonians through the Phoenicians; he also
+allows that from the same source its main features were adopted
+into both the accounts given in the first of our sacred books,
+and in this general view the most eminent Christian
+Assyriologists concur.
+
+It is true that these sacred accounts of ours contradict each
+other.  In that part of the first or Elohistic account given in
+the first chapter of Genesis the WATERS bring forth fishes,
+marine animals, and birds (Genesis, i, 20); but in that part of
+the second or Jehovistic account given in the second chapter of
+Genesis both the land animals and birds are declared to have been
+created not out of the water, but "OUT OF THE GROUND" (Genesis,
+ii, 19).
+
+The dialectic skill of the fathers was easily equal to explaining
+away this contradiction; but the old current of thought,
+strengthened by both these legends, arrested their attention,
+and, passing through the minds of a succession of the greatest
+men of the Church, influenced theological opinion deeply, if not
+widely, for ages, in favour of an evolution theory.
+
+But there was still another ancient source of evolution ideas.
+Thoughtful men of the early civilizations which were developed
+along the great rivers in the warmer regions of the earth noted
+how the sun-god as he rose in his fullest might caused the water
+and the rich soil to teem with the lesser forms of life.  In
+Egypt, especially, men saw how under this divine power the Nile
+slime brought forth "creeping things innumerable."  Hence mainly
+this ancient belief that the animals and man were produced by
+lifeless matter at the divine command, "in the beginning," was
+supplemented by the idea that some of the lesser animals,
+especially the insects, were produced by a later evolution, being
+evoked after the original creation from various sources, but
+chiefly from matter in a state of decay.
+
+This crude, early view aided doubtless in giving germs of a
+better evolution theory to the early Greeks.  Anaximander,
+Empedocles, Anaxagoras, and, greatest of all, Aristotle, as we
+have seen, developed them, making their way at times by guesses
+toward truths since established by observation.  Aristotle
+especially, both by speculation and observation, arrived at some
+results which, had Greek freedom of thought continued, might have
+brought the world long since to its present plane of biological
+knowledge; for he reached something like the modern idea of a
+succession of higher organizations from lower, and made the
+fruitful suggestion of "a perfecting principle" in Nature.
+
+With the coming in of Christian theology this tendency toward a
+yet truer theory of evolution was mainly stopped, but the old
+crude view remained, and as a typical example of it we may note
+the opinion of St. Basil the Great in the fourth century.
+Discussing the work of creation, he declares that, at the command
+of God, "the waters were gifted with productive power"; "from
+slime and muddy places frogs, flies, and gnats came into being";
+and he finally declares that the same voice which gave this
+energy and quality of productiveness to earth and water shall be
+similarly efficacious until the end of the world.  St. Gregory
+of Nyssa held a similar view.
+
+This idea of these great fathers of the Eastern Church took even
+stronger hold on the great father of the Western Church.  For St.
+Augustine, so fettered usually by the letter of the sacred text,
+broke from his own famous doctrine as to the acceptance of
+Scripture and spurned the generally received belief of a creative
+process like that by which a toymaker brings into existence a box
+of playthings.  In his great treatise on Genesis he says:  "To
+suppose that God formed man from the dust with bodily hands is
+very childish....God neither formed man with bodily hands nor
+did he breathe upon him with throat and lips."
+
+St. Augustine then suggests the adoption of the old emanation or
+evolution theory, shows that "certain very small animals may not
+have been created on the fifth and sixth days, but may have
+originated later from putrefying matter,"  argues that, even if
+this be so, God is still their creator, dwells upon such a
+potential creation as involved in the actual creation, and speaks
+of animals "whose numbers the after-time unfolded."
+
+In his great treatise on the Trinity--the work to which he
+devoted the best thirty years of his life--we find the full
+growth of this opinion.  He develops at length the view that in
+the creation of living beings there was something like a
+growth--that God is the ultimate author, but works through
+secondary causes; and finally argues that certain substances are
+endowed by God with the power of producing certain classes of
+plants and animals.[19]
+
+[19] For the Chaldean view of creation, see George Smith,
+Chaldean Account of Genesis, New York, 1876, pp. 14,15, and 64-
+86; also Lukas, as above; also Sayce, Religion of the Ancient
+Babylonians, Hibbert Lectures for 1887, pp. 371 and elsewhere; as
+to the fall of man, Tower of Babel, sacredness of the number
+seven, etc., see also Delitzsch, appendix to the German
+translation of Smith, pp. 305 et seq.; as to the almost exact
+adoption of the Chaldean legends into the Hebrew sacred account,
+see all these, as also Schrader, Die Keilinschriften und das Alte
+Testament, Giessen, 1883, early chapters; also article Babylonia
+in the Encyclopedia Britannica; as to simialr approval of
+creation by the Creator in both accounts, see George Smith, p.
+73; as to the migration of the Babylonian legends to the Hebrews,
+see Schrader, Whitehouse's translation, pp. 44,45; as to the
+Chaldaean belief ina solid firmament, while Schrader in 1883
+thought it not proved, Jensen in 1890 has found it clearly
+expresses--see his Kosmologie der Babylonier, pp.9 et seq., also
+pp. 304-306, and elsewhere. Dr. Lukas in 1893 also fully accepts
+this view of a Chaldean record of a "firmament"--see Kosmologie,
+pp. 43, etc.; see also Maspero and Sayce, the Dawn of
+Civilization, and for crude early ideas of evolution in Egypt,
+see ibid., pp. 156 et seq.
+
+For the seven-day week among the Chaldeans and rest on the
+seventh day, and the proof that even the name "Sabbath" is of
+Chaldean origin, see Delitzsch, Beiga-ben zu Smith's Chald.
+Genesis, pp. 300 and 306; also Schrader; for St. Basil, see
+Hexaemeron and Homilies vii-ix; but for the steadfastness of
+Basil's view in regard to the immutability of species, see a
+Catholic writer on evolution and Faith in the Dublin Review for
+July, 1871, p. 13; for citations of St. Augustine on Genesis, see
+the De Genesi contra Manichoeos, lib. ii, cap. 14, in Migne,
+xxxiv, 188,--lib. v, cap. 5 and cap. 23,--and lib vii, cap I; for
+the citations from his work on the Trinity, see his De Trinitate,
+lib. iii, cap. 8 and 9, in Migne, xlii, 877, 878; for the general
+subject very fully and adequately presented, see Osborn, From the
+Greeks to Darwin, New York, 1894, chaps. ii and iii.
+
+
+This idea of a development by secondary causes apart from the
+original creation was helped in its growth by a theological
+exigency.  More and more, as the organic world was observed, the
+vast multitude of petty animals, winged creatures, and "creeping
+things" was felt to be a strain upon the sacred narrative.  More
+and more it became difficult to reconcile the dignity of the
+Almighty with his work in bringing each of these creatures before
+Adam to be named; or to reconcile the human limitations of Adam
+with his work in naming "every living creature"; or to reconcile
+the dimensions of Noah's ark with the space required for
+preserving all of them, and the food of all sorts necessary for
+their sustenance, whether they were admitted by twos, as stated
+in one scriptural account, or by sevens, as stated in the other.
+
+The inadequate size of the ark gave especial trouble.  Origen had
+dealt with it by suggesting that the cubit was six times greater
+than had been supposed.  Bede explained Noah's ability to
+complete so large a vessel by supposing that he worked upon it
+during a hundred years; and, as to the provision of food taken
+into it, he declared that there was no need of a supply for more
+than one day, since God could throw the animals into a deep sleep
+or otherwise miraculously make one day's supply sufficient; he
+also lessened the strain on faith still more by diminishing the
+number of animals taken into the ark--supporting his view upon
+Augustine's theory of the later development of insects out of
+carrion.
+
+Doubtless this theological necessity was among the main reasons
+which led St. Isidore of Seville, in the seventh century, to
+incorporate this theory, supported by St. Basil and St.
+Augustine, into his great encyclopedic work which gave materials
+for thought on God and Nature to so many generations.  He
+familiarized the theological world still further with the
+doctrine of secondary creation, giving such examples of it as
+that "bees are generated from decomposed veal, beetles from
+horseflesh, grasshoppers from mules, scorpions from crabs," and,
+in order to give still stronger force to the idea of such
+transformations, he dwells on the biblical account of
+Nebuchadnezzar, which appears to have taken strong hold upon
+medieval thought in science, and he declares that other human
+beings had been changed into animals, especially into swine,
+wolves, and owls.
+
+This doctrine of after-creations went on gathering strength
+until, in the twelfth century, Peter Lombard, in his theological
+summary, The Sentences, so powerful in moulding the thought of
+the Church, emphasized the distinction between animals which
+spring from carrion and those which are created from earth and
+water; the former he holds to have been created "potentially"
+the latter "actually."
+
+In the century following, this idea was taken up by St. Thomas
+Aquinas and virtually received from him its final form.  In the
+Summa, which remains the greatest work of medieval thought, he
+accepts the idea that certain animals spring from the decaying
+bodies of plants and animals, and declares that they are produced
+by the creative word of God either actually or virtually.  He
+develops this view by saying, "Nothing was made by God, after the
+six days of creation, absolutely new, but it was in some sense
+included in the work of the six days"; and that "even new
+species, if any appear, have existed before in certain native
+properties, just as animals are produced from putrefaction."
+
+The distinction thus developed between creation "causally" or
+"potentially," and "materially" or "formally," was made much of
+by commentators afterward.  Cornelius a Lapide spread it by
+saying that certain animals were created not "absolutely," but
+only "derivatively," and this thought was still further developed
+three centuries later by Augustinus Eugubinus, who tells us that,
+after the first creative energy had called forth land and water,
+light was made by the Almighty, the instrument of all future
+creation, and that the light called everything into existence.
+
+All this "science falsely so called," so sedulously developed by
+the master minds of the Church, and yet so futile that we might
+almost suppose that the great apostle, in a glow of prophetic
+vision, had foreseen it in his famous condemnation, seems at this
+distance very harmless indeed; yet, to many guardians of the
+"sacred deposit of doctrine" in the Church, even so slight a
+departure from the main current of thought seemed dangerous.  It
+appeared to them like pressing the doctrine of secondary causes
+to a perilous extent; and about the beginning of the seventeenth
+century we have the eminent Spanish Jesuit and theologian Suarez
+denouncing it, and declaring St. Augustine a heretic for his
+share in it.
+
+But there was little danger to the older idea just then; the
+main theological tendency was so strong that the world kept on as
+of old.  Biblical theology continued to spin its own webs out of
+its own bowels, and all the lesser theological flies continued to
+be entangled in them; yet here and there stronger thinkers broke
+loose from this entanglement and helped somewhat to disentangle
+others.[20]
+
+[20] For Bede's view of the ark and the origin of insects, see
+his Hexaemeron, i and ii; for Isidore, see the Etymologiae, xi,
+4,and xiii, 22; for Peter Lombard, see Sent., lib. ii, dist. xv,
+4 (in Migne, cxcii, 682); for St. Thomas Aquinas as to the laws
+of Nature, see Summae Theologica, i, Quaest. lxvii, art. iv; for
+his discussion on Avicenna's theory of the origin of animals, see
+ibid., i Quaest. lxxi, vol. i, pp. 1184 and 1185, of Migne's
+edit.; for his idea as to the word of God being the active
+producing principle, see ibid., i, Quaest. lxxi, art. i; for his
+remarks on species, see ibid, i, Quaest. lxxii, art. i; for his
+ideas on the necessity of the procreation of man, see ibid, i,
+Quaest. lxxii, art. i; for the origin of animals from
+putrefaction, see ibid, i, Quaest. lxxix, art. i, 3; for
+Cornelius a Lapide on the derivative creation of animals, see his
+In Genesim Comment., cap. i, cited by Mivart, Genesis of Species,
+p. 282; for a reference to Suarez's denunciation of the view of
+St. Augustine, see Huxley's Essays.
+
+
+At the close of the Middle Ages, in spite of the devotion of the
+Reformed Church to the letter of Scripture, the revival of
+learning and the great voyages gave an atmosphere in which better
+thinking on the problems of Nature began to gain strength.  On
+all sides, in every field, men were making discoveries which
+caused the general theological view to appear more and more
+inadequate.
+
+First of those who should be mentioned with reverence as
+beginning to develop again that current of Greek thought which
+the system drawn from our sacred books by the fathers and doctors
+of the Church had interrupted for more than a thousand years, was
+Giordano Bruno.  His utterances were indeed vague and
+enigmatical, but this fault may well be forgiven him, for he saw
+but too clearly what must be his reward for any more open
+statements.  His reward indeed came--even for his faulty
+utterances--when, toward the end of the nineteenth century,
+thoughtful men from all parts of the world united in erecting his
+statue on the spot where he had been burned by the Roman
+Inquisition nearly three hundred years before.
+
+After Bruno's death, during the first half of the seventeenth
+century, Descartes seemed about to take the leadership of human
+thought:  his theories, however superseded now, gave a great
+impulse to investigation then.  His genius in promoting an
+evolution doctrine as regards the mechanical formation of the
+solar system was great, and his mode of thought strengthened the
+current of evolutionary doctrine generally; but his constant
+dread of persecution, both from Catholics and Protestants, led
+him steadily to veil his thoughts and even to suppress them.  The
+execution of Bruno had occurred in his childhood, and in the
+midst of his career he had watched the Galileo struggle in all
+its stages.  He had seen his own works condemned by university
+after university under the direction of theologians, and placed
+upon the Roman Index.  Although he gave new and striking
+arguments to prove the existence of God, and humbled himself
+before the Jesuits, he was condemned by Catholics and Protestants
+alike.  Since Roger Bacon, perhaps, no great thinker had been so
+completely abased and thwarted by theological oppression.
+
+Near the close of the same century another great thinker,
+Leibnitz, though not propounding any full doctrine on evolution,
+gave it an impulse by suggesting a view contrary to the
+sacrosanct belief in the immutability of species--that is, to the
+pious doctrine that every species in the animal kingdom now
+exists as it left the hands of the Creator, the naming process by
+Adam, and the door of Noah's ark.
+
+His punishment at the hands of the Church came a few years later,
+when, in 1712, the Jesuits defeated his attempt to found an
+Academy of Science at Vienna.  The imperial authorities covered
+him with honours, but the priests--ruling in the confessionals
+and pulpits--would not allow him the privilege of aiding his
+fellow-men to ascertain God's truths revealed in Nature.
+
+Spinoza, Hume, and Kant may also be mentioned as among those
+whose thinking, even when mistaken, might have done much to aid
+in the development of a truer theory had not the theologic
+atmosphere of their times been so unpropitious; but a few years
+after Leibnitz's death came in France a thinker in natural
+science of much less influence than any of these, who made a
+decided step forward.
+
+Early in the eighteenth century Benoist de Maillet, a man of the
+world, but a wide observer and close thinker upon Nature, began
+meditating especially upon the origin of animal forms, and was
+led into the idea of the transformation of species and so into a
+theory of evolution, which in some important respects anticipated
+modern ideas.  He definitely, though at times absurdly, conceived
+the production of existing species by the modification of their
+predecessors, and he plainly accepted one of the fundamental
+maxims of modern geology--that the structure of the globe must be
+studied in the light of the present course of Nature.
+
+But he fell between two ranks of adversaries.  On one side, the
+Church authorities denounced him as a freethinker; on the other,
+Voltaire ridiculed him as a devotee.  Feeling that his greatest
+danger was from the orthodox theologians, De Maillet endeavoured
+to protect himself by disguising his name in the title of his
+book, and by so wording its preface and dedication that, if
+persecuted, he could declare it a mere sport of fancy; he
+therefore announced it as the reverie of a Hindu sage imparted to
+a Christian missionary.  But this strategy availed nothing:  he
+had allowed his Hindu sage to suggest that the days of creation
+named in Genesis might be long periods of time; and this, with
+other ideas of equally fearful import, was fatal.  Though the
+book was in type in 1735, it was not published till 1748--three
+years after his death.
+
+On the other hand, the heterodox theology of Voltaire was also
+aroused; and, as De Maillet had seen in the presence of fossils
+on high mountains a proof that these mountains were once below
+the sea, Voltaire, recognising in this an argument for the deluge
+of Noah, ridiculed the new thinker without mercy.  Unfortunately,
+some of De Maillet's vagaries lent themselves admirably to
+Voltaire's sarcasm; better material for it could hardly be
+conceived than the theory, seriously proposed, that the first
+human being was born of a mermaid.
+
+Hence it was that, between these two extremes of theology, De
+Maillet received no recognition until, very recently, the
+greatest men of science in England and France have united in
+giving him his due.  But his work was not lost, even in his own
+day; Robinet and Bonnet pushed forward victoriously on helpful
+lines.
+
+In the second half of the eighteenth century a great barrier was
+thrown across this current--the authority of Linnaeus.  He was
+the most eminent naturalist of his time, a wide observer, a close
+thinker; but the atmosphere in which he lived and moved and had
+his being was saturated with biblical theology, and this
+permeated all his thinking.
+
+He who visits the tomb of Linnaeus to-day, entering the beautiful
+cathedral of Upsala by its southern porch, sees above it, wrought
+in stone, the Hebrew legend of creation.  In a series of
+medallions, the Almighty--in human form--accomplishes the work of
+each creative day.  In due order he puts in place the solid
+firmament with the waters above it, the sun, moon, and stars
+within it, the beasts, birds, and plants below it, and finishes
+his task by taking man out of a little hillock of "the earth
+beneath," and woman out of man's side.  Doubtless Linnaeus, as he
+went to his devotions, often smiled at this childlike portrayal.
+Yet he was never able to break away from the idea it embodied.
+At times, in face of the difficulties which beset the orthodox
+theory, he ventured to favour some slight concessions.  Toward
+the end of his life he timidly advanced the hypothesis that all
+the species of one genus constituted at the creation one species;
+and from the last edition of his Systema Naturae he quietly left
+out the strongly orthodox statement of the fixity of each
+species, which he had insisted upon in his earlier works.  But he
+made no adequate declaration.  What he might expect if he openly
+and decidedly sanctioned a newer view he learned to his cost;
+warnings came speedily both from the Catholic and Protestant
+sides.
+
+At a time when eminent prelates of the older Church were
+eulogizing debauched princes like Louis XV, and using the
+unspeakably obscene casuistry of the Jesuit Sanchez in the
+education of the priesthood as to the relations of men to women,
+the modesty of the Church authorities was so shocked by
+Linnaeus's proofs of a sexual system in plants that for many
+years his writings were prohibited in the Papal States and in
+various other parts of Europe where clerical authority was strong
+enough to resist the new scientific current.  Not until 1773 did
+one of the more broad-minded cardinals--Zelanda--succeed in
+gaining permission that Prof.  Minasi should discuss the Linnaean
+system at Rome.
+
+And Protestantism was quite as oppressive.  In a letter to
+Eloius, Linnaeus tells of the rebuke given to science by one of
+the great Lutheran prelates of Sweden, Bishop Svedberg.  From
+various parts of Europe detailed statements had been sent to the
+Royal Academy of Science that water had been turned into blood,
+and well-meaning ecclesiastics had seen in this an indication of
+the wrath of God, certainly against the regions in which these
+miracles had occurred and possibly against the whole world.  A
+miracle of this sort appearing in Sweden, Linnaeus looked into it
+carefully and found that the reddening of the water was caused by
+dense masses of minute insects.  News of this explanation having
+reached the bishop, he took the field against it; he denounced
+this scientific discovery as "a Satanic abyss" (abyssum
+Satanae), and declared "The reddening of the water is NOT
+natural," and "when God allows such a miracle to take place Satan
+endeavours, and so do his ungodly, self-reliant, self-sufficient,
+and worldly tools, to make it signify nothing."  In face of this
+onslaught Linnaeus retreated; he tells his correspondent that
+"it is difficult to say anything in this matter," and shields
+himself under the statement "It is certainly a miracle that so
+many millions of creatures can be so suddenly propagated," and
+"it shows undoubtedly the all-wise power of the Infinite."
+
+The great naturalist, grown old and worn with labours for
+science, could no longer resist the contemporary theology; he
+settled into obedience to it, and while the modification of his
+early orthodox view was, as we have seen, quietly imbedded in the
+final edition of his great work, he made no special effort to
+impress it upon the world.  To all appearance he continued to
+adhere to the doctrine that all existing species had been created
+by the Almighty "in the beginning," and that since "the
+beginning" no new species had appeared.
+
+Yet even his great authority could not arrest the swelling tide;
+more and more vast became the number of species, more and more
+incomprehensible under the old theory became the newly
+ascertained facts in geographical distribution, more and more it
+was felt that the universe and animated beings had come into
+existence by some process other than a special creation "in the
+beginning," and the question was constantly pressing, "By WHAT
+process?"
+
+Throughout the whole of the eighteenth century one man was at
+work on natural history who might have contributed much toward an
+answer to this question:  this man was Buffon.  His powers of
+research and thought were remarkable, and his gift in presenting
+results of research and thought showed genius.  He had caught the
+idea of an evolution in Nature by the variation of species, and
+was likely to make a great advance with it; but he, too, was
+made to feel the power of theology.
+
+As long as he gave pleasing descriptions of animals the Church
+petted him, but when he began to deduce truths of philosophical
+import the batteries of the Sorbonne were opened upon him; he
+was made to know that "the sacred deposit of truth committed to
+the Church" was, that "in the beginning God made the heavens and
+the earth" and that "all things were made at the beginning of the
+world."  For his simple statement of truths in natural science
+which are to-day truisms, he was, as we have seen, dragged forth
+by the theological faculty, forced to recant publicly, and to
+print his recantation.  In this he announced, "I abandon
+everything in my book respecting the formation of the earth, and
+generally all which may be contrary to the narrative of
+Moses."[21]
+
+[21] For Descartes and his relation to the Copernican theory, see
+Saisset, Descartes et ses Precurseurs; also Fouillee, Descartes,
+Paris, 1893, chaps. ii and iii; also other authorities cited in
+my chapter on Astronomy; for his relation to the theory of
+evolution, see the Principes de Philosophie, 3eme partie, S 45.
+For de Maillet, see Quatrefages, Darwin et ses Precurseurs
+francais, chap i, citing D'Archiac, Paleontologie, Stratigraphie,
+vol. i; also, Perrier, La Philosophie zoologique avant Darwin,
+chap. vi; also the admirable article Evolution, by Huxley, in
+Ency. Brit.  The title of De Maillet's book is Telliamed, ou
+Entretiens d'un Philosophe indien avec un Missionaire francais
+sur la Diminution de la Mer, 1748, 1756.  For Buffon, see the
+authorities previously given, also the chapter on Geology in this
+work.  For the resistance of both Catholic and Protestant
+authorities to the Linnaean system and ideas, see Alberg, Life of
+Linnaeus, London, 1888, pp. 143-147, and 237.  As to the creation
+medallions at the Cathedral of Upsala, it is a somewhat curious
+coincidence that the present writer came upon them while visiting
+that edifice during the preparation of this chapter.
+
+
+But all this triumph of the Chaldeo-Babylonian creation legends
+which the Church had inherited availed but little.
+
+For about the end of the eighteenth century fruitful suggestions
+and even clear presentations of this or that part of a large
+evolutionary doctrine came thick and fast, and from the most
+divergent quarters.  Especially remarkable were those which came
+from Erasmus Darwin in England, from Maupertuis in France, from
+Oken in Switzerland, and from Herder, and, most brilliantly of
+all, from Goethe in Germany.
+
+Two men among these thinkers must be especially
+mentioned--Treviranus in Germany and Lamarck in France; each
+independently of the other drew the world more completely than
+ever before in this direction.
+
+From Treviranus came, in 1802, his work on biology, and in this
+he gave forth the idea that from forms of life originally simple
+had arisen all higher organizations by gradual development; that
+every living feature has a capacity for receiving modifications
+of its structure from external influences; and that no species
+had become really extinct, but that each had passed into some
+other species.  From Lamarck came about the same time his
+Researches, and a little later his Zoological Philosophy, which
+introduced a new factor into the process of evolution--the action
+of the animal itself in its efforts toward a development to suit
+new needs--and he gave as his principal conclusions the
+following:
+
+1.  Life tends to increase the volume of each living body and of
+all its parts up to a limit determined by its own necessities.
+
+2.  New wants in animals give rise to new organs.
+
+3.  The development of these organs is in proportion to their
+employment.
+
+4.  New developments may be transmitted to offspring.
+
+His well-known examples to illustrate these views, such as that
+of successive generations of giraffes lengthening their necks by
+stretching them to gather high-growing foliage, and of successive
+generations of kangaroos lengthening and strengthening their hind
+legs by the necessity of keeping themselves erect while jumping,
+provoked laughter, but the very comicality of these illustrations
+aided to fasten his main conclusion in men's memories.
+
+In both these statements, imperfect as they were, great truths
+were embodied--truths which were sure to grow.
+
+Lamarck's declaration, especially, that the development of organs
+is in ratio to their employment, and his indications of the
+reproduction in progeny of what is gained or lost in parents by
+the influence of circumstances, entered as a most effective force
+into the development of the evolution theory.
+
+The next great successor in the apostolate of this idea of the
+universe was Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire.  As early as 1795 he had
+begun to form a theory that species are various modifications of
+the same type, and this theory he developed, testing it at
+various stages as Nature was more and more displayed to him.  It
+fell to his lot to bear the brunt in a struggle against heavy
+odds which lasted many years.
+
+For the man who now took up the warfare, avowedly for science but
+unconsciously for theology, was the foremost naturalist then
+living--Cuvier.  His scientific eminence was deserved; the
+highest honours of his own and other countries were given him,
+and he bore them worthily.  An Imperial Councillor under
+Napoleon; President of the Council of Public Instruction and
+Chancellor of the University under the restored Bourbons; Grand
+Officer of the Legion of Honour, a Peer of France, Minister of
+the Interior, and President of the Council of State under Louis
+Philippe; he was eminent in all these capacities, and yet the
+dignity given by such high administrative positions was as
+nothing compared to his leadership in natural science.  Science
+throughout the world acknowledged in him its chief contemporary
+ornament, and to this hour his fame rightly continues.  But there
+was in him, as in Linnaeus, a survival of certain theological
+ways of looking at the universe and certain theological
+conceptions of a plan of creation; it must be said, too, that
+while his temperament made him distrust new hypotheses, of which
+he had seen so many born and die, his environment as a great
+functionary of state, honoured, admired, almost adored by the
+greatest, not only in the state but in the Church, his solicitude
+lest science should receive some detriment by openly resisting
+the Church, which had recaptured Europe after the French
+Revolution, and had made of its enemies its footstool--all these
+considerations led him to oppose the new theory.  Amid the
+plaudits, then, of the foremost church-men he threw across the
+path of the evolution doctrines the whole mass of his authority
+in favour of the old theory of catastrophic changes and special
+creations.
+
+Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire stoutly withstood him, braving
+non-recognition, ill-treatment, and ridicule.  Treviranus, afar
+off in his mathematical lecture-room at Bremen, seemed simply
+forgotten.
+
+But the current of evolutionary thought could not thus be
+checked:  dammed up for a time, it broke out in new channels and
+in ways and places least expected; turned away from France, it
+appeared especially in England, where great paleontologists and
+geologists arose whose work culminated in that of Lyell.
+Specialists throughout all the world now became more vigorous
+than ever, gathering facts and thinking upon them in a way which
+caused the special creation theory to shrink more and more.
+Broader and more full became these various rivulets, soon to
+unite in one great stream of thought.
+
+In 1813 Dr. Wells developed a theory of evolution by natural
+selection to account for varieties in the human race.  About 182O
+Dean Herbert, eminent as an authority in horticulture, avowed his
+conviction that species are but fixed varieties.  In 1831 Patrick
+Matthews stumbled upon and stated the main doctrine of natural
+selection in evolution; and others here and there, in Europe and
+America, caught an inkling of it.
+
+But no one outside of a circle apparently uninfluential cared for
+these things:  the Church was serene:  on the Continent it had
+obtained reactionary control of courts, cabinets, and
+universities; in England, Dean Cockburn was denouncing Mary
+Somerville and the geologists to the delight of churchmen; and
+the Rev. Mellor Brown was doing the same thing for the
+edification of dissenters.
+
+In America the mild suggestions of Silliman and his compeers were
+met by the protestations of the Andover theologians headed by
+Moses Stuart.  Neither of the great English universities, as a
+rule, took any notice of the innovators save by sneers.
+
+To this current of thought there was joined a new element when,
+in 1844, Robert Chambers published his Vestiges of Creation.
+The book was attractive and was widely read.  In Chambers's view
+the several series of animated beings, from the simplest and
+oldest up to the highest and most recent, were the result of two
+distinct impulses, each given once and for all time by the
+Creator.  The first of these was an impulse imparted to forms of
+life, lifting them gradually through higher grades; the second
+was an impulse tending to modify organic substances in accordance
+with external circumstances; in fact, the doctrine of the book
+was evolution tempered by miracle--a stretching out of the
+creative act through all time--a pious version of Lamarck.
+
+Two results followed, one mirth-provoking, the other leading to
+serious thought.  The amusing result was that the theologians
+were greatly alarmed by the book:  it was loudly insisted that it
+promoted atheism.  Looking back along the line of thought which
+has since been developed, one feels that the older theologians
+ought to have put up thanksgivings for Chambers's theory, and
+prayers that it might prove true.  The more serious result was
+that it accustomed men's minds to a belief in evolution as in
+some form possible or even probable.  In this way it was
+provisionally of service.
+
+Eight years later Herbert Spencer published an essay contrasting
+the theories of creation and evolution--reasoning with great
+force in favour of the latter, showing that species had
+undoubtedly been modified by circumstances; but still only few
+and chosen men saw the significance of all these lines of
+reasoning which had been converging during so many years toward
+one conclusion.
+
+On July 1, 1858, there were read before the Linnaean Society at
+London two papers--one presented by Charles Darwin, the other by
+Alfred Russel Wallace--and with the reading of these papers the
+doctrine of evolution by natural selection was born.  Then and
+there a fatal breach was made in the great theological barrier of
+the continued fixity of species since the creation.
+
+The story of these papers the scientific world knows by heart:
+how Charles Darwin, having been sent to the University of
+Cambridge to fit him for the Anglican priesthood, left it in 1831
+to go upon the scientific expedition of the Beagle; how for five
+years he studied with wonderful vigour and acuteness the problems
+of life as revealed on land and at sea--among volcanoes and coral
+reefs, in forests and on the sands, from the tropics to the
+arctic regions; how, in the Cape Verde and the Galapagos
+Islands, and in Brazil, Patagonia, and Australia he interrogated
+Nature with matchless persistency and skill; how he returned
+unheralded, quietly settled down to his work, and soon set the
+world thinking over its first published results, such as his book
+on Coral Reefs, and the monograph on the Cirripedia; and,
+finally, how he presented his paper, and followed it up with
+treatises which made him one of the great leaders in the history
+of human thought.
+
+The scientific world realizes, too, more and more, the power of
+character shown by Darwin in all this great career; the faculty
+of silence, the reserve of strength seen in keeping his great
+thought--his idea of evolution by natural selection--under silent
+study and meditation for nearly twenty years, giving no hint of
+it to the world at large, but working in every field to secure
+proofs or disproofs, and accumulating masses of precious material
+for the solution of the questions involved.
+
+To one man only did he reveal his thought--to Dr. Joseph Hooker,
+to whom in 1844, under the seal of secrecy, he gave a summary of
+his conclusions.  Not until fourteen years later occurred the
+event which showed him that the fulness of time had come--the
+letter from Alfred Russel Wallace, to whom, in brilliant
+researches during the decade from 1848 to 1858, in Brazil and in
+the Malay Archipelago, the same truth of evolution by natural
+selection had been revealed.  Among the proofs that scientific
+study does no injury to  the more delicate shades of sentiment is
+the well-known story of this letter.  With it Wallace sent Darwin
+a memoir, asking him to present it to the Linnaean Society:  on
+examining it, Darwin found that Wallace had independently arrived
+at conclusions similar to his own--possibly had deprived him of
+fame; but Darwin was loyal to his friend, and his friend
+remained ever loyal to him.  He publicly presented the paper from
+Wallace, with his own conclusions; and the date of this
+presentation--July 1, 1858--separates two epochs in the history,
+not merely of natural science, but of human thought.
+
+In the following year, 1859, came the first instalment of his
+work in its fuller development--his book on The Origin of
+Species.  In this book one at least of the main secrets at the
+heart of the evolutionary process, which had baffled the long
+line of investigators and philosophers from the days of
+Aristotle, was more broadly revealed.  The effective mechanism of
+evolution was shown at work in three ascertained facts:  in the
+struggle for existence among organized beings; in the survival
+of the fittest; and in heredity.  These facts were presented
+with such minute research, wide observation, patient collation,
+transparent honesty, and judicial fairness, that they at once
+commanded the world's attention.  It was the outcome of thirty
+years' work and thought by a worker and thinker of genius, but it
+was yet more than that--it was the outcome, also, of the work and
+thought of another man of genius fifty years before.  The book of
+Malthus on the Principle of Population, mainly founded on the
+fact that animals increase in a geometrical ratio, and therefore,
+if unchecked, must encumber the earth, had been generally
+forgotten, and was only recalled with a sneer.  But the genius of
+Darwin recognised in it a deeper meaning, and now the thought of
+Malthus was joined to the new current.  Meditating upon it in
+connection with his own observations of the luxuriance of Nature,
+Darwin had arrived at his doctrine of natural selection and
+survival of the fittest.
+
+As the great dogmatic barrier between the old and new views of
+the universe was broken down, the flood of new thought pouring
+over the world stimulated and nourished strong growths in every
+field of research and reasoning:  edition after edition of the
+book was called for; it was translated even into Japanese and
+Hindustani; the stagnation of scientific thought, which Buckle,
+only a few years before, had so deeply lamented, gave place to a
+widespread and fruitful activity; masses of accumulated
+observations, which had seemed stale and unprofitable, were made
+alive; facts formerly without meaning now found their
+interpretation.  Under this new influence an army of young men
+took up every promising line of scientific investigation in every
+land.  Epoch-making books appeared in all the great nations.
+Spencer, Wallace, Huxley, Galton, Tyndall, Tylor, Lubbock,
+Bagehot, Lewes, in England, and a phalanx of strong men in
+Germany, Italy, France, and America gave forth works which became
+authoritative in every department of biology.  If some of the
+older men in France held back, overawed perhaps by the authority
+of Cuvier, the younger and more vigorous pressed on.
+
+One source of opposition deserves to be especially
+mentioned--Louis Agassiz.
+
+A great investigator, an inspired and inspiring teacher, a noble
+man, he had received and elaborated a theory of animated creation
+which he could not readily change.  In his heart and mind still
+prevailed the atmosphere of the little Swiss parsonage in which
+he was born, and his religious and moral nature, so beautiful to
+all who knew him, was especially repelled by sundry
+evolutionists, who, in their zeal as neophytes, made
+proclamations seeming to have a decidedly irreligious if not
+immoral bearing.  In addition to this was the direction his
+thinking had received from Cuvier.  Both these influences
+combined to prevent his acceptance of the new view.
+
+He was the third great man who had thrown his influence as a
+barrier across the current of evolutionary thought.  Linnaeus in
+the second half of the eighteenth century, Cuvier in the first
+half, and Agassiz in the second half of the nineteenth--all made
+the same effort.  Each remains great; but not all of them
+together could arrest the current.  Agassiz's strong efforts
+throughout the United States, and indeed throughout Europe, to
+check it, really promoted it.  From the great museum he had
+founded at Cambridge, from his summer school at Penikese, from
+his lecture rooms at Harvard and Cornell, his disciples went
+forth full of love and admiration for him, full of enthusiasm
+which he had stirred and into fields which he had indicated; but
+their powers, which he had aroused and strengthened, were devoted
+to developing the truth he failed to recognise; Shaler, Verrill,
+Packard, Hartt, Wilder, Jordan, with a multitude of others, and
+especially the son who bore his honoured name, did justice to his
+memory by applying what they had received from him to research
+under inspiration of the new revelation.
+
+Still another man deserves especial gratitude and honour in this
+progress--Edward Livingston Youmans.  He was perhaps the first in
+America to recognise the vast bearings of the truths presented by
+Darwin, Wallace, and Spencer.  He became the apostle of these
+truths, sacrificing the brilliant career on which he had entered
+as a public lecturer, subordinating himself to the three leaders,
+and giving himself to editorial drudgery in the stimulation of
+research and the announcement of results.
+
+In support of the new doctrine came a world of new proofs; those
+which Darwin himself added in regard to the cross-fertilization
+of plants, and which he had adopted from embryology, led the way,
+and these were followed by the discoveries of Wallace, Bates,
+Huxley, Marsh, Cope, Leidy, Haeckel, Muller, Gaudry, and a
+multitude of others in all lands.[22]
+
+[22] For Agassiz's opposition to evolution, see the Essay on
+Classification, vol. i, 1857, as regards Lamark, and vol. iii, as
+regards Darwin; also Silliman's Journal, July 1860; also the
+Atlantic Monthly, January 1874; also his Life and Correspondence,
+vol. ii, p. 647; also Asa Gray, Scientific Papers, vol. ii, p.
+484.  A reminiscence of my own enables me to appreciate his deep
+ethical and religious feeling. I was passing the day with him at
+Nahant in 1868, consulting him regarding candidates for various
+scientific chairs at the newly established Cornell University, in
+which he took a deep interest.  As we discussed one after another
+of the candidates, he suddenly said: "Who is to be your Professor
+of Moral Philosophy?  That is a far more important position than
+all the others."
+
+
+
+IV.  THE FINAL EFFORT OF THEOLOGY.
+
+Darwin's Origin of Species had come into the theological world
+like a plough into an ant-hill.  Everywhere those thus rudely
+awakened from their old comfort and repose had swarmed forth
+angry and confused.  Reviews, sermons, books light and heavy,
+came flying at the new thinker from all sides.
+
+The keynote was struck at once in the Quarterly Review by
+Wilberforce, Bishop of Oxford.  He declared that Darwin was
+guilty of "a tendency to limit God's glory in creation"; that
+"the principle of natural selection is absolutely incompatible
+with the word of God"; that it "contradicts the revealed
+relations of creation to its Creator"; that it is "inconsistent
+with the fulness of his glory"; that it is "a dishonouring view
+of Nature"; and that there is "a simpler explanation of the
+presence of these strange forms among the works of God":  that
+explanation being--"the fall of Adam."  Nor did the bishop's
+efforts end here; at the meeting of the British Association for
+the Advancement of Science he again disported himself in the tide
+of popular applause.  Referring to the ideas of Darwin, who was
+absent on account of illness, he congratulated himself in a
+public speech that he was not descended from a monkey.  The reply
+came from Huxley, who said in substance:  "If I had to choose, I
+would prefer to be a descendant of a humble monkey rather than of
+a man who employs his knowledge and eloquence in misrepresenting
+those who are wearing out their lives in the search for truth."
+
+This shot reverberated through England, and indeed through other
+countries.
+
+The utterances of this the most brilliant prelate of the Anglican
+Church received a sort of antiphonal response from the leaders of
+the English Catholics.  In an address before the "Academia,"
+which had been organized to combat "science falsely so called,"
+Cardinal Manning declared his abhorrence of the new view of
+Nature, and described it as "a brutal philosophy--to wit, there
+is no God, and the ape is our Adam."
+
+These attacks from such eminent sources set the clerical fashion
+for several years.  One distinguished clerical reviewer, in spite
+of Darwin's thirty years of quiet labour, and in spite of the
+powerful summing up of his book, prefaced a diatribe by saying
+that Darwin "might have been more modest had he given some slight
+reason for dissenting from the views generally entertained."
+Another distinguished clergyman, vice-president of a Protestant
+institute to combat "dangerous" science, declared Darwinism "an
+attempt to dethrone God."  Another critic spoke of persons
+accepting the Darwinian views as "under the frenzied inspiration
+of the inhaler of mephitic gas," and of Darwin's argument as "a
+jungle of fanciful assumption."  Another spoke of Darwin's views
+as suggesting that "God is dead," and declared that Darwin's work
+"does open violence to everything which the Creator himself has
+told us in the Scriptures of the methods and results of his
+work."  Still another theological authority asserted:  "If the
+Darwinian theory is true, Genesis is a lie, the whole framework
+of the book of life falls to pieces, and the revelation of God to
+man, as we Christians know it, is a delusion and a snare."
+Another, who had shown excellent qualities as an observing
+naturalist, declared the Darwinian view "a huge imposture from
+the beginning."
+
+Echoes came from America.  One review, the organ of the most
+widespread of American religious sects, declared that Darwin was
+"attempting to befog and to pettifog the whole question";
+another denounced Darwin's views as "infidelity"; another,
+representing the American branch of the Anglican Church, poured
+contempt over Darwin as "sophistical and illogical," and then
+plunged into an exceedingly dangerous line of argument in the
+following words:  "If this hypothesis be true, then is the Bible
+an unbearable fiction;...then have Christians for nearly two
+thousand years been duped by a monstrous lie....Darwin requires
+us to disbelieve the authoritative word of the Creator."   A
+leading journal representing the same church took pains to show
+the evolution theory to be as contrary to the explicit
+declarations of the New Testament as to those of the Old, and
+said:  "If we have all, men and monkeys, oysters and eagles,
+developed from an original germ, then is St. Paul's grand
+deliverance--`All flesh is not the same flesh; there is one kind
+of flesh of men, another of beasts, another of fishes, and
+another of birds'--untrue."
+
+Another echo came from Australia, where Dr. Perry, Lord Bishop
+of Melbourne, in a most bitter book on Science and the Bible,
+declared that the obvious object of Chambers, Darwin, and Huxley
+is "to produce in their readers a disbelief of the Bible."
+
+Nor was the older branch of the Church to be left behind in this
+chorus.  Bayma, in the Catholic World, declared, "Mr. Darwin is,
+we have reason to believe, the mouthpiece or chief trumpeter
+of that infidel clique whose well-known object is to do away with
+all idea of a God."
+
+Worthy of especial note as showing the determination of the
+theological side at that period was the foundation of
+sacro-scientific organizations to combat the new ideas.  First to
+be noted is the "Academia," planned by Cardinal Wiseman.  In a
+circular letter the cardinal, usually so moderate and just,
+sounded an alarm and summed up by saying, "Now it is for the
+Church, which alone possesses divine certainty and divine
+discernment, to place itself at once in the front of a movement
+which threatens even the fragmentary remains of Christian belief
+in England."  The necessary permission was obtained from Rome,
+the Academia was founded, and the "divine discernment" of the
+Church was seen in the utterances which came from it, such as
+those of Cardinal Manning, which every thoughtful Catholic would
+now desire to recall, and in the diatribes of Dr. Laing, which
+only aroused laughter on all sides.  A similar effort was seen in
+Protestant quarters; the "Victoria institute" was created, and
+perhaps the most noted utterance which ever came from it was the
+declaration of its vice-president, the Rev. Walter Mitchell,
+that "Darwinism endeavours to dethrone God."[23]
+
+[23] For Wilberforce's article, see Quarterly Review, July, 1860.
+For the reply of Huxley to the bishop's speech I have relied on
+the account given in Quatrefages, who had it from Carpenter; a
+somewhat different version is given in the Life and Letters of
+Darwin.  For Cardinal Manning's attack, see Essays on Religion
+and Literature, London, 1865.  For the review articles, see the
+Quarterly already cited, and that for July, 1874; also the North
+British Review, May 1860; also, F. O. Morris's letter in the
+Record, reprinted at Glasgow, 1870; also the Addresses of Rev.
+Walter Mitchell before the Victoria Institute, London, 1867; also
+Rev. B. G. Johns, Moses not Darwin, a Sermon, March 31, 1871.
+For the earlier American attacks, see Methodist Quarterly Review,
+April 1871; The American Church Review, July and October, 1865,
+and January, 1866.  For the Australian attack, see Science and
+the Bible, by the Right Reverand Charles Perry, D. D., Bishop of
+Melbourne, London, 1869.  For Bayma, see the Catholic World, vol.
+xxvi, p.782.  For the Academia, see Essays edited by Cardinal
+Manning, above cited; and for the Victoria Institute, see
+Scientia Scientarum, by a member of the Victoria Institute,
+London, 1865.
+
+
+In France the attack was even more violent.  Fabre d'Envieu
+brought out the heavy artillery of theology, and in a long series
+of elaborate propositions demonstrated that any other doctrine
+than that of the fixity and persistence of species is absolutely
+contrary to Scripture.  The Abbe Desorges, a former Professor of
+Theology, stigmatized Darwin as a "pedant," and evolution as
+"gloomy".  Monseigneur Segur, referring to Darwin and his
+followers, went into hysterics and shrieked:  "These infamous
+doctrines have for their only support the most abject passions.
+Their father is pride, their mother impurity, their offspring
+revolutions.  They come from hell and return thither, taking with
+them the gross creatures who blush not to proclaim and accept
+them."
+
+In Germany the attack, if less declamatory, was no less severe.
+Catholic theologians vied with Protestants in bitterness.  Prof.
+Michelis declared Darwin's theory "a caricature of creation."
+Dr. Hagermann asserted that it "turned the Creator out of doors."
+
+Dr. Schund insisted that "every idea of the Holy Scriptures, from
+the first to the last page, stands in diametrical opposition to
+the Darwinian theory"; and, "if Darwin be right in his view of
+the development of man out of a brutal condition, then the Bible
+teaching in regard to man is utterly annihilated."  Rougemont in
+Switzerland called for a crusade against the obnoxious doctrine.
+Luthardt, Professor of Theology at Leipsic, declared:  "The idea
+of creation belongs to religion and not to natural science; the
+whole superstructure of personal religion is built upon the
+doctrine of creation"; and he showed the evolution theory to be
+in direct contradiction to Holy Writ.
+
+But in 1863 came an event which brought serious confusion to the
+theological camp:  Sir Charles Lyell, the most eminent of living
+geologists, a man of deeply Christian feeling and of exceedingly
+cautious temper, who had opposed the evolution theory of Lamarck
+and declared his adherence to the idea of successive creations,
+then published his work on the Antiquity of Man, and in this and
+other utterances showed himself a complete though unwilling
+convert to the fundamental ideas of Darwin.  The blow was serious
+in many ways, and especially so in two--first, as withdrawing all
+foundation in fact from the scriptural chronology, and secondly,
+as discrediting the creation theory.  The blow was not
+unexpected; in various review articles against the Darwinian
+theory there had been appeals to Lyell, at times almost piteous,
+"not to flinch from the truths he had formerly proclaimed."  But
+Lyell, like the honest man he was, yielded unreservedly to the
+mass of new proofs arrayed on the side of evolution against that
+of creation.
+
+At the same time came Huxley's Man's Place in Nature, giving new
+and most cogent arguments in favour of evolution by natural
+selection.
+
+In 1871 was published Darwin's Descent of Man.  Its doctrine had
+been anticipated by critics of his previous books, but it made,
+none the less, a great stir; again the opposing army trooped
+forth, though evidently with much less heart than before.  A few
+were very violent.  The Dublin University Magazine, after the
+traditional Hibernian fashion, charged Mr. Darwin with seeking
+"to displace God by the unerring action of vagary," and with
+being "resolved to hunt God out of the world."  But most notable
+from the side of the older Church was the elaborate answer to
+Darwin's book by the eminent French Catholic physician, Dr.
+Constantin James.  In his work, On Darwinism, or the Man-Ape,
+published at Paris in 1877, Dr. James not only refuted Darwin
+scientifically but poured contempt on his book, calling it "a
+fairy tale," and insisted that a work "so fantastic and so
+burlesque" was, doubtless, only a huge joke, like Erasmus's
+Praise of Folly, or Montesquieu's Persian Letters.  The princes
+of the Church were delighted.  The Cardinal Archbishop of Paris
+assured the author that the book had become his "spiritual
+reading," and begged him to send a copy to the Pope himself.  His
+Holiness, Pope Pius IX, acknowledged the gift in a remarkable
+letter.  He thanked his dear son, the writer, for the book in
+which he "refutes so well the aberrations of Darwinism."  "A
+system," His Holiness adds, "which is repugnant at once to
+history, to the tradition of all peoples, to exact science, to
+observed facts, and even to Reason herself, would seem to need no
+refutation, did not alienation from God and the leaning toward
+materialism, due to depravity, eagerly seek a support in all this
+tissue of fables....And, in fact, pride, after rejecting the
+Creator of all things and proclaiming man independent, wishing
+him to be his own king, his own priest, and his own God--pride
+goes so far as to degrade man himself to the level of the
+unreasoning brutes, perhaps even of lifeless matter, thus
+unconsciously confirming the Divine declaration, WHEN PRIDE
+COMETH, THEN COMETH SHAME.  But the corruption of this age, the
+machinations of the perverse, the danger of the simple, demand
+that such fancies, altogether absurd though they are,
+should--since they borrow the mask of science--be refuted by true
+science."  Wherefore the Pope thanked Dr. James for his book, "so
+opportune and so perfectly appropriate to the exigencies of our
+time," and bestowed on him the apostolic benediction.  Nor was
+this brief all.  With it there came a second, creating the author
+an officer of the Papal Order of St. Sylvester.  The cardinal
+archbishop assured the delighted physician that such a double
+honour of brief and brevet was perhaps unprecedented, and
+suggested only that in a new edition of his book he should
+"insist a little more on the relation existing between the
+narratives of Genesis and the discoveries of modern science, in
+such fashion as to convince the most incredulous of their perfect
+agreement."  The prelate urged also a more dignified title.  The
+proofs of this new edition were accordingly all submitted to His
+Eminence, and in 1882 it appeared as Moses and Darwin:  the Man
+of Genesis compared with the Man-Ape, or Religious Education
+opposed to Atheistic.  No wonder the cardinal embraced the
+author, thanking him in the name of science and religion.  "We
+have at last," he declared, "a handbook which we can safely put
+into the hands of youth."
+
+Scarcely less vigorous were the champions of English Protestant
+orthodoxy.  In an address at Liverpool, Mr. Gladstone remarked:
+"Upon the grounds of what is termed evolution God is relieved of
+the labour of creation; in the name of unchangeable laws he is
+discharged from governing the world"; and, when Herbert Spencer
+called his attention to the fact that Newton with the doctrine of
+gravitation and with the science of physical astronomy is open to
+the same charge, Mr. Gladstone retreated in the Contemporary
+Review under one of his characteristic clouds of words.  The
+Rev. Dr. Coles, in the British and Foreign Evangelical Review,
+declared that the God of evolution is not the Christian's God.
+Burgon, Dean of Chichester, in a sermon preached before the
+University of Oxford, pathetically warned the students that
+"those who refuse to accept the history of the creation of our
+first parents according to its obvious literal intention, and are
+for substituting the modern dream of evolution in its place,
+cause the entire scheme of man's salvation to collapse."  Dr.
+Pusey also came into the fray with most earnest appeals against
+the new doctrine, and the Rev. Gavin Carlyle was perfervid on
+the same side.  The Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge
+published a book by the Rev. Mr. Birks, in which the evolution
+doctrine was declared to be "flatly opposed to the fundamental
+doctrine of creation."  Even the London Times admitted a review
+stigmatizing Darwin's Descent of Man as an "utterly unsupported
+hypothesis," full of "unsubstantiated premises, cursory
+investigations, and disintegrating speculations," and Darwin
+himself as "reckless and unscientific."[24]
+
+[24] For the French theological oppostition to the Darwinian
+theory, see Pozzy, La Terre at le Recit Biblique de la Creation,
+1874, especially pp. 353, 363; also Felix Ducane, Etudes sur la
+Transformisme, 1876, especially pp. 107 to 119.  As to Fabre
+d'Envieu, see especially his Proposition xliii.  For the Abbe
+Desogres, "former Professor of Philosophy and Theology," see his
+Erreurs Modernes, Paris, 1878, pp. 677 and 595 to 598.  For
+Monseigneur Segur, see his La Foi devant la Science Moderne,
+sixth ed., Paris, 1874, pp. 23, 34, etc.  For Herbert Spencer's
+reply to Mr. Gladstone, see his study of Sociology; for the
+passage in the Dublin Review, see the issue for July, 1871. For
+the Review in the London Times, see Nature for April 20, 1871.
+For Gavin Carlyle, see The Battle of Unbelief, 1870, pp. 86 and
+171.  For the attacks by Michelis and Hagermann, see Natur und
+Offenbarung, Munster, 1861 to 1869.  For Schund, see his Darwin's
+Hypothese und ihr Verhaaltniss zu Religion und Moral, Stuttgart,
+1869.  For Luthardt, see Fundamental Truths of Christianity,
+translated by Sophia Taylor, second ed., Edinburgh, 1869.  For
+Rougemont, see his L'Homme et le Singe, Neuchatel, 1863 (also in
+German trans.).  For Constantin James, see his Mes Entretiens
+avec l'Empereur Don Pedro sur la Darwinisme, Paris, 1888, where
+the papal briefs are printed in full.  For the English attacks on
+Darwin's Descent of Man, see the Edinburgh Review July, 1871 and
+elsewhere; the Dublin Review, July, 1871; the British and Foreign
+Evangelical Review, April, 1886.  See also The Scripture Doctrine
+of Creation, by the Rev. T. R. Birks, London, 1873, published by
+the S. P. C. K.  For Dr. Pusey's attack, see his Unscience, not
+Science, adverse to Faith, 1878; also Darwin's Life and Letters,
+vol. ii, pp. 411, 412.
+
+
+But it was noted that this second series of attacks, on the
+Descent of Man, differed in one remarkable respect--so far as
+England was concerned--from those which had been made over ten
+years before on the Origin of Species.  While everything was
+done to discredit Darwin, to pour contempt upon him, and even, of
+all things in the world, to make him--the gentlest of mankind,
+only occupied with the scientific side of the problem--"a
+persecutor of Christianity," while his followers were represented
+more and more as charlatans or dupes, there began to be in the
+most influential quarters careful avoidance of the old argument
+that evolution--even by natural selection--contradicts Scripture.
+
+It began to be felt that this was dangerous ground.  The
+defection of Lyell had, perhaps, more than anything else, started
+the question among theologians who had preserved some equanimity,
+"WHAT  IF, AFTER ALL, THE DARWINIAN THEORY SHOULD PROVE TO BE
+TRUE?" Recollections of the position in which the Roman Church
+found itself after the establishment of the doctrines of
+Copernicus and Galileo naturally came into the minds of the more
+thoughtful.  In Germany this consideration does not seem to have
+occurred at quite so early a day.  One eminent Lutheran clergyman
+at Magdeburg called on his hearers to choose between Darwin and
+religion; Delitszch, in his new commentary on Genesis, attempted
+to bring science back to recognise human sin as an important
+factor in creation; Prof. Heinrich Ewald, while carefully
+avoiding any sharp conflict between the scriptural doctrine and
+evolution, comforted himself by covering Darwin and his followers
+with contempt; Christlieb, in his address before the Evangelical
+Alliance at New York in 1873, simply took the view that the
+tendencies of the Darwinian theory were "toward infidelity," but
+declined to make any serious battle on biblical grounds; the
+Jesuit, Father Pesch, in Holland, drew up in Latin, after the old
+scholastic manner, a sort of general indictment of evolution, of
+which one may say that it was interesting--as interesting as the
+display of a troop in chain armour and with cross-bows on a
+nineteenth-century battlefield.
+
+From America there came new echoes.  Among the myriad attacks on
+the Darwinian theory by Protestants and Catholics two should be
+especially mentioned.  The first of these was by Dr. Noah
+Porter, President of Yale College, an excellent scholar, an
+interesting writer, a noble man, broadly tolerant, combining in
+his thinking a curious mixture of radicalism and conservatism.
+While giving great latitude to the evolutionary teaching in the
+university under his care, he felt it his duty upon one occasion
+to avow his disbelief in it; but he was too wise a man to suggest
+any necessary antagonism between it and the Scriptures.  He
+confined himself mainly to pointing out the tendency of the
+evolution doctrine in this form toward agnosticism and pantheism.
+
+To those who knew and loved him, and had noted the genial way in
+which by wise neglect he had allowed scientific studies to
+flourish at Yale, there was an amusing side to all this.  Within
+a stone's throw of his college rooms was the Museum of
+Paleontology, in which Prof. Marsh had laid side by side, among
+other evidences of the new truth, that wonderful series of
+specimens showing the evolution of the horse from the earliest
+form of the animal, "not larger than a fox, with five toes,"
+through the whole series up to his present form and size--that
+series which Huxley declared an absolute proof of the existence
+of natural selection as an agent in evolution.  In spite of the
+veneration and love which all Yale men felt for President Porter,
+it was hardly to be expected that these particular arguments of
+his would have much permanent effect upon them when there was
+constantly before their eyes so convincing a refutation.
+
+But a far more determined opponent was the Rev. Dr. Hodge, of
+Princeton; his anger toward the evolution doctrine was bitter:
+he denounced it as thoroughly "atheistic"; he insisted that
+Christians "have a right to protest against the arraying of
+probabilities against the clear evidence of the Scriptures"; he
+even censured so orthodox a writer as the Duke of Argyll, and
+declared that the Darwinian theory of natural selection is
+"utterly inconsistent with the Scriptures," and that "an absent
+God, who does nothing, is to us no God"; that "to ignore design
+as manifested in God's creation is to dethrone God"; that "a
+denial of design in Nature is virtually a denial of God"; and
+that "no teleologist can be a Darwinian."  Even more
+uncompromising was another of the leading authorities at the same
+university--the Rev. Dr. Duffield.  He declared war not only
+against Darwin but even against men like Asa Gray, Le Conte, and
+others, who had attempted to reconcile the new theory with the
+Bible:  he insisted that "evolutionism and the scriptural account
+of the origin of man are irreconcilable"--that the Darwinian
+theory is "in direct conflict with the teaching of the apostle,
+`All scripture is given by inspiration of God'"; he pointed out,
+in his opposition to Darwin's Descent of Man and Lyell's
+Antiquity of Man, that in the Bible "the genealogical links
+which connect the Israelites in Egypt with Adam and Eve in Eden
+are explicitly given."  These utterances of Prof. Duffield
+culminated in a declaration which deserves to be cited as showing
+that a Presbyterian minister can "deal damnation round the land"
+ex cathedra in a fashion quite equal to that of popes and
+bishops.  It is as follows:  "If the development theory of the
+origin of man," wrote Dr. Duffield in the Princeton Review,
+"shall in a little while take its place--as doubtless it
+will--with other exploded scientific speculations, then they who
+accept it with its proper logical consequences will in the life
+to come have their portion with those who in this life `know not
+God and obey not the gospel of his Son.'"
+
+Fortunately, at about the time when Darwin's Descent of Man was
+published, there had come into Princeton University "deus ex
+machina" in the person of Dr. James McCosh.  Called to the
+presidency, he at once took his stand against teachings so
+dangerous to Christianity as those of Drs. Hodge, Duffield, and
+their associates.  In one of his personal confidences he has let
+us into the secret of this matter.  With that hard Scotch sense
+which Thackeray had applauded in his well-known verses, he saw
+that the most dangerous thing which could be done to Christianity
+at Princeton was to reiterate in the university pulpit, week
+after week, solemn declarations that if evolution by natural
+selection, or indeed evolution at all, be true, the Scriptures
+are false.  He tells us that he saw that this was the certain way
+to make the students unbelievers; he therefore not only checked
+this dangerous preaching but preached an opposite doctrine.  With
+him began the inevitable compromise, and, in spite of mutterings
+against him as a Darwinian, he carried the day.  Whatever may be
+thought of his general system of philosophy, no one can deny his
+great service in neutralizing the teachings of his predecessors
+and colleagues--so dangerous to all that is essential in
+Christianity.
+
+Other divines of strong sense in other parts of the country began
+to take similar ground--namely, that men could be Christians and
+at the same time Darwinians.  There appeared, indeed, here and
+there, curious discrepancies:  thus in 1873 the Monthly Religious
+Magazine of Boston congratulated its readers that the Rev. Mr.
+Burr had "demolished the evolution theory, knocking the breath of
+life out of it and throwing it to the dogs."  This amazing
+performance by the Rev. Mr. Burr was repeated in a very
+striking way by Bishop Keener before the Oecumenical Council of
+Methodism at Washington in 1891.  In what the newspapers
+described as an "admirable speech," he refuted evolution
+doctrines by saying that evolutionists had "only to make a
+journey of twelve hours from the place where he was then standing
+to find together the bones of the muskrat, the opossum, the
+coprolite, and the ichthyosaurus."  He asserted that
+Agassiz--whom the good bishop, like so many others, seemed to
+think an evolutionist--when he visited these beds near
+Charleston, declared:  "These old beds have set me crazy; they
+have destroyed the work of a lifetime."  And the Methodist
+prelate ended by saying:  "Now, gentlemen, brethren, take these
+facts home with you; get down and look at them.  This is the
+watch that was under the steam hammer--the doctrine of evolution;
+and this steam hammer is the wonderful deposit of the Ashley
+beds."  Exhibitions like these availed little.  While the good
+bishop amid vociferous applause thus made comically evident his
+belief that Agassiz was a Darwinian and a coprolite an animal,
+scientific men were recording in all parts of the world facts
+confirming the dreaded theory of an evolution by natural
+selection.  While the Rev. Mr. Burr was so loudly praised for
+"throwing Darwinism to the dogs," Marsh was completing his series
+leading from the five-toed ungulates to the horse.  While Dr.
+Tayler Lewis at Union, and Drs. Hodge and Duffield at Princeton,
+were showing that if evolution be true the biblical accounts must
+be false, the indefatigable Yale professor was showing his
+cretaceous birds, and among them Hesperornis and Ichthyornis with
+teeth.  While in Germany Luthardt, Schund, and their compeers
+were demonstrating that Scripture requires a belief in special
+and separate creations, the Archaeopteryx, showing a most
+remarkable connection between birds and reptiles, was discovered.
+
+While in France Monseigneur Segur and others were indulging in
+diatribes against "a certain Darwin," Gaudry and Filhol were
+discovering a striking series of "missing links" among the
+carnivora. In view of the proofs accumulating in favour of the
+new evolutionary hypothesis, the change in the tone of
+controlling theologians was now rapid.  From all sides came
+evidences of desire to compromise with the theory.  Strict
+adherents of the biblical text pointed significantly to the
+verses in Genesis in which the earth and sea were made to bring
+forth birds and fishes, and man was created out of the dust of
+the ground.  Men of larger mind like Kingsley and Farrar, with
+English and American broad churchmen generally, took ground
+directly in Darwin's favour.  Even Whewell took pains to show
+that there might be such a thing as a Darwinian argument for
+design in Nature; and the Rev. Samuel Houghton, of the Royal
+Society, gave interesting suggestions of a divine design in
+evolution.
+
+Both the great English universities received the new teaching as
+a leaven:  at Oxford, in the very front of the High Church party
+at Keble College, was elaborated a statement that the evolution
+doctrine is "an advance in our theological thinking."  And
+Temple, Bishop of London, perhaps the most influential thinker
+then in the Anglican episcopate, accepted the new revelation in
+the following words:  "It seems something more majestic, more
+befitting him to whom a thousand years are as one day, thus to
+impress his will once for all on his creation, and provide for
+all the countless varieties by this one original impress, than by
+special acts of creation to be perpetually modifying what he had
+previously made."
+
+In Scotland the Duke of Argyll, head and front of the orthodox
+party, dissenting in many respects from Darwin's full
+conclusions, made concessions which badly shook the old position.
+
+Curiously enough, from the Roman Catholic Church, bitter as some
+of its writers had been, now came argument to prove that the
+Catholic faith does not prevent any one from holding the
+Darwinian theory, and especially a declaration from an authority
+eminent among American Catholics--a declaration which has a very
+curious sound, but which it would be ungracious to find fault
+with--that "the doctrine of evolution is no more in opposition to
+the doctrine of the Catholic Church than is the Copernican theory
+or that of Galileo."
+
+Here and there, indeed, men of science like Dawson, Mivart, and
+Wigand, in view of theological considerations, sought to make
+conditions; but the current was too strong, and eminent
+theologians in every country accepted natural selection as at
+least a very important part in the mechanism of evolution.
+
+At the death of Darwin it was felt that there was but one place
+in England where his body should be laid, and that this place was
+next the grave of Sir Isaac Newton in Westminster Abbey.  The
+noble address of Canon Farrar at his funeral was echoed from many
+pulpits in Europe and America, and theological opposition as such
+was ended.  Occasionally appeared, it is true, a survival of the
+old feeling:  the Rev. Dr. Laing referred to the burial of
+Darwin in Westminster Abbey as "a proof that England is no longer
+a Christian country," and added that this burial was a
+desecration--that this honour was given him because he had been
+"the chief promoter of the mock doctrine of evolution of the
+species and the ape descent of man."
+
+Still another of these belated prophets was, of all men, Thomas
+Carlyle.  Soured and embittered, in the same spirit which led him
+to find more heroism in a marauding Viking or in one of Frederick
+the Great's generals than in Washington, or Lincoln, or Grant,
+and which caused him to see in the American civil war only the
+burning out of a foul chimney, he, with the petulance natural to
+a dyspeptic eunuch, railed at Darwin as an "apostle of dirt
+worship."
+
+The last echoes of these utterances reverberated between Scotland
+and America.  In the former country, in 1885, the Rev. Dr. Lee
+issued a volume declaring that, if the Darwinian view be true,
+"there is no place for God"; that "by no method of
+interpretation can the language of Holy Scripture be made wide
+enough to re-echo the orang-outang theory of man's natural
+history"; that "Darwinism reverses the revelation of God" and
+"implies utter blasphemy against the divine and human character
+of our Incarnate Lord"; and he was pleased to call Darwin and his
+followers "gospellers of the gutter."  In one of the intellectual
+centres of America the editor of a periodical called The
+Christian urged frantically that "the battle be set in array, and
+that men find out who is on the Lord's side and who is on the
+side of the devil and the monkeys."
+
+To the honour of the Church of England it should be recorded that
+a considerable number of her truest men opposed such utterances
+as these, and that one of them--Farrar, Archdeacon of
+Westminster--made a protest worthy to be held in perpetual
+remembrance.  While confessing his own inability to accept fully
+the new scientific belief, he said:  "We should consider it
+disgraceful and humiliating to try to shake it by an ad
+captandum argument, or by a clap-trap platform appeal to the
+unfathomable ignorance and unlimited arrogance of a prejudiced
+assembly.  We should blush to meet it with an anathema or a
+sneer."
+
+All opposition had availed nothing; Darwin's work and fame were
+secure.  As men looked back over his beautiful life--simple,
+honest, tolerant, kindly--and thought upon his great labours in
+the search for truth, all the attacks faded into nothingness.
+
+There were indeed some dark spots, which as time goes on appear
+darker.  At Trinity College, Cambridge, Whewell, the
+"omniscient," author of the History of the Inductive Sciences,
+refused to allow a copy of the Origin of Species to be placed in
+the library.  At multitudes of institutions under theological
+control--Protestant as well as Catholic--attempts were made to
+stamp out or to stifle evolutionary teaching.  Especially was
+this true for a time in America, and the case of the American
+College at Beyrout, where nearly all the younger professors were
+dismissed for adhering to Darwin's views, is worthy of
+remembrance.  The treatment of Dr. Winchell at the Vanderbilt
+University in Tennessee showed the same spirit; one of the
+truest of men, devoted to science but of deeply Christian
+feeling, he was driven forth for views which centred in the
+Darwinian theory.
+
+Still more striking was the case of Dr. Woodrow.  He had, about
+1857, been appointed to a professorship of Natural Science as
+connected with Revealed Religion, in the Presbyterian Seminary at
+Columbia, South Carolina.  He was a devoted Christian man, and
+his training had led him to accept the Presbyterian standards of
+faith.  With great gifts for scientific study he visited Europe,
+made a most conscientious examination of the main questions under
+discussion, and adopted the chief points in the doctrine of
+evolution by natural selection.  A struggle soon began.  A
+movement hostile to him grew more and more determined, and at
+last, in spite of the efforts made in his behalf by the directors
+of the seminary and by a large and broad-minded minority in the
+representative bodies controlling it, an orthodox storm, raised
+by the delegates from various Presbyterian bodies, drove him from
+his post.  Fortunately, he was received into a professorship at
+the University of South Carolina, where he has since taught with
+more power than ever before.
+
+This testimony to the faith by American provincial Protestantism
+was very properly echoed from Spanish provincial Catholicism.  In
+the year 1878 a Spanish colonial man of science, Dr. Chil y
+Marango, published a work on the Canary Islands.  But Dr. Chil
+had the imprudence to sketch, in his introduction, the modern
+hypothesis of evolution, and to exhibit some proofs, found in the
+Canary Islands, of the barbarism of primitive man.  The
+ecclesiastical authorities, under the lead of Bishop Urquinaona y
+Bidot, at once grappled with this new idea.  By a solemn act they
+declared it "falsa, impia, scandalosa"; all persons possessing
+copies of the work were ordered to surrender them at once to the
+proper ecclesiastics, and the author was placed under the major
+excommunication.
+
+But all this opposition may be reckoned among the last expiring
+convulsions of the old theologic theory.  Even from the new
+Catholic University at Washington has come an utterance in favour
+of the new doctrine, and in other universities in the Old World
+and in the New the doctrine of evolution by natural selection has
+asserted its right to full and honest consideration.  More than
+this, it is clearly evident that the stronger men in the Church
+have, in these latter days, not only relinquished the struggle
+against science in this field, but have determined frankly and
+manfully to make an alliance with it.  In two very remarkable
+lectures given in 1892 at the parish church of Rochdale, Wilson,
+Archdeacon of Manchester, not only accepted Darwinism as true,
+but wrought it with great argumentative power into a higher view
+of Christianity; and what is of great significance, these
+sermons were published by the same Society for the Promotion of
+Christian Knowledge which only a few years before had published
+the most bitter attacks against the Darwinian theory.  So, too,
+during the year 1893, Prof. Henry Drummond, whose praise is in
+all the dissenting churches, developed a similar view most
+brilliantly in a series of lectures delivered before the American
+Chautauqua schools, and published in one of the most widespread
+of English orthodox newspapers.
+
+Whatever additional factors may be added to natural
+selection--and Darwin himself fully admitted that there might be
+others--the theory of an evolution process in the formation of
+the universe and of animated nature is established, and the old
+theory of direct creation is gone forever.  In place of it
+science has given us conceptions far more noble, and opened the
+way to an argument for design infinitely more beautiful than any
+ever developed by theology.[24]
+
+[24] For the causes of bitterness shown regarding the Darwinian
+hypothesis, see Reusch, Bibel und Natur, vol. ii, pp. 46 et seq.
+For hostility in the United States regarding the Darwinian
+theory, see, among a multitude of writers, the following: Dr.
+Charles Hodge, of Princeton, monograph, What is Darwinism?  New
+York, 1874; also his Systematic Theology, New York, 1872,vol. ii,
+part 2, Anthropology; also The Light by which we see Light, or
+Nature and the Scriptures, Vedder Lectures, 1875, Rutgers
+College, New York, 1875; also Positivism and Evolutionism, in the
+American Catholic Quarterly, October 1877, pp. 607, 619; and in
+the same number, Professor Huxley and Evolution, by Rev. A. M.
+Kirsch, pp. 662, 664; The Logic of Evolution, by Prof. Edward F.
+X. McSweeney, D. D., July, 1879, p. 561; Das Hexaemeron und die
+Geologie, von P. Eirich, Pastor in Albany, N. Y., Lutherischer
+Concordia-Verlag, St. Louis, Mo., 1878, pp. 81, 82, 84, 92-94;
+Evolutionism respecting Man and the Bible, by John T. Duffield,
+of Princeton, January, 1878, Princeton Review, pp. 151, 153, 154,
+158, 159, 160, 188; a Lecture on Evolution , before the
+Nineteenth Century Club of New York, May 25, 1886, by ex-
+President Noah Porter, pp. 4, 26-29.  For the laudatory notice of
+the Rev. E. F. Burr's demolition of evolution in his book Pater
+Mundi, see Monthly Religious Magazine, Boston, May, 1873, p. 492.
+Concerning the removal of Dr. James Woodrow, Professor of Natural
+Science in the Columbia Theological Seminary, see Evolution or
+Not, in the New York Weekly Sun, October 24, 1888.  For the
+dealings of Spanish ecclesiastics with Dr. Chil and his Darwinian
+exposition, see the Revue d'Anthropologie, cited in the Academy
+for April 6, 1878; see also the Catholic World, xix, 433, A
+Discussion with an Infidel, directed against Dr. Louis Buchner
+and his Kraft und Stoff; also Mind and Matter, by Rev. james
+Tait, of Canada, p. 66 (in the third edition the author bemoans
+the "horrible plaudits" that "have accompanied every effort to
+establish man's brutal descent"); also The Church Journal, New
+York, May 28, 1874.  For the effort in favour of a teleological
+evolution, see Rev. Samuel Houghton, F. R. S., Principles of
+Animal Mechanics, London, 1873, preface and p. 156 and elsewhere.
+For the details of the persecutions of Drs. Winchell and Woodrow,
+and of the Beyrout professors, with authorities cited, see my
+chapter on The Fall of Man and Anthropology.  For more liberal
+views among religious thinkers regarding the Darwinian theory,
+and for efforts to mitigate and adapt it to theological views,
+see, among the great mass of utterances, the following: Charles
+Kingsley's letters to Darwin, November 18, 1859, in  Darwin's
+Life and Letters, vol. ii, p. 82; Adam Sedgwick to Charles
+Darwin, December 24, 1859, see ibid., vol. ii, pp. 356-359; the
+same to Miss Gerard, January 2, 1860, see Sedgewick's Life and
+Letters, vol. ii, pp. 359, 360; the same in The Spectator,
+London, March 24, 1860; The Rambler, March 1860, cited by Mivart,
+Genesis of Species, p. 30; The Dublin Review, May, 1860; The
+Christian Examiner, May, 1860; Charles Kingsley to F. D. Maurice
+in 1863, in Kingsley's Life, vol. ii, p. 171; Adam Sedgwick to
+Livingstone (the explorer), March 16, 1865, in Life and Letters
+of Sedgwick, vol. ii, pp. 410-412; the Duke of Argyll, The Reign
+of Law, New York, pp. 16, 18, 31, 116, 117, 120, 159; Joseph P.
+Thompson, D. D., LL.D., Man in Genesis and Geology, New York,
+1870, pp. 48, 49, 82; Canon H. P. Liddon, Sermons preached before
+the University of Oxford, 1871, Sermon III; St. George Mivart,
+Evolution and its Consequences, Contemporary Review, Jan. 1872;
+British and Foreign Evangelical Review, 1872, article on The
+Theory of Evolution; The Lutheran Quarterly, Gettysburg, Pa.,
+April, 1872, article by Rev. Cyrus Thomas, Assistant United
+States Geological Survey on The Descent of Man, pp. 214, 239,
+372-376; The Lutheran Quarterly, July, 1873, article on Some
+Assumptions against Christianity, by Rev. C. A. Stork, Baltimore,
+Md., pp. 325, 326; also, in the same number, see a review of Dr.
+Burr's Pater Mundi, pp. 474, 475, and contrast with the review in
+the Andover Review of that period; an article in the Religious
+Magazine and Monthly Review, Boston, on Religion and Evolution,
+by Rev. S. R. Calthrop, September, 1873, p. 200; The Popular
+Science Monthly, January, 1874, article Genesis, Geology, and
+Evolution; article by Asa Gray, Nature, London, June 4, 1874;
+Materialism, by Rev. W. Streissguth, Lutheran Quarterly, July,
+1875, originally written in German, and translated by J. G.
+Morris, D. D., pp. 406, 408; Darwinismus und Christenthum, von R.
+Steck, Ref. Pfarrer in Dresden, Berlin, 1875, pp. 5,6,and 26,
+reprinted from the Protestantische Kirchenzeitung, and issued as
+a tract by the Protestantenverein; Rev. W. E. Adams, article in
+the Lutheran Quarterly, April, 1879, on Evolution: Shall it be
+Atheistic?  John Wood, Bible Anticipations of Modern Science,
+1880, pp. 18, 19, 22; Lutheran Quarterly, January, 1881, Some
+Postulates of the New Ethics, by Rev. C. A. Stork, D. D.;
+Lutheran Quarterly, January, 1882, The Religion of Evolution as
+against the Religion of Jesus, by Prof. W. H. Wynn, Iowa State
+Agricultural College--this article was republished as a pamphlet;
+Canon Liddon, prefatory note to sermon on The Recovery of St.
+Thomas, pp. 4, 11, 12, 13, and 26, preached in St. Paul's
+Cathedral, April 23, 1882; Lutheran Quarterly, January 1882,
+Evolution and the Scripture, by Rev. John A. Earnest, pp. 101,
+105; Glimpses in the Twilight, by Rev. F. G. Lee, D. D.,
+Edinburgh, 1885, especially pp. 18 and 19; the Hibbert Lectures
+for 1883, by Rev. Charles Beard, pp. 392, 393, et seq.; F. W.
+Farrar, D. D., Canon of Westminster, The History of
+Interpretation, being the Bampton Lectures for 1885, pp. 426,
+427; Bishop Temple, Bampton Lectures, pp. 184-186; article
+Evolution in the Dictionary of Religion, edited by Rev. William
+Benham, 1887; Prof. Huxley, An Episcopal Trilogy, Nineteenth
+Century, November, 1887--this article discusses three sermons
+delivered by the bishops of Carlisle, Bedford, and Manchester, in
+Manchester Cathedral, during the meeting of the British
+Association, September, 1887--these sermons were afterward
+published in pamphlet form under the title The Advance of
+Science; John Fiske, Darwinism, and Other Essays, Boston, 1888;
+Harriet Mackenzie, Evolution illuminating the Bible, London,
+1891, dedicated to Prof. Huxley; H. E. Rye, Hulsean Professor of
+Divinity at Cambridge, The Early Narratives of Genesis, London,
+1892, preface, pp. vii-ix, pp. 7, 9, 11; Rev. G. M. Searle, of
+the Catholic University, Washington, article in the Catholic
+World, November, 1892, pp. 223, 227, 229, 231; for the statement
+from Keble College, see Rev. Mr. Illingworth, in Lux Mundi.  For
+Bishop Temple, see citation in Laing.  For a complete and
+admirable acceptance of the evolutionary theory as lifting
+Christian doctrine and practice to a higher plane, with
+suggestions for a new theology, see two Sermons by Archdeacon
+Wilson, of Manchester, S. P. C. K.. London, and Young & Co., New
+York, 1893; and for a characteristically lucid statement of the
+most recent development of evolution doctrines, and the relations
+of Spencer, Weismann, Galton, and others to them, see Lester F.
+Ward's Address as President of the Biological Society,
+Washington, 1891; also, recent articles in the leading English
+reviews.  For a brilliant glorification of evolution by natural
+selection as a doctrine necessary to thenhighest and truest view
+of Christianity, see Prof. Drummond's Chautaqua Lectures,
+published in the British Weekly, London, from April 20 to May 11,
+1893.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+GEOGRAPHY.
+
+I.  THE FORM OF THE EARTH.
+
+Among various rude tribes we find survivals of a primitive idea
+that the earth is a flat table or disk, ceiled, domed, or
+canopied by the sky, and that the sky rests upon the mountains as
+pillars.  Such a belief is entirely natural; it conforms to the
+appearance of things, and hence at a very early period entered
+into various theologies.
+
+In the civilizations of Chaldea and Egypt it was very fully
+developed.  The Assyrian inscriptions deciphered in these latter
+years represent the god Marduk as in the beginning creating the
+heavens and the earth:  the earth rests upon the waters; within
+it is the realm of the dead; above it is spread "the
+firmament"--a solid dome coming down to the horizon on all sides
+and resting upon foundations laid in the "great waters" which
+extend around the earth.
+
+On the east and west sides of this domed firmament are doors,
+through which the sun enters in the morning and departs at night;
+above it extends another ocean, which goes down to the ocean
+surrounding the earth at the horizon on all sides, and which is
+supported and kept away from the earth by the firmament.  Above
+the firmament and the upper ocean which it supports is the
+interior of heaven.
+
+The Egyptians considered the earth as a table, flat and oblong,
+the sky being its ceiling--a huge "firmament" of metal.  At the
+four corners of the earth were the pillars supporting this
+firmament, and on this solid sky were the "waters above the
+heavens."  They believed that, when chaos was taking form, one of
+the gods by main force raised the waters on high and spread them
+out over the firmament; that on the under side of this solid
+vault, or ceiling, or firmament, the stars were suspended to
+light the earth, and that the rains were caused by the letting
+down of the waters through its windows.  This idea and others
+connected with it seem to have taken strong hold of the Egyptian
+priestly caste, entering into their theology and sacred science:
+ceilings of great temples, with stars, constellations, planets,
+and signs of the zodiac figured upon them, remain to-day as
+striking evidences of this.
+
+In Persia we have theories of geography based upon similar
+conceptions and embalmed in sacred texts.
+
+From these and doubtless from earlier sources common to them all
+came geographical legacies to the Hebrews.  Various passages in
+their sacred books, many of them noble in conception and
+beautiful in form, regarding "the foundation of the earth upon
+the waters," "the fountains of the great deep," "the compass upon
+the face of the depth," the "firmament," the "corners of the
+earth," the "pillars of heaven," the "waters above the
+firmament," the "windows of heaven," and "doors of heaven," point
+us back to both these ancient springs of thought.[25]
+
+[25] For survivals of the early idea, among the Eskimos, of the
+sky as supported by mountains, and, among sundry Pacific
+islanders, of the sky as a firmament or vault of stone, see
+Tylor, Early History of Mankind, second edition, London, 1870,
+chap. xi; Spencer, Sociology, vol. i, chap vii, also Andrew Lang,
+La Mythologie, Paris, 1886, pp. 68-73.  For the Babylonian
+theories, see George Smith's Chaldean Genesis, and especially the
+German translation by Delitzsch, Leipsic, 1876; also, Jensen, Die
+Kosmogonien der Babylonier, Strasburg, 1890; see especially in
+the appendices, pp. 9 and 10, a drawing representing the whole
+Babylonian scheme so closely followed in the Hebrew book Genesis.
+See also Lukas, Die Grundbegriffe in den Kosmogonien der alten
+Volker, Leipsic, 1893, for a most thorough summing up of the
+whole subject, with texts showing the development of Hebrew out
+of Chaldean and Egyptian conceptions, pp. 44, etc.; also pp. 127
+et seq. For the early view in India and Persia, see citations
+from the Vedas and the Zend-Avesta in Lethaby, Architecture,
+Mysticism, and Myth, chap. i.  For the Egyptian view, see
+Champollion; also Lenormant, Histoire Ancienne, Maspero, and
+others.  As to the figures of the heavens upon the ceilings of
+Egyptian temples, see Maspero, Archeologie Egyptienne, Paris,
+1890; and for engravings of them, see Lepsius, Denkmaler, vol. i,
+Bl. 41, and vol. ix, Abth. iv, Bl. 35; also the Description de
+l'Egypte, published by order of Napoleon, tome ii, Pl. 14; also
+Prisse d'Avennes, Art Egyptien, Atlas, tome i, Pl. 35; and
+especially for a survival at the Temple of Denderah, see Denon,
+Voyage en Egypte, Planches 129, 130.  For the Egyptian idea of
+"pillars of heaven," as alluded to on the stele of victory of
+Thotmes III,in the Cairo Museum, see Ebers, Uarda, vol. ii,p.
+175, note, Leipsic, 1877.  For a similar Babylonian belief, see
+Sayce's Herodotus, Appendix, p. 403.  For the belief of Hebrew
+scriptural writers in a solid "firmament," see especially Job,
+xxxviii, 18; also Smith's Bible Dictionary.  For engravings
+showing the earth and heaven above it as conceived by Egyptians
+and Chaldeans, with "pillars of heaven" and "firmament," see
+Maspero and Sayce, Dawn of Civilization, London, 1894, pp. 17 and
+543.
+
+
+But, as civilization was developed, there were evolved,
+especially among the Greeks, ideas of the earth's sphericity.
+The Pythagoreans, Plato, and Aristotle especially cherished them.
+These ideas were vague, they were mixed with absurdities, but
+they were germ ideas, and even amid the luxuriant growth of
+theology in the early Christian Church these germs began
+struggling into life in the minds of a few thinking men, and
+these men renewed the suggestion that the earth is a globe.[26]
+
+[26] The agency of the Pythagoreans in first spreading the
+doctrine of the earth's sphericity is generally acknowledged, but
+the first full and clear utterance of it to the world was by
+Aristotle.  Very fruitful, too, was the statement of the new
+theory given by Plato in the Timaeus; see Jowett's translation,
+62, c.  Also the Phaedo, pp.449 et seq.  See also Grote on
+Plato's doctrine on the sphericity of the earth; also Sir G. C.
+Lewis's Astronomy of the Ancients, London, 1862, chap. iii,
+section i, and note.  Cicero's mention of the antipodes, and his
+reference to the passage in the Timaeus, are even more remarkable
+than the latter, in that they much more clearly foreshadow the
+modern doctrine.  See his Academic Questions, ii; also Tusc.
+Quest., i and v, 24.  For a very full summary of the views of the
+ancients on the sphericity of the earth, see Kretschmer, Die
+physische Erkunde im christlichen Mittelalter, Wien, 1889, pp. 35
+et seq.; also Eiken, Geschichte der mittelalterlichen
+Weltanschauung, Stuttgart, 1887, Dritter Theil, chap. vi.  For
+citations and summaries, see Whewell, Hist. Induct. Sciences,
+vol. i, p. 189, and St. Martin, Hist. de la Geog., Paris, 1873,
+p. 96; also Leopardi, Saggio sopra gli errori popolari degli
+antichi, Firenze, 1851, chap. xii, pp. 184 et seq.
+
+
+A few of the larger-minded fathers of the Church, influenced
+possibly by Pythagorean traditions, but certainly by Aristotle
+and Plato, were willing to accept this view, but the majority of
+them took fright at once.  To them it seemed fraught with dangers
+to Scripture, by which, of course, they meant their
+interpretation of Scripture.  Among the first who took up arms
+against it was Eusebius.  In view of the New Testament texts
+indicating the immediately approaching, end of the world, he
+endeavoured to turn off this idea by bringing scientific studies
+into contempt.  Speaking of investigators, he said, "It is not
+through ignorance of the things admired by them, but through
+contempt of their useless labour, that we think little of these
+matters, turning our souls to better things."  Basil of Caesarea
+declared it "a matter of no interest to us whether the earth is a
+sphere or a cylinder or a disk, or concave in the middle like a
+fan."  Lactantius referred to the ideas of those studying
+astronomy as "bad and senseless," and opposed the doctrine of the
+earth's sphericity both from Scripture and reason.  St. John
+Chrysostom also exerted his influence against this scientific
+belief; and Ephraem Syrus, the greatest man of the old Syrian
+Church, widely known as the "lute of the Holy Ghost," opposed it
+no less earnestly.
+
+But the strictly biblical men of science, such eminent fathers
+and bishops as Theophilus of Antioch in the second century, and
+Clement of Alexandria in the third, with others in centuries
+following, were not content with merely opposing what they
+stigmatized as an old heathen theory; they drew from their
+Bibles a new Christian theory, to which one Church authority
+added one idea and another, until it was fully developed.  Taking
+the survival of various early traditions, given in the seventh
+verse of the first chapter of Genesis, they insisted on the clear
+declarations of Scripture that the earth was, at creation, arched
+over with a solid vault, "a firmament," and to this they added
+the passages from Isaiah and the Psalms, in which it declared
+that the heavens are stretched out "like a curtain," and again
+"like a tent to dwell in."  The universe, then, is like a house:
+the earth is its ground floor, the firmament its ceiling, under
+which the Almighty hangs out the sun to rule the day and the moon
+and stars to rule the night.  This ceiling is also the floor of
+the apartment above, and in this is a cistern, shaped, as one of
+the authorities says, "like a bathing-tank," and containing "the
+waters which are above the firmament."  These waters are let down
+upon the earth by the Almighty and his angels through the
+"windows of heaven."  As to the movement of the sun, there was a
+citation of various passages in Genesis, mixed with metaphysics
+in various proportions, and this was thought to give ample proofs
+from the Bible that the earth could not be a sphere.[27]
+
+[27] For Eusebius, see the Proep. Ev., xv, 61.  For Basil, see
+the Hexaemeron, Hom. ix.  For Lactantius, see his Inst. Div.,
+lib. iii, cap. 3; also citations in Whewell, Hist. Induct.
+Sciences, London, 1857, vol. i, p. 194, and in St. Martin,
+Histoire de la Geographie, pp. 216, 217.  For the views of St.
+John Chrysostom, Ephraem Syrus, and other great churchmen, see
+Kretschmer as above, chap i.
+
+
+In the sixth century this development culminated in what was
+nothing less than a complete and detailed system of the universe,
+claiming to be based upon Scripture, its author being the
+Egyptian monk Cosmas Indicopleustes.  Egypt was a great
+treasure-house of theologic thought to various religions of
+antiquity, and Cosmas appears to have urged upon the early Church
+this Egyptian idea of the construction of the world, just as
+another Egyptian ecclesiastic, Athanasius, urged upon the Church
+the Egyptian idea of a triune deity ruling the world.  According
+to Cosmas, the earth is a parallelogram, flat, and surrounded by
+four seas.  It is four hundred days' journey long and two hundred
+broad.  At the outer edges of these four seas arise massive walls
+closing in the whole structure and supporting the firmament or
+vault of the heavens, whose edges are cemented to the walls.
+These walls inclose the earth and all the heavenly bodies.
+
+The whole of this theologico-scientific structure was built most
+carefully and, as was then thought, most scripturally.  Starting
+with the expression applied in the ninth chapter of Hebrews to
+the tabernacle in the desert, Cosmas insists, with other
+interpreters of his time, that it gives the key to the whole
+construction of the world.  The universe is, therefore, made on
+the plan of the Jewish tabernacle--boxlike and oblong.  Going
+into details, he quotes the sublime words of Isaiah:  "It is He
+that sitteth upon the circle of the earth;...that stretcheth out
+the heavens like a curtain, and spreadeth them out like a tent to
+dwell in"; and the passage in Job which speaks of the "pillars of
+heaven."  He works all this into his system, and reveals, as he
+thinks, treasures of science.
+
+This vast box is divided into two compartments, one above the
+other.  In the first of these, men live and stars move; and it
+extends up to the first solid vault, or firmament, above which
+live the angels, a main part of whose business it is to push and
+pull the sun and planets to and fro.  Next, he takes the text,
+"Let there be a firmament in the midst of the waters, and let it
+divide the waters from the waters," and other texts from Genesis;
+to these he adds the text from the Psalms, "Praise him, ye heaven
+of heavens, and ye waters that be above the heavens" then casts
+all, and these growths of thought into his crucible together,
+finally brings out the theory that over this first vault is a
+vast cistern containing "the waters."  He then takes the
+expression in Genesis regarding the "windows of heaven" and
+establishes a doctrine regarding the regulation of the rain, to
+the effect that the angels not only push and pull the heavenly
+bodies to light the earth, but also open and close the heavenly
+windows to water it.
+
+To understand the surface of the earth, Cosmas, following the
+methods of interpretation which Origen and other early fathers of
+the Church had established, studies the table of shew-bread in
+the Jewish tabernacle.  The surface of this table proves to him
+that the earth is flat, and its dimensions prove that the earth
+is twice as long as broad; its four corners symbolize the four
+seasons; the twelve loaves of bread, the twelve months; the
+hollow about the table proves that the ocean surrounds the earth.
+To account for the movement of the sun, Cosmas suggests that at
+the north of the earth is a great mountain, and that at night the
+sun is carried behind this; but some of the commentators
+ventured to express a doubt here:  they thought that the sun was
+pushed into a pit at night and pulled out in the morning.
+
+Nothing can be more touching in its simplicity than Cosmas's
+summing up of his great argument, He declares, "We say therefore
+with Isaiah that the heaven embracing the universe is a vault,
+with Job that it is joined to the earth, and with Moses that the
+length of the earth is greater than its breadth."  The treatise
+closes with rapturous assertions that not only Moses and the
+prophets, but also angels and apostles, agree to the truth of his
+doctrine, and that at the last day God will condemn all who do
+not accept it.
+
+Although this theory was drawn from Scripture, it was also, as we
+have seen, the result of an evolution of theological thought
+begun long before the scriptural texts on which it rested were
+written.  It was not at all strange that Cosmas, Egyptian as he
+was, should have received this old Nile-born doctrine, as we see
+it indicated to-day in the structure of Egyptian temples, and
+that he should have developed it by the aid of the Jewish
+Scriptures; but the theological world knew nothing of this more
+remote evolution from pagan germs; it was received as virtually
+inspired, and was soon regarded as a fortress of scriptural
+truth.  Some of the foremost men in the Church devoted themselves
+to buttressing it with new texts and throwing about it new
+outworks of theological reasoning; the great body of the
+faithful considered it a direct gift from the Almighty.  Even in
+the later centuries of the Middle Ages John of San Geminiano made
+a desperate attempt to save it.  Like Cosmas, he takes the Jewish
+tabernacle as his starting-point, and shows how all the newer
+ideas can be reconciled with the biblical accounts of its shape,
+dimensions, and furniture.[28]
+
+[28] For a notice of the views of Cosmas in connection with those
+of Lactantius, Augustine, St. John Chrysostom, and others, see
+Schoell, Histoire de la Litterature Grecque, vol. vii, p. 37.
+The main scriptural passages referred to are as follows: (1)
+Isaiah xi, 22; (2) Genesis i, 6; (3) Genesis vii, 11; (4) Exodus
+xxiv, 10; (5) Job xxvi, 11, and xxxvii, 18 (6) Psalm cxlviii, 4,
+and civ, 9; (7) Ezekiel i, 22-26.  For Cosmas's theory, see
+Montfaucon, Collectio Nova Patrum, Paris, 1706, vol. ii, p.188;
+also pp. 298, 299.  The text is illustrated with engravings
+showing walls and solid vault (firmament), with the whole
+apparatus of "fountains of the great deep," "windows of heaven,"
+angels, and the mountain behind which the sun is drawn.  For
+reduction of one of them, see Peschel, Gesschichte der Erdkunds,
+p. 98; also article Maps, in Knight's Dictionary of Mechanics,
+New York, 1875.  For curious drawings showing Cosmas's scheme in
+a different way from that given by Montfaucon, see extracts from a
+Vatican codex of the ninth century in Garucci, Storia de l'Arte
+Christiana, vol. iii, pp. 70 et seq.  For a good discussion of
+Cosmas's ideas, see Santarem, Hist. de la Cosmographie, vol. ii,
+pp. 8 et seq., and for a very thorough discussion of its details,
+Kretschmer, as above.  For still another theory, very droll, and
+thought out on similar principles, see Mungo Park, cited in De
+Morgan, Paradoxes, p. 309.  For Cosmas's joyful summing up, see
+Montfaucon, Collectio Nova Patrum, vol. ii, p. 255.  For the
+curious survival in the thirteenth century of the old idea of the
+"waters above the heavens," see the story in Gervase of Tilbury,
+how in his time some people coming out of church in England found
+an anchor let down by a rope out of the heavens, how there came
+voices from sailors above trying to loose the anchor, and,
+finally, how a sailor came down the rope, who, on reaching the
+earth, died as if drowned in water.  See Gervase of Tilbury, Otia
+Imperialia, edit. Liebrecht, Hanover, 1856, Prima Decisio, cap.
+xiii. The work was written about 1211.  For John of San
+Germiniano, see his Summa de Exemplis, lib. ix, cap. 43.  For the
+Egyptian Trinitarian views, see Sharpe, History of Egypt, vol. i,
+pp. 94, 102.
+
+
+From this old conception of the universe as a sort of house, with
+heaven as its upper story and the earth as its ground floor,
+flowed important theological ideas into heathen, Jewish, and
+Christian mythologies.  Common to them all are legends regarding
+attempts of mortals to invade the upper apartment from the lower.
+Of such are the Greek legends of the Aloidae, who sought to reach
+heaven by piling up mountains, and were cast down; the Chaldean
+and Hebrew legends of the wicked who at Babel sought to build "a
+tower whose top may reach heaven," which Jehovah went down from
+heaven to see, and which he brought to naught by the "confusion
+of tongues"; the Hindu legend of the tree which sought to grow
+into heaven and which Brahma blasted; and the Mexican legend of
+the giants who sought to reach heaven by building the Pyramid of
+Cholula, and who were overthrown by fire from above.
+
+Myths having this geographical idea as their germ developed in
+luxuriance through thousands of years.  Ascensions to heaven and
+descents from it, "translations," "assumptions," "annunciations,"
+mortals "caught up" into it and returning, angels flying between
+it and the earth, thunderbolts hurled down from it, mighty winds
+issuing from its corners, voices speaking from the upper floor to
+men on the lower, temporary openings of the floor of heaven to
+reveal the blessedness of the good, "signs and wonders" hung out
+from it to warn the wicked, interventions of every kind--from the
+heathen gods coming down on every sort of errand, and Jehovah
+coming down to walk in Eden in the cool of the day, to St. Mark
+swooping down into the market-place of Venice to break the
+shackles of a slave--all these are but features in a vast
+evolution of myths arising largely from this geographical germ.
+
+Nor did this evolution end here.  Naturally, in this view of
+things, if heaven was a loft, hell was a cellar; and if there
+were ascensions into one, there were descents into the other.
+Hell being so near, interferences by its occupants with the
+dwellers of the earth just above were constant, and form a vast
+chapter in medieval literature.  Dante made this conception of
+the location of hell still more vivid, and we find some forms of
+it serious barriers to geographical investigation.  Many a bold
+navigator, who was quite ready to brave pirates and tempests,
+trembled at the thought of tumbling with his ship into one of the
+openings into hell which a widespread belief placed in the
+Atlantic at some unknown distance from Europe.  This terror among
+sailors was one of the main obstacles in the great voyage of
+Columbus.  In a medieval text-book, giving science the form of a
+dialogue, occur the following question and answer:  "Why is the
+sun so red in the evening?" "Because he looketh down upon hell."
+
+But the ancient germ of scientific truth in geography--the idea
+of the earth's sphericity--still lived.  Although the great
+majority of the early fathers of the Church, and especially
+Lactantius, had sought to crush it beneath the utterances
+attributed to Isaiah, David, and St. Paul, the better opinion of
+Eudoxus and Aristotle could not be forgotten.  Clement of
+Alexandria and Origen had even supported it.  Ambrose and
+Augustine had tolerated it, and, after Cosmas had held sway a
+hundred years, it received new life from a great churchman of
+southern Europe, Isidore of Seville, who, however fettered by the
+dominant theology in many other things, braved it in this.  In
+the eighth century a similar declaration was made in the north of
+Europe by another great Church authority, Bede.  Against the new
+life thus given to the old truth, the sacred theory struggled
+long and vigorously but in vain.  Eminent authorities in later
+ages, like Albert the Great, St. Thomas Aquinas, Dante, and
+Vincent of Beauvais, felt obliged to accept the doctrine of the
+earth's sphericity, and as we approach the modern period we find
+its truth acknowledged by the vast majority of thinking men.  The
+Reformation did not at first yield fully to this better theory.
+Luther, Melanchthon, and Calvin were very strict in their
+adherence to the exact letter of Scripture.  Even Zwingli, broad
+as his views generally were, was closely bound down in this
+matter, and held to the opinion of the fathers that a great
+firmament, or floor, separated the heavens from the earth; that
+above it were the waters and angels, and below it the earth and
+man.
+
+The main scope given to independent thought on this general
+subject among the Reformers was in a few minor speculations
+regarding the universe which encompassed Eden, the exact
+character of the conversation of the serpent with Eve, and the
+like.
+
+In the times immediately following the Reformation matters were
+even worse.  The interpretations of Scripture by Luther and
+Calvin became as sacred to their followers as the Scripture
+itself.  When Calixt ventured, in interpreting the Psalms, to
+question the accepted belief that "the waters above the heavens"
+were contained in a vast receptacle upheld by a solid vault, he
+was bitterly denounced as heretical.
+
+In the latter part of the sixteenth century Musaeus interpreted
+the accounts in Genesis to mean that first God made the heavens
+for the roof or vault, and left it there on high swinging until
+three days later he put the earth under it.  But the new
+scientific thought as to the earth's form had gained the day.
+The most sturdy believers were obliged to adjust their, biblical
+theories to it as best they could.[29]
+
+[29] For a discussion of the geographical views of Isidore and
+Bede, see Santarem, Cosmographie, vol i, pp. 22-24.  For the
+gradual acceptance of the idea of the earth's sphericity after
+the eighth century, see Kretschmer, pp. 51 et seq., where
+citations from a multitude of authors are given.  For the views
+of the Reformers, see Zockler, vol. i, pp. 679 and 693.  For
+Calixt, Musaeus, and others, ibid., pp. 673-677 and 761.
+
+
+
+
+II.  THE DELINEATION OF THE EARTH.
+
+
+Every great people of antiquity, as a rule, regarded its own
+central city or most holy place as necessarily the centre of the
+earth.
+
+The Chaldeans held that their "holy house of the gods" was the
+centre.  The Egyptians sketched the world under the form of a
+human figure, in which Egypt was the heart, and the centre of it
+Thebes.  For the Assyrians, it was Babylon; for the Hindus, it
+was Mount Meru; for the Greeks, so far as the civilized world was
+concerned, Olympus or the temple at Delphi; for the modern
+Mohammedans, it is Mecca and its sacred stone; the Chinese, to
+this day, speak of their empire as the "middle kingdom."  It was
+in accordance, then, with a simple tendency of human thought that
+the Jews believed the centre of the world to be Jerusalem.
+
+The book of Ezekiel speaks of Jerusalem as in the middle of the
+earth, and all other parts of the world as set around the holy
+city.  Throughout the "ages of faith" this was very generally
+accepted as a direct revelation from the Almighty regarding the
+earth's form.  St. Jerome, the greatest authority of the early
+Church upon the Bible, declared, on the strength of this
+utterance of the prophet, that Jerusalem could be nowhere but at
+the earth's centre; in the ninth century Archbishop Rabanus
+Maurus reiterated the same argument; in the eleventh century
+Hugh of St. Victor gave to the doctrine another scriptural
+demonstration; and Pope Urban, in his great sermon at Clermont
+urging the Franks to the crusade, declared, "Jerusalem is the
+middle point of the earth"; in the thirteenth century an
+ecclesiastical writer much in vogue, the monk Caesarius of
+Heisterbach, declared, "As the heart in the midst of the body, so
+is Jerusalem situated in the midst of our inhabited earth,"--"so
+it was that Christ was crucified at the centre of the earth."
+Dante accepted this view of Jerusalem as a certainty, wedding it
+to immortal verse; and in the pious book of travels ascribed to
+Sir John Mandeville, so widely read in the Middle Ages, it is
+declared that Jerusalem is at the centre of the world, and that a
+spear standing erect at the Holy Sepulchre casts no shadow at the
+equinox.
+
+Ezekiel's statement thus became the standard of orthodoxy to
+early map-makers.  The map of the world at Hereford Cathedral,
+the maps of Andrea Bianco, Marino Sanuto, and a multitude of
+others fixed this view in men's minds, and doubtless discouraged
+during many generations any scientific statements tending to
+unbalance this geographical centre revealed in Scripture.[30]
+
+[30] For beliefs of various nations of antiquity that the earth's
+center was in their most sacred place, see citations from
+Maspero, Charton, Sayce, and others in Lethaby, Architecture,
+Mysticism, and Myth, chap. iv.  As to the Greeks, we have typical
+statements in the Eumenides of Aeschylus, where the stone in the
+altar at Delphi is repeatedly called "the earth's navel"--which
+is precisely the expression used regarding Jerusalem in the
+Septuagint translation of Ezekiel (see below).  The proof texts
+on which the mediaeval geographers mainly relied as to the form
+of the earth were Ezekiel v, 5, and xxxviii, 12.  The progress of
+geographical knowledge evidently caused them to be softened down
+somewhat in our King James's version; but the first of them
+reads, in the Vulgate, "Ista est Hierusalem, in medio gentium
+posui eam et in circuitu ejus terrae"; and the second reads, in
+the Vulgate, "in medio terrae," and in the Septuagint, <Greek>.
+That the literal centre of the earth was understood, see proof in
+St. Jerome, Commentat. in Ezekiel, lib. ii; and for general
+proof, see Leopardi, Saggio sopra gli errori popolari degli
+antichi, pp. 207, 208.  For Rabanus Maurus, see his De Universo,
+lib. xii, cap. 4, in Migne, tome cxi, p. 339.  For Hugh of St.
+Victor, se his De Situ Terrarum, cap. ii.  For Dante's belief,
+see Inferno, canto xxxiv, 112-115:
+
+"E se' or sotto l'emisperio giunto,
+  Ch' e opposito a quel che la gran secca
+Coverchia, e sotto il cui colmo consunto
+  Fu l'uom che nacque e visse senza pecca."
+
+For orthodox geography in the Middle Ages, see Wright's Essays on
+Archaeology, vol. ii, chapter on the map of the world in Hereford
+Cathedral; also the rude maps in Cardinal d'Ailly's Ymago Mundi;
+also copies of maps of Marino Sanuto and others in Peschel,
+Erdkunde, p. 210; also Munster, Fac Simile dell' Atlante di
+Andrea Bianco, Venezia, 1869.  And for discussions of the whole
+subject, see Satarem, vol. ii, p. 295, vol. iii, pp. 71, 183,
+184, and elsewhere.  For a brief summary with citations, see
+Eiken, Geschichte, etc., pp. 622, 623.
+
+
+Nor did medieval thinkers rest with this conception.  In
+accordance with the dominant view that physical truth must be
+sought by theological reasoning, the doctrine was evolved that
+not only the site of the cross on Calvary marked the geographical
+centre of the world, but that on this very spot had stood the
+tree which bore the forbidden fruit in Eden.  Thus was geography
+made to reconcile all parts of the great theologic plan.  This
+doctrine was hailed with joy by multitudes; and we find in the
+works of medieval pilgrims to Palestine, again and again,
+evidence that this had become precious truth to them, both in
+theology and geography.  Even as late as 1664 the eminent French
+priest Eugene Roger, in his published travels in Palestine, dwelt
+upon the thirty-eighth chapter of Ezekiel, coupled with a text
+from Isaiah, to prove that the exact centre of the earth is a
+spot marked on the pavement of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre,
+and that on this spot once stood the tree which bore the
+forbidden fruit and the cross of Christ.[31]
+
+[31] For the site of the cross on Calvary, as the point where
+stood "the tree of the knowledge of good and evil" in Eden, at
+the centre of the earth, see various Eastern travellers cited in
+Tobler; but especially the travels of Bishop Arculf in the Holy
+Land, in Wright's Early Travels in Palestine, p. 8; also Travels
+of Saewulf, ibid, p. 38; also Sir John Mandeville, ibid., pp.
+166, 167.  For Roger, see his La Terre Saincte, Paris, 1664, pp.
+89-217, etc.; see also Quaresmio, Terrae Sanctae Elucidatio,
+1639, for similar view; and, for one narrative in which the idea
+was developed into an amazing mass of pious myths, see Pilgrimage
+of the Russian Abbot Daniel, edited by Sir C. W. Wilson, London,
+1885, p. 14. (The passage deserves to be quoted as an example of
+myth-making; it is as follows: "At the time of our Lord's
+crucifixion, when he gave up the ghost on the cross, the veil of
+the temple was rent, and the rock above Adam's skull opened, and
+the blood and water which flowed from Christ's side ran down
+through the fissure upon the skull, thus washing away the sins of
+men.")
+
+
+Nor was this the only misconception which forced its way from our
+sacred writings into medieval map-making:  two others were almost
+as marked.  First of these was the vague terror inspired by Gog
+and Magog.  Few passages in the Old Testament are more sublime
+than the denunciation of these great enemies by Ezekiel; and the
+well-known statement in the Apocalypse fastened the Hebrew
+feeling regarding them with a new meaning into the mind of the
+early Church:  hence it was that the medieval map-makers took
+great pains to delineate these monsters and their habitations on
+the maps.  For centuries no map was considered orthodox which did
+not show them.
+
+The second conception was derived from the mention in our sacred
+books of the "four winds."  Hence came a vivid belief in their
+real existence, and their delineation on the maps, generally as
+colossal heads with distended cheeks, blowing vigorously toward
+Jerusalem.
+
+After these conceptions had mainly disappeared we find here and
+there evidences of the difficulty men found in giving up the
+scriptural idea of direct personal interference by agents of
+Heaven in the ordinary phenomena of Nature:  thus, in a noted map
+of the sixteenth century representing the earth as a sphere,
+there is at each pole a crank, with an angel laboriously turning
+the earth by means of it; and, in another map, the hand of the
+Almighty, thrust forth from the clouds, holds the earth suspended
+by a rope and spins it with his thumb and fingers.  Even as late
+as the middle of the seventeenth century Heylin, the most
+authoritative English geographer of the time, shows a like
+tendency to mix science and theology.  He warps each to help the
+other, as follows:  "Water, making but one globe with the earth,
+is yet higher than it.  This appears, first, because it is a body
+not so heavy; secondly, it is observed by sailors that their
+ships move faster to the shore than from it, whereof no reason
+can be given but the height of the water above the land;
+thirdly, to such as stand on the shore the sea seems to swell
+into the form of a round hill till it puts a bound upon our
+sight. Now that the sea, hovering thus over and above the earth,
+doth not overwhelm it, can be ascribed only to his Providence who
+`hath made the waters to stand on an heap that they turn not
+again to cover the earth.'"[32]
+
+[32] For Gog and Magog, see Ezekiel xxxviii and xxxix, and Rev.
+xx, 8; and for the general subject, Toy, Judaism and
+Christianity, Boston, 1891, pp. 373, 374.  For maps showing these
+two great terrors, and for geographical discussion regarding
+them, see Lelewel, Geog. du Moyen Age, Bruxelles, 1850, Atlas;
+also Ruge, Gesch. des Zeitalters der Entdeckungen, Berlin, 1881,
+pp. 78, 79; also Peschel's Abhandlungen, pp.28-35, and Gesch. der
+Erdkunde, p. 210.  For representations on maps of the "Four
+Winds," see Charton, Voyageurs, tome ii, p. 11; also Ruge, as
+above, pp. 324, 325; also for a curious mixture of the scriptural
+winds issuing from the bags of Aeolus, see a map of the twelfth
+century in Leon Gautier, La Chevalerie, p. 153; and for maps
+showing additional winds, see various editions of Ptolemy.  For a
+map with angels turning the earth by means of cranks at the
+poles, see Grynaeus, Novus Orbis, Basileae, 1537.  For the globe
+kept spinning by the Almighty, see J. Hondius's map, 1589; and
+for Heylin, his first folio, 1652, p. 27.
+
+
+
+III.  THE INHABITANTS OF THE EARTH.
+
+
+Even while the doctrine of the sphericity of the earth was
+undecided, another question had been suggested which theologians
+finally came to consider of far greater importance.  The doctrine
+of the sphericity of the earth naturally led to thought regarding
+its inhabitants, and another ancient germ was warmed into
+life--the idea of antipodes:  of human beings on the earth's
+opposite sides.
+
+In the Greek and Roman world this idea had found supporters and
+opponents, Cicero and Pliny being among the former, and Epicurus,
+Lucretius, and Plutarch among the latter.  Thus the problem came
+into the early Church unsolved.
+
+Among the first churchmen to take it up was, in the East, St.
+Gregory Nazianzen, who showed that to sail beyond Gibraltar was
+impossible; and, in the West, Lactantius, who asked:  "Is there
+any one so senseless as to believe that there are men whose
+footsteps are higher than their heads?.  .  .  that the crops and
+trees grow downward?.  .  .  that the rains and snow and hail
+fall upward toward the earth?.  .  .  I am at a loss what to say
+of those who, when they have once erred, steadily persevere in
+their folly and defend one vain thing by another."
+
+In all this contention by Gregory and Lactantius there was
+nothing to be especially regretted, for, whatever their motive,
+they simply supported their inherited belief on grounds of
+natural law and probability.
+
+Unfortunately, the discussion was not long allowed to rest on
+these scientific and philosophical grounds; other Christian
+thinkers followed, who in their ardour adduced texts of
+Scripture, and soon the question had become theological;
+hostility to the belief in antipodes became dogmatic.  The
+universal Church was arrayed against it, and in front of the vast
+phalanx stood, to a man, the fathers.
+
+To all of them this idea seemed dangerous; to most of them it
+seemed damnable.  St. Basil and St. Ambrose were tolerant
+enough to allow that a man might be saved who thought the earth
+inhabited on its opposite sides; but the great majority of the
+fathers doubted the possibility of salvation to such
+misbelievers.  The great champion of the orthodox view was St.
+Augustine.  Though he seemed inclined to yield a little in regard
+to the sphericity of the earth, he fought the idea that men exist
+on the other side of it, saying that "Scripture speaks of no such
+descendants of Adam,"  he insists that men could not be allowed
+by the Almighty to live there, since if they did they could not
+see Christ at His second coming descending through the air.  But
+his most cogent appeal, one which we find echoed from theologian
+to theologian during a thousand years afterward, is to the
+nineteenth Psalm, and to its confirmation in the Epistle to the
+Romans; to the words, "Their line is gone out through all the
+earth, and their words to the end of the world."  He dwells with
+great force on the fact that St. Paul based one of his most
+powerful arguments upon this declaration regarding the preachers
+of the gospel, and that he declared even more explicitly that
+"Verily, their sound went into all the earth, and their words
+unto the ends of the world."  Thenceforth we find it constantly
+declared that, as those preachers did not go to the antipodes, no
+antipodes can exist; and hence that the supporters of this
+geographical doctrine "give the lie direct to King David and to
+St. Paul, and therefore to the Holy Ghost."  Thus the great
+Bishop of Hippo taught the whole world for over a thousand years
+that, as there was no preaching of the gospel on the opposite
+side of the earth, there could be no human beings there.
+
+The great authority of Augustine, and the cogency of his
+scriptural argument, held the Church firmly against the doctrine
+of the antipodes; all schools of interpretation were now
+agreed--the followers of the allegorical tendencies of
+Alexandria, the strictly literal exegetes of Syria, the more
+eclectic theologians of the West.  For over a thousand years it
+was held in the Church, "always, everywhere, and by all," that
+there could not be human beings on the opposite sides of the
+earth, even if the earth had opposite sides; and, when attacked
+by gainsayers, the great mass of true believers, from the fourth
+century to the fifteenth, simply used that opiate which had so
+soothing an effect on John Henry Newman in the nineteenth
+century--securus judicat orbis terrarum.
+
+Yet gainsayers still appeared.  That the doctrine of the
+antipodes continued to have life, is shown by the fact that in
+the sixth century Procopius of Gaza attacks it with a tremendous
+argument.  He declares that, if there be men on the other side of
+the earth, Christ must have gone there and suffered a second time
+to save them; and, therefore, that there must have been there, as
+necessary preliminaries to his coming, a duplicate Eden, Adam,
+serpent, and deluge.
+
+Cosmas Indicopleustes also attacked the doctrine with especial
+bitterness, citing a passage from St. Luke to prove that
+antipodes are theologically impossible.
+
+At the end of the sixth century came a man from whom much might
+be expected--St. Isidore of Seville.  He had pondered over
+ancient thought in science, and, as we have seen, had dared
+proclaim his belief in the sphericity of the earth; but with that
+he stopped.  As to the antipodes, the authority of the Psalmist,
+St. Paul, and St. Augustine silences him; he shuns the whole
+question as unlawful, subjects reason to faith, and declares that
+men can not and ought not to exist on opposite sides of the
+earth.[33]
+
+[33]For the opinions of Basil, Ambrose, and others, see Lecky,
+History of Rationalism in Europe, New York, 1872, vol. i, p. 279.
+Also Letronne, in Revue des Deux Mondes, March, 1834.  For
+Lactantius, see citations already given.  For St. Augustine's
+opinion, see the De Civitate Dei, xvi, 9, where this great father
+of the church shows that the antipodes "nulla ratione credendum
+est."  For the unanimity of the fathers against the antipodes,
+see Zockler, vol. 1, p. 127.  For a very naive summary, see
+Joseph Acosta, Natural and Moral History of the Indies, Grimston's
+translation, republished by the Hakluyt Soc., chaps. vii and
+viii; also citations in Buckle's Posthumous Works, vol. ii, p.
+645.  For Procopius of Gaza, see Kretschmer, p. 55.  See also, on
+the general subject, Peschel, Geschichte der Erdkunde, pp. 96-97.
+For Isidore, see citations already given.  To understand the
+embarrassment caused by these utterances of the fathers to
+scientific men of a later period, see letter of Agricola to
+Joachim Vadianus in 1514.  Agricola asks Vadianus to give his
+views regarding the antipodes, saying that he himself does not
+know what to do, between the fathers on the one side and the
+learned men of modern times on the other.  On the other hand, for
+the embarrassment caused to the Church by this mistaken zeal of
+the fathers, see Kepler's references and Fromund's replies; also
+De Morgan, Paradoxes, p. 58.  Kepler appears to have taken great
+delight in throwing the views of Lactantius into the teeth of his
+adversaries.
+
+
+Under such pressure this scientific truth seems to have
+disappeared for nearly two hundred years; but by the eighth
+century the sphericity of the earth had come to be generally
+accepted among the leaders of thought, and now the doctrine of
+the antipodes was again asserted by a bishop, Virgil of Salzburg.
+
+There then stood in Germany, in those first years of the eighth
+century, one of the greatest and noblest of men--St. Boniface.
+His learning was of the best then known.  In labours he was a
+worthy successor of the apostles; his genius for Christian work
+made him unwillingly primate of Germany; his devotion to duty
+led him willingly to martyrdom.  There sat, too, at that time, on
+the papal throne a great Christian statesman--Pope Zachary.
+Boniface immediately declared against the revival of such a
+heresy as the doctrine of the antipodes; he stigmatized it as an
+assertion that there are men beyond the reach of the appointed
+means of salvation; he attacked Virgil, and called on Pope
+Zachary for aid.
+
+The Pope, as the infallible teacher of Christendom, made a strong
+response.  He cited passages from the book of Job and the Wisdom
+of Solomon against the doctrine of the antipodes; he declared it
+"perverse, iniquitous, and against Virgil's own soul," and
+indicated a purpose of driving him from his bishopric.  Whether
+this purpose was carried out or not, the old theological view, by
+virtue of the Pope's divinely ordered and protected "inerrancy,"
+was re-established, and the doctrine that the earth has
+inhabitants on but one of its sides became more than ever
+orthodox, and precious in the mind of the Church.[34]
+
+[34] For Virgil of Salzburg, see Neander's History of the
+Christian Church, Torrey's translation, vol. iii, p. 63; also
+Herzog, Real-Encyklopadie, etc., recent edition by Prof. Hauck,
+s. v. Virgilius; also Kretschmer, pp. 56-58; also Whewell, vol.
+i, p. 197; also De Morgan, Budget of Paradoxes, pp. 24-26.  For
+very full notes as to pagan and Christian advocates of the
+doctrine of the sphericity of the earth and of the antipodes, and
+for extract from Zachary's letter, see Migne, Patrologia, vol.
+vi, p. 426, and vol. xli, p. 487.  For St. Boniface's part, see
+Bonifacii Epistolae, ed. Giles, i, 173.  Berger de Xivrey,
+Traditions Teratologiques, pp. 186-188, makes a curious attempt
+to show that Pope Zachary denounced the wrong man; that the real
+offender was a Roman poet--in the sixth book of the Aeneid and
+the first book of the Georgics.
+
+
+This decision seems to have been regarded as final, and five
+centuries later the great encyclopedist of the Middle Ages,
+Vincent of Beauvais, though he accepts the sphericity of the
+earth, treats the doctrine of the antipodes as disproved, because
+contrary to Scripture.  Yet the doctrine still lived.  Just as it
+had been previously revived by William of Conches and then laid
+to rest, so now it is somewhat timidly brought out in the
+thirteenth century by no less a personage than Albert the Great,
+the most noted man of science in that time.  But his utterances
+are perhaps purposely obscure.  Again it disappears beneath the
+theological wave, and a hundred years later Nicolas d'Oresme,
+geographer of the King of France, a light of science, is forced
+to yield to the clear teaching of the Scripture as cited by St.
+Augustine.
+
+Nor was this the worst.  In Italy, at the beginning of the
+fourteenth century, the Church thought it necessary to deal with
+questions of this sort by rack and fagot.  In 1316 Peter of
+Abano, famous as a physician, having promulgated this with other
+obnoxious doctrines in science, only escaped the Inquisition by
+death; and in 1327 Cecco d'Ascoli, noted as an astronomer, was
+for this and other results of thought, which brought him under
+suspicion of sorcery, driven from his professorship at Bologna
+and burned alive at Florence.  Nor was this all his punishment:
+Orcagna, whose terrible frescoes still exist on the walls of the
+Campo Santo at Pisa, immortalized Cecco by representing him in
+the flames of hell.[35]
+
+[35] For Vincent of Beauvais and the antipode, see his Speculum
+Naturale, Book VII, with citations from St. Augustine, De
+Civitate Dei, cap. xvi.  For Albert the Great's doctrine
+regarding the antipodes, compare Kretschmer, as above, with
+Eicken, Geschichte, etc., p. 621. Kretschmer finds that Albert
+supports the doctrine, and Eicken finds that he denies it--a fair
+proof that Albert was not inclined to state his views with
+dangerous clearness.  For D'Oresme, see Santerem, Histoire de la
+Cosmographie, vol. i, p. 142.  For Peter of Abano, or Apono, as
+he is often called, see Tiraboschi, also Guinguene, vol. ii, p.
+293; also Naude, Histoire des Grands Hommes soupconnes de Magie.
+For Cecco d'Ascoli, see Montucla, Histoire de Mathematiques, i,
+528; also Daunou, Etudes Historiques, vol. vi, p. 320; also
+Kretschmer, p. 59.  Concerning Orcagna's representation of Cecco
+in the flames of hell, see Renan, Averroes et l'Averroisme,
+Paris, 1867, p. 328.
+
+
+Years rolled on, and there came in the fifteenth century one from
+whom the world had a right to expect much.  Pierre d'Ailly, by
+force of thought and study, had risen to be Provost of the
+College of St. Die in Lorraine; his ability had made that little
+village a centre of scientific thought for all Europe, and
+finally made him Archbishop of Cambray and a cardinal.  Toward
+the end of the fifteenth century was printed what Cardinal
+d'Ailly had written long before as a summing up of his best
+thought and research--the collection of essays known as the Ymago
+Mundi.  It gives us one of the most striking examples in history
+of a great man in theological fetters.  As he approaches this
+question he states it with such clearness that we expect to hear
+him assert the truth; but there stands the argument of St.
+Augustine; there, too, stand the biblical texts on which it is
+founded--the text from the Psalms and the explicit declaration of
+St. Paul to the Romans, "Their sound went into all the earth, and
+their words unto the ends of the world."  D'Ailly attempts to
+reason, but he is overawed, and gives to the world virtually
+nothing.
+
+Still, the doctrine of the antipodes lived and moved:  so much so
+that the eminent Spanish theologian Tostatus, even as late as the
+age of Columbus, felt called upon to protest against it as
+"unsafe."  He had shaped the old missile of St. Augustine into
+the following syllogism:  "The apostles were commanded to go into
+all the world and to preach the gospel to every creature; they
+did not go to any such part of the world as the antipodes; they
+did not preach to any creatures there:  ergo, no antipodes
+exist."
+
+The warfare of Columbus the world knows well:  how the Bishop of
+Ceuta worsted him in Portugal; how sundry wise men of Spain
+confronted him with the usual quotations from the Psalms, from
+St. Paul, and from St. Augustine; how, even after he was
+triumphant, and after his voyage had greatly strengthened the
+theory of the earth's sphericity, with which the theory of the
+antipodes was so closely connected, the Church by its highest
+authority solemnly stumbled and persisted in going astray.  In
+1493 Pope Alexander VI, having been appealed to as an umpire
+between the claims of Spain and Portugal to the newly discovered
+parts of the earth, issued a bull laying down upon the earth's
+surface a line of demarcation between the two powers.  This line
+was drawn from north to south a hundred leagues west of the
+Azores; and the Pope in the plenitude of his knowledge declared
+that all lands discovered east of this line should belong to the
+Portuguese, and all west of it should belong to the Spaniards.
+This was hailed as an exercise of divinely illuminated power by
+the Church; but difficulties arose, and in 1506 another attempt
+was made by Pope Julius II to draw the line three hundred and
+seventy leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands.  This, again, was
+supposed to bring divine wisdom to settle the question; but,
+shortly, overwhelming difficulties arose; for the Portuguese
+claimed Brazil, and, of course, had no difficulty in showing that
+they could reach it by sailing to the east of the line, provided
+they sailed long enough.  The lines laid down by Popes Alexander
+and Julius may still be found upon the maps of the period, but
+their bulls have quietly passed into the catalogue of ludicrous
+errors.
+
+Yet the theological barriers to this geographical truth yielded
+but slowly.  Plain as it had become to scholars, they hesitated
+to declare it to the world at large.  Eleven hundred years had
+passed since St. Augustine had proved its antagonism to
+Scripture, when Gregory Reysch gave forth his famous
+encyclopaedia, the Margarita Philosophica.  Edition after edition
+was issued, and everywhere appeared in it the orthodox
+statements; but they were evidently strained to the breaking
+point; for while, in treating of the antipodes, Reysch refers
+respectfully to St. Augustine as objecting to the scientific
+doctrine, he is careful not to cite Scripture against it, and not
+less careful to suggest geographical reasoning in favour of it.
+
+But in 1519 science gains a crushing victory.  Magellan makes his
+famous voyage.  He proves the earth to be round, for his
+expedition circumnavigates it; he proves the doctrine of the
+antipodes, for his shipmates see the peoples of the antipodes.
+Yet even this does not end the war.  Many conscientious men
+oppose the doctrine for two hundred years longer.  Then the
+French astronomers make their measurements of degrees in
+equatorial and polar regions, and add to their proofs that of the
+lengthened pendulum.  When this was done, when the deductions of
+science were seen to be established by the simple test of
+measurement, beautifully and perfectly, and when a long line of
+trustworthy explorers, including devoted missionaries, had sent
+home accounts of the antipodes, then, and then only, this war of
+twelve centuries ended.
+
+Such was the main result of this long war; but there were other
+results not so fortunate.  The efforts of Eusebius, Basil, and
+Lactantius to deaden scientific thought; the efforts of
+Augustine to combat it; the efforts of Cosmas to crush it by
+dogmatism; the efforts of Boniface and Zachary to crush it by
+force, conscientious as they all were, had resulted simply in
+impressing upon many leading minds the conviction that science
+and religion are enemies.
+
+On the other hand, what was gained by the warriors of science for
+religion?  Certainly a far more worthy conception of the world,
+and a far more ennobling conception of that power which pervades
+and directs it.  Which is more consistent with a great religion,
+the cosmography of Cosmas or that of Isaac Newton?  Which
+presents a nobler field for religious thought, the diatribes of
+Lactantius or the calm statements of Humboldt?[36]
+
+[36] For D'Ailly's acceptance of St. Augustine's argument, see
+the Ymago Mundi, cap. vii.  For Tostatus, see Zockler, vol. i,
+pp. 467, 468. He based his opposition on Romans x, 18.  For
+Columbus, see Winsor, Fiske, and Adams; also Humboldt, Histoire
+de la Geographie du Nouveau Continent.  For the bull of Alexander
+VI, see Daunou, Etudes Historiques, vol. ii, p. 417; also
+Peschel, Zeitalter der Entdeckungen, Book II, chap. iv.  The text
+of the bull is given with an English translation in Arber's
+reprint of The First Three English Books on America, etc.,
+Birmingham, 1885, pp. 201-204; also especially Peschel, Die
+Theilung der Erde unter Papst Alexander VI and Julius II,
+Leipsic, 1871, pp. 14 et seq.  For remarks on the power under
+which the line was drawn by Alexander VI, see Mamiani, Del Papato
+nei Tre Ultimi Secoli, p. 170.  For maps showing lines of
+division, see Kohl, Die beiden altesten General-Karten von
+Amerika, Weimar, 1860, where maps of 1527 and 1529 are
+reproduced; also Mercator, Atlas, tenth edition, Amsterdam, 1628,
+pp. 70, 71.  For latest discussion on The Demarcation Line of
+Alexander VI, see E. G. Bourne in Yale Review, May, 1892. For the
+Margarita Philosophica, see the editions of 1503, 1509, 1517,
+lib. vii, cap. 48.  For the effect of Magellan's voyages, and the
+reluctance to yield to proof, see Henri Martin, Histoire de
+France, vol. xiv, p. 395; St. Martin's Histoire de la Geographie,
+p. 369; Peschel, Geschichte des Zeitalters der Entdeckungen,
+concluding chapters; and for an admirable summary, Draper, Hist.
+Int. Devel. of Europe, pp. 451-453; also an interesting passage
+in Sir Thomas Brown's Vulgar and Common Errors, Book I, chap. vi;
+also a striking passage in Acosta, chap. ii. For general
+statement as to supplementary proof by measurement of degrees and
+by pendulum, see Somerville, Phys. Geog., chap. i, par. 6, note;
+also Humboldt, Cosmos, vol. ii, p. 736, and vol. v, pp. 16, 32;
+also Montucla, iv, 138. As to the effect of travel, see Acosta's
+history above cited.  The good missionary says, in Grimston's
+quaint translation, "Whatsoever Lactantius saith, wee that live
+now at Peru, and inhabite that parte of the worlde which is
+opposite to Asia and theire Antipodes, finde not ourselves to bee
+hanging in the aire, our heades downward and our feete on high."
+
+
+
+
+IV.  THE SIZE OF THE EARTH.
+
+
+But at an early period another subject in geography had stirred
+the minds of thinking men--THE EARTH'S SIZE.  Various ancient
+investigators had by different methods reached measurements more
+or less near the truth; these methods were continued into the
+Middle Ages, supplemented by new thought, and among the more
+striking results were those obtained by Roger Bacon and Gerbert,
+afterward Pope Sylvester II.  They handed down to after-time the
+torch of knowledge, but, as their reward among their
+contemporaries, they fell under the charge of sorcery.
+
+Far more consonant with the theological spirit of the Middle Ages
+was a solution of the problem from Scripture, and this solution
+deserves to be given as an example of a very curious theological
+error, chancing to result in the establishment of a great truth.
+The second book of Esdras, which among Protestants is placed in
+the Apocrypha, was held by many of the foremost men of the
+ancient Church as fully inspired:  though Jerome looked with
+suspicion on this book, it was regarded as prophetic by Clement
+of Alexandria, Tertullian, and Ambrose, and the Church acquiesced
+in that view.  In the Eastern Church it held an especially high
+place, and in the Western Church, before the Reformation, was
+generally considered by the most eminent authorities to be part
+of the sacred canon.  In the sixth chapter of this book there is
+a summary of the works of creation, and in it occur the following
+verses:
+
+"Upon the third day thou didst command that the waters should be
+gathered in the seventh part of the earth; six parts hast thou
+dried up and kept them to the intent that of these some, being
+planted of God and tilled, might serve thee."
+
+"Upon the fifth day thou saidst unto the seventh part where the
+waters were gathered, that it should bring forth living
+creatures, fowls and fishes, and so it came to pass."
+
+These statements were reiterated in other verses, and were
+naturally considered as of controlling authority.
+
+Among the scholars who pondered on this as on all things likely
+to increase knowledge was Cardinal Pierre d'Ailly.  As we have
+seen, this great man, while he denied the existence of the
+antipodes, as St. Augustine had done, believed firmly in the
+sphericity of the earth, and, interpreting these statements of
+the book of Esdras in connection with this belief, he held that,
+as only one seventh of the earth's surface was covered by water,
+the ocean between the west coast of Europe and the east coast of
+Asia could not be very wide.  Knowing, as he thought, the extent
+of the land upon the globe, he felt that in view of this divinely
+authorized statement the globe must be much smaller, and the land
+of "Zipango," reached by Marco Polo, on the extreme east coast of
+Asia, much nearer than had been generally believed.
+
+On this point he laid stress in his great work, the Ymago Mundi,
+and an edition of it having been published in the days when
+Columbus was thinking most closely upon the problem of a westward
+voyage, it naturally exercised much influence upon his
+reasonings.  Among the treasures of the library at Seville, there
+is nothing more interesting than a copy of this work annotated by
+Columbus himself:  from this very copy it was that Columbus
+obtained confirmation of his belief that the passage across the
+ocean to Marco Polo's land of Zipango in Asia was short.  But for
+this error, based upon a text supposed to be inspired, it is
+unlikely that Columbus could have secured the necessary support
+for his voyage.  It is a curious fact that this single
+theological error thus promoted a series of voyages which
+completely destroyed not only this but every other conception of
+geography based upon the sacred writings.[37]
+
+[37] For this error, so fruitful in discovery, see D'Ailly, Ymago
+Mundi; the passage referred to is fol. 12 verso.  For the passage
+from Esdras, see chap. vi, verses 42, 47, 50, and 52; see also
+Zockler, Geschichte der Beziehungen zwischen Theologie und
+Naturweissenschaft, vol. i, p. 461.  For one of the best recent
+statements, see Ruge, Gesch. des Zeitalters der Entdeckungen,
+Berlin, 1882, pp. 221 et seq.  For a letter of Columbus
+acknowledging his indebtedness to this mistake in Esdras, see
+Navarrete, Viajes y Descubrimientos, Madrid, 1825, tome i, pp.
+242, 264; also Humboldt, Hist. de la Geographie du Nouveau
+Continent, vol. i, pp. 68, 69.
+
+
+
+
+V.  THE CHARACTER OF THE EARTH'S SURFACE.
+
+It would be hardly just to dismiss the struggle for geographical
+truth without referring to one passage more in the history of the
+Protestant Church, for it shows clearly the difficulties in the
+way of the simplest statement of geographical truth which
+conflicted with the words of the sacred books.
+
+In the year 1553 Michael Servetus was on trial for his life at
+Geneva on the charge of Arianism.  Servetus had rendered many
+services to scientific truth, and one of these was an edition of
+Ptolemy's Geography, in which Judea was spoken of, not as "a
+land flowing with milk and honey," but, in strict accordance with
+the truth, as, in the main, meagre, barren, and inhospitable.  In
+his trial this simple statement of geographical fact was used
+against him by his arch-enemy John Calvin with fearful power.  In
+vain did Servetus plead that he had simply drawn the words from a
+previous edition of Ptolemy; in vain did he declare that this
+statement was a simple geographical truth of which there were
+ample proofs:  it was answered that such language "necessarily
+inculpated Moses, and grievously outraged the Holy Ghost."[38]
+
+[38] For Servetus's geographical offense, see Rilliet, Relation
+du Proces criminel contre Michel Servet d'apres les Documents
+originaux, Geneva, 1844, pp. 42,43; also Willis, Servetus and
+Calvin, London, 1877, p. 325.  The passage condemned is in the
+Ptolemy of 1535, fol. 41.  It was discreetly retrenched in a
+reprint of the same edition.
+
+
+In summing up the action of the Church upon geography, we must
+say, then, that the dogmas developed in strict adherence to
+Scripture and the conceptions held in the Church during many
+centuries "always, every where, and by all," were, on the whole,
+steadily hostile to truth; but it is only just to make a
+distinction here between the religious and the theological
+spirit.  To the religious spirit are largely due several of the
+noblest among the great voyages of discovery.  A deep longing to
+extend the realms of Christianity influenced the minds of Prince
+John of Portugal, in his great series of efforts along the
+African coast; of Vasco da Gama, in his circumnavigation of the
+Cape of Good Hope; of Magellan, in his voyage around the world;
+and doubtless found a place among the more worldly motives of
+Columbus.[39]
+
+[39] As to the earlier mixture in the motives of Columbus, it may
+be well to compare with the earlier biographies the recent ones
+by Dr. Winsor and President Adams.
+
+
+Thus, in this field, from the supremacy accorded to theology, we
+find resulting that tendency to dogmatism which has shown itself
+in all ages the deadly foe not only of scientific inquiry but of
+the higher religious spirit itself, while from the love of truth
+for truth's sake, which has been the inspiration of all fruitful
+work in science, nothing but advantage has ever resulted to
+religion.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+ASTRONOMY.
+
+I.  THE OLD SACRED THEORY OF THE UNIVERSE.
+
+
+The next great series of battles was fought over the relations of
+the visible heavens to the earth.
+
+In the early Church, in view of the doctrine so prominent in the
+New Testament, that the earth was soon to be destroyed, and that
+there were to be "new heavens and a new earth," astronomy, like
+other branches of science, was generally looked upon as futile.
+Why study the old heavens and the old earth, when they were so
+soon to be replaced with something infinitely better? This
+feeling appears in St. Augustine's famous utterance, "What
+concern is it to me whether the heavens as a sphere inclose the
+earth in the middle of the world or overhang it on either side?"
+
+As to the heavenly bodies, theologians looked on them as at best
+only objects of pious speculation.  Regarding their nature the
+fathers of the Church were divided.  Origen, and others with him,
+thought them living beings possessed of souls, and this belief
+was mainly based upon the scriptural vision of the morning stars.
+singing together, and upon the beautiful appeal to the "stars and
+light" in the song of the three children--the Benedicite--which
+the Anglican communion has so wisely retained in its Liturgy.
+
+Other fathers thought the stars abiding-places of the angels, and
+that stars were moved by angels.  The Gnostics thought the stars
+spiritual beings governed by angels, and appointed not to cause
+earthly events but to indicate them.
+
+As to the heavens in general, the prevailing view in the Church
+was based upon the scriptural declarations that a solid vault--a
+"firmament"--was extended above the earth, and that the heavenly
+bodies were simply lights hung within it.  This was for a time
+held very tenaciously.  St. Philastrius, in his famous treatise
+on heresies, pronounced it a heresy to deny that the stars are
+brought out by God from his treasure-house and hung in the sky
+every evening; any other view he declared "false to the Catholic
+faith."  This view also survived in the sacred theory established
+so firmly by Cosmas in the sixth century.  Having established his
+plan of the universe upon various texts in the Old and New
+Testaments, and having made it a vast oblong box, covered by the
+solid "firmament," he brought in additional texts from Scripture
+to account for the planetary movements, and developed at length
+the theory that the sun and planets are moved and the "windows of
+heaven" opened and shut by angels appointed for that purpose.
+
+How intensely real this way of looking at the universe was, we
+find in the writings of St. Isidore, the greatest leader of
+orthodox thought in the seventh century.  He affirms that since
+the fall of man, and on account of it, the sun and moon shine
+with a feebler light; but he proves from a text in Isaiah that
+when the world shall be fully redeemed these "great lights" will
+shine again in all their early splendour.  But, despite these
+authorities and their theological finalities, the evolution of
+scientific thought continued, its main germ being the geocentric
+doctrine--the doctrine that the earth is the centre, and that the
+sun and planets revolve about it.[40]
+
+[40] For passage cited from Clement of Alexandria, see English
+translation, Edinburgh, 1869, vol. ii, p. 368; also the
+Miscellanies, Book V, cap. vi.  For typical statements by St.
+Augustine, see De Genesi, ii, cap. ix, in Migne, Patr. Lat., tome
+xxiv, pp. 270-271.  For Origen's view, see the De Principiis,
+lib. i, cap. vii; see also Leopardi's Errori Populari, cap. xi;
+also Wilson's Selections from the Prophetic Scriptures in
+Ante-Nicene Library, p. 132.  For Philo Judaeus, see On the
+Creation of the World, chaps. xviii and xix, and On Monarchy,
+chap. i.  For St. Isidore, see the De Ordine Creaturarum, cap v,
+in Migne, Patr. Lat., lxxxiii, pp. 923-925; also 1000, 1001.  For
+Philastrius, see the De Hoeresibus, chap. cxxxiii, in Migne, tome
+xii, p. 1264.  For Cosmas's view, see his Topographia Christiana,
+in Montfaucon, Col. Nov. Patrum, ii, p. 150, and elsewhere as
+cited in my chapter on Geography.
+
+
+This doctrine was of the highest respectability:  it had been
+developed at a very early period, and had been elaborated until
+it accounted well for the apparent movements of the heavenly
+bodies; its final name, "Ptolemaic theory," carried weight;
+and, having thus come from antiquity into the Christian world,
+St. Clement of Alexandria demonstrated that the altar in the
+Jewish tabernacle was "a symbol of the earth placed in the middle
+of the universe":  nothing more was needed; the geocentric theory
+was fully adopted by the Church and universally held to agree
+with the letter and spirit of Scripture.[41]
+
+[41] As to the respectibility of the geocentric theory, etc., see
+Grote's Plato, vol. iii, p. 257; also Sir G. C. Lewis's Astronomy
+of the Ancients, chap. iii, sec. 1, for a very thoughtful
+statement of Plato's view, and differing from ancient statements.
+For plausible elaboration of it, and for supposed agreement of
+the Scripture with it, see Fromundus, Anti-Aristarchus, Antwerp,
+1631; also Melanchthon's Initia Doctrinae Physicae.  For an
+admirable statement of the theological view of the geocentric
+theory, antipodes, etc., see Eicken, Geschichte und System der
+mittelalterlichen Weltanschauung, pp. 618 et seq.
+
+
+Wrought into this foundation, and based upon it, there was
+developed in the Middle Ages, mainly out of fragments of Chaldean
+and other early theories preserved in the Hebrew Scriptures, a
+new sacred system of astronomy, which became one of the great
+treasures of the universal Church--the last word of revelation.
+
+Three great men mainly reared this structure.  First was the
+unknown who gave to the world the treatises ascribed to Dionysius
+the Areopagite.  It was unhesitatingly believed that these were
+the work of St. Paul's Athenian convert, and therefore virtually
+of St. Paul himself.  Though now known to be spurious, they were
+then considered a treasure of inspiration, and an emperor of the
+East sent them to an emperor of the West as the most worthy of
+gifts.  In the ninth century they were widely circulated in
+western Europe, and became a fruitful source of thought,
+especially on the whole celestial hierarchy.  Thus the old ideas
+of astronomy were vastly developed, and the heavenly hosts were
+classed and named in accordance with indications scattered
+through the sacred Scriptures.
+
+The next of these three great theologians was Peter Lombard,
+professor at the University of Paris.  About the middle of the
+twelfth century he gave forth his collection of Sentences, or
+Statements by the Fathers, and this remained until the end of the
+Middle Ages the universal manual of theology.  In it was
+especially developed the theological view of man's relation to
+the universe.  The author tells the world:  "Just as man is made
+for the sake of God--that is, that he may serve Him,--so the
+universe is made for the sake of man--that is, that it may serve
+HIM; therefore is man placed at the middle point of the
+universe, that he may both serve and be served."
+
+The vast significance of this view, and its power in resisting
+any real astronomical science, we shall see, especially in the
+time of Galileo.
+
+The great triad of thinkers culminated in St. Thomas
+Aquinas--the sainted theologian, the glory of the mediaeval
+Church, the "Angelic Doctor," the most marvellous intellect
+between Aristotle and Newton; he to whom it was believed that an
+image of the Crucified had spoken words praising his writings.
+Large of mind, strong, acute, yet just--even more than just--to
+his opponents, he gave forth, in the latter half of the
+thirteenth century, his Cyclopaedia of Theology, the Summa
+Theologica.  In this he carried the sacred theory of the universe
+to its full development.  With great power and clearness he
+brought the whole vast system, material and spiritual, into its
+relations to God and man.[42]
+
+[42] For the beliefs of Chaldean astronomers in revolving spheres
+carrying sun, moon, and planets, in a solid firmament supporting
+the celestial waters, and in angels as giving motion to the
+planets, see Lenormant; also Lethaby, 13-21; also Schroeder,
+Jensen, Lukas, et al.  For the contribution of the pseudo-
+Dionysius to mediaeval cosmology, see Dion. Areopagita, De
+Coelesti Hierarchia, vers. Joan. Scoti, in Migne, Patr. Lat.,
+cxxii.  For the contribution of Peter Lombard, see Pet. Lomb.,
+Libr. Sent., II, i, 8,-IV, i, 6, 7, in Migne, tome 192.  For the
+citations from St. Thomas Aquinas, see the Summa, ed. Migne,
+especially Pars I, Qu. 70, (tome i, pp. 1174-1184); also Quaestio
+47, Art. iii.  For good general statement, see Milman, Latin
+Christianity, iv, 191 et seq.; and for relation of Cosmas to
+these theologians of western Europe, see Milman, as above, viii,
+228, note.
+
+
+
+Thus was the vast system developed by these three leaders of
+mediaeval thought; and now came the man who wrought it yet more
+deeply into European belief, the poet divinely inspired who made
+the system part of the world's LIFE.  Pictured by Dante, the
+empyrean and the concentric heavens, paradise, purgatory, and
+hell, were seen of all men; the God Triune, seated on his throne
+upon the circle of the heavens, as real as the Pope seated in the
+chair of St. Peter; the seraphim, cherubim, and thrones,
+surrounding the Almighty, as real as the cardinals surrounding
+the Pope; the three great orders of angels in heaven, as real as
+the three great orders, bishops, priests, and deacons, on earth;
+and the whole system of spheres, each revolving within the one
+above it, and all moving about the earth, subject to the primum
+mobile, as real as the feudal system of western Europe, subject
+to the Emperor.[43]
+
+[43] For the central sun, hierarchy of angels, and concentric
+circles, see Dante, Paradiso, canto xxviii.  For the words of St.
+Thomas Aquinas, showing to Virgil and Dante the great theologians
+of the Middle Ages, see canto x, and in Dean Plumptre's
+translation, vol. ii, pp. 56 et seq.; also Botta, Dante, pp. 350,
+351.  As to Dante's deep religious feeling and belief in his own
+divine mission, see J. R. Lowell, Among my Books, vol. i, p. 36.
+For a remarkable series of coloured engravings, showing Dante's
+whole cosmology, see La Materia della Divina Comedia di Dante
+dichiriata in vi tavole, da Michelangelo Caetani, published by
+the monks of Monte Cassino, to whose kindness I am indebted for
+my copy.
+
+
+
+Let us look into this vast creation--the highest achievement of
+theology--somewhat more closely.
+
+Its first feature shows a development out of earlier theological
+ideas.  The earth is no longer a flat plain inclosed by four
+walls and solidly vaulted above, as theologians of previous
+centuries had believed it, under the inspiration of Cosmas; it is
+no longer a mere flat disk, with sun, moon, and stars hung up to
+give it light, as the earlier cathedral sculptors had figured it;
+it has become a globe at the centre of the universe.
+Encompassing it are successive transparent spheres, rotated by
+angels about the earth, and each carrying one or more of the
+heavenly bodies with it:  that nearest the earth carrying the
+moon; the next, Mercury; the next, Venus; the next, the Sun; the
+next three, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn; the eighth carrying the
+fixed stars.  The ninth was the primum mobile, and inclosing all
+was the tenth heaven--the Empyrean.  This was immovable--the
+boundary between creation and the great outer void; and here, in
+a light which no one can enter, the Triune God sat enthroned, the
+"music of the spheres" rising to Him as they moved.  Thus was the
+old heathen doctrine of the spheres made Christian.
+
+In attendance upon the Divine Majesty, thus enthroned, are vast
+hosts of angels, who are divided into three hierarchies, one
+serving in the empyrean, one in the heavens, between the empyrean
+and the earth, and one on the earth.
+
+Each of these hierarchies is divided into three choirs, or
+orders; the first, into the orders of Seraphim, Cherubim, and
+Thrones; and the main occupation of these is to chant
+incessantly--to "continually cry" the divine praises.
+
+The order of Thrones conveys God's will to the second hierarchy,
+which serves in the movable heavens.  This second hierarchy is
+also made up of three orders.  The first of these, the order of
+Dominions, receives the divine commands; the second, the order
+of Powers, moves the heavens, sun, moon, planets, and stars,
+opens and shuts the "windows of heaven," and brings to pass all
+other celestial phenomena; the third, the order of Empire, guards
+the others.
+
+The third and lowest hierarchy is also made up of three orders.
+First of these are the Principalities, the guardian spirits of
+nations and kingdoms.  Next come Archangels; these protect
+religion, and bear the prayers of the saints to the foot of God's
+throne.  Finally come Angels; these care for earthly affairs in
+general, one being appointed to each mortal, and others taking
+charge of the qualities of plants, metals, stones, and the like.
+Throughout the whole system, from the great Triune God to the
+lowest group of angels, we see at work the mystic power attached
+to the triangle and sacred number three--the same which gave the
+triune idea to ancient Hindu theology, which developed the triune
+deities in Egypt, and which transmitted this theological gift to
+the Christian world, especially through the Egyptian Athanasius.
+
+Below the earth is hell.  This is tenanted by the angels who
+rebelled under the lead of Lucifer, prince of the seraphim--the
+former favourite of the Trinity; but, of these rebellious
+angels, some still rove among the planetary spheres, and give
+trouble to the good angels; others pervade the atmosphere about
+the earth, carrying lightning, storm, drought, and hail; others
+infest earthly society, tempting men to sin; but Peter Lombard
+and St. Thomas Aquinas take pains to show that the work of these
+devils is, after all, but to discipline man or to mete out
+deserved punishment.
+
+All this vast scheme had been so riveted into the Ptolemaic view
+by the use of biblical texts and theological reasonings that the
+resultant system of the universe was considered impregnable and
+final.  To attack it was blasphemy.
+
+It stood for centuries.  Great theological men of science, like
+Vincent of Beauvais and Cardinal d'Ailly, devoted themselves to
+showing not only that it was supported by Scripture, but that it
+supported Scripture.  Thus was the geocentric theory embedded in
+the beliefs and aspirations, in the hopes and fears, of
+Christendom down to the middle of the sixteenth century.[44]
+
+[44] For the earlier cosmology of Cosmas, with citations from
+Montfaucon, see the chapter on Geography in this work.  For the
+views of mediaeval theologians, see foregoing notes in this
+chapter.  For the passages of Scripture on which the theological
+part of this structure was developed, see especially Romans viii,
+38; Ephesians i, 21; Colossians i, 16 aand ii, 15; and
+innumerable passages in the Old Testament.  As to the music of
+the spheres, see Dean Plumptre's Dante, vol. ii, p. 4, note. For
+an admirable summing up of the mediaeval cosmology in its
+relation to thought in general, see Rydberg, Magic of the Middle
+Ages, chap. i, whose summary I have followed in the main. For
+striking woodcuts showing the view taken of the successive
+heavens with their choirs of angels, the earth being at the
+centre with the spheres about it, and the Almighty on his throne
+above all, see the Neuremberg Chronicle, ff. iv and v; its date
+is 1493. For charts showing the continuance of this general view
+down to the beginning of the sixteenth century, see the various
+editions of the Margarita Philosophica, from that of 1503 onward,
+astronomical part.  For interesting statements regarding the
+Trinities of gods in ancient Egypt, see Sharpe, History of Egypt,
+vol. i, pp. 94 and 101.  The present writer once heard a lecture
+in Cairo, from an eminent Scotch Doctor of Medicine, to account
+for the ancient Hindu and Egyptian sacred threes and trinities.
+The lecturer's theory was that, when Jehovah came down into the
+Garden of Eden and walked with Adam in "the cool of the day," he
+explained his triune character to Adam, and that from Adam it was
+spread abroad to the various ancient nations.
+
+
+
+II.  THE HELIOCENTRIC THEORY.
+
+
+But, on the other hand, there had been planted, long before, the
+germs of a heliocentric theory.  In the sixth century before our
+era, Pythagoras, and after him Philolaus, had suggested the
+movement of the earth and planets about a central fire; and,
+three centuries later, Aristarchus had restated the main truth
+with striking precision.  Here comes in a proof that the
+antagonism between theological and scientific methods is not
+confined to Christianity; for this statement brought upon
+Aristarchus the charge of blasphemy, and drew after it a cloud of
+prejudice which hid the truth for six hundred years.  Not until
+the fifth century of our era did it timidly appear in the
+thoughts of Martianus Capella:  then it was again lost to sight
+for a thousand years, until in the fifteenth century, distorted
+and imperfect, it appeared in the writings of Cardinal Nicholas
+de Cusa.
+
+But in the shade cast by the vast system which had grown from the
+minds of the great theologians and from the heart of the great
+poet there had come to this truth neither bloom nor fruitage.
+
+Quietly, however, the soil was receiving enrichment and the air
+warmth.  The processes of mathematics were constantly improved,
+the heavenly bodies were steadily observed, and at length
+appeared, far from the centres of thought, on the borders of
+Poland, a plain, simple-minded scholar, who first fairly uttered
+to the modern world the truth--now so commonplace, then so
+astounding--that the sun and planets do not revolve about the
+earth, but that the earth and planets revolve about the sun:
+this man was Nicholas Copernicus.
+
+Copernicus had been a professor at Rome, and even as early as
+1500 had announced his doctrine there, but more in the way of a
+scientific curiosity or paradox, as it had been previously held
+by Cardinal de Cusa, than as the statement of a system
+representing a great fact in Nature.  About thirty years later
+one of his disciples, Widmanstadt, had explained it to Clement
+VII; but it still remained a mere hypothesis, and soon, like so
+many others, disappeared from the public view.  But to
+Copernicus, steadily studying the subject, it became more and
+more a reality, and as this truth grew within him he seemed to
+feel that at Rome he was no longer safe.  To announce his
+discovery there as a theory or a paradox might amuse the papal
+court, but to announce it as a truth--as THE truth--was a far
+different matter.  He therefore returned to his little town in
+Poland.
+
+To publish his thought as it had now developed was evidently
+dangerous even there, and for more than thirty years it lay
+slumbering in the mind of Copernicus and of the friends to whom
+he had privately intrusted it.
+
+At last he prepared his great work on the Revolutions of the
+Heavenly Bodies, and dedicated it to the Pope himself.  He next
+sought a place of publication.  He dared not send it to Rome, for
+there were the rulers of the older Church ready to seize it; he
+dared not send it to Wittenberg, for there were the leaders of
+Protestantism no less hostile; he therefore intrusted it to
+Osiander, at Nuremberg.[45]
+
+[45] For the germs of heliocentric theory planted long before,
+see Sir G. C. Lewis; and for a succinct statement of the claims
+of Pythagoras, Philolaus, Aristarchus, and Martianus Capella, see
+Hoefer, Hisoire de l'Astronomie, 1873, p. 107 et seq.; also
+Heller, Geschichte der Physik, Stuttgart, 1882, vol. i, pp. 12,
+13; also pp. 99 et seq.  For germs among thinkers of India, see
+Whewell, vol. i, p. 277; also Whitney, Oriental and Linguistic
+Studies, New York, 1874; Essay on the Lunar Zodiac, p. 345.  For
+the views of Vincent of Beauvais, see his Speculum Naturale, lib.
+xvi, cap. 21.  For Cardinal d'Ailly's view, see his treatise De
+Concordia Astronomicae Veritatis cum Theologia (in his Ymago
+Mundi and separately).  For general statement of De Cusa's work,
+see Draper, Intellectual Development of Europe, p. 512.  For
+skilful use of De Cusa's view in order to mitigate censure upon
+the Church for its treatment of Copernicus's discovery, see an
+article in the Catholic World for January, 1869.  For a very
+exact statement, in the spirit of judicial fairness, see Whewell,
+History of the Inductive Sciences, p. 275, and pp. 379, 380.  In
+the latter, Whewell cites the exact words of De Cusa in the De
+Docta Ignorantia, and sums up in these words: "This train of
+thought might be a preparation for the reception of the
+Copernican system; but it is very different from the doctrine
+that the sun is the centre of the planetary system."  Whewell
+says: "De Cusa propounded the doctrine of the motion of the earth
+more as a paradox than as a reality.  We can not consider this as
+any distinct anticipation of a profound and consistent view of
+the truth."  On De Cusa, see also Heller, vol. i, p. 216.  For
+Aristotle's views, and their elaboration by St. Thomas Aquinas,
+see the De Coelo et Mundo, sec. xx, and elsewhere in the latter.
+It is curious to see how even such a biographer as Archbishop
+Vaughan slurs over the angelic Doctor's errors.  See Vaughan's
+Life and Labours of St. Thomas of Aquin, pp. 459, 460.
+
+As to Copernicus's danger at Rome, the Catholic World for
+January, 1869, cites a speech of the Archbishop of Mechlin before
+the University of Louvain, to the effect that Copernicus defended
+his theory at Rome, in 1500, before two thousand scholars; also,
+that another professor taught the system in 1528, and was made
+apostolic notary by Clement VIII.  All this, even if the
+doctrines taught were identical with Copernicus as finally
+developed--which is simply not the case--avails nothing against
+the overwhelming testimony that Copernicus felt himself in
+danger--testimony which the after-history of the Copernican
+theory renders invincible.  The very title of Fromundus's book,
+already cited, published within a few miles of the archbishop's
+own cathedral, and sanctioned expressly by the theological
+faculty of that same University of Louvain in 1630, utterly
+refutes the archbishop's idea that the Church was inclined to
+treat Copernicus kindly.  The title is as follows:
+Ant-Aristarchus sive Orbis-Terrae Immobilis, in quo decretum S.
+Congregationis S. R. E. Cardinal. an. M.DC.XVI adversus
+Pythagorico-Copernicanos editum defenditur, Antverpiae, MDCXXI.
+L'Epinois, Galilee, Paris, 1867, lays stress, p. 14, on the
+broaching of the doctrine by De Cusa in 1435, and by Widmanstadt
+in 1533, and their kind treatment by Eugenius IV and Clement VII;
+but this is absolutely worthless in denying the papal policy
+afterward.  Lange, Geschichte des Materialismus, vol. i, pp. 217,
+218, while admitting that De Cusa and Widmanstadt sustained this
+theory and received honors from their respective popes, shows
+that, when the Church gave it serious consideration, it was
+condemned. There is nothing in this view unreasonable.  It
+would be a parallel case to that of Leo X, at first inclined
+toward Luther and others, in their "squabbles with the envious
+friars," and afterward forced to oppose them.  That Copernicus
+felt the danger, is evident, among other things, by the
+expression in the preface: "Statim me explodendum cum tali
+opinione clamitant."  For dangers at Wittenberg, see Lange, as
+above, vol. i, p. 217.
+
+
+But Osiander's courage failed him:  he dared not launch the new
+thought boldly.  He wrote a grovelling preface, endeavouring to
+excuse Copernicus for his novel idea, and in this he inserted the
+apologetic lie that Copernicus had propounded the doctrine of the
+earth's movement not as a fact, but as a hypothesis.  He declared
+that it was lawful for an astronomer to indulge his imagination,
+and that this was what Copernicus had done.
+
+Thus was the greatest and most ennobling, perhaps, of scientific
+truths--a truth not less ennobling to religion than to
+science--forced, in coming before the world, to sneak and
+crawl.[46]
+
+[46] Osiander, in a letter to Copernicus, dated April 20, 1541,
+had endeavored to reconcile him to such a procedure, and ends by
+saying, "Sic enim placidiores reddideris peripatheticos et
+theologos quos contradicturos metuis."  See Apologia Tychonis in
+Kepler's Opera Omnia, Frisch's edition, vol. i, p. 246.  Kepler
+holds Osiander entirely responsible for this preface.  Bertrand,
+in his Fondateurs de l"astronomie moderne, gives its text, and
+thinks it possible that Copernicus may have yielded "in pure
+condescension toward his disciple."  But this idea is utterly at
+variance with expressions in Copernicus's own dedicatory letter
+to the Pope, which follows the preface.  For a good summary of
+the argument, see Figuier, Savants de la Renaissance, pp. 378,
+379; see also citation from Gassendi's Life of Copernicus, in
+Flammarion, Vie de Copernic, p. 124.  Mr. John Fiske, accurate as
+he usually is, in his Outlines of Cosmic Philosophy appears to
+have followed Laplace, Delambre, and Petit into the error of
+supposing that Copernicus, and not Osiander, is responsible for
+the preface.  For the latest proofs, see Menzer's translation of
+Copernicus's work, Thorn, 1879, notes on pp. 3 and 4 of the
+appendix.
+
+
+On the 24th of May, 1543, the newly printed book arrived at the
+house of Copernicus.  It was put into his hands; but he was on
+his deathbed.  A few hours later he was beyond the reach of the
+conscientious men who would have blotted his reputation and
+perhaps have destroyed his life.
+
+Yet not wholly beyond their reach.  Even death could not be
+trusted to shield him.  There seems to have been fear of
+vengeance upon his corpse, for on his tombstone was placed no
+record of his lifelong labours, no mention of his great
+discovery; but there was graven upon it simply a prayer:  "I ask
+not the grace accorded to Paul; not that given to Peter; give me
+only the favour which Thou didst show to the thief on the cross."
+
+Not till thirty years after did a friend dare write on his
+tombstone a memorial of his discovery.[47]
+
+[47] See Flammarion, Vie de Copernic, p. 190.
+
+
+The preface of Osiander, pretending that the book of Copernicus
+suggested a hypothesis instead of announcing a truth, served its
+purpose well.  During nearly seventy years the Church authorities
+evidently thought it best not to stir the matter, and in some
+cases professors like Calganini were allowed to present the new
+view purely as a hypothesis.  There were, indeed, mutterings from
+time to time on the theological side, but there was no great
+demonstration against the system until 1616.  Then, when the
+Copernican doctrine was upheld by Galileo as a TRUTH, and proved
+to be a truth by his telescope, the book was taken in hand by the
+Roman curia.  The statements of Copernicus were condemned, "until
+they should be corrected"; and the corrections required were
+simply such as would substitute for his conclusions the old
+Ptolemaic theory.
+
+That this was their purpose was seen in that year when Galileo
+was forbidden to teach or discuss the Copernican theory, and when
+were forbidden "all books which affirm the motion of the earth."
+Henceforth to read the work of Copernicus was to risk damnation,
+and the world accepted the decree.[48] The strongest minds were
+thus held fast.  If they could not believe the old system, they
+must PRETEND that they believed it;--and this, even after the
+great circumnavigation of the globe had done so much to open the
+eyes of the world! Very striking is the case of the eminent
+Jesuit missionary Joseph Acosta, whose great work on the Natural
+and Moral History of the Indies, published in the last quarter
+of the sixteenth century, exploded so many astronomical and
+geographical errors.  Though at times curiously credulous, he
+told the truth as far as he dared; but as to the movement of the
+heavenly bodies he remained orthodox--declaring, "I have seen the
+two poles, whereon the heavens turn as upon their axletrees."
+
+[48] The authorities deciding this matter in accordance with the
+wishes of Pope V and Cardinal Bellarmine were the Congregation of
+the Index, or cardinals having charge of the Index Librorum
+Prohibitorum.  Recent desperate attempts to fasten the
+responsibility on them as individuals seem ridiculous in view of
+the simple fact that their work was sanctioned by the highest
+Church authority, and required to be universally accepted by the
+Church. Eleven different editions of the Index in my own
+possession prove this.  Nearly all of these declare on their
+title-pages that they are issued by order of the pontiff of the
+period, and each is preface by a special papal bull or letter.
+See especially the Index of 1664, issued under order of Alexander
+VII, and that of 1761, under Benedict XIV.  Copernicus's
+statements were prohibited in the Index "donec corrigantur."
+Kepler said that it ought to be worded "donec explicetur."  See
+Bertand, Fondateurs de l'Astronomie moderne, p. 57.  De Morgan,
+pp. 57-60, gives the corrections required by the Index of 1620.
+Their main aim seems to be to reduce Copernicus to the grovelling
+level of Osiander, making his discovery a mere hypothesis; but
+occasionally they require a virtual giving up of the whole
+Copernican doctrine--e.g., "correction" insisted upon for chap.
+viii, p. 6.  For a scholarly account of the relation between
+Prohibitory and Expurgatory Indexes to each other, see Mendham,
+Literary Policy of the Church of Rome; also Reusch, Index der
+verbotenen Bucher, Bonn, 1855, vol. ii, chaps i and ii.  For a
+brief but very careful statement, see Gebler, Galileo Galilei,
+English translation, London, 1879, chap. i; see also Addis and
+Arnold's Catholic Dictionary, article Galileo, p.8.
+
+
+There was, indeed, in Europe one man who might have done much to
+check this current of unreason which was to sweep away so many
+thoughtful men on the one hand from scientific knowledge, and so
+many on the other from Christianity.  This was Peter Apian.  He
+was one of the great mathematical and astronomical scholars of
+the time.  His brilliant abilities had made him the astronomical
+teacher of the Emperor Charles V.  His work on geography had
+brought him a world-wide reputation; his work on astronomy
+brought him a patent of nobility; his improvements in
+mathematical processes and astronomical instruments brought him
+the praise of Kepler and a place in the history of science:
+never had a true man better opportunity to do a great deed.  When
+Copernicus's work appeared, Apian was at the height of his
+reputation and power:  a quiet, earnest plea from him, even if it
+had been only for ordinary fairness and a suspension of judgment,
+must have carried much weight.  His devoted pupil, Charles V, who
+sat on the thrones of Germany and Spain, must at least have given
+a hearing to such a plea.  But, unfortunately, Apian was a
+professor in an institution of learning under the strictest
+Church control--the University of Ingolstadt.  His foremost duty
+was to teach SAFE science--to keep science within the line of
+scriptural truth as interpreted by theological professors.  His
+great opportunity was lost.  Apian continued to maunder over the
+Ptolemaic theory and astrology in his lecture-room.  The attack
+on the Copernican theory he neither supported nor opposed; he was
+silent; and the cause of his silence should never be forgotten so
+long as any Church asserts its title to control university
+instruction.[49]
+
+[49] For Joseph Acosta's statement, see the translation of his
+History, published by the Hakluyt Society, chap. ii.  For Peter
+Apian, see Madler, Geschichte der Astronomie, Braunschweig, 1873,
+vol. i, p. 141.  For evidences of the special favour of Charles
+V,see Delambre, Histoire de l'Astronomie au Moyen Age, p. 390;
+also Bruhns, in the Allgemeine deutsche Biographie.  For an
+attempted apology for him, see Gunther, Peter and Philipp Apian,
+Prag, 1822, p. 62.
+
+
+Doubtless many will exclaim against the Roman Catholic Church for
+this; but the simple truth is that Protestantism was no less
+zealous against the new scientific doctrine.  All branches of the
+Protestant Church--Lutheran, Calvinist, Anglican--vied with each
+other in denouncing the Copernican doctrine as contrary to
+Scripture; and, at a later period, the Puritans showed the same
+tendency.
+
+Said Martin Luther:  "People gave ear to an upstart astrologer
+who strove to show that the earth revolves, not the heavens or
+the firmament, the sun and the moon.  Whoever wishes to appear
+clever must devise some new system, which of all systems is of
+course the very best.  This fool wishes to reverse the entire
+science of astronomy; but sacred Scripture tells us that Joshua
+commanded the sun to stand still, and not the earth."
+Melanchthon, mild as he was, was not behind Luther in condemning
+Copernicus. In his treatise on the Elements of Physics, published
+six years after Copernicus's death, he says:  "The eyes are
+witnesses that the heavens revolve in the space of twenty-four
+hours.  But certain men, either from the love of novelty, or to
+make a display of ingenuity, have concluded that the earth moves;
+and they maintain that neither the eighth sphere nor the sun
+revolves....Now, it is a want of honesty and decency to assert
+such notions publicly, and the example is pernicious.  It is the
+part of a good mind to accept the truth as revealed by God and to
+acquiesce in it."  Melanchthon then cites the passages in the
+Psalms and Ecclesiastes, which he declares assert positively and
+clearly that the earth stands fast and that the sun moves around
+it, and adds eight other proofs of his proposition that "the
+earth can be nowhere if not in the centre of the universe."  So
+earnest does this mildest of the Reformers become, that he
+suggests severe measures to restrain such impious teachings as
+those of Copernicus.[50]
+
+[50] See the Tischreden in the Walsch edition of Luther's Works,
+1743, vol. xxii, p. 2260; also Melanchthon's Initia Doctrinae
+Physicae.  This treatise is cited under a mistaken title by the
+Catholic World, September, 1870.  The correct title is as given
+above; it will be found in the Corpus Reformatorum, vol. xiii
+(ed. Bretschneider, Halle, 1846), pp. 216, 217.  See also Madler,
+vol. i, p. 176; also Lange, Geschichte des Materialismus, vol. i,
+p. 217; also Prowe, Ueber die Abhangigkeit des Copernicus, Thorn,
+1865, p. 4; also note, pp. 5, 6, where text is given in full.
+
+
+While Lutheranism was thus condemning the theory of the earth's
+movement, other branches of the Protestant Church did not remain
+behind.  Calvin took the lead, in his Commentary on Genesis, by
+condemning all who asserted that the earth is not at the centre
+of the universe.  He clinched the matter by the usual reference
+to the first verse of the ninety-third Psalm, and asked, "Who
+will venture to place the authority of Copernicus above that of
+the Holy Spirit?"  Turretin, Calvin's famous successor, even
+after Kepler and Newton had virtually completed the theory of
+Copernicus and Galileo, put forth his compendium of theology, in
+which he proved, from a multitude of scriptural texts, that the
+heavens, sun, and moon move about the earth, which stands still
+in the centre.  In England we see similar theological efforts,
+even after they had become evidently futile.  Hutchinson's
+Moses's Principia, Dr. Samuel Pike's Sacred Philosophy, the
+writings of Horne, Bishop Horsley, and President Forbes contain
+most earnest attacks upon the ideas of Newton, such attacks being
+based upon Scripture.  Dr. John Owen, so famous in the annals of
+Puritanism, declared the Copernican system a "delusive and
+arbitrary hypothesis, contrary to Scripture"; and even John
+Wesley declared the new ideas to "tend toward infidelity."[51]
+
+[51] On the teachings on Protestantism as regards the Copernican
+theory, see citations in Canon Farrar's History of
+Interpretation, preface, xviii; also Rev. Dr. Shields, of
+Princeton, The Final Philosophy, pp. 60, 61.
+
+
+And Protestant peoples were not a whit behind Catholic in
+following out such teachings.  The people of Elbing made
+themselves merry over a farce in which Copernicus was the main
+object of ridicule.  The people of Nuremberg, a Protestant
+stronghold, caused a medal to be struck with inscriptions
+ridiculing the philosopher and his theory.
+
+Why the people at large took this view is easily understood when
+we note the attitude of the guardians of learning, both Catholic
+and Protestant, in that age.  It throws great light upon sundry
+claims by modern theologians to take charge of public instruction
+and of the evolution of science.  So important was it thought to
+have "sound learning" guarded and "safe science" taught, that in
+many of the universities, as late as the end of the seventeenth
+century, professors were forced to take an oath not to hold the
+"Pythagorean"--that is, the Copernican--idea as to the movement
+of the heavenly bodies.  As the contest went on, professors were
+forbidden to make known to students the facts revealed by the
+telescope.  Special orders to this effect were issued by the
+ecclesiastical authorities to the universities and colleges of
+Pisa, Innspruck, Louvain, Douay, Salamanca, and others.  During
+generations we find the authorities of these Universities
+boasting that these godless doctrines were kept away from their
+students.  It is touching to hear such boasts made then, just as
+it is touching now to hear sundry excellent university
+authorities boast that they discourage the reading of Mill,
+Spencer, and Darwin.  Nor were such attempts to keep the truth
+from students confined to the Roman Catholic institutions of
+learning.  Strange as it may seem, nowhere were the facts
+confirming the Copernican theory more carefully kept out of sight
+than at Wittenberg--the university of Luther and Melanchthon.
+About the middle of the sixteenth century there were at that
+centre of Protestant instruction two astronomers of a very high
+order, Rheticus and Reinhold; both of these, after thorough
+study, had convinced themselves that the Copernican system was
+true, but neither of them was allowed to tell this truth to his
+students.  Neither in his lecture announcements nor in his
+published works did Rheticus venture to make the new system
+known, and he at last gave up his professorship and left
+Wittenberg, that he might have freedom to seek and tell the
+truth.  Reinhold was even more wretchedly humiliated.  Convinced
+of the truth of the new theory, he was obliged to advocate the
+old; if he mentioned the Copernican ideas, he was compelled to
+overlay them with the Ptolemaic.  Even this was not thought safe
+enough, and in 1571 the subject was intrusted to Peucer.  He was
+eminently "sound," and denounced the Copernican theory in his
+lectures as "absurd, and unfit to be introduced into the
+schools."
+
+To clinch anti-scientific ideas more firmly into German
+Protestant teaching, Rector Hensel wrote a text-book for schools
+entitled The Restored Mosaic System of the World, which showed
+the Copernican astronomy to be unscriptural.
+
+Doubtless this has a far-off sound; yet its echo comes very near
+modern Protestantism in the expulsion of Dr. Woodrow by the
+Presbyterian authorities in South Carolina; the expulsion of
+Prof. Winchell by the Methodist Episcopal authorities in
+Tennessee; the expulsion of Prof. Toy by Baptist authorities in
+Kentucky; the expulsion of the professors at Beyrout under
+authority of American Protestant divines--all for holding the
+doctrines of modern science, and in the last years of the
+nineteenth century.[52]
+
+[52] For treatment of Copernican ideas by the people, see The
+Catholic World, as above; also Melanchthon, ubi supra; also
+Prowe, Copernicus, Berlin, 1883, vol. i, p. 269, note; also pp.
+279, 280; also Madler, i, p.167. For Rector Hensel, see Rev. Dr.
+Shield's Final Philosophy, p. 60.  For details of recent
+Protestant efforts against evolution doctrines, see the chapter
+on the Fall of Man and Anthropology in this work.
+
+
+But the new truth could not be concealed; it could neither be
+laughed down nor frowned down.  Many minds had received it, but
+within the hearing of the papacy only one tongue appears to have
+dared to utter it clearly.  This new warrior was that strange
+mortal, Giordano Bruno.  He was hunted from land to land, until
+at last he turned on his pursuers with fearful invectives.  For
+this he was entrapped at Venice, imprisoned during six years in
+the dungeons of the Inquisition at Rome, then burned alive, and
+his ashes scattered to the winds.  Still, the new truth lived on.
+
+Ten years after the martyrdom of Bruno the truth of Copernicus's
+doctrine was established by the telescope of Galileo.[53]
+
+[53] For Bruno, see Bartholmess, Vie de Jordano Bruno, Paris,
+1846, vol. i, p.121 and pp. 212 et seq.; also Berti, Vita di
+Giordano Bruno, Firenze, 1868, chap. xvi; also Whewell, vol. i,
+pp. 272, 273. That Whewell is somewhat hasty in attributing
+Bruno's punishment entirely to the Spaccio della Bestia
+Trionfante will be evident, in spite of Montucla, to anyone who
+reads the account of the persecution in Bartholmess or Berti; and
+even if Whewell be right, the Spaccio would never have been
+written but for Bruno's indignation at ecclesiastical oppression.
+See Tiraboschi, vol. vii, pp. 466 et seq.
+
+
+Herein was fulfilled one of the most touching of prophecies.
+Years before, the opponents of Copernicus had said to him, "If
+your doctrines were true, Venus would show phases like the moon."
+Copernicus answered:  "You are right; I know not what to say;
+but God is good, and will in time find an answer to this
+objection."  The God-given answer came when, in 1611, the rude
+telescope of Galileo showed the phases of Venus.[54]
+
+[54] For the relation of these discoveries to Copernicus's work,
+see Delambre, Histoire de l'Astronomie moderne, discours
+preliminaire, p. xiv; also Laplace, Systeme du Monde, vol. i, p.
+326; and for more careful statements, Kepler's Opera Omnia, edit.
+Frisch, tome ii, p. 464.  For Copernicus's prophecy, see Cantu,
+Histoire Univerelle, vol. xv, p. 473.  (Cantu was an eminent
+Roman Catholic.)
+
+
+
+III.  THE WAR UPON GALILEO.
+
+
+On this new champion, Galileo, the whole war was at last
+concentrated.  His discoveries had clearly taken the Copernican
+theory out of the list of hypotheses, and had placed it before
+the world as a truth.  Against him, then, the war was long and
+bitter.  The supporters of what was called "sound learning"
+declared his discoveries deceptions and his announcements
+blasphemy.  Semi-scientific professors, endeavouring to curry
+favour with the Church, attacked him with sham science; earnest
+preachers attacked him with perverted Scripture; theologians,
+inquisitors, congregations of cardinals, and at last two popes
+dealt with him, and, as was supposed, silenced his impious
+doctrine forever.[55]
+
+[55] A very curious example of this sham science employed by
+theologians is seen in the argument, frequently used at that
+time, that, if the earth really moved, a stone falling from a
+height would fall back of a point immediately below its point of
+starting.  This is used by Fromundus with great effect.  It
+appears never to have occurred to him to test the matter by
+dropping a stone from the topmast of a ship.  Bezenburg has
+mathematically demonstrated just such an abberation in falling
+bodies, as is mathematically required by the diurnal motion of
+the earth.  See Jevons, Principles of Science, pp. 388, 389,
+second edition, 1877.
+
+
+I shall present this warfare at some length because, so far as I
+can find, no careful summary of it has been given in our
+language, since the whole history was placed in a new light by
+the revelations of the trial documents in the Vatican Library,
+honestly published for the first time by L'Epinois in 1867, and
+since that by Gebler, Berti, Favaro, and others.
+
+The first important attack on Galileo began in 1610, when he
+announced that his telescope had revealed the moons of the planet
+Jupiter.  The enemy saw that this took the Copernican theory out
+of the realm of hypothesis, and they gave battle immediately.
+They denounced both his method and its results as absurd and
+impious.  As to his method, professors bred in the "safe science"
+favoured by the Church argued that the divinely appointed way of
+arriving at the truth in astronomy was by theological reasoning
+on texts of Scripture; and, as to his results, they insisted,
+first, that Aristotle knew nothing of these new revelations;
+and, next, that the Bible showed by all applicable types that
+there could be only seven planets; that this was proved by the
+seven golden candlesticks of the Apocalypse, by the
+seven-branched candlestick of the tabernacle, and by the seven
+churches of Asia; that from Galileo's doctrine consequences must
+logically result destructive to Christian truth.  Bishops and
+priests therefore warned their flocks, and multitudes of the
+faithful besought the Inquisition to deal speedily and sharply
+with the heretic.[56]
+
+
+[56] See Delambre on the discovery of the satellites of Jupiter
+as the turning-point with the heliocentric doctrine.  As to its
+effects on Bacon, see Jevons, p. 638, as above.  For argument
+drawn from the candlestick and the seven churches, see Delambre,
+p. 20.
+
+
+In vain did Galileo try to prove the existence of satellites by
+showing them to the doubters through his telescope:  they either
+declared it impious to look, or, if they did look, denounced the
+satellites as illusions from the devil.  Good Father Clavius
+declared that "to see satellites of Jupiter, men had to make an
+instrument which would create them."  In vain did Galileo try to
+save the great truths he had discovered by his letters to the
+Benedictine Castelli and the Grand-Duchess Christine, in which he
+argued that literal biblical interpretation should not be applied
+to science; it was answered that such an argument only made his
+heresy more detestable; that he was "worse than Luther or
+Calvin."
+
+The war on the Copernican theory, which up to that time had been
+carried on quietly, now flamed forth.  It was declared that the
+doctrine was proved false by the standing still of the sun for
+Joshua, by the declarations that "the foundations of the earth
+are fixed so firm that they can not be moved," and that the sun
+"runneth about from one end of the heavens to the other."[57]
+
+[57] For principle points as given, see Libri, Histoire des
+Sciences mathematiques en Italie, vol. iv, p. 211; De Morgan,
+Paradoxes, p. 26, for account of Father Clavius.  It is
+interesting to know that Clavius, in his last years, acknowledged
+that "the whole system of the heavens is broken down, and must be
+mended," Cantu, Histoire Universelle, vol. xv, p. 478.  See Th.
+Martin, Galilee, pp. 34, 208, and 266; also Heller, Geschichte
+der Physik, Stuttgart, 1882, vol. i, p. 366.  For the original
+documents, see L'Epinois, pp.34 and 36; or better, Gebler's
+careful edition of the trial (Die Acten des Galileischen
+Processes, Stuttgart, 1877), pp. 47 et seq.  Martin's translation
+seems somewhat too free.  See also Gebler, Galileo Galilei,
+English translation, London, 1879, pp. 76-78; also Reusch, Der
+Process Galilei's und die Jesuiten, Bonn, 1879, chaps. ix, x, xi.
+
+
+But the little telescope of Galileo still swept the heavens, and
+another revelation was announced--the mountains and valleys in
+the moon.  This brought on another attack.  It was declared that
+this, and the statement that the moon shines by light reflected
+from the sun, directly contradict the statement in Genesis that
+the moon is "a great light."  To make the matter worse, a
+painter, placing the moon in a religious picture in its usual
+position beneath the feet of the Blessed Virgin, outlined on its
+surface mountains and valleys; this was denounced as a sacrilege
+logically resulting from the astronomer's heresy.
+
+Still another struggle was aroused when the hated telescope
+revealed spots upon the sun, and their motion indicating the
+sun's rotation.  Monsignor Elci, head of the University of Pisa,
+forbade the astronomer Castelli to mention these spots to his
+students.  Father Busaeus, at the University of Innspruck,
+forbade the astronomer Scheiner, who had also discovered the
+spots and proposed a SAFE explanation of them, to allow the new
+discovery to be known there.  At the College of Douay and the
+University of Louvain this discovery was expressly placed under
+the ban, and this became the general rule among the Catholic
+universities and colleges of Europe.  The Spanish universities
+were especially intolerant of this and similar ideas, and up to a
+recent period their presentation was strictly forbidden in the
+most important university of all--that of Salamanca.[58]
+
+[58] See Ticknor, History of Spanish Literature, vol. iii.
+
+
+Such are the consequences of placing the instruction of men's
+minds in the hands of those mainly absorbed in saving men's
+souls.  Nothing could be more in accordance with the idea
+recently put forth by sundry ecclesiastics, Catholic and
+Protestant, that the Church alone is empowered to promulgate
+scientific truth or direct university instruction.  But science
+gained a victory here also.  Observations of the solar spots were
+reported not only from Galileo in Italy, but from Fabricius in
+Holland.  Father Scheiner then endeavoured to make the usual
+compromise between theology and science.  He promulgated a
+pseudo-scientific theory, which only provoked derision.
+
+The war became more and more bitter.  The Dominican Father
+Caccini preached a sermon from the text, "Ye men of Galilee, why
+stand ye gazing up into heaven?" and this wretched pun upon the
+great astronomer's name ushered in sharper weapons; for, before
+Caccini ended, he insisted that "geometry is of the devil," and
+that "mathematicians should be banished as the authors of all
+heresies."  The Church authorities gave Caccini promotion.
+
+Father Lorini proved that Galileo's doctrine was not only
+heretical but "atheistic," and besought the Inquisition to
+intervene.  The Bishop of Fiesole screamed in rage against the
+Copernican system, publicly insulted Galileo, and denounced him
+to the Grand-Duke.  The Archbishop of Pisa secretly sought to
+entrap Galileo and deliver him to the Inquisition at Rome.  The
+Archbishop of Florence solemnly condemned the new doctrines as
+unscriptural; and Paul V, while petting Galileo, and inviting
+him as the greatest astronomer of the world to visit Rome, was
+secretly moving the Archbishop of Pisa to pick up evidence
+against the astronomer.
+
+But by far the most terrible champion who now appeared was
+Cardinal Bellarmin, one of the greatest theologians the world has
+known.  He was earnest, sincere, and learned, but insisted on
+making science conform to Scripture.  The weapons which men of
+Bellarmin's stamp used were purely theological.  They held up
+before the world the dreadful consequences which must result to
+Christian theology were the heavenly bodies proved to revolve
+about the sun and not about the earth.  Their most tremendous
+dogmatic engine was the statement that "his pretended discovery
+vitiates the whole Christian plan of salvation."  Father Lecazre
+declared "it casts suspicion on the doctrine of the incarnation."
+Others declared, "It upsets the whole basis of theology.  If the
+earth is a planet, and only one among several planets, it can not
+be that any such great things have been done specially for it as
+the Christian doctrine teaches.  If there are other planets,
+since God makes nothing in vain, they must be inhabited; but how
+can their inhabitants be descended from Adam?  How can they trace
+back their origin to Noah's ark?  How can they have been redeemed
+by the Saviour?"  Nor was this argument confined to the
+theologians of the Roman Church; Melanchthon, Protestant as he
+was, had already used it in his attacks on Copernicus and his
+school.
+
+In addition to this prodigious theological engine of war there
+was kept up a fire of smaller artillery in the shape of texts and
+scriptural extracts.
+
+But the war grew still more bitter, and some weapons used in it
+are worth examining.  They are very easily examined, for they are
+to be found on all the battlefields of science; but on that
+field they were used with more effect than on almost any other.
+These weapons are the epithets "infidel" and "atheist."  They
+have been used against almost every man who has ever done
+anything new for his fellow-men.  The list of those who have been
+denounced as "infidel" and "atheist" includes almost all great
+men of science, general scholars, inventors, and philanthropists.
+
+The purest Christian life, the noblest Christian character, have
+not availed to shield combatants.  Christians like Isaac Newton,
+Pascal, Locke, Milton, and even Fenelon and Howard, have had this
+weapon hurled against them.  Of all proofs of the existence of a
+God, those of Descartes have been wrought most thoroughly into
+the minds of modern men; yet the Protestant theologians of
+Holland sought to bring him to torture and to death by the charge
+of atheism, and the Roman Catholic theologians of France thwarted
+him during his life and prevented any due honours to him after
+his death.[59]
+
+[59] For various objectors and objections to Galileo by his
+contemporaries, see Libri, Histoire des Sciences mathematiques en
+Italie, vol. iv, p. 233, 234; also Martin, Vie de Galilee.  For
+Father Lecazre's argument, see Flammarion, Mondes imaginaires et
+mondes reels, 6th ed., pp. 315, 316.  For Melanchthon's argument,
+see his Initia in Opera, vol. iii, Halle, 1846.
+
+
+These epithets can hardly be classed with civilized weapons.
+They are burning arrows; they set fire to masses of popular
+prejudice, always obscuring the real question, sometimes
+destroying the attacking party.  They are poisoned weapons.  They
+pierce the hearts of loving women; they alienate dear children;
+they injure a man after life is ended, for they leave poisoned
+wounds in the hearts of those who loved him best--fears for his
+eternal salvation, dread of the Divine wrath upon him.  Of
+course, in these days these weapons, though often effective in
+vexing good men and in scaring good women, are somewhat blunted;
+indeed, they not infrequently injure the assailants more than the
+assailed.  So it was not in the days of Galileo; they were then
+in all their sharpness and venom.[60]
+
+[60] For curious exemplification of the way in which these
+weapons have been hurled, see lists of persons charged with
+"infidelity" and "atheism," in the Dictionnaire des Athees.,
+Paris, [1800]; also Lecky, History of Rationalism, vol. ii, p.
+50.  For the case of Descartes, see Saisset, Descartes et ses
+Precurseurs, pp. 103, 110.  For the facility with which the term
+"atheist" has been applied from the early Aryans down to
+believers in evolution, see Tylor, Primitive Culture, vol. i, p.
+420.
+
+
+Yet a baser warfare was waged by the Archbishop of Pisa.  This
+man, whose cathedral derives its most enduring fame from
+Galileo's deduction of a great natural law from the swinging lamp
+before its altar, was not an archbishop after the noble mould of
+Borromeo and Fenelon and Cheverus.  Sadly enough for the Church
+and humanity, he was simply a zealot and intriguer:  he perfected
+the plan for entrapping the great astronomer.
+
+Galileo, after his discoveries had been denounced, had written to
+his friend Castelli and to the Grand-Duchess Christine two
+letters to show that his discoveries might be reconciled with
+Scripture.  On a hint from the Inquisition at Rome, the
+archbishop sought to get hold of these letters and exhibit them
+as proofs that Galileo had uttered heretical views of theology
+and of Scripture, and thus to bring him into the clutch of the
+Inquisition.  The archbishop begs Castelli, therefore, to let him
+see the original letter in the handwriting of Galileo.  Castelli
+declines.  The archbishop then, while, as is now revealed,
+writing constantly and bitterly to the Inquisition against
+Galileo, professes to Castelli the greatest admiration of
+Galileo's genius and a sincere desire to know more of his
+discoveries.  This not succeeding, the archbishop at last throws
+off the mask and resorts to open attack.
+
+The whole struggle to crush Galileo and to save him would be
+amusing were it not so fraught with evil.  There were intrigues
+and counter-intrigues, plots and counter-plots, lying and spying;
+and in the thickest of this seething, squabbling, screaming mass
+of priests, bishops, archbishops, and cardinals, appear two
+popes, Paul V and Urban VIII.  It is most suggestive to see in
+this crisis of the Church, at the tomb of the prince of the
+apostles, on the eve of the greatest errors in Church policy the
+world has known, in all the intrigues and deliberations of these
+consecrated leaders of the Church, no more evidence of the
+guidance or presence of the Holy Spirit than in a caucus of New
+York politicians at Tammany Hall.
+
+But the opposing powers were too strong.  In 1615 Galileo was
+summoned before the Inquisition at Rome, and the mine which had
+been so long preparing was sprung.  Sundry theologians of the
+Inquisition having been ordered to examine two propositions which
+had been extracted from Galileo's letters on the solar spots,
+solemnly considered these points during about a month and
+rendered their unanimous decision as follows:  "THE FIRST
+PROPOSITION, THAT THE SUN IS THE CENTRE AND DOES NOT REVOLVE
+ABOUT THE EARTH, IS FOOLISH, ABSURD, FALSE IN THEOLOGY, AND
+HERETICAL, BECAUSE EXPRESSLY CONTRARY TO HOLY SCRIPTURE"; AND
+"THE SECOND PROPOSITION, THAT THE EARTH IS NOT THE CENTRE BUT
+REVOLVES ABOUT THE SUN, IS ABSURD, FALSE IN PHILOSOPHY, AND, FROM
+A THEOLOGICAL POINT OF VIEW AT LEAST, OPPOSED TO THE TRUE
+FAITH."
+
+The Pope himself, Paul V, now intervened again:  he ordered that
+Galileo be brought before the Inquisition.  Then the greatest man
+of science in that age was brought face to face with the greatest
+theologian--Galileo was confronted by Bellarmin.  Bellarmin shows
+Galileo the error of his opinion and orders him to renounce it.
+De Lauda, fortified by a letter from the Pope, gives orders that
+the astronomer be placed in the dungeons of the Inquisition
+should he refuse to yield.  Bellarmin now commands Galileo, "in
+the name of His Holiness the Pope and the whole Congregation of
+the Holy Office, to relinquish altogether the opinion that the
+sun is the centre of the world and immovable, and that the earth
+moves, nor henceforth to hold, teach, or defend it in any way
+whatsoever, verbally or in writing."  This injunction Galileo
+acquiesces in and promises to obey.[61]
+
+[61] I am aware that the theory  proposed by Wohwill and
+developed by Gebler denied that this promise was ever made by
+Galileo, and holds that the passage was a forgery devised later
+by the Church rulers to justify the proceedings of 1632 and 1644.
+This would make the conduct of the Church worse, but authorities
+as eminent consider the charge not proved.  A careful examination
+of the documents seems to disprove it.
+
+
+This was on the 26th of February, 1616.  About a fortnight later
+the Congregation of the Index, moved thereto, as the letters and
+documents now brought to light show, by Pope Paul V, solemnly
+rendered a decree that "THE DOCTRINE OF THE DOUBLE MOTION OF THE
+EARTH ABOUT ITS AXIS AND ABOUT THE SUN IS FALSE, AND ENTIRELY
+CONTRARY TO HOLY SCRIPTURE"; and that this opinion must neither
+be taught nor advocated.  The same decree condemned all writings
+of Copernicus and "ALL WRITINGS WHICH AFFIRM THE MOTION OF THE
+EARTH."  The great work of Copernicus was interdicted until
+corrected in accordance with the views of the Inquisition; and
+the works of Galileo and Kepler, though not mentioned by name at
+that time, were included among those implicitly condemned as
+"affirming the motion of the earth."
+
+The condemnations were inscribed upon the Index; and, finally,
+the papacy committed itself as an infallible judge and teacher to
+the world by prefixing to the Index the usual papal bull giving
+its monitions the most solemn papal sanction.  To teach or even
+read the works denounced or passages condemned was to risk
+persecution in this world and damnation in the next.  Science had
+apparently lost the decisive battle.
+
+For a time after this judgment Galileo remained in Rome,
+apparently hoping to find some way out of this difficulty; but
+he soon discovered the hollowness of the protestations made to
+him by ecclesiastics, and, being recalled to Florence, remained
+in his hermitage near the city in silence, working steadily,
+indeed, but not publishing anything save by private letters to
+friends in various parts of Europe.
+
+But at last a better vista seemed to open for him.  Cardinal
+Barberini, who had seemed liberal and friendly, became pope under
+the name of Urban VIII.  Galileo at this conceived new hopes, and
+allowed his continued allegiance to the Copernican system to be
+known.  New troubles ensued.  Galileo was induced to visit Rome
+again, and Pope Urban tried to cajole him into silence,
+personally taking the trouble to show him his errors by argument.
+Other opponents were less considerate, for works appeared
+attacking his ideas--works all the more unmanly, since their
+authors knew that Galileo was restrained by force from defending
+himself.  Then, too, as if to accumulate proofs of the unfitness
+of the Church to take charge of advanced instruction, his salary
+as a professor at the University of Pisa was taken from him, and
+sapping and mining began.  Just as the Archbishop of Pisa some
+years before had tried to betray him with honeyed words to the
+Inquisition, so now Father Grassi tried it, and, after various
+attempts to draw him out by flattery, suddenly denounced his
+scientific ideas as "leading to a denial of the Real Presence in
+the Eucharist."
+
+For the final assault upon him a park of heavy artillery was at
+last wheeled into place.  It may be seen on all the scientific
+battlefields.  It consists of general denunciation; and in 1631
+Father Melchior Inchofer, of the Jesuits, brought his artillery
+to bear upon Galileo with this declaration:  "The opinion of the
+earth's motion is of all heresies the most abominable, the most
+pernicious, the most scandalous; the immovability of the earth
+is thrice sacred; argument against the immortality of the soul,
+the existence of God, and the incarnation, should be tolerated
+sooner than an argument to prove that the earth moves."  From the
+other end of Europe came a powerful echo.
+
+From the shadow of the Cathedral of Antwerp, the noted theologian
+Fromundus gave forth his famous treatise, the Ant-Aristarclius.
+Its very title-page was a contemptuous insult to the memory of
+Copernicus, since it paraded the assumption that the new truth
+was only an exploded theory of a pagan astronomer.  Fromundus
+declares that "sacred Scripture fights against the Copernicans."
+To prove that the sun revolves about the earth, he cites the
+passage in the Psalms which speaks of the sun "which cometh forth
+as a bridegroom out of his chamber."  To prove that the earth
+stands still, he quotes a passage from Ecclesiastes, "The earth
+standeth fast forever."  To show the utter futility of the
+Copernican theory, he declares that, if it were true, "the wind
+would constantly blow from the east"; and that "buildings and
+the earth itself would fly off with such a rapid motion that men
+would have to be provided with claws like cats to enable them to
+hold fast to the earth's surface."  Greatest weapon of all, he
+works up, by the use of Aristotle and St. Thomas Aquinas, a
+demonstration from theology and science combined, that the earth
+MUST stand in the centre, and that the sun MUST revolve about
+it.[62] Nor was it merely fanatics who opposed the truth
+revealed by Copernicus; such strong men as Jean Bodin, in
+France, and Sir Thomas Browne, in England, declared against it as
+evidently contrary to Holy Scripture.
+
+[62] For Father Inchofer's attack, see his Tractatus Syllepticus,
+cited in Galileo's letter to Deodati, July 28, 1634.  For
+Fromundus's more famous attack, see his Ant-Aristarchus, already
+cited, passim, but especially the heading of chap. vi, and the
+argument in chapters x and xi.  A copy of this work may be found
+in the Astor Library at New York, and another in the White
+Library at Cornell University.  For interesting references to one
+of Fromundus's arguments, showing, by a mixture of mathematics
+and theology, that the earth is the centre of the universe, see
+Quetelet, Histoire des Sciences mathematiques et physiques,
+Bruxelles, 1864, p. 170; also Madler, Geschichte der Astronomie,
+vol. i, p. 274.  For Bodin's opposition to the Copernican theory,
+see Hallam, Literature of Europe; also Lecky.  For Sir Thomas
+Brown, see his Vulgar and Common Errors, book iv, chap. v; and as
+to the real reason for his disbelief in the Copernican view, see
+Dr. Johnson's preface to his Life of Browne, vol. i, p. xix, of
+his collected works.
+
+
+
+IV.  VICTORY OF THE CHURCH OVER GALILEO.
+
+
+While news of triumphant attacks upon him and upon the truth he
+had established were coming in from all parts of Europe, Galileo
+prepared a careful treatise in the form of a dialogue, exhibiting
+the arguments for and against the Copernican and Ptolemaic
+systems, and offered to submit to any conditions that the Church
+tribunals might impose, if they would allow it to be printed.  At
+last, after discussions which extended through eight years, they
+consented, imposing a humiliating condition--a preface written in
+accordance with the ideas of Father Ricciardi, Master of the
+Sacred Palace, and signed by Galileo, in which the Copernican
+theory was virtually exhibited as a play of the imagination, and
+not at all as opposed to the Ptolemaic doctrine reasserted in
+1616 by the Inquisition under the direction of Pope Paul V.
+
+This new work of Galileo--the Dialogo--appeared in 1632, and met
+with prodigious success.  It put new weapons into the hands of
+the supporters of the Copernican theory.  The pious preface was
+laughed at from one end of Europe to the other.  This roused the
+enemy; the Jesuits, Dominicans, and the great majority of the
+clergy returned to the attack more violent than ever, and in the
+midst of them stood Pope Urban VIII, most bitter of all.  His
+whole power was now thrown against Galileo.  He was touched in
+two points:  first, in his personal vanity, for Galileo had put
+the Pope's arguments into the mouth of one of the persons in the
+dialogue and their refutation into the mouth of another; but,
+above all, he was touched in his religious feelings.  Again and
+again His Holiness insisted to all comers on the absolute and
+specific declarations of Holy Scripture, which prove that the sun
+and heavenly bodies revolve about the earth, and declared that to
+gainsay them is simply to dispute revelation.  Certainly, if one
+ecclesiastic more than another ever seemed NOT under the care of
+the Spirit of Truth, it was Urban VIII in all this matter.
+
+Herein was one of the greatest pieces of ill fortune that has
+ever befallen the older Church.  Had Pope Urban been broad-minded
+and tolerant like Benedict XIV, or had he been taught moderation
+by adversity like Pius VII, or had he possessed the large
+scholarly qualities of Leo XIII, now reigning, the vast scandal
+of the Galileo case would never have burdened the Church:
+instead of devising endless quibbles and special pleadings to
+escape responsibility for this colossal blunder, its defenders
+could have claimed forever for the Church the glory of fearlessly
+initiating a great epoch in human thought.
+
+But it was not so to be.  Urban was not merely Pope; he was also
+a prince of the house of Barberini, and therefore doubly angry
+that his arguments had been publicly controverted.
+
+The opening strategy of Galileo's enemies was to forbid the sale
+of his work; but this was soon seen to be unavailing, for the
+first edition had already been spread throughout Europe.  Urban
+now became more angry than ever, and both Galileo and his works
+were placed in the hands of the Inquisition.  In vain did the
+good Benedictine Castelli urge that Galileo was entirely
+respectful to the Church; in vain did he insist that "nothing
+that can be done can now hinder the earth from revolving."  He
+was dismissed in disgrace, and Galileo was forced to appear in
+the presence of the dread tribunal without defender or adviser.
+There, as was so long concealed, but as is now fully revealed, he
+was menaced with torture again and again by express order of Pope
+Urban, and, as is also thoroughly established from the trial
+documents themselves, forced to abjure under threats, and
+subjected to imprisonment by command of the Pope; the Inquisition
+deferring in this whole matter to the papal authority.  All the
+long series of attempts made in the supposed interest of the
+Church to mystify these transactions have at last failed.  The
+world knows now that Galileo was subjected certainly to
+indignity, to imprisonment, and to threats equivalent to torture,
+and was at last forced to pronounce publicly and on his knees his
+recantation, as follows:
+
+"I, Galileo, being in my seventieth year, being a prisoner and on
+my knees, and before your Eminences, having before my eyes the
+Holy Gospel, which I touch with my hands, abjure, curse, and
+detest the error and the heresy of the movement of the
+earth."[63]
+
+[63] For various utterances of Pope Urban against the Copernican
+theory at this period, see extracts from the original documents
+given by Gebler.  For punishment of those who had shown some
+favor to Galileo, see various citations, and especially those
+from the Vatican manuscript, Gebler, p. 216.  As to the text of
+the abjuration, see L'Epinois; also Polacco, Anticopernicus,
+etc., Venice, 1644; and for a discussion regarding its
+publication, see Favaro, Miscellanea Galileana, p. 804.  It is
+not probable that torture in the ordinary sense was administered
+to Galileo, though it was threatened.  See Th. Martin, Vie de
+Galilee, for a fair summing up of the case.
+
+
+He was vanquished indeed, for he had been forced, in the face of
+all coming ages, to perjure himself.  To complete his dishonour,
+he was obliged to swear that he would denounce to the Inquisition
+any other man of science whom he should discover to be supporting
+the "heresy of the motion of the earth."
+
+Many have wondered at this abjuration, and on account of it have
+denied to Galileo the title of martyr.  But let such gainsayers
+consider the circumstances.  Here was an old man--one who had
+reached the allotted threescore years and ten--broken with
+disappointments, worn out with labours and cares, dragged from
+Florence to Rome, with the threat from the Pope himself that if
+he delayed he should be "brought in chains"; sick in body and
+mind, given over to his oppressors by the Grand-Duke who ought to
+have protected him, and on his arrival in Rome threatened with
+torture.  What the Inquisition was he knew well.  He could
+remember as but of yesterday the burning of Giordano Bruno in
+that same city for scientific and philosophic heresy; he could
+remember, too, that only eight years before this very time De
+Dominis, Archbishop of Spalatro, having been seized by the
+Inquisition for scientific and other heresies, had died in a
+dungeon, and that his body and his writings had been publicly
+burned.
+
+To the end of his life--nay, after his life was ended--the
+persecution of Galileo was continued.  He was kept in exile from
+his family, from his friends, from his noble employments, and was
+held rigidly to his promise not to speak of his theory.  When, in
+the midst of intense bodily sufferings from disease, and mental
+sufferings from calamities in his family, he besought some little
+liberty, he was met with threats of committal to a dungeon.
+When, at last, a special commission had reported to the
+ecclesiastical authorities that he had become blind and wasted
+with disease and sorrow, he was allowed a little more liberty,
+but that little was hampered by close surveillance.  He was
+forced to bear contemptible attacks on himself and on his works
+in silence; to see the men who had befriended him severely
+punished; Father Castelli banished; Ricciardi, the Master of the
+Sacred Palace, and Ciampoli, the papal secretary, thrown out of
+their positions by Pope Urban, and the Inquisitor at Florence
+reprimanded for having given permission to print Galileo's work.
+He lived to see the truths he had established carefully weeded
+out from all the Church colleges and universities in Europe; and,
+when in a scientific work he happened to be spoken of as
+"renowned," the Inquisition ordered the substitution of the word
+"notorious."[64]
+
+[64] For the substitution of the word "notorious" for "renowned"
+by order of the Inquisition, see Martin, p.227.
+
+
+And now measures were taken to complete the destruction of the
+Copernican theory, with Galileo's proofs of it.  On the 16th of
+June, 1633, the Holy Congregation, with the permission of the
+reigning Pope, ordered the sentence upon Galileo, and his
+recantation, to be sent to all the papal nuncios throughout
+Europe, as well as to all archbishops, bishops, and inquisitors
+in Italy and this document gave orders that the sentence and
+abjuration be made known "to your vicars, that you and all
+professors of philosophy and mathematics may have knowledge of
+it, that they may know why we proceeded against the said Galileo,
+and recognise the gravity of his error, in order that they may
+avoid it, and thus not incur the penalties which they would have
+to suffer in case they fell into the same."[65]
+
+[65] For a copy of this document, see Gebler, p. 269.  As to the
+spread of this and similar documents notifying Europe of
+Galileo's condemnation, see Favaro, pp. 804, 805.
+
+
+As a consequence, the processors of mathematics and astronomy in
+various universities of Europe were assembled and these documents
+were read to them.  To the theological authorities this gave
+great satisfaction.  The Rector of the University of Douay,
+referring to the opinion of Galileo, wrote to the papal nuncio at
+Brussels: "The professors of our university are so opposed to
+this fanatical opinion that they have always held that it must be
+banished from the schools.  In our English college at Douay this
+paradox has never been approved and never will be."
+
+Still another step was taken:  the Inquisitors were ordered,
+especially in Italy, not to permit the publication of a new
+edition of any of Galileo's works, or of any similar writings.
+On the other hand, theologians were urged, now that Copernicus
+and Galileo and Kepler were silenced, to reply to them with
+tongue and pen.  Europe was flooded with these theological
+refutations of the Copernican system.
+
+To make all complete, there was prefixed to the Index of the
+Church, forbidding "all writings which affirm the motion of the
+earth," a bull signed by the reigning Pope, which, by virtue of
+his infallibility as a divinely guided teacher in matters of
+faith and morals, clinched this condemnation into the consciences
+of the whole Christian world.
+
+From the mass of books which appeared under the auspices of the
+Church immediately after the condemnation of Galileo, for the
+purpose of rooting out every vestige of the hated Copernican
+theory from the mind of the world, two may be taken as typical.
+The first of these was a work by Scipio Chiaramonti, dedicated to
+Cardinal Barberini.  Among his arguments against the double
+motion of the earth may be cited the following:
+
+"Animals, which move, have limbs and muscles; the earth has no
+limbs or muscles, therefore it does not move.  It is angels who
+make Saturn, Jupiter, the sun, etc., turn round.  If the earth
+revolves, it must also have an angel in the centre to set it in
+motion; but only devils live there; it would therefore be a
+devil who would impart motion to the earth....
+
+"The planets, the sun, the fixed stars, all belong to one
+species--namely, that of stars.  It seems, therefore, to be a
+grievous wrong to place the earth, which is a sink of impurity,
+among these heavenly bodies, which are pure and divine things."
+
+The next, which I select from the mass of similar works, is the
+Anticopernicus Catholicus of Polacco.  It was intended to deal a
+finishing stroke at Galileo's heresy.  In this it is declared:
+
+"The Scripture always represents the earth as at rest, and the
+sun and moon as in motion; or, if these latter bodies are ever
+represented as at rest, Scripture represents this as the result
+of a great miracle....
+
+"These writings must be prohibited, because they teach certain
+principles about the position and motion of the terrestrial globe
+repugnant to Holy Scripture and to the Catholic interpretation of
+it, not as hypotheses but as established facts...."
+
+Speaking of Galileo's book, Polacco says that it "smacked of
+Copernicanism," and that, "when this was shown to the
+Inquisition, Galileo was thrown into prison and was compelled to
+utterly abjure the baseness of this erroneous dogma."
+
+As to the authority of the cardinals in their decree, Polacco
+asserts that, since they are the "Pope's Council" and his
+"brothers," their work is one, except that the Pope is favoured
+with special divine enlightenment.
+
+Having shown that the authority of the Scriptures, of popes, and
+of cardinals is against the new astronomy, he gives a refutation
+based on physics.  He asks:  "If we concede the motion of the
+earth, why is it that an arrow shot into the air falls back to
+the same spot, while the earth and all things on it have in the
+meantime moved very rapidly toward the east? Who does not see
+that great confusion would result from this motion?"
+
+Next he argues from metaphysics, as follows:  "The Copernican
+theory of the earth's motion is against the nature of the earth
+itself, because the earth is not only cold but contains in itself
+the principle of cold; but cold is opposed to motion, and even
+destroys it--as is evident in animals, which become motionless
+when they become cold."
+
+Finally, he clinches all with a piece of theological reasoning,
+as follows:  "Since it can certainly be gathered from Scripture
+that the heavens move above the earth, and since a circular
+motion requires something immovable around which to move,... the
+earth is at the centre of the universe."[66]
+
+[66] For Chiaramonti's book and selections given, see Gebler as
+above, p. 271.  For Polacco, see his work as cited, especially
+Assertiones i, ii, vii, xi, xiii, lxxiii, clcccvii, and others.
+The work is in the White Library at Cornell University.  The date
+of it is 1644.
+
+
+But any sketch of the warfare between theology and science in
+this field would be incomplete without some reference to the
+treatment of Galileo after his death.  He had begged to be buried
+in his family tomb in Santa Croce; this request was denied.  His
+friends wished to erect a monument over him; this, too, was
+refused.  Pope Urban said to the ambassador Niccolini that "it
+would be an evil example for the world if such honours were
+rendered to a man who had been brought before the Roman
+Inquisition for an opinion so false and erroneous; who had
+communicated it to many others, and who had given so great a
+scandal to Christendom."  In accordance, therefore, with the wish
+of the Pope and the orders of the Inquisition, Galileo was buried
+ignobly, apart from his family, without fitting ceremony, without
+monument, without epitaph.  Not until forty years after did
+Pierrozzi dare write an inscription to be placed above his bones;
+not until a hundred years after did Nelli dare transfer his
+remains to a suitable position in Santa Croce, and erect a
+monument above them.  Even then the old conscientious hostility
+burst forth:  the Inquisition was besought to prevent such
+honours to "a man condemned for notorious errors"; and that
+tribunal refused to allow any epitaph to be placed above him
+which had not been submitted to its censorship.  Nor has that old
+conscientious consistency in hatred yet fully relented:  hardly a
+generation since has not seen some ecclesiastic, like Marini or
+De Bonald or Rallaye or De Gabriac, suppressing evidence, or
+torturing expressions, or inventing theories to blacken the
+memory of Galileo and save the reputation of the Church.  Nay,
+more:  there are school histories, widely used, which, in the
+supposed interest of the Church, misrepresent in the grossest
+manner all these transactions in which Galileo was concerned.
+Sancta simplicitas! The Church has no worse enemies than those
+who devise and teach these perversions.  They are simply rooting
+out, in the long run, from the minds of the more thoughtful
+scholars, respect for the great organization which such writings
+are supposed to serve.[67]
+
+[67] For the persecutions of Galileo's memory after his death,
+see Gebler and Wohwill, but especially Th. Martin, p. 243 and
+chaps. ix and x.  For documentary proofs, see L'Epinois.  For a
+collection of the slanderous theories invented against Galileo,
+see Martin, final chapters and appendix.  Both these authors are
+devoted to the Church, but unlike Monsignor Marini, are too
+upright to resort to the pious fraud of suppressing documents or
+interpolating pretended facts.
+
+
+The Protestant Church was hardly less energetic against this new
+astronomy than the mother Church.  The sacred science of the
+first Lutheran Reformers was transmitted as a precious legacy,
+and in the next century was made much of by Calovius.  His great
+learning and determined orthodoxy gave him the Lutheran
+leadership.  Utterly refusing to look at ascertained facts, he
+cited the turning back of the shadow upon King Hezekiah's dial
+and the standing still of the sun for Joshua, denied the movement
+of the earth, and denounced the whole new view as clearly opposed
+to Scripture.  To this day his arguments are repeated by sundry
+orthodox leaders of American Lutheranism.
+
+As to the other branches of the Reformed Church, we have already
+seen how Calvinists, Anglicans, and, indeed, Protestant
+sectarians generally, opposed the new truth.[68]
+
+[68] For Clovius, see Zoeckler, Geschichte, vol. i, pp. 684 and
+763.  For Calvin and Turretin, see Shields, The Final Philosophy,
+pp. 60, 61.
+
+
+In England, among the strict churchmen, the great Dr. South
+denounced the Royal Society as "irreligious," and among the
+Puritans the eminent John Owen declared that Newton's discoveries
+were "built on fallible phenomena and advanced by many arbitrary
+presumptions against evident testimonies of Scripture."  Even
+Milton seems to have hesitated between the two systems.  At the
+beginning of the eighth book of Paradise Lost he makes Adam state
+the difficulties of the Ptolemaic system, and then brings forward
+an angel to make the usual orthodox answers.  Later, Milton seems
+to lean toward the Copernican theory, for, referring to the
+earth, he says:
+
+"Or she from west her silent course advance
+With inoffensive pace, that spinning sleeps
+On her soft axle, while she faces even
+And bears thee soft with the smooth air along."
+
+
+English orthodoxy continued to assert itself.  In 1724 John
+Hutchinson, professor at Cambridge, published his Moses'
+Principia, a system of philosophy in which he sought to build up
+a complete physical system of the universe from the Bible.  In
+this he assaulted the Newtonian theory as "atheistic," and led
+the way for similar attacks by such Church teachers as Horne,
+Duncan Forbes, and Jones of Nayland.  But one far greater than
+these involved himself in this view.  That same limitation of his
+reason by the simple statements of Scripture which led John
+Wesley to declare that, "unless witchcraft is true, nothing in
+the Bible is true," led him, while giving up the Ptolemaic theory
+and accepting in a general way the Copernican, to suspect the
+demonstrations of Newton.  Happily, his inborn nobility of
+character lifted him above any bitterness or persecuting spirit,
+or any imposition of doctrinal tests which could prevent those
+who came after him from finding their way to the truth.
+
+But in the midst of this vast expanse of theologic error signs of
+right reason began to appear, both in England and America.
+Noteworthy is it that Cotton Mather, bitter as was his orthodoxy
+regarding witchcraft, accepted, in 1721, the modern astronomy
+fully, with all its consequences.
+
+In the following year came an even more striking evidence that
+the new scientific ideas were making their way in England.  In
+1722 Thomas Burnet published the sixth edition of his Sacred
+Theory of the Earth.  In this he argues, as usual, to establish
+the scriptural doctrine of the earth's stability; but in his
+preface he sounds a remarkable warning.  He mentions the great
+mistake into which St. Augustine led the Church regarding the
+doctrine of the antipodes, and says, "If within a few years or in
+the next generation it should prove as certain and demonstrable
+that the earth is moved, as it is now that there are antipodes,
+those that have been zealous against it, and engaged the
+Scripture in the controversy, would have the same reason to
+repent of their forwardness that St. Augustine would now, if he
+were still alive."
+
+Fortunately, too, Protestantism had no such power to oppose the
+development of the Copernican ideas as the older Church had
+enjoyed.  Yet there were some things in its warfare against
+science even more indefensible.  In 1772 the famous English
+expedition for scientific discovery sailed from England under
+Captain Cook.  Greatest by far of all the scientific authorities
+chosen to accompany it was Dr. Priestley.  Sir Joseph Banks had
+especially invited him.  But the clergy of Oxford and Cambridge
+interfered.  Priestley was considered unsound in his views of the
+Trinity; it was evidently suspected that this might vitiate his
+astronomical observations; he was rejected, and the expedition
+crippled.
+
+The orthodox view of astronomy lingered on in other branches of
+the Protestant Church.  In Germany even Leibnitz attacked the
+Newtonian theory of gravitation on theological grounds, though he
+found some little consolation in thinking that it might be used
+to support the Lutheran doctrine of consubstantiation.
+
+In Holland the Calvinistic Church was at first strenuous against
+the whole new system, but we possess a comical proof that
+Calvinism even in its strongholds was powerless against it; for
+in 1642 Blaer published at Amsterdam his book on the use of
+globes, and, in order to be on the safe side, devoted one part of
+his work to the Ptolemaic and the other to the Copernican scheme,
+leaving the benevolent reader to take his choice.[69]
+
+[69] For the attitude of Leibnetz, Hutchinson, and the others
+named toward the Newtonian theory, see Lecky, History of England
+in the Eighteenth Century, chap. ix.  For John Wesley, see his
+Compendium of Natural Philosophy, being a Survey of the Wisdom of
+God in the Creation, London, 1784.  See also Leslie Stephen,
+Eighteenth Century, vol. ii, p. 413.  For Owen, see his Works,
+vol. xix, p. 310.  For Cotton Mather's view, see The Christian
+Philosopher, London, 1721, especially pp. 16 and 17.  For the
+case of Priestley, see Weld, History of the Royal Society, vol.
+ii, p. 56, for the facts and the admirable letter of Priestley
+upon this rejection.  For Blaer, see his L'Usage des Globes,
+Amsterdam, 1642.
+
+
+Nor have efforts to renew the battle in the Protestant Church
+been wanting in these latter days.  The attempt in the Church of
+England, in 1864, to fetter science, which was brought to
+ridicule by Herschel, Bowring, and De Morgan; the assemblage of
+Lutheran clergy at Berlin, in 1868, to protest against "science
+falsely so called," are examples of these.  Fortunately, to the
+latter came Pastor Knak, and his denunciations of the Copernican
+theory as absolutely incompatible with a belief in the Bible,
+dissolved the whole assemblage in ridicule.
+
+In its recent dealings with modern astronomy the wisdom of the
+Catholic Church in the more civilized countries has prevented its
+yielding to some astounding errors into which one part of the
+Protestant Church has fallen heedlessly.
+
+Though various leaders in the older Church have committed the
+absurd error of allowing a text-book and sundry review articles
+to appear which grossly misstate the Galileo episode, with the
+certainty of ultimately undermining confidence in her teachings
+among her more thoughtful young men, she has kept clear of the
+folly of continuing to tie her instruction, and the acceptance of
+our sacred books, to an adoption of the Ptolemaic theory.
+
+Not so with American Lutheranism.  In 1873 was published in St.
+Louis, at the publishing house of the Lutheran Synod of Missouri,
+a work entitled Astronomische Unterredung, the author being well
+known as a late president of a Lutheran Teachers' Seminary.
+
+No attack on the whole modern system of astronomy could be more
+bitter.  On the first page of the introduction the author, after
+stating the two theories, asks, "Which is right?" and says:  "It
+would be very simple to me which is right, if it were only a
+question of human import.  But the wise and truthful God has
+expressed himself on this matter in the Bible.  The entire Holy
+Scripture settles the question that the earth is the principal
+body (Hauptkorper) of the universe, that it stands fixed, and
+that sun and moon only serve to light it."
+
+The author then goes on to show from Scripture the folly, not
+only of Copernicus and Newton, but of a long line of great
+astronomers in more recent times.  He declares:  "Let no one
+understand me as inquiring first where truth is to be found--in
+the Bible or with the astronomers.  No; I know that
+beforehand--that my God never lies, never makes a mistake; out
+of his mouth comes only truth, when he speaks of the structure of
+the universe, of the earth, sun, moon, and stars....
+
+"Because the truth of the Holy Scripture is involved in this,
+therefore the above question is of the highest importance to
+me....Scientists and others lean upon the miserable reed
+(Rohrstab) that God teaches only the order of salvation, but not
+the order of the universe."
+
+Very noteworthy is the fact that this late survival of an ancient
+belief based upon text-worship is found, not in the teachings of
+any zealous priest of the mother Church, but in those of an
+eminent professor in that branch of Protestantism which claims
+special enlightenment.[70]
+
+[70] For the amusing details of the attempt in the English Church
+to repress science, and of the way in which it was met, see De
+Morgan, Paradoxes, p. 42.  For Pastor Knak and his associates,
+see the Revue des Deux Mondes, 1868.  Of the recent Lutheran
+works against the Copernican astronomy, see especially
+Astronomische Unterredung zwischen einem Liebhaber der Astronomie
+und mehreren beruhmten Astronomer der Neuzeit, by J. C. W. L.,
+St. Louis, 1873.
+
+
+Nor has the warfare against the dead champions of science been
+carried on by the older Church alone.
+
+On the 10th of May, 1859, Alexander von Humboldt was buried.  His
+labours had been among the glories of the century, and his
+funeral was one of the most imposing that Berlin had ever seen.
+Among those who honoured themselves by their presence was the
+prince regent, afterward the Emperor William I; but of the
+clergy it was observed that none were present save the
+officiating clergyman and a few regarded as unorthodox.[71]
+
+[71] See Bruhns and Lassell, Life of Humboldt, London, 1873, vol.
+ii, p. 411.
+
+
+
+V.  RESULTS OF THE VICTORY OVER GALILEO.
+
+
+We return now to the sequel of the Galileo case.
+
+Having gained their victory over Galileo, living and dead, having
+used it to scare into submission the professors of astronomy
+throughout Europe, conscientious churchmen exulted.  Loud was
+their rejoicing that the "heresy," the "infidelity" the "atheism"
+involved in believing that the earth revolves about its axis and
+moves around the sun had been crushed by the great tribunal of
+the Church, acting in strict obedience to the expressed will of
+one Pope and the written order of another.  As we have seen, all
+books teaching this hated belief were put upon the Index of
+books forbidden to Christians, and that Index was prefaced by a
+bull enforcing this condemnation upon the consciences of the
+faithful throughout the world, and signed by the reigning Pope.
+
+The losses to the world during this complete triumph of theology
+were even more serious than at first appears:  one must
+especially be mentioned.  There was then in Europe one of the
+greatest thinkers ever given to mankind--Rene Descartes.
+Mistaken though many of his reasonings were, they bore a rich
+fruitage of truth. He had already done a vast work.  His theory
+of vortices--assuming a uniform material regulated by physical
+laws--as the beginning of the visible universe, though it was but
+a provisional hypothesis, had ended the whole old theory of the
+heavens with the vaulted firmament and the direction of the
+planetary movements by angels, which even Kepler had allowed.
+The scientific warriors had stirred new life in him, and he was
+working over and summing up in his mighty mind all the researches
+of his time.  The result would have made an epoch in history.
+His aim was to combine all knowledge and thought into a Treatise
+on the World, and in view of this he gave eleven years to the
+study of anatomy alone.  But the fate of Galileo robbed him of
+all hope, of all courage; the battle seemed lost; he gave up his
+great plan forever.[72]
+
+[72] For Descartes's discouragement, see Humboldt, Cosmos,
+London, 1851, vol iii, p. 21; also Lange, Geschichte des
+Materialismus, English translation, vol. i, pp. 248, 249, where
+the letters of Descartes are given, showing his despair, and the
+relinquishment of his best thoughts and works in order to
+preserve peace with the Church; also Saisset, Descartes et ses
+Precurseurs, pp. 100 et seq.; also Jolly, Histoire du Mouvement
+intellectuel au XVI Siecle, vol. i, p. 390.
+
+
+But ere long it was seen that this triumph of the Church was in
+reality a prodigious defeat.  From all sides came proofs that
+Copernicus and Galileo were right; and although Pope Urban and
+the inquisition held Galileo in strict seclusion, forbidding him
+even to SPEAK regarding the double motion of the earth; and
+although this condemnation of "all books which affirm the motion
+of the earth" was kept on the Index; and although the papal bull
+still bound the Index and the condemnations in it on the
+consciences of the faithful; and although colleges and
+universities under Church control were compelled to teach the old
+doctrine--it was seen by clear-sighted men everywhere that this
+victory of the Church was a disaster to the victors.
+
+New champions pressed on.  Campanella, full of vagaries as he
+was, wrote his Apology for Galileo, though for that and other
+heresies, religious, and political, he seven times underwent
+torture.
+
+And Kepler comes:  he leads science on to greater victories.
+Copernicus, great as he was, could not disentangle scientific
+reasoning entirely from the theological bias:  the doctrines of
+Aristotle and Thomas Aquinas as to the necessary superiority of
+the circle had vitiated the minor features of his system, and
+left breaches in it through which the enemy was not slow to
+enter; but Kepler sees these errors, and by wonderful genius and
+vigour he gives to the world the three laws which bear his name,
+and this fortress of science is complete.  He thinks and speaks
+as one inspired.  His battle is severe.  He is solemnly warned by
+the Protestant Consistory of Stuttgart "not to throw Christ's
+kingdom into confusion with his silly fancies," and as solemnly
+ordered to "bring his theory of the world into harmony with
+Scripture":  he is sometimes abused, sometimes ridiculed,
+sometimes imprisoned.  Protestants in Styria and Wurtemberg,
+Catholics in Austria and Bohemia, press upon him but Newton,
+Halley, Bradley, and other great astronomers follow, and to
+science remains the victory.[73]
+
+[73] For Campanella, see Amabile, Fra Tommaso Campanella, Naples,
+1882, especially vol. iii; also Libri, vol. iv, pp. 149 et seq.
+Fromundus, speaking of Kepler's explanation, says, "Vix teneo
+ebullientem risum."  This is almost equal to the New York Church
+Journal, speaking of John Stuart Mill as "that small sciolist,"
+and of the preface to Dr. Draper's great work as "chippering."
+How a journal, generally so fair in its treatment of such
+subjects, can condescend to such weapons is one of the wonders of
+modern journalism.  For the persecution of Kepler, see Heller,
+Geschichte der Physik, vol. i, pp. 281 et seq; also Reuschle,
+Kepler und die Astronomie, Frankfurt a. M., 1871, pp. 87 et seq.
+There is a poetic justice in the fact that these two last-named
+books come from Wurtemberg professors.  See also The
+New-Englander for March, 1884, p. 178.
+
+
+Yet this did not end the war.  During the seventeenth century, in
+France, after all the splendid proofs added by Kepler, no one
+dared openly teach the Copernican theory, and Cassini, the great
+astronomer, never declared for it.  In 1672 the Jesuit Father
+Riccioli declared that there were precisely forty-nine arguments
+for the Copernican theory and seventy-seven against it.  Even
+after the beginning of the eighteenth century--long after the
+demonstrations of Sir Isaac Newton--Bossuet, the great Bishop of
+Meaux, the foremost theologian that France has ever produced,
+declared it contrary to Scripture.
+
+Nor did matters seem to improve rapidly during that century.  In
+England, John Hutchinson, as we have seen, published in 1724 his
+Moses' Principia maintaining that the Hebrew Scriptures are a
+perfect system of natural philosophy, and are opposed to the
+Newtonian system of gravitation; and, as we have also seen, he
+was followed by a long list of noted men in the Church.  In
+France, two eminent mathematicians published in 1748 an edition
+of Newton's Principia; but, in order to avert ecclesiastical
+censure, they felt obliged to prefix to it a statement absolutely
+false.  Three years later, Boscovich, the great mathematician of
+the Jesuits, used these words:  "As for me, full of respect for
+the Holy Scriptures and the decree of the Holy Inquisition, I
+regard the earth as immovable; nevertheless, for simplicity in
+explanation I will argue as if the earth moves; for it is proved
+that of the two hypotheses the appearances favour this idea."
+
+In Germany, especially in the Protestant part of it, the war was
+even more bitter, and it lasted through the first half of the
+eighteenth century.  Eminent Lutheran doctors of divinity flooded
+the country with treatises to prove that the Copernican theory
+could not be reconciled with Scripture.  In the theological
+seminaries and in many of the universities where clerical
+influence was strong they seemed to sweep all before them; and
+yet at the middle of the century we find some of the
+clearest-headed of them aware of the fact that their cause was
+lost.[74]
+
+[74] For Cassini's position, see Henri Martin, Histoire de
+France, vol. xiii, p. 175.  For Riccioli, see Daunou, Etudes
+Historiques, vol. ii, p. 439.  For Boussuet, see Bertrand, p. 41.
+For Hutchinson, see Lyell, Principles of Geology, p. 48.  For
+Wesley, see his work, already cited.  As to Boscovich, his
+declaration, mentioned in the text, was in 1746, but in 1785 he
+seemed to feel his position in view of history, and apologized
+abjectly; Bertrand, pp. 60, 61.  See also Whewell's notice of Le
+Sueur and Jacquier's introduction to their edition of Newton's
+Principia.  For the struggle in Germany, see Zoeckler, Geschichte
+der Beziehungenzwischen Theologie und Naturwissenschaft, vol. ii,
+pp. 45 et seq.
+
+
+In 1757 the most enlightened perhaps in the whole line of the
+popes, Benedict XIV, took up the matter, and the Congregation of
+the Index secretly allowed the ideas of Copernicus to be
+tolerated.  Yet in 1765 Lalande, the great French astronomer,
+tried in vain at Rome to induce the authorities to remove
+Galileo's works from the Index.  Even at a date far within our
+own nineteenth century the authorities of many universities in
+Catholic Europe, and especially those in Spain, excluded the
+Newtonian system.  In 1771 the greatest of them all, the
+University of Salamanca, being urged to teach physical science,
+refused, making answer as follows:  "Newton teaches nothing that
+would make a good logician or metaphysician; and Gassendi and
+Descartes do not agree so well with revealed truth as Aristotle
+does."
+
+Vengeance upon the dead also has continued far into our own
+century.  On the 5th of May, 1829, a great multitude assembled at
+Warsaw to honour the memory of Copernicus and to unveil
+Thorwaldsen's statue of him.
+
+Copernicus had lived a pious, Christian life; he had been
+beloved for unostentatious Christian charity; with his religious
+belief no fault had ever been found; he was a canon of the Church
+at Frauenberg, and over his grave had been written the most
+touching of Christian epitaphs.  Naturally, then, the people
+expected a religious service; all was understood to be arranged
+for it; the procession marched to the church and waited.  The
+hour passed, and no priest appeared; none could be induced to
+appear.  Copernicus, gentle, charitable, pious, one of the
+noblest gifts of God to religion as well as to science, was
+evidently still under the ban.  Five years after that, his book
+was still standing on the Index of books prohibited to
+Christians.
+
+The edition of the Index published in 1819 was as inexorable
+toward the works of Copernicus and Galileo as its predecessors
+had been; but in the year 182O came a crisis.  Canon Settele,
+Professor of Astronomy at Rome, had written an elementary book in
+which the Copernican system was taken for granted.  The Master of
+the Sacred Palace, Anfossi, as censor of the press, refused to
+allow the book to be printed unless Settele revised his work and
+treated the Copernican theory as merely a hypothesis.  On this
+Settele appealed to Pope Pius VII, and the Pope referred the
+matter to the Congregation of the Holy Office.  At last, on the
+16th of August, 182O, it was decided that Settele might teach the
+Copernican system as established, and this decision was approved
+by the Pope.  This aroused considerable discussion, but finally,
+on the 11th of September, 1822, the cardinals of the Holy
+Inquisition graciously agreed that "the printing and publication
+of works treating of the motion of the earth and the stability of
+the sun, in accordance with the general opinion of modern
+astronomers, is permitted at Rome."  This decree was ratified by
+Pius VII, but it was not until thirteen years later, in 1835,
+that there was issued an edition of the Index from which the
+condemnation of works defending the double motion of the earth
+was left out.
+
+This was not a moment too soon, for, as if the previous proofs
+had not been sufficient, each of the motions of the earth was now
+absolutely demonstrated anew, so as to be recognised by the
+ordinary observer.  The parallax of fixed stars, shown by Bessel
+as well as other noted astronomers in 1838, clinched forever the
+doctrine of the revolution of the earth around the sun, and in
+1851 the great experiment of Foucault with the pendulum showed to
+the human eye the earth in motion around its own axis.  To make
+the matter complete, this experiment was publicly made in one of
+the churches at Rome by the eminent astronomer, Father Secchi, of
+the Jesuits, in 1852--just two hundred and twenty years after the
+Jesuits had done so much to secure Galileo's condemnation.[75]
+
+[75] For good statements of the final action of the Church in the
+matter, see Gebler; also Zoeckler, ii, 352.  See also Bertrand,
+Fondateurs de l'Astronomie moderne, p. 61; Flammarion, Vie de
+Copernic, chap. ix.  As to the time when the decree of
+condemnation was repealed, there have been various pious attempts
+to make it earlier than the reality.  Artaud, p. 307, cited in an
+apologetic article in the Dublin Review, September, 1865, says
+that Galileo's famous dialogue was published in 1714, at Padua,
+entire, and with the usual approbations.  The same article also
+declares that in 1818, the ecclesiastical decrees were repealed
+by Pius VII in full Consistory.  Whewell accepts this; but Cantu,
+an authority favourable to the Church, acknowledges that
+Copernicus's work remained on the Index as late as 1835 (Cantu,
+Histoire universelle, vol. xv, p. 483); and with this Th. Martin,
+not less favourable to the Church, but exceedingly careful as to
+the facts, agrees; and the most eminent authority of all, Prof.
+Reusch, of Bonn, in his Der Index der vorbotenen Bucher, Bonn,
+1885, vol. ii, p. 396, confirms the above statement in the text.
+For a clear statement of Bradley's exquisite demonstration of the
+Copernican theory by reasonings upon the rapidity of light, etc.,
+and Foucault's exhibition of the rotation of the earth by the
+pendulum experiment, see Hoefer, Histoire de l'Astronomie, pp.
+492 et seq.  For more recent proofs of the Copernican theory, by
+the discoveries of Bunsen, Bischoff, Benzenberg, and others, see
+Jevons, Principles of Science.
+
+
+
+
+VI.  THE RETREAT OF THE CHURCH AFTER ITS VICTORY OVER GALILEO.
+
+
+Any history of the victory of astronomical science over dogmatic
+theology would be incomplete without some account of the retreat
+made by the Church from all its former positions in the Galileo
+case.
+
+The retreat of the Protestant theologians was not difficult.  A
+little skilful warping of Scripture, a little skilful use of that
+time-honoured phrase, attributed to Cardinal Baronius, that the
+Bible is given to teach us, not how the heavens go, but how men
+go to heaven, and a free use of explosive rhetoric against the
+pursuing army of scientists, sufficed.
+
+But in the older Church it was far less easy.  The retreat of the
+sacro-scientific army of Church apologists lasted through two
+centuries.
+
+In spite of all that has been said by these apologists, there no
+longer remains the shadow of a doubt that the papal infallibility
+was committed fully and irrevocably against the double revolution
+of the earth.  As the documents of Galileo's trial now published
+show, Paul V, in 1616, pushed on with all his might the
+condemnation of Galileo and of the works of Copernicus and of all
+others teaching the motion of the earth around its own axis and
+around the sun.  So, too, in the condemnation of Galileo in 1633,
+and in all the proceedings which led up to it and which followed
+it, Urban VIII was the central figure.  Without his sanction no
+action could have been taken.
+
+True, the Pope did not formally sign the decree against the
+Copernican theory THEN; but this came later.  In 1664 Alexander
+VII prefixed to the Index containing the condemnations of the
+works of Copernicus and Galileo and "all books which affirm the
+motion of the earth" a papal bull signed by himself, binding the
+contents of the Index upon the consciences of the faithful.
+This bull confirmed and approved in express terms, finally,
+decisively, and infallibly, the condemnation of "all books
+teaching the movement of the earth and the stability of the
+sun."[76]
+
+[76] See Rev. William W. Roberts, The Pontifical Decrees against
+the Doctrine of the Earth's Movement, London, 1885, p. 94; and
+for the text of the papal bull, Speculatores domus Israel, pp.
+132, 133, see also St. George Mivart's article in the Nineteenth
+Century for July, 1885.  For the authentic publication of the
+bull, see preface to the Index of 1664, where the bull appears,
+signed by the Pope.  The Rev. Mr. Roberts and Mr. St. George
+Mivart are Roman Catholics and both acknowledge that the papal
+sanction was fully given.
+
+
+The position of the mother Church had been thus made especially
+difficult; and the first important move in retreat by the
+apologists was the statement that Galileo was condemned, not
+because he affirmed the motion of the earth, but because he
+supported it from Scripture.  There was a slight appearance of
+truth in this.  Undoubtedly, Galileo's letters to Castelli and
+the grand duchess, in which he attempted to show that his
+astronomical doctrines were not opposed to Scripture, gave a new
+stir to religious bigotry.  For a considerable time, then, this
+quibble served its purpose; even a hundred and fifty years after
+Galileo's condemnation it was renewed by the Protestant Mallet du
+Pan, in his wish to gain favour from the older Church.
+
+But nothing can be more absurd, in the light of the original
+documents recently brought out of the Vatican archives, than to
+make this contention now.  The letters of Galileo to Castelli and
+the Grand-Duchess were not published until after the
+condemnation; and, although the Archbishop of Pisa had
+endeavoured to use them against him, they were but casually
+mentioned in 1616, and entirely left out of view in 1633.  What
+was condemned in 1616 by the Sacred Congregation held in the
+presence of Pope Paul V, as "ABSURD, FALSE IN THEOLOGY, AND
+HERETICAL, BECAUSE ABSOLUTELY CONTRARY TO HOLY SCRIPTURE," was
+the proposition that "THE SUN IS THE CENTRE ABOUT WHICH THE EARTH
+REVOLVES"; and what was condemned as "ABSURD, FALSE IN
+PHILOSOPHY, AND FROM A THEOLOGIC POINT OF VIEW, AT LEAST, OPPOSED
+TO THE TRUE FAITH," was the proposition that "THE EARTH IS NOT
+THE CENTRE OF THE UNIVERSE AND IMMOVABLE, BUT HAS A DIURNAL
+MOTION."
+
+And again, what Galileo was made, by express order of Pope Urban,
+and by the action of the Inquisition under threat of torture, to
+abjure in 1633, was "THE ERROR AND HERESY OF THE MOVEMENT OF THE
+EARTH."
+
+What the Index condemned under sanction of the bull issued by
+Alexander VII in 1664 was, "ALL BOOKS TEACHING THE MOVEMENT OF
+THE EARTH AND THE STABILITY OF THE SUN."
+
+What the Index, prefaced by papal bulls, infallibly binding its
+contents upon the consciences of the faithful, for nearly two
+hundred years steadily condemned was, "ALL BOOKS WHICH AFFIRM THE
+MOTION OF THE EARTH."
+
+Not one of these condemnations was directed against Galileo "for
+reconciling his ideas with Scripture."[77]
+
+[77] For the original trial documents, copied carefully from the
+Vatican manuscripts, see the Roman Catholic authority, L'Epinois,
+especially p. 35, where the principal document is given in its
+original Latin; see also Gebler, Die Acten des galilei'schen
+Processes, for still more complete copies of the same documents.
+For minute information regarding these documents and their
+publication, see Favaro, Miscellanea Galileana Inedita, forming
+vol. xxii, part iii, of the Memoirs of the Venetian Institute for
+1887, and especially pp. 891 and following.
+
+
+Having been dislodged from this point, the Church apologists
+sought cover under the statement that Galileo was condemned not
+for heresy, but for contumacy and want of respect toward the
+Pope.
+
+There was a slight chance, also, for this quibble:  no doubt
+Urban VIII, one of the haughtiest of pontiffs, was induced by
+Galileo's enemies to think that he had been treated with some
+lack of proper etiquette:  first, by Galileo's adhesion to his
+own doctrines after his condemnation in 1616; and, next, by his
+supposed reference in the Dialogue of 1632 to the arguments
+which the Pope had used against him.
+
+But it would seem to be a very poor service rendered to the
+doctrine of papal infallibility to claim that a decision so
+immense in its consequences could be influenced by the personal
+resentment of the reigning pontiff.
+
+Again, as to the first point, the very language of the various
+sentences shows the folly of this assertion; for these sentences
+speak always of "heresy" and never of "contumacy."  As to the
+last point, the display of the original documents settled that
+forever.  They show Galileo from first to last as most submissive
+toward the Pope, and patient under the papal arguments and
+exactions.  He had, indeed, expressed his anger at times against
+his traducers; but to hold this the cause of the judgment
+against him is to degrade the whole proceedings, and to convict
+Paul V, Urban VIII, Bellarmin, the other theologians, and the
+Inquisition, of direct falsehood, since they assigned entirely
+different reasons for their conduct.  From this position,
+therefore, the assailants retreated.[78]
+
+[78] The invention of the "contumacy" quibble seems due to
+Monsignor Marini, who appears also to have manipulated the
+original documents to prove it.  Even Whewell was evidently
+somewhat misled by him, but Whewell wrote before L'Epinois had
+shown all the documents, and under the supposition that Marini
+was an honest man.
+
+
+The next rally was made about the statement that the persecution
+of Galileo was the result of a quarrel between Aristotelian
+professors on one side and professors favouring the experimental
+method on the other.  But this position was attacked and carried
+by a very simple statement.  If the divine guidance of the Church
+is such that it can be dragged into a professorial squabble, and
+made the tool of a faction in bringing about a most disastrous
+condemnation of a proved truth, how did the Church at that time
+differ from any human organization sunk into decrepitude, managed
+nominally by simpletons, but really by schemers? If that argument
+be true, the condition of the Church was even worse than its
+enemies have declared it; and amid the jeers of an unfeeling
+world the apologists sought new shelter.
+
+The next point at which a stand was made was the assertion that
+the condemnation of Galileo was "provisory"; but this proved a
+more treacherous shelter than the others.  The wording of the
+decree of condemnation itself is a sufficient answer to this
+claim.  When doctrines have been solemnly declared, as those of
+Galileo were solemnly declared under sanction of the highest
+authority in the Church, "contrary to the sacred Scriptures,"
+"opposed to the true faith," and "false and absurd in theology
+and philosophy"--to say that such declarations are "provisory" is
+to say that the truth held by the Church is not immutable; from
+this, then, the apologists retreated.[79]
+
+[79] This argument also seems to have been foisted upon the world
+by the wily Monsignor Marini.
+
+
+Still another contention was made, in some respects more curious
+than any other:  it was, mainly, that Galileo "was no more a
+victim of Catholics than of Protestants; for they more than the
+Catholic theologians impelled the Pope to the action taken."[80]
+
+[80] See the Rev. A. M. Kirsch on Professor Huxley and Evolution,
+in The American Catholic Quarterly, October, 1877.  The article
+is, as a whole, remarkably fair-minded, and in the main, just, as
+to the Protestant attitude, and as to the causes underlying the
+whole action against Galileo.
+
+
+But if Protestantism could force the papal hand in a matter of
+this magnitude, involving vast questions of belief and
+far-reaching questions of policy, what becomes of "inerrancy"--of
+special protection and guidance of the papal authority in matters
+of faith?
+
+While this retreat from position to position was going on, there
+was a constant discharge of small-arms, in the shape of
+innuendoes, hints, and sophistries:  every effort was made to
+blacken Galileo's private character:  the irregularities of his
+early life were dragged forth, and stress was even laid upon
+breaches of etiquette; but this succeeded so poorly that even as
+far back as 1850 it was thought necessary to cover the retreat by
+some more careful strategy.
+
+This new strategy is instructive.  The original documents of the
+Galileo trial had been brought during the Napoleonic conquests to
+Paris; but in 1846 they were returned to Rome by the French
+Government, on the express pledge by the papal authorities that
+they should be published.  In 1850, after many delays on various
+pretexts, the long-expected publication appeared.  The personage
+charged with presenting them to the world was Monsignor Marini.
+This ecclesiastic was of a kind which has too often afflicted
+both the Church and the world at large.  Despite the solemn
+promise of the papal court, the wily Marini became the instrument
+of the Roman authorities in evading the promise.  By suppressing
+a document here, and interpolating a statement there, he managed
+to give plausible standing-ground for nearly every important
+sophistry ever broached to save the infallibility of the Church
+and destroy the reputation of Galileo.  He it was who supported
+the idea that Galileo was "condemned not for heresy, but for
+contumacy."
+
+The first effect of Monsignor Marini's book seemed useful in
+covering the retreat of the Church apologists.  Aided by him,
+such vigorous writers as Ward were able to throw up temporary
+intrenchments between the Roman authorities and the indignation
+of the world.
+
+But some time later came an investigator very different from
+Monsignor Marini.  This was a Frenchman, M. L'Epinois.  Like
+Marini, L'Epinois was devoted to the Church; but, unlike Marini,
+he could not lie.  Having obtained access in 1867 to the Galileo
+documents at the Vatican, he published several of the most
+important, without suppression or pious-fraudulent manipulation.
+This made all the intrenchments based upon Marini's statements
+untenable.  Another retreat had to be made.
+
+And now came the most desperate effort of all.  The apologetic
+army, reviving an idea which the popes and the Church had spurned
+for centuries, declared that the popes AS POPES had never
+condemned the doctrines of Copernicus and Galileo; that they had
+condemned them as men simply; that therefore the Church had
+never been committed to them; that the condemnation was made by
+the cardinals of the inquisition and index; and that the Pope had
+evidently been restrained by interposition of Providence from
+signing their condemnation.  Nothing could show the desperation
+of the retreating party better than jugglery like this.  The fact
+is, that in the official account of the condemnation by
+Bellarmin, in 1616, he declares distinctly that he makes this
+condemnation "in the name of His Holiness the Pope."[81]
+
+[81] See the citation from the Vatican manuscript given in
+Gebler, p. 78.
+
+
+Again, from Pope Urban downward, among the Church authorities of
+the seventeenth century the decision was always acknowledged to
+be made by the Pope and the Church.  Urban VIII spoke of that of
+1616 as made by Pope Paul V and the Church, and of that of 1633
+as made by himself and the Church.  Pope Alexander VII in 1664,
+in his bull Speculatores, solemnly sanctioned the condemnation of
+all books affirming the earth's movement.[82]
+
+[82] For references by Urban VIII to the condemnation as made by
+Pope Paul V see pp. 136, 144, and elsewhere in Martin, who much
+against his will is forced to allow this.  See also Roberts,
+Pontifical decrees against the Earth's Movement, and St. George
+Mivart's article, as above quoted; also Reusch, Index der
+verbotenen Bucher, Bonn, 1885, vol. ii, pp. 29 et seq.
+
+
+When Gassendi attempted to raise the point that the decision
+against Copernicus and Galileo was not sanctioned by the Church
+as such, an eminent theological authority, Father Lecazre, rector
+of the College of Dijon, publicly contradicted him, and declared
+that it "was not certain cardinals, but the supreme authority of
+the Church," that had condemned Galileo; and to this statement
+the Pope and other Church authorities gave consent either openly
+or by silence.  When Descartes and others attempted to raise the
+same point, they were treated with contempt.  Father Castelli,
+who had devoted himself to Galileo, and knew to his cost just
+what the condemnation meant and who made it, takes it for
+granted, in his letter to the papal authorities, that it was made
+by the Church.  Cardinal Querenghi, in his letters; the
+ambassador Guicciardini, in his dispatches; Polacco, in his
+refutation;  the historian Viviani, in his biography of
+Galileo--all writing under Church inspection and approval at the
+time, took the view that the Pope and the Church condemned
+Galileo, and this was never denied at Rome.  The Inquisition
+itself, backed by the greatest theologian of the time
+(Bellarmin), took the same view.  Not only does he declare that
+he makes the condemnation "in the name of His Holiness the Pope,"
+but we have the Roman Index, containing the condemnation for
+nearly two hundred years, prefaced by a solemn bull of the
+reigning Pope binding this condemnation on the consciences of the
+whole Church, and declaring year after year that "all books which
+affirm the motion of the earth" are damnable.  To attempt to face
+all this, added to the fact that Galileo was required to abjure
+"the heresy of the movement of the earth" by written order of the
+Pope, was soon seen to be impossible.  Against the assertion that
+the Pope was not responsible we have all this mass of testimony,
+and the bull of Alexander VII in 1664.[83]
+
+[83] For Lecazre's answer to Gassendi, see Martin, pp. 146, 147.
+For the attempt to make the crimes of Galileo breach of
+etiquette, see Dublin Review, as above.  Whewell, vol. i, p. 283.
+Citation from Marini: "Galileo was punished for trifling with the
+authorities, to which he refused to submit, and was punished for
+obstinate contumacy, not heresy."  The sufficient answer to all
+this is that the words of the inflexible sentence designating the
+condemned books are "libri omnes qui affirmant telluris motum."
+See Bertrand, p. 59.  As to the idea that "Galileo was punished
+for not his opinion, but for basing it on Scripture," the answer
+may be found in the Roman Index of 1704, in which are noted for
+condemnation "Libri omnes docentes mobilitatem terrae et
+immobilitatem solis."  For the way in which, when it was found
+convenient in argument, Church apologists insisted that it WAS
+"the Supreme Chief of the Church by a pontifical decree, and not
+certain cardinals," who condemned Galileo and his doctrine, see
+Father Lecazre's letter to Gassendi, in Flammarion, Pluralite des
+Mondes, p. 427, and Urban VIII's own declarations as given by
+Martin.  For the way in which, when necessary, Church apologists
+asserted the very contrary of this, declaring that it was issued
+in a doctrinal degree of the Congregation of the Index, and NOT
+as the Holy Father's teaching," see Dublin Review, September,
+1865.
+
+
+This contention, then, was at last utterly given up by honest
+Catholics themselves.  In 1870 a Roman Catholic clergy man in
+England, the Rev. Mr. Roberts, evidently thinking that the time
+had come to tell the truth, published a book entitled The
+Pontifical Decrees against the Earth's Movement, and in this
+exhibited the incontrovertible evidences that the papacy had
+committed itself and its infallibility fully against the movement
+of the earth.  This Catholic clergyman showed from the original
+record that Pope Paul V, in 1616, had presided over the tribunal
+condemning the doctrine of the earth's movement, and ordering
+Galileo to give up the opinion.  He showed that Pope Urban VIII,
+in 1633, pressed on, directed, and promulgated the final
+condemnation, making himself in all these ways responsible for
+it.  And, finally, he showed that Pope Alexander VII, in 1664, by
+his bull--Speculatores domus Israel--attached to the Index,
+condemning "all books which affirm the motion of the earth," had
+absolutely pledged the papal infallibility against the earth's
+movement.  He also confessed that under the rules laid down by
+the highest authorities in the Church, and especially by Sixtus V
+and Pius IX, there was no escape from this conclusion.
+
+Various theologians attempted to evade the force of the argument.
+Some, like Dr. Ward and Bouix, took refuge in verbal niceties;
+some, like Dr. Jeremiah Murphy, comforted themselves with
+declamation.  The only result was, that in 1885 came another
+edition of the Rev. Mr. Roberts's work, even more cogent than
+the first; and, besides this, an essay by that eminent Catholic,
+St. George Mivart, acknowledging the Rev. Mr. Roberts's position
+to be impregnable, and declaring virtually that the Almighty
+allowed Pope and Church to fall into complete error regarding the
+Copernican theory, in order to teach them that science lies
+outside their province, and that the true priesthood of
+scientific truth rests with scientific investigators alone.[84]
+
+[84] For the crushing answer by two eminent Roman Catholics to
+the sophistries cited--an answer which does infinitely more
+credit to the older Church that all the perverted ingenuity used
+in concealing the truth or breaking the force of it--see Roberts
+and St. George Mivart, as already cited.
+
+
+In spite, then, of all casuistry and special pleading, this
+sturdy honesty ended the controversy among Catholics themselves,
+so far as fair-minded men are concerned.
+
+In recalling it at this day there stand out from its later phases
+two efforts at compromise especially instructive, as showing the
+embarrassment of militant theology in the nineteenth century.
+
+The first of these was made by John Henry Newman in the days when
+he was hovering between the Anglican and Roman Churches.  In one
+of his sermons before the University of Oxford he spoke as
+follows:
+
+"Scripture says that the sun moves and the earth is stationary,
+and science that the earth moves and the sun is comparatively at
+rest.  How can we determine which of these opposite statements is
+the very truth till we know what motion is?  If our idea of
+motion is but an accidental result of our present senses, neither
+proposition is true and both are true:  neither true
+philosophically; both true for certain practical purposes in the
+system in which they are respectively found."
+
+In all anti-theological literature there is no utterance more
+hopelessly skeptical.  And for what were the youth of Oxford led
+into such bottomless depths of disbelief as to any real existence
+of truth or any real foundation for it?  Simply to save an
+outworn system of interpretation into which the gifted preacher
+happened to be born.
+
+The other utterance was suggested by De Bonald and developed in
+the Dublin Review, as is understood, by one of Newman's
+associates.  This argument was nothing less than an attempt to
+retreat under the charge of deception against the Almighty
+himself.  It is as follows:  "But it may well be doubted whether
+the Church did retard the progress of scientific truth.  What
+retarded it was the circumstance that God has thought fit to
+express many texts of Scripture in words which have every
+appearance of denying the earth's motion.  But it is God who did
+this, not the Church; and, moreover, since he saw fit so to act
+as to retard the progress of scientific truth, it would be little
+to her discredit, even if it were true, that she had followed his
+example."
+
+This argument, like Mr. Gosse's famous attempt to reconcile
+geology to Genesis--by supposing that for some inscrutable
+purpose God deliberately deceived the thinking world by giving to
+the earth all the appearances of development through long periods
+of time, while really creating it in six days, each of an evening
+and a morning--seems only to have awakened the amazed pity of
+thinking men.  This, like the argument of Newman, was a last
+desperate effort of Anglican and Roman divines to save something
+from the wreckage of dogmatic theology.[85]
+
+[85] For the quotation from Newman, see his Sermons on the Theory
+of Religious Belief, sermon xiv, cited by Bishop Goodwin in
+Contemporary Review for January, 1892.  For the attempt to take
+the blame off the shoulders of both Pope and cardinals and place
+it upon the Almighty, see the article above cited, in the Dublin
+Review, September 1865, p. 419 and July, 1871, pp. 157 et seq.
+For a good summary of the various attempts, and for replies to
+them in a spirit of judicial fairness, see Th. Martin, Vie de
+Galilee, though there is some special pleading to save the
+infallibility of the Pope and Church.  The bibliography at the
+close is very valuable.  For details of Mr. Gosse's theory, as
+developed in his Omphalos, see the chapter on Geology in this
+work.  As to a still later attempt, see Wegg-Prosser, Galileo and
+his Judges, London, 1889, the main thing in it being an attempt
+to establish, against the honest and honourable concessions of
+Catholics like Roberts and Mivart, sundry far-fetched and wire-
+drawn distinctions between dogmatic and disciplinary bulls--an
+attempt which will only deepen the distrust of straightforward
+reasoners.  The author's point of view is stated in the words, "I
+have maintained that the Church has a right to lay her
+restraining hand on the speculations of natural science" (p.
+167).
+
+
+All these well-meaning defenders of the faith but wrought into
+the hearts of great numbers of thinking men the idea that there
+is a necessary antagonism between science and religion.  Like the
+landsman who lashes himself to the anchor of the sinking ship,
+they simply attached Christianity by the strongest cords of logic
+which they could spin to these mistaken ideas in science, and,
+could they have had their way, the advance of knowledge would
+have ingulfed both together.
+
+On the other hand, what had science done for religion?  Simply
+this:  Copernicus, escaping persecution only by death; Giordano
+Bruno, burned alive as a monster of impiety; Galileo, imprisoned
+and humiliated as the worst of misbelievers; Kepler, accused of
+"throwing Christ's kingdom into confusion with his silly
+fancies"; Newton, bitterly attacked for "dethroning Providence,"
+gave to religion stronger foundations and more ennobling
+conceptions.
+
+Under the old system, that princely astronomer, Alphonso of
+Castile, seeing the inadequacy of the Ptolemaic theory, yet
+knowing no other, startled Europe with the blasphemy that, if he
+had been present at creation, he could have suggested a better
+order of the heavenly bodies.  Under the new system, Kepler,
+filled with a religious spirit, exclaimed, "I do think the
+thoughts of God."  The difference in religious spirit between
+these two men marks the conquest made in this long struggle by
+Science for Religion.[86]
+
+[86] As a pendant to this ejaculation of Kepler may be cited the
+words of Linnaeus: "Deum ominpotentem a tergo transeuntem vidi et
+obstupui."
+
+
+Nothing is more unjust than to cast especial blame for all this
+resistance to science upon the Roman Church.  The Protestant
+Church, though rarely able to be so severe, has been more
+blameworthy.  The persecution of Galileo and his compeers by the
+older Church was mainly at the beginning of the seventeenth
+century; the persecution of Robertson Smith, and Winchell, and
+Woodrow, and Toy, and the young professors at Beyrout, by various
+Protestant authorities, was near the end of the nineteenth
+century.  Those earlier persecutions by Catholicism were strictly
+in accordance with principles held at that time by all
+religionists, Catholic and Protestant, throughout the world;
+these later persecutions by Protestants were in defiance of
+principles which all Protestants to-day hold or pretend to hold,
+and none make louder claim to hold them than the very sects which
+persecuted these eminent Christian men of our day, men whose
+crime was that they were intelligent enough to accept the science
+of their time, and honest enough to acknowledge it.
+
+Most unjustly, then, would Protestantism taunt Catholicism for
+excluding knowledge of astronomical truths from European Catholic
+universities in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, while
+real knowledge of geological and biological and anthropological
+truth is denied or pitifully diluted in so many American
+Protestant colleges and universities in the nineteenth century.
+
+Nor has Protestantism the right to point with scorn to the
+Catholic Index, and to lay stress on the fact that nearly every
+really important book in the last three centuries has been
+forbidden by it, so long as young men in so many American
+Protestant universities and colleges are nursed with
+"ecclesiastical pap" rather than with real thought, and directed
+to the works of "solemnly constituted impostors," or to sundry
+"approved courses of reading," while they are studiously kept
+aloof from such leaders in modern thought as Darwin, Spencer,
+Huxley, Draper, and Lecky.
+
+It may indeed be justly claimed by Protestantism that some of the
+former strongholds of her bigotry have become liberalized; but,
+on the other hand, Catholicism can point to the fact that Pope
+Leo XIII, now happily reigning, has made a noble change as
+regards open dealing with documents.  The days of Monsignor
+Marini, it may be hoped, are gone.  The Vatican Library, with its
+masses of historical material, has been thrown open to Protestant
+and Catholic scholars alike, and this privilege has been freely
+used by men representing all shades of religious thought.
+
+As to the older errors, the whole civilized world was at fault,
+Protestant as well as Catholic.  It was not the fault of
+religion; it was the fault of that short-sighted linking of
+theological dogmas to scriptural texts which, in utter defiance
+of the words and works of the Blessed Founder of Christianity,
+narrow-minded, loud-voiced men are ever prone to substitute for
+religion.  Justly is it said by one of the most eminent among
+contemporary Anglican divines, that "it is because they have
+mistaken the dawn for a conflagration that theologians have so
+often been foes of light."[87]
+
+[87] For an exceedingly striking statement, by a Roman Catholic
+historian of genius, as to the POPULAR demand for persecution and
+the pressure of the lower strata in ecclesiastical organizations
+for cruel measures, see Balmes's Le Protestantisme compare au
+Catholicisme, etc., fourth edition, Paris, 1855, vol. ii.
+Archbishop Spaulding has something of the same sort in his
+Miscellanies. L'Epinois, Galilee, p. 22 et seq., stretches this
+as far as possible to save the reputation of the Church in the
+Galileo matter.  As to the various branches of the Protestant
+Church in England and the United States, it is a matter of
+notoriety that the smug, well-to-do laymen, whether elders,
+deacons, or vestrymen, are, as a rule, far more prone to heresy-
+hunting than are their better educated pastors.  As to the cases
+of Messrs. Winchell, Woodrow, Toy, and all the professors at
+Beyrout, with details, see the chapter in this series on The Fall
+of Man and Anthropology.  Among Protestant historians who have
+recently been allowed full and free examination of the treasures
+in the Vatican Library, and even those involving questions
+between Catholicism and Protestantism, are von Sybel, of Berlin,
+and Philip Schaff, of New York.  It should be added that the
+latter went with commendatory letters from eminent prelates in
+the Catholic Church in America and Europe.  For the closing
+citation, see Canon Farrar, History of Interpretation, p. 432.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+FROM "SIGNS AND WONDERS" TO LAW IN THE HEAVENS.
+
+I.  THE THEOLOGICAL VIEW.
+
+
+Few things in the evolution of astronomy are more suggestive than
+the struggle between the theological and the scientific doctrine
+regarding comets--the passage from the conception of them as
+fire-balls flung by an angry God for the purpose of scaring a
+wicked world, to a recognition of them as natural in origin and
+obedient to law in movement.  Hardly anything throws a more vivid
+light upon the danger of wresting texts of Scripture to preserve
+ideas which observation and thought have superseded, and upon the
+folly of arraying ecclesiastical power against scientific
+discovery.[88]
+
+[88] The present study, after its appearance in the Popular
+Science Monthly as a "new chapter in the Warfare of Science," was
+revised and enlarged to nearly its present form, and read before
+the American Historical Association, among whose papers it was
+published, in 1887, under the title of A History of the Doctrine
+of Comets.
+
+
+Out of the ancient world had come a mass of beliefs regarding
+comets, meteors, and eclipses; all these were held to be signs
+displayed from heaven for the warning of mankind.  Stars and
+meteors were generally thought to presage happy events,
+especially the births of gods, heroes, and great men.  So firmly
+rooted was this idea that we constantly find among the ancient
+nations traditions of lights in the heavens preceding the birth
+of persons of note.  The sacred books of India show that the
+births of Crishna and of Buddha were announced by such heavenly
+lights.[89] The sacred books of China tell of similar
+appearances at the births of Yu, the founder of the first
+dynasty, and of the inspired sage, Lao-tse.  According to the
+Jewish legends, a star appeared at the birth of Moses, and was
+seen by the Magi of Egypt, who informed the king; and when
+Abraham was born an unusual star appeared in the east.  The
+Greeks and Romans cherished similar traditions.  A heavenly light
+accompanied the birth of Aesculapius, and the births of various
+Caesars were heralded in like manner.[90]
+
+[89] For Crishna, see Cox, Aryan Mythology, vol. ii, p. 133; the
+Vishnu Purana (Wilson's translation), book v, chap. iv.  As to
+lights at the birth, or rather at the conception, of Buddha, see
+Bunsen, Angel Messiah, pp. 22,23; Alabaster, Wheel of the Law
+(illustrations of Buddhism), p. 102; Edwin Arnold, Light of Asia;
+Bp. Bigandet, Life of Gaudama, the Burmese Buddha, p. 30;
+Oldenberg, Buddha (English translation), part i, chap. ii.
+
+[90] For Chinese legends regarding stars at the birth of Yu and
+Lao-tse, see Thornton, History of China, vol. i, p. 137; also
+Pingre, Cometographie, p. 245. Regarding stars at the birth of
+Moses and Abraham, see Calmet, Fragments, part viii; Baring-
+Gould, Legends of Old Testament Characters, chap. xxiv; Farrar,
+Life of Christ, chap. iii.  As to the Magi, see Higgins,
+Anacalypsis; Hooykaas, Ort, and Kuenen, Bible for Learners, vol.
+iii. For Greek and Roman traditions, see Bell, Pantheon, s. v.
+Aesculapius and Atreus; Gibbon, Decline and Fall, vol. i, pp.
+151, 590; Farrar, Life of Christ (American edition), p. 52; Cox,
+Tales of Ancient Greece, pp. 41, 61, 62; Higgins, Anacalypsis,
+vol. i, p. 322; also Suetonius, Caes., Julius, p.88, Claud., p.
+463; Seneca, Nat. Quaest, vol. 1, p. 1; Virgil, Ecl., vol. ix, p.
+47; as well as Ovid, Pliny, and others.
+
+
+The same conception entered into our Christian sacred books.  Of
+all the legends which grew in such luxuriance and beauty about
+the cradle of Jesus of Nazareth, none appeals more directly to
+the highest poetic feeling than that given by one of the
+evangelists, in which a star, rising in the east, conducted the
+wise men to the manger where the Galilean peasant-child--the Hope
+of Mankind, the Light of the World--was lying in poverty and
+helplessness.
+
+Among the Mohammedans we have a curious example of the same
+tendency toward a kindly interpretation of stars and meteors, in
+the belief of certain Mohammedan teachers that meteoric showers
+are caused by good angels hurling missiles to drive evil angels
+out of the sky.
+
+Eclipses were regarded in a very different light, being supposed
+to express the distress of Nature at earthly calamities.  The
+Greeks believed that darkness overshadowed the earth at the
+deaths of Prometheus, Atreus, Hercules, Aesculapius, and
+Alexander the Great.  The Roman legends held that at the death of
+Romulus there was darkness for six hours.  In the history of the
+Caesars occur portents of all three kinds; for at the death of
+Julius the earth was shrouded in darkness, the birth of Augustus
+was heralded by a star, and the downfall of Nero by a comet.  So,
+too, in one of the Christian legends clustering about the
+crucifixion, darkness overspread the earth from the sixth to the
+ninth hour.  Neither the silence regarding it of the only
+evangelist who claims to have been present, nor the fact that
+observers like Seneca and Pliny, who, though they carefully
+described much less striking occurrences of the same sort and in
+more remote regions, failed to note any such darkness even in
+Judea, have availed to shake faith in an account so true to the
+highest poetic instincts of humanity.
+
+This view of the relations between Nature and man continued among
+both Jews and Christians.  According to Jewish tradition,
+darkness overspread the earth for three days when the books of
+the Law were profaned by translation into Greek.  Tertullian
+thought an eclipse an evidence of God's wrath against
+unbelievers.  Nor has this mode of thinking ceased in modern
+times.  A similar claim was made at the execution of Charles I;
+and Increase Mather thought an eclipse in Massachusetts an
+evidence of the grief of Nature at the death of President
+Chauncey, of Harvard College.  Archbishop Sandys expected
+eclipses to be the final tokens of woe at the destruction of the
+world, and traces of this feeling have come down to our own time.
+
+The quaint story of the Connecticut statesman who, when his
+associates in the General Assembly were alarmed by an eclipse of
+the sun, and thought it the beginning of the Day of Judgment,
+quietly ordered in candles, that he might in any case be found
+doing his duty, marks probably the last noteworthy appearance of
+the old belief in any civilized nation.[91]
+
+[91] For Hindu theories, see Alabaster, Wheel of the Law, 11.
+For Greek and Roman legends, See Higgins, Anacalypsis, vol. i,
+pp. 616, 617.; also Suetonius, Caes., Julius, p. 88, Claud., p.
+46; Seneca, Quaest. Nat., vol. i, p. 1, vol. vii, p. 17; Pliny,
+Hist. Nat., vol. ii, p. 25; Tacitus, Ann., vol. xiv, p. 22;
+Josephus, Antiq., vol. xiv, p. 12; and the authorities above
+cited.  For the tradition of the Jews regarding the darkness of
+three days, see citation in Renan, Histoire du Peuple Israel,
+vol. iv, chap. iv.  For Tertullian's belief regarding the
+significance of an eclipse, see the Ad Scapulum, chap. iii, in
+Migne, Patrolog. Lat., vol. i, p. 701.  For the claim regarding
+Charles I, see a sermon preached before Charles II, cited by
+Lecky, England in the Eighteenth Century, vol. i, p. 65.  Mather
+thought, too, that it might have something to do with the death
+of sundry civil functionaries of the colonies; see his Discourse
+concerning comets, 1682.  For Archbishop Sandy's belief, see his
+eighteenth sermon (in Parker Soc. Publications).  The story of
+Abraham Davenport has been made familiar by the poem of Whittier.
+
+
+In these beliefs regarding meteors and eclipses there was little
+calculated to do harm by arousing that superstitious terror which
+is the worst breeding-bed of cruelty.  Far otherwise was it with
+the belief regarding comets.  During many centuries it gave rise
+to the direst superstition and fanaticism.  The Chaldeans alone
+among the ancient peoples generally regarded comets without fear,
+and thought them bodies wandering as harmless as fishes in the
+sea; the Pythagoreans alone among philosophers seem to have had
+a vague idea of them as bodies returning at fixed periods of
+time; and in all antiquity, so far as is known, one man alone,
+Seneca, had the scientific instinct and prophetic inspiration to
+give this idea definite shape, and to declare that the time would
+come when comets would be found to move in accordance with
+natural law.  Here and there a few strong men rose above the
+prevailing superstition.  The Emperor Vespasian tried to laugh it
+down, and insisted that a certain comet in his time could not
+betoken his death, because it was hairy, and he bald; but such
+scoffing produced little permanent effect, and the prophecy of
+Seneca was soon forgotten.  These and similar isolated utterances
+could not stand against the mass of opinion which upheld the
+doctrine that comets are "signs and wonders."[92]
+
+[92] For terror caused in Rome by comets, see Pingre,
+Cometographie, pp. 165, 166.  For the Chaldeans, see Wolf,
+Geschichte der Astronomie, p. 10 et seq., and p. 181 et seq.;
+also Pingre, chap. ii.  For the Pythagorean notions, see
+citations from Plutarch in Costard, History of Astronomy, p. 283.
+For Seneca's prediction, see Guillemin, World of Comets
+(translated by Glaisher), pp. 4, 5; also Watson, On Comets, p.
+126.  For this feeling in antiquity generally, see the
+preliminary chapters of the two works last cited.
+
+
+The belief that every comet is a ball of fire flung from the
+right hand of an angry God to warn the grovelling dwellers of
+earth was received into the early Church, transmitted through the
+Middle Ages to the Reformation period, and in its transmission
+was made all the more precious by supposed textual proofs from
+Scripture.  The great fathers of the Church committed themselves
+unreservedly to it.  In the third century Origen, perhaps the
+most influential of the earlier fathers of the universal Church
+in all questions between science and faith, insisted that comets
+indicate catastrophes and the downfall of empires and worlds.
+Bede, so justly revered by the English Church, declared in the
+eighth century that "comets portend revolutions of kingdoms,
+pestilence, war, winds, or heat"; and John of Damascus, his
+eminent contemporary in the Eastern Church, took the same view.
+Rabanus Maurus, the great teacher of Europe in the ninth century,
+an authority throughout the Middle Ages, adopted Bede's opinion
+fully.  St. Thomas Aquinas, the great light of the universal
+Church in the thirteenth century, whose works the Pope now
+reigning commends as the centre and source of all university
+instruction, accepted and handed down the same opinion.  The
+sainted Albert the Great, the most noted genius of the medieval
+Church in natural science, received and developed this theory.
+These men and those who followed them founded upon scriptural
+texts and theological reasonings a system that for seventeen
+centuries defied every advance of thought.[93]
+
+[93] For Origen, se his De Princip., vol. i, p. 7; also Maury,
+Leg. pieuses, p. 203, note.  For Bede and others, see De Nat.,
+vol. xxiv; Joh. Dam., De Fid. Or.,vol. ii, p. 7; Maury, La Magie
+et l'Astronomie, pp. 181, 182.  For Albertus Magnus, see his
+Opera, vol. i, tr. iii, chaps. x, xi.  Among the texts of
+Scripture on which this belief rested was especially Joel ii, 30,
+31.
+
+
+The main evils thence arising were three:  the paralysis of
+self-help, the arousing of fanaticism, and the strengthening of
+ecclesiastical and political tyranny.  The first two of these
+evils--the paralysis of self-help and the arousing of
+fanaticism--are evident throughout all these ages.  At the
+appearance of a comet we constantly see all Christendom, from
+pope to peasant, instead of striving to avert war by wise
+statesmanship, instead of striving to avert pestilence by
+observation and reason, instead of striving to avert famine by
+skilful economy, whining before fetiches, trying to bribe them to
+remove these signs of God's wrath, and planning to wreak this
+supposed wrath of God upon misbelievers.
+
+As to the third of these evils--the strengthening of
+ecclesiastical and civil despotism--examples appear on every
+side.  It was natural that hierarchs and monarchs whose births
+were announced by stars, or whose deaths were announced by
+comets, should regard themselves as far above the common herd,
+and should be so regarded by mankind; passive obedience was thus
+strengthened, and the most monstrous assumptions of authority
+were considered simply as manifestations of the Divine will.
+Shakespeare makes Calphurnia say to Caesar:
+
+
+"When beggars die, there are no comets seen;
+The heavens themselves blaze forth the death of princes."
+
+
+Galeazzo, the tyrant of Milan, expressing satisfaction on his
+deathbed that his approaching end was of such importance as to be
+heralded by a comet, is but a type of many thus encouraged to
+prey upon mankind; and Charles V, one of the most powerful
+monarchs the world has known, abdicating under fear of the comet
+of 1556, taking refuge in the monastery of San Yuste, and giving
+up the best of his vast realms to such a scribbling bigot as
+Philip II, furnishes an example even more striking.[94]
+
+
+[94] For Caesar, see Shakespeare, Julius Caesar, act ii, sc. 2.
+For Galeazzo, see Guillemin, World of Comets, p. 19.  For Charles
+V, see Prof. Wolf's essay in the Monatschrift des
+wissenschaftlichen Vereins, Zurich, 1857, p. 228.
+
+
+But for the retention of this belief there was a moral cause.
+Myriads of good men in the Christian Church down to a recent
+period saw in the appearance of comets not merely an exhibition
+of "signs in the heavens" foretold in Scripture, but also Divine
+warnings of vast value to humanity as incentives to repentance
+and improvement of life-warnings, indeed, so precious that they
+could not be spared without danger to the moral government of the
+world.  And this belief in the portentous character of comets as
+an essential part of the Divine government, being, as it was
+thought, in full accord with Scripture, was made for centuries a
+source of terror to humanity.  To say nothing of examples in the
+earlier periods, comets in the tenth century especially increased
+the distress of all Europe.  In the middle of the eleventh
+century a comet was thought to accompany the death of Edward the
+Confessor and to presage the Norman conquest; the traveller in
+France to-day may see this belief as it was then wrought into the
+Bayeux tapestry.[95]
+
+[95] For evidences of this widespread terror, see chronicles of
+Raoul Glaber, Guillaume de Nangis, William of Malmesbury,
+Florence of Worcester, Ordericus Vitalis, et al., passim, and the
+Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (in the Rolls Series).  For very thrilling
+pictures of this horror in England, see Freeman, Norman Conquest,
+vol. iii, pp. 640-644, and William Rufus, vol. ii, p. 118.  For
+the Bayeau tapestry, see Bruce, Bayeux Tapestry Elucidated, plate
+vii and p. 86; also Guillemin, World of Comets, p. 24.  There is
+a large photographic copy, in the South Kensington Museum at
+London, of the original, wrought, as is generally believed, by
+the wife of William the Conqueror and her ladies, and is still
+preserved in the town museum at Bayeux.
+
+
+Nearly every decade of years throughout the Middle Ages saw
+Europe plunged into alarm by appearances of this sort, but the
+culmination seems to have been reached in 1456.  At that time the
+Turks, after a long effort, had made good their footing in
+Europe.  A large statesmanship or generalship might have kept
+them out; but, while different religious factions were disputing
+over petty shades of dogma, they had advanced, had taken
+Constantinople, and were evidently securing their foothold.  Now
+came the full bloom of this superstition.  A comet appeared.  The
+Pope of that period, Calixtus III, though a man of more than
+ordinary ability, was saturated with the ideas of his time.
+Alarmed at this monster, if we are to believe the contemporary
+historian, this infallible head of the Church solemnly "decreed
+several days of prayer for the averting of the wrath of God, that
+whatever calamity impended might be turned from the Christians
+and against the Turks."  And, that all might join daily in this
+petition, there was then established that midday Angelus which
+has ever since called good Catholics to prayer against the powers
+of evil.  Then, too, was incorporated into a litany the plea,
+"From the Turk and the comet, good Lord, deliver us."  Never was
+papal intercession less effective; for the Turk has held
+Constantinople from that day to this, while the obstinate comet,
+being that now known under the name of Halley, has returned
+imperturbably at short periods ever since.[96]
+
+[96] The usual statement is, that Calixtus excommunicated the
+comet by a bull, and this is accepted by Arago, Grant, Hoefer,
+Guillemin, Watson, and many historians of astronomy.  Hence the
+parallel is made on a noted occasion by President Lincoln.  No
+such bull, however, is to be found in the published Bulleria, and
+that establishing the Angelus (as given by Raynaldus in the
+Annales Eccl.) contains no mention of the comet.  But the
+authority of Platina (in his Vitae Pontificum, Venice, 1479, sub
+Calistus III) who was not only in Rome at the time, but when he
+wrote his history, archivist of the Vatican, is final as to the
+Pope's attitude.  Platina's authority was never questioned until
+modern science changed the ideas of the world.  The recent
+attempt of Pastor (in his Geschichte der Papste) to pooh-pooh
+down the whole matter is too evident an evasion to carry weight
+with those who know how even the most careful histories have to
+be modified to suit the views of the censorship at Rome.
+
+
+But the superstition went still further.  It became more and more
+incorporated into what was considered "scriptural science" and
+"sound learning."  The encyclopedic summaries, in which the
+science of the Middle Ages and the Reformation period took form,
+furnish abundant proofs of this.
+
+Yet scientific observation was slowly undermining this structure.
+The inspired prophecy of Seneca had not been forgotten.  Even as
+far back as the ninth century, in the midst of the sacred
+learning so abundant at the court of Charlemagne and his
+successors, we find a scholar protesting against the accepted
+doctrine.  In the thirteenth century we have a mild question by
+Albert the Great as to the supposed influence of comets upon
+individuals; but the prevailing theological current was too
+strong, and he finally yielded to it in this as in so many other
+things.
+
+So, too, in the sixteenth century, we have Copernicus refusing to
+accept the usual theory, Paracelsus writing to Zwingli against
+it, and Julius Caesar Scaliger denouncing it as "ridiculous
+folly."[97]
+
+[97] As to encyclopedic summaries, see Vincent of Beauvais,
+Speculum Naturale, and the various editions of Reisch's Margarita
+Philosophica.  For Charlemagne's time, see Champion, La Fin du
+Monde, p. 156; Leopardi, Errori Popolari, p. 165.  As to Albert
+the Great's question, see Heller, Geschichte der Physik, vol. i,
+p. 188.  As to scepticism in the sixteenth century, see Champion,
+La Fin du Monde, pp. 155, 156; and for Scaliger, Dudith's book,
+cited below.
+
+
+At first this scepticism only aroused the horror of theologians
+and increased the vigour of ecclesiastics; both asserted the
+theological theory of comets all the more strenuously as based on
+scriptural truth.  During the sixteenth century France felt the
+influence of one of her greatest men on the side of this
+superstition.  Jean Bodin, so far before his time in political
+theories, was only thoroughly abreast of it in religious
+theories:  the same reverence for the mere letter of Scripture
+which made him so fatally powerful in supporting the witchcraft
+delusion, led him to support this theological theory of
+comets--but with a difference:  he thought them the souls of men,
+wandering in space, bringing famine, pestilence, and war.
+
+Not less strong was the same superstition in England.  Based upon
+mediaeval theology, it outlived the revival of learning.  From a
+multitude of examples a few may be selected as typical.  Early in
+the sixteenth century Polydore Virgil, an ecclesiastic of the
+unreformed Church, alludes, in his English History, to the
+presage of the death of the Emperor Constantine by a comet as to
+a simple matter of fact; and in his work on prodigies he pushes
+this superstition to its most extreme point, exhibiting comets as
+preceding almost every form of calamity.
+
+In 1532, just at the transition period from the old Church to the
+new, Cranmer, paving the way to his archbishopric, writes from
+Germany to Henry VIII, and says of the comet then visible:  "What
+strange things these tokens do signify to come hereafter, God
+knoweth; for they do not lightly appear but against some great
+matter."
+
+Twenty years later Bishop Latimer, in an Advent sermon, speaks of
+eclipses, rings about the sun, and the like, as signs of the
+approaching end of the world.[98]
+
+[98] For Bodin, see Theatr., lib. ii, cited by Pingre, vol. i, p.
+45; also a vague citation in Baudrillart, Bodin et son Temps, p.
+360.  For Polydore Virgil, see English History, p. 97 (in Camden
+Society Publications).  For Cranmer, see Remains, vol. ii, p. 535
+(in Parker Society Publications).  For Latimer, see Sermons,
+second Sunday in Advent, 1552.
+
+
+In 1580, under Queen Elizabeth, there was set forth an "order of
+prayer to avert God's wrath from us, threatened by the late
+terrible earthquake, to be used in all parish churches."  In
+connection with this there was also commended to the faithful "a
+godly admonition for the time present"; and among the things
+referred to as evidence of God's wrath are comets, eclipses, and
+falls of snow.
+
+This view held sway in the Church of England during Elizabeth's
+whole reign and far into the Stuart period:  Strype, the
+ecclesiastical annalist, gives ample evidence of this, and among
+the more curious examples is the surmise that the comet of 1572
+was a token of Divine wrath provoked by the St. Bartholomew
+massacre.
+
+As to the Stuart period, Archbishop Spottiswoode seems to have
+been active in carrying the superstition from the sixteenth
+century to the seventeenth, and Archbishop Bramhall cites
+Scripture in support of it.  Rather curiously, while the diary of
+Archbishop Laud shows so much superstition regarding dreams as
+portents, it shows little or none regarding comets; but Bishop
+Jeremy Taylor, strong as he was, evidently favoured the usual
+view.  John Howe, the eminent Nonconformist divine in the latter
+part of the century, seems to have regarded the comet
+superstition as almost a fundamental article of belief; he
+laments the total neglect of comets and portents generally,
+declaring that this neglect betokens want of reverence for the
+Ruler of the world; he expresses contempt for scientific inquiry
+regarding comets, insists that they may be natural bodies and yet
+supernatural portents, and ends by saying, "I conceive it very
+safe to suppose that some very considerable thing, either in the
+way of judgment or mercy, may ensue, according as the cry of
+persevering wickedness or of penitential prayer is more or less
+loud at that time."[99]
+
+[99] For Liturgical Services of the Reign of Queen Elizabeth, see
+Parker Society Publications, pp. 569, 570.  For Strype, see his
+Ecclesiastical Memorials, vol. iii, part i, p. 472; also see his
+Annals of the reformation, vol. ii, part ii, p. 151; and his Life
+of Sir Thomas Smith, pp. 161, 162.  For Spottiswoode, see History
+of the Church of Scotland (Edinburgh reprint, 1851), vol. i, pp.
+185, 186.  For Bramhall, see his Works, Oxford, 1844, vol. iv,
+pp. 60, 307, etc.  For Jeremy Taylor, see his Sermons on the Life
+of Christ.  For John Howe, see his Works, London, 1862, vol. iv,
+pp. 140, 141.
+
+
+The Reformed Church of Scotland supported the superstition just
+as strongly.  John Knox saw in comets tokens of the wrath of
+Heaven; other authorities considered them "a warning to the king
+to extirpate the Papists"; and as late as 1680, after Halley had
+won his victory, comets were announced on high authority in the
+Scottish Church to be "prodigies of great judgment on these lands
+for our sins, for never was the Lord more provoked by a people."
+
+While such was the view of the clergy during the sixteenth and
+seventeenth centuries, the laity generally accepted it as a
+matter of course, Among the great leaders in literature there was
+at least general acquiescence in it.  Both Shakespeare and Milton
+recognise it, whether they fully accept it or not.  Shakespeare
+makes the Duke of Bedford, lamenting at the bier of Henry V, say:
+
+
+"Comets, importing change of time and states,
+Brandish your crystal tresses in the sky;
+And with them scourge the bad revolting stars,
+That have consented unto Henry's death."
+
+
+Milton, speaking of Satan preparing for combat, says:
+
+
+"On the other side,
+Incensed with indignation, Satan stood.
+Unterrified, and like a comet burned,
+That fires the length of Ophiuchus huge
+In the arctic sky, and from its horrid hair
+Shakes pestilence and war."
+
+
+We do indeed find that in some minds the discoveries of Tycho
+Brahe and Kepler begin to take effect, for, in 1621, Burton in
+his Anatomy of Melancholy alludes to them as changing public
+opinion somewhat regarding comets; and, just before the middle
+of the century, Sir Thomas Browne expresses a doubt whether
+comets produce such terrible effects, "since it is found that
+many of them are above the moon."[100] Yet even as late as the
+last years of the seventeenth century we have English authors of
+much power battling for this supposed scriptural view and among
+the natural and typical results we find, in 1682, Ralph Thoresby,
+a Fellow of the Royal Society, terrified at the comet of that
+year, and writing in his diary the following passage:  "Lord, fit
+us for whatever changes it may portend; for, though I am not
+ignorant that such meteors proceed from natural causes, yet are
+they frequently also the presages of imminent calamities."
+Interesting is it to note here that this was Halley's comet, and
+that Halley was at this very moment making those scientific
+studies upon it which were to free the civilized world
+forever from such terrors as distressed Thoresby.
+
+[100] For John Knox, see his Histoire of the Reformation of
+Religion within the Realm of Scotland (Edinburgh, 1732), lib. iv;
+also Chambers, Domestic Annals of Scotland, vol. ii, pp 410-412.
+For Burton, see his Anatomy of Melancholy, part ii, sect 2.  For
+Browne, see the Vulgar and Common Errors, book vi, chap. xiv.
+
+
+The belief in comets as warnings against sin was especially one
+of those held "always, everywhere, and by all," and by Eastern
+Christians as well as by Western.  One of the most striking
+scenes in the history of the Eastern Church is that which took
+place at the condemnation of Nikon, the great Patriarch of
+Moscow.  Turning toward his judges, he pointed to a comet then
+blazing in the sky, and said, "God's besom shall sweep you all
+away!"
+
+Of all countries in western Europe, it was in Germany and German
+Switzerland that this superstition took strongest hold.  That
+same depth of religious feeling which produced in those countries
+the most terrible growth of witchcraft persecution, brought
+superstition to its highest development regarding comets.  No
+country suffered more from it in the Middle Ages.  At the
+Reformation Luther declared strongly in favour of it.  In one of
+his Advent sermons he said, "The heathen write that the comet may
+arise from natural causes, but God creates not one that does not
+foretoken a sure calamity."  Again he said, "Whatever moves in
+the heaven in an unusual way is certainly a sign of God's wrath."
+
+And sometimes, yielding to another phase of his belief, he
+declared them works of the devil, and declaimed against them as
+"harlot stars."[101]
+
+[101] For Thoresby, see his Diary, (London, 1830).  Halley's
+great service is described further on in this chapter.  For
+Nikon's speech, see Dean Stanley's History of the Eastern Church,
+p. 485.  For very striking examples of this mediaeval terror in
+Germany, see Von Raumer, Geschichte der Hohenstaufen, vol. vi, p.
+538.  For the Reformation period, see Wolf, Gesch. d. Astronomie;
+also Praetorius, Ueber d. Cometstern (Erfurt, 1589), in which the
+above sentences of Luther are printed on the title page as
+epigraphs.  For "Huren-Sternen," see the sermon of Celichius,
+described later.
+
+
+Melanchthon, too, in various letters refers to comets as heralds
+of Heaven's wrath, classing them, with evil conjunctions of the
+planets and abortive births, among the "signs" referred to in
+Scripture.  Zwingli, boldest of the greater Reformers in shaking
+off traditional beliefs, could not shake off this, and insisted
+that the comet of 1531 betokened calamity.  Arietus, a leading
+Protestant theologian, declared, "The heavens are given us not
+merely for our pleasure, but also as a warning of the wrath of
+God for the correction of our lives."  Lavater insisted that
+comets are signs of death or calamity, and cited proofs from
+Scripture.
+
+Catholic and Protestant strove together for the glory of this
+doctrine.  It was maintained with especial vigour by Fromundus,
+the eminent professor and Doctor of Theology at the Catholic
+University of Louvain, who so strongly opposed the Copernican
+system; at the beginning of the seventeenth century, even so
+gifted an astronomer as Kepler yielded somewhat to the belief;
+and near the end of that century Voigt declared that the comet of
+1618 clearly presaged the downfall of the Turkish Empire, and he
+stigmatized as "atheists and Epicureans" all who did not believe
+comets to be God's warnings.[102]
+
+[102] For Melanchthon, see Wolf, ubi supra.  For Zwingli, see
+Wolf, p. 235.  For Arietus, see Madler, Geschichte der
+Himmelskunde, vol. ii.  For Kepler's superstition, see Wolf, p.
+281.  For Voight, see Himmels-Manaten Reichstage, Hamburg, 1676.
+For both Fromundus and Voigt, see also Madler, vol. ii, p. 399,
+and Lecky, Rationalism in Europe, vol. i, p.28.
+
+
+II.  THEOLOGICAL EFFORTS TO CRUSH THE SCIENTIFIC VIEW.
+
+
+Out of this belief was developed a great series of efforts to
+maintain the theological view of comets, and to put down forever
+the scientific view.  These efforts may be divided into two
+classes:  those directed toward learned men and scholars, through
+the universities, and those directed toward the people at large,
+through the pulpits.  As to the first of these, that learned men
+and scholars might be kept in the paths of "sacred science" and
+"sound learning," especial pains was taken to keep all knowledge
+of the scientific view of comets as far as possible from students
+in the universities.  Even to the end of the seventeenth century
+the oath generally required of professors of astronomy over a
+large part of Europe prevented their teaching that comets are
+heavenly bodies obedient to law.  Efforts just as earnest were
+made to fasten into students' minds the theological theory.  Two
+or three examples out of many may serve as types.  First of these
+may be named the teaching of Jacob Heerbrand, professor at the
+University of Tubingen, who in 1577 illustrated the moral value
+of comets by comparing the Almighty sending a comet, to the judge
+laying the executioner's sword on the table between himself and
+the criminal in a court of justice; and, again, to the father or
+schoolmaster displaying the rod before naughty children.  A
+little later we have another churchman of great importance in
+that region, Schickhart, head pastor and superintendent at
+Goppingen, preaching and publishing a comet sermon, in which he
+denounces those who stare at such warnings of God without heeding
+them, and compares them to "calves gaping at a new barn door."
+Still later, at the end of the seventeenth century, we find
+Conrad Dieterich, director of studies at the University of
+Marburg, denouncing all scientific investigation of comets as
+impious, and insisting that they are only to be regarded as
+"signs and wonders."[103]
+
+[103] For the effect of the anti-Pythagorean oath, see Prowe,
+Copernicus; also Madler and Wolf.  For Heerbrand, see his Von dem
+erschrockenlichen Wunderzeichen, Tubingen, 1577.  For Schickart,
+see his Predigt vom Wunderzeichen, Stuttgart, 1621.  For
+Deiterich, see his sermon, described more fully below.
+
+
+The results of this ecclesiastical pressure upon science in the
+universities were painfully shown during generation after
+generation, as regards both professors and students; and
+examples may be given typical of its effects upon each of these
+two classes.
+
+The first of these is the case of Michael Maestlin.  He was by
+birth a Swabian Protestant, was educated at Tubingen as a pupil
+of Apian, and, after a period of travel, was settled as deacon in
+the little parish of Backnang, when the comet of 1577 gave him an
+occasion to apply his astronomical studies.  His minute and
+accurate observation of it is to this day one of the wonders of
+science.  It seems almost impossible that so much could be
+accomplished by the naked eye.  His observations agreed with
+those of Tycho Brahe, and won for Maestlin the professorship of
+astronomy in the University of Heidelberg.  No man had so clearly
+proved the supralunar position of a comet, or shown so
+conclusively that its motion was not erratic, but regular.  The
+young astronomer, though Apian's pupil, was an avowed Copernican
+and the destined master and friend of Kepler.  Yet, in the
+treatise embodying his observations, he felt it necessary to save
+his reputation for orthodoxy by calling the comet a "new and
+horrible prodigy," and by giving a chapter of "conjectures on the
+signification of the present comet," in which he proves from
+history that this variety of comet betokens peace, but peace
+purchased by a bloody victory.  That he really believed in this
+theological theory seems impossible; the very fact that his
+observations had settled the supralunar character and regular
+motion of comets proves this.  It was a humiliation only to be
+compared to that of Osiander when he wrote his grovelling preface
+to the great book of Copernicus.  Maestlin had his reward:  when,
+a few years, later his old teacher, Apian, was driven from his
+chair at Tubingen for refusing to sign the Lutheran
+Concord-Book, Maestlin was elected to his place.
+
+Not less striking was the effect of this theological pressure
+upon the minds of students.  Noteworthy as an example of this is
+the book of the Leipsic lawyer, Buttner.  From no less than
+eighty-six biblical texts he proves the Almighty's purpose of
+using the heavenly bodies for the instruction of men as to future
+events, and then proceeds to frame exhaustive tables, from which,
+the time and place of the comet's first appearance being known,
+its signification can be deduced.  This manual he gave forth as a
+triumph of religious science, under the name of the Comet
+Hour-Book.[104]
+
+[104] For Maestlin, see his Observatio et Demonstration Cometae,
+Tubingen, 1578.  For Buttner, see his Cometen Stundbuchlein,
+Leipsic, 1605.
+
+
+The same devotion to the portent theory is found in the
+universities of Protestant Holland.  Striking is it to see in the
+sixteenth century, after Tycho Brahe's discovery, the Dutch
+theologian, Gerard Vossius, Professor of Theology and Eloquence
+at Leyden, lending his great weight to the superstition.  "The
+history of all times," he says, "shows comets to be the
+messengers of misfortune.  It does not follow that they are
+endowed with intelligence, but that there is a deity who makes
+use of them to call the human race to repentance."  Though
+familiar with the works of Tycho Brahe, he finds it "hard to
+believe" that all comets are ethereal, and adduces several
+historical examples of sublunary ones.
+
+Nor was this attempt to hold back university teaching to the old
+view of comets confined to Protestants.  The Roman Church was, if
+possible, more strenuous in the same effort.  A few examples will
+serve as types, representing the orthodox teaching at the great
+centres of Catholic theology.
+
+One of these is seen in Spain.  The eminent jurist Torreblanca
+was recognised as a controlling authority in all the universities
+of Spain, and from these he swayed in the seventeenth century the
+thought of Catholic Europe, especially as to witchcraft and the
+occult powers in Nature.  He lays down the old cometary
+superstition as one of the foundations of orthodox teaching:
+Begging the question, after the fashion of his time, he argues
+that comets can not be stars, because new stars always betoken
+good, while comets betoken evil.
+
+The same teaching was given in the Catholic universities of the
+Netherlands.  Fromundus, at Louvain, the enemy of Galileo,
+steadily continued his crusade against all cometary heresy.[105]
+
+[105] For Vossius, see the De Idololatria (in his Opera, vol. v,
+pp. 283-285).  For Torreblanc, see his De Magia, Seville, 1618,
+and often reprinted. For Fromundus, see his Meteorologica.
+
+
+But a still more striking case is seen in Italy.  The reverend
+Father Augustin de Angelis, rector of the Clementine College at
+Rome, as late as 1673, after the new cometary theory had been
+placed beyond reasonable doubt, and even while Newton was working
+out its final demonstration, published a third edition of his
+Lectures on Meteorology.  It was dedicated to the Cardinal of
+Hesse, and bore the express sanction of the Master of the Sacred
+Palace at Rome and of the head of the religious order to which De
+Angelis belonged.  This work deserves careful analysis, not only
+as representing the highest and most approved university teaching
+of the time at the centre of Roman Catholic Christendom, but
+still more because it represents that attempt to make a
+compromise between theology and science, or rather the attempt to
+confiscate science to the uses of theology, which we so
+constantly find whenever the triumph of science in any field has
+become inevitable.
+
+As to the scientific element in this compromise, De Angelis
+holds, in his general introduction regarding meteorology, that
+the main material cause of comets is "exhalation," and says, "If
+this exhalation is thick and sticky, it blazes into a comet."
+And again he returns to the same view, saying that "one form of
+exhalation is dense, hence easily inflammable and long retentive
+of fire, from which sort are especially generated comets."  But
+it is in his third lecture that he takes up comets specially, and
+his discussion of them is extended through the fourth, fifth, and
+sixth lectures.  Having given in detail the opinions of various
+theologians and philosophers, he declares his own in the form of
+two conclusions.  The first of these is that "comets are not
+heavenly bodies, but originate in the earth's atmosphere below
+the moon; for everything heavenly is eternal and incorruptible,
+but comets have a beginning and ending--ergo, comets can not be
+heavenly bodies."  This, we may observe, is levelled at the
+observations and reasonings of Tycho Brahe and Kepler, and is a
+very good illustration of the scholastic and mediaeval
+method--the method which blots out an ascertained fact by means
+of a metaphysical formula.  His second conclusion is that "comets
+are of elemental and sublunary nature; for they are an
+exhalation hot and dry, fatty and well condensed, inflammable and
+kindled in the uppermost regions of the air."  He then goes on to
+answer sundry objections to this mixture of metaphysics and
+science, and among other things declares that "the fatty, sticky
+material of a comet may be kindled from sparks falling from fiery
+heavenly bodies or from a thunderbolt"; and, again, that the
+thick, fatty, sticky quality of the comet holds its tail in
+shape, and that, so far are comets from having their paths beyond
+the, moon's orbit, as Tycho Brahe and Kepler thought, he himself
+in 1618 saw "a bearded comet so near the summit of Vesuvius that
+it almost seemed to touch it."  As to sorts and qualities of
+comets, he accepts Aristotle's view, and divides them into
+bearded and tailed.[106] He goes on into long disquisitions upon
+their colours, forms, and motions.  Under this latter head he
+again plunges deep into a sea of metaphysical considerations, and
+does not reappear until he brings up his compromise in the
+opinion that their movement is as yet uncertain and not
+understood, but that, if we must account definitely for it, we
+must say that it is effected by angels especially assigned to
+this service by Divine Providence.  But, while proposing this
+compromise between science and theology as to the origin and
+movement of comets, he will hear to none as regards their mission
+as "signs and wonders" and presages of evil.  He draws up a
+careful table of these evils, arranging them in the following
+order: Drought, wind, earthquake, tempest, famine, pestilence,
+war, and, to clinch the matter, declares that the comet
+observed by him in 1618 brought not only war, famine,
+pestilence, and earthquake, but also a general volcanic eruption,
+"which would have destroyed Naples, had not the blood of the
+invincible martyr Januarius withstood it."
+
+[106] Barbata et caudata.
+
+
+It will be observed, even from this sketch, that, while the
+learned Father Augustin thus comes infallibly to the mediaeval
+conclusion, he does so very largely by scientific and essentially
+modern processes, giving unwonted prominence to observation, and
+at times twisting scientific observation into the strand with his
+metaphysics.  The observations and methods of his science are
+sometimes shrewd, sometimes comical.  Good examples of the latter
+sort are such as his observing that the comet stood very near the
+summit of Vesuvius, and his reasoning that its tail was kept in
+place by its stickiness.  But observations and reasonings of this
+sort are always the first homage paid by theology to science as
+the end of their struggle approaches.[107]
+
+[107] See De Angelis, Lectiones Meteorologicae, Rome, 1669.
+
+
+Equally striking is an example seen a little later in another
+part of Europe; and it is the more noteworthy because Halley and
+Newton had already fully established the modern scientific
+theory.  Just at the close of the seventeenth century the Jesuit
+Reinzer, professor at Linz, put forth his Meteorologia
+Philosophico-Politica, in which all natural phenomena received
+both a physical and a moral interpretation.  It was profusely and
+elaborately illustrated, and on account of its instructive
+contents was in 1712 translated into German for the unlearned
+reader.  The comet receives, of course, great attention.  "It
+appears," says Reinzer, "only then in the heavens when the latter
+punish the earth, and through it [the comet] not only predict but
+bring to pass all sorts of calamity....And, to that end, its
+tail serves for a rod, its hair for weapons and arrows, its light
+for a threat, and its heat for a sign of anger and vengeance."
+Its warnings are threefold:  (1) "Comets, generated in the air,
+betoken NATURALLY drought, wind, earthquake, famine, and
+pestilence."  (2) "Comets can indirectly, in view of their
+material, betoken wars, tumults, and the death of princes; for,
+being hot and dry, they bring the moistnesses [Feuchtigkeiten]
+in the human body to an extraordinary heat and dryness,
+increasing the gall; and, since the emotions depend on the
+temperament and condition of the body, men are through this
+change driven to violent deeds, quarrels, disputes, and finally
+to arms:  especially is this the result with princes, who are
+more delicate and also more arrogant than other men, and whose
+moistnesses are more liable to inflammation of this sort,
+inasmuch as they live in luxury and seldom restrain themselves
+from those things which in such a dry state of the heavens are
+especially injurious."  (3) "All comets, whatever prophetic
+significance they may have naturally in and of themselves, are
+yet principally, according to the Divine pleasure, heralds of the
+death of great princes, of war, and of other such great
+calamities; and this is known and proved, first of all, from the
+words of Christ himself:  `Nation shall rise against nation, and
+kingdom against kingdom; and great earthquakes shall be in
+divers places, and famines, and pestilences; and fearful sights
+and great signs shall there be from heaven.'"[108]
+
+[108] See Reinzer, Meteorologica Philosophico-Politica (edition
+of Augsburg, 1712), pp. 101-103.
+
+
+While such pains was taken to keep the more highly educated
+classes in the "paths of scriptural science and sound learning;
+at the universities, equal efforts were made to preserve the
+cometary orthodoxy of the people at large by means of the
+pulpits.  Out of the mass of sermons for this purpose which were
+widely circulated I will select just two as typical, and they are
+worthy of careful study as showing some special dangers of
+applying theological methods to scientific facts.  In the second
+half of the sixteenth century the recognised capital of orthodox
+Lutheranism was Magdeburg, and in the region tributary to this
+metropolis no Church official held a more prominent station than
+the "Superintendent," or Lutheran bishop, of the neighbouring
+Altmark.  It was this dignitary, Andreas Celichius by name, who
+at Magdeburg, in 1578, gave to the press his Theological Reminder
+of the New Comet.  After deprecating as blasphemous the attempt
+of Aristotle to explain the phenomenon otherwise than as a
+supernatural warning from God to sinful man, he assures his
+hearers that "whoever would know the comet's real source and
+nature must not merely gape and stare at the scientific theory
+that it is an earthy, greasy, tough, and sticky vapour and mist,
+rising into the upper air and set ablaze by the celestial heat."
+Far more important for them is it to know what this vapour is.
+It is really, in the opinion of Celichius, nothing more or less
+than  "the thick smoke of human sins, rising every day, every
+hour, every moment, full of stench and horror, before the face of
+God, and becoming gradually so thick as to form a comet, with
+curled and plaited tresses, which at last is kindled by the hot
+and fiery anger of the Supreme Heavenly Judge."  He adds that it
+is probably only through the prayers and tears of Christ that
+this blazing monument of human depravity becomes visible to
+mortals.  In support of this theory, he urges the "coming up
+before God" of the wickedness of Sodom and Gomorrah and of
+Nineveh, and especially the words of the prophet regarding
+Babylon, "Her stench and rottenness is come up before me."  That
+the anger of God can produce the conflagration without any
+intervention of Nature is proved from the Psalms, "He sendeth out
+his word and melteth them."  From the position of the comet, its
+course, and the direction of its tail he augurs especially the
+near approach of the judgment day, though it may also betoken, as
+usual, famine, pestilence, and war.  "Yet even in these days," he
+mourns, "there are people reckless and giddy enough to pay no
+heed to such celestial warnings, and these even cite in their own
+defence the injunction of Jeremiah not to fear signs in the
+heavens."  This idea he explodes, and shows that good and
+orthodox Christians, while not superstitious like the heathen,
+know well "that God is not bound to his creation and the ordinary
+course of Nature, but must often, especially in these last dregs
+of the world, resort to irregular means to display his anger at
+human guilt."[109]
+
+[109] For Celichius, or Celich, see his own treatise, as above.
+
+
+The other typical case occurred in the following century and in
+another part of Germany.  Conrad Dieterich was, during the first
+half of the seventeenth century, a Lutheran ecclesiastic of the
+highest authority.  His ability as a theologian had made him
+Archdeacon of Marburg, Professor of Philosophy and Director of
+Studies at the University of Giessen, and "Superintendent," or
+Lutheran bishop, in southwestern Germany.  In the year 162O, on
+the second Sunday in Advent, in the great Cathedral of Ulm, he
+developed the orthodox doctrine of comets in a sermon, taking up
+the questions:  1.  What are comets?  2.  What do they indicate?
+3. What have we to do with their significance? This sermon marks
+an epoch.  Delivered in that stronghold of German Protestantism
+and by a prelate of the highest standing, it was immediately
+printed, prefaced by three laudatory poems from different men of
+note, and sent forth to drive back the scientific, or, as it was
+called, the "godless," view of comets.  The preface shows that
+Dieterich was sincerely alarmed by the tendency to regard comets
+as natural appearances.  His text was taken from the twenty-fifth
+verse of the twenty-first chapter of St. Luke:  "And there shall
+be signs in the sun, and in the moon, and in the stars; and upon
+the earth distress of nations, with perplexity; the sea and the
+waves roaring."  As to what comets are, he cites a multitude of
+philosophers, and, finding that they differ among themselves, he
+uses a form of argument not uncommon from that day to this,
+declaring that this difference of opinion proves that there is no
+solution of the problem save in revelation, and insisting that
+comets are "signs especially sent by the Almighty to warn the
+earth."  An additional proof of this he finds in the forms of
+comets.  One, he says, took the form of a trumpet; another, of a
+spear; another of a goat; another, of a torch; another, of a
+sword; another, of an arrow; another, of a sabre; still another,
+of a bare arm.  From these forms of comets he infers that we may
+divine their purpose.  As to their creation, he quotes John of
+Damascus and other early Church authorities in behalf of the idea
+that each comet is a star newly created at the Divine command,
+out of nothing, and that it indicates the wrath of God.  As to
+their purpose, having quoted largely from the Bible and from
+Luther, he winds up by insisting that, as God can make nothing in
+vain, comets must have some distinct object; then, from Isaiah
+and Joel among the prophets, from Matthew, Mark, and Luke among
+the evangelists, from Origen and John Chrysostom among the
+fathers, from Luther and Melanchthon among the Reformers, he
+draws various texts more or less conclusive to prove that comets
+indicate evil and only evil; and he cites Luther's Advent sermon
+to the effect that, though comets may arise in the course of
+Nature, they are still signs of evil to mankind.  In answer to
+the theory of sundry naturalists that comets are made up of "a
+certain fiery, warm, sulphurous, saltpetery, sticky fog," he
+declaims:  "Our sins, our sins:  they are the fiery heated
+vapours, the thick, sticky, sulphurous clouds which rise from the
+earth toward heaven before God."  Throughout the sermon Dieterich
+pours contempt over all men who simply investigate comets as
+natural objects, calls special attention to a comet then in the
+heavens resembling a long broom or bundle of rods, and declares
+that he and his hearers can only consider it rightly "when we see
+standing before us our Lord God in heaven as an angry father with
+a rod for his children."  In answer to the question what comets
+signify, he commits himself entirely to the idea that they
+indicate the wrath of God, and therefore calamities of every
+sort.  Page after page is filled with the records of evils
+following comets.  Beginning with the creation of the world, he
+insists that the first comet brought on the deluge of Noah, and
+cites a mass of authorities, ranging from Moses and Isaiah to
+Albert the Great and Melanchthon, in support of the view that
+comets precede earthquakes, famines, wars, pestilences, and every
+form of evil.  He makes some parade of astronomical knowledge as
+to the greatness of the sun and moon, but relapses soon into his
+old line of argument.  Imploring his audience not to be led away
+from the well-established belief of Christendom and the
+principles of their fathers, he comes back to his old assertion,
+insists that "our sins are the inflammable material of which
+comets are made," and winds up with a most earnest appeal to the
+Almighty to spare his people.[110]
+
+[110] For Deiterich, see Ulmische Cometen-Predigt, von dem
+Cometen, so nechst abgewischen 1618 Jahrs im Wintermonat
+erstenmahls in Schwaben sehen lassen, . . . gehalten zu Ulm . . .
+durch Conrad Dieterich, Ulm, 1620.  For a life of the author, see
+article Dieterich in the Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie. See also
+Wolf.
+
+
+Similar efforts from the pulpit were provoked by the great comet
+of 1680.  Typical among these was the effort in Switzerland of
+Pastor Heinrich Erni, who, from the Cathedral of Zurich, sent a
+circular letter to the clergy of that region showing the
+connection of the eleventh and twelfth verses of the first
+chapter of Jeremiah with the comet, giving notice that at his
+suggestion the authorities had proclaimed a solemn fast, and
+exhorting the clergy to preach earnestly on the subject of this
+warning.
+
+Nor were the interpreters of the comet's message content with
+simple prose.  At the appearance of the comet of 1618, Grasser
+and Gross, pastors and doctors of theology at Basle, put forth a
+collection of doggerel rhymes to fasten the orthodox theory into
+the minds of school-children and peasants.  One of these may be
+translated:
+
+"I am a Rod in God's right hand
+  threatening the German and foreign land."
+
+
+Others for a similar purpose taught:
+
+
+"Eight things there be a Comet brings,
+When it on high doth horrid range:
+Wind, Famine, Plague, and Death to Kings,
+War, Earthquakes, Floods, and Direful Change."
+
+
+Great ingenuity was shown in meeting the advance of science, in
+the universities and schools, with new texts of Scripture; and
+Stephen Spleiss, Rector of the Gymnasium at Schaffhausen, got
+great credit by teaching that in the vision of Jeremiah the
+"almond rod" was a tailed comet, and the "seething pot" a bearded
+one.[111]
+
+[111] For Erni, see Wolf, Gesch. d. Astronomie, p. 239.  For
+Grassner and Gross, see their Christenliches Bedenken . . . von
+dem erschrockenlichen Cometen, etc., Zurich, 1664.  For Spleiss,
+see Beilauftiger Bericht von dem jetzigen Cometsternen, etc.,
+schaffhausen, 1664.
+
+
+It can be easily understood that such authoritative utterances as
+that of Dieterich must have produced a great effect throughout
+Protestant Christendom; and in due time we see their working in
+New England.  That same tendency to provincialism, which, save at
+rare intervals, has been the bane of Massachusetts thought from
+that day to this, appeared; and in 1664 we find Samuel Danforth
+arguing from the Bible that "comets are portentous signals of
+great and notable changes," and arguing from history that they
+"have been many times heralds of wrath to a secure and impenitent
+world."  He cites especially the comet of 1652, which appeared
+just before Mr. Cotton's sickness and disappeared after his
+death.  Morton also, in his Memorial recording the death of John
+Putnam, alludes to the comet of 1662 as "a very signal testimony
+that God had then removed a bright star and a shining light out
+of the heaven of his Church here into celestial glory above."
+Again he speaks of another comet, insisting that "it was no fiery
+meteor caused by exhalation, but it was sent immediately by God
+to awaken the secure world," and goes on to show how in that year
+"it pleased God to smite the fruits of the earth--namely, the
+wheat in special--with blasting and mildew, whereby much of it
+was spoiled and became profitable for nothing, and much of it
+worth little, being light and empty.  This was looked upon by the
+judicious and conscientious of the land as a speaking providence
+against the unthankfulness of many,... as also against
+voluptuousness and abuse of the good creatures of God by
+licentiousness in drinking and fashions in apparel, for the
+obtaining whereof a great part of the principal grain was
+oftentimes unnecessarily expended."
+
+But in 1680 a stronger than either of these seized upon the
+doctrine and wielded it with power.  Increase Mather, so open
+always to ideas from Europe, and always so powerful for good or
+evil in the cloonies, preached his sermon on "Heaven's Alarm to
+the World,...wherein is shown that fearful sights and signs in
+the heavens are the presages of great calamities at hand."  The
+texts were taken from the book of Revelation:  "And the third
+angel sounded, and there fell a great star from heaven, burning,
+as it were a lamp," and "Behold, the third woe cometh quickly."
+In this, as in various other sermons, he supports the theological
+cometary theory fully.  He insists that "we are fallen into the
+dregs of time," and that the day of judgment is evidently
+approaching.  He explains away the words of Jeremiah--"Be not
+dismayed at signs in the heavens"--and shows that comets have
+been forerunners of nearly every form of evil.  Having done full
+justice to evils thus presaged in scriptural times, he begins a
+similar display in modern history by citing blazing stars which
+foretold the invasions of Goths, Huns, Saracens, and Turks, and
+warns gainsayers by citing the example of Vespasian, who, after
+ridiculing a comet, soon died.  The general shape and appearance
+of comets, he thinks, betoken their purpose, and he cites
+Tertullian to prove them "God's sharp razors on mankind, whereby
+he doth poll, and his scythe whereby he doth shear down
+multitudes of sinful creatures."  At last, rising to a fearful
+height, he declares:  "For the Lord hath fired his beacon in the
+heavens among the stars of God there; the fearful sight is not
+yet out of sight.  The warning piece of heaven is going off.
+Now, then, if the Lord discharge his murdering pieces from on
+high, and men be found in their sins unfit for death, their blood
+shall be upon them."  And again, in an agony of supplication, he
+cries out:  "Do we see the sword blazing over us? Let it put us
+upon crying to God, that the judgment be diverted and not return
+upon us again so speedily....Doth God threaten our very heavens?
+O pray unto him, that he would not take away stars and send
+comets to succeed them."[112]
+
+[112] For Danforth, see his Astronomical Descritption of the Late
+Comet or Blazing Star, Together with a Brief Theological
+Application Thereof, 1664.  For Morton, see his Memorial, pp.
+251, 252,; also 309, 310.  Texts cited by Mather were Rev., viii,
+10, and xi, 14.
+
+
+Two years later, in August, 1682, he followed this with another
+sermon on "The Latter Sign," "wherein is showed that the voice of
+God in signal providences, especially when repeated and iterated,
+ought to be hearkened unto."  Here, too, of course, the comet
+comes in for a large share of attention.  But his tone is less
+sure:  even in the midst of all his arguments appears an evident
+misgiving.  The thoughts of Newton in science and Bayle in
+philosophy were evidently tending to accomplish the prophecy of
+Seneca.  Mather's alarm at this is clear.  His natural tendency
+is to uphold the idea that a comet is simply a fire-ball flung
+from the hand of an avenging God at a guilty world, but he
+evidently feels obliged to yield something to the scientific
+spirit;  hence, in the Discourse concerning Comets, published in
+1683, he declares:  "There are those who think that, inasmuch as
+comets may be supposed to proceed from natural causes, there is
+no speaking voice of Heaven in them beyond what is to be said of
+all other works of God.  But certain it is that many things which
+may happen according to the course of Nature are portentous signs
+of Divine anger and prognostics of great evils hastening upon the
+world."  He then notices the eclipse of August, 1672, and adds:
+"That year the college was eclipsed by the death of the learned
+president there, worthy Mr. Chauncey and two colonies--namely,
+Massachusetts and Plymouth--by the death of two governors, who
+died within a twelvemonth after....Shall, then, such mighty
+works of God as comets are be insignificant things?"[113]
+
+[113] Increase Mather's Heaven's Alarm to the World was first
+printed at Boston in 1681, but was reprinted in 1682, and was
+appended, with the sermon on The Latter Sign, to the Discourse on
+Comets (Boston, 1683).
+
+
+
+III.  THE INVASION OF SCEPTICISM.
+
+
+Vigorous as Mather's argument is, we see scepticism regarding
+"signs" continuing to invade the public mind; and, in spite of
+his threatenings, about twenty years after we find a remarkable
+evidence of this progress in the fact that this scepticism has
+seized upon no less a personage than that colossus of orthodoxy,
+his thrice illustrious son, Cotton Mather himself; and him we
+find, in 1726, despite the arguments of his father, declaring in
+his Manuductio:  "Perhaps there may be some need for me to
+caution you against being dismayed at the signs of the heavens,
+or having any superstitious fancies upon eclipses and the
+like....I am willing that you be apprehensive of nothing
+portentous in blazing stars.  For my part, I know not whether all
+our worlds, and even the sun itself, may not fare the better for
+them."[114]
+
+[114] For Cotton Mather, see the Manuductio, pp. 54, 55.
+
+
+Curiously enough, for this scientific scepticism in Cotton Mather
+there was a cause identical with that which had developed
+superstition in the mind of his father.  The same provincial
+tendency to receive implicitly any new European fashion in
+thinking or speech wrought upon both, plunging one into
+superstition and drawing the other out of it.
+
+European thought, which New England followed, had at last broken
+away in great measure from the theological view of comets as
+signs and wonders.  The germ of this emancipating influence was
+mainly in the great utterance of Seneca; and we find in nearly
+every century some evidence that this germ was still alive.  This
+life became more and more evident after the Reformation period,
+even though theologians in every Church did their best to destroy
+it.  The first series of attacks on the old theological doctrine
+were mainly founded in philosophic reasoning.  As early as the
+first half of the sixteenth century we hear Julius Caesar
+Scaliger protesting against the cometary superstition as
+"ridiculous folly."[115]  Of more real importance was the
+treatise of Blaise de Vigenere, published at Paris in 1578.  In
+this little book various statements regarding comets as signs of
+wrath or causes of evils are given, and then followed by a very
+gentle and quiet discussion, usually tending to develop that
+healthful scepticism which is the parent of investigation.  A
+fair example of his mode of treating the subject is seen in his
+dealing with a bit of "sacred science."  This was simply that
+"comets menace princes and kings with death because they live
+more delicately than other people; and, therefore, the air
+thickened and corrupted by a comet would be naturally more
+injurious to them than to common folk who live on coarser food."
+To this De Vigenere answers that there are very many persons who
+live on food as delicate as that enjoyed by princes and kings,
+and yet receive no harm from comets.  He then goes on to show
+that many of the greatest monarchs in history have met death
+without any comet to herald it.
+
+[115] For Scaliger, see p. 20 of Dudith's book, cited below.
+
+
+In the same year thoughtful scepticism of a similar sort found an
+advocate in another part of Europe.  Thomas Erastus, the learned
+and devout professor of medicine at Heidelberg, put forth a
+letter dealing in the plainest terms with the superstition.  He
+argued especially that there could be no natural connection
+between the comet and pestilence, since the burning of an
+exhalation must tend to purify rather than to infect the air.  In
+the following year the eloquent Hungarian divine Dudith published
+a letter in which the theological theory was handled even more
+shrewdly.  for he argued that, if comets were caused by the sins
+of mortals, they would never be absent from the sky.  But these
+utterances were for the time brushed aside by the theological
+leaders of thought as shallow or impious.
+
+In the seventeenth century able arguments against the
+superstition, on general grounds, began to be multiplied.  In
+Holland, Balthasar Bekker opposed this, as he opposed the
+witchcraft delusion, on general philosophic grounds; and
+Lubienitzky wrote in a compromising spirit to prove that comets
+were as often followed by good as by evil events.  In France,
+Pierre Petit, formerly geographer of Louis XIII, and an intimate
+friend of Descartes, addressed to the young Louis XIV a vehement
+protest against the superstition, basing his arguments not on
+astronomy, but on common sense.  A very effective part of the
+little treatise was devoted to answering the authority of the
+fathers of the early Church.  To do this, he simply reminded his
+readers that St. Augustine and St. John Damascenus had also
+opposed the doctrine of the antipodes.  The book did good service
+in France, and was translated in Germany a few years later.[116]
+
+[116] For Blaise de Vigenere, see his Traite des Cometes, Paris,
+1578.  For Dudith, see his De Cometarum Dignificatione, Basle,
+1579, to which the letter of Erastus is appended.  Bekker's views
+may be found in his Onderzoek van de Betekening der Cometen,
+Leeuwarden, 1683.  For Lubienitsky's, see his Theatrum Cometicum,
+Amsterdam, 1667, in part ii: Historia Cometarum, preface "to the
+reader."  For Petit, see his Dissertation sur la Nature des
+Cometes, Paris, 1665 (German translation, Dresden and Zittau,
+1681).
+
+
+All these were denounced as infidels and heretics, yet none the
+less did they set men at thinking, and prepare the way for a far
+greater genius; for toward the end of the same century the
+philosophic attack was taken up by Pierre Bayle, and in the whole
+series of philosophic champions he is chief.  While professor at
+the University of Sedan he had observed the alarm caused by the
+comet of 1680, and he now brought all his reasoning powers to
+bear upon it.  Thoughts deep and witty he poured out in volume
+after volume.  Catholics and Protestants were alike scandalized.
+Catholic France spurned him, and Jurieu, the great Reformed
+divine, called his cometary views "atheism," and tried hard to
+have Protestant Holland condemn him.  Though Bayle did not touch
+immediately the mass of mankind, he wrought with power upon men
+who gave themselves the trouble of thinking.  It was indeed
+unfortunate for the Church that theologians, instead of taking
+the initiative in this matter, left it to Bayle; for, in tearing
+down the pretended scriptural doctrine of comets, he tore down
+much else:  of all men in his time, no one so thoroughly prepared
+the way for Voltaire.
+
+Bayle's whole argument is rooted in the prophecy of Seneca.  He
+declares:  "Comets are bodies subject to the ordinary law of
+Nature, and not prodigies amenable to no law."  He shows
+historically that there is no reason to regard comets as portents
+of earthly evils.  As to the fact that such evils occur after the
+passage of comets across the sky, he compares the person
+believing that comets cause these evils to a woman looking out of
+a window into a Paris street and believing that the carriages
+pass because she looks out.  As to the accomplishment of some
+predictions, he cites the shrewd saying of Henry IV, to the
+effect that "the public will remember one prediction that comes
+true better than all the rest that have proved false."  Finally,
+he sums up by saying:  "The more we study man, the more does it
+appear that pride is his ruling passion, and that he affects
+grandeur even in his misery.  Mean and perishable creature that
+he is, he has been able to persuade men that he can not die
+without disturbing the whole course of Nature and obliging the
+heavens to put themselves to fresh expense.  In order to light
+his funeral pomp.  Foolish and ridiculous vanity! If we had a
+just idea of the universe, we should soon comprehend that the
+death or birth of a prince is too insignificant a matter to stir
+the heavens."[117]
+
+[117] Regarding Bayle, see Madler, Himmelskunde, vol. i, p. 327.
+For special points of interest in Bayle's arguments, see his
+Pensees Diverses sur les Cometes, Amsterdam, 1749, pp. 79, 102,
+134, 206.  For the response to Jurieu, see the continuation des
+Pensees, Rotterdam, 1705; also Champion, p. 164, Lecky, ubi
+supra, and Guillemin, pp. 29, 30.
+
+
+
+This great philosophic champion of right reason was followed by a
+literary champion hardly less famous; for Fontenelle now gave to
+the French theatre his play of The Comet, and a point of capital
+importance in France was made by rendering the army of ignorance
+ridiculous.[118]
+
+[118] See Fontenelle, cited by Champion, p. 167.
+
+
+Such was the line of philosophic and literary attack, as
+developed from Scaliger to Fontenelle.  But beneath and in the
+midst of all of it, from first to last, giving firmness,
+strength, and new sources of vitality to it, was the steady
+development of scientific effort; and to the series of great men
+who patiently wrought and thought out the truth by scientific
+methods through all these centuries belong the honours of the
+victory.
+
+For generations men in various parts of the world had been making
+careful observations on these strange bodies.  As far back as the
+time when Luther and Melanchthon and Zwingli were plunged into
+alarm by various comets from 1531 to 1539, Peter Apian kept his
+head sufficiently cool to make scientific notes of their paths
+through the heavens.  A little later, when the great comet of
+1556 scared popes, emperors, and reformers alike, such men as
+Fabricius at Vienna and Heller at Nuremberg quietly observed its
+path.  In vain did men like Dieterich and Heerbrand and Celich
+from various parts of Germany denounce such observations and
+investigations as impious; they were steadily continued, and in
+1577 came the first which led to the distinct foundation of the
+modern doctrine.  In that year appeared a comet which again
+plunged Europe into alarm.  In every European country this alarm
+was strong, but in Germany strongest of all.  The churches were
+filled with terror-stricken multitudes.  Celich preaching at
+Magdeburg was echoed by Heerbrand preaching at Tubingen, and both
+these from thousands of other pulpits, Catholic and Protestant,
+throughout Europe.  In the midst of all this din and outcry a few
+men quietly but steadily observed the monster; and Tycho Brahe
+announced, as the result, that its path lay farther from the
+earth than the orbit of the moon.  Another great astronomical
+genius, Kepler, confirmed this.  This distinct beginning of the
+new doctrine was bitterly opposed by theologians; they denounced
+it as one of the evil results of that scientific meddling with
+the designs of Providence against which they had so long
+declaimed in pulpits and professors' chairs; they even brought
+forward some astronomers ambitious or wrong-headed enough to
+testify that Tycho and Kepler were in error.[119]
+
+[119] See Madler, Himmelskunde, vol. i, pp. 181, 197; also Wolf,
+Gesch. d. Astronomie, and Janssen, Gesch. d. deutschen Volkes,
+vol. v, p. 350.  Heerbrand's sermon, cited above, is a good
+specimen of the theologic attitude. See Pingre, vol. ii, p. 81.
+
+
+
+Nothing could be more natural than such opposition; for this
+simple announcement by Tycho Brahe began a new era.  It shook the
+very foundation of cometary superstition.  The Aristotelian view,
+developed by the theologians, was that what lies within the
+moon's orbit appertains to the earth and is essentially
+transitory and evil, while what lies beyond it belongs to the
+heavens and is permanent, regular, and pure.  Tycho Brahe and
+Kepler, therefore, having by means of scientific observation and
+thought taken comets out of the category of meteors and
+appearances in the neighbourhood of the earth, and placed them
+among the heavenly bodies, dealt a blow at the very foundations
+of the theological argument, and gave a great impulse to the idea
+that comets are themselves heavenly bodies moving regularly and
+in obedience to law.
+
+
+
+IV.  THEOLOGICAL EFFORTS AT COMPROMISE.--THE FINAL
+VICTORY OF SCIENCE.
+
+
+Attempts were now made to compromise.  It was declared that,
+while some comets were doubtless supralunar, some must be
+sublunar.  But this admission was no less fatal on another
+account.  During many centuries the theory favoured by the Church
+had been, as we have seen, that the earth was surrounded by
+hollow spheres, concentric and transparent, forming a number of
+glassy strata incasing one another "like the different coatings
+of an onion," and that each of these in its movement about the
+earth carries one or more of the heavenly bodies.  Some
+maintained that these spheres were crystal; but Lactantius, and
+with him various fathers of the Church, spoke of the heavenly
+vault as made of ice.  Now, the admission that comets could move
+beyond the moon was fatal to this theory, for it sent them
+crashing through these spheres of ice or crystal, and therefore
+through the whole sacred fabric of the Ptolemaic theory.[120]
+
+[120] For these features in cometary theory, see Pingre, vol. i,
+p. 89; also Humboldt, Cosmos (English translation, London, 1868),
+vol. iii, p. 169.
+
+
+Here we may pause for a moment to note one of the chief
+differences between scientific and theological reasoning
+considered in themselves.  Kepler's main reasoning as to the
+existence of a law for cometary movement was right; but his
+secondary reasoning, that comets move nearly in straight lines,
+was wrong.  His right reasoning was developed by Gassendi in
+France, by Borelli in Italy, by Hevel and Doerfel in Germany, by
+Eysat and Bernouilli in Switzerland, by Percy and--most important
+of all, as regards mathematical demonstration--by Newton in
+England.  The general theory, which was true, they accepted and
+developed; the secondary theory, which was found untrue, they
+rejected; and, as a result, both of what they thus accepted and
+of what they rejected, was evolved the basis of the whole modern
+cometary theory.
+
+Very different was this from the theological method.  As a rule,
+when there arises a thinker as great in theology as Kepler in
+science, the whole mass of his conclusions ripens into a dogma.
+His disciples labour not to test it, but to establish it; and
+while, in the Catholic Church, it becomes a dogma to be believed
+or disbelieved under the penalty of damnation, it becomes in the
+Protestant Church the basis for one more sect.
+
+Various astronomers laboured to develop the truth discovered by
+Tycho and strengthened by Kepler.  Cassini seemed likely to win
+for Italy the glory of completing the great structure; but he
+was sadly fettered by Church influences, and was obliged to leave
+most of the work to others.  Early among these was Hevel.  He
+gave reasons for believing that comets move in parabolic curves
+toward the sun.  Then came a man who developed this truth
+further--Samuel Doerfel; and it is a pleasure to note that he was
+a clergyman. The comet of 1680, which set Erni in Switzerland,
+Mather in New England, and so many others in all parts of the
+world at declaiming, set Doerfel at thinking.  Undismayed by the
+authority of Origen and St. John Chrysostom, the arguments of
+Luther, Melanchthon, and Zwingli, the outcries of Celich,
+Heerbrand, and Dieterich, he pondered over the problem in his
+little Saxon parsonage, until in 1681 he set forth his proofs
+that comets are heavenly bodies moving in parabolas of which the
+sun is the focus.  Bernouilli arrived at the same conclusion;
+and, finally, this great series of men and works was closed by
+the greatest of all, when Newton, in 1686, having taken the data
+furnished by the comet of 1680, demonstrated that comets are
+guided in their movements by the same principle that controls the
+planets in their orbits.  Thus was completed the evolution of
+this new truth in science.
+
+Yet we are not to suppose that these two great series of
+philosophical and scientific victories cleared the field of all
+opponents.  Declamation and pretended demonstration of the old
+theologic view were still heard; but the day of complete victory
+dawned when Halley, after most thorough observation and
+calculation, recognised the comet of 1682 as one which had
+already appeared at stated periods, and foretold its return in
+about seventy-five years; and the battle was fully won when
+Clairaut, seconded by Lalande and Mme. Lepaute, predicted
+distinctly the time when the comet would arrive at its
+perihelion, and this prediction was verified.[121] Then it was
+that a Roman heathen philosopher was proved more infallible and
+more directly under Divine inspiration than a Roman Christian
+pontiff; for the very comet which the traveller finds to-day
+depicted on the Bayeux tapestry as portending destruction to
+Harold and the Saxons at the Norman invasion of England, and
+which was regarded by Pope Calixtus as portending evil to
+Christendom, was found six centuries later to be, as Seneca had
+prophesied, a heavenly body obeying the great laws of the
+universe, and coming at regular periods.  Thenceforth the whole
+ponderous enginery of this superstition, with its proof-texts
+regarding "signs in the heavens," its theological reasoning to
+show the moral necessity of cometary warnings, and its
+ecclesiastical fulminations against the "atheism, godlessness,
+and infidelity" of scientific investigation, was seen by all
+thinking men to be as weak against the scientific method as
+Indian arrows against needle guns.  Copernicus, Galileo,
+Cassini, Doerfel, Newton, Halley, and Clairaut had gained the
+victory.[122]
+
+[121] See Pingre, vol. i, p. 53; Grant, History of Physical
+Astronomy, p. 305, etc., etc.  For a curious partial anticipation
+by Hooke, in 1664, of the great truth announced by Halley in
+1682, see Pepy's Diary for March 1, 1664.  For excellent
+summaries of the whole work of Halley and Clairaut and their
+forerunners and associates, see Pingre, Madler, Wolf, Arago, et
+al.
+
+[122] In accordance with Halley's prophecy, the comet of 1682 has
+returned in 1759 and 1835.  See Madler, Guillemin, Watson, Grant,
+Delambre, Proctor, article Astronomy in Encycl. Brit., and
+especially for details, Wolf, pp. 407-412 and 701-722.  For clear
+statement regarding Doerfel, see Wolf, p. 411.
+
+
+It is instructive to note, even after the main battle was lost, a
+renewal of the attempt, always seen under like circumstances, to
+effect a compromise, to establish a "safe science" on grounds
+pseudo-scientific and pseudo-theologic.  Luther, with his strong
+common sense, had foreshadowed this; Kepler had expressed a
+willingness to accept it.  It was insisted that comets might be
+heavenly bodies moving in regular orbits, and even obedient to
+law, and yet be sent as "signs in the heavens."  Many good men
+clung longingly to this phase of the old belief, and in 1770
+Semler, professor at Halle, tried to satisfy both sides.  He
+insisted that, while from a scientific point of view comets could
+not exercise any physical influence upon the world, yet from a
+religious point of view they could exercise a moral influence as
+reminders of the Just Judge of the Universe.
+
+So hard was it for good men to give up the doctrine of "signs in
+the heavens," seemingly based upon Scripture and exercising such
+a healthful moral tendency! As is always the case after such a
+defeat, these votaries of "sacred science" exerted the greatest
+ingenuity in devising statements and arguments to avert the new
+doctrine.  Within our own century the great Catholic champion,
+Joseph de Maistre, echoed these in declaring his belief that
+comets are special warnings of evil.  So, too, in Protestant
+England, in 1818, the Gentleman's Magazine stated that under the
+malign influence of a recent comet "flies became blind and died
+early in the season," and "the wife of a London shoemaker had
+four children at a birth."  And even as late as 1829 Mr. Forster,
+an English physician, published a work to prove that comets
+produce hot summers, cold winters, epidemics, earthquakes, clouds
+of midges and locusts, and nearly every calamity conceivable.  He
+bore especially upon the fact that the comet of 1665 was
+coincident with the plague in London, apparently forgetting that
+the other great cities of England and the Continent were not thus
+visited; and, in a climax, announces the fact that the comet of
+1663 "made all the cats in Westphalia sick."
+
+There still lingered one little cloud-patch of superstition,
+arising mainly from the supposed fact that comets had really been
+followed by a marked rise in temperature.  Even this poor basis
+for the belief that they might, after all, affect earthly affairs
+was swept away, and science won here another victory; for Arago,
+by thermometric records carefully kept at Paris from 1735 to
+1781, proved that comets had produced no effect upon temperature.
+Among multitudes of similar examples he showed that, in some
+years when several comets appeared, the temperature was lower
+than in other years when few or none appeared.  In 1737 there
+were two comets, and the weather was cool; in 1785 there was no
+comet, and the weather was hot; through the whole fifty years it
+was shown that comets were sometimes followed by hot weather,
+sometimes by cool, and that no rule was deducible.  The victory
+of science was complete at every point.[123]
+
+[123] For Forster, see his Illustrations of the Atmospherical
+Origin of Epidemic Diseases, Chelmsford, 1829, cited by Arago;
+also in Quarterly Review for April, 1835.  For the writings of
+several on both sides, and especially those who sought to save,
+as far as possible, the sacred theory of comets, see Madler, vol.
+ii, p. 384 et seq., and Wolf, p. 186.
+
+
+But in this history there was one little exhibition so curious as
+to be worthy of notice, though its permanent effect upon thought
+was small.  Whiston and Burnet, so devoted to what they
+considered sacred science, had determined that in some way comets
+must be instruments of Divine wrath.  One of them maintained that
+the deluge was caused by the tail of a comet striking the earth;
+the other put forth the theory that comets are places of
+punishment for the damned--in fact, "flying hells."  The theories
+of Whiston and Burnet found wide acceptance also in Germany,
+mainly through the all-powerful mediation of Gottsched, so long,
+from his professor's chair at Leipsic, the dictator of orthodox
+thought, who not only wrote a brief tractate of his own upon the
+subject, but furnished a voluminous historical introduction to
+the more elaborate treatise of Heyn.  In this book, which
+appeared at Leipsic in 1742, the agency of comets in the
+creation, the flood, and the final destruction of the world is
+fully proved.  Both these theories were, however, soon
+discredited.
+
+Perhaps the more interesting of them can best be met by another,
+which, if not fully established, appears much better
+based--namely, that in 1868 the earth passed directly through the
+tail of a comet, with no deluge, no sound of any wailings of the
+damned, with but slight appearances here and there, only to be
+detected by the keen sight of the meteorological or astronomical
+observer.
+
+In our own country superstitious ideas regarding comets continued
+to have some little currency; but their life was short.  The
+tendency shown by Cotton Mather, at the beginning of the
+eighteenth century, toward acknowledging the victory of science,
+was completed by the utterances of Winthrop, professor at
+Harvard, who in 1759 published two lectures on comets, in which
+he simply and clearly revealed the truth, never scoffing, but
+reasoning quietly and reverently.  In one passage he says:  "To
+be thrown into a panic whenever a comet appears, on account of
+the ill effects which some few of them might possibly produce, if
+they were not under proper direction, betrays a weakness
+unbecoming a reasonable being."
+
+A happy influence in this respect was exercised on both
+continents by John Wesley.  Tenaciously as he had held to the
+supposed scriptural view in so many other matters of science, in
+this he allowed his reason to prevail, accepted the
+demonstrations of Halley, and gloried in them.[124]
+
+[124] For Heyn, see his Versuch einer Betrachtung uber die
+cometun, die Sundfluth und das Vorspeil des jungsten Gerichts,
+Leipsic, 1742.  A Latin version, of the same year, bears the
+title, Specimen Cometologiae Sacre.  For the theory that the
+earth encountered the tail of a comet, see Guillemin and Watson.
+For survival of the old idea in America, see a Sermon of Israel
+Loring, of Sudbury, published in 1722.   For Prof. J. Winthrop,
+see his Comets.  For Wesley, see his Natural Philosophy, London,
+1784, vol. iii, p. 303.
+
+
+The victory was indeed complete.  Happily, none of the fears
+expressed by Conrad Dieterich and Increase Mather were realized.
+No catastrophe has ensued either to religion or to morals.  In
+the realm of religion the Psalms of David remain no less
+beautiful, the great utterances of the Hebrew prophets no less
+powerful;  the Sermon on the Mount, "the first commandment, and
+the second, which is like unto it," the definition of "pure
+religion and undefiled" by St. James, appeal no less to the
+deepest things in the human heart.  In the realm of morals, too,
+serviceable as the idea of firebrands thrown by the right hand of
+an avenging God to scare a naughty world might seem, any
+competent historian must find that the destruction of the old
+theological cometary theory was followed by moral improvement
+rather than by deterioration. We have but to compare the general
+moral tone of society to-day, wretchedly imperfect as it is, with
+that existing in the time when this superstition had its
+strongest hold.  We have only to compare the court of Henry VIII
+with the court of Victoria, the reign of the later Valois and
+earlier Bourbon princes with the present French Republic, the
+period of the Medici and Sforzas and Borgias with the period of
+Leo XIII and Humbert, the monstrous wickedness of the Thirty
+Years' War with the ennobling patriotism of the Franco-Prussian
+struggle, and the despotism of the miserable German princelings
+of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries with the reign of the
+Emperor William.  The gain is not simply that mankind has arrived
+at a clearer conception of law in the universe; not merely that
+thinking men see more clearly that we are part of a system not
+requiring constant patching and arbitrary interference; but
+perhaps best of all is the fact that science has cleared away one
+more series of those dogmas which tend to debase rather than to
+develop man's whole moral and religious nature.  In this
+emancipation from terror and fanaticism, as in so many other
+results of scientific thinking, we have a proof of the
+inspiration of those great words, "THE TRUTH SHALL MAKE YOU
+FREE."
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+FROM GENESIS TO GEOLOGY.
+
+I.  GROWTH OF THEOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS.
+
+
+Among the philosophers of Greece we find, even at an early
+period, germs of geological truth, and, what is of vast
+importance, an atmosphere in which such germs could grow.  These
+germs were transmitted to Roman thought; an atmosphere of
+tolerance continued; there was nothing which forbade unfettered
+reasoning regarding either the earth's strata or the remains of
+former life found in them, and under the Roman Empire a period of
+fruitful observation seemed sure to begin.
+
+But, as Christianity took control of the world, there came a
+great change.  The earliest attitude of the Church toward geology
+and its kindred sciences was indifferent, and even contemptuous.
+According to the prevailing belief, the earth was a "fallen
+world," and was soon to be destroyed.  Why, then, should it be
+studied? Why, indeed, give a thought to it? The scorn which
+Lactantius and St. Augustine had cast upon the study of
+astronomy was extended largely to other sciences. [125]
+
+[125] For a compact and admirable statement as to the dawn of
+geological conceptions in Greece and Rome, see Mr. Lester Ward's
+essay on paleobotany in the Fifth Annual Report of the United
+States Geological Survey, for 1883-'84.  As to the reasons why
+Greek philosophers did comparatively so little for geology, see
+D'Archiac, Geologie, p. 18.  For the contempt felt by Lactantius
+and St. Augustine toward astronomical science, see foregoing
+chapters on Astronomy and Geography.
+
+
+But the germs of scientific knowledge and thought developed in
+the ancient world could be entirely smothered neither by
+eloquence nor by logic; some little scientific observation must
+be allowed, though all close reasoning upon it was fettered by
+theology.  Thus it was that St. Jerome insisted that the broken
+and twisted crust of the earth exhibits the wrath of God against
+sin, and Tertullian asserted that fossils resulted from the flood
+of Noah.
+
+To keep all such observation and reasoning within orthodox
+limits, St. Augustine, about the beginning of the fifth century,
+began an effort to develop from these germs a growth in science
+which should be sacred and safe.  With this intent he prepared
+his great commentary on the work of creation, as depicted in
+Genesis, besides dwelling upon the subject in other writings.
+Once engaged in this work, he gave himself to it more earnestly
+than any other of the earlier fathers ever did; but his vast
+powers of research and thought were not directed to actual
+observation or reasoning upon observation.  The keynote of his
+whole method is seen in his famous phrase, "Nothing is to be
+accepted save on the authority of Scripture, since greater is
+that authority than all the powers of the human mind."  All his
+thought was given to studying the letter of the sacred text, and
+to making it explain natural phenomena by methods purely
+theological.[126]
+
+[126] For citations and authorities on these points, see the
+chapter on Meteorology.
+
+
+Among the many questions he then raised and discussed may be
+mentioned such as these:  "What caused the creation of the stars
+on the fourth day?"  "Were beasts of prey and venomous animals
+created before, or after, the fall of Adam? If before, how can
+their creation be reconciled with God's goodness; if afterward,
+how can their creation be reconciled to the letter of God's
+Word?"  "Why were only beasts and birds brought before Adam to be
+named, and not fishes and marine animals?"  "Why did the Creator
+not say, `Be fruitful and multiply,' to plants as well as to
+animals?"[127]
+
+[127] See Augustine, De Genesi, ii, 13, 15, et seq.; ix, 12 et
+seq.  For the reference to St. Jerome, see Shields, Final
+Philosophy, p. 119; also Leyell, Introduction to Geology, vol. i,
+chap. ii.
+
+
+Sundry answers to these and similar questions formed the main
+contributions of the greatest of the Latin fathers to the
+scientific knowledge of the world, after a most thorough study of
+the biblical text and a most profound application of theological
+reasoning.  The results of these contributions were most
+important.  In this, as in so many other fields, Augustine gave
+direction to the main current of thought in western Europe,
+Catholic and Protestant, for nearly thirteen centuries.
+
+In the ages that succeeded, the vast majority of prominent
+scholars followed him implicitly.  Even so strong a man as Pope
+Gregory the Great yielded to his influence, and such leaders of
+thought as St. Isidore, in the seventh century, and the
+Venerable Bede, in the eighth, planting themselves upon
+Augustine's premises, only ventured timidly to extend their
+conclusions upon lines he had laid down.
+
+In his great work on Etymologies, Isidore took up Augustine's
+attempt to bring the creation into satisfactory relations with
+the book of Genesis, and, as to fossil remains, he, like
+Tertullian, thought that they resulted from the Flood of Noah.
+In the following century Bede developed the same orthodox
+traditions.[128]
+
+[128]  For Isidore, see the Etymologiae, xi, 4, xiii, 22. For
+Bede, see the Hexaemeron, i, ii, in Migne, tome xci.
+
+
+The best guess, in a geological sense, among the followers of St.
+Augustine was made by an Irish monkish scholar, who, in order to
+diminish the difficulty arising from the distribution of animals,
+especially in view of the fact that the same animals are found in
+Ireland as in England, held that various lands now separated were
+once connected.  But, alas! the exigencies of theology forced him
+to place their separation later than the Flood.  Happily for him,
+such facts were not yet known as that the kangaroo is found only
+on an island in the South Pacific, and must therefore, according
+to his theory, have migrated thither with all his progeny, and
+along a causeway so curiously constructed that none of the beasts
+of prey, who were his fellow-voyagers in the ark, could follow
+him.
+
+These general lines of thought upon geology and its kindred
+science of zoology were followed by St. Thomas Aquinas and by
+the whole body of medieval theologians, so far as they gave any
+attention to such subjects.
+
+The next development of geology, mainly under Church guidance,
+was by means of the scholastic theology.  Phrase-making was
+substituted for investigation.  Without the Church and within it
+wonderful contributions were thus made.  In the eleventh century
+Avicenna accounted for the fossils by suggesting a "stone-making
+force";[129] in the thirteenth, Albert the Great attributed them
+to a "formative quality;"[130] in the following centuries some
+philosophers ventured the idea that they grew from seed; and the
+Aristotelian doctrine of spontaneous generation was constantly
+used to prove that these stony fossils possessed powers of
+reproduction like plants and animals.[131]
+
+[129] Vis lapidifica.
+
+[130] Virtus formativa.
+
+[131] See authorities given in Mr. Ward's assay, as above.
+
+
+Still, at various times and places, germs implanted by Greek and
+Roman thought were warmed into life.  The Arabian schools seem to
+have been less fettered by the letter of the Koran than the
+contemporary Christian scholars by the letter of the Bible; and
+to Avicenna belongs the credit of first announcing substantially
+the modern geological theory of changes in the earth's
+surface.[132]
+
+[132] For Avicenna, see Lyell and D'Archiac.
+
+
+The direct influence of the Reformation was at first unfavourable
+to scientific progress, for nothing could be more at variance
+with any scientific theory of the development of the universe
+than the ideas of the Protestant leaders.  That strict adherence
+to the text of Scripture which made Luther and Melanchthon
+denounce the idea that the planets revolve about the sun, was
+naturally extended to every other scientific statement at
+variance with the sacred text.  There is much reason to believe
+that the fetters upon scientific thought were closer under the
+strict interpretation of Scripture by the early Protestants than
+they had been under the older Church.  The dominant spirit among
+the Reformers is shown by the declaration of Peter Martyr to the
+effect that, if a wrong opinion should obtain regarding the
+creation as described in Genesis, "all the promises of Christ
+fall into nothing, and all the life of our religion would be
+lost."[133]
+
+[133] See his Commentary on Genesis, cited by Zoeckler,
+Geschichte der Beziehungen zwischen Theologie und
+Naturwissenschaft, vol. i, p. 690.
+
+
+In the times immediately succeeding the Reformation matters went
+from bad to worse.  Under Luther and Melanchthon there was some
+little freedom of speculation, but under their successors there
+was none; to question any interpretation of Luther came to be
+thought almost as wicked as to question the literal
+interpretation of the Scriptures themselves.  Examples of this
+are seen in the struggles between those who held that birds were
+created entirely from water and those who held that they were
+created out of water and mud.  In the city of Lubeck, the ancient
+centre of the Hanseatic League, close at the beginning of the
+seventeenth century, Pfeiffer, "General Superintendent" or bishop
+in those parts, published his Pansophia Mosaica, calculated, as
+he believed, to beat back science forever.  In a long series of
+declamations he insisted that in the strict text of Genesis alone
+is safety, that it contains all wisdom and knowledge, human and
+divine.  This being the case, who could care to waste time on the
+study of material things and give thought to the structure of the
+world?  Above all, who, after such a proclamation by such a ruler
+in the Lutheran Israel, would dare to talk of the "days"
+mentioned in Genesis as "periods of time"; or of the "firmament"
+as not meaning a solid vault over the universe; or of the
+"waters above the heavens" as not contained in a vast cistern
+supported by the heavenly vault; or of the "windows of heaven" as
+a figure of speech?[134]
+
+[134] For Pfeiffer, see Zoeckler, vol. i, pp. 688, 689.
+
+
+In England the same spirit was shown even as late as the time of
+Sir Matthew Hale.  We find in his book on the Origination of
+Mankind, published in 1685, the strictest devotion to a theory
+of creation based upon the mere letter of Scripture, and a
+complete inability to draw knowledge regarding the earth's origin
+and structure from any other source.
+
+While the Lutheran, Calvinistic, and Anglican Reformers clung to
+literal interpretations of the sacred books, and turned their
+faces away from scientific investigation, it was among their
+contemporaries at the revival of learning that there began to
+arise fruitful thought in this field.  Then it was, about the
+beginning of the sixteenth century, that Leonardo da Vinci, as
+great a genius in science as in art, broached the true idea as to
+the origin of fossil remains; and his compatriot, Fracastoro,
+developed this on the modern lines of thought.  Others in other
+parts of Europe took up the idea, and, while mixing with it many
+crudities, drew from it more and more truth.  Toward the end of
+the sixteenth century Bernard Palissy, in France, took hold of it
+with the same genius which he showed in artistic creation; but,
+remarkable as were his assertions of scientific realities, they
+could gain little hearing.  Theologians, philosophers, and even
+some scientific men of value, under the sway of scholastic
+phrases, continued to insist upon such explanations as that
+fossils were the product of "fatty matter set into a fermentation
+by heat"; or of a "lapidific juice";[135] or of a "seminal
+air";[136] or of a "tumultuous movement of terrestrial
+exhalations"; and there was a prevailing belief that fossil
+remains, in general, might be brought under the head of "sports
+of Nature," a pious turn being given to this phrase by the
+suggestion that these "sports" indicated some inscrutable purpose
+of the Almighty.
+
+[135] Succus lapidificus.
+
+[136] Aura seminalis.
+
+
+This remained a leading orthodox mode of explanation in the
+Church, Catholic and Protestant, for centuries.
+
+
+
+II.  EFFORTS TO SUPPRESS THE SCIENTIFIC VIEW.
+
+
+But the scientific method could not be entirely hidden; and,
+near the beginning of the seventeenth century, De Clave, Bitaud,
+and De Villon revived it in France.  Straightway the theological
+faculty of Paris protested against the scientific doctrine as
+unscriptural, destroyed the offending treatises, banished their
+authors from Paris, and forbade them to live in towns or enter
+places of public resort.[137]
+
+[137] See Morley, Life of Palissy the Potter, vol. ii, p. 315 et
+seq.
+
+
+The champions of science, though depressed for a time, quietly
+laboured on, especially in Italy.  Half a century later, Steno, a
+Dane, and Scilla, an Italian, went still further in the right
+direction; and, though they and their disciples took great pains
+to throw a tub to the whale, in the shape of sundry vague
+concessions to the Genesis legends, they developed geological
+truth more and more.
+
+In France, the old theological spirit remained exceedingly
+powerful.  About the middle of the eighteenth century Buffon made
+another attempt to state simple geological truths; but the
+theological faculty of the Sorbonne dragged him at once from his
+high position, forced him to recant ignominiously, and to print
+his recantation.  It runs as follows:  "I declare that I had no
+intention to contradict the text of Scripture; that I believe
+most firmly all therein related about the creation, both as to
+order of time and matter of fact.  I abandon everything in my
+book respecting the formation of the earth, and generally all
+which may be contrary to the narrative of Moses."  This
+humiliating document reminds us painfully of that forced upon
+Galileo a hundred years before.
+
+It has been well observed by one of the greatest of modern
+authorities that the doctrine which Buffon thus "abandoned" is as
+firmly established as that of the earth's rotation upon its
+axis.[138] Yet one hundred and fifty years were required to
+secure for it even a fair hearing; the prevailing doctrine of
+the Church continued to be that "all things were made at the
+beginning of the world," and that to say that stones and fossils
+were made before or since "the beginning" is contrary to
+Scripture.  Again we find theological substitutes for scientific
+explanation ripening into phrases more and more hollow--making
+fossils "sports of Nature," or "mineral concretions," or
+"creations of plastic force," or "models" made by the Creator
+before he had fully decided upon the best manner of creating
+various beings.
+
+[138] See citation and remark in Lyell's Principles of Geology,
+chap. iii, p. 57; also Huxley, Essays on Controverted Questions,
+p. 62.
+
+
+Of this period, when theological substitutes for science were
+carrying all before them, there still exists a monument
+commemorating at the same time a farce and a tragedy.  This is
+the work of Johann Beringer, professor in the University of
+Wurzburg and private physician to the Prince-Bishop--the treatise
+bearing the title Lithographiae Wirceburgensis Specimen Primum,
+"illustrated with the marvellous likenesses of two hundred
+figured or rather insectiform stones."  Beringer, for the greater
+glory of God, had previously committed himself so completely to
+the theory that fossils are simply "stones of a peculiar sort,
+hidden by the Author of Nature for his own pleasure,"[139] that
+some of his students determined to give his faith in that pious
+doctrine a thorough trial.  They therefore prepared a collection
+of sham fossils in baked clay, imitating not only plants,
+reptiles, and fishes of every sort that their knowledge or
+imagination could suggest, but even Hebrew and Syriac
+inscriptions, one of them the name of the Almighty; and these
+they buried in a place where the professor was wont to search for
+specimens.  The joy of Beringer on unearthing these proofs of the
+immediate agency of the finger of God in creating fossils knew no
+bounds.  At great cost he prepared this book, whose twenty-two
+elaborate plates of facsimiles were forever to settle the
+question in favour of theology and against science, and prefixed
+to the work an allegorical title page, wherein not only the glory
+of his own sovereign, but that of heaven itself, was pictured as
+based upon a pyramid of these miraculous fossils.  So robust was
+his faith that not even a premature exposure of the fraud could
+dissuade him from the publication of his book.  Dismissing in one
+contemptuous chapter this exposure as a slander by his rivals, he
+appealed to the learned world.  But the shout of laughter that
+welcomed the work soon convinced even its author.  In vain did he
+try to suppress it; and, according to tradition, having wasted
+his fortune in vain attempts to buy up all the copies of it, and
+being taunted by the rivals whom he had thought to overwhelm, he
+died of chagrin.  Even death did not end his misfortunes.  The
+copies of the first edition having been sold by a graceless
+descendant to a Leipsic bookseller, a second edition was brought
+out under a new title, and this, too, is now much sought as a
+precious memorial of human credulity.[140]
+
+[139] See Beringer's Lithographiae, etc., p. 91.
+
+[140] See Carus, Geschichte der Zoologie, Munich, 1872, p. 467,
+note, and Reusch, Bibel und Natur, p. 197.  A list of authorities
+upon this episode, with the text of one of the epigrams
+circulated at poor Beringer's expense, is given by Dr. Reuss in
+the Serapeum for 1852, p. 203.  The book itself (the original
+impression) is in the White Library at Cornell University.  For
+Beringer himself, see especially the encyclopedia of Ersch and
+Gruber, and the Allgemeine deutsche Biographie.
+
+
+But even this discomfiture did not end the idea which had caused
+it, for, although some latitude was allowed among the various
+theologico-scientific explanations, it was still held meritorious
+to believe that all fossils were placed in the strata on one of
+the creative days by the hand of the Almighty, and that this was
+done for some mysterious purpose, probably for the trial of human
+faith.
+
+Strange as it may at first seem, the theological war against a
+scientific method in geology was waged more fiercely in
+Protestant countries than in Catholic.  The older Church had
+learned by her costly mistakes, especially in the cases of
+Copernicus and Galileo, what dangers to her claim of
+infallibility lay in meddling with a growing science.  In Italy,
+therefore, comparatively little opposition was made, while
+England furnished the most bitter opponents to geology so long as
+the controversy could be maintained, and the most active
+negotiators in patching up a truce on the basis of a sham science
+afterward.  The Church of England did, indeed, produce some noble
+men, like Bishop Clayton and John Mitchell, who stood firmly by
+the scientific method; but these appear generally to have been
+overwhelmed by a chorus of churchmen and dissenters, whose
+mixtures of theology and science, sometimes tragic in their
+results and sometimes comic, are among the most instructive
+things in modern history.[141]
+
+[141] For a comparison between the conduct of Italian and English
+ecclesiastics as regards geology, see Lyell, Principles of
+Geology, tenth English edition, vol. i, p. 33.  For a
+philosophical statement of reasons why the struggle was more
+bitter and the attempt at deceptive compromises more absurd in
+England than elsewhere, see Maury, L'Ancienne Academie des
+Sciences, second edition, p. 152.  For very frank confessions of
+the reasons why the Catholic Church has become more careful in
+her dealings with science, see Roberts, The Pontifical Decrees
+against the Earth's Movement, London, 1885, especially pp. 94 and
+132, 133, and St. George Mivart's article in the Nineteenth
+Century for July 1885.  The first of these gentlemen, it must not
+be forgotten, is a Roman Catholic clergyman and the second an
+eminent layman of the same Church, and both admit that it was the
+Pope, speaking ex cathedra, who erred in the Galileo case; but
+their explanation is that God allowed the Pope and Church to fall
+into this grievous error, which has cost so dear, in order to
+show once and for all that the Church has no right to decide
+questions in Science.
+
+
+We have already noted that there are generally three periods or
+phases in a theological attack upon any science.  The first of
+these is marked by the general use of scriptural texts and
+statements against the new scientific doctrine; the third by
+attempts at compromise by means of far-fetched reconciliations of
+textual statements with ascertained fact; but the second or
+intermediate period between these two is frequently marked by the
+pitting against science of some great doctrine in theology.  We
+saw this in astronomy, when Bellarmin and his followers insisted
+that the scientific doctrine of the earth revolving about the sun
+is contrary to the theological doctrine of the incarnation.  So
+now against geology it was urged that the scientific doctrine
+that fossils represent animals which died before Adam contradicts
+the theological doctrine of Adam's fall and the statement that
+"death entered the world by sin."
+
+In this second stage of the theological struggle with geology,
+England was especially fruitful in champions of orthodoxy, first
+among whom may be named Thomas Burnet.  In the last quarter of
+the seventeenth century, just at the time when Newton's great
+discovery was given to the world, Burnet issued his Sacred Theory
+of the Earth.  His position was commanding; he was a royal
+chaplain and a cabinet officer.  Planting himself upon the famous
+text in the second epistle of Peter,[142] he declares that the
+flood had destroyed the old and created a new world.  The
+Newtonian theory he refuses to accept.  In his theory of the
+deluge he lays less stress upon the "opening of the windows of
+heaven" than upon the "breaking up of the fountains of the great
+deep."  On this latter point he comes forth with great strength.
+His theory is that the earth is hollow, and filled with fluid
+like an egg.  Mixing together sundry texts from Genesis and from
+the second epistle of Peter, the theological doctrine of the
+"Fall," an astronomical theory regarding the ecliptic, and
+various notions adapted from Descartes, he insisted that, before
+sin brought on the Deluge, the earth was of perfect mathematical
+form, smooth and beautiful, "like an egg," with neither seas nor
+islands nor valleys nor rocks, "with not a wrinkle, scar, or
+fracture," and that all creation was equally perfect.
+
+[142] See II Peter iii, 6.
+
+
+In the second book of his great work Burnet went still further.
+As in his first book he had mixed his texts of Genesis and St.
+Peter with Descartes, he now mixed the account of the Garden of
+Eden in Genesis with heathen legends of the golden age, and
+concluded that before the flood there was over the whole earth
+perpetual spring, disturbed by no rain more severe than the
+falling of the dew.
+
+In addition to his other grounds for denying the earlier
+existence of the sea, he assigned the reason that, if there had
+been a sea before the Deluge, sinners would have learned to build
+ships, and so, when the Deluge set in, could have saved
+themselves.
+
+The work was written with much power, and attracted universal
+attention.  It was translated into various languages, and called
+forth a multitude of supporters and opponents in all parts of
+Europe.  Strong men rose against it, especially in England, and
+among them a few dignitaries of the Church; but the Church
+generally hailed the work with joy.  Addison praised it in a
+Latin ode, and for nearly a century it exercised a strong
+influence upon European feeling, and aided to plant more deeply
+than ever the theological opinion that the earth as now existing
+is merely a ruin; whereas, before sin brought on the Flood, it
+was beautiful in its "egg-shaped form," and free from every
+imperfection.
+
+A few years later came another writer of the highest
+standing--William Whiston, professor at Cambridge, who in 1696
+published his New Theory of the Earth.  Unlike Burnet, he
+endeavoured to avail himself of the Newtonian idea, and brought
+in, to aid the geological catastrophe caused by human sin, a
+comet, which broke open "the fountains of the great deep."
+
+But, far more important than either of these champions, there
+arose in the eighteenth century, to aid in the subjection of
+science to theology, three men of extraordinary power--John
+Wesley, Adam Clarke, and Richard Watson.  All three were men of
+striking intellectual gifts, lofty character, and noble purpose,
+and the first-named one of the greatest men in English history;
+yet we find them in geology hopelessly fettered by the mere
+letter of Scripture, and by a temporary phase in theology.  As in
+regard to witchcraft and the doctrine of comets, so in regard to
+geology, this theological view drew Wesley into enormous
+error.[143] The great doctrine which Wesley, Watson, Clarke, and
+their compeers, following St. Augustine, Bede, Peter Lombard,
+and a long line of the greatest minds in the universal Church,
+thought it especially necessary to uphold against geologists was,
+that death entered the world by sin--by the first transgression
+of Adam and Eve.  The extent to which the supposed necessity of
+upholding this doctrine carried Wesley seems now almost beyond
+belief.  Basing his theology on the declaration that the Almighty
+after creation found the earth and all created things "very
+good," he declares, in his sermon on the Cause and Cure of
+Earthquakes, that no one who believes the Scriptures can deny
+that "sin is the moral cause of earthquakes, whatever their
+natural cause may be."  Again, he declares that earthquakes are
+the "effect of that curse which was brought upon the earth by the
+original transgression."  Bringing into connection with Genesis
+the declaration of St. Paul that "the whole creation groaneth
+and travaileth together in pain until now," he finds additional
+scriptural proof that the earthquakes were the result of Adam's
+fall.  He declares, in his sermon on God's Approbation of His
+Works, that "before the sin of Adam there were no agitations
+within the bowels of the earth, no violent convulsions, no
+concussions of the earth, no earthquakes, but all was unmoved as
+the pillars of heaven.  There were then no such things as
+eruptions of fires; no volcanoes or burning mountains."  Of
+course, a science which showed that earthquakes had been in
+operation for ages before the appearance of man on the planet,
+and which showed, also, that those very earthquakes which he
+considered as curses resultant upon the Fall were really
+blessings, producing the fissures in which we find today those
+mineral veins so essential to modern civilization, was entirely
+beyond his comprehension.  He insists that earthquakes are "God's
+strange works of judgment, the proper effect and punishment of
+sin."
+
+[143] For his statement that "the giving up of witchcraft is in
+effect the giving up of the Bible," see Welsey's Journal, 1766-
+'68.
+
+
+So, too, as to death and pain.  In his sermon on the Fall of Man
+he took the ground that death and pain entered the world by
+Adam's transgression, insisting that the carnage now going on
+among animals is the result of Adam's sin.  Speaking of the
+birds, beasts, and insects, he says that, before sin entered the
+world by Adam's fall, "none of these attempted to devour or in
+any way hurt one another"; that "the spider was then as harmless
+as the fly and did not then lie in wait for blood."  Here, again,
+Wesley arrayed his early followers against geology, which
+reveals, in the fossil remains of carnivorous animals, pain and
+death countless ages before the appearance of man.  The
+half-digested fragments of weaker animals within the fossilized
+bodies of the stronger have destroyed all Wesley's arguments in
+behalf of his great theory.[144]
+
+[144] See Wesley's sermon on God's Approbation of His Works,
+parts xi and xii.
+
+
+Dr. Adam Clarke held similar views.  He insisted that thorns and
+thistles were given as a curse to human labour, on account of
+Adam's sin, and appeared upon the earth for the first time after
+Adam's fall.  So, too, Richard Watson, the most prolific writer
+of the great evangelical reform period, and the author of the
+Institutes, the standard theological treatise on the evangelical
+side, says, in a chapter treating of the Fall, and especially of
+the serpent which tempted Eve:  "We have no reason at all to
+believe that the animal had a serpentine form in any mode or
+degree until his transformation.  That he was then degraded to a
+reptile, to go upon his belly, imports, on the contrary, an
+entire alteration and loss of the original form."  All that
+admirable adjustment of the serpent to its environment which
+delights naturalists was to the Wesleyan divine simply an evil
+result of the sin of Adam and Eve.  Yet here again geology was
+obliged to confront theology in revealing the PYTHON in the
+Eocene, ages before man appeared.[145]
+
+[145] See Westminster Review, October, 1870, article on John
+Wesley's Cosmogony, with citations from Wesley's Sermons,
+Watson's Institutes of Theology, Adam Clarke's Commentary on the
+Holy Scriptures, etc.
+
+
+The immediate results of such teaching by such men was to throw
+many who would otherwise have resorted to observation and
+investigation back upon scholastic methods.  Again reappears the
+old system of solving the riddle by phrases.  In 1733, Dr.
+Theodore Arnold urged the theory of "models," and insisted that
+fossils result from "infinitesimal particles brought together in
+the creation to form the outline of all the creatures and objects
+upon and within the earth"; and Arnold's work gained wide
+acceptance.[146]
+
+[146] See citation in Mr. Ward's article, as above, p. 390.
+
+
+Such was the influence of this succession of great men that
+toward the close of the last century the English opponents of
+geology on biblical grounds seemed likely to sweep all before
+them.  Cramping our whole inheritance of sacred literature within
+the rules of a historical compend, they showed the terrible
+dangers arising from the revelations of geology, which make the
+earth older than the six thousand years required by Archbishop
+Usher's interpretation of the Old Testament.  Nor was this
+feeling confined to ecclesiastics.  Williams, a thoughtful
+layman, declared that such researches led to infidelity and
+atheism, and are "nothing less than to depose the Almighty
+Creator of the universe from his office."  The poet Cowper, one
+of the mildest of men, was also roused by these dangers, and in
+his most elaborate poem wrote:
+
+                "Some drill and bore
+The solid earth, and from the strata there
+Extract a register, by which we learn
+That He who made it, and revealed its date
+To Moses, was mistaken in its age!"
+
+
+John Howard summoned England to oppose "those scientific systems
+which are calculated to tear up in the public mind every
+remaining attachment to Christianity."
+
+With this special attack upon geological science by means of the
+dogma of Adam's fall, the more general attack by the literal
+interpretation of the text was continued.  The legendary husks
+and rinds of our sacred books were insisted upon as equally
+precious and nutritious with the great moral and religious truths
+which they envelop.  Especially precious were the six days--each
+"the evening and the morning"--and the exact statements as to the
+time when each part of creation came into being.  To save these,
+the struggle became more and more desperate.
+
+Difficult as it is to realize it now, within the memory of many
+now living the battle was still raging most fiercely in England,
+and both kinds of artillery usually brought against a new science
+were in full play, and filling the civilized world with their
+roar.
+
+About half a century since, the Rev. J. Mellor Brown, the Rev.
+Henry Cole, and others were hurling at all geologists alike, and
+especially at such Christian scholars as Dr. Buckland and Dean
+Conybeare and Pye Smith and Prof.  Sedgwick, the epithets of
+"infidel," "impugner of the sacred record," and "assailant of the
+volume of God."[147]
+
+[147] For these citations, see Lyell, Principles of Geology,
+introduction.
+
+
+The favourite weapon of the orthodox party was the charge that
+the geologists were "attacking the truth of God."  They declared
+geology "not a subject of lawful inquiry," denouncing it as "a
+dark art," as "dangerous and disreputable," as "a forbidden
+province," as "infernal artillery," and as "an awful evasion of
+the testimony of revelation."[148]
+
+[148] See Pye Smith, D. D., Geology and Scripture, pp. 156, 157,
+168, 169.
+
+
+This attempt to scare men from the science having failed, various
+other means were taken.  To say nothing about England, it is
+humiliating to human nature to remember the annoyances, and even
+trials, to which the pettiest and narrowest of men subjected such
+Christian scholars in our own country as Benjamin Silliman and
+Edward Hitchcock and Louis Agassiz.
+
+But it is a duty and a pleasure to state here that one great
+Christian scholar did honour to religion and to himself by
+quietly accepting the claims of science and making the best of
+them, despite all these clamours.  This man was Nicholas Wiseman,
+better known afterward as Cardinal Wiseman.  The conduct of this
+pillar of the Roman Catholic Church contrasts admirably with that
+of timid Protestants, who were filling England with shrieks and
+denunciations.[149]
+
+[149] Wiseman, Twelve Lectures on the Connection between Science
+and Revealed Religion, first American edition, New York, 1837.
+As to the comparative severity of the struggle regarding
+astronomy, geology, etc., in the Catholic and Protestant
+countries, see Lecky's England in the Eighteenth Century, chap.
+ix, p. 525.
+
+
+And here let it be noted that one of the most interesting
+skirmishes in this war occurred in New England.  Prof.  Stuart,
+of Andover, justly honoured as a Hebrew scholar, declared that to
+speak of six periods of time for the creation was flying in the
+face of Scripture; that Genesis expressly speaks of six days,
+each made up of "the evening and the morning," and not six
+periods of time.
+
+To him replied a professor in Yale College, James Kingsley.  In
+an article admirable for keen wit and kindly temper, he showed
+that Genesis speaks just as clearly of a solid firmament as of
+six ordinary days, and that, if Prof. Stuart had surmounted one
+difficulty and accepted the Copernican theory, he might as well
+get over another and accept the revelations of geology.  The
+encounter was quick and decisive, and the victory was with
+science and the broader scholarship of Yale.[150]
+
+[150] See Silliman's Journal, vol. xxx, p. 114.
+
+Perhaps the most singular attempt against geology was made by a
+fine survival of the eighteenth century Don--Dean Cockburn, of
+York--to SCOLD its champions off the field.  Having no adequate
+knowledge of the new science, he opened a battery of abuse,
+giving it to the world at large from the pulpit and through the
+press, and even through private letters.  From his pulpit in York
+Minster he denounced Mary Somerville by name for those studies in
+physical geography which have made her name honoured throughout
+the world.
+
+But the special object of his antipathy was the British
+Association for the Advancement of Science.  He issued a pamphlet
+against it which went through five editions in two years, sent
+solemn warnings to its president, and in various ways made life a
+burden to Sedgwick, Buckland, and other eminent investigators who
+ventured to state geological facts as they found them.
+
+These weapons were soon seen to be ineffective; they were like
+Chinese gongs and dragon lanterns against rifled cannon; the
+work of science went steadily on.[151]
+
+[151] Prof. Goldwin Smith informs me that the papers of Sir
+Robert Peel, yet unpublished, contain very curious specimens of
+the epistles of Dean Cockburn.  See also Personal Recollections
+of Mary Somerville, Boston, 1874, pp. 139 and 375.  Compare with
+any statement of his religious views that Dean Cockburn was able
+to make, the following from Mrs. Somerville: "Nothing has
+afforded me so convincing a proof of the Deity as these purely
+mental conceptions of numerical and methematical science which
+have been, by slow degrees, vouchesafed to man--and are still
+granted in these latter times by the differential calculus, now
+supeseded by the higher algebra--all of which must have existed
+in that sublimely omniscient mind from eternity.  See also The
+Life and Letters of Adam Sedgwick, Cambridge, 1890, vol. ii, pp.
+76 and following.
+
+
+
+
+III.  THE FIRST GREAT EFFORT AT COMPROMISE, BASED ON
+THE FLOOD OF NOAH.
+
+
+Long before the end of the struggle already described, even at a
+very early period, the futility of the usual scholastic weapons
+had been seen by the more keen-sighted champions of orthodoxy;
+and, as the difficulties of the ordinary attack upon science
+became more and more evident, many of these champions endeavoured
+to patch up a truce.  So began the third stage in the war--the
+period of attempts at compromise.
+
+The position which the compromise party took was that the fossils
+were produced by the Deluge of Noah.
+
+This position was strong, for it was apparently based upon
+Scripture.  Moreover, it had high ecclesiastical sanction, some
+of the fathers having held that fossil remains, even on the
+highest mountains, represented animals destroyed at the Deluge.
+Tertullian was especially firm on this point, and St. Augustine
+thought that a fossil tooth discovered in North Africa must have
+belonged to one of the giants mentioned in Scripture.[152]
+
+[152] For Tertullian, see his De Pallio, c. ii (Migne, Patr.
+Lat., vol. ii, p. 1033).  For Augustine's view, see Cuvier,
+Recherches sur les Ossements fossiles, fourth edition, vol. ii,
+p. 143.
+
+
+In the sixteenth century especially, weight began to be attached
+to this idea by those who felt the worthlessness of various
+scholastic explanations.  Strong men in both the Catholic and the
+Protestant camps accepted it; but the man who did most to give
+it an impulse into modern theology was Martin Luther.  He easily
+saw that scholastic phrase-making could not meet the difficulties
+raised by fossils, and he naturally urged the doctrine of their
+origin at Noah's Flood.[153]
+
+[153] For Luther's opinion, see his Commentary on Genesis.
+
+
+With such support, it soon became the dominant theory in
+Christendom:  nothing seemed able to stand against it; but
+before the end of the same sixteenth century it met some serious
+obstacles.  Bernard Palissy, one of the most keen-sighted of
+scientific thinkers in France, as well as one of the most devoted
+of Christians, showed that it was utterly untenable.
+Conscientious investigators in other parts of Europe, and
+especially in Italy, showed the same thing; all in vain.[154]
+In vain did good men protest against the injury sure to be
+brought upon religion by tying it to a scientific theory sure to
+be exploded; the doctrine that fossils are the remains of animals
+drowned at the Flood continued to be upheld by the great majority
+of theological leaders for nearly three centuries as "sound
+doctrine," and as a blessed means of reconciling science with
+Scripture.  To sustain this scriptural view, efforts energetic
+and persistent were put forth both by Catholics and Protestants.
+
+
+[154] For a very full statement of the honourable record of Italy
+in this respect, and for the enlightened views of some Italian
+churchmen, see Stoppani, Il Dogma a le Scienze Positive, Milan,
+1886, pp. 203 et seq.
+
+
+In France, the learned Benedictine, Calmet, in his great works on
+the Bible, accepted it as late as the beginning of the eighteenth
+century, believing the mastodon's bones exhibited by Mazurier to
+be those of King Teutobocus, and holding them valuable testimony
+to the existence of the giants mentioned in Scripture and of the
+early inhabitants of the earth overwhelmed by the Flood.[155]
+
+[155] For the steady adherance to this sacred theory, see Audiat,
+Vie de Palissy, p. 412, and Cantu, Histoire Universelle, vol. xv,
+p. 492.  For Calmet, see his Dissertation sur les Geants, cited
+in Berger de Xivery, Traditions Teratologiques, p. 191.
+
+
+But the greatest champion appeared in England.  We have already
+seen how, near the close of the seventeenth century, Thomas
+Burnet prepared the way in his Sacred Theory of the Earth by
+rejecting the discoveries of Newton, and showing how sin led to
+the breaking up of the "foundations of the great deep," and we
+have also seen how Whiston, in his New Theory of the Earth,
+while yielding a little and accepting the discoveries of Newton,
+brought in a comet to aid in producing the Deluge; but far more
+important than these in permanent influence was John Woodward,
+professor at Gresham College, a leader in scientific thought at
+the University of Cambridge, and, as a patient collector of
+fossils and an earnest investigator of their meaning, deserving
+of the highest respect.  In 1695 he published his Natural History
+of the Earth, and rendered one great service to science, for he
+yielded another point, and thus destroyed the foundations for the
+old theory of fossils.  He showed that they were not "sports of
+Nature," or "models inserted by the Creator in the strata for
+some inscrutable purpose," but that they were really remains of
+living beings, as Xenophanes had asserted two thousand years
+before him.  So far, he rendered a great service both to science
+and religion; but, this done, the text of the Old Testament
+narrative and the famous passage in St. Peter's Epistle were too
+strong for him, and he, too, insisted that the fossils were
+produced by the Deluge.  Aided by his great authority, the
+assault on the true scientific position was vigorous:  Mazurier
+exhibited certain fossil remains of a mammoth discovered in
+France as bones of the giants mentioned in Scripture; Father
+Torrubia did the same thing in Spain; Increase Mather sent to
+England similar remains discovered in America, with a like
+statement.
+
+For the edification of the faithful, such "bones of the giants
+mentioned in Scripture" were hung up in public places.  Jurieu
+saw some of them thus suspended in one of the churches of
+Valence; and Henrion, apparently under the stimulus thus given,
+drew up tables showing the size of our antediluvian ancestors,
+giving the height of Adam as 123 feet 9 inches and that of Eve as
+118 feet 9 inches and 9 lines.[156]
+
+[156] See Cuvier, Recherches sur les Ossements fossiles, fourth
+edition, vol. ii, p. 56; also Geoffrey St.-Hilaire, cited by
+Berger de Xivery, Traditions Teratologiques, p. 190.
+
+
+But the most brilliant service rendered to the theological theory
+came from another quarter for, in 1726, Scheuchzer, having
+discovered a large fossil lizard, exhibited it to the world as
+the "human witness of the Deluge":[157] this great discovery was
+hailed everywhere with joy, for it seemed to prove not only that
+human beings were drowned at the Deluge, but that "there were
+giants in those days."  Cheered by the applause thus gained, he
+determined to make the theological position impregnable.  Mixing
+together various texts of Scripture with notions derived from the
+philosophy of Descartes and the speculations of Whiston, he
+developed the theory that "the fountains of the great deep" were
+broken up by the direct physical action of the hand of God,
+which, being literally applied to the axis of the earth, suddenly
+stopped the earth's rotation, broke up "the fountains of the
+great deep," spilled the water therein contained, and produced
+the Deluge.  But his service to sacred science did not end here,
+for he prepared an edition of the Bible, in which magnificent
+engravings in great number illustrated his view and enforced it
+upon all readers.  Of these engravings no less than thirty-four
+were devoted to the Deluge alone.[158]
+
+[157] Homo diluvii testis.
+
+[158] See Zoeckler, vol. ii, p. 172; also Scheuchzer, Physica
+Sacra, Augustae Vindel et Ulmae, 1732.  For the ancient belief
+regarding giants, see Leopoldi, Saggio.  For accounts of the
+views of Mazaurier and Scheuchzer, see Cuvier; also Buchner, Man
+in Past, Present, and Future, English translation, pp. 235, 236.
+For Increase Mather's views, see Philosophical Transactions, vol.
+xxiv, p. 85.  As to similar fossils sent from New York to the
+Royal Society as remains of giants, see Weld, History of the
+Royal Society, vol. i, p. 421.  For Father Torrubia and his
+Gigantologia Espanola, see D'Archiac, Introduction a l'Etude de
+la Paleontologie Stratigraphique, Paris, 1864, p. 201.  For
+admirable summaries, see Lyell, Principles of Geology, London,
+1867; D'Archiac, Geologie et Paleontologie, Paris, 1866; Pictet,
+Traite de Paleontologie, Paris, 1853; Vezian, Prodrome de la
+Geologie, Paris, 1863; Haeckel, History of Creation, English
+translation, New York, 1876, chap. iii; and for recent progress,
+Prof. O. S. Marsh's Address on the History and Methods of
+Paleontology.
+
+
+In the midst all this came an episode very comical but very
+instructive; for it shows that the attempt to shape the
+deductions of science to meet the exigencies of dogma may mislead
+heterodoxy as absurdly as orthodoxy.
+
+About the year 1760 news of the discovery of marine fossils in
+various elevated districts of Europe reached Voltaire.  He, too,
+had a theologic system to support, though his system was opposed
+to that of the sacred books of the Hebrews; and, fearing that
+these new discoveries might be used to support the Mosaic
+accounts of the Deluge, all his wisdom and wit were compacted
+into arguments to prove that the fossil fishes were remains of
+fishes intended for food, but spoiled and thrown away by
+travellers; that the fossil shells were accidentally dropped by
+crusaders and pilgrims returning from the Holy Land; and that
+the fossil bones found between Paris and Etampes were parts of a
+skeleton belonging to the cabinet of some ancient philosopher.
+Through chapter after chapter, Voltaire, obeying the supposed
+necessities of his theology, fought desperately the growing
+results of the geologic investigations of his time.[159]
+
+[159] See Voltaire, Dissertation sur les Changements arrives dans
+notre Globe; also Voltaire, Les Singularities de la Nature, chap.
+xii; also Jevons, Principles of Science, vol. ii, p. 328.
+
+
+But far more prejudicial to Christianity was the continued effort
+on the other side to show that the fossils were caused by the
+Deluge of Noah.
+
+No supposition was too violent to support this theory, which was
+considered vital to the Bible.  By taking the mere husks and
+rinds of biblical truth for truth itself, by taking sacred poetry
+as prose, and by giving a literal interpretation of it, the
+followers of Burnet, Whiston, and Woodward built up systems which
+bear to real geology much the same relation that the Christian
+Topography of Cosmas bears to real geography.  In vain were
+exhibited the absolute geological, zoological, astronomical
+proofs that no universal deluge, or deluge covering any large
+part of the earth, had taken place within the last six thousand
+or sixty thousand years; in vain did so enlightened a churchman
+as Bishop Clayton declare that the Deluge could not have extended
+beyond that district where Noah lived before the Flood; in vain
+did others, like Bishop Croft and Bishop Stillingfleet, and the
+nonconformist Matthew Poole, show that the Deluge might not have
+been and probably was not universal; in vain was it shown that,
+even if there had been a universal deluge, the fossils were not
+produced by it:  the only answers were the citation of the text,
+"And all the high mountains which were under the whole heaven
+were covered," and, to clinch the matter, Worthington and men
+like him insisted that any argument to show that fossils were not
+remains of animals drowned at the Deluge of Noah was
+"infidelity."  In England, France, and Germany, belief that the
+fossils were produced by the Deluge of Noah was widely insisted
+upon as part of that faith essential to salvation.[160]
+
+[160] For a candid summary of the proofs from geology, astronomy,
+and zoology, that the Noachian Deluge was not universally or
+widely extended, see McClintock and Strong, Cyclopedia of
+Biblical Theology and Ecclesiastical Literature, article Deluge.
+For general history, see Lyell, D'Archiac, and Vezian.  For
+special cases showing the bitterness of the conflict, see the
+Rev. Mr. Davis's Life of Rev. Dr. Pye Smith, passim.  For a late
+account, see Prof. Huxley on The Lights of the Church and the
+Light of Science, in the Nineteenth Century for July, 1890.
+
+
+But the steady work of science went on:  not all the force of the
+Church--not even the splendid engravings in Scheuchzer's
+Bible--could stop it, and the foundations of this theological
+theory began to crumble away.  The process was, indeed, slow; it
+required a hundred and twenty years for the searchers of God's
+truth, as revealed in Nature--such men as Hooke, Linnaeus,
+Whitehurst, Daubenton, Cuvier, and William Smith--to push their
+works under this fabric of error, and, by statements which could
+not be resisted, to undermine it.  As we arrive at the beginning
+of the nineteenth century, science is becoming irresistible in
+this field.  Blumenbach, Von Buch, and Schlotheim led the way,
+but most important on the Continent was the work of Cuvier.  In
+the early years of the present century his researches among
+fossils began to throw new light into the whole subject of
+geology.  He was, indeed, very conservative, and even more wary
+and diplomatic; seeming, like Voltaire, to feel that "among
+wolves one must howl a little."  It was a time of reaction.
+Napoleon had made peace with the Church, and to disturb that
+peace was akin to treason.  By large but vague concessions Cuvier
+kept the theologians satisfied, while he undermined their
+strongest fortress.  The danger was instinctively felt by some of
+the champions of the Church, and typical among these was
+Chateaubriand, who in his best-known work, once so great, now so
+little--the Genius of Christianity--grappled with the questions
+of creation by insisting upon a sort of general deception "in the
+beginning," under which everything was created by a sudden fiat,
+but with appearances of pre-existence.  His words are as follows:
+"It was part of the perfection and harmony of the nature which
+was displayed before men's eyes that the deserted nests of last
+year's birds should be seen on the trees, and that the seashore
+should be covered with shells which had been the abode of fish,
+and yet the world was quite new, and nests and shells had never
+been inhabited."[161] But the real victory was with Brongniart,
+who, about 1820, gave forth his work on fossil plants, and thus
+built a barrier against which the enemies of science raged in
+vain.[162]
+
+[161] Genie du Christianisme, chap.v, pp. 1-14, cited by Reusch,
+vol. i, p. 250.
+
+[162] For admirable sketches of Brongniart and other
+paleobotanists, see Ward, as above.
+
+
+Still the struggle was not ended, and, a few years later, a
+forlorn hope was led in England by Granville Penn.
+
+His fundamental thesis was that "our globe has undergone only two
+revolutions, the Creation and the Deluge, and both by the
+immediate fiat of the Almighty"; he insisted that the Creation
+took place in exactly six days of ordinary time, each made up of
+"the evening and the morning"; and he ended with a piece of that
+peculiar presumption so familiar to the world, by calling on
+Cuvier and all other geologists to "ask for the old paths and
+walk therein until they shall simplify their system and reduce
+their numerous revolutions to the two events or epochs only--the
+six days of Creation and the Deluge."[163] The geologists showed
+no disposition to yield to this peremptory summons; on the
+contrary, the President of the British Geological Society, and
+even so eminent a churchman and geologist as Dean Buckland, soon
+acknowledged that facts obliged them to give up the theory that
+the fossils of the coal measures were deposited at the Deluge of
+Noah, and to deny that the Deluge was universal.
+
+[163] See the Works of Granville Penn, vol. ii, p. 273.
+
+
+The defection of Buckland was especially felt by the orthodox
+party.  His ability, honesty, and loyalty to his profession, as
+well as his position as Canon of Christ Church and Professor of
+Geology at Oxford, gave him great authority, which he exerted to
+the utmost in soothing his brother ecclesiastics.  In his
+inaugural lecture he had laboured to show that geology confirmed
+the accounts of Creation and the Flood as given in Genesis, and
+in 1823, after his cave explorations had revealed overwhelming
+evidences of the vast antiquity of the earth, he had still clung
+to the Flood theory in his Reliquiae Diluvianae.
+
+This had not, indeed, fully satisfied the anti-scientific party,
+but as a rule their attacks upon him took the form not so much of
+abuse as of humorous disparagement.  An epigram by Shuttleworth,
+afterward Bishop of Chichester, in imitation of Pope's famous
+lines upon Newton, ran as follows:
+
+
+"Some doubts were once expressed about the Flood:
+Buckland arose, and all was clear as mud."
+
+
+On his leaving Oxford for a journey to southern Europe, Dean
+Gaisford was heard to exclaim:  "Well, Buckland is gone to Italy;
+so, thank God, we shall have no more of this geology!"
+
+Still there was some comfort as long as Buckland held to the
+Deluge theory; but, on his surrender, the combat deepened:
+instead of epigrams and caricatures came bitter attacks, and from
+the pulpit and press came showers of missiles.  The worst of
+these were hurled at Lyell.  As we have seen, he had published in
+1830 his Principles of Geology.  Nothing could have been more
+cautious.  It simply gave an account of the main discoveries up
+to that time, drawing the necessary inferences with plain yet
+convincing logic, and it remains to this day one of those works
+in which the Anglo-Saxon race may most justly take pride,--one of
+the land-marks in the advance of human thought.
+
+But its tendency was inevitably at variance with the Chaldean and
+other ancient myths and legends regarding the Creation and Deluge
+which the Hebrews had received from the older civilizations among
+their neighbours, and had incorporated into the sacred books
+which they transmitted to the modern world; it was therefore
+extensively "refuted."
+
+Theologians and men of science influenced by them insisted that
+his minimizing of geological changes, and his laying stress on
+the gradual action of natural causes still in force, endangered
+the sacred record of Creation and left no place for miraculous
+intervention; and when it was found that he had entirely cast
+aside their cherished idea that the great geological changes of
+the earth's surface and the multitude of fossil remains were due
+to the Deluge of Noah, and had shown that a far longer time was
+demanded for Creation than any which could possibly be deduced
+from the Old Testament genealogies and chronicles, orthodox
+indignation burst forth violently; eminent dignitaries of the
+Church attacked him without mercy and for a time he was under
+social ostracism.
+
+As this availed little, an effort was made on the scientific side
+to crush him beneath the weighty authority of Cuvier; but the
+futility of this effort was evident when it was found that
+thinking men would no longer listen to Cuvier and persisted in
+listening to Lyell.  The great orthodox text-book, Cuvier's
+Theory of the Earth, became at once so discredited in the
+estimation of men of science that no new edition of it was called
+for, while Lyell's work speedily ran through twelve editions and
+remained a firm basis of modern thought.[164]
+
+[164] For Buckland and the various forms of attack upon him, see
+Gordon, Life of Buckland, especially pp. 10, 26, 136.  For the
+attack on Lyell and his book, see Huxley, The Lights of the
+Church and the Light of Science.
+
+
+As typical of his more moderate opponents we may take Fairholme,
+who in 1837 published his Mosaic Deluge, and argued that no
+early convulsions of the earth, such as those supposed by
+geologists, could have taken place, because there could have been
+no deluge "before moral guilt could possibly have been
+incurred"--that is to say, before the creation of mankind.  In
+touching terms he bewailed the defection of the President of the
+Geological Society and Dean Buckland--protesting against
+geologists who "persist in closing their eyes upon the solemn
+declarations of the Almighty"
+
+Still the geologists continued to seek truth:  the germs planted
+especially by William Smith, "the Father of English Geology" were
+developed by a noble succession of investigators, and the victory
+was sure.  Meanwhile those theologians who felt that denunciation
+of science as "godless" could accomplish little, laboured upon
+schemes for reconciling geology with Genesis.  Some of these show
+amazing ingenuity, but an eminent religious authority, going over
+them with great thoroughness, has well characterized them as
+"daring and fanciful."  Such attempts have been variously
+classified, but the fact regarding them all is that each mixes up
+more or less of science with more or less of Scripture, and
+produces a result more or less absurd.  Though a few men here and
+there have continued these exercises, the capitulation of the
+party which set the literal account of the Deluge of Noah against
+the facts revealed by geology was at last clearly made.[165]
+
+[165] For Fairholme, see his Mosaic Deluge, London, 1837, p. 358.
+For a very just characterization of various schemes of
+"reconciliation," see Shields, The Final Philosophy, p. 340.
+
+
+One of the first evidences of the completeness of this surrender
+has been so well related by the eminent physiologist, Dr. W. B.
+Carpenter, that it may best be given in his own words:  "You are
+familiar with a book of considerable value, Dr. W. Smith's
+Dictionary of the Bible.  I happened to know the influences
+under which that dictionary was framed.  The idea of the
+publisher and of the editor was to give as much scholarship and
+such results of modern criticism as should be compatible with a
+very judicious conservatism.  There was to be no objection to
+geology, but the universality of the Deluge was to be strictly
+maintained.  The editor committed the article Deluge to a man of
+very considerable ability, but when the article came to him he
+found that it was so excessively heretical that he could not
+venture to put it in.  There was not time for a second article
+under that head, and if you look in that dictionary you will find
+under the word Deluge a reference to Flood.  Before Flood came, a
+second article had been commissioned from a source that was
+believed safely conservative; but when the article came in it was
+found to be worse than the first.  A third article was then
+commissioned, and care was taken to secure its `safety.' If you
+look for the word Flood in the dictionary, you will find a
+reference to Noah.  Under that name you will find an article
+written by a distinguished professor of Cambridge, of which I
+remember that Bishop Colenso said to me at the time, `In a very
+guarded way the writer concedes the whole thing.'  You will see
+by this under what trammels scientific thought has laboured in
+this department of inquiry."[166]
+
+[166] See Official Report of the National Conference of Unitarian
+and other Christian Churches held at Saratoga, 1882, p. 97.
+
+
+A similar surrender was seen when from a new edition of Horne's
+Introduction to the Scriptures, the standard textbook of
+orthodoxy, its accustomed use of fossils to prove the
+universality of the Deluge was quietly dropped.[167]
+
+[167] This was about 1856; see Tylor, Early History of Mankind,
+p. 329.
+
+
+A like capitulation in the United States was foreshadowed in
+1841, when an eminent Professor of Biblical Literature and
+interpretation in the most important theological seminary of the
+Protestant Episcopal Church, Dr. Samuel Turner, showed his
+Christian faith and courage by virtually accepting the new view;
+and the old contention was utterly cast away by the thinking men
+of another great religious body when, at a later period, two
+divines among the most eminent for piety and learning in the
+Methodist Episcopal Church inserted in the Biblical Cyclopaedia,
+published under their supervision, a candid summary of the proofs
+from geology, astronomy, and zoology that the Deluge of Noah was
+not universal, or even widely extended, and this without protest
+from any man of note in any branch of the American Church.[168]
+
+[168] For Dr. Turner, see his Companion to the Book of Genesis,
+London and New York, 1841, pp. 216-219. For McClintock and
+Strong, see their Cyclopaedia of Biblical Knowledge, etc.,
+article Deluge. For similar surrenders of the Deluge in various
+other religious encyclopedias and commentaries, see Huxley,
+Essays on controverted questions, chap. xiii.
+
+
+The time when the struggle was relinquished by enlightened
+theologians of the Roman Catholic Church may be fixed at about
+1862, when Reusch, Professor of Theology at Bonn, in his work on
+The Bible and Nature, cast off the old diluvial theory and all
+its supporters, accepting the conclusions of science.[169]
+
+[169] See Reusch, Bibel und Natur, chap. xxi.
+
+
+But, though the sacred theory with the Deluge of Noah as a
+universal solvent for geological difficulties was evidently
+dying, there still remained in various quarters a touching
+fidelity to it.  In Roman Catholic countries the old theory was
+widely though quietly cherished, and taught from the religious
+press, the pulpit, and the theological professor's chair.  Pope
+Pius IX was doubtless in sympathy with this feeling when, about
+1850, he forbade the scientific congress of Italy to meet at
+Bologna.[170]
+
+[170] See Whiteside, Italy in the Nineteenth Century, vol. iii,
+chap. xiv.
+
+
+In 1856 Father Debreyne congratulated the theologians of France
+on their admirable attitude:  "Instinctively," he says, "they
+still insist upon deriving the fossils from Noah's Flood."[171]
+In 1875 the Abbe Choyer published at Paris and Angers a text-book
+widely approved by Church authorities, in which he took similar
+ground; and in 1877 the Jesuit father Bosizio published at
+Mayence a treatise on Geology and the Deluge, endeavouring to
+hold the world to the old solution of the problem, allowing,
+indeed, that the "days" of Creation were long periods, but making
+atonement for this concession by sneers at Darwin.[172]
+
+[171] See Zoeckler, vol. ii, p. 472.
+
+[172] See Zoeckler, vol. ii, p. 478, and Bosizio, Geologie und
+die Sundfluth, Mayence, 1877, preface, p. xiv.
+
+
+In the Russo-Greek Church, in 1869, Archbishop Macarius, of
+Lithuania, urged the necessity of believing that Creation in six
+days of ordinary time and the Deluge of Noah are the only causes
+of all that geology seeks to explain; and, as late as 1876,
+another eminent theologian of the same Church went even farther,
+and refused to allow the faithful to believe that any change had
+taken place since "the beginning" mentioned in Genesis, when the
+strata of the earth were laid, tilted, and twisted, and the
+fossils scattered among them by the hand of the Almighty during
+six ordinary days.[173]
+
+[173] See Zoeckler, vol. ii, p. 472, 571, and elsewhere; also
+citations in Reusch and Shields.
+
+
+In the Lutheran branch of the Protestant Church we also find
+echoes of the old belief.  Keil, eminent in scriptural
+interpretation at the University of Dorpat, gave forth in 1860 a
+treatise insisting that geology is rendered futile and its
+explanations vain by two great facts:  the Curse which drove Adam
+and Eve out of Eden, and the Flood that destroyed all living
+things save Noah, his family, and the animals in the ark.  In
+1867, Phillippi, and in 1869, Dieterich, both theologians of
+eminence, took virtually the same ground in Germany, the latter
+attempting to beat back the scientific hosts with a phrase
+apparently pithy, but really hollow--the declaration that "modern
+geology observes what is, but has no right to judge concerning
+the beginning of things."  As late as 1876, Zugler took a similar
+view, and a multitude of lesser lights, through pulpit and press,
+brought these antiscientific doctrines to bear upon the people at
+large--the only effect being to arouse grave doubts regarding
+Christianity among thoughtful men, and especially among young
+men, who naturally distrusted a cause using such weapons.
+
+For just at this time the traditional view of the Deluge received
+its death-blow, and in a manner entirely unexpected.  By the
+investigations of George Smith among the Assyrian tablets of the
+British Museum, in 1872, and by his discoveries just afterward in
+Assyria, it was put beyond a reasonable doubt that a great mass
+of accounts in Genesis are simply adaptations of earlier and
+especially of Chaldean myths and legends.  While this proved to
+be the fact as regards the accounts of Creation and the fall of
+man, it was seen to be most strikingly so as regards the Deluge.
+The eleventh of the twelve tablets, on which the most important
+of these inscriptions was found, was almost wholly preserved, and
+it revealed in this legend, dating from a time far earlier than
+that of Moses, such features peculiar to the childhood of the
+world as the building of the great ship or ark to escape the
+flood, the careful caulking of its seams, the saving of a man
+beloved of Heaven, his selecting and taking with him into the
+vessel animals of all sorts in couples, the impressive final
+closing of the door, the sending forth different birds as the
+flood abated, the offering of sacrifices when the flood had
+subsided, the joy of the Divine Being who had caused the flood as
+the odour of the sacrifice reached his nostrils; while throughout
+all was shown that partiality for the Chaldean sacred number
+seven which appears so constantly in the Genesis legends and
+throughout the Hebrew sacred books.
+
+Other devoted scholars followed in the paths thus opened--Sayce
+in England, Lenormant in France, Schrader in Germany--with the
+result that the Hebrew account of the Deluge, to which for ages
+theologians had obliged all geological research to conform, was
+quietly relegated, even by most eminent Christian scholars, to
+the realm of myth and legend.[174]
+
+[174] For George Smith, see his Chaldean Account of Genesis, New
+York, 1876, especially pp. 36, 263, 286; also his special work on
+the subject.  See also Lenormant, Les Origins de l'Histoire,
+Paris, 1880, chap. viii.  For Schrader, see his The Cuneiform
+Inscriptions and the Old Testament, Whitehouse's translation,
+London, 1885, vol. i, pp. 47-49 and 58-60, and elsewhere.
+
+
+Sundry feeble attempts to break the force of this discovery, and
+an evidently widespread fear to have it known, have certainly
+impaired not a little the legitimate influence of the Christian
+clergy.
+
+And yet this adoption of Chaldean myths into the Hebrew
+Scriptures furnishes one of the strongest arguments for the value
+of our Bible as a record of the upward growth of man; for, while
+the Chaldean legend primarily ascribes the Deluge to the mere
+arbitrary caprice of one among many gods (Bel), the Hebrew
+development of the legend ascribes it to the justice, the
+righteousness, of the Supreme God; thus showing the evolution of
+a higher and nobler sentiment which demanded a moral cause
+adequate to justify such a catastrophe.
+
+Unfortunately, thus far, save in a few of the broader and nobler
+minds among the clergy, the policy of ignoring such new
+revelations has prevailed, and the results of this policy, both
+in Roman Catholic and in Protestant countries, are not far to
+seek.  What the condition of thought is among the middle classes
+of France and Italy needs not to be stated here.  In Germany, as
+a typical fact, it may be mentioned that there was in the year
+1881 church accommodation in the city of Berlin for but two per
+cent of the population, and that even this accommodation was more
+than was needed.  This fact is not due to the want of a deep
+religious spirit among the North Germans:  no one who has lived
+among them can doubt the existence of such a spirit; but it is
+due mainly to the fact that, while the simple results of
+scientific investigation have filtered down among the people at
+large, the dominant party in the Lutheran Church has steadily
+refused to recognise this fact, and has persisted in imposing on
+Scripture the fetters of literal and dogmatic interpretation
+which Germany has largely outgrown.  A similar danger threatens
+every other country in which the clergy pursue a similar policy.
+No thinking man, whatever may be his religious views, can fail to
+regret this.  A thoughtful, reverent, enlightened clergy is a
+great blessing to any country, and anything which undermines
+their legitimate work of leading men out of the worship of
+material things to the consideration of that which is highest is
+a vast misfortune.[175]
+
+[175] For the foregoing statements regarding Germany the writer
+relies on his personal observation as a student at the University
+of Berlin in 1856, as a traveller at various periods afterward,
+and as Minister of the United States in 1879, 1880, and 1881.
+
+
+
+IV.  FINAL EFFORTS AT COMPROMISE.--THE VICTORY OF
+SCIENCE COMPLETE.
+
+
+Before concluding, it may be instructive to note a few especially
+desperate attempts at truces or compromises, such as always
+appear when the victory of any science has become absolutely
+sure.  Typical among the earliest of these may be mentioned the
+effort of Carl von Raumer in 1819.  With much pretension to
+scientific knowledge, but with aspirations bounded by the limits
+of Prussian orthodoxy, he made a laboured attempt to produce a
+statement which, by its vagueness, haziness, and "depth," should
+obscure the real questions at issue.  This statement appeared in
+the shape of an argument, used by Bertrand and others in the
+previous century, to prove that fossil remains of plants in the
+coal measures had never existed as living plants, but had been
+simply a "result of the development of imperfect plant embryos";
+and the same misty theory was suggested to explain the existence
+of fossil animals without supposing the epochs and changes
+required by geological science.
+
+In 1837 Wagner sought to uphold this explanation; but it was so
+clearly a mere hollow phrase, unable to bear the weight of the
+facts to be accounted for, that it was soon given up.
+
+Similar attempts were made throughout Europe, the most noteworthy
+appearing in England.  In 1853 was issued an anonymous work
+having as its title A Brief and Complete Refutation of the
+Anti-Scriptural Theory of Geologists:  the author having revived
+an old idea, and put a spark of life into it--this idea being
+that "all the organisms found in the depths of the earth were
+made on the first of the six creative days, as models for the
+plants and animals to be created on the third, fifth, and sixth
+days."[176]
+
+[176] See Zoeckler, vol. ii, p. 475.
+
+
+But while these attempts to preserve the old theory as to fossil
+remains of lower animals were thus pressed, there appeared upon
+the geological field a new scientific column far more terrible to
+the old doctrines than any which had been seen previously.
+
+For, just at the close of the first quarter of the nineteenth
+century, geologists began to examine the caves and beds of drift
+in various parts of the world; and within a few years from that
+time a series of discoveries began in France, in Belgium, in
+England, in Brazil, in Sicily, in India, in Egypt, and in
+America, which established the fact that a period of time much
+greater than any which had before been thought of had elapsed
+since the first human occupation of the earth.  The chronologies
+of Archbishop Usher, Petavius, Bossuet, and the other great
+authorities on which theology had securely leaned, were found
+worthless.  It was clearly seen that, no matter how well based
+upon the Old Testament genealogies and lives of the patriarchs,
+all these systems must go for nothing.  The most conservative
+geologists were gradually obliged to admit that man had been upon
+the earth not merely six thousand, or sixty thousand, or one
+hundred and sixty thousand years.  And when, in 1863, Sir Charles
+Lyell, in his book on The Antiquity of Man, retracted solemnly
+his earlier view--yielding with a reluctance almost pathetic, but
+with a thoroughness absolutely convincing--the last stronghold of
+orthodoxy in this field fell.[177]
+
+[177] See Prof. Marsh's address as President of the Society for
+the Advancement of Science, in 1879; and for a development of the
+matter, see the chapters on The Antiquity of Man and Egyptology
+and the Fall of Man and Anthropology, in this work.
+
+
+The supporters of a theory based upon the letter of Scripture,
+who had so long taken the offensive, were now obliged to fight
+upon the defensive and at fearful odds.  Various lines of defence
+were taken; but perhaps the most pathetic effort was that made
+in the year 1857, in England, by Gosse.  As a naturalist he had
+rendered great services to zoological science, but he now
+concentrated his energies upon one last effort to save the
+literal interpretation of Genesis and the theological structure
+built upon it.  In his work entitled Omphalos he developed the
+theory previously urged by Granville Penn, and asserted a new
+principle called "prochronism."  In accordance with this, all
+things were created by the Almighty hand literally within the six
+days, each made up of "the evening and the morning," and each
+great branch of creation was brought into existence in an
+instant.  Accepting a declaration of Dr. Ure, that "neither
+reason nor revelation will justify us in extending the origin of
+the material system beyond six thousand years from our own days,"
+Gosse held that all the evidences of convulsive changes and long
+epochs in strata, rocks, minerals, and fossils are simply
+"APPEARANCES"--only that and nothing more.  Among these mere
+"appearances," all created simultaneously, were the glacial
+furrows and scratches on rocks, the marks of retreat on rocky
+masses, as at Niagara, the tilted and twisted strata, the piles
+of lava from extinct volcanoes, the fossils of every sort in
+every part of the earth, the foot-tracks of birds and reptiles,
+the half-digested remains of weaker animals found in the
+fossilized bodies of the stronger, the marks of hyenas' teeth on
+fossilized bones found in various caves, and even the skeleton of
+the Siberian mammoth at St. Petersburg with lumps of flesh
+bearing the marks of wolves' teeth--all these, with all gaps and
+imperfections, he urged mankind to believe came into being in an
+instant.  The preface of the work is especially touching, and it
+ends with the prayer that science and Scripture may be reconciled
+by his theory, and "that the God of truth will deign so to use
+it, and if he do, to him be all the glory."[177]  At the close of
+the whole book Gosse declared:  "The field is left clear and
+undisputed for the one witness on the opposite side, whose
+testimony is as follows:  `In six days Jehovah made heaven and
+earth, the sea, and all that in them is.'"  This quotation he
+placed in capital letters, as the final refutation of all that
+the science of geology had built.
+
+[177] See Gosse, Omphalos, London, 1857, p. 5, and passim; and
+for a passage giving the keynote of the whole, with a most
+farcical note on coprolites, see pp. 353, 354.
+
+
+In other parts of Europe desperate attempts were made even later
+to save the letter of our sacred books by the revival of a theory
+in some respects more striking.  To shape this theory to recent
+needs, vague reminiscences of a text in Job regarding fire
+beneath the earth, and vague conceptions of speculations made by
+Humboldt and Laplace, were mingled with Jewish tradition.  Out of
+the mixture thus obtained Schubert developed the idea that the
+Satanic "principalities and powers" formerly inhabiting our
+universe plunged it into the chaos from which it was newly
+created by a process accurately described in Genesis.  Rougemont
+made the earth one of the "morning stars" of Job, reduced to
+chaos by Lucifer and his followers, and thence developed in
+accordance with the nebular hypothesis.  Kurtz evolved from this
+theory an opinion that the geological disturbances were caused by
+the opposition of the devil to the rescue of our universe from
+chaos by the Almighty.  Delitzsch put a similar idea into a more
+scholastic jargon; but most desperate of all were the statements
+of Dr. Anton Westermeyer, of Munich, in The Old Testament
+vindicated from Modern Infidel Objections.  The following
+passage will serve to show his ideas:  "By the fructifying
+brooding of the Divine Spirit on the waters of the deep, creative
+forces began to stir; the devils who inhabited the primeval
+darkness and considered it their own abode saw that they were to
+be driven from their possessions, or at least that their place of
+habitation was to be contracted, and they therefore tried to
+frustrate God's plan of creation and exert all that remained to
+them of might and power to hinder or at least to mar the new
+creation."  So came into being "the horrible and destructive
+monsters, these caricatures and distortions of creation," of
+which we have fossil remains.  Dr. Westermeyer goes on to insist
+that "whole generations called into existence by God succumbed to
+the corruption of the devil, and for that reason had to be
+destroyed"; and that "in the work of the six days God caused the
+devil to feel his power in all earnest, and made Satan's
+enterprise appear miserable and vain."[178]
+
+[178] See Shields's Final Philosophy, pp. 340 et seq., and
+Reusch's Nature and the Bible (English translation, 1886), vol.
+i, pp. 318-320.
+
+
+Such was the last important assault upon the strongholds of
+geological science in Germany; and, in view of this and others
+of the same kind, it is little to be wondered at that when, in
+1870, Johann Silberschlag made an attempt to again base geology
+upon the Deluge of Noah, he found such difficulties that, in a
+touching passage, he expressed a desire to get back to the theory
+that fossils were "sports of Nature."[179]
+
+[179] See Reusch, vol. i, p. 264.
+
+
+But the most noted among efforts to keep geology well within the
+letter of Scripture is of still more recent date.  In the year
+1885 Mr. Gladstone found time, amid all his labours and cares as
+the greatest parliamentary leader in England, to take the field
+in the struggle for the letter of Genesis against geology.
+
+On the face of it his effort seemed Quixotic, for he confessed at
+the outset that in science he was "utterly destitute of that kind
+of knowledge which carries authority," and his argument soon
+showed that this confession was entirely true.
+
+But he had some other qualities of which much might be expected:
+great skill in phrase-making, great shrewdness in adapting the
+meanings of single words to conflicting necessities in
+discussion, wonderful power in erecting showy structures of
+argument upon the smallest basis of fact, and a facility almost
+preternatural in "explaining away" troublesome realities.  So
+striking was his power in this last respect, that a humorous
+London chronicler once advised a bigamist, as his only hope, to
+induce Mr. Gladstone to explain away one of his wives.
+
+At the basis of this theologico-geological structure Mr.
+Gladstone placed what he found in the text of Genesis:  "A grand
+fourfold division" of animated Nature "set forth in an orderly
+succession of times."  And he arranged this order and succession
+of creation as follows:  "First, the water population; secondly,
+the air population; thirdly, the land population of animals;
+fourthly, the land population consummated in man."
+
+His next step was to slide in upon this basis the apparently
+harmless proposition that this division and sequence "is
+understood to have been so affirmed in our time by natural
+science that it may be taken as a demonstrated conclusion and
+established fact."
+
+Finally, upon these foundations he proceeded to build an argument
+out of the coincidences thus secured between the record in the
+Hebrew sacred books and the truths revealed by science as regards
+this order and sequence, and he easily arrived at the desired
+conclusion with which he crowned the whole structure, namely, as
+regards the writer of Genesis, that "his knowledge was
+divine."[180]
+
+[180] See Mr. Gladstone's Dawn of Creation and Worship, a reply
+to Dr. Reville, in the Nineteenth Century for November, 1885.
+
+
+Such was the skeleton of the structure; it was abundantly
+decorated with the rhetoric in which Mr. Gladstone is so skilful
+an artificer, and it towered above "the average man" as a
+structure beautiful and invincible--like some Chinese fortress in
+the nineteenth century, faced with porcelain and defended with
+crossbows.
+
+Its strength was soon seen to be unreal.  In an essay admirable
+in its temper, overwhelming in its facts, and absolutely
+convincing in its argument, Prof. Huxley, late President of the
+Royal Society, and doubtless the most eminent contemporary
+authority on the scientific questions concerned, took up the
+matter.
+
+Mr. Gladstone's first proposition, that the sacred writings give
+us a great "fourfold division" created "in an orderly succession
+of times," Prof. Huxley did not presume to gainsay.
+
+As to Mr. Gladstone's second proposition, that "this great
+fourfold division... created in an orderly succession of
+times...has been so affirmed in our own time by natural science
+that it may be taken as a demonstrated conclusion and established
+fact," Prof. Huxley showed that, as a matter of fact, no such
+"fourfold division" and "orderly succession" exist; that, so far
+from establishing Mr. Gladstone's assumption that the population
+of water, air, and land followed each other in the order given,
+"all the evidence we possess goes to prove that they did not";
+that the distribution of fossils through the various strata
+proves that some land animals originated before sea animals; that
+there has been a mixing of sea, land, and air "population"
+utterly destructive to the "great fourfold division" and to the
+creation "in an orderly succession of times"; that, so far is the
+view presented in the sacred text, as stated by Mr. Gladstone,
+from having been "so affirmed in our own time by natural science,
+that it may be taken as a demonstrated conclusion and established
+fact" that Mr. Gladstone's assertion is "directly contradictory
+to facts known to every one who is acquainted with the elements
+of natural science"; that Mr. Gladstone's only geological
+authority, Cuvier, had died more than fifty years before, when
+geological science was in its infancy [and he might have added,
+when it was necessary to make every possible concession to the
+Church]; and, finally, he challenged Mr. Gladstone to produce any
+contemporary authority in geological science who would support
+his so-called scriptural view.  And when, in a rejoinder, Mr.
+Gladstone attempted to support his view on the authority of Prof.
+Dana, Prof. Huxley had no difficulty in showing from Prof.
+Dana's works that Mr. Gladstone's inference was utterly
+unfounded.  But, while the fabric reared by Mr. Gladstone had
+been thus undermined by Huxley on the scientific side, another
+opponent began an attack from the biblical side.  The Rev. Canon
+Driver, professor at Mr. Gladstone's own University of Oxford,
+took up the question in the light of scriptural interpretation.
+In  regard to the comparative table drawn up by Sir J. W. Dawson,
+showing the supposed correspondence between the scriptural and
+the geological order of creation, Canon Driver said:  "The two
+series are evidently at variance.  The geological record contains
+no evidence of clearly defined periods corresponding to the
+`days' of Genesis.  In Genesis, vegetation is complete two days
+before animal life appears.  Geology shows that they appear
+simultaneously--even if animal life does not appear first.  In
+Genesis, birds appear together with aquatic creatures, and
+precede all land animals; according to the evidence of geology,
+birds are unknown till a period much later than that at which
+aquatic creatures (including fishes and amphibia) abound, and
+they are preceded by numerous species of land animals--in
+particular, by insects and other `creeping things.'"  Of the
+Mosaic account of the existence of vegetation before the creation
+of the sun, Canon Driver said, "No reconciliation of this
+representation with the data of science has yet been found"; and
+again:  "From all that has been said, however reluctant we may be
+to make the admission, only one conclusion seems possible.  Read
+without prejudice or bias, the narrative of Genesis i, creates an
+impression at variance with the facts revealed by science."  The
+eminent professor ends by saying that the efforts at
+reconciliation are "different modes of obliterating the
+characteristic features of Genesis, and of reading into it a view
+which it does not express."
+
+Thus fell Mr. Gladstone's fabric of coincidences between the
+"great fourfold division" in Genesis and the facts ascertained by
+geology.  Prof. Huxley had shattered the scientific parts of the
+structure, Prof. Driver had removed its biblical foundations,
+and the last great fortress of the opponents of unfettered
+scientific investigation was in ruins.
+
+In opposition to all such attempts we may put a noble utterance
+by a clergyman who has probably done more to save what is
+essential in Christianity among English-speaking people than any
+other ecclesiastic of his time.  The late Dean of Westminster,
+Dr. Arthur Stanley, was widely known and beloved on both
+continents. In his memorial sermon after the funeral of Sir
+Charles Lyell he said:  "It is now clear to diligent students of
+the Bible that the first and second chapters of Genesis contain
+two narratives of the creation side by side, differing from each
+other in almost every particular of time and place and order.  It
+is well known that, when the science of geology first arose, it
+was involved in endless schemes of attempted reconciliation with
+the letter of Scripture.  There were, there are perhaps still,
+two modes of reconciliation of Scripture and science, which have
+been each in their day attempted, AND EACH HAS TOTALLY AND
+DESERVEDLY FAILED. One is the endeavour to wrest the words of the
+Bible from their natural meaning and FORCE IT TO SPEAK THE
+LANGUAGE OF SCIENCE."  And again, speaking of the earliest known
+example, which was the interpolation of the word "not" in
+Leviticus xi, 6, he continues: "This is the earliest instance of
+THE FALSIFICATION OF SCRIPTURE TO MEET THE DEMANDS OF SCIENCE;
+and it has been followed in later times by the various efforts
+which have been made to twist the earlier chapters of the book of
+Genesis into APPARENT agreement with the last results of
+geology--representing days not to be days, morning and evening
+not to be morning and evening, the Deluge not to be the Deluge,
+and the ark not to be the ark."
+
+After a statement like this we may fitly ask, Which is the more
+likely to strengthen Christianity for its work in the twentieth
+century which we are now about to enter--a large, manly, honest,
+fearless utterance like this of Arthur Stanley, or hair-splitting
+sophistries, bearing in their every line the germs of failure,
+like those attempted by Mr. Gladstone?
+
+The world is finding that the scientific revelation of creation
+is ever more and more in accordance with worthy conceptions of
+that great Power working in and through the universe.  More and
+more it is seen that inspiration has never ceased, and that its
+prophets and priests are not those who work to fit the letter of
+its older literature to the needs of dogmas and sects, but those,
+above all others, who patiently, fearlessly, and reverently
+devote themselves to the search for truth as truth, in the faith
+that there is a Power in the universe wise enough to make
+truth-seeking safe and good enough to make truth-telling
+useful.[181]
+
+
+[181] For the Huxley-Gladstone controversy, see The Nineteenth
+Century for 1885-'86.  For Canon Driver, see his article, The
+Cosmogony of Genesis, in The Expositor for January, 1886.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN EGYPTOLOGY, AND  ASSYRIOLOGY.
+
+I.  THE SACRED CHRONOLOGY.
+
+
+In the great ranges of investigation which bear most directly
+upon the origin of man, there are two in which Science within the
+last few years has gained final victories.  The significance of
+these in changing, and ultimately in reversing, one of the
+greatest currents of theological thought, can hardly be
+overestimated; not even the tide set in motion by Cusa,
+Copernicus, and Galileo was more powerful to bring in a new epoch
+of belief.
+
+The first of these conquests relates to the antiquity of man on
+the earth.
+
+The fathers of the early Christian Church, receiving all parts of
+our sacred books as equally inspired, laid little, if any, less
+stress on the myths, legends, genealogies, and tribal, family,
+and personal traditions contained in the Old and the New
+Testaments, than upon the most powerful appeals, the most
+instructive apologues, and the most lofty poems of prophets,
+psalmists, and apostles.  As to the age of our planet and the
+life of man upon it, they found in the Bible a carefully recorded
+series of periods, extending from Adam to the building of the
+Temple at Jerusalem, the length of each period being explicitly
+given.
+
+Thus they had a biblical chronology--full, consecutive, and
+definite--extending from the first man created to an event of
+known date well within ascertained profane history; as a result,
+the early Christian commentators arrived at conclusions varying
+somewhat, but in the main agreeing.  Some, like Origen, Eusebius,
+Lactantius, Clement of Alexandria, and the great fathers
+generally of the first three centuries, dwelling especially upon
+the Septuagint version of the Scriptures, thought that man's
+creation took place about six thousand years before the Christian
+era.  Strong confirmation of this view was found in a simple
+piece of purely theological reasoning:  for, just as the seven
+candlesticks of the Apocalypse were long held to prove the
+existence of seven heavenly bodies revolving about the earth, so
+it was felt that the six days of creation prefigured six thousand
+years during which the earth in its first form was to endure;
+and that, as the first Adam came on the sixth day, Christ, the
+second Adam, had come at the sixth millennial period.
+Theophilus, Bishop of Antioch, in the second century clinched
+this argument with the text, "One day is with the Lord as a
+thousand years."
+
+On the other hand, Eusebius and St. Jerome, dwelling more
+especially upon the Hebrew text, which we are brought up to
+revere, thought that man's origin took place at a somewhat
+shorter period before the Christian era; and St. Jerome's
+overwhelming authority made this the dominant view throughout
+western Europe during fifteen centuries.
+
+The simplicity of these great fathers as regards chronology is
+especially reflected from the tables of Eusebius.  In these,
+Moses, Joshua, and Bacchus,--Deborah, Orpheus, and the
+Amazons,--Abimelech, the Sphinx, and Oedipus, appear together as
+personages equally real, and their positions in chronology
+equally ascertained.
+
+At times great bitterness was aroused between those holding the
+longer and those holding the shorter chronology, but after all
+the difference between them, as we now see, was trivial; and it
+may be broadly stated that in the early Church, "always,
+everywhere, and by all," it was held as certain, upon the
+absolute warrant of Scripture, that man was created from four to
+six thousand years before the Christian era.
+
+To doubt this, and even much less than this, was to risk
+damnation.  St. Augustine insisted that belief in the antipodes
+and in the longer duration of the earth than six thousand years
+were deadly heresies, equally hostile to Scripture.  Philastrius,
+the friend of St. Ambrose and St. Augustine, whose fearful
+catalogue of heresies served as a guide to intolerance throughout
+the Middle Ages, condemned with the same holy horror those who
+expressed doubt as to the orthodox number of years since the
+beginning of the world, and those who doubted an earthquake to be
+the literal voice of an angry God, or who questioned the
+plurality of the heavens, or who gainsaid the statement that God
+brings out the stars from his treasures and hangs them up in the
+solid firmament above the earth every night.
+
+About the beginning of the seventh century Isidore of Seville,
+the great theologian of his time, took up the subject.  He
+accepted the dominant view not only of Hebrew but of all other
+chronologies, without anything like real criticism.  The
+childlike faith of his system may be imagined from his summaries
+which follow.  He tells us:
+
+"Joseph lived one hundred and five years.  Greece began to
+cultivate grain."
+
+"The Jews were in slavery in Egypt one hundred and forty-four
+years.  Atlas discovered astrology."
+
+"Joshua ruled for twenty-seven years.  Ericthonius yoked horses
+together."
+
+"Othniel, forty years.  Cadmus introduced letters into Greece."
+
+"Deborah, forty years.  Apollo discovered the art of medicine and
+invented the cithara."
+
+"Gideon, forty years.  Mercury invented the lyre and gave it to
+Orpheus."
+
+Reasoning in this general way, Isidore kept well under the longer
+date; and, the great theological authority of southern Europe
+having thus spoken, the question was virtually at rest throughout
+Christendom for nearly a hundred years.
+
+Early in the eighth century the Venerable Bede took up the
+problem.  Dwelling especially upon the received Hebrew text of
+the Old Testament, he soon entangled himself in very serious
+difficulties; but, in spite of the great fathers of the first
+three centuries, he reduced the antiquity of man on the earth by
+nearly a thousand years, and, in spite of mutterings against him
+as coming dangerously near a limit which made the theological
+argument from the six days of creation to the six ages of the
+world look doubtful, his authority had great weight, and did much
+to fix western Europe in its allegiance to the general system
+laid down by Eusebius and Jerome.
+
+In the twelfth century this belief was re-enforced by a tide of
+thought from a very different quarter.  Rabbi Moses Maimonides
+and other Jewish scholars, by careful study of the Hebrew text,
+arrived at conclusions diminishing the antiquity of man still
+further, and thus gave strength throughout the Middle Ages to the
+shorter chronology:  it was incorporated into the sacred science
+of Christianity; and Vincent of Beauvais, in his great Speculum
+Historiale, forming part of that still more enormous work
+intended to sum up all the knowledge possessed by the ages of
+faith, placed the creation of man at about four thousand years
+before our era.[182]
+
+[182] For a table summing up the periods, from Adam to the
+building of the Temple, explicitly given in the Scriptures, see
+the admirable paper on The Pope and the Bible, in The
+Contemporary Review for April, 1893.  For the date of man's
+creation as given by leading chronologists in various branches of
+the Church, see L'Art de Verifier les Dates, Paris, 1819, vol. i,
+pp. 27 et seq.  In this edition there are sundry typographical
+errors; compare with Wallace, True Age of the World, London,
+1844.  As to preference for the longer computation by the fathers
+of the Church, see Clinton, Fasti Hellenici, vol. ii, p. 291.
+For the sacred significance of the six days of creation in
+ascertaining the antiquity of man, see especially Eichen,
+Geschichte der mittelalterlichen Weltanschauung; also Wallace,
+True Age of the World, pp. 2,3.  For the views of St. Augustine,
+see Topinard, Anthropologie, citing the De Civ. Dei., lib. xvi,
+c. viii, c. x.  For the views of Philastrius, see the De
+Hoeresibus, c. 102, 112, et passim, in Migne, tome xii.  For
+Eusebius's simple credulity, see the tables in Palmer's Egyptian
+Chronicles, vol. ii, pp. 828, 829.  For Bede, see Usher's
+Chronologia Sacra, cited in Wallace, True Age of the World, p.
+35.  For Isidore of Seville, see the Etymologia, lib. v, c. 39;
+also lib. iii, in Migne, tome lxxxii.
+
+
+At the Reformation this view was not disturbed.  The same manner
+of accepting the sacred text which led Luther, Melanchthon, and
+the great Protestant leaders generally, to oppose the Copernican
+theory, fixed them firmly in this biblical chronology; the
+keynote was sounded for them by Luther when he said, "We know, on
+the authority of Moses, that longer ago than six thousand years
+the world did not exist."  Melanchthon, more exact, fixed the
+creation of man at 3963 B.C.
+
+But the great Christian scholars continued the old endeavour to
+make the time of man's origin more precise:  there seems to have
+been a sort of fascination in the subject which developed a long
+array of chronologists, all weighing the minutest indications in
+our sacred books, until the Protestant divine De Vignolles, who
+had given forty years to the study of biblical chronology,
+declared in 1738 that he had gathered no less than two hundred
+computations based upon Scripture, and no two alike.
+
+As to the Roman Church, about 1580 there was published, by
+authority of Pope Gregory XIII, the Roman Martyrology, and this,
+both as originally published and as revised in 1640 under Pope
+Urban VIII, declared that the creation of man took place 5199
+years before Christ.
+
+But of all who gave themselves up to these chronological studies,
+the man who exerted the most powerful influence upon the dominant
+nations of Christendom was Archbishop Usher.  In 1650 he
+published his Annals of the Ancient and New Testaments, and it at
+once became the greatest authority for all English-speaking
+peoples. Usher was a man of deep and wide theological learning,
+powerful in controversy; and his careful conclusion, after years
+of the most profound study of the Hebrew Scriptures, was that man
+was created 4004 years before the Christian era.  His verdict was
+widely received as final; his dates were inserted in the margins
+of the authorized version of the English Bible, and were soon
+practically regarded as equally inspired with the sacred text
+itself:  to question them seriously was to risk preferment in the
+Church and reputation in the world at large.
+
+The same adhesion to the Hebrew Scriptures which had influenced
+Usher brought leading men of the older Church to the same view:
+men who would have burned each other at the stake for their
+differences on other points, agreed on this:  Melanchthon and
+Tostatus, Lightfoot and Jansen, Salmeron and Scaliger, Petavius
+and Kepler, inquisitors and reformers, Jesuits and Jansenists,
+priests and rabbis, stood together in the belief that the
+creation of man was proved by Scripture to have taken place
+between 3900 and 4004 years before Christ.
+
+In spite of the severe pressure of this line of authorities,
+extending from St. Jerome and Eusebius to Usher and Petavius, in
+favour of this scriptural chronology, even devoted Christian
+scholars had sometimes felt obliged to revolt.  The first great
+source of difficulty was increased knowledge regarding the
+Egyptian monuments.  As far back as the last years of the
+sixteenth century Joseph Scaliger had done what he could to lay
+the foundations of a more scientific treatment of chronology,
+insisting especially that the historical indications in Persia,
+in Babylon, and above all in Egypt, should be brought to bear on
+the question.  More than that, he had the boldness to urge that
+the chronological indications of the Hebrew Scriptures should be
+fully and critically discussed in the light of Egyptian and other
+records, without any undue bias from theological considerations.
+His idea may well be called inspired; yet it had little effect
+as regards a true view of the antiquity of man, even upon
+himself, for the theological bias prevailed above all his
+reasonings, even in his own mind.  Well does a brilliant modern
+writer declare that, "among the multitude of strong men in modern
+times abdicating their reason at the command of their prejudices,
+Joseph Scaliger is perhaps the most striking example."
+Early in the following century Sir Walter Raleigh, in his History
+of the World (1603-1616), pointed out the danger of adhering to
+the old system.  He, too, foresaw one of the results of modern
+investigation, stating it in these words, which have the ring of
+prophetic inspiration:  "For in Abraham's time all the then known
+parts of the world were developed....Egypt had many magnificent
+cities,...and these not built with sticks, but of hewn
+stone,...which magnificence needed a parent of more antiquity
+than these other men have supposed."  In view of these
+considerations Raleigh followed the chronology of the Septuagint
+version, which enabled him to give to the human race a few more
+years than were usually allowed.
+
+About the middle of the seventeenth century Isaac Vossius, one of
+the most eminent scholars of Christendom, attempted to bring the
+prevailing belief into closer accordance with ascertained facts,
+but, save by a chosen few, his efforts were rejected.  In some
+parts of Europe a man holding new views on chronology was by no
+means safe from bodily harm.  As an example of the extreme
+pressure exerted by the old theological system at times upon
+honest scholars, we may take the case of La Peyrere, who about
+the middle of the seventeenth century put forth his book on the
+Pre-Adamites--an attempt to reconcile sundry well-known
+difficulties in Scripture by claiming that man existed on earth
+before the time of Adam.  He was taken in hand at once; great
+theologians rushed forward to attack him from all parts of
+Europe; within fifty years thirty-six different refutations of
+his arguments had appeared; the Parliament of Paris burned the
+book, and the Grand Vicar of the archdiocese of Mechlin threw him
+into prison and kept him there until he was forced, not only to
+retract his statements, but to abjure his Protestantism.
+
+In England, opposition to the growing truth was hardly less
+earnest.  Especially strong was Pearson, afterward Master of
+Trinity and Bishop of Chester.  In his treatise on the Creed,
+published in 1659, which has remained a theologic classic, he
+condemned those who held the earth to be more than fifty-six
+hundred years old, insisted that the first man was created just
+six days later, declared that the Egyptian records were forged,
+and called all Christians to turn from them to "the infallible
+annals of the Spirit of God."
+
+But, in spite of warnings like these, we see the new idea
+cropping out in various parts of Europe.  In 1672, Sir John
+Marsham published a work in which he showed himself bold and
+honest.  After describing the heathen sources of Oriental
+history, he turns to the Christian writers, and, having used the
+history of Egypt to show that the great Church authorities were
+not exact, he ends one important argument with the following
+words: "Thus the most interesting antiquities of Egypt have been
+involved in the deepest obscurity by the very interpreters of her
+chronology, who have jumbled everything up (qui omnia susque
+deque permiscuerunt), so as to make them match with their own
+reckonings of Hebrew chronology.  Truly a very bad example, and
+quite unworthy of religious writers."
+
+This sturdy protest of Sir John against the dominant system and
+against the "jumbling" by which Eusebius had endeavoured to cut
+down ancient chronology within safe and sound orthodox limits,
+had little effect.  Though eminent chronologists of the
+eighteenth century, like Jackson, Hales, and Drummond, gave forth
+multitudes of ponderous volumes pleading for a period somewhat
+longer than that generally allowed, and insisting that the
+received Hebrew text was grossly vitiated as regards chronology,
+even this poor favour was refused them; the mass of believers
+found it more comfortable to hold fast the faith committed to
+them by Usher, and it remained settled that man was created about
+four thousand years before our era.
+
+To those who wished even greater precision, Dr. John Lightfoot,
+Vice-Chancellor of the University of Cambridge, the great
+rabbinical scholar of his time, gave his famous demonstration
+from our sacred books that "heaven and earth, centre and
+circumference, were created together, in the same instant, and
+clouds full of water," and that "this work took place and man was
+created by the Trinity on the twenty-third of October, 4004 B.C.,
+at nine o'clock in the morning."
+
+This tide of theological reasoning rolled on through the
+eighteenth century, swollen by the biblical researches of leading
+commentators, Catholic and Protestant, until it came in much
+majesty and force into our own nineteenth century.  At the very
+beginning of the century it gained new strength from various
+great men in the Church, among whom may be especially named Dr.
+Adam Clarke, who declared that, "to preclude the possibility of a
+mistake, the unerring Spirit of God directed Moses in the
+selection of his facts and the ascertaining of his dates."
+
+All opposition to the received view seemed broken down, and as
+late as 1835--indeed, as late as 1850--came an announcement in
+the work of one of the most eminent Egyptologists, Sir J.  G.
+Wilkinson, to the effect that he had modified the results he had
+obtained from Egyptian monuments, in order that his chronology
+might not interfere with the received date of the Deluge of
+Noah.[183]
+
+[183] For Lightfoot, see his Prolegomena relating to the age of
+the world at the birth of Christ; see also in the edition of his
+works, London, 1822, vol. 4, pp. 64, 112.  For Scaliger, see in
+the De Emendatione Temporum, 1583; also Mark Pattison, Essays,
+Oxford, 1889, vol. i, pp. 162 et seq.  For Raleigh's misgivings,
+see his History of the World, London, 1614, p. 227, book ii of
+part i, section 7 of chapter i; also Clinton's Fasti Hellenici,
+vol. ii, p. 293.  For Usher, see his Annales Vet. et Nov. Test.,
+London, 1650.  For Pearson, see his Exposition of the Creed,
+sixth edition, London, 1692, pp. 59 et seq.  For Marsham, see his
+Chronicus Canon Aegypticus, Ebraicus, Graecus, et Disquisitiones,
+London, 1672.  For La Peyrere, see especially Quatrefarges, in
+Revue de Deux Mondes for 1861; also other chapters in this work.
+For Jackson, Hales, and others, see Wallace's True Age of the
+World.  For Wilkinson, see various editions of his work on Egypt.
+For Vignolles, see Leblois, vol. iii, p. 617.  As to the
+declaration in favor of the recent origin of man, sanctioned by
+Popes Gregory XIII and Urban VIII, see Strachius, cited in
+Wallace, p. 97.  For the general agreement of Church authorities,
+as stated, see L'Art de Verifier les Dates, as above.  As to
+difficulties of scriptural chronology, see Ewald, History of
+Israel, English translation, London, 1883, pp. 204 et seq.
+
+
+
+
+II.  THE NEW CHRONOLOGY.
+
+
+But all investigators were not so docile as Wilkinson, and there
+soon came a new train of scientific thought which rapidly
+undermined all this theological chronology.  Not to speak of
+other noted men, we have early in the present century Young,
+Champollion, and Rosellini, beginning a new epoch in the study of
+the Egyptian monuments.  Nothing could be more cautious than
+their procedure, but the evidence was soon overwhelming in favour
+of a vastly longer existence of man in the Nile Valley than could
+be made to agree with even the longest duration then allowed by
+theologians.  For, in spite of all the suppleness of men like
+Wilkinson, it became evident that, whatever system of scriptural
+chronology was adopted, Egypt was the seat of a flourishing
+civilization at a period before the "Flood of Noah," and that no
+such flood had ever interrupted it.  This was bad, but worse
+remained behind:  it was soon clear that the civilization of
+Egypt began earlier than the time assigned for the creation of
+man, even according to the most liberal of the sacred
+chronologists.
+
+As time went on, this became more and more evident.  The long
+duration assigned to human civilization in the fragments of
+Manetho, the Egyptian scribe at Thebes in the third century B.C.,
+was discovered to be more accordant with truth than the
+chronologies of the great theologians; and, as the present
+century has gone on, scientific results have been reached
+absolutely fatal to the chronological view based by the universal
+Church upon Scripture for nearly two thousand years.
+
+As is well known, the first of the Egyptian kings of whom mention
+is made upon the monuments of the Nile Valley is Mena, or Menes.
+Manetho had given a statement, according to which Mena must have
+lived nearly six thousand years before the Christian era.  This
+was looked upon for a long time as utterly inadmissible, as it
+was so clearly at variance with the chronology of our own sacred
+books; but, as time went on, large fragments of the original
+work of Manetho were more carefully studied and distinguished
+from corrupt transcriptions, the lists of kings at Karnak,
+Sacquarah, and the two temples at Abydos were brought to light,
+and the lists of court architects were discovered.  Among all
+these monuments the scholar who visits Egypt is most impressed by
+the sculptured tablets giving the lists of kings.  Each shows the
+monarch of the period doing homage to the long line of his
+ancestors.  Each of these sculptured monarchs has near him a
+tablet bearing his name.  That great care was always taken to
+keep these imposing records correct is certain; the loyalty of
+subjects, the devotion of priests, and the family pride of kings
+were all combined in this; and how effective this care was, is
+seen in the fact that kings now known to be usurpers are
+carefully omitted.  The lists of court architects, extending over
+the period from Seti to Darius, throw a flood of light over the
+other records.
+
+Comparing, then, all these sources, and applying an average from
+the lengths of the long series of well-known reigns to the reigns
+preceding, the most careful and cautious scholars have satisfied
+themselves that the original fragments of Manetho represent the
+work of a man honest and well informed, and, after making all
+allowances for discrepancies and the overlapping of reigns, it
+has become clear that the period known as the reign of Mena must
+be fixed at more than three thousand years B.C.  In this the
+great Egyptologists of our time concur.  Mariette, the eminent
+French authority, puts the date at 5004 B.C.; Brugsch, the
+leading German authority, puts it at about 4500 B.C.; and
+Meyer, the latest and most cautious of the historians of
+antiquity, declares 3180 B.C. the latest possible date that can
+be assigned it.  With these dates the foremost English
+authorities, Sayce and Flinders Petrie, substantially agree.
+This view is also confirmed on astronomical grounds by Mr.
+Lockyer, the Astronomer Royal.  We have it, then, as the result
+of a century of work by the most acute and trained Egyptologists,
+and with the inscriptions upon the temples and papyri before
+them, both of which are now read with as much facility as many
+medieval manuscripts, that the reign of Mena must be placed more
+than five thousand years ago.
+
+But the significance of this conclusion can not be fully
+understood until we bring into connection with it some other
+facts revealed by the Egyptian monuments.
+
+The first of these is that which struck Sir Walter Raleigh, that,
+even in the time of the first dynasties in the Nile Valley, a
+high civilization had already been developed.  Take, first, man
+himself:  we find sculptured upon the early monuments types of
+the various races--Egyptians, Israelites, negroes, and
+Libyans--as clearly distinguishable in these paintings and
+sculptures of from four to six thousand years ago as the same
+types are at the present day.  No one can look at these
+sculptures upon the Egyptian monuments, or even the drawings of
+them, as given by Lepsius or Prisse d' Avennes, without being
+convinced that they indicate, even at that remote period, a
+difference of races so marked that long previous ages must have
+been required to produce it.
+
+The social condition of Egypt revealed in these early monuments
+of art forces us to the same conclusion.  Those earliest
+monuments show that a very complex society had even then been
+developed.  We not only have a separation between the priestly
+and military orders, but agriculturists, manufacturers, and
+traders, with a whole series of subdivisions in each of these
+classes.  The early tombs show us sculptured and painted
+representations of a daily life which even then had been
+developed into a vast wealth and variety of grades, forms, and
+usages.
+
+Take, next, the political and military condition.  One fact out
+of many reveals a policy which must have been the result of long
+experience.  Just as now, at the end of the nineteenth century,
+the British Government, having found that they can not rely upon
+the native Egyptians for the protection of the country, are
+drilling the negroes from the interior of Africa as soldiers, so
+the celebrated inscription of Prince Una, as far back as the
+sixth dynasty, speaks of the Maksi or negroes levied and drilled
+by tens of thousands for the Egyptian army.
+
+Take, next, engineering.  Here we find very early operations in
+the way of canals, dikes, and great public edifices, so bold in
+conception and thorough in execution as to fill our greatest
+engineers of these days with astonishment.  The quarrying,
+conveyance, cutting, jointing, and polishing of the enormous
+blocks in the interior of the Great Pyramid alone are the marvel
+of the foremost stone-workers of our century.
+
+As regards architecture, we find not only the pyramids, which
+date from the very earliest period of Egyptian history, and which
+are to this hour the wonder of the world for size, for boldness,
+for exactness, and for skilful contrivance, but also the temples,
+with long ranges of colossal columns wrought in polished granite,
+with wonderful beauty of ornamentation, with architraves and
+roofs vast in size and exquisite in adjustment, which by their
+proportions tax the imagination, and lead the beholder to ask
+whether all this can be real.
+
+As to sculpture, we have not only the great Sphinx of Gizeh, so
+marvellous in its boldness and dignity, dating from the very
+first period of Egyptian history, but we have ranges of sphinxes,
+heroic statues, and bas-reliefs, showing that even in the early
+ages this branch of art had reached an amazing development.
+
+As regards the perfection of these, Lubke, the most eminent
+German authority on plastic art, referring to the early works in
+the tombs about Memphis, declares that, "as monuments of the
+period of the fourth dynasty, they are an evidence of the high
+perfection to which the sculpture of the Egyptians had attained."
+Brugsch declares that "every artistic production of those early
+days, whether picture, writing, or sculpture, bears the stamp of
+the highest perfection in art."  Maspero, the most eminent French
+authority in this field, while expressing his belief that the
+Sphinx was sculptured even before the time of Mena, declares that
+"the art which conceived and carved this prodigious statue was a
+finished art--an art which had attained self-mastery and was sure
+of its effects"; while, among the more eminent English
+authorities, Sayce tells us that "art is at its best in the age
+of the pyramid-builders," and Sir James Fergusson declares, "We
+are startled to find Egyptian art nearly as perfect in the oldest
+periods as in any of the later."
+
+The evidence as to the high development of Egyptian sculpture in
+the earlier dynasties becomes every day more overwhelming.  What
+exquisite genius the early Egyptian sculptors showed in their
+lesser statues is known to all who have seen those most precious
+specimens in the museum at Cairo, which were wrought before the
+conventional type was adopted in obedience to religious
+considerations.
+
+In decorative and especially in ceramic art, as early as the
+fourth and fifth dynasties, we have vases, cups, and other
+vessels showing exquisite beauty of outline and a general sense
+of form almost if not quite equal to Etruscan and Grecian work of
+the best periods.
+
+Take, next, astronomy.  Going back to the very earliest period of
+Egyptian civilization, we find that the four sides of the Great
+Pyramid are adjusted to the cardinal points with the utmost
+precision.  "The day of the equinox can be taken by observing the
+sun set across the face of the pyramid, and the neighbouring
+Arabs adjust their astronomical dates by its shadow."  Yet this
+is but one out of many facts which prove that the Egyptians, at
+the earliest period of which their monuments exist, had arrived
+at knowledge and skill only acquired by long ages of observation
+and thought.  Mr. Lockyer, Astronomer Royal of Great Britain, has
+recently convinced himself, after careful examination of various
+ruined temples at Thebes and elsewhere, that they were placed
+with reference to observations of stars.  To state his conclusion
+in his own words:  "There seems a very high probability that
+three thousand, and possibly four thousand, years before Christ
+the Egyptians had among them men with some knowledge of
+astronomy, and that six thousand years ago the course of the sun
+through the year was practically very well known, and methods had
+been invented by means of which in time it might be better known;
+and that, not very long after that, they not only considered
+questions relating to the sun, but began to take up other
+questions relating to the position and movement of the stars."
+
+The same view of the antiquity of man in the Nile valley is
+confirmed by philologists.  To use the words of Max Duncker:
+"The oldest monuments of Egypt--and they are the oldest monuments
+in the world--exhibit the Egyptian in possession of the art of
+writing."  It is found also, by the inscriptions of the early
+dynasties, that the Egyptian language had even at that early time
+been developed in all essential particulars to the highest point
+it ever attained.  What long periods it must have required for
+such a development every scholar in philology can imagine.
+
+As regards medical science, we have the Berlin papyrus, which,
+although of a later period, refers with careful specification to
+a medical literature of the first dynasty.
+
+As regards archaeology, the earliest known inscriptions point to
+still earlier events and buildings, indicating a long sequence in
+previous history.
+
+As to all that pertains to the history of civilization, no man of
+fair and open mind can go into the museums of Cairo or the Louvre
+or the British Museum and look at the monuments of those earlier
+dynasties without seeing in them the results of a development in
+art, science, laws, customs, and language, which must have
+required a vast period before the time of Mena.  And this
+conclusion is forced upon us all the more invincibly when we
+consider the slow growth of ideas in the earlier stages of
+civilization as compared with the later--a slowness of growth
+which has kept the natives of many parts of the world in that
+earliest civilization to this hour.  To this we must add the fact
+that Egyptian civilization was especially immobile:  its
+development into castes is but one among many evidences that it
+was the very opposite of a civilization developed rapidly.
+
+As to the length of the period before the time of Mena, there is,
+of course, nothing exact.  Manetho gives lists of great
+personages before that first dynasty, and these extend over
+twenty-four thousand years.  Bunsen, one of the most learned of
+Christian scholars, declares that not less than ten thousand
+years were necessary for the development of civilization up to
+the point where we find it in Mena's time.  No one can claim
+precision for either of these statements, but they are valuable
+as showing the impression of vast antiquity made upon the most
+competent judges by the careful study of those remains:  no
+unbiased judge can doubt that an immensely long period of years
+must have been required for the development of civilization up to
+the state in which we there find it.
+
+The investigations in the bed of the Nile confirm these views.
+That some unwarranted conclusions have at times been announced is
+true; but the fact remains that again and again rude pottery and
+other evidences of early stages of civilization have been found
+in borings at places so distant from each other, and at depths so
+great, that for such a range of concurring facts, considered in
+connection with the rate of earthy deposit by the Nile, there is
+no adequate explanation save the existence of man in that valley
+thousands on thousands of years before the longest time admitted
+by our sacred chronologists.
+
+Nor have these investigations been of a careless character.
+Between the years 1851 and 1854, Mr. Horner, an extremely
+cautious English geologist, sank ninety-six shafts in four rows
+at intervals of eight English miles, at right angles to the Nile,
+in the neighbourhood of Memphis.  In these pottery was brought up
+from various depths, and beneath the statue of Rameses II at
+Memphis from a depth of thirty-nine feet.  At the rate of the
+Nile deposit a careful estimate has declared this to indicate a
+period of over eleven thousand years.  So eminent a German
+authority, in geography as Peschel characterizes objections to
+such deductions as groundless.  However this may be, the general
+results of these investigations, taken in connection with the
+other results of research, are convincing.
+
+And, finally, as if to make assurance doubly sure, a series of
+archaeologists of the highest standing, French, German, English,
+and American, have within the past twenty years discovered relics
+of a savage period, of vastly earlier date than the time of Mena,
+prevailing throughout Egypt.  These relics have been discovered
+in various parts of the country, from Cairo to Luxor, in great
+numbers.  They are the same sort of prehistoric implements which
+prove to us the early existence of man in so many other parts of
+the world at a geological period so remote that the figures given
+by our sacred chronologists are but trivial.  The last and most
+convincing of these discoveries, that of flint implements in the
+drift, far down below the tombs of early kings at Thebes, and
+upon high terraces far above the present bed of the Nile, will be
+referred to later.
+
+But it is not in Egypt alone that proofs are found of the utter
+inadequacy of the entire chronological system derived from our
+sacred books.  These results of research in Egypt are strikingly
+confirmed by research in Assyria and Babylonia.  Prof. Sayce
+exhibits various proofs of this.  To use his own words regarding
+one of these proofs:  "On the shelves of the British Museum you
+may see huge sun-dried bricks, on which are stamped the names and
+titles of kings who erected or repaired the temples where they
+have been found....They must...have reigned before the time
+when, according to the margins of our Bibles, the Flood of Noah
+was covering the earth and reducing such bricks as these to their
+primeval slime."
+
+This conclusion was soon placed beyond a doubt.  The lists of
+king's and collateral inscriptions recovered from the temples of
+the great valley between the Tigris and Euphrates, and the
+records of astronomical observations in that region, showed that
+there, too, a powerful civilization had grown up at a period far
+earlier than could be made consistent with our sacred chronology.
+The science of Assyriology was thus combined with Egyptology to
+furnish one more convincing proof that, precious as are the moral
+and religious truths in our sacred books and the historical
+indications which they give us, these truths and indications are
+necessarily inclosed in a setting of myth and legend.[184]
+
+[184] As to Manetho, see, for a very full account of his
+relations to other chronologists, Palmer, Egyptian Chronicles,
+vol. i, chap. ii.  For a more recent and readable account, see
+Brugsch, Egypt under the Pharaohs, English edition, London, 1879,
+chap. iv.  For lists of kings at Abydos and elsewhere, also the
+lists of architects, see Brugsch, Palmer, Mariette, and others;
+also illustrations in Lepsius.  For proofs that the dynasties
+given were consecutive and not contemporeaneous, as was once so
+fondly argued by those who tried to save Archbishop Usher's
+chronology, see Mariette; also Sayce's Herodotus, appendix, p.
+316.  For the various race types given on early monuments, see
+the coloured engravings in Lepsius, Denkmaler; also Prisse
+d'Avennes, and the frontpiece in the English edition of Brugsch;
+see also statement regarding the same subject in Tylor,
+Anthropology, chap. i.  For the fulness of development of
+Egyptian civilization in the earliest dynasties, see Rawlinson's
+Egypt, London, 1881, chap. xiii; also Brugsch and other works
+cited.  For the perfection of Egyptian engineering, I rely not
+merely upon my own observation, but on what is far more
+important, the testimony of my friend the Hon. J. G. Batterson,
+probably the largest and most experienced worker in granite in
+the United States, who acknowledges, from personal observation,
+that the early Egyptian work is, in boldness and perfection, far
+beyond anything known since, and a source of perpetual wonder to
+him.  As to the perfection of Egyptian architecture, see very
+striking statements in Fergusson, History of Architecture, book
+i, chap. i.  As to the pyramids, showing a very high grade of
+culture already reached under the earliest dynasties, see Lubke,
+Gesch. der Arch., book i.  For Sayce's views, see his Herodotus,
+appendix, p. 348.  As to sculpture, see for representations
+photographs published by the Boulak Museum, and such works as the
+Description de l'Egypte, Lepsius's Denkmaler, and Prisse
+d'Avennes; see also a most small work, easy of access, Maspero,
+Archeology, translated by Miss A. B. Edwards, New York and
+London, 1887, chaps. i and ii.  See especially in Prisse, vol.
+ii, the statue of Chafre the Scribe, and the group of "Tea" and
+his wife.  As to the artistic value of the Sphinx, see Maspero,
+as above, pp. 202, 203.  See also similar ideas in Lubke's
+History of Sculpture, vol. i, p. 24.   As to astronomical
+knowledge evidenced by the Great Pyramid, see Tylor, as above, p.
+21; also Lockyer, On Some Points in the Early History of
+Astronomy, in Nature for 1891, and especially in the issues of
+June 4th and July 2d; also his Dawn of Astronomy, passim.  For a
+recent and conservative statement as to the date of Mena, see
+Flinders Petrie, History of Egypt, London, 1894, chap. ii.  For
+delineations of vases, etc., showing Grecian proportion and
+beauty of form under  the fourth and fifth dynasties, see Prisse,
+vol. ii, Art Industriel.  As to the philological question,
+and the development of language in Egypt, with the hieroglyphic
+sytem of writing, see Rawlinson's Egypt, London, 1881, chap. xii;
+also Lenormanr; also Max Duncker, Geschichte des Alterthums,
+Abbott's translation, 1877.  As to the medical papyrus of Berlin,
+see Brugsch, vol. i, p. 58, but especially the Papyrus Ebers.  As
+to the corruption of later copies of Manetho and fidelity of
+originals as attested by the monuments, see Brugsch, chap. iv.
+On the accuracy of the present Egyptian chronology as regards
+long periods, see ibid, vol. i, p. 32.  As to the pottery found
+deep in the Nile and the value of Horner's discovery, see
+Peschel, Races of Man, New York, 1876, pp. 42-44.  For succinct
+statement, see also Laing, Problems of the Future, p. 94.  For
+confirmatory proofs from Assyriology, see Sayce, Lectures on the
+Religion of the Babylonians (Hibbert Lectures for 1887), London,
+1887, introductory chapter, and especially pp. 21-25.  See also
+Laing, Human Origins, chap. ii, for an excellent summary.  For an
+account of flint implements recently found in gravel terraces
+fifteen hundred feet above the present level of the Nile, and
+showing evidences of an age vastly greater even than those dug
+out of the gravel at Thebes, see article by Flinders Petrie in
+London Times of April 18th, 1895.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN AND PREHISTORIC ARCHAEOLOGY
+
+I.  THE THUNDER-STONES.
+
+
+While the view of chronology based upon the literal acceptance of
+Scripture texts was thus shaken by researches in Egypt, another
+line of observation and thought was slowly developed, even more
+fatal to the theological view.
+
+From a very early period there had been dug from the earth, in
+various parts of the world, strangely shaped masses of stone,
+some rudely chipped, some polished:  in ancient times the larger
+of these were very often considered as thunderbolts, the smaller
+as arrows, and all of them as weapons which had been hurled by
+the gods and other supernatural personages.  Hence a sort of
+sacredness attached to them.  In Chaldea, they were built into
+the wall of temples; in Egypt, they were strung about the necks
+of the dead.  In India, fine specimens are to this day seen upon
+altars, receiving prayers and sacrifices.
+
+Naturally these beliefs were brought into the Christian mythology
+and adapted to it.  During the Middle Ages many of these
+well-wrought stones were venerated as weapons, which during the
+"war in heaven" had been used in driving forth Satan and his
+hosts; hence in the eleventh century an Emperor of the East sent
+to the Emperor of the West a "heaven axe"; and in the twelfth
+century a Bishop of Rennes asserted the value of thunder-stones
+as a divinely- appointed means of securing success in battle,
+safety on the sea, security against thunder, and immunity from
+unpleasant dreams.  Even as late as the seventeenth century a
+French ambassador brought a stone hatchet, which still exists in
+the museum at Nancy, as a present to the Prince-Bishop of Verdun,
+and claimed for it health-giving virtues.
+
+In the last years of the sixteenth century Michael Mercati tried
+to prove that the "thunder-stones" were weapons or implements of
+early races of men; but from some cause his book was not
+published until the following century, when other thinkers had
+begun to take up the same idea, and then it had to contend with a
+theory far more accordant with theologic modes of reasoning in
+science.  This was the theory of the learned Tollius, who in 1649
+told the world that these chipped or smoothed stones were
+"generated in the sky by a fulgurous exhalation conglobed in a
+cloud by the circumposed humour."
+
+But about the beginning of the eighteenth century a fact of great
+importance was quietly established.  In the year 1715 a large
+pointed weapon of black flint was found in contact with the bones
+of an elephant, in a gravel bed near Gray's Inn Lane, in London.
+The world in general paid no heed to this:  if the attention of
+theologians was called to it, they dismissed it summarily with a
+reference to the Deluge of Noah; but the specimen was labelled,
+the circumstances regarding it were recorded, and both specimen
+and record carefully preserved.
+
+In 1723 Jussieu addressed the French Academy on The Origin and
+Uses of Thunder-stones.  He showed that recent travellers from
+various parts of the world had brought a number of weapons and
+other implements of stone to France, and that they were
+essentially similar to what in Europe had been known as
+"thunder-stones."  A year later this fact was clinched into the
+scientific mind of France by the Jesuit Lafitau, who published a
+work showing the similarity between the customs of aborigines
+then existing in other lands and those of the early inhabitants
+of Europe.  So began, in these works of Jussieu and Lafitau, the
+science of Comparative Ethnography.
+
+But it was at their own risk and peril that thinkers drew from
+these discoveries any conclusions as to the antiquity of man.
+Montesquieu, having ventured to hint, in an early edition of his
+Persian Letters, that the world might be much older than had
+been generally supposed, was soon made to feel danger both to his
+book and to himself, so that in succeeding editions he suppressed
+the passage.
+
+In 1730 Mahudel presented a paper to the French Academy of
+Inscriptions on the so-called "thunder-stones," and also
+presented a series of plates which showed that these were stone
+implements, which must have been used at an early period in human
+history.
+
+In 1778 Buffon, in his Epoques de la Nature, intimated his
+belief that "thunder-stones" were made by early races of men;
+but he did not press this view, and the reason for his reserve
+was obvious enough:  he had already one quarrel with the
+theologians on his hands, which had cost him dear--public
+retraction and humiliation.  His declaration, therefore,
+attracted little notice.
+
+In the year 1800 another fact came into the minds of thinking men
+in England.  In that year John Frere presented to the London
+Society of Antiquaries sundry flint implements found in the clay
+beds near Hoxne:  that they were of human make was certain, and,
+in view of the undisturbed depths in which they were found, the
+theory was suggested that the men who made them must have lived
+at a very ancient geological epoch; yet even this discovery and
+theory passed like a troublesome dream, and soon seemed to be
+forgotten.
+
+About twenty years later Dr. Buckland published a discussion of
+the subject, in the light of various discoveries in the drift and
+in caves.  It received wide attention, but theology was soothed
+by his temporary concession that these striking relics of human
+handiwork, associated with the remains of various extinct
+animals, were proofs of the Deluge of Noah.
+
+In 1823 Boue, of the Vienna Academy of Sciences, showed to Cuvier
+sundry human bones found deep in the alluvial deposits of the
+upper Rhine, and suggested that they were of an early geological
+period; this Cuvier virtually, if not explicitly, denied.  Great
+as he was in his own field, he was not a great geologist; he, in
+fact, led geology astray for many years.  Moreover, he lived in a
+time of reaction; it was the period of the restored Bourbons, of
+the Voltairean King Louis XVIII, governing to please orthodoxy.
+Boue's discovery was, therefore, at first opposed, then enveloped
+in studied silence.
+
+Cuvier evidently thought, as Voltaire had felt under similar
+circumstances, that "among wolves one must howl a little"; and
+his leading disciple, Elie de Beaumont, who succeeded, him in the
+sway over geological science in France, was even more opposed to
+the new view than his great master had been.  Boue's discoveries
+were, therefore, apparently laid to rest forever.[185]
+
+[185] For the general history of early views regarding stone
+implements, see the first chapters in Cartailhac, La France
+Prehistorique; also Jolie, L'Homme avant les Metaux; also Lyell,
+Lubbock, and Evans.  For lightning-stones in China and elsewhere,
+see citation from a Chinese encyclopedia of 1662, in Tylor, Early
+History of Mankind, p. 209.  On the universality of this belief,
+on the surviving use of stone implements even into civilized
+times, and on their manufacture to-day, see ibid., chapter viii.
+For the treatment of Boue's discovery, see especially Morillet,
+Le Prehistorique, Paris, 1885, p. 11.  For the suppression of the
+passage in Montesquieu's Persian Letters, see Letter 113, cited
+in Schlosser's History of the Eighteenth Century (English
+translation), vol. i, p. 135.
+
+
+In 1825 Kent's Cavern, near Torquay, was explored by the Rev.
+Mr. McEnery, a Roman Catholic clergyman, who seems to have been
+completely overawed by orthodox opinion in England and elsewhere;
+for, though he found human bones and implements mingled with
+remains of extinct animals, he kept his notes in manuscript, and
+they were only brought to light more than thirty years later by
+Mr. Vivian.
+
+The coming of Charles X, the last of the French Bourbons, to the
+throne, made the orthodox pressure even greater.  It was the
+culmination of the reactionary period--the time in France when a
+clerical committee, sitting at the Tuileries, took such measures
+as were necessary to hold in check all science that was not
+perfectly "safe"; the time in Austria when Kaiser Franz made his
+famous declaration to sundry professors, that what he wanted of
+them was simply to train obedient subjects, and that those who
+did not make this their purpose would be dismissed; the time in
+Germany when Nicholas of Russia and the princelings and ministers
+under his control, from the King of Prussia downward, put forth
+all their might in behalf of "scriptural science"; the time in
+Italy when a scientific investigator, arriving at any conclusion
+distrusted by the Church, was sure of losing his place and in
+danger of losing his liberty; the time in England when what
+little science was taught was held in due submission to
+Archdeacon Paley; the time in the United States when the first
+thing essential in science was, that it be adjusted to the ideas
+of revival exhorters.
+
+Yet men devoted to scientific truth laboured on; and in 1828
+Tournal, of Narbonne, discovered in the cavern of Bize specimens
+of human industry, with a fragment of a human skeleton, among
+bones of extinct animals.  In the following year Christol
+published accounts of his excavations in the caverns of Gard; he
+had found in position, and under conditions which forbade the
+idea of after-disturbance, human remains mixed with bones of the
+extinct hyena of the early Quaternary period.  Little general
+notice was taken of this, for the reactionary orthodox atmosphere
+involved such discoveries in darkness.
+
+But in the French Revolution of 1830 the old politico-theological
+system collapsed:  Charles X and his advisers fled for their
+lives; the other continental monarchs got glimpses of new light;
+the priesthood in charge of education were put on their good
+behaviour for a time, and a better era began.
+
+Under the constitutional monarchy of the house of Orleans in
+France and Belgium less attention was therefore paid by
+Government to the saving of souls; and we have in rapid
+succession new discoveries of remains of human industry, and even
+of human skeletons so mingled with bones of extinct animals as to
+give additional proofs that the origin of man was at a period
+vastly earlier than any which theologians had dreamed of.
+
+A few years later the reactionary clerical influence against
+science in this field rallied again.  Schmerling in 1833 had
+explored a multitude of caverns in Belgium, especially at Engis
+and Engihoul, and had found human skulls and bones closely
+associated with bones of extinct animals, such as the cave bear,
+hyena, elephant, and rhinoceros, while mingled with these were
+evidences of human workmanship in the shape of chipped flint
+implements; discoveries of a similar sort had been made by De
+Serres in France and by Lund in Brazil; but, at least as far as
+continental Europe was concerned, these discoveries were received
+with much coolness both by Catholic leaders of opinion in France
+and Belgium and by Protestant leaders in England and Holland.
+Schmerling himself appears to have been overawed, and gave forth
+a sort of apologetic theory, half scientific, half theologic,
+vainly hoping to satisfy the clerical side.
+
+Nor was it much better in England.  Sir Charles Lyell, so devoted
+a servant of prehistoric research thirty years later, was still
+holding out against it on the scientific side; and, as to the
+theological side, it was the period when that great churchman,
+Dean Cockburn, was insulting geologists from the pulpit of York
+Minster, and the Rev. Mellor Brown denouncing geology as "a
+black art," "a forbidden province" and when, in America, Prof.
+Moses Stuart and others like him were belittling the work of
+Benjamin Silliman and Edward Hitchcock.
+
+In 1840 Godwin Austin presented to the Royal Geological Society
+an account of his discoveries in Kent's Cavern, near Torquay, and
+especially of human bones and implements mingled with bones of
+the elephant, rhinoceros, cave bear, hyena, and other extinct
+animals; yet this memoir, like that of McEnery fifteen years
+before, found an atmosphere so unfavourable that it was not
+published.
+
+
+
+II.  THE FLINT WEAPONS AND IMPLEMENTS.
+
+
+At the middle of the nineteenth century came the beginning of a
+new epoch in science--an epoch when all these earlier discoveries
+were to be interpreted by means of investigations in a different
+field:  for, in 1847, a man previously unknown to the world at
+large, Boucher de Perthes, published at Paris the first volume of
+his work on Celtic and Antediluvian Antiquities, and in this he
+showed engravings of typical flint implements and weapons, of
+which he had discovered thousands upon thousands in the high
+drift beds near Abbeville, in northern France.
+
+The significance of this discovery was great indeed--far greater
+than Boucher himself at first supposed.  The very title of his
+book showed that he at first regarded these implements and
+weapons as having belonged to men overwhelmed at the Deluge of
+Noah; but it was soon seen that they were something very
+different from proofs of the literal exactness of Genesis:  for
+they were found in terraces at great heights above the river
+Somme, and, under any possible theory having regard to fact, must
+have been deposited there at a time when the river system of
+northern France was vastly different from anything known within
+the historic period.  The whole discovery indicated a series of
+great geological changes since the time when these implements
+were made, requiring cycles of time compared to which the space
+allowed by the orthodox chronologists was as nothing.
+
+His work was the result of over ten years of research and
+thought.  Year after year a force of men under his direction had
+dug into these high-terraced gravel deposits of the river Somme,
+and in his book he now gave, in the first full form, the results
+of his labour.  So far as France was concerned, he was met at
+first by what he calls "a conspiracy of silence," and then by a
+contemptuous opposition among orthodox scientists, at the head of
+whom stood Elie de Beaumont.
+
+This heavy, sluggish opposition seemed immovable:  nothing that
+Boucher could do or say appeared to lighten the pressure of the
+orthodox theological opinion behind it; not even his belief that
+these fossils were remains of men drowned at the Deluge of Noah,
+and that they were proofs of the literal exactness of Genesis
+seemed to help the matter.  His opponents felt instinctively that
+such discoveries boded danger to the accepted view, and they were
+right:  Boucher himself soon saw the folly of trying to account
+for them by the orthodox theory.
+
+And it must be confessed that not a little force was added to the
+opposition by certain characteristics of Boucher de Perthes
+himself.  Gifted, far-sighted, and vigorous as he was, he was his
+own worst enemy.  Carried away by his own discoveries, he jumped
+to the most astounding conclusions.  The engravings in the later
+volume of his great work, showing what he thought to be human
+features and inscriptions upon some of the flint implements, are
+worthy of a comic almanac; and at the National Museum of
+Archaeology at St. Germain, beneath the shelves bearing the
+remains which he discovered, which mark the beginning of a new
+epoch in science, are drawers containing specimens hardly worthy
+of a penny museum, but from which he drew the most unwarranted
+inferences as to the language, religion, and usages of
+prehistoric man.
+
+Boucher triumphed none the less.  Among his bitter opponents at
+first was Dr. Rigollot, who in 1855, searching earnestly for
+materials to refute the innovator, dug into the deposits of St.
+Acheul--and was converted:  for he found implements similar to
+those of Abbeville, making still more certain the existence of
+man during the Drift period.  So, too, Gaudry a year later made
+similar discoveries.
+
+But most important was the evidence of the truth which now came
+from other parts of France and from other countries.  The French
+leaders in geological science had been held back not only by awe
+of Cuvier but by recollections of Scheuchzer.  Ridicule has
+always been a serious weapon in France, and the ridicule which
+finally overtook the supporters of the attempt of Scheuchzer,
+Mazurier, and others, to square geology with Genesis, was still
+remembered. From the great body of French geologists, therefore,
+Boucher secured at first no aid.  His support came from the other
+side of the Channel.  The most eminent English geologists, such
+as Falconer, Prestwich, and Lyell, visited the beds at Abbeville
+and St. Acheul, convinced themselves that the discoveries of
+Boucher, Rigollot, and their colleagues were real, and then
+quietly but firmly told England the truth.
+
+And now there appeared a most effective ally in France.  The
+arguments used against Boucher de Perthes and some of the other
+early investigators of bone caves had been that the implements
+found might have been washed about and turned over by great
+floods, and therefore that they might be of a recent period; but
+in 1861 Edward Lartet published an account of his own excavations
+at the Grotto of Aurignac, and the proof that man had existed in
+the time of the Quaternary animals was complete.  This grotto had
+been carefully sealed in prehistoric times by a stone at its
+entrance; no interference from disturbing currents of water had
+been possible; and Lartet found, in place, bones of eight out of
+nine of the main species of animals which characterize the
+Quaternary period in Europe; and upon them marks of cutting
+implements, and in the midst of them coals and ashes.
+
+Close upon these came the excavations at Eyzies by Lartet and his
+English colleague, Christy.  In both these men there was a
+carefulness in making researches and a sobriety in stating
+results which converted many of those who had been repelled by
+the enthusiasm of Boucher de Perthes.  The two colleagues found
+in the stony deposits made by the water dropping from the roof of
+the cave at Eyzies the bones of numerous animals extinct or
+departed to arctic regions--one of these a vertebra of a reindeer
+with a flint lance-head still fast in it, and with these were
+found evidences of fire.
+
+Discoveries like these were thoroughly convincing; yet there
+still remained here and there gainsayers in the supposed interest
+of Scripture, and these, in spite of the convincing array of
+facts, insisted that in some way, by some combination of
+circumstances, these bones of extinct animals of vastly remote
+periods might have been brought into connection with all these
+human bones and implements of human make in all these different
+places, refusing to admit that these ancient relics of men and
+animals were of the same period.  Such gainsayers virtually
+adopted the reasoning of quaint old Persons, who, having
+maintained that God created the world "about five thousand sixe
+hundred and odde yeares agoe," added, "And if they aske what God
+was doing before this short number of yeares, we answere with St.
+Augustine replying to such curious questioners, that He was
+framing Hell for them."  But a new class of discoveries came to
+silence this opposition.  At La Madeleine in France, at the
+Kessler cave in Switzerland, and at various other places, were
+found rude but striking carvings and engravings on bone and stone
+representing sundry specimens of those long-vanished species;
+and these specimens, or casts of them, were soon to be seen in
+all the principal museums.  They showed the hairy mammoth, the
+cave bear, and various other animals of the Quaternary period,
+carved rudely but vigorously by contemporary men; and, to
+complete the significance of these discoveries, travellers
+returning from the icy regions of North America brought similar
+carvings of animals now existing in those regions, made by the
+Eskimos during their long arctic winters to-day.[186]
+
+[186] For the explorations in Belgium, see Dupont, Le Temps
+Prehistorique en Belgique.  For the discoveries by McEnery and
+Godwin Austin, see Lubbock, Prehistoric Times, London, 1869,
+chap. x; also Cartailhac, Joly, and others above cited.  For
+Boucher de Perthes, see his Antiquites Celtiques et
+Antediluviennes, Paris, 1847-'64, vol. iii, pp. 526 et seq.  For
+sundry extravagances of Boucher de Perthes, see Reinach,
+Description raisonne du Musee de St.-Germain-en-Laye, Paris,
+1889, vol. i, pp. 16 et seq.  For the mixture of sound and absurd
+results in Boucher's work, see Cartailhac as above, p. 19.
+Boucher had published in 1838 a work entitled De la Creation, but
+it seems to have dropped dead from the press.  For the attempts
+of Scheuchzer to reconcile geology and Genesis by means of the
+Homo diluvii testis, and similar "diluvian fossils," see the
+chapter on Geology in this series. The original specimens of
+these prehistoric engravings upon bone and stone may best be seen
+at the Archaeological Museum of St.-Germain and the British
+Museum.  For engravings of some of the most recent, see
+especially Dawkin's Early Man in Britain, chap. vii, and the
+Description du Musee de St.-Germain.  As to the Kessler etchings
+and their antiquity, see D. G. Brinton, in Science, August 12,
+1892.  For comparison of this prehistoric work with that produced
+to-day by the Eskimos and others, see Lubbock, Prehistoric Times,
+chapters x and xiv.  For very striking exhibitions of this same
+artistic gift in a higher field to-day by descendants of the
+barbarian tribes of northern America, see the very remarkable
+illustrations in Rink, Danish Greenland, London, 1877, especially
+those in chap. xiv.
+
+
+As a result of these discoveries and others like them, showing
+that man was not only contemporary with long-extinct animals of
+past geological epochs, but that he had already developed into a
+stage of culture above pure savagery, the tide of thought began
+to turn.  Especially was this seen in 1863, when Lyell published
+the first edition of his Geological Evidence of the Antiquity of
+Man; and the fact that he had so long opposed the new ideas gave
+force to the clear and conclusive argument which led him to
+renounce his early scientific beliefs.
+
+Research among the evidences of man's existence in the early
+Quaternary, and possibly in the Tertiary period, was now pressed
+forward along the whole line.  In 1864 Gabriel Mortillet founded
+his review devoted to this subject; and in 1865 the first of a
+series of scientific congresses devoted to such researches was
+held in Italy.  These investigations went on vigorously in all
+parts of France and spread rapidly to other countries.  The
+explorations which Dupont began in 1864, in the caves of Belgium,
+gave to the museum at Brussels eighty thousand flint implements,
+forty thousand bones of animals of the Quaternary period, and a
+number of human skulls and bones found mingled with these
+remains.  From Germany, Italy, Spain, America, India, and Egypt
+similar results were reported.
+
+Especially noteworthy were the further explorations of the caves
+and drift throughout the British Islands.  The discovery by
+Colonel Wood, In 1861, of flint tools in the same strata with
+bones of the earlier forms of the rhinoceros, was but typical of
+many.  A thorough examination of the caverns of Brixham and
+Torquay, by Pengelly and others, made it still more evident that
+man had existed in the early Quaternary period.  The existence of
+a period before the Glacial epoch or between different glacial
+epochs in England, when the Englishman was a savage, using rude
+stone tools, was then fully ascertained, and, what was more
+significant, there were clearly shown a gradation and evolution
+even in the history of that period.  It was found that this
+ancient Stone epoch showed progress and development.  In the
+upper layers of the caves, with remains of the reindeer, who,
+although he has migrated from these regions, still exists in more
+northern climates, were found stone implements revealing some
+little advance in civilization; next below these, sealed up in
+the stalagmite, came, as a rule, another layer, in which the
+remains of reindeer were rare and those of the mammoth more
+frequent, the implements found in this stratum being less
+skilfully made than those in the upper and more recent layers;
+and, finally, in the lowest levels, near the floors of these
+ancient caverns, with remains of the cave bear and others of the
+most ancient extinct animals, were found stone implements
+evidently of a yet ruder and earlier stage of human progress.  No
+fairly unprejudiced man can visit the cave and museum at Torquay
+without being convinced that there were a gradation and an
+evolution in these beginnings of human civilization.  The
+evidence is complete; the masses of breccia taken from the cave,
+with the various soils, implements, and bones carefully kept in
+place, put this progress beyond a doubt.
+
+All this indicated a great antiquity for the human race, but in
+it lay the germs of still another great truth, even more
+important and more serious in its consequences to the older
+theologic view, which will be discussed in the following chapter.
+
+But new evidences came in, showing a yet greater antiquity of
+man.  Remains of animals were found in connection with human
+remains, which showed not only that man was living in times more
+remote than the earlier of the new investigators had dared dream,
+but that some of these early periods of his existence must have
+been of immense length, embracing climatic changes betokening
+different geological periods; for with remains of fire and human
+implements and human bones were found not only bones of the hairy
+mammoth and cave bear, woolly rhinoceros, and reindeer, which
+could only have been deposited there in a time of arctic cold,
+but bones of the hyena, hippopotamus, sabre-toothed tiger, and
+the like, which could only have been deposited when there was in
+these regions a torrid climate.  The conjunction of these remains
+clearly showed that man had lived in England early enough and
+long enough to pass through times when there was arctic cold and
+times when there was torrid heat; times when great glaciers
+stretched far down into England and indeed into the continent,
+and times when England had a land connection with the European
+continent, and the European continent with Africa, allowing
+tropical animals to migrate freely from Africa to the middle
+regions of England.
+
+The question of the origin of man at a period vastly earlier than
+the sacred chronologists permitted was thus absolutely settled,
+but among the questions regarding the existence of man at a
+period yet more remote, the Drift period, there was one which for
+a time seemed to give the champions of science some difficulty.
+The orthodox leaders in the time of Boucher de Perthes, and for a
+considerable time afterward, had a weapon of which they made
+vigorous use:  the statement that no human bones had yet been
+discovered in the drift.  The supporters of science naturally
+answered that few if any other bones as small as those of man had
+been found, and that this fact was an additional proof of the
+great length of the period since man had lived with the extinct
+animals; for, since specimens of human workmanship proved man's
+existence as fully as remains of his bones could do, the absence
+or even rarity of human and other small bones simply indicated
+the long periods of time required for dissolving them away.
+
+Yet Boucher, inspired by the genius he had already shown, and
+filled with the spirit of prophecy, declared that human bones
+would yet be found in the midst of the flint implements, and in
+1863 he claimed that this prophecy had been fulfilled by the
+discovery at Moulin Quignon of a portion of a human jaw deep in
+the early Quaternary deposits.  But his triumph was short-lived:
+the opposition ridiculed his discovery; they showed that he had
+offered a premium to his workmen for the discovery of human
+remains, and they naturally drew the inference that some tricky
+labourer had deceived him.  The result of this was that the men
+of science felt obliged to acknowledge that the Moulin Quignon
+discovery was not proven.
+
+But ere long human bones were found in the deposits of the early
+Quaternary period, or indeed of an earlier period, in various
+other parts of the world, and the question regarding the Moulin
+Quignon relic was of little importance.
+
+We have seen that researches regarding the existence of
+prehistoric man in England and on the Continent were at first
+mainly made in the caverns; but the existence of man in the
+earliest Quaternary period was confirmed on both sides of the
+English Channel, in a way even more striking, by the close
+examination of the drift and early gravel deposits.  The results
+arrived at by Boucher de Perthes were amply confirmed in England.
+Rude stone implements were found in terraces a hundred feet and
+more above the levels at which various rivers of Great Britain
+now flow, and under circumstances which show that, at the time
+when they were deposited, the rivers of Great Britain in many
+cases were entirely different from those of the present period,
+and formed parts of the river system of the European continent.
+Researches in the high terraces above the Thames and the Ouse, as
+well as at other points in Great Britain, placed beyond a doubt
+the fact that man existed on the British Islands at a time when
+they were connected by solid land with the Continent, and made it
+clear that, within the period of the existence of man in northern
+Europe, a large portion of the British Islands had been sunk to
+depths between fifteen hundred and twenty-five hundred feet
+beneath the Northern Ocean,--had risen again from the water,--had
+formed part of the continent of Europe, and had been in unbroken
+connection with Africa, so that elephants, bears, tigers, lions,
+the rhinoceros and hippopotamus, of species now mainly extinct,
+had left their bones in the same deposits with human implements
+as far north as Yorkshire.  Moreover, connected with this fact
+came in the new conviction, forced upon geologists by the more
+careful examination of the earth and its changes, that such
+elevations and depressions of Great Britain and other parts of
+the world were not necessarily the results of sudden cataclysms,
+but generally of slow processes extending through vast cycles of
+years--processes such as are now known to be going on in various
+parts of the world.  Thus it was that the six or seven thousand
+years allowed by the most liberal theologians of former times
+were seen more and more clearly to be but a mere nothing in the
+long succession of ages since the appearance of man.
+
+Confirmation of these results was received from various other
+parts of the world.  In Africa came the discovery of flint
+implements deep in the hard gravel of the Nile Valley at Luxor
+and on the high hills behind Esneh.  In America the discoveries
+at Trenton, N.J., and at various places in Delaware, Ohio,
+Minnesota, and elsewhere, along the southern edge of the drift of
+the Glacial epochs, clinched the new scientific truth yet more
+firmly; and the statement made by an eminent American authority
+is, that "man was on this continent when the climate and ice of
+Greenland extended to the mouth of New York harbour."  The
+discoveries of prehistoric remains on the Pacific coast, and
+especially in British Columbia, finished completely the last
+chance at a reasonable contention by the adherents of the older
+view.  As to these investigations on the Pacific slope of the
+United States, the discoveries of Whitney and others in
+California had been so made and announced that the judgment of
+scientific men regarding them was suspended until the visit of
+perhaps the greatest living authority in his department, Alfred
+Russel Wallace, in 1887.  He confirmed the view of Prof. Whitney
+and others with the statement that "both the actual remains and
+works of man found deep under the lava-flows of Pliocene age show
+that he existed in the New World at least as early as in the
+Old."  To this may be added the discoveries in British Columbia,
+which prove that, since man existed in these regions, "valleys
+have been filled up by drift from the waste of mountains to a
+depth in some cases of fifteen hundred feet; this covered by a
+succession of tuffs, ashes, and lava-streams from volcanoes long
+since extinct, and finally cut down by the present rivers through
+beds of solid basalt, and through this accumulation of lavas and
+gravels."  The immense antiquity of the human remains in the
+gravels of the Pacific coast is summed up by a most eminent
+English authority and declared to be proved, "first, by the
+present river systems being of subsequent date, sometimes cutting
+through them and their superincumbent lava-cap to a depth of two
+thousand feet; secondly, by the great denudation that has taken
+place since they were deposited, for they sometimes lie on the
+summits of mountains six thousand feet high; thirdly, by the
+fact that the Sierra Nevada has been partly elevated since their
+formation."[187]
+
+[187] For the general subject of investigations in British
+prehistoric remains, see especially Boyd Dawkins, Early Man in
+Britain and his Place in the Tertiary Period, London, 1880.  For
+Boucher de Perthes's account of his discovery of the human jaw at
+Moulin Quignon, see his Antiquites Celtiques et Antediluviennes,
+vol. iii, p. 542 et seq., Appendix.  For an excellent account of
+special investigations in the high terraces above the Thames, see
+J. Allen Brown, F. G. S., Palaeolithic Man in Northwest
+Middlesex, London, 1887.  For discoveries in America, and the
+citations regarding them, see Wright, the Ice Age in North
+America, New York, 1889, chap. xxi.  Very remarkable examples of
+these specimens from the drift at Trenton may be seen in Prof.
+Abbott's collections at the University of Pennsylvania.  For an
+admirable statement, see Prof. Henry W. Haynes, in Wright, as
+above.  For proofs of the vast antiquity of man upon the Pacific
+coast, cited in the text, see Skertchley, F. G. S., in the
+Journal of the Anthropological Institute for 1887, p. 336; see
+also Wallace, Darwinism, London, 1890, chap. xv; and for a
+striking summary of the evidence that man lived before the last
+submergence of Britain, see Brown, Palaeolithic Man in Northwest
+Middlesex, as above cited.  For proofs that man existed in a
+period when the streams were flowing hundreds of feet above their
+present level, see ibid., p. 33.  As to the evidence of the
+action of the sea and of glacial action in the Welsh bone caves
+after the remains of extinct animals and weapons of human
+workmanship had been deposited, see ibid., p. 198.  For a good
+statement of the slowness of the submergance and emergence of
+Great Britain, with an illustration from the rising of the shore
+of Finland, see ibid., pp. 47, 48.  As to the flint implements of
+Palaeolithic man in the high terraced gravels throughout the
+Thames Valley, associated with bones of the mammoth, woolly
+rhinoceros, etc., see Brown, p. 31.  For still more conclusive
+proofs that man inhabited North Wales before the last submergence
+of the greater part of the British Islands to a depth of twelve
+hundred to fourteen hundred feet, see ibid., pp. 199, 200.  For
+maps showing the connection of the British river system with that
+of the Continent, see Boyd Dawkins, Early Man in Britain, London,
+1880, pp. 18, 41, 73; also Lyell, Antiquity of Man, chap. xiv.
+As to the long continuance of the early Stone period, see James
+Geikie, The Great Ice Age, New York, 1888, p. 402.  As to the
+impossibility of the animals of the arctic and torrid regions
+living together or visiting the same place at different times in
+the same year, see Geikie, as above, pp. 421 et seq.; and for a
+conclusive argument that the animals of the period assigned lived
+in England not since, but before, the Glacial period, or in the
+intergalcial period, see ibid., p. 459.  For a very candid
+statement by perhaps the foremost leader of the theological rear-
+guard, admitting the insuperable difficulties presented by the
+Old Testament chronology as regards the Creation and the Deluge,
+see the Duke of Argyll's Primeval Man, pp. 90-100, and especially
+pp. 93, 124.  For a succinct statement on the general subject,
+see Laing, Problems of the Future, London, 1889, chapters v and
+vi.  For discoveries of prehistoric implements in India, see
+notes by Bruce Foote, F. G. S., in the British Journal of the
+Anthropological Institute for 1886 and 1887.  For similar
+discoveries in South Africa, see Gooch, in Journal of the
+Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, vol. xi,
+pp. 124 et seq.  For proofs of the existance of Palaeolithic man
+in Egypt, see Mook, Haynes, Pitt-Rivers, Flinders-Petrie, and
+others, cited at length in the next chapter.  For the
+corroborative and concurrent testimony of ethnology, philology,
+and history to the vast antiquity of man, see Tylor,
+Anthropology, chap. i.
+
+
+As an important supplement to these discoveries of ancient
+implements came sundry comparisons made by eminent physiologists
+between human skulls and bones found in different places and
+under circumstances showing vast antiquity.
+
+Human bones had been found under such circumstances as early as
+1835 at Cannstadt near Stuttgart, and in 1856 in the Neanderthal
+near Dusseldorf; but in more recent searches they had been
+discovered in a multitude of places, especially in Germany,
+France, Belgium, England, the Caucasus, Africa, and North and
+South America.  Comparison of these bones showed that even in
+that remote Quaternary period there were great differences of
+race, and here again came in an argument for the yet earlier
+existence of man on the earth; for long previous periods must
+have been required to develop such racial differences.
+Considerations of this kind gave a new impulse to the belief that
+man's existence might even date back into the Tertiary period.
+The evidence for this earlier origin of man was ably summed up,
+not only by its brilliant advocate, Mortillet, but by a former
+opponent, one of the most conservative of modern anthropologists,
+Quatrefages;  and the conclusion arrived at by both was, that man
+did really exist in the Tertiary period.  The acceptance of this
+conclusion was also seen in the more recent work of Alfred Russel
+Wallace, who, though very cautious and conservative, placed the
+origin of man not only in the Tertiary period, but in an earlier
+stage of it than most had dared assign--even in the Miocene.
+
+The first thing raising a strong presumption, if not giving
+proof, that man existed in the Tertiary, was the fact that from
+all explored parts of the world came in more and more evidence
+that in the earlier Quaternary man existed in different, strongly
+marked races and in great numbers.  From all regions which
+geologists had explored, even from those the most distant and
+different from each other, came this same evidence--from northern
+Europe to southern Africa; from France to China; from New
+Jersey to British Columbia; from British Columbia to Peru.  The
+development of man in such numbers and in so many different
+regions, with such differences of race and at so early a period,
+must have required a long previous time.
+
+This argument was strengthened by discoveries of bones bearing
+marks apparently made by cutting instruments, in the Tertiary
+formations of France and Italy, and by the discoveries of what
+were claimed to be flint implements by the Abbe Bourgeois in
+France, and of implements and human bones by Prof. Capellini in
+Italy.
+
+On the other hand, some of the more cautious men of science are
+still content to say that the existence of man in the Tertiary
+period is not yet proven.  As to his existence throughout the
+Quaternary epoch, no new proofs are needed; even so determined a
+supporter of the theological side as the Duke of Argyll has been
+forced to yield to the evidence.
+
+Of attempts to make an exact chronological statement throwing
+light on the length of the various prehistoric periods, the most
+notable have been those by M.  Morlot, on the accumulated strata
+of the Lake of Geneva; by Gillieron, on the silt of Lake
+Neufchatel; by Horner, in the delta deposits of Egypt; and by
+Riddle, in the delta of the Mississippi.  But while these have
+failed to give anything like an exact result, all these
+investigations together point to the central truth, so amply
+established, of the vast antiquity of man, and the utter
+inadequacy of the chronology given in our sacred books.  The
+period of man's past life upon our planet, which has been fixed
+by the universal Church, "always, everywhere, and by all," is
+thus perfectly proved to be insignificant compared with those
+vast geological epochs during which man is now known to have
+existed.[188]
+
+[188] As to the evidence of man in the Tertiary period, see works
+already cited, especially Quatrefages, Cartailhac, and Mortillet.
+For an admirable summary, see Laing, Human Origins, chap. viii.
+See also, for a summing up of the evidence in favour of man in
+the Tertiary period, Quatrefages, History Generale des Races
+Humaines, in the Bibliotheque Ethnologique, Paris, 1887, chap.
+iv.  As to the earlier view, see Vogt, Lectures on Man, London,
+1864, lecture xi.  For a thorough and convincing refutation of
+Sir J. W. Dawson's attempt to make the old and new Stone periods
+coincide, see H. W. Haynes, in chap. vi of the History of
+America, edited by Justin Winsor.  For development of various
+important points in the relation of anthropology to the human
+occupancy of our planet, see Topinard, Anthropology, London,
+1890, chap. ix.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+THE "FALL OF MAN" AND ANTHROPOLOGY
+
+
+In the previous chapters we have seen how science, especially
+within the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, has thoroughly
+changed the intelligent thought of the world in regard to the
+antiquity of man upon our planet; and how the fabric built upon
+the chronological indications in our sacred books--first, by the
+early fathers of the Church, afterward by the medieval doctors,
+and finally by the reformers and modern orthodox
+chronologists--has virtually disappeared before an entirely
+different view forced upon us, especially by Egyptian and
+Assyrian studies, as well as by geology and archeology.
+
+In this chapter I purpose to present some outlines of the work of
+Anthropology, especially as assisted by Ethnology, in showing
+what the evolution of human civilization has been.
+
+Here, too, the change from the old theological view based upon
+the letter of our sacred books to the modern scientific view
+based upon evidence absolutely irrefragable is complete.  Here,
+too, we are at the beginning of a vast change in the basis and
+modes of thought upon man--a change even more striking than that
+accomplished by Copernicus and Galileo, when they substituted for
+a universe in which sun and planets revolved about the earth a
+universe in which the earth is but the merest grain or atom
+revolving with other worlds, larger and smaller, about the sun;
+and all these forming but one among innumerable systems.
+
+Ever since the beginning of man's effective thinking upon the
+great problems around him, two antagonistic views have existed
+regarding the life of the human race upon earth.  The first of
+these is the belief that man was created "in the beginning" a
+perfect being, endowed with the highest moral and intellectual
+powers, but that there came a "fall," and, as its result, the
+entrance into the world of evil, toil, sorrow, and death.
+
+Nothing could be more natural than such an explanation of the
+existence of evil, in times when men saw everywhere miracle and
+nowhere law.  It is, under such circumstances, by far the most
+easy of explanations, for it is in accordance with the
+appearances of things:  men adopted it just as naturally as they
+adopted the theory that the Almighty hangs up the stars as lights
+in the solid firmament above the earth, or hides the sun behind a
+mountain at night, or wheels the planets around the earth, or
+flings comets as "signs and wonders" to scare a wicked world, or
+allows evil spirits to control thunder, lightning, and storm, and
+to cause diseases of body and mind, or opens the "windows of
+heaven" to let down "the waters that be above the heavens," and
+thus to give rain upon the earth.
+
+A belief, then, in a primeval period of innocence and
+perfection--moral, intellectual, and physical--from which men for
+some fault fell, is perfectly in accordance with what we should
+expect.
+
+Among the earliest known records of our race we find this view
+taking shape in the Chaldean legends of war between the gods, and
+of a fall of man; both of which seemed necessary to explain the
+existence of evil.
+
+In Greek mythology perhaps the best-known statement was made by
+Hesiod:  to him it was revealed, regarding the men of the most
+ancient times, that they were at first "a golden race," that "as
+gods they were wont to live, with a life void of care, without
+labour and trouble; nor was wretched old age at all impending;
+but ever did they delight themselves out of the reach of all
+ills, and they died as if overcome by sleep; all blessings were
+theirs:  of its own will the fruitful field would bear them
+fruit, much and ample, and they gladly used to reap the labours
+of their hands in quietness along with many good things, being
+rich in flocks and true to the blessed gods."  But there came a
+"fall," caused by human curiosity.  Pandora, the first woman
+created, received a vase which, by divine command, was to remain
+closed; but she was tempted to open it, and troubles, sorrow, and
+disease escaped into the world, hope alone remaining.
+
+So, too, in Roman mythological poetry the well-known picture by
+Ovid is but one among the many exhibitions of this same belief in
+a primeval golden age--a Saturnian cycle; one of the constantly
+recurring attempts, so universal and so natural in the early
+history of man, to account for the existence of evil, care, and
+toil on earth by explanatory myths and legends.
+
+This view, growing out of the myths, legends, and theologies of
+earlier peoples, we also find embodied in the sacred tradition of
+the Jews, and especially in one of the documents which form the
+impressive poem beginning the books attributed to Moses.  As to
+the Christian Church, no word of its Blessed Founder indicates
+that it was committed by him to this theory, or that he even
+thought it worthy of his attention.  How, like so many other
+dogmas never dreamed of by Jesus of Nazareth and those who knew
+him best, it was developed, it does not lie within the province
+of this chapter to point out; nor is it worth our while to dwell
+upon its evolution in the early Church, in the Middle Ages, at
+the Reformation, and in various branches of the Protestant
+Church:  suffice it that, though among English-speaking nations
+by far the most important influence in its favour has come from
+Milton's inspiration rather than from that of older sacred books,
+no doctrine has been more universally accepted, "always,
+everywhere, and by all," from the earliest fathers of the Church
+down to the present hour.
+
+On the other hand appeared at an early period the opposite
+view--that mankind, instead of having fallen from a high
+intellectual, moral, and religious condition, has slowly risen
+from low and brutal beginnings.  In Greece, among the
+philosophers contemporary with Socrates, we find Critias
+depicting a rise of man, from a time when he was beastlike and
+lawless, through a period when laws were developed, to a time
+when morality received enforcement from religion; but among all
+the statements of this theory the most noteworthy is that given
+by Lucretius in his great poem on The Nature of Things.  Despite
+its errors, it remains among the most remarkable examples of
+prophetic insight in the history of our race.  The inspiration of
+Lucretius gave him almost miraculous glimpses of truth; his view
+of the development of civilization from the rudest beginnings to
+the height of its achievements is a wonderful growth, rooted in
+observation and thought, branching forth into a multitude of
+striking facts and fancies; and among these is the statement
+regarding the sequence of inventions:
+
+
+"Man's earliest arms were fingers, teeth, and nails,
+And stones and fragments from the branching woods;
+Then copper next; and last, as latest traced,
+The tyrant, iron."
+
+
+Thus did the poet prophesy one of the most fruitful achievements
+of modern science:  the discovery of that series of epochs which
+has been so carefully studied in our century.
+
+Very striking, also, is the statement of Horace, though his idea
+is evidently derived from Lucretius.  He dwells upon man's first
+condition on earth as low and bestial, and pictures him lurking
+in caves, progressing from the use of his fists and nails, first
+to clubs, then to arms which he had learned to forge, and,
+finally, to the invention of the names of things, to literature,
+and to laws.[189]
+
+[189] For the passage in Hesiod, as given, see the Works and
+Days, lines 109-120, in Banks's translation. As to Horace, see
+the Satires, i, 3, 99. As to the relation of the poetic account
+of the Fall in Genesis to Chaldean myths, see Smith, Chaldean
+Account of Genesis, pp. 13, 17. For a very instructive separation
+of the Jehovistic and Elohistic parts of Genesis, with the
+account of the "Fall" as given in the former, see Lenormant, La
+Genese, Paris, 1883, pp. 166-168; also Bacon, Genesis of Genesis.
+Of the lines of Lucretius--
+
+"Arma antiqua, manus, ungues, dentesque fuerunt,
+Et lapides, et item sylvarum fragmina rami,
+Posterius ferri vis est, aerisque reperta,
+Sed prior aeris erat, quam ferri cognitus usus"---
+
+the translation is that of Good. For a more exact prose
+translation, see Munro's Lucretius, fourth edition, which is much
+more careful, at least in the proof-reading, than the first
+edition. As regards Lucretius's propheitc insight into some of
+the greatest conclusiuons of modern science, see Munro's
+translation and notes, fourth edition, book v, notes ii, p. 335.
+On the relation of several passages in Horace to the ideas of
+Lucretius, see Munro as above. For the passage from Luther, see
+the Table Talk, Hazlitt's translation, p. 242.
+
+
+During the mediaeval ages of faith this view was almost entirely
+obscured, and at the Reformation it seemed likely to remain so.
+Typical of the simplicity of belief in "the Fall" cherished among
+the Reformers is Luther's declaration regarding Adam and Eve.  He
+tells us, "they entered into the garden about noon, and having a
+desire to eat, she took the apple; then came the fall--according
+to our account at about two o'clock."  But in the revival of
+learning the old eclipsed truth reappeared, and in the first part
+of the seventeenth century we find that, among the crimes for
+which Vanini was sentenced at Toulouse to have his tongue torn
+out and to be burned alive, was his belief that there is a
+gradation extending upward from the lowest to the highest form of
+created beings.
+
+Yet, in the same century, the writings of Bodin, Bacon,
+Descartes, and Pascal were evidently undermining the old idea of
+"the Fall."  Bodin especially, brilliant as were his services to
+orthodoxy, argued lucidly against the doctrine of general human
+deterioration.
+
+Early in the eighteenth century Vico presented the philosophy of
+history as an upward movement of man out of animalism and
+barbarism.  This idea took firm hold upon human thought, and in
+the following centuries such men as Lessing and Turgot gave new
+force to it.
+
+The investigations of the last forty years have shown that
+Lucretius and Horace were inspired prophets:  what they saw by
+the exercise of reason illumined by poetic genius, has been now
+thoroughly based upon facts carefully ascertained and
+arranged--until Thomsen and Nilsson, the northern archaeologists,
+have brought these prophecies to evident fulfilment, by
+presenting a scientific classification dividing the age of
+prehistoric man in various parts of the world between an old
+stone period, a new stone period, a period of beaten copper, a
+period of bronze, and a period of iron, and arraying vast masses
+of facts from all parts of the world, fitting thoroughly into
+each other, strengthening each other, and showing beyond a doubt
+that, instead of a FALL, there has been a RISE of man, from the
+earliest indications in the Quaternary, or even, possibly, in the
+Tertiary period.[190]
+
+[190] For Vanini, see Topinard, Elements of Anthropologie, p. 52.
+For a brief and careful summary of the agency of Eccard in
+Germany, Goguet in France, Hoare in England, and others in
+various parts of Europe, as regards this development of the
+scientific view during the eighteenth century, see Mortillet, Le
+Prehistorique, Paris, 1885, chap. i.  For the agency of Bodin,
+Bacon, Descartes, and Pascal, see Flint, Philosophy of History,
+introduction, pp. 28 et seq.  For a shorter summary, see Lubbock,
+Prehistoric Man.  For the statements by the northern
+archaeologists, see Nilsson, Worsaae, and the other main works
+cited in this article.  For a generous statement regarding the
+great services of the Danish archaeologists in this field, see
+Quatrefages, introduction to Cartailhac, Les Ages Prehistoriques
+de l'Espagne et du Portugal.
+
+
+The first blow at the fully developed doctrine of "the Fall"
+came, as we have seen, from geology.  According to that doctrine,
+as held quite generally from its beginnings among the fathers and
+doctors of the primitive Church down to its culmination in the
+minds of great Protestants like John Wesley, the statement in our
+sacred books that "death entered the world by sin" was taken as a
+historic fact, necessitating the conclusion that, before the
+serpent persuaded Eve to eat of the forbidden fruit, death on our
+planet was unknown.  Naturally, when geology revealed, in the
+strata of a period long before the coming of man on earth, a vast
+multitude of carnivorous tribes fitted to destroy their
+fellow-creatures on land and sea, and within the fossilized
+skeletons of many of these the partially digested remains of
+animals, this doctrine was too heavy to be carried, and it was
+quietly dropped.
+
+But about the middle of the nineteenth century the doctrine of
+the rise of man as opposed to the doctrine of his "fall" received
+a great accession of strength from a source most unexpected.  As
+we saw in the last chapter, the facts proving the great antiquity
+of man foreshadowed a new and even more remarkable idea regarding
+him.  We saw, it is true, that the opponents of Boucher de
+Perthes, while they could not deny his discovery of human
+implements in the drift, were successful in securing a verdict of
+"Not prove " as regarded his discovery of human bones; but their
+triumph was short-lived.  Many previous discoveries, little
+thought of up to that time, began to be studied, and others were
+added which resulted not merely in confirming the truth regarding
+the antiquity of man, but in establishing another doctrine which
+the opponents of science regarded with vastly greater
+dislike--the doctrine that man has not fallen from an original
+high estate in which he was created about six thousand years ago,
+but that, from a period vastly earlier than any warranted by the
+sacred chronologists, he has been, in spite of lapses and
+deteriorations, rising.
+
+A brief review of this new growth of truth may be useful.  As
+early as 1835 Prof. Jaeger had brought out from a quantity of
+Quaternary remains dug up long before at Cannstadt, near
+Stuttgart, a portion of a human skull, apparently of very low
+type.  A battle raged about it for a time, but this finally
+subsided, owing to uncertainties arising from the circumstances
+of the discovery.
+
+In 1856, in the Neanderthal, near Dusseldorf, among Quaternary
+remains gathered on the floor of a grotto, another skull was
+found bearing the same evidence of a low human type.  As in the
+case of the Cannstadt skull, this again was fiercely debated, and
+finally the questions regarding it were allowed to remain in
+suspense.  But new discoveries were made:  at Eguisheim, at Brux,
+at Spy, and elsewhere, human skulls were found of a similarly low
+type; and, while each of the earlier discoveries was open to
+debate, and either, had no other been discovered, might have been
+considered an abnormal specimen, the combination of all these
+showed conclusively that not only had a race of men existed at
+that remote period, but that it was of a type as low as the
+lowest, perhaps below the lowest, now known.
+
+Research was now redoubled, and, as a result, human skulls and
+complete skeletons of various types began to be discovered in the
+ancient deposits of many other parts of the world, and especially
+in France, Belgium, Germany, the Caucasus, Africa, and North and
+South America.
+
+But soon began to emerge from all these discoveries a fact of
+enormous importance.  The skulls and bones found at Cro Magnon,
+Solutre, Furfooz, Grenelle, and elsewhere, were compared, and it
+was thus made certain that various races had already appeared and
+lived in various grades of civilization, even in those
+exceedingly remote epochs; that even then there were various
+strata of humanity ranging from races of a very low to those of a
+very high type; and that upon any theory--certainly upon the
+theory of the origin of mankind from a single pair--two things
+were evident:  first, that long, slow processes during vast
+periods of time must have been required for the differentiation
+of these races, and for the evolution of man up to the point
+where the better specimens show him, certainly in the early
+Quaternary and perhaps in the Tertiary period; and, secondly,
+that there had been from the first appearance of man, of which we
+have any traces, an UPWARD tendency.[191]
+
+[191] For Wesley's statement of the amazing consequences of the
+entrance of death into the world by sin, see citations in his
+sermon on The Fall of Man in the chapter on Geology.  For Boucher
+de Perthes, see his Life by Ledieu, especially chapters v and
+xix; also letters in the appendix; also Les Antiquities Celtiques
+et Antediluviennes, as cited in previous chapters of this work.
+For an account of the Neanderthal man and other remains
+mentioned, see Quatrefages, Human Species, chap. xxvi; also
+Mortillet, Le Prehistorique, Paris, 1885, pp. 232 et seq.; also
+other writers cited in this chapter.  For the other discoveries
+mentioned, see the same sources.  For an engraving of the skull
+and the restored human face of the Neanderthal man, see Reinach,
+Antiquities Nationales, etc., vol. i, p. 138.  For the vast
+regions over which that early race spread, see Quatrefages as
+above, p. 307.  See also the same author, Histoire Generale des
+Races Humaines, in the Bibliotheque Ethnologique, Paris, 1887, p.
+4.  In the vast mass of literature bearing on this subject, see
+Quatrefages, Dupont, Reinach, Joly, Mortillet, Tylor, and
+Lubbock, in works cited through these chapters.
+
+
+This second conclusion, the upward tendency of man from low
+beginnings, was made more and more clear by bringing into
+relations with these remains of human bodies and of extinct
+animals the remains of human handiwork.  As stated in the last
+chapter, the river drift and bone caves in Great Britain, France,
+and other parts of the world, revealed a progression, even in the
+various divisions of the earliest Stone period; for, beginning
+at the very lowest strata of these remains, on the floors of the
+caverns, associated mainly with the bones of extinct animals,
+such as the cave bear, the hairy elephant, and the like, were the
+rudest implements then, in strata above these, sealed in the
+stalagmite of the cavern floors, lying with the bones of animals
+extinct but more recent, stone implements were found, still rude,
+but, as a rule, of an improved type; and, finally, in a still
+higher stratum, associated with bones of animals like the
+reindeer and bison, which, though not extinct, have departed to
+other climates, were rude stone implements, on the whole of a
+still better workmanship.  Such was the foreshadowing, even at
+that early rude Stone period, of the proofs that the tendency of
+man has been from his earliest epoch and in all parts of the
+world, as a rule, upward.
+
+But this rule was to be much further exemplified.  About 1850,
+while the French and English geologists were working more
+especially among the relics of the drift and cave periods, noted
+archaeologists of the North--Forchammer, Steenstrup, and
+Worsaae--were devoting themselves to the investigation of certain
+remains upon the Danish Peninsula.  These remains were of two
+kinds:  first, there were vast shell-heaps or accumulations of
+shells and other refuse cast aside by rude tribes which at some
+unknown age in the past lived on the shores of the Baltic,
+principally on shellfish.  That these shell-heaps were very
+ancient was evident:  the shells of oysters and the like found in
+them were far larger than any now found on those coasts; their
+size, so far from being like that of the corresponding varieties
+which now exist in the brackish waters of the Baltic, was in
+every case like that of those varieties which only thrive in the
+waters of the open salt sea.  Here was a clear indication that at
+the time when man formed these shell-heaps those coasts were in
+far more direct communication with the salt sea than at present,
+and that sufficient time must have elapsed since that period to
+have wrought enormous changes in sea and land throughout those
+regions.
+
+Scattered through these heaps were found indications of a grade
+of civilization when man still used implements of stone, but
+implements and weapons which, though still rude, showed a
+progress from those of the drift and early cave period, some of
+them being of polished stone.
+
+With these were other evidences that civilization had progressed.
+With implements rude enough to have survived from early periods,
+other implements never known in the drift and bone caves began to
+appear, and, though there were few if any bones of other domestic
+animals, the remains of dogs were found; everything showed that
+there had been a progress in civilization between the former
+Stone epoch and this.
+
+The second series of discoveries in Scandinavia was made in the
+peat-beds:  these were generally formed in hollows or bowls
+varying in depth from ten to thirty feet, and a section of them,
+like a section of the deposits in the bone caverns, showed a
+gradual evolution of human culture.  The lower strata in these
+great bowls were found to be made up chiefly of mosses and
+various plants matted together with the trunks of fallen trees,
+sometimes of very large diameter; and the botanical examination
+of the lowest layer of these trees and plants in the various
+bowls revealed a most important fact:  for this layer, the first
+in point of time, was always of the Scotch fir--which now grows
+nowhere in the Danish islands, and can not be made to grow
+anywhere in them--and of plants which are now extinct in these
+regions, but have retreated within the arctic circle.  Coming up
+from the bottom of these great bowls there was found above the
+first layer a second, in which were matted together masses of oak
+trees of different varieties; these, too, were relics of a
+bygone epoch, since the oak has almost entirely disappeared from
+Denmark.  Above these came a third stratum made up of fallen
+beech trees; and the beech is now, and has been since the
+beginning of recorded history, the most common tree of the Danish
+Peninsula.
+
+Now came a second fact of the utmost importance as connected with
+the first.  Scattered, as a rule, through the lower of these
+deposits, that of the extinct fir trees and plants, were found
+implements and weapons of smooth stone; in the layer of oak
+trees were found implements of bronze; and among the layer of
+beeches were found implements and weapons of iron.
+
+The general result of these investigations in these two sources,
+the shell mounds and the peat deposits, was the same:  the first
+civilization evidenced in them was marked by the use of stone
+implements more or less smooth, showing a progress from the
+earlier rude Stone period made known by the bone caves; then
+came a later progress to a higher civilization, marked by the use
+of bronze implements; and, finally, a still higher development
+when iron began to be used.
+
+The labours of the Danish archaeologists have resulted in the
+formation of a great museum at Copenhagen, and on the specimens
+they have found, coupled with those of the drift and bone caves,
+is based the classification between the main periods or divisions
+in the evolution of the human race above referred to.
+
+It was not merely in Scandinavian lands that these results were
+reached; substantially the same discoveries were made in Ireland
+and France, in Sardinia and Portugal, in Japan and in Brazil, in
+Cuba and in the United States; in fact, as a rule, in nearly
+every part of the world which was thoroughly examined.[192]
+
+[192] For the general subject, see Mortillet, Le Prehistorique,
+p. 498, et passim.  For examples of the rude stone implements,
+improving as we go from earlier to later layers in the bone
+caves, see Boyd Hawkins, Early Man in Britain, chap. vii, p. 186;
+also Quatrefages, Human Species, New York, 1879, pp. 305 et seq.
+An interesting gleam of light is thrown on the subject in De
+Baye, Grottes Prehistoriques de la Marne, pp. 31 et seq.; also
+Evans, as cited in the previous chapter.  For the more recent
+investigations in the Danish shell-heaps, see Boyd Dawkins, Early
+Man in Britain, pp. 303, 304.  For these evidences of advanced
+civilization in the shell-heaps, see Mortillet, p. 498.  He, like
+Nilsson, says that only the bones of the dog were found; but
+compare Dawkins, p. 305.  For the very full list of these
+discoveries, with their bearing on each other, see Mortillet, p.
+499.  As to those in Scandanavian countries, see Nilsson, The
+Primitive Inhabitants of Scandanavia, third edition, with
+Introduction by Lubbock, London, 1868; also the Pre-History of
+the North, by Worsaae, English translation, London, 1886. For
+shell-mounds and their contents in the Spanish Peninsula, see
+Cartailhac's greater work already cited. For summary of such
+discoveries throughout the world, see Mortillet, Le
+Prehistorique, pp. 497 et seq.
+
+
+But from another quarter came a yet more striking indication of
+this same evolution.  As far back as the year 1829 there were
+discovered, in the Lake of Zurich, piles and other antiquities
+indicating a former existence of human dwellings, standing in the
+water at some distance from the shore; but the usual mixture of
+thoughtlessness and dread of new ideas seems to have prevailed,
+and nothing was done until about 1853, when new discoveries of
+the same kind were followed up vigorously, and Rutimeyer, Keller,
+Troyon, and others showed not only in the Lake of Zurich, but in
+many other lakes in Switzerland, remains of former habitations,
+and, in the midst of these, great numbers of relics, exhibiting
+the grade of civilization which those lakedwellers had attained.
+
+Here, too, were accumulated proofs of the upward tendency of the
+human race.  Implements of polished stone, bone, leather, pottery
+of various grades, woven cloth, bones of several kinds of
+domestic animals, various sorts of grain, bread which had been
+preserved by charring, and a multitude of evidences of progress
+never found among the earlier, ruder relics of civilization,
+showed yet more strongly that man had arrived here at a still
+higher stage than his predecessor of the drift, cave, and
+shell-heap periods, and had gone on from better to better.
+
+Very striking evidences of this upward tendency were found in
+each class of implements.  As by comparing the chipped flint
+implements of the lower and earlier strata in the cave period
+with those of the later and upper strata we saw progress, so, in
+each of the periods of polished stone, bronze, and iron, we see,
+by similar comparisons, a steady progress from rude to perfected
+implements; and especially is this true in the remains of the
+various lake-dwellings, for among these can be traced out
+constant increase in the variety of animals domesticated, and
+gradual improvements in means of subsistence and in ways of
+living.
+
+Incidentally, too, a fact, at first sight of small account, but
+on reflection exceedingly important, was revealed.  The earlier
+bronze implements were frequently found to imitate in various
+minor respects implements of stone; in other words, forms were
+at first given to bronze implements natural in working stone, but
+not natural in working bronze.  This showed the DIRECTION of the
+development--that it was upward from stone to bronze, not
+downward from bronze to stone; that it was progress rather than
+decline.
+
+These investigations were supplemented by similar researches
+elsewhere.  In many other parts of the world it was found that
+lake-dwellers had existed in different grades of civilization,
+but all within a certain range, intermediate between the
+cave-dwellers and the historic period.  To explain this epoch of
+the lake-dwellers, history came in with the account given by
+Herodotus of the lake-dwellings on Lake Prasias, which gave
+protection from the armies of Persia.  Still more important,
+Comparative Ethnography showed that to-day, in various parts of
+the world, especially in New Guinea and West Africa, races of men
+are living in lake-dwellings built upon piles, and with a range
+of implements and weapons strikingly like many of those
+discovered in these ancient lake deposits of Switzerland.
+
+In Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Ireland, Scotland, and
+other countries, remains of a different sort were also found,
+throwing light on this progress.  The cromlechs, cranogs, mounds,
+and the like, though some of them indicate the work of weaker
+tribes pressed upon by stronger, show, as a rule, the same upward
+tendency.
+
+At a very early period in the history of these discoveries,
+various attempts were made--nominally in the interest of
+religion, but really in the interest of sundry creeds and
+catechisms framed when men knew little or nothing of natural
+laws--to break the force of such evidences of the progress and
+development of the human race from lower to higher.  Out of all
+the earlier efforts two may be taken as fairly typical, for they
+exhibit the opposition to science as developed under two
+different schools of theology, each working in its own way.  The
+first of these shows great ingenuity and learning, and is
+presented by Mr. Southall in his book, published in 1875,
+entitled The Recent Origin of the World.  In this he grapples
+first of all with the difficulties presented by the early date of
+Egyptian civilization, and the keynote of his argument is the
+statement made by an eminent Egyptologist, at a period before
+modern archaeological discoveries were well understood, that
+"Egypt laughs the idea of a rude Stone age, a polished Stone age,
+a Bronze age, an Iron age, to scorn."
+
+Mr. Southall's method was substantially that of the late
+excellent Mr. Gosse in geology.  Mr. Gosse, as the readers of
+this work may remember, felt obliged, in the supposed interest of
+Genesis, to urge that safety to men's souls might be found in
+believing that, six thousand years ago, the Almighty, for some
+inscrutable purpose, suddenly set Niagara pouring very near the
+spot where it is pouring now; laid the various strata, and
+sprinkled the fossils through them like plums through a pudding;
+scratched the glacial grooves upon the rocks, and did a vast
+multitude of things, subtle and cunning, little and great, in all
+parts of the world, required to delude geologists of modern times
+into the conviction that all these things were the result of a
+steady progress through long epochs.  On a similar plan, Mr.
+Southall proposed, at the very beginning of his book, as a final
+solution of the problem, the declaration that Egypt, with its
+high civilization in the time of Mena, with its races, classes,
+institutions, arrangements, language, monuments--all indicating
+an evolution through a vast previous history--was a sudden
+creation which came fully made from the hands of the Creator.  To
+use his own words, "The Egyptians had no Stone age, and were born
+civilized."
+
+There is an old story that once on a time a certain jovial King
+of France, making a progress through his kingdom, was received at
+the gates of a provincial town by the mayor's deputy, who began
+his speech on this wise:  "May it please your Majesty, there are
+just thirteen reasons why His Honour the Mayor can not be present
+to welcome you this morning.  The first of these reasons is that
+he is dead."  On this the king graciously declared that this
+first reason was sufficient, and that he would not trouble the
+mayor's deputy for the twelve others.
+
+So with Mr. Southall's argument:  one simple result of scientific
+research out of many is all that it is needful to state, and this
+is, that in these later years we have a new and convincing
+evidence of the existence of prehistoric man in Egypt in his
+earliest, rudest beginnings; the very same evidence which we
+find in all other parts of the world which have been carefully
+examined.  This evidence consists of stone implements and weapons
+which have been found in Egypt in such forms, at such points, and
+in such positions that when studied in connection with those
+found in all other parts of the world, from New Jersey to
+California, from France to India, and from England to the Andaman
+Islands, they force upon us the conviction that civilization in
+Egypt, as in all other parts of the world, was developed by the
+same slow process of evolution from the rudest beginnings.
+
+It is true that men learned in Egyptology had discouraged the
+idea of an earlier Stone age in Egypt, and that among these were
+Lepsius and Brugsch; but these men were not trained in
+prehistoric archaeology; their devotion to the study of the
+monuments of Egyptian civilization had evidently drawn them away
+from sympathy, and indeed from acquaintance, with the work of men
+like Boucher de Perthes, Lartet, Nilsson, Troyon, and Dawkins.
+But a new era was beginning.  In 1867 Worsaae called attention to
+the prehistoric implements found on the borders of Egypt; two
+years later Arcelin discussed such stone implements found beneath
+the soil of Sakkara and Gizeh, the very focus of the earliest
+Egyptian civilization; in the same year Hamy and Lenormant found
+such implements washed out from the depths higher up the Nile at
+Thebes, near the tombs of the kings; and in the following year
+they exhibited more flint implements found at various other
+places.  Coupled with these discoveries was the fact that Horner
+and Linant found a copper knife at twenty-four feet, and pottery
+at sixty feet, below the surface.  In 1872 Dr. Reil, director of
+the baths at Helouan, near Cairo, discovered implements of
+chipped flint; and in 1877.  Dr. Jukes Brown made similar
+discoveries in that region.  In 1878 Oscar Fraas, summing up the
+question, showed that the stone implements were mainly such as
+are found in the prehistoric deposits of other countries, and
+that, Zittel having found them in the Libyan Desert, far from the
+oases, there was reason to suppose that these implements were
+used before the region became a desert and before Egypt was
+civilized.  Two years later Dr. Mook, of Wurzburg, published a
+work giving the results of his investigations, with careful
+drawings of the rude stone implements discovered by him in the
+upper Nile Valley, and it was evident that, while some of these
+implements differed slightly from those before known, the great
+mass of them were of the character so common in the prehistoric
+deposits of other parts of the world.
+
+A yet more important contribution to this mass of facts was made
+by Prof. Henry Haynes, of Boston, who in the winter of 1877 and
+1878 began a very thorough investigation of the subject, and
+discovered, a few miles east of Cairo, many flint implements.
+The significance of Haynes's discoveries was twofold:  First,
+there were, among these, stone axes like those found in the
+French drift beds of St. Acheul, showing that the men who made or
+taught men how to make these in Egypt were passing through the
+same phase of savagery as that of Quaternary France; secondly, he
+found a workshop for making these implements, proving that these
+flint implements were not brought into Egypt by invaders, but
+were made to meet the necessities of the country.  From this
+first field Prof. Haynes went to Helouan, north of Cairo, and
+there found, as Dr. Reil had done, various worked flints, some of
+them like those discovered by M.  Riviere in the caves of
+southern France; thence he went up the Nile to Luxor, the site of
+ancient Thebes, began a thorough search in the Tertiary limestone
+hills, and found multitudes of chipped stone implements, some of
+them, indeed, of original forms, but most of forms common in
+other parts of the world under similar circumstances, some of the
+chipped stone axes corresponding closely to those found in the
+drift beds of northern France.
+
+All this seemed to show conclusively that, long ages before the
+earliest period of Egyptian civilization of which the monuments
+of the first dynasties give us any trace, mankind in the Nile
+Valley was going through the same slow progress from the period
+when, standing just above the brutes, he defended himself with
+implements of rudely chipped stone.
+
+But in 1881 came discoveries which settled the question entirely.
+In that year General Pitt-Rivers, a Fellow of the Royal Society
+and President of the Anthropological Institute, and J. F.
+Campbell, Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society of England,
+found implements not only in alluvial deposits, associated with
+the bones of the zebra, hyena, and other animals which have since
+retreated farther south, but, at Djebel Assas, near Thebes, they
+found implements of chipped flint in the hard, stratified gravel,
+from six and a half to ten feet below the surface; relics
+evidently, as Mr. Campbell says, "beyond calculation older than
+the oldest Egyptian temples and tombs."  They certainly proved
+that Egyptian civilization had not issued in its completeness,
+and all at once, from the hand of the Creator in the time of
+Mena.  Nor was this all.  Investigators of the highest character
+and ability--men like Hull and Flinders Petrie--revealed
+geological changes in Egypt requiring enormous periods of time,
+and traces of man's handiwork dating from a period when the
+waters in the Nile Valley extended hundreds of feet above the
+present level.  Thus was ended the contention of Mr. Southall.
+
+Still another attack upon the new scientific conclusions came
+from France, when in 1883 the Abbe Hamard, Priest of the Oratory,
+published his Age of Stone and Primitive Man.  He had been
+especially vexed at the arrangement of prehistoric implements by
+periods at the Paris Exposition of 1878; he bitterly complains
+of this as having an anti-Christian tendency, and rails at
+science as "the idol of the day."  He attacks Mortillet, one of
+the leaders in French archaeology, with a great display of
+contempt; speaks of the "venom" in books on prehistoric man
+generally; complains that the Church is too mild and gentle with
+such monstrous doctrines; bewails the concessions made to science
+by some eminent preachers; and foretells his own martyrdom at the
+hands of men of science.
+
+Efforts like this accomplished little, and a more legitimate
+attempt was made to resist the conclusions of archaeology by
+showing that knives of stone were used in obedience to a sacred
+ritual in Egypt for embalming, and in Judea for circumcision, and
+that these flint knives might have had this later origin.  But
+the argument against the conclusions drawn from this view was
+triple: First, as we have seen, not only stone knives, but axes
+and other implements of stone similar to those of a prehistoric
+period in western Europe were discovered; secondly, these
+implements were discovered in the hard gravel drift of a period
+evidently far earlier than that of Mena; and, thirdly, the use of
+stone implements in Egyptian and Jewish sacred functions within
+the historic period, so far from weakening the force of the
+arguments for the long and slow development of Egyptian
+civilization from the men who used rude flint implements to the
+men who built and adorned the great temples of the early
+dynasties, is really an argument in favour of that long
+evolution.  A study of comparative ethnology has made it clear
+that the sacred stone knives and implements of the Egyptian and
+Jewish priestly ritual were natural survivals of that previous
+period.  For sacrificial or ritual purposes, the knife of stone
+was considered more sacred than the knife of bronze or iron,
+simply because it was ancient; just as to-day, in India, Brahman
+priests kindle the sacred fire not with matches or flint and
+steel, but by a process found in the earliest, lowest stages of
+human culture--by violently boring a pointed stick into another
+piece of wood until a spark comes; and just as to-day, in Europe
+and America, the architecture of the Middle Ages survives as a
+special religious form in the erection of our most recent
+churches, and to such an extent that thousands on thousands of us
+feel that we can not worship fitly unless in the midst of
+windows, decorations, vessels, implements, vestments, and
+ornaments, no longer used for other purposes, but which have
+survived in sundry branches of the Christian Church, and derived
+a special sanctity from the fact that they are of ancient origin.
+
+Taking, then, the whole mass of testimony together, even though a
+plausible or very strong argument against single evidences may be
+made here and there, the force of its combined mass remains, and
+leaves both the vast antiquity of man and the evolution of
+civilization from its lowest to its highest forms, as proved by
+the prehistoric remains of Egypt and so many other countries in
+all parts of the world, beyond a reasonable doubt.  Most
+important of all, the recent discoveries in Assyria have thrown a
+new light upon the evolution of the dogma of "the fall of man."
+Reverent scholars like George Smith, Sayce, Delitzsch, Jensen,
+Schrader, and their compeers have found in the Ninevite records
+the undoubted source of that form of the fall legend which was
+adopted by the Hebrews and by them transmitted to
+Christianity.[193]
+
+[193] For Mr. Southall's views, see his Recent Origin of Man, p.
+20 and elsewhere.  For Mr. Gosse'e views, see his Omphalos as
+cited in the chapter on Geology in this work.  For a summary of
+the work of Arcelin, Hamy, Lenormant, Richard, Lubbock, Mook, and
+Haynes, see Mortillet, Le Prehistorique, passim.  As to Zittel's
+discovery, see Oscar Fraas's Aus dem Orient, Stuttgart, 1878.  As
+to the striking similarties of the stone implements found in
+Egypt with those found in the drift and bone caves, see Mook's
+monograph, Wurzburg, 1880, cited in the next chapter, especially
+Plates IX, XI, XII.  For even more striking reproductions of
+photographs showing this remarkable similarity between Egyptian
+and European chipped stone remains, see H. W. Haynes,
+Palaeolithic Implements in Upper Egypt, Boston, 1881.  See also
+Evans, Ancient Stone Implements, chap. i, pp. 8, 9, 44, 102, 316,
+329.  As to stone implements used by priests of Jehovah, priests
+of Baal, priests of Moloch, priests of Odin, and Egyptian
+priests, as religious survivals, see Cartailhac, as above, 6 and
+7; also Lartet, in De Luynes, Expedition to the Dead Sea; also
+Nilsson, Primitive Inhabitants of Scandanavia, pp. 96, 97; also
+Sayce, Herodotus, p. 171, note.  For the discoveries by Pitt-
+Rivers, see the Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great
+Britain and Ireland for 1882, vol. xi, pp. 382 et seq.; and for
+Campbell's decision regarding them, see ibid., pp. 396, 397.  For
+facts summed up in the words, "It is most probable that Egypt at
+a remote period passed like many other countries through its
+stone period," see Hilton Price, F. S. A., F. G. S., paper in the
+Journal of the Archaeological Institute of Great Britain and
+Ireland for 1884, p. 56.  Specimens of Palaeolithic implements
+from Egypt--knives, arrowheads, spearheads, flakes, and the like,
+both of peculiar and ordinary forms--may be seen in various
+museums, but especially in that of Prof. Haynes, of Boston.  Some
+interesting light is also thrown into the subject by the
+specimens obtained by General Wilson and deposited in the
+Smithsonian Institution at Washington.  For Abbe Hamard's attack,
+see his L'Age de la Pierre et L'Homme Primitif, Paris, 1883--
+especially his preface.  For the stone weapon found in the high
+drift behind Esneh, see Flinders Petrie, History of Egypt, chap.
+i.  Of these discoveries by Pitt-Rivers and others, Maspero
+appears to know nothing.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+THE "FALL OF MAN" AND ETHNOLOGY.
+
+
+We have seen that, closely connected with the main lines of
+investigation in archaeology and anthropology, there were other
+researches throwing much light on the entire subject.  In a
+previous chapter we saw especially that Lafitau and Jussieu were
+among the first to collect and compare facts bearing on the
+natural history of man, gathered by travellers in various parts
+of the earth, thus laying foundations for the science of
+comparative ethnology.  It was soon seen that ethnology had most
+important bearings upon the question of the material,
+intellectual, moral, and religious evolution of the human race;
+in every civilized nation, therefore, appeared scholars who began
+to study the characteristics of various groups of men as
+ascertained from travellers, and to compare the results thus
+gained with each other and with those obtained by archaeology.
+
+Thus, more and more clear became the evidences that the tendency
+of the race has been upward from low beginnings.  It was found
+that groups of men still existed possessing characteristics of
+those in the early periods of development to whom the drift and
+caves and shell-heaps and pile-dwellings bear witness; groups of
+men using many of the same implements and weapons, building their
+houses in the same way, seeking their food by the same means,
+enjoying the same amusements, and going through the same general
+stages of culture; some being in a condition corresponding to
+the earlier, some to the later, of those early periods.
+
+From all sides thus came evidence that we have still upon the
+earth examples of all the main stages in the development of human
+civilization; that from the period when man appears little above
+the brutes, and with little if any religion in any accepted sense
+of the word, these examples can be arranged in an ascending
+series leading to the highest planes which humanity has reached;
+that philosophic observers may among these examples study
+existing beliefs, usages, and institutions back through earlier
+and earlier forms, until, as a rule, the whole evolution can be
+easily divined if not fully seen.  Moreover, the basis of the
+whole structure became more and more clear:  the fact that "the
+lines of intelligence have always been what they are, and have
+always operated as they do now; that man has progressed from the
+simple to the complex, from the particular to the general."
+
+As this evidence from ethnology became more and more strong, its
+significance to theology aroused attention, and naturally most
+determined efforts were made to break its force.  On the
+Continent the two great champions of the Church in this field
+were De Maistre and De Bonald; but the two attempts which may be
+especially recalled as the most influential among
+English-speaking peoples were those of Whately, Archbishop of
+Dublin, and the Duke of Argyll.
+
+First in the combat against these new deductions of science was
+Whately.  He was a strong man, whose breadth of thought and
+liberality in practice deserve all honour; but these very
+qualities drew upon him the distrust of his orthodox brethren;
+and, while his writings were powerful in the first half of the
+present century to break down many bulwarks of unreason, he seems
+to have been constantly in fear of losing touch with the Church,
+and therefore to have promptly attacked some scientific
+reasonings, which, had he been a layman, not holding a brief for
+the Church, he would probably have studied with more care and
+less prejudice.  He was not slow to see the deeper significance
+of archaeology and ethnology in their relations to the
+theological conception of "the Fall," and he set the battle in
+array against them.
+
+His contention was, to use his own words, that "no community ever
+did or ever can emerge unassisted by external helps from a state
+of utter barbarism into anything that can be called
+civilization"; and that, in short, all imperfectly civilized,
+barbarous, and savage races are but fallen descendants of races
+more fully civilized.  This view was urged with his usual
+ingenuity and vigour, but the facts proved too strong for him:
+they made it clear, first, that many races were without simple
+possessions, instruments, and arts which never, probably, could
+have been lost if once acquired--as, for example, pottery, the
+bow for shooting, various domesticated animals, spinning, the
+simplest principles of agriculture, household economy, and the
+like; and, secondly, it was shown as a simple matter of fact
+that various savage and barbarous tribes HAD raised themselves by
+a development of means which no one from outside could have
+taught them; as in the cultivation and improvement of various
+indigenous plants, such as the potato and Indian corn among the
+Indians of North America; in the domestication of various animals
+peculiar to their own regions, such as the llama among the
+Indians of south America; in the making of sundry fabrics out of
+materials and by processes not found among other nations, such as
+the bark cloth of the Polynesians; and in the development of
+weapons peculiar to sundry localities, but known in no others,
+such as the boomerang in Australia.
+
+Most effective in bringing out the truth were such works as those
+of Sir John Lubbock and Tylor; and so conclusive were they that
+the arguments of Whately were given up as untenable by the other
+of the two great champions above referred to, and an attempt was
+made by him to form the diminishing number of thinking men
+supporting the old theological view on a new line of defence.
+
+This second champion, the Duke of Argyll, was a man of wide
+knowledge and strong powers in debate, whose high moral sense was
+amply shown in his adhesion to the side of the American Union in
+the struggle against disunion and slavery, despite the
+overwhelming majority against him in the high aristocracy to
+which he belonged.  As an honest man and close thinker, the duke
+was obliged to give up completely the theological view of the
+antiquity of man.  The whole biblical chronology as held by the
+universal Church, "always, everywhere, and by all," he
+sacrificed, and gave all his powers in this field to support the
+theory of "the Fall."  Noblesse oblige:  the duke and his
+ancestors had been for centuries the chief pillars of the Church
+of Scotland, and it was too much to expect that he could break
+away from a tenet which forms really its "chief cornerstone."
+
+Acknowledging the insufficiency of Archbishop Whately's argument,
+the duke took the ground that the lower, barbarous, savage,
+brutal races were the remains of civilized races which, in the
+struggle for existence, had been pushed and driven off to remote
+and inclement parts of the earth, where the conditions necessary
+to a continuance in their early civilization were absent; that,
+therefore, the descendants of primeval, civilized men degenerated
+and sank in the scale of culture.  To use his own words, the
+weaker races were "driven by the stronger to the woods and
+rocks," so that they became "mere outcasts of the human race."
+
+In answer to this, while it was conceded, first, that there have
+been examples of weaker tribes sinking in the scale of culture
+after escaping from the stronger into regions unfavourable to
+civilization, and, secondly, that many powerful nations have
+declined and decayed, it was shown that the men in the most
+remote and unfavourable regions have not always been the lowest
+in the scale; that men have been frequently found "among the
+woods and rocks" in a higher state of civilization than on the
+fertile plains, such examples being cited as Mexico, Peru, and
+even Scotland; and that, while there were many examples of
+special and local decline, overwhelming masses of facts point to
+progress as a rule.
+
+The improbability, not to say impossibility, of many of the
+conclusions arrived at by the duke appeared more and more
+strongly as more became known of the lower tribes of mankind.  It
+was necessary on his theory to suppose many things which our
+knowledge of the human race absolutely forbids us to believe:
+for example, it was necessary to suppose that the Australians or
+New Zealanders, having once possessed so simple and convenient an
+art as that of the potter, had lost every trace of it; and that
+the same tribes, having once had so simple a means of saving
+labour as the spindle or small stick weighted at one end for
+spinning, had given it up and gone back to twisting threads with
+the hand. In fact, it was necessary to suppose that one of the
+main occupations of man from "the beginning" had been the
+forgetting of simple methods, processes, and implements which all
+experience in the actual world teaches us are never entirely
+forgotten by peoples who have once acquired them.
+
+Some leading arguments of the duke were overthrown by simple
+statements of fact.  Thus, his instance of the Eskimo as pushed
+to the verge of habitable America, and therefore living in the
+lowest depths of savagery, which, even if it were true, by no
+means proved a general rule, was deprived of its force by the
+simple fact that the Eskimos are by no means the lowest race on
+the American continent, and that various tribes far more
+centrally and advantageously placed, as, for instance, those in
+Brazil, are really inferior to them in the scale of culture.
+Again, his statement that "in Africa there appear to be no traces
+of any time when the natives were not acquainted with the use of
+iron," is met by the fact that from the Nile Valley to the Cape
+of Good Hope we find, wherever examination has been made, the
+same early stone implements which in all other parts of the world
+precede the use of iron, some of which would not have been made
+had their makers possessed iron.  The duke also tried to show
+that there were no distinctive epochs of stone, bronze, and iron,
+by adducing the fact that some stone implements are found even in
+some high civilizations.  This is indeed a fact.  We find some
+few European peasants to-day using stone mallet-heads; but this
+proves simply that the old stone mallet-heads have survived as
+implements cheap and effective.
+
+The argument from Comparative Ethnology in support of the view
+that the tendency of mankind is upward has received strength from
+many sources.  Comparative Philology shows that in the less
+civilized, barbarous, and savage races childish forms of speech
+prevail--frequent reduplications and the like, of which we have
+survivals in the later and even in the most highly developed
+languages.  In various languages, too, we find relics of ancient
+modes of thought in the simplest words and expressions used for
+arithmetical calculations.  Words and phrases for this purpose
+are frequently found to be derived from the words for hands,
+feet, fingers, and toes, just as clearly as in our own language
+some of our simplest measures of length are shown by their names
+to have been measures of parts of the human body, as the cubit,
+the foot, and the like, and therefore to date from a time when
+exactness was not required.  To add another out of many examples,
+it is found to-day that various rude nations go through the
+simplest arithmetical processes by means of pebbles.  Into our
+own language, through the Latin, has come a word showing that our
+distant progenitors reckoned in this way:  the word CALCULATE
+gives us an absolute proof of this.  According to the theory of
+the Duke of Argyll, men ages ago used pebbles (CALCULI) in
+performing the simplest arithmetical calculations because we
+to-day "CALCULATE."  No reduction to absurdity could be more
+thorough.  The simple fact must be that we "calculate" because
+our remote ancestors used pebbles in their arithmetic.
+
+Comparative Literature and Folklore also show among peoples of a
+low culture to-day childish modes of viewing nature, and childish
+ways of expressing the relations of man to nature, such as
+clearly survive from a remote ancestry; noteworthy among these
+are the beliefs in witches and fairies, and multitudes of popular
+and poetic expressions in the most civilized nations.
+
+So,too, Comparative Ethnography, the basis of Ethnology, shows in
+contemporary barbarians and savages a childish love of playthings
+and games, of which we have many survivals.
+
+All these facts, which were at first unobserved or observed as
+matters of no significance, have been brought into connection
+with a fact in biology acknowledged alike by all important
+schools; by Agassiz on one hand and by Darwin on the
+other--namely, as stated by Agassiz, that "the young states of
+each species and group resemble older forms of the same group,"
+or, as stated by Darwin, that "in two or more groups of animals,
+however much they may at first differ from each other in
+structure and habits, if they pass through closely similar
+embryonic stages, we may feel almost assured that they have
+descended from the same parent form, and are therefore closely
+related."[194]
+
+[194] For the stone forms given to early bronze axes, etc., see
+Nilsson, Primitive Inhabitants of Scandanavia, London, 1868,
+Lubbock's Introduction, p. 31; and for plates, see Lubbock's
+Prehistoric Man, chap. ii; also Cartailhac, Les Ages
+Prehistoriques de l'Espagne et du Portugal, p. 227. Also Keller,
+Lake Dwellings; also Troyon, Habitations Lacustres; also Boyd
+Dawkins, Early Man in Great Britain, p. 191; also Lubbock, p. 6;
+also Lyell, Antiquity of Man,chap. ii. For the cranogs, etc., in
+the north of Europe, see Munro, Ancient Scottish Lake Dwellings,
+Edinburgh, 1882. For mounds and greater stone constructions in
+the extreme south of Europe, see Cartailhac's work on Spain and
+Portugal above cited, part iii, chap. iii. For the source of Mr.
+Southall's contention, see Brugsch, Egypt of the Pharoahs. For
+the two sides of the question whether in the lower grades of
+savagery there is really any recognition of a superior power, or
+anything which can be called, in any accepted sense, religion,
+compare Quatrefages with Lubbock, in works already cited. For a
+striking but rather ad captandum effort to show that there is a
+moral and religious sense in the very lowest of Australian
+tribes, see one of the discourses of Archbishop Vaughn on Science
+and Religion, Baltimore, 1879. For one out of multitiudes of
+striking and instructive resemblances in ancient stone implements
+and those now in use among sundry savage tribes, see comparison
+between old Scandanavian arrowheads and those recently brought
+from Tierra del Fuego, in Nilsson, as above, especially in Plate
+V. For a brief and admirable statement of the arguments on both
+sides, see Sir J. Lubbock's Dundee paper, given in the appendix
+to the American edition of his Origin of Civilization, etc. For
+the general argument referred to between Whately and the Duke of
+Argyll on one side, and Lubbock on the other, see Lubbock's
+Dundee paper as above cited; Tylor, Early History of Mankind,
+especially p. 193; and the Duke of Argyll, Primeval Man, part iv.
+For difficulties of savages in arithmetic, see Lubbock, as above,
+pp. 459 et seq. For a very temperate and judicial view of the
+whole question, see Tylor as above, chaps. vii and xiii. For a
+brief summary of the scientific position regarding the stagnation
+and deterioration of races, resulting in the statement that such
+deterioration "in no way contradicts the theory that civilization
+itself is developed from low to high stages," see Tylor,
+Anthropology, chap. i. For striking examples of the testimony of
+language to upward progress, see Tylor, chap. xii.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+THE "FALL OF MAN" AND HISTORY.
+
+
+The history of art, especially as shown by architecture, in the
+noblest monuments of the most enlightened nations of antiquity;
+gives abundant proofs of the upward tendency of man from the
+rudest and simplest beginnings.  Many columns of early Egyptian
+temples or tombs are but bundles of Nile reeds slightly
+conventionalized in stone; the temples of Greece, including not
+only the earliest forms, but the Parthenon itself, while in parts
+showing an evolution out of Egyptian and Assyrian architecture,
+exhibit frequent reminiscences and even imitations of earlier
+constructions in wood; the medieval cathedrals, while evolved
+out of Roman and Byzantine structures, constantly show
+unmistakable survivals of prehistoric construction. [195]
+
+[195] As to evolution in architecture, and especially of Greek
+forms and ornaments out of Egyptian and Assyrian, with survivals
+in stone architecture of forms obtained in Egypt when reeds were
+used, and in Greece when wood construction prevailed, see
+Fergusson's Handbook of Architecture, vol. i, pp. 100, 228, 233,
+and elsewhere; also Otfried Muller, Ancient Art and its Remains,
+English translation, London, 1852, pp. 219, passim.  For a very
+brief but thorough statement, see A. Magnard's paper in the
+Proceedings of the American Oriental Society, October, 1889,
+entitled Reminiscences of Egypt in Doric Architecture.  On the
+general subject, see Hommel, Babylonien, ch. i, and Meyer,
+Alterthum, i, S 199.
+
+
+So, too, general history has come in, illustrating the unknown
+from the known:  the development of man in the prehistoric period
+from his development within historic times.  Nothing is more
+evident from history than the fact that weaker bodies of men
+driven out by stronger do not necessarily relapse into barbarism,
+but frequently rise, even under the most unfavourable
+circumstances, to a civilization equal or superior to that from
+which they have been banished.  Out of very many examples showing
+this law of upward development, a few may be taken as typical.
+The Slavs, who sank so low under the pressure of stronger races
+that they gave the modern world a new word to express the most
+hopeless servitude, have developed powerful civilizations
+peculiar to themselves; the, barbarian tribes who ages ago took
+refuge amid the sand-banks and morasses of Holland, have
+developed one of the world's leading centres of civilization;
+the wretched peasants who about the fifth century took refuge
+from invading hordes among the lagoons and mud banks of Venetia,
+developed a power in art, arms, and politics which is among the
+wonders of human history; the Puritans, driven from the
+civilization of Great Britain to the unfavourable climate, soil,
+and circumstances of early New England,--the Huguenots, driven
+from France, a country admirably fitted for the highest growth of
+civilization, to various countries far less fitted for such
+growth,--the Irish peasantry, driven in vast numbers from their
+own island to other parts of the world on the whole less fitted
+to them--all are proofs that, as a rule, bodies of men once
+enlightened, when driven to unfavourable climates and brought
+under the most depressing circumstances, not only retain what
+enlightenment they have, but go on increasing it.  Besides these,
+we have such cases as those of criminals banished to various
+penal colonies, from whose descendants has been developed a
+better morality; and of pirates, like those of the Bounty, whose
+descendants, in a remote Pacific island, became sober, steady
+citizens.  Thousands of examples show the prevalence of this same
+rule--that men in masses do not forget the main gains of their
+civilization, and that, in spite of deteriorations, their
+tendency is upward.
+
+Another class of historic facts also testifies in the most
+striking manner to this same upward tendency:  the decline and
+destruction of various civilizations brilliant but hopelessly
+vitiated.  These catastrophes are seen more and more to be but
+steps in, this development.  The crumbling away of the great
+ancient civilizations based upon despotism, whether the despotism
+of monarch, priest, or mob--the decline and fall of Roman
+civilization, for example, which, in his most remarkable
+generalization, Guizot has shown to have been necessary to the
+development of the richer civilization of modern Europe; the
+terrible struggle and loss of the Crusades, which once appeared
+to be a mere catastrophe, but are now seen to have brought in,
+with the downfall of feudalism, the beginnings of the
+centralizing, civilizing monarchical period; the French
+Revolution, once thought a mere outburst of diabolic passion, but
+now seen to be an unduly delayed transition from the monarchical
+to the constitutional epoch:  all show that even widespread
+deterioration and decline--often, indeed, the greatest political
+and moral catastrophes--so far from leading to a fall of mankind,
+tend in the long run to raise humanity to higher planes.
+
+Thus, then, Anthropology and its handmaids, Ethnology, Philology,
+and History, have wrought out, beyond a doubt, proofs of the
+upward evolution of humanity since the appearance of man upon our
+planet.
+
+Nor have these researches been confined to progress in man's
+material condition.  Far more important evidences have been found
+of upward evolution in his family, social, moral, intellectual,
+and religious relations.  The light thrown on this subject by
+such men as Lubbock, Tylor, Herbert Spencer, Buckle, Draper, Max
+Muller, and a multitude of others, despite mistakes, haltings,
+stumblings, and occasional following of delusive paths, is among
+the greatest glories of the century now ending.  From all these
+investigators in their various fields, holding no brief for any
+system sacred or secular, but seeking truth as truth, comes the
+same general testimony of the evolution of higher out of lower.
+The process has been indeed slow and painful, but this does not
+prove that it may not become more rapid and less fruitful in
+sorrow as humanity goes on.[196]
+
+[196] As to the good effects of migration, see Waitz,
+Introduction to Anthropology, London, 1863, p. 345.
+
+
+While, then, it is not denied that many instances of
+retrogression can be found, the consenting voice of unbiased
+investigators in all lands has declared more and more that the
+beginnings of our race must have been low and brutal, and that
+the tendency has been upward.  To combat this conclusion by
+examples of decline and deterioration here and there has become
+impossible:  as well try to prove that, because in the
+Mississippi there are eddies in which the currents flow
+northward, there is no main stream flowing southward; or that,
+because trees decay and fall, there is no law of upward growth
+from germ to trunk, branches, foliage, and fruit.
+
+A very striking evidence that the theological theory had become
+untenable was seen when its main supporter in the scientific
+field, Von Martius, in the full ripeness of his powers, publicly
+declared his conversion to the scientific view.
+
+Yet, while the tendency of enlightened human thought in recent
+times is unmistakable, the struggle against the older view is not
+yet ended.  The bitterness of the Abbe Hamard in France has been
+carried to similar and even greater extremes among sundry
+Protestant bodies in Europe and America.  The simple truth of
+history mates it a necessity, unpleasant though it be, to
+chronicle two typical examples in the United States.
+
+In the year 1875 a leader in American industrial enterprise
+endowed at the capital of a Southern State a university which
+bore his name.  It was given into the hands of one of the
+religious sects most powerful in that region, and a bishop of
+that sect became its president.  To its chair of Geology was
+called Alexander Winchell, a scholar who had already won eminence
+as a teacher and writer in that field, a professor greatly
+beloved and respected in the two universities with which he had
+been connected, and a member of the sect which the institution of
+learning above referred to represented.
+
+But his relations to this Southern institution were destined to
+be brief.  That his lectures at the Vanderbilt University were
+learned, attractive, and stimulating, even his enemies were
+forced to admit; but he was soon found to believe that there had
+been men earlier than the period as signed to Adam, and even that
+all the human race are not descended from Adam.  His desire was
+to reconcile science and Scripture, and he was now treated by a
+Methodist Episcopal Bishop in Tennessee just as, two centuries
+before, La Peyrere had been treated, for a similar effort, by a
+Roman Catholic vicar-general in Belgium.  The publication of a
+series of articles on the subject, contributed by the professor
+to a Northern religious newspaper at its own request, brought
+matters to a climax; for, the articles having fallen under the
+notice of a leading Southwestern organ of the denomination
+controlling the Vanderbilt University, the result was a most
+bitter denunciation of Prof. Winchell and of his views.  Shortly
+afterward the professor was told by Bishop McTyeire that "our
+people are of the opinion that such views are contrary to the
+plan of redemption," and was requested by the bishop to quietly
+resign his chair.  To this the professor made the fitting reply:
+"If the board of trustees have the manliness to dismiss me for
+cause, and declare the cause, I prefer that they should do it.
+No power on earth could persuade me to resign."
+
+"We do not propose," said the bishop, with quite gratuitous
+suggestiveness, "to treat you as the Inquisition treated
+Galileo."
+
+"But what you propose is the same thing," rejoined Dr. Winchell.
+"It is ecclesiastical proscription for an opinion which must be
+settled by scientific evidence."
+
+Twenty-four hours later Dr. Winchell was informed that his chair
+had been abolished, and its duties, with its salary, added to
+those of a colleague; the public were given to understand that
+the reasons were purely economic; the banished scholar was
+heaped with official compliments, evidently in hope that he would
+keep silence.
+
+Such was not Dr. Winchell's view.  In a frank letter to the
+leading journal of the university town he stated the whole
+matter.  The intolerance-hating press of the country, religious
+and secular, did not hold its peace.  In vain the authorities of
+the university waited for the storm to blow over.  It was
+evident, at last, that a defence must be made, and a local organ
+of the sect, which under the editorship of a fellow-professor had
+always treated Dr. Winchell's views with the luminous inaccuracy
+which usually characterizes a professor's ideas of a rival's
+teachings, assumed the task.  In the articles which followed, the
+usual scientific hypotheses as to the creation were declared to
+be "absurd," "vague and unintelligible," "preposterous and
+gratuitous."  This new champion stated that "the objections drawn
+from the fossiliferous strata and the like are met by reference
+to the analogy of Adam and Eve, who presented the phenomena of
+adults when they were but a day old, and by the Flood of Noah and
+other cataclysms, which, with the constant change of Nature, are
+sufficient to account for the phenomena in question"!
+
+Under inspiration of this sort the Tennessee Conference of the
+religious body in control of the university had already, in
+October, 1878, given utterance to its opinion of unsanctified
+science as follows:  "This is an age in which scientific atheism,
+having divested itself of the habiliments that most adorn and
+dignify humanity, walks abroad in shameless denudation.  The
+arrogant and impertinent claims of this `science, falsely so
+called,' have been so boisterous and persistent, that the
+unthinking mass have been sadly deluded; but our university
+alone has had the courage to lay its young but vigorous hand upon
+the mane of untamed Speculation and say, `We will have no more of
+this.'" It is a consolation to know how the result, thus devoutly
+sought, has been achieved; for in the "ode" sung at the laying
+of the corner-stone of a new theological building of the same
+university, in May, 1880, we read:
+
+
+"Science and Revelation here
+In perfect harmony appear,
+Guiding young feet along the road
+Through grace and Nature up to God."
+
+
+It is also pleasing to know that, while an institution calling
+itself a university thus violated the fundamental principles on
+which any institution worthy of the name must be based, another
+institution which has the glory of being the first in the entire
+North to begin something like a university organization--the
+State University of Michigan--recalled Dr. Winchell at once to
+his former professorship, and honoured itself by maintaining him
+in that position, where, unhampered, he was thereafter able to
+utter his views in the midst of the largest body of students on
+the American Continent.
+
+Disgraceful as this history was to the men who drove out Dr.
+Winchell, they but succeeded, as various similar bodies of men
+making similar efforts have done, in advancing their supposed
+victim to higher position and more commanding influence.[197]
+
+[197] For Dr. Winchell's original statements, see Adamites and
+Pre-Adamites, Syracuse, N. Y., 1878.  For the first important
+denunciation of his views, see the St. Louis Christian Advocate,
+May 22, 1878.  For the conversation with Bishop McTyeire, see Dr.
+Winchell's own account in the Nashville American of July 19,
+1878.  For the further course of the attack in the denominational
+organ of Dr. Winchell's oppressors, see the Nashville Christian
+Advocate, April 26, 1879.  For the oratorical declaration of the
+Tennessee Conference upon the matter, see the Nashville American,
+October 15, 1878; and for the "ode" regarding the "harmony of
+science and revelation" as supported at the university, see the
+same journal for May 2, 1880
+
+
+A few years after this suppression of earnest Christian thought
+at an institution of learning in the western part of our Southern
+States, there appeared a similar attempt in sundry seaboard
+States of the South.
+
+As far back as the year 1857 the Presbyterian Synod of
+Mississippi passed the following resolution:
+
+"WHEREAS, We live in an age in which the most insidious attacks
+are made on revealed religion through the natural sciences, and
+as it behooves the Church at all times to have men capable of
+defending the faith once delivered to the saints;
+
+"RESOLVED, That this presbytery recommend the endowment of a
+professorship of Natural Science as connected with revealed
+religion in one or more of our theological seminaries."
+
+Pursuant to this resolution such a chair was established in the
+theological seminary at Columbia, S.C., and James Woodrow was
+appointed professor.  Dr. Woodrow seems to have been admirably
+fitted for the position--a devoted Christian man, accepting the
+Presbyterian standards of faith in which he had been brought up,
+and at the same time giving every effort to acquaint himself with
+the methods and conclusions of science.  To great natural
+endowments he added constant labours to arrive at the truth in
+this field.  Visiting Europe, he made the acquaintance of many of
+the foremost scientific investigators, became a student in
+university lecture rooms and laboratories, an interested hearer
+in scientific conventions, and a correspondent of leading men of
+science at home and abroad.  As a result, he came to the
+conclusion that the hypothesis of evolution is the only one which
+explains various leading facts in natural science.  This he
+taught, and he also taught that such a view is not incompatible
+with a true view of the sacred Scriptures.
+
+In 1882 and 1883 the board of directors of the theological
+seminary, in fear that "scepticism in the world is using alleged
+discoveries in science to impugn the Word of God," requested
+Prof. Woodrow to state his views in regard to evolution.  The
+professor complied with this request in a very powerful address,
+which was published and widely circulated, to such effect that
+the board of directors shortly afterward passed resolutions
+declaring the theory of evolution as defined by Prof. Woodrow
+not inconsistent with perfect soundness in the faith.
+
+In the year 1884 alarm regarding Dr. Woodrow's teachings began
+to show itself in larger proportions, and a minority report was
+introduced into the Synod of South Carolina declaring that "the
+synod is called upon to decide not upon the question whether the
+said views of Dr. Woodrow contradict the Bible in its highest
+and absolute sense, but upon the question whether they contradict
+the interpretation of the Bible by the Presbyterian Church in the
+United States."
+
+Perhaps a more self-condemnatory statement was never presented,
+for it clearly recognized, as a basis for intolerance, at least a
+possible difference between "the interpretation of the Bible by
+the Presbyterian Church" and the teachings of "the Bible in its
+highest and absolute sense."
+
+This hostile movement became so strong that, in spite of the
+favourable action of the directors of the seminary, and against
+the efforts of a broad-minded minority in the representative
+bodies having ultimate charge of the institution, the delegates
+from the various synods raised a storm of orthodoxy and drove Dr.
+Woodrow from his post.  Happily, he was at the same time
+professor in the University of South Carolina in the same city of
+Columbia, and from his chair in that institution he continued to
+teach natural science with the approval of the great majority of
+thinking men in that region; hence, the only effect of the
+attempt to crush him was, that his position was made higher,
+respect for him deeper, and his reputation wider.
+
+In spite of attempts by the more orthodox to prevent students of
+the theological seminary from attending his lectures at the
+university, they persisted in hearing him; indeed, the
+reputation of heresy seemed to enhance his influence.
+
+It should be borne in mind that the professor thus treated had
+been one of the most respected and beloved university instructors
+in the South during more than a quarter of a century, and that he
+was turned out of his position with no opportunity for careful
+defence, and, indeed, without even the formality of a trial.
+Well did an eminent but thoughtful divine of the Southern
+Presbyterian Church declare that "the method of procedure to
+destroy evolution by the majority in the Church is vicious and
+suicidal," and that "logical dynamite has been used to put out a
+supposed fire in the upper stories of our house, and all the
+family in the house at that."  Wisely, too, did he refer to the
+majority as "sowing in the fields of the Church the thorns of its
+errors, and cumbering its path with the debris and ruin of its
+own folly."
+
+To these recent cases may be added the expulsion of Prof. Toy
+from teaching under ecclesiastical control at Louisville, and his
+election to a far more influential chair at Harvard University;
+the driving out from the American College at Beyrout of the young
+professors who accepted evolution as probable, and the rise of
+one of them, Mr. Nimr, to a far more commanding position than
+that which he left--the control of three leading journals at
+Cairo; the driving out of Robertson Smith from his position at
+Edinburgh, and his reception into the far more important and
+influential professorship at the English University of Cambridge;
+and multitudes of similar cases.  From the days when Henry
+Dunster, the first President of Harvard College, was driven from
+his presidency, as Cotton Mather said, for "falling into the
+briers of Antipedobaptism" until now, the same spirit is shown in
+all such attempts.  In each we have generally, on one side, a
+body of older theologians, who since their youth have learned
+nothing and forgotten nothing, sundry professors who do not wish
+to rewrite their lectures, and a mass of unthinking
+ecclesiastical persons of little or no importance save in making
+up a retrograde majority in an ecclesiastical tribunal; on the
+other side we have as generally the thinking, open-minded,
+devoted men who have listened to the revelation of their own time
+as well as of times past, and who are evidently thinking the
+future thought of the world.
+
+Here we have survivals of that same oppression of thought by
+theology which has cost the modern world so dear; the system
+which forced great numbers of professors, under penalty of
+deprivation, to teach that the sun and planets revolve about the
+earth; that comets are fire-balls flung by an angry God at a
+wicked world; that insanity is diabolic possession; that
+anatomical investigation of the human frame is sin against the
+Holy Ghost; that chemistry leads to sorcery; that taking
+interest for money is forbidden by Scripture; that geology must
+conform to ancient Hebrew poetry.  From the same source came in
+Austria the rule of the "Immaculate Oath," under which university
+professors, long before the dogma of the Immaculate Conception
+was defined by the Church, were obliged to swear to their belief
+in that dogma before they were permitted to teach even arithmetic
+or geometry; in England, the denunciation of inoculation against
+smallpox; in Scotland, the protests against using chloroform in
+childbirth as "vitiating the primal curse against woman"; in
+France, the use in clerical schools of a historical text-book
+from which Napoleon was left out; and, in America, the use of
+Catholic manuals in which the Inquisition is declared to have
+been a purely civil tribunal, or Protestant manuals in which the
+Puritans are shown to have been all that we could now wish they
+had been.
+
+So, too, among multitudes of similar efforts abroad, we have
+during centuries the fettering of professors at English and
+Scotch universities by test oaths, subscriptions to articles, and
+catechisms without number.  In our own country we have had in a
+vast multitude of denominational colleges, as the first
+qualification for a professorship, not ability in the subject to
+be taught, but fidelity to the particular shibboleth of the
+denomination controlling the college or university.
+
+Happily, in these days such attempts generally defeat themselves.
+The supposed victim is generally made a man of mark by
+persecution, and advanced to a higher and wider sphere of
+usefulness.  In withstanding the march of scientific truth, any
+Conference, Synod, Board of Commissioners, Board of Trustees, or
+Faculty, is but as a nest of field-mice in the path of a steam
+plough.
+
+The harm done to religion in these attempts is far greater than
+that done to science; for thereby suspicions are widely spread,
+especially among open-minded young men, that the accepted
+Christian system demands a concealment of truth, with the
+persecution of honest investigators, and therefore must be false.
+Well was it said in substance by President McCosh, of Princeton,
+that no more sure way of making unbelievers in Christianity among
+young men could be devised than preaching to them that the
+doctrines arrived at by the great scientific thinkers of this
+period are opposed to religion.
+
+Yet it is but justice here to say that more and more there is
+evolving out of this past history of oppression a better spirit,
+which is making itself manifest with power in the leading
+religious bodies of the world.  In the Church of Rome we have
+to-day such utterances as those of St. George Mivart, declaring
+that the Church must not attempt to interfere with science; that
+the Almighty in the Galileo case gave her a distinct warning that
+the priesthood of science must remain with the men of science.
+In the Anglican Church and its American daughter we have the acts
+and utterances of such men as Archbishop Tait, Bishop Temple,
+Dean Stanley, Dean Farrar, and many others, proving that the
+deepest religious thought is more and more tending to peace
+rather than warfare with science; and in the other churches,
+especially in America, while there is yet much to be desired, the
+welcome extended in many of them to Alexander Winchell, and the
+freedom given to views like his, augur well for a better state of
+things in the future.
+
+From the science of Anthropology, when rightly viewed as a whole,
+has come the greatest aid to those who work to advance religion
+rather than to promote any particular system of theology; for
+Anthropology and its subsidiary sciences show more and more that
+man, since coming upon the earth, has risen, from the period when
+he had little, if any, idea of a great power above him, through
+successive stages of fetichism, shamanism, and idolatry, toward
+better forms of belief, making him more and more accessible to
+nobler forms of religion.  The same sciences show, too, within
+the historic period, the same tendency, and especially within the
+events covered by our sacred books, a progress from fetichism, of
+which so many evidences crop out in the early Jewish worship as
+shown in the Old Testament Scriptures, through polytheism, when
+Jehovah was but "a god above all gods," through the period when
+he was "a jealous God," capricious and cruel, until he is
+revealed in such inspired utterances as those of the nobler
+Psalms, the great passages in Isaiah, the sublime preaching of
+Micah, and, above all, through the ideal given to the world by
+Jesus of Nazareth.
+
+Well indeed has an eminent divine of the Church of England in our
+own time called on Christians to rejoice over this evolution,
+"between the God of Samuel, who ordered infants to be
+slaughtered, and the God of the Psalmist, whose tender mercies
+are over all his works; between the God of the Patriarchs, who
+was always repenting, and the God of the Apostles, who is the
+same yesterday, to-day, and forever, with whom there is no
+variableness nor shadow of turning, between the God of the Old
+Testament, who walked in the garden in the cool of the day, and
+the God of the New Testament, whom no man hath seen nor can see;
+between the God of Leviticus, who was so particular about the
+sacrificial furniture and utensils, and the God of the Acts, who
+dwelleth not in temples made with hands; between the God who
+hardened Pharaoh's heart, and the God who will have all men to be
+saved; between the God of Exodus, who is merciful only to those
+who love him, and the God of Christ--the heavenly Father--who is
+kind unto the unthankful and the evil."
+
+However overwhelming, then, the facts may be which Anthropology,
+History, and their kindred sciences may, in the interest of
+simple truth, establish against the theological doctrine of "the
+Fall"; however completely they may fossilize various dogmas,
+catechisms, creeds, confessions, "plans of salvation" and
+"schemes of redemption," which have been evolved from the great
+minds of the theological period:  science, so far from making
+inroads on religion, or even upon our Christian development of
+it, will strengthen all that is essential in it, giving new and
+nobler paths to man's highest aspirations.  For the one great,
+legitimate, scientific conclusion of anthropology is, that, more
+and more, a better civilization of the world, despite all its
+survivals of savagery and barbarism, is developing men and women
+on whom the declarations of the nobler Psalms, of Isaiah, of
+Micah, the Sermon on the Mount, the first great commandment, and
+the second, which is like unto it, St. Paul's praise of charity
+and St. James's definition of "pure religion and undefiled," can
+take stronger hold for the more effective and more rapid
+uplifting of our race.[198]
+
+[198] For the resolution of the Presbyterian Synod of Mississippi
+in 1857, see Prof. Woodrow's speech before the Synod of South
+Carolina, October 27 and 28, 1884, p. 6.  As to the action of the
+Board of Directors of the Theological Seminary of Columbia, see
+ibid.  As to the minority report in the Synod of South Carolina,
+see ibid., p. 24.  For the pithy sentences regarding the conduct
+of the majority in the synods toward Dr. Woodrow, see the Rev.
+Mr. Flynn's article in the Southern Presbyterian Review for
+April, 1885, p. 272, and elsewhere.  For the restrictions
+regarding the teaching of the Copernican theory and the true
+doctrine of comets in German universities, see various histories
+of astronomy, especially Madler.  For the immaculate oath
+(Immaculaten-Eid) as enforced upon the Austrian professors, see
+Luftkandl, Die Josephinischen Ideen.  For the effort of the
+Church in France, after the restoration of the Bourbons, to teach
+a history of that country from which the name of Napoleon should
+be left out, see Father Loriquet's famous Histoire de France a
+l'Usage de la Jeunesse, Lyon, 1820, vol. ii, see especially table
+of contents at the end.  The book bears on its title-page the
+well known initials of the Jesuit motto, A. M. D. G. (Ad Majorem
+Dei Gloriam).  For examples in England and Scotland, see various
+English histories, and especially Buckle's chapters on Scotland.
+For a longer collection of examples showing the suppression of
+anything like unfettered thought upon scientific subjects in
+American universities, see Inaugural Address at the Opening of
+Cornell University, by the author of these chapters.  For the
+citation regarding the evolution of better and nobler ideas of
+God, see Church and Creed: Sermons preached in the Chapel of the
+Foundling Hospital, London, by A. W. Momerie, M. A., LL. D.,
+Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in King's College, London,
+1890.  For a very vigorous utterance on the other side, see a
+recent charge of the Bishop of Gloucester.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+FROM "THE PRINCE OF THE POWER OF THE AIR" TO METEOROLOGY
+
+I.  GROWTH OF A THEOLOGICAL THEORY.
+
+
+The popular beliefs of classic antiquity regarding storms,
+thunder, and lightning, took shape in myths representing Vulcan
+as forging thunderbolts, Jupiter as flinging them at his enemies,
+Aeolus intrusting the winds in a bag to Aeneas, and the like.  An
+attempt at their further theological development is seen in the
+Pythagorean statement that lightnings are intended to terrify the
+damned in Tartarus.
+
+But at a very early period we see the beginning of a scientific
+view.  In Greece, the Ionic philosophers held that such phenomena
+are obedient to law.  Plato, Aristotle, and many lesser lights,
+attempted to account for them on natural grounds; and their
+explanations, though crude, were based upon observation and
+thought.  In Rome, Lucretius, Seneca, Pliny, and others,
+inadequate as their statements were, implanted at least the germs
+of a science.  But, as the Christian Church rose to power, this
+evolution was checked; the new leaders of thought found, in the
+Scriptures recognized by them as sacred, the basis for a new
+view, or rather for a modification of the old view.
+
+This ending of a scientific evolution based upon observation and
+reason, and this beginning of a sacred science based upon the
+letter of Scripture and on theology, are seen in the utterances
+of various fathers in the early Church.  As to the general
+features of this new development, Tertullian held that sundry
+passages of Scripture prove lightning identical with hell-fire;
+and this idea was transmitted from generation to generation of
+later churchmen, who found an especial support of Tertullian's
+view in the sulphurous smell experienced during thunderstorms.
+St. Hilary thought the firmament very much lower than the
+heavens, and that it was created not only for the support of the
+upper waters, but also for the tempering of our atmosphere.[199]
+St. Ambrose held that thunder is caused by the winds breaking
+through the solid firmament, and cited from the prophet Amos the
+sublime passage regarding "Him that establisheth the
+thunders."[200]  He shows, indeed, some conception of the true
+source of rain; but his whole reasoning is limited by various
+scriptural texts.  He lays great stress upon the firmament as a
+solid outer shell of the universe:  the heavens he holds to be
+not far outside this outer shell, and argues regarding their
+character from St. Paul's Epistle to the Corinthians and from the
+one hundred and forty-eighth Psalm.  As to "the waters which are
+above the firmament," he takes up the objection of those who hold
+that, this outside of the universe being spherical, the waters
+must slide off it, especially if the firmament revolves; and he
+points out that it is by no means certain that the OUTSIDE of the
+firmament IS spherical, and insists that, if it does revolve, the
+water is just what is needed to lubricate and cool its axis.
+
+[199] For Tertullian, see the Apol. contra gentes, c. 47; also
+Augustin de Angelis, Lectiones Meteorologicae, p. 64.  For
+Hilary, see In Psalm CXXXV. (Migne, Patr. Lat., vol. ix, p. 773).
+
+[200] "Firmans tonitrua" (Amos iv, 13); the phrase does not
+appear in our version.
+
+
+St. Jerome held that God at the Creation, having spread out the
+firmament between heaven and earth, and having separated the
+upper waters from the lower, caused the upper waters to be frozen
+into ice, in order to keep all in place.  A proof of this view
+Jerome found in the words of Ezekiel regarding "the crystal
+stretched above the cherubim."[201]
+
+[201] For Ambrose, see the Hexaemeron, lib. ii, cap. 3,4; lib.
+iii, cap. 5 (Migne, Patr. Lat., vol. xiv, pp. 148-150, 153, 165).
+The passage as to lubrication of the heavenly axis is as follows:
+"Deinde cum ispi dicant volvi orbem coeli stellis ardentibus
+refulgentem, nonne divina providentia necessario prospexit, ut
+intra orbem coeli, et supra orbem redundaret aqua, quae illa
+ferventis axis incendia temperaret?"  For Jerome, see his
+Epistola, lxix, cap. 6 (Migne, Patr. Lat., vol. xxii, p.659).
+
+
+The germinal principle in accordance with which all these
+theories were evolved was most clearly proclaimed to the world by
+St. Augustine in his famous utterance:  "Nothing is to be
+accepted save on the authority of Scripture, since greater is
+that authority than all the powers of the human mind."[202]  No
+treatise was safe thereafter which did not breathe the spirit and
+conform to the letter of this maxim.  Unfortunately, what was
+generally understood by the "authority of Scripture" was the
+tyranny of sacred books imperfectly transcribed, viewed through
+distorting superstitions, and frequently interpreted by party
+spirit.
+
+[202] "Major est quippe Scripturae hujas auctoritas, quam omnis
+humani ingenii capacitas."--Augustine, De Genesi ad Lit., lib.
+ii, cap. 5 (Migne, Patr. Lat., vol. xxxiv, pp. 266, 267).  Or, as
+he is cited by Vincent of Beauvais (Spec. Nat., lib. iv, 98):
+"Non est aliquid temere diffiniendum, sed quantum Scriptura dicit
+accipiendum, cujus major est auctoritas quam omnis humani ingenii
+capacitas."
+
+
+Following this precept of St. Augustine there were developed, in
+every field, theological views of science which have never led to
+a single truth--which, without exception, have forced mankind
+away from the truth, and have caused Christendom to stumble for
+centuries into abysses of error and sorrow.  In meteorology, as
+in every other science with which he dealt, Augustine based
+everything upon the letter of the sacred text; and it is
+characteristic of the result that this man, so great when
+untrammelled, thought it his duty to guard especially the whole
+theory of the "waters above the heavens."
+
+In the sixth century this theological reasoning was still further
+developed, as we have seen, by Cosmas Indicopleustes.  Finding a
+sanction for the old Egyptian theory of the universe in the ninth
+chapter of Hebrews, he insisted that the earth is a flat
+parallelogram, and that from its outer edges rise immense walls
+supporting the firmament; then, throwing together the reference
+to the firmament in Genesis and the outburst of poetry in the
+Psalms regarding the "waters that be above the heavens," he
+insisted that over the terrestrial universe are solid arches
+bearing a vault supporting a vast cistern "containing the
+waters"; finally, taking from Genesis the expression regarding
+the "windows of heaven," he insisted that these windows are
+opened and closed by the angels whenever the Almighty wishes to
+send rain upon the earth or to withhold it.
+
+This was accepted by the universal Church as a vast contribution
+to thought; for several centuries it was the orthodox doctrine,
+and various leaders in theology devoted themselves to developing
+and supplementing it.
+
+About the beginning of the seventh century, Isidore, Bishop of
+Seville, was the ablest prelate in Christendom, and was showing
+those great qualities which led to his enrolment among the saints
+of the Church.  His theological view of science marks an epoch.
+As to the "waters above the firmament," Isidore contends that
+they must be lower than, the uppermost heaven, though higher than
+the lower heaven, because in the one hundred and forty-eighth
+Psalm they are mentioned AFTER the heavenly bodies and the
+"heaven of heavens," but BEFORE the terrestrial elements.  As to
+their purpose, he hesitates between those who held that they were
+stored up there by the prescience of God for the destruction of
+the world at the Flood, as the words of Scripture that "the
+windows of heaven were opened" seemed to indicate, and those who
+held that they were kept there to moderate the heat of the
+heavenly bodies.  As to the firmament, he is in doubt whether it
+envelops the earth "like an eggshell," or is merely spread over
+it "like a curtain"; for he holds that the passage in the one
+hundred and fourth Psalm may be used to support either view.
+
+Having laid these scriptural foundations, Isidore shows
+considerable power of thought; indeed, at times, when he
+discusses the rainbow, rain, hail, snow, and frost, his theories
+are rational, and give evidence that, if he could have broken
+away from his adhesion to the letter of Scripture, he might have
+given a strong impulse to the evolution of a true science.[203]
+
+[203] For Cosmas, see his Topographia Christiana (in Montfaucon,
+Collectio nova patrum, vol. ii), and the more complete account of
+his theory given in the chapter on Geography in this work.  For
+Isidore, see the Etymologiae, lib. xiii, cap. 7-9, De ordine
+creaturarum, cap. 3, 4, and De natura rerum, cap. 29, 30.
+(Migne, Patr. Lat., vol. lxxxii, pp. 476, 477, vol. lxxxiii, pp.
+920-922, 1001-1003).
+
+
+About a century later appeared, at the other extremity of Europe,
+the second in the trio of theological men of science in the early
+Middle Ages--Bede the Venerable.  The nucleus of his theory also
+is to be found in the accepted view of the "firmament" and of the
+"waters above the heavens," derived from Genesis.  The firmament
+he holds to be spherical, and of a nature subtile and fiery; the
+upper heavens, he says, which contain the angels, God has
+tempered with ice, lest they inflame the lower elements.  As to
+the waters placed above the firmament, lower than the spiritual
+heavens, but higher than all corporeal creatures, he says, "Some
+declare that they were stored there for the Deluge, but others,
+more correctly, that they are intended to temper the fire of the
+stars."  He goes on with long discussions as to various elements
+and forces in Nature, and dwells at length upon the air, of which
+he says that the upper, serene air is over the heavens; while
+the lower, which is coarse, with humid exhalations, is sent off
+from the earth, and that in this are lightning, hail, snow, ice,
+and tempests, finding proof of this in the one hundred and
+forty-eighth Psalm, where these are commanded to "praise the Lord
+from the earth."[204]
+
+[204] See Bede, De natura rerum (Migne, Patr. Lat., vol. xc).
+
+
+So great was Bede's authority, that nearly all the anonymous
+speculations of the next following centuries upon these subjects
+were eventually ascribed to him.  In one of these spurious
+treatises an attempt is made to get new light upon the sources of
+the waters above the heavens, the main reliance being the sheet
+containing the animals let down from heaven, in the vision of St.
+Peter.  Another of these treatises is still more curious, for it
+endeavours to account for earthquakes and tides by means of the
+leviathan mentioned in Scripture.  This characteristic passage
+runs as follows:  "Some say that the earth contains the animal
+leviathan, and that he holds his tail after a fashion of his own,
+so that it is sometimes scorched by the sun, whereupon he strives
+to get hold of the sun, and so the earth is shaken by the motion
+of his indignation; he drinks in also, at times, such huge
+masses of the waves that when he belches them forth all the seas
+feel their effect."  And this theological theory of the tides, as
+caused by the alternate suction and belching of leviathan, went
+far and wide.[205]
+
+[205] See the treatise De mundi constitutione, in Bede's Opera
+(Migne, Patr. Lat., vol. xc, p. 884).
+
+
+In the writings thus covered with the name of Bede there is much
+showing a scientific spirit, which might have come to something
+of permanent value had it not been hampered by the supposed
+necessity of conforming to the letter of Scripture.  It is as
+startling as it is refreshing to hear one of these medieval
+theorists burst out as follows against those who are content to
+explain everything by the power of God:  "What is more pitiable
+than to say that a thing IS, because God is able to do it, and
+not to show any reason why it is so, nor any purpose for which it
+is so; just as if God did everything that he is able to do! You
+talk like one who says that God is able to make a calf out of a
+log.  But DID he ever do it?   Either, then, show a reason why a
+thing is so, or a purpose wherefore it is so, or else cease to
+declare it so."[206]
+
+[206] For this remonstrance, see the Elementa philosophiae, in
+Bede's Opera (Migne, Patr. Lat., vol.xc, p. 1139).  This
+treatise, which has also been printed, under the title of De
+philosophia mundi, among the works of Honorius of Autun, is
+believed by modern scholars (Haureau, Werner, Poole) to be the
+production of William of Conches.
+
+
+The most permanent contribution of Bede to scientific thought in
+this field was his revival of the view that the firmament is made
+of ice; and he supported this from the words in the twenty-sixth
+chapter of Job, "He bindeth up the waters in his thick cloud, and
+the cloud is not rent under them."
+
+About the beginning of the ninth century appeared the third in
+that triumvirate of churchmen who were the oracles of sacred
+science throughout the early Middle Ages--Rabanus Maurus, Abbot
+of Fulda and Archbishop of Mayence.  Starting, like all his
+predecessors, from the first chapter of Genesis, borrowing here
+and there from the ancient philosophers, and excluding everything
+that could conflict with the letter of Scripture, he follows, in
+his work upon the universe, his two predecessors, Isidore and
+Bede, developing especially St. Jerome's theory, drawn from
+Ezekiel, that the firmament is strong enough to hold up the
+"waters above the heavens," because it is made of ice.
+
+For centuries the authority of these three great teachers was
+unquestioned, and in countless manuals and catechisms their
+doctrine was translated and diluted for the common mind.  But
+about the second quarter of the twelfth century a priest,
+Honorius of Autun, produced several treatises which show that
+thought on this subject had made some little progress.  He
+explained the rain rationally, and mainly in the modern manner;
+with the thunder he is less successful, but insists that the
+thunderbolt "is not stone, as some assert."  His thinking is
+vigorous and independent.  Had theorists such as he been many, a
+new science could have been rapidly evolved, but the theological
+current was too strong. [207]
+
+[207] For Rabanus Maurus, see the Comment. in Genesim and De
+Universo (Migne, Patr. Lat., vol. cvii, cxi).  For a charmingly
+naive example of the primers referred to, see the little Anglo-
+Saxon manual of astronomy, sometimes attributed to Aelfric; it is
+in the vernacular, but is translated in Wright's Popular
+Treatises on Science during the Middle Ages.  Bede is, of course,
+its chief source.  For Honorius, see De imagine mundi and
+Hexaemeron (Migne, Patr. Lat., vol. clxxii).  The De philosophia
+mundi, the most rational of all, is, however, believed by modern
+scholars to be unjustly ascribed to him.  See note above.
+
+
+The strength of this current which overwhelmed the thought of
+Honorius is seen again in the work of the Dominican monk, John of
+San Geminiano, who in the thirteenth century gave forth his Summa
+de Exemplis for the use of preachers in his order.  Of its
+thousand pages, over two hundred are devoted to illustrations
+drawn from the heavens and the elements.  A characteristic
+specimen is his explanation of the Psalmist's phrase, "The arrows
+of the thunder."  These, he tells us, are forged out of a dry
+vapour rising from the earth and kindled by the heat of the upper
+air, which then, coming into contact with a cloud just turning
+into rain, "is conglutinated like flour into dough," but, being
+too hot to be extinguished, its particles become merely sharpened
+at the lower end, and so blazing arrows, cleaving and burning
+everything they touch.[208]
+
+[208] See Joannes a S. Geminiano, Summa, c. 75.
+
+
+But far more important, in the thirteenth century, was the fact
+that the most eminent scientific authority of that age, Albert
+the Great, Bishop of Ratisbon, attempted to reconcile the
+speculations of Aristotle with theological views derived from the
+fathers.  In one very important respect he improved upon the
+meteorological views of his great master.  The thunderbolt, he
+says, is no mere fire, but the product of black clouds containing
+much mud, which, when it is baked by the intense heat, forms a
+fiery black or red stone that falls from the sky, tearing beams
+and crushing walls in its course:  such he has seen with his own
+eyes.[209]
+
+[209] See Albertus Magnus, II Sent., Op., vol. xv, p. 137, a.
+(cited by Heller, Gesch. d. Physik, vol. i, p. 184) and his Liber
+Methaurorum, III, iv, 18 (of which I have used the edition of
+Venice, 1488).
+
+
+The monkish encyclopedists of the later Middle Ages added little
+to these theories.  As we glance over the pages of Vincent of
+Beauvais, the monk Bartholomew, and William of Conches, we note
+only a growing deference to the authority of Aristotle as
+supplementing that of Isidore and Bede and explaining sacred
+Scripture.  Aristotle is treated like a Church father, but
+extreme care is taken not to go beyond the great maxim of St.
+Augustine; then, little by little, Bede and Isidore fall into the
+background, Aristotle fills the whole horizon, and his utterances
+are second in sacredness only to the text of Holy Writ.
+
+A curious illustration of the difficulties these medieval
+scholars had to meet in reconciling the scientific theories of
+Aristotle with the letter of the Bible is seen in the case of the
+rainbow.  It is to the honour of Aristotle that his conclusions
+regarding the rainbow, though slightly erroneous, were based upon
+careful observation and evolved by reasoning alone; but his
+Christian commentators, while anxious to follow him, had to bear
+in mind the scriptural statement that God had created the rainbow
+as a sign to Noah that there should never again be a Flood on the
+earth.  Even so bold a thinker as Cardinal d'Ailly, whose
+speculations as to the geography of the earth did so much
+afterward in stimulating Columbus, faltered before this
+statement, acknowledging that God alone could explain it; but
+suggested that possibly never before the Deluge had a cloud been
+suffered to take such a position toward the sun as to cause a
+rainbow.
+
+The learned cardinal was also constrained to believe that certain
+stars and constellations have something to do in causing the
+rain, since these would best explain Noah's foreknowledge of the
+Deluge.  In connection with this scriptural doctrine of winds
+came a scriptural doctrine of earthquakes:  they were believed to
+be caused by winds issuing from the earth, and this view was
+based upon the passage in the one hundred and thirty-fifth Psalm,
+"He bringeth the wind out of his treasuries."[210]
+
+[210] For D'Ailly, see his Concordia astronomicae veritatis cum
+theologia (Paris, 1483--in the Imago mundi--and Venice, 1490);
+also Eck's commentary on Aristotle's Meteorologica (Ausburg,
+1519), lib. ii, nota 2; also Reisch, Margarita philosophica, lib.
+ix, c. 18.
+
+
+Such were the main typical attempts during nearly fourteen
+centuries to build up under theological guidance and within
+scriptural limitations a sacred science of meteorology.  But
+these theories were mainly evolved in the effort to establish a
+basis and general theory of phenomena:  it still remained to
+account for special manifestations, and here came a twofold
+development of theological thought.
+
+On one hand, these phenomena were attributed to the Almighty,
+and, on the other, to Satan.  As to the first of these theories,
+we constantly find the Divine wrath mentioned by the earlier
+fathers as the cause of lightning, hailstorms, hurricanes, and
+the like.
+
+In the early days of Christianity we see a curious struggle
+between pagan and Christian belief upon this point.  Near the
+close of the second century the Emperor Marcus Aurelius, in his
+effort to save the empire, fought a hotly contested battle with
+the Quadi, in what is now Hungary.  While the issue of this great
+battle was yet doubtful there came suddenly a blinding storm
+beating into the faces of the Quadi, and this gave the Roman
+troops the advantage, enabling Marcus Aurelius to win a decisive
+victory.  Votaries of each of the great religions claimed that
+this storm was caused by the object of their own adoration.  The
+pagans insisted that Jupiter had sent the storm in obedience to
+their prayers, and on the Antonine Column at Rome we may still
+see the figure of Olympian Jove casting his thunderbolts and
+pouring a storm of rain from the open heavens against the Quadi.
+On the other hand, the Christians insisted that the storm had
+been sent by Jehovah in obedience to THEIR prayers; and
+Tertullian, Eusebius, St. Gregory of Nyssa, and St. Jerome were
+among those who insisted upon this meteorological miracle; the
+first two, indeed, in the fervour of their arguments for its
+reality, allowing themselves to be carried considerably beyond
+exact historical truth.[211]
+
+[211] For the authorities, pagan and Christian, see the note of
+Merivale, in his History of the Romans under the Empire, chap.
+lxviii.  He refers for still fuller citations to Fynes Clinton's
+Fasti Rom., p. 24.
+
+
+As time went on, the fathers developed this view more and more
+from various texts in the Jewish and Christian sacred books,
+substituting for Jupiter flinging his thunderbolts the Almighty
+wrapped in thunder and sending forth his lightnings.  Through the
+Middle Ages this was fostered until it came to be accepted as a
+mere truism, entering into all medieval thinking, and was still
+further developed by an attempt to specify the particular sins
+which were thus punished.  Thus even the rational Florentine
+historian Villani ascribed floods and fires to the "too great
+pride of the city of Florence and the ingratitude of the citizens
+toward God," which, "of course," says a recent historian, "meant
+their insufficient attention to the ceremonies of
+religion."[212]
+
+[212] See Trollope, History of Florence, vol. i, p. 64.
+
+
+In the thirteenth century the Cistercian monk, Caesarius of
+Heisterbach, popularized the doctrine in central Europe.  His
+rich collection of anecdotes for the illustration of religious
+truths was the favourite recreative reading in the convents for
+three centuries, and exercised great influence over the thought
+of the later Middle Ages.  In this work he relates several
+instances of the Divine use of lightning, both for rescue and for
+punishment. Thus he tells us how the steward (cellerarius) of his
+own monastery was saved from the clutch of a robber by a clap of
+thunder which, in answer to his prayer, burst suddenly from the
+sky and frightened the bandit from his purpose:  how, in a Saxon
+theatre, twenty men were struck down, while a priest escaped, not
+because he was not a greater sinner than the rest, but because
+the thunderbolt had respect for his profession! It is Cesarius,
+too, who tells us the story of the priest of Treves, struck by
+lightning in his own church, whither he had gone to ring the bell
+against the storm, and whose sins were revealed by the course of
+the lightning, for it tore his clothes from him and consumed
+certain parts of his body, showing that the sins for which he was
+punished were vanity and unchastity.[213]
+
+[213] See Caesarius Heisterbacensis, Dialogus miraculorum, lib.
+x, c. 28-30.
+
+
+This mode of explaining the Divine interference more minutely is
+developed century after century, and we find both Catholics and
+Protestants assigning as causes of unpleasant meteorological
+phenomena whatever appears to them wicked or even unorthodox.
+Among the English Reformers, Tyndale quotes in this kind of
+argument the thirteenth chapter of I.  Samuel, showing that, when
+God gave Israel a king, it thundered and rained.  Archbishop
+Whitgift, Bishop Bale, and Bishop Pilkington insisted on the same
+view.  In Protestant Germany, about the same period, Plieninger
+took a dislike to the new Gregorian calendar and published a
+volume of Brief Reflections, in which he insisted that the
+elements had given utterance to God's anger against it, calling
+attention to the fact that violent storms raged over almost all
+Germany during the very ten days which the Pope had taken out for
+the correction of the year, and that great floods began with the
+first days of the corrected year.[214]
+
+[214] For Tyndale, see his Doctrinal Treatises, p. 194, and for
+Whitgift, see his Works, vol. ii, pp. 477-483; Bale, Works, pp.
+244, 245; and Pilkington, Works, pp. 177, 536 (all in Parker
+Society Publications).  Bishop Bale cites especially Job xxxviii,
+Ecclesiasticus xiii, and Revelation viii, as supporting the
+theory.  For Plieninger's words, see Janssen, Geschichte des
+deutschen Volkes, vol. v, p. 350.
+
+
+Early in the seventeenth century, Majoli, Bishop of Voltoraria,
+in southern Italy, produced his huge work Dies Canicularii, or
+Dog Days, which remained a favourite encyclopedia in Catholic
+lands for over a hundred years.  Treating of thunder and
+lightning, he compares them to bombs against the wicked, and says
+that the thunderbolt is "an exhalation condensed and cooked into
+stone," and that "it is not to be doubted that, of all
+instruments of God's vengeance, the thunderbolt is the chief";
+that by means of it Sennacherib and his army were consumed; that
+Luther was struck by lightning in his youth as a caution against
+departing from the Catholic faith; that blasphemy and
+Sabbath-breaking are the sins to which this punishment is
+especially assigned, and he cites the case of Dathan and Abiram.
+Fifty years later the Jesuit Stengel developed this line of
+thought still further in four thick quarto volumes on the
+judgments of God, adding an elaborate schedule for the use of
+preachers in the sermons of an entire year.  Three chapters were
+devoted to thunder, lightning, and storms.  That the author
+teaches the agency in these of diabolical powers goes without
+saying; but this can only act, he declares, by Divine
+permission, and the thunderbolt is always the finger of God,
+which rarely strikes a man save for his sins, and the nature of
+the special sin thus punished may be inferred from the bodily
+organs smitten. A few years later, in Protestant Swabia, Pastor
+Georg Nuber issued a volume of "weather-sermons," in which he
+discusses nearly every sort of elemental disturbances--storms,
+floods, droughts, lightning, and hail.  These, he says, come
+direct from God for human sins, yet no doubt with discrimination,
+for there are five sins which God especially punishes with
+lightning and hail--namely, impenitence, incredulity, neglect of
+the repair of churches, fraud in the payment of tithes to the
+clergy, and oppression of subordinates, each of which points he
+supports with a mass of scriptural texts.[215]
+
+[215] For Majoli, see Dies Can., I, i; for Stengel, see the De
+judiciis divinis, vol. ii, pp. 15-61, and especially the example
+of the impurus et saltator sacerdos, fulmine castratus, pp. 26,
+27.  For Nuber, see his Conciones meteoricae, Ulm, 1661.
+
+
+This doctrine having become especially precious both to Catholics
+and to Protestants, there were issued handbooks of prayers
+against bad weather:  among these was the Spiritual Thunder and
+Storm Booklet, produced in 1731 by a Protestant scholar,
+Stoltzlin, whose three or four hundred pages of prayer and song,
+"sighs for use when it lightens fearfully," and "cries of anguish
+when the hailstorm is drawing on," show a wonderful adaptability
+to all possible meteorological emergencies.  The preface of this
+volume is contributed by Prof. Dilherr, pastor of the great
+church of St. Sebald at Nuremberg, who, in discussing the Divine
+purposes of storms, adds to the three usually assigned--namely,
+God's wish to manifest his power, to display his anger, and to
+drive sinners to repentance--a fourth, which, he says, is that
+God may show us "with what sort of a stormbell he will one day
+ring in the last judgment."
+
+About the end of the first quarter of the eighteenth century we
+find, in Switzerland, even the eminent and rational Professor of
+Mathematics, Scheuchzer, publishing his Physica Sacra, with the
+Bible as a basis, and forced to admit that the elements, in the
+most literal sense, utter the voice of God.  The same pressure
+was felt in New England.  Typical are the sermons of Increase
+Mather on The Voice of God in Stormy Winds.  He especially lays
+stress on the voice of God speaking to Job out of the whirlwind,
+and upon the text, "Stormy wind fulfilling his word."  He
+declares, "When there are great tempests, the angels oftentimes
+have a hand therein,...yea, and sometimes evil angels."  He gives
+several cases of blasphemers struck by lightning, and says,
+"Nothing can be more dangerous for mortals than to contemn
+dreadful providences, and, in particular, dreadful tempests."
+
+His distinguished son, Cotton Mather, disentangled himself
+somewhat from the old view, as he had done in the interpretation
+of comets.  In his Christian Philosopher, his Thoughts for the
+Day of Rain, and his Sermon preached at the Time of the Late
+Storm (in 1723), he is evidently tending toward the modern view.
+Yet, from time to time, the older view has reasserted itself, and
+in France, as recently as the year 1870, we find the Bishop of
+Verdun ascribing the drought afflicting his diocese to the sin of
+Sabbath-breaking.[216]
+
+[216] For Stoltzlin, see his Geistliches Donner- und Wetter-
+Buchlein (Zurich, 1731).  For Increase Mather, see his The Voice
+of God, etc. (Boston, 1704).  This rare volume is in the rich
+collection of the American Antiquarian Society at Worcester.  For
+Cotton Mather's view, see the chapter From Signs and Wonders to
+Law, in this work.  For the Bishop of Verdun, see the Semaine
+relig. de Lorraine, 1879, p. 445 (cited by "Paul Parfait," in his
+Dossier des Pelerinages, pp. 141-143).
+
+
+This theory, which attributed injurious meteorological phenomena
+mainly to the purposes of God, was a natural development, and
+comparatively harmless; but at a very early period there was
+evolved another theory, which, having been ripened into a
+doctrine, cost the earth dear indeed.  Never, perhaps, in the
+modern world has there been a dogma more prolific of physical,
+mental, and moral agony throughout whole nations and during whole
+centuries.  This theory, its development by theology, its fearful
+results to mankind, and its destruction by scientific observation
+and thought, will next be considered.
+
+
+
+II.  DIABOLIC AGENCY IN STORMS.
+
+
+While the fathers and schoolmen were labouring to deduce a
+science of meteorology from our sacred books, there oozed up in
+European society a mass of traditions and observances which had
+been lurking since the days of paganism; and, although here and
+there appeared a churchman to oppose them, the theologians and
+ecclesiastics ere long began to adopt them and to clothe them
+with the authority of religion.
+
+Both among the pagans of the Roman Empire and among the
+barbarians of the North the Christian missionaries had found it
+easier to prove the new God supreme than to prove the old gods
+powerless.  Faith in the miracles of the new religion seemed to
+increase rather than to diminish faith in the miracles of the
+old; and the Church at last began admitting the latter as facts,
+but ascribing them to the devil.  Jupiter and Odin sank into the
+category of ministers of Satan, and transferred to that master
+all their former powers.  A renewed study of Scripture by
+theologians elicited overwhelming proofs of the truth of this
+doctrine.  Stress was especially laid on the declaration of
+Scripture, "The gods of the heathen are devils."[217] Supported
+by this and other texts, it soon became a dogma.  So strong was
+the hold it took, under the influence of the Church, that not
+until late in the seventeenth century did its substantial truth
+begin to be questioned.
+
+[217] For so the Vulgate and all the early versions rendered Ps.
+xcvi, 5.
+
+
+With no field of action had the sway of the ancient deities been
+more identified than with that of atmospheric phenomena.  The
+Roman heard Jupiter, and the Teuton heard Thor, in the thunder.
+Could it be doubted that these powerful beings would now take
+occasion, unless hindered by the command of the Almighty, to vent
+their spite against those who had deserted their altars?   Might
+not the Almighty himself be willing to employ the malice of these
+powers of the air against those who had offended him?
+
+It was, indeed, no great step, for those whose simple faith
+accepted rain or sunshine as an answer to their prayers, to
+suspect that the untimely storms or droughts, which baffled their
+most earnest petitions, were the work of the archenemy, "the
+prince of the power of the air."
+
+The great fathers of the Church had easily found warrant for this
+doctrine in Scripture.  St. Jerome declared the air to be full
+of devils, basing this belief upon various statements in the
+prophecies of Isaiah and in the Epistle to the Ephesians.  St.
+Augustine held the same view as beyond controversy.[218]
+
+[218] For St. Jerome, see his Com. in Ep. ad Ephesios (lib. iii,
+cap.6): commenting on the text, "Our battle is not with flesh and
+blood," he explains this as meaning the devils in the air, and
+adds, "Nam et in alio loco de daemonibus quod in aere isto
+vagentur, Apostolus ait: In quibus ambulastis aliquando juxta
+Saeculum mundi istius, secundum principem potestatis aeris
+spiritus, qui nunc operatur in filos diffidentiae (Eph, ii,2).
+Haec autem omnium doctorum opinio est, quod aer iste qui coelum
+et terram medius dividens, inane appellatur, plenus sit
+contrariis fortitudinibus." See also his Com. in Isaiam, lib.
+xiii, cap. 50 (Migne, Patr. Lat., vol. xxiv, p. 477).  For
+Augustine, see the De Civitate Dei, passim.
+
+
+During the Middle Ages this doctrine of the diabolical origin of
+storms went on gathering strength.  Bede had full faith in it,
+and narrates various anecdotes in support of it.  St. Thomas
+Aquinas gave it his sanction, saying in his all authoritative
+Summa, "Rains and winds, and whatsoever occurs by local impulse
+alone, can be caused by demons."  "It is," he says, "a dogma of
+faith that the demons can produce wind, storms, and rain of fire
+from heaven."
+
+Albert the Great taught the same doctrine, and showed how a
+certain salve thrown into a spring produced whirlwinds.  The
+great Franciscan--the "seraphic doctor"--St. Bonaventura, whose
+services to theology earned him one of the highest places in the
+Church, and to whom Dante gave special honour in paradise, set
+upon this belief his high authority.  The lives of the saints,
+and the chronicles of the Middle Ages, were filled with it.
+Poetry and painting accepted the idea and developed it.  Dante
+wedded it to verse, and at Venice this thought may still be seen
+embodied in one of the grand pictures of Bordone:  a shipload of
+demons is seen approaching Venice in a storm, threatening
+destruction to the city, but St. Mark, St. George, and St.
+Nicholas attack the vessel, and disperse the hellish crew.[219]
+
+[219] For Bede, see the Hist. Eccles., vol. i, p. 17; Vita
+Cuthberti, c. 17 (Migne, tome xliv).  For Thomas Aquinas, see the
+Summa, pars I, qu. lxxx, art. 2.  The second citation I owe to
+Rydberg, Magic of the Middle Ages, p. 73, where the whole
+interesting passage is given at length.  For Albertus Magnus, see
+the De Potentia Daemonum (cited by Maury, Legendes Pieuses). For
+Bonaventura, see the Comp. Theol. Veritat., ii, 26.  For Dante,
+see Purgatorio, c. 5.  On Bordone's picture, see Maury, Legendes
+Pieuses, p. 18, note.
+
+
+The popes again and again sanctioned this doctrine, and it was
+amalgamated with various local superstitions, pious imaginations,
+and interesting arguments, to strike the fancy of the people at
+large.  A strong argument in favour of a diabolical origin of the
+thunderbolt was afforded by the eccentricities of its operation.
+These attracted especial attention in the Middle Ages, and the
+popular love of marvel generalized isolated phenomena into rules.
+Thus it was said that the lightning strikes the sword in the
+sheath, gold in the purse, the foot in the shoe, leaving sheath
+and purse and shoe unharmed; that it consumes a human being
+internally without injuring the skin; that it destroys nets in
+the water, but not on the land; that it kills one man, and
+leaves untouched another standing beside him; that it can tear
+through a house and enter the earth without moving a stone from
+its place; that it injures the heart of a tree, but not the bark;
+that wine is poisoned by it, while poisons struck by it lose
+their venom; that a man's hair may be consumed by it and the man
+be unhurt.[220]
+
+[220] See, for lists of such admiranda, any of the early
+writers--e. g., Vincent of Beauvais, Reisch's Margarita, or Eck's
+Aristotle.
+
+
+These peculiar phenomena, made much of by the allegorizing
+sermonizers of the day, were used in moral lessons from every
+pulpit.  Thus the Carmelite, Matthias Farinator, of Vienna, who
+at the Pope's own instance compiled early in the fifteenth
+century that curious handbook of illustrative examples for
+preachers, the Lumen Animae, finds a spiritual analogue for each
+of these anomalies.[221]
+
+[221] See the Lumen animae, Eichstadt, 1479.
+
+
+This doctrine grew, robust and noxious, until, in the fifteenth,
+sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries, we find its bloom in a
+multitude of treatises by the most learned of the Catholic and
+Protestant divines, and its fruitage in the torture chambers and
+on the scaffolds throughout Christendom.  At the Reformation
+period, and for nearly two hundred years afterward, Catholics and
+Protestants vied with each other in promoting this growth.  John
+Eck, the great opponent of Luther, gave to the world an annotated
+edition of Aristotle's Physics, which was long authoritative in
+the German universities; and, though the text is free from this
+doctrine, the woodcut illustrating the earth's atmosphere shows
+most vividly, among the clouds of mid-air, the devils who there
+reign supreme.[222]
+
+[222] See Eck, Aristotelis Meteorologica, Augsburg, 1519.
+
+
+Luther, in the other religious camp, supported the superstition
+even more zealously, asserting at times his belief that the winds
+themselves are only good or evil spirits, and declaring that a
+stone thrown into a certain pond in his native region would cause
+a dreadful storm because of the devils, kept prisoners
+there.[223]
+
+[223] For Luther, see the Table Talk; also Michelet, Life of
+Luther (translated by Hazlitt, p. 321).
+
+
+Just at the close of the same century, Catholics and Protestants
+welcomed alike the great work of Delrio.  In this, the power of
+devils over the elements is proved first from the Holy
+Scriptures, since, he declares, "they show that Satan brought
+fire down from heaven to consume the servants and flocks of Job,
+and that he stirred up a violent wind, which overwhelmed in ruin
+the sons and daughters of Job at their feasting."  Next, Delrio
+insists on the agreement of all the orthodox fathers, that it was
+the devil himself who did this, and attention is called to the
+fact that the hail with which the Egyptians were punished is
+expressly declared in Holy Scripture to have been brought by the
+evil angels.  Citing from the Apocalypse, he points to the four
+angels standing at the four corners of the earth, holding back
+the winds and preventing their doing great damage to mortals;
+and he dwells especially upon the fact that the devil is called
+by the apostle a "prince of the power of the air."  He then goes
+on to cite the great fathers of the Church--Clement, Jerome,
+Augustine, and Thomas Aquinas.[224]
+
+[224] For Delrio, see his Disquisitiones Magicae, first printed
+at Liege in 1599-1600, but reprinted again and again throughout
+the seventeenth century.  His interpretation of Psalm lxxviii,
+47-49, was apparently shared by the translators of our own
+authorized edition.  For citations by him, see Revelation vii,
+1,; Ephesians ii, 2.  Even according to modern commentators
+(e.g., Alford), the word here translated "power" denotes not
+MIGHT, but GOVERNMENT, COURT, HIERARCHY; and in this sense it was
+always used by the ecclesiastical writers, whose conception is
+best rendered by our plural--"powers."  See Delrio,
+Disquisitiones Magicae, lib. ii, c. 11.
+
+
+This doctrine was spread not only in ponderous treatises, but in
+light literature and by popular illustrations.  In the Compendium
+Maleficarum of the Italian monk Guacci, perhaps the most amusing
+book in the whole literature of witchcraft, we may see the witch,
+in propria persona, riding the diabolic goat through the clouds
+while the storm rages around and beneath her; and we may read a
+rich collection of anecdotes, largely contemporary, which
+establish the required doctrine beyond question.
+
+The first and most natural means taken against this work of Satan
+in the air was prayer; and various petitions are to be found
+scattered through the Christian liturgies--some very beautiful
+and touching.  This means of escape has been relied upon, with
+greater or less faith, from those days to these.  Various
+medieval saints and reformers, and devoted men in all centuries,
+from St. Giles to John Wesley, have used it with results claimed
+to be miraculous.  Whatever theory any thinking man may hold in
+the matter, he will certainly not venture a reproachful word:
+such prayers have been in all ages a natural outcome of the mind
+of man in trouble.[225]
+
+[225] For Guacci, see his Compendium Maleficarum (Milan, 1608).
+For the cases of St. Giles, John Wesley, and others stilling the
+tempests, see Brewer, Dictionary of Miracles, s. v. Prayer.
+
+
+But against the "power of the air" were used other means of a
+very different character and tendency, and foremost among these
+was exorcism.  In an exorcism widely used and ascribed to Pope
+Gregory XIII, the formula is given:  "I, a priest of Christ,...
+do command ye, most foul spirits, who do stir up these clouds,...
+that ye depart from them, and disperse yourselves into wild and
+untilled places, that ye may be no longer able to harm men or
+animals or fruits or herbs, or whatsoever is designed for human
+use."  But this is mild, indeed, compared to some later
+exorcisms, as when the ritual runs:  "All the people shall rise,
+and the priest, turning toward the clouds, shall pronounce these
+words: `I exorcise ye, accursed demons, who have dared to use,
+for the accomplishment of your iniquity, those powers of Nature
+by which God in divers ways worketh good to mortals; who stir up
+winds, gather vapours, form clouds, and condense them into
+hail....I exorcise ye,...that ye relinquish the work ye have
+begun, dissolve the hail, scatter the clouds, disperse the
+vapours, and restrain the winds.'" The rubric goes on to order
+that then there shall be a great fire kindled in an open place,
+and that over it the sign of the cross shall be made, and the one
+hundred and fourteenth Psalm chanted, while malodorous
+substances, among them sulphur and asafoetida, shall be cast into
+the flames.  The purpose seems to have been literally to "smoke
+out" Satan.[226]
+
+[226] See Polidorus Valerius, Practica exorcistarum; also the
+Thesaurus exorcismorum (Cologne, 1626), pp. 158-162.
+
+
+Manuals of exorcisms became important--some bulky quartos, others
+handbooks.  Noteworthy among the latter is one by the Italian
+priest Locatelli, entitled Exorcisms most Powerful and
+Efficacious for the Dispelling of Aerial Tempests, whether raised
+by Demons at their own Instance or at the Beck of some Servant of
+the Devil.[227]
+
+[227] That is, Exorcismi, etc.  A "corrected" second edition was
+printed at Laybach, 1680, in 24mo, to which is appended another
+manual of Preces et conjurationes contra aereas tempestates,
+omnibus sacerdotibus utiles et necessaria, printed at the
+monastery of Kempten (in Bavaria) in 1667.  The latter bears as
+epigraph the passage from the gospels describing Christ's
+stilling of the winds.
+
+
+The Jesuit Gretser, in his famous book on Benedictions and
+Maledictions, devotes a chapter to this subject, dismissing
+summarily the scepticism that questions the power of devils over
+the elements, and adducing the story of Job as conclusive.[228]
+
+[228] See Gretser, De benedictionibus et maledictionibus, lib.
+ii, c. 48.
+
+
+Nor was this theory of exorcism by any means confined to the
+elder Church.  Luther vehemently upheld it, and prescribed
+especially the first chapter of St. John's gospel as of
+unfailing efficacy against thunder and lightning, declaring that
+he had often found the mere sign of the cross, with the text,
+"The word was made flesh," sufficient to put storms to
+flight.[229]
+
+[229] So, at least, says Gretser (in his De ben. et aml., as
+above).
+
+
+From the beginning of the Middle Ages until long after the
+Reformation the chronicles give ample illustration of the
+successful use of such exorcisms.  So strong was the belief in
+them that it forced itself into minds comparatively rational, and
+found utterance in treatises of much importance.
+
+But, since exorcisms were found at times ineffectual, other means
+were sought, and especially fetiches of various sorts.  One of
+the earliest of these appeared when Pope Alexander I, according
+to tradition, ordained that holy water should be kept in churches
+and bedchambers to drive away devils.[230] Another safeguard was
+found in relics, and of similar efficacy were the so-called
+"conception billets" sold by the Carmelite monks.  They contained
+a formula upon consecrated paper, at which the devil might well
+turn pale.  Buried in the corner of a field, one of these was
+thought to give protection against bad weather and destructive
+insects.[231]
+
+[230] "Instituit ut aqua quam sanctum appellamus sale admixta
+interpositus sacris orationibus et in templis et in cubiculis ad
+fugandos daemones retineretur."  Platina, Vitae Pontif.  But the
+story is from the False Decretals.
+
+[231] See Rydberg, The Magic of the Middle Ages, translated by
+Edgren, pp. 63-66.
+
+
+But highest in repute during centuries was the Agnus Dei--a
+piece of wax blessed by the Pope's own hand, and stamped with the
+well-known device representing the "Lamb of God."  Its powers
+were so marvellous that Pope Urban V thought three of these cakes
+a fitting gift from himself to the Greek Emperor.  In the Latin
+doggerel recounting their virtues, their meteorological efficacy
+stands first, for especial stress is laid on their power of
+dispelling the thunder.  The stress thus laid by Pope Urban, as
+the infallible guide of Christendom, on the efficacy of this
+fetich, gave it great value throughout Europe, and the doggerel
+verses reciting its virtues sank deep into the popular mind.  It
+was considered a most potent means of dispelling hail,
+pestilence, storms, conflagrations, and enchantments; and this
+feeling was deepened by the rules and rites for its consecration.
+So solemn was the matter, that the manufacture and sale of this
+particular fetich was, by a papal bull of 1471, reserved for the
+Pope himself, and he only performed the required ceremony in the
+first and seventh years of his pontificate.  Standing unmitred,
+he prayed:  "O God,...we humbly beseech thee that thou wilt bless
+these waxen forms, figured with the image of an innocent lamb,...
+that, at the touch and sight of them, the faithful may break
+forth into praises, and that the crash of hailstorms, the blast
+of hurricanes, the violence of tempests, the fury of winds, and
+the malice of thunderbolts may be tempered, and evil spirits flee
+and tremble before the standard of thy holy cross, which is
+graven upon them."[232]
+
+[232] These pious charms are still in use in the Church, and may
+be found described in any ecclesiastical cyclopaedia. The
+doggerel verses run as follows:
+
+"Tonitrua magna terret,        Inimicos nostras domat
+Et peccata nostra delet;       Praegnantem cum partu salvat,
+Ab incendio praeservat,        Dona dignis multa confert,
+A subersione servat,           Utque malis mala defert.
+A morte cita liberat,          Portio, quamvis parva sit,
+Et Cacodaemones fugat,         Ut magna tamen proficit."
+
+See these verses cited in full faith, so late as 1743, in Father
+Vincent of Berg's Enchiridium, pp. 23, 24, where is an ample
+statement of the virtues of the Agnus Dei, and istructions for
+its use. A full account of the rites used in consecrating this
+fetich, with the prayers and benedictions which gave colour to
+this theory of the powers of the Agnus Dei, may be found in the
+ritual of the Church. I have used the edition entitled Sacrarum
+ceremoniarum sive rituum Sanctae Romanae Ecclesiae libri tres,
+Rome, 1560, in folio. The form of the papal prayer is as follows:
+"Deus . . . te supplicater deprecamur, ut . . . has cereas
+formas, innocentissimi agni imagine figuritas, benedicere . . .
+digneris, ut per ejus tactum et visum fideles invitentur as
+laudes, fragor grandinum, procella turbinum, impetus tempestatum,
+ventorum rabies, infesta tonitrua temperentur, fugiant atque
+tremiscant maligni spiritus ante Sanctae Crucis vexillum, quod in
+illis exculptum est. . . ."(Sacr. Cer. Rom. Eccl., as above). If
+any are curious as to the extent to which this consecrated wax
+was a specific for all spiritual and most temporal ills during
+the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, let them consult the
+Jesuit Litterae annuae, passim.
+
+
+Another favourite means with the clergy of the older Church for
+bringing to naught the "power of the air," was found in great
+processions bearing statues, relics, and holy emblems through the
+streets.  Yet even these were not always immediately effective.
+One at Liege, in the thirteenth century, thrice proved
+unsuccessful in bringing rain, when at last it was found that the
+image of the Virgin had been forgotten! A new procession was at
+once formed, the Salve Regina sung, and the rain came down in
+such torrents as to drive the devotees to shelter.[233]
+
+[233] John of Winterthur describes many such processions in
+Switzerland in the thirteenth century, and all the monkish
+chronicles speak of them. See also Rydberg, Magic of the Middle
+Ages, p. 74.
+
+
+In Catholic lands this custom remains to this day, and very
+important features in these processions are the statues and the
+reliquaries of patron saints.  Some of these excel in bringing
+sunshine, others in bringing rain.  The Cathedral of Chartres is
+so fortunate as to possess sundry relics of St. Taurin,
+especially potent against dry weather, and some of St. Piat,
+very nearly as infallible against wet weather.  In certain
+regions a single saint gives protection alternately against wet
+and dry weather--as, for example, St. Godeberte at Noyon.
+Against storms St. Barbara is very generally considered the most
+powerful protectress; but, in the French diocese of Limoges,
+Notre Dame de Crocq has proved a most powerful rival, for when, a
+few years since, all the neighbouring parishes were ravaged by
+storms, not a hailstone fell in the canton which she protected.
+In the diocese of Tarbes, St. Exupere is especially invoked
+against hail, peasants flocking from all the surrounding country
+to his shrine.[234]
+
+[234] As to protection by special saints as stated, see the Guide
+du touriste et du pelerin a Chartes, 1867 (cited by "Paul
+Parfait," in his Dossier des Pelerinages); also pp. 139-145 of
+the Dossier.
+
+
+But the means of baffling the powers of the air which came to be
+most widely used was the ringing of consecrated church bells.
+
+This usage had begun in the time of Charlemagne, and there is
+extant a prohibition of his against the custom of baptizing bells
+and of hanging certain tags[235] on their tongues as a
+protection against hailstorms; but even Charlemagne was
+powerless against this current of medieval superstition.
+Theological reasons were soon poured into it, and in the year 968
+Pope John XIII gave it the highest ecclesiastical sanction by
+himself baptizing the great bell of his cathedral church, the
+Lateran, and christening it with his own name.[236]
+
+[235] Perticae. See Montanus, Hist. Nachricht van den Glocken
+(Chenmitz, 1726), p. 121; and Meyer, Der Aberglaube des
+Mittelalters, p. 186.
+
+[236] For statements regarding Pope John and bell superstitions,
+see Higgins's Anacalypsis, vol. ii, p. 70.  See also Platina,
+Vitae Pontif., s. v. John XIII, and Baronius, Annales
+Ecclesiastici, sub anno 968.  The conjecture of Baronius that the
+bell was named after St. John the Baptist, is even more startling
+than the accepted tradition of the Pope's sponsorship.
+
+
+This idea was rapidly developed, and we soon find it supported in
+ponderous treatises, spread widely in sermons, and popularized in
+multitudes of inscriptions cast upon the bells themselves.  This
+branch of theological literature may still be studied in
+multitudes of church towers throughout Europe.  A bell at Basel
+bears the inscription, "Ad fugandos demones."  Another, in
+Lugano, declares "The sound of this bell vanquishes tempests,
+repels demons, and summons men."  Another, at the Cathedral of
+Erfurt, declares that it can "ward off lightning and malignant
+demons."  A peal in the Jesuit church at the university town of
+Pont-a-Mousson bore the words, "They praise God, put to flight
+the clouds, affright the demons, and call the people."  This is
+dated 1634.  Another bell in that part of France declares, "It is
+I who dissipate the thunders"(Ego sum qui dissipo
+tonitrua).[237]
+
+[237] For these illustrations, with others equally striking, see
+Meyer, Der Aberglaube des Mittelalters, pp. 185, 186.  For the
+later examples, see Germain, Anciennes cloches lorraines (Nancy,
+1885), pp. 23, 27.
+
+
+Another, in one of the forest cantons of Switzerland, bears a
+doggerel couplet, which may be thus translated:
+
+"On the devil my spite I'll vent,
+And, God helping, bad weather prevent."[238]
+
+[238] "An dem Tufel will cih mich rachen,
+Mit der hilf gotz alle bosen wetter erbrechen."
+(See Meyer, as above.)
+
+
+Very common were inscriptions embodying this doctrine in sonorous
+Latin.
+
+Naturally, then, there grew up a ritual for the consecration of
+bells.  Knollys, in his quaint translation of the old chronicler
+Sleidan, gives us the usage in the simple English of the middle
+of the sixteenth century:
+
+"In lyke sorte [as churches] are the belles used.  And first,
+forsouth, they must hange so, as the Byshop may goe round about
+them.  Whiche after he hath sayde certen Psalmes, he consecrateth
+water and salte, and mingleth them together, wherwith he washeth
+the belle diligently both within and without, after wypeth it
+drie, and with holy oyle draweth in it the signe of the crosse,
+and prayeth God, that whan they shall rynge or sounde that bell,
+all the disceiptes of the devyll may vanyshe away, hayle,
+thondryng, lightening, wyndes, and tempestes, and all untemperate
+weathers may be aswaged.  Whan he hath wipte out the crosse of
+oyle wyth a linen cloth, he maketh seven other crosses in the
+same, and within one only.  After saying certen Psalmes, he
+taketh a payre of sensours and senseth the bel within, and
+prayeth God to sende it good lucke.  In many places they make a
+great dyner, and kepe a feast as it were at a solemne
+wedding."[239]
+
+[239] Sleiden's Commentaries, English translation, as above, fol.
+334 (lib. xxi, sub anno 1549).
+
+
+These bell baptisms became matters of great importance.  Popes,
+kings, and prelates were proud to stand as sponsors.  Four of the
+bells at the Cathedral of Versailles having been destroyed during
+the French Revolution, four new ones were baptized, on the 6th of
+January, 1824, the Voltairean King, Louis XVIII, and the pious
+Duchess d'Angouleme standing as sponsors.
+
+In some of these ceremonies zeal appears to have outrun
+knowledge, and one of Luther's stories, at the expense of the
+older Church, was that certain authorities thus christened a bell
+"Hosanna," supposing that to be the name of a woman.
+
+To add to the efficacy of such baptisms, water was sometimes
+brought from the river Jordan.[240]
+
+[240] See Montanus, as above, who cites Beck, Lutherthum vor
+Luthero, p. 294, for the statement that many bells were carried
+to the Jordan by pilgrims for this purpose.
+
+
+The prayers used at bell baptisms fully recognise this doctrine.
+The ritual of Paris embraces the petition that, "whensoever this
+bell shall sound, it shall drive away the malign influences of
+the assailing spirits, the horror of their apparitions, the rush
+of whirlwinds, the stroke of lightning, the harm of thunder, the
+disasters of storms, and all the spirits of the tempest."
+Another prayer begs that "the sound of this bell may put to
+flight the fiery darts of the enemy of men"; and others vary the
+form but not the substance of this petition.  The great Jesuit
+theologian, Bellarmin, did indeed try to deny the reality of this
+baptism; but this can only be regarded as a piece of casuistry
+suited to Protestant hardness of heart, or as strategy in the
+warfare against heretics.[241]
+
+[241] For prayers at bell baptisms, see Arago, Oeuvres, Paris,
+1854, vol. iv, p. 322.
+
+
+Forms of baptism were laid down in various manuals sanctioned
+directly by papal authority, and sacramental efficacy was
+everywhere taken for granted.[242] The development of this idea
+in the older Church was too strong to be resisted;[243] but, as
+a rule, the Protestant theologians of the Reformation, while
+admitting that storms were caused by Satan and his legions,
+opposed the baptism of bells, and denied the theory of their
+influence in dispersing storms.  Luther, while never doubting
+that troublesome meteorological phenomena were caused by devils,
+regarded with contempt the idea that the demons were so childish
+as to be scared by the clang of bells; his theory made them
+altogether too powerful to be affected by means so trivial.  The
+great English Reformers, while also accepting very generally the
+theory of diabolic interference in storms, reproved strongly the
+baptizing of bells, as the perversion of a sacrament and
+involving blasphemy.  Bishop Hooper declared reliance upon bells
+to drive away tempests, futile.  Bishop Pilkington, while arguing
+that tempests are direct instruments of God's wrath, is very
+severe against using "unlawful means," and among these he names
+"the hallowed bell"; and these opinions were very generally
+shared by the leading English clergy.[244]
+
+[242] As has often been pointed out, the ceremony was in all its
+details--even to the sponsors, the wrapping a garment about the
+baptised, the baptismal fee, the feast--precisely the same as
+when a child was baptised.  Magius, who is no sceptic, relates
+from his own experience an instant of this sort, where a certain
+bishop stood sponsor for two bells, giving them both his own
+name--William. (See his De Tintinnabulis, vol. xiv.)
+
+[243] And no wonder, when the oracle of the Church, Thomas
+Aquinas, expressly pronounced church bells, "provided they have
+been duly consecrated and baptised," the foremost means of
+"frustrating the atmospheric mischiefs of the devil," and likened
+steeples in which bells are ringing to a hen brooding her
+chickens, "for the tones of the consecrated metal repel the
+demons and avert storm and lightning"; when pre-Reformation
+preachers of such universal currency as Johannes Herolt declared,
+"Bells, as all agree, are baptised with the result that they are
+secure from the power of Satan, terrify the demons, compel the
+powers"; when Geiler of Kaiserberg especially commended bell-
+ringing as a means of beating off the devil in storms; and when a
+canonist like Durandus explained the purpose of the rite to be,
+that "the demons hearing the trumpets of the Eternal King, to
+wit, the bells, may flee in terror, and may cease from the
+stirring up of tempests." See Herolt, Sermones Discipuli, vol.
+xvii, and Durandus, De ritibus ecclesiae, vol. ii, p. 12.  I owe
+the first of these citations to Rydberg, and the others to
+Montanus. For Geiler, see Dacheux, Geiler de Kaiserberg, pp. 280,
+281.
+
+[244] The baptism of bells was indeed, one of the express
+complaints of the German Protestant princes at the Reformation.
+See their Gravam. Cent. German. Grav., p. 51.  For Hooper, see
+his Early Writings, p. 197 (in Parker Society Publications).  For
+Pilkington, see his Works, p. 177 (in same).  Among others
+sharing these opinions were Tyndale, Bishop Ridley, Archbishop
+Sandys, Becon, Calfhill, and Rogers.  It is to be noted that all
+of these speak of the rite as "baptism."
+
+
+Toward the end of the sixteenth century the Elector of Saxony
+strictly forbade the ringing of bells against storms, urging
+penance and prayer instead; but the custom was not so easily
+driven out of the Protestant Church, and in some quarters was
+developed a Protestant theory of a rationalistic sort, ascribing
+the good effects of bell-ringing in storms to the calling
+together of the devout for prayer or to the suggestion of prayers
+during storms at night.  As late as the end of the seventeenth
+century we find the bells of Protestant churches in northern
+Germany rung for the dispelling of tempests.  In Catholic Austria
+this bell-ringing seems to have become a nuisance in the last
+century, for the Emperor Joseph II found it necessary to issue an
+edict against it; but this doctrine had gained too large headway
+to be arrested by argument or edict, and the bells may be heard
+ringing during storms to this day in various remote districts in
+Europe.[245]  For this was no mere superficial view.  It was
+really part of a deep theological current steadily developed
+through the Middle Ages, the fundamental idea of the whole being
+the direct influence of the bells upon the "Power of the Air";
+and it is perhaps worth our while to go back a little and glance
+over the coming of this current into the modern world.  Having
+grown steadily through the Middle Ages, it appeared in full
+strength at the Reformation period; and in the sixteenth century
+Olaus Magnus, Archbishop of Upsala and Primate of Sweden, in his
+great work on the northern nations, declares it a
+well-established fact that cities and harvests may be saved from
+lightning by the ringing of bells and the burning of consecrated
+incense, accompanied by prayers; and he cautions his readers
+that the workings of the thunderbolt are rather to be marvelled
+at than inquired into.  Even as late as 1673 the Franciscan
+professor Lealus, in Italy, in a schoolbook which was received
+with great applause in his region, taught unhesitatingly the
+agency of demons in storms, and the power of bells over them, as
+well as the portentousness of comets and the movement of the
+heavens by angels.  He dwells especially, too, upon the perfect
+protection afforded by the waxen Agnus Dei.  How strong this
+current was, and how difficult even for philosophical minds to
+oppose, is shown by the fact that both Descartes and Francis
+Bacon speak of it with respect, admitting the fact, and
+suggesting very mildly that the bells may accomplish this purpose
+by the concussion of the air.[246]
+
+[245] For Elector of Saxony, see Peuchen, Disp. circa
+tempestates, Jena, 1697.  For the Protestant theory of bells,
+see, e. g., the Ciciones Selectae of Superintendent Conrad
+Dieterich (cited by Peuchen, Disp. circa tempestates).  For
+Protestant ringing of bells to dispel tempests, see Schwimmer,
+Physicalische Luftfragen, 1692 (cited by Peuchen, as above).  He
+pictures the whole population of a Thuringinian district flocking
+to the churches on the approach of a storm.
+
+[246] For Olaus Magnus, see the De gentibus septentrionalibus
+(Rome, 1555), lib. i, c. 12, 13.  For Descartes, see his De
+meteor., cent. 2, 127.  In his Historia Ventorum he again alludes
+to the belief, and without comment.
+
+
+But no such moderate doctrine sufficed, and the renowned Bishop
+Binsfeld, of Treves, in his noted treatise on the credibility of
+the confessions of witches, gave an entire chapter to the effect
+of bells in calming atmospheric disturbances.  Basing his general
+doctrine upon the first chapter of Job and the second chapter of
+Ephesians, he insisted on the reality of diabolic agency in
+storms; and then, by theological reasoning, corroborated by the
+statements extorted in the torture chamber, he showed the
+efficacy of bells in putting the hellish legions to flight.[247]
+This continued, therefore, an accepted tenet, developed in every
+nation, and coming to its climax near the end of the seventeenth
+century.  At that period--the period of Isaac Newton--Father
+Augustine de Angelis, rector of the Clementine College at Rome,
+published under the highest Church authority his lectures upon
+meteorology.  Coming from the centre of Catholic Christendom, at
+so late a period, they are very important as indicating what had
+been developed under the influence of theology during nearly
+seventeen hundred years.  This learned head of a great college at
+the heart of Christendom taught that "the surest remedy against
+thunder is that which our Holy Mother the Church practises,
+namely, the ringing of bells when a thunderbolt impends:  thence
+follows a twofold effect, physical and moral--a physical, because
+the sound variously disturbs and agitates the air, and by
+agitation disperses the hot exhalations and dispels the thunder;
+but the moral effect is the more certain, because by the sound
+the faithful are stirred to pour forth their prayers, by which
+they win from God the turning away of the thunderbolt."  Here we
+see in this branch of thought, as in so many others, at the close
+of the seventeenth century, the dawn of rationalism.  Father De
+Angelis now keeps demoniacal influence in the background.
+Little, indeed, is said of the efficiency of bells in putting to
+flight the legions of Satan:  the wise professor is evidently
+preparing for that inevitable compromise which we see in the
+history of every science when it is clear that it can no longer
+be suppressed by ecclesiastical fulminations.[248]
+
+[247] See Binsfeld, De Confessionbus Malef., pp. 308-314, edition
+of 1623.
+
+[248] For De Angelis, see his Lectiones Meteorol., p. 75.
+
+
+
+III.  THE AGENCY OF WITCHES.
+
+
+But, while this comparatively harmless doctrine of thwarting the
+powers of the air by fetiches and bell-ringing was developed,
+there were evolved another theory, and a series of practices
+sanctioned by the Church, which must forever be considered as
+among the most fearful calamities in human history.  Indeed, few
+errors have ever cost so much shedding of innocent blood over
+such wide territory and during so many generations.  Out of the
+old doctrine--pagan and Christian--of evil agency in atmospheric
+phenomena was evolved the belief that certain men, women, and
+children may secure infernal aid to produce whirlwinds, hail,
+frosts, floods, and the like.
+
+As early as the ninth century one great churchman, Agobard,
+Archbishop of Lyons, struck a heavy blow at this superstition.
+His work, Against the Absurd Opinion of the Vulgar touching Hail
+and Thunder, shows him to have been one of the most devoted
+apostles of right reason whom human history has known.  By
+argument and ridicule, and at times by a lofty eloquence, he
+attempted to breast this tide.  One passage is of historical
+significance.  He declares:  "The wretched world lies now under
+the tyranny of foolishness; things are believed by Christians of
+such absurdity as no one ever could aforetime induce the heathen
+to believe."[249]
+
+[249] For a very interesting statement of Agobard's position and
+work, with citations from his Liber contra insulsam vulgi
+opinionem de grandine et tonitruis, see Poole, Illustrations of
+the History of Mediaeval Thought, pp. 40 et seq.  The works of
+Agobard are in vol. civ of Migne's Patrol. Lat.
+
+
+All in vain; the tide of superstition continued to roll on;
+great theologians developed it and ecclesiastics favoured it;
+until as we near the end of the medieval period the infallible
+voice of Rome is heard accepting it, and clinching this belief
+into the mind of Christianity.  For, in 1437, Pope Eugene IV, by
+virtue of the teaching power conferred on him by the Almighty,
+and under the divine guarantee against any possible error in the
+exercise of it, issued a bull exhorting the inquisitors of heresy
+and witchcraft to use greater diligence against the human agents
+of the Prince of Darkness, and especially against those who have
+the power to produce bad weather.  In 1445 Pope Eugene returned
+again to the charge, and again issued instructions and commands
+infallibly committing the Church to the doctrine.  But a greater
+than Eugene followed, and stamped the idea yet more deeply into
+the mind of the Church.  On the 7th of December, 1484, Pope
+Innocent VIII sent forth his bull Summis Desiderantes.  Of all
+documents ever issued from Rome, imperial or papal, this has
+doubtless, first and last, cost the greatest shedding of innocent
+blood.  Yet no document was ever more clearly dictated by
+conscience.  Inspired by the scriptural command, "Thou shalt not
+suffer a witch to live," Pope Innocent exhorted the clergy of
+Germany to leave no means untried to detect sorcerers, and
+especially those who by evil weather destroy vineyards, gardens,
+meadows, and growing crops.  These precepts were based upon
+various texts of Scripture, especially upon the famous statement
+in the book of Job; and, to carry them out, witch-finding
+inquisitors were authorized by the Pope to scour Europe,
+especially Germany, and a manual was prepared for their use--the
+Witch-Hammer, Malleus Maleficarum.  In this manual, which was
+revered for centuries, both in Catholic and Protestant countries,
+as almost divinely inspired, the doctrine of Satanic agency in
+atmospheric phenomena was further developed, and various means of
+detecting and punishing it were dwelt upon.[250]
+
+[250] For the bull of Pope Eugene, see Raynaldus, Annales Eccl.,
+pp. 1437, 1445.  The Latin text of the bull Summis Desiderantes
+may now be found in the Malleus Maleficarum, in Binsfeld's De
+Confessionibus cited below, or in Roskoff's Geschichte des
+Teufles (Leipsic, 1869), vol. i, pp. 222-225.  There is, so far
+as I know, no good analysis, in any English book, of the contents
+of the Witch-Hammer; but such may be found in Roskoff's
+Geschichte des Teufels, or in Soldan's Geschichte der
+Hexenprozesse.  Its first dated edition is that of 1489; but
+Prof. Burr has shown that it was printed as early as 1486.  It
+was, happily, never translated into any modern tongue.
+
+
+With the application of torture to thousands of women, in
+accordance with the precepts laid down in the Malleus, it was
+not difficult to extract masses of proof for this sacred theory
+of meteorology.  The poor creatures, writhing on the rack, held
+in horror by those who had been nearest and dearest to them,
+anxious only for death to relieve their sufferings, confessed to
+anything and everything that would satisfy the inquisitors and
+judges.  All that was needed was that the inquisitors should ask
+leading questions[251] and suggest satisfactory answers:  the
+prisoners, to shorten the torture, were sure sooner or later to
+give the answer required, even though they knew that this would
+send them to the stake or scaffold.  Under the doctrine of
+"excepted cases," there was no limit to torture for persons
+accused of heresy or witchcraft; even the safeguards which the
+old pagan world had imposed upon torture were thus thrown down,
+and the prisoner MUST confess.
+
+[251] For still extant lists of such questions, see the
+Zeitschrift fur deutsche Culturgeschichte for 1858, pp. 522-528,
+or Diefenbach, Der Hexenwahn in Deutschland, pp. 15-17.  Father
+Vincent of Berg (in his Enchiridium) gives a similar list for use
+by priests in the confession of the accused.  Manuscript lists of
+this sort which have actually done service in the courts of Baden
+and Bavaria may be seen in the library of Cornell University.
+
+
+The theological literature of the Middle Ages was thus enriched
+with numberless statements regarding modes of Satanic influence
+on the weather.  Pathetic, indeed, are the records; and none
+more so than the confessions of these poor creatures, chiefly
+women and children, during hundreds of years, as to their manner
+of raising hailstorms and tempests.  Such confessions, by tens of
+thousands, are still to be found in the judicial records of
+Germany, and indeed of all Europe.  Typical among these is one on
+which great stress was laid during ages, and for which the world
+was first indebted to one of these poor women.  Crazed by the
+agony of torture, she declared that, returning with a demon
+through the air from the witches' sabbath, she was dropped upon
+the earth in the confusion which resulted among the hellish
+legions when they heard the bells sounding the Ave Maria.  It is
+sad to note that, after a contribution so valuable to sacred
+science, the poor woman was condemned to the flames.  This
+revelation speedily ripened the belief that, whatever might be
+going on at the witches' sabbath--no matter how triumphant Satan
+might be--at the moment of sounding the consecrated bells the
+Satanic power was paralyzed.  This theory once started, proofs
+came in to support it, during a hundred years, from the torture
+chambers in all parts of Europe.
+
+Throughout the later Middle Ages the Dominicans had been the main
+agents in extorting and promulgating these revelations, but in
+the centuries following the Reformation the Jesuits devoted
+themselves with even more keenness and vigour to the same task.
+Some curious questions incidentally arose.  It was mooted among
+the orthodox authorities whether the damage done by storms should
+or should not be assessed upon the property of convicted witches.
+The theologians inclined decidedly to the affirmative; the
+jurists, on the whole, to the negative.[252]
+
+[252] For proofs of the vigour of the Jesuits in this
+persecution, see not only the histories of witchcraft, but also
+the Annuae litterae of the Jesuits themselves, passim.
+
+
+In spite of these tortures, lightning and tempests continued, and
+great men arose in the Church throughout Europe in every
+generation to point out new cruelties for the discovery of
+"weather-makers," and new methods for bringing their machinations
+to naught.
+
+But here and there, as early as the sixteenth century, we begin
+to see thinkers endeavouring to modify or oppose these methods.
+At that time Paracelsus called attention to the reverberation of
+cannon as explaining the rolling of thunder, but he was
+confronted by one of his greatest contemporaries.  Jean Bodin, as
+superstitious in natural as he was rational in political science,
+made sport of the scientific theory, and declared thunder to be
+"a flaming exhalation set in motion by evil spirits, and hurled
+downward with a great crash and a horrible smell of sulphur."  In
+support of this view, he dwelt upon the confessions of tortured
+witches, upon the acknowledged agency of demons in the
+Will-o'-the-wisp, and specially upon the passage in the one
+hundred and fourth Psalm, "Who maketh his angels spirits, his
+ministers a flaming fire."
+
+To resist such powerful arguments by such powerful men was
+dangerous indeed.  In 1513, Pomponatius, professor at Padua,
+published a volume of Doubts as to the Fourth Book of Aristotle's
+Meteorologica, and also dared to question this power of devils;
+but he soon found it advisable to explain that, while as a
+PHILOSOPHER he might doubt, yet as a CHRISTIAN he of course
+believed everything taught by Mother Church--devils and all--and
+so escaped the fate of several others who dared to question the
+agency of witches in atmospheric and other disturbances.
+
+A few years later Agrippa of Nettesheim made a somewhat similar
+effort to breast this theological tide in northern Europe.  He
+had won a great reputation in various fields, but especially in
+natural science, as science was then understood.  Seeing the
+folly and cruelty of the prevailing theory, he attempted to
+modify it, and in 1518, as Syndic of Metz, endeavoured to save a
+poor woman on trial for witchcraft.  But the chief inquisitor,
+backed by the sacred Scriptures, the papal bulls, the theological
+faculties, and the monks, was too strong for him; he was not only
+forced to give up his office, but for this and other offences of
+a similar sort was imprisoned, driven from city to city and from
+country to country, and after his death his clerical enemies,
+especially the Dominicans, pursued his memory with calumny, and
+placed over his grave probably the most malignant epitaph ever
+written.
+
+As to argument, these efforts were met especially by Jean Bodin
+in his famous book, the Demonomanie des Sorciers, published in
+1580.  It was a work of great power by a man justly considered
+the leading thinker in France, and perhaps in Europe.  All the
+learning of the time, divine and human, he marshalled in support
+of the prevailing theory.  With inexorable logic he showed that
+both the veracity of sacred Scripture and the infallibility of a
+long line of popes and councils of the Church were pledged to it,
+and in an eloquent passage this great publicist warned rulers and
+judges against any mercy to witches--citing the example of King
+Ahab condemned by the prophet to die for having pardoned a man
+worthy of death, and pointing significantly to King Charles IX of
+France, who, having pardoned a sorcerer, died soon
+afterward.[253]
+
+[253] To the argument cited above, Bodin adds: "Id certissimam
+daemonis praesentiam significat; nam ubicunque daemones cum
+hominibus nefaria societatis fide copulantur, foedissimum semper
+relinquunt sulphuris odorem, quod sortilegi saepissime
+experiuntur et confitentur."  See Bodin's Universae Naturae
+Theatrum, Frankfort, 1597, pp. 208-211.  The first edition of the
+book by Pomponatius, which was the earliest of his writings, is
+excessively rare, but it was reprinted at Venice just a half-
+century later.  It is in his De incantationibus, however, that he
+speaks especially of devils.  As to Pomponatius, see, besides
+these, Creighton's History of the Papacy during the Reformation,
+and an excellent essay in Franck's Moralistes et Philosophes.
+For Agrippa, see his biography by Prof. Henry Morley, London,
+1856.  For Bodin, see a statement of his general line of argument
+in Lecky, Rationalism in Europe, vol. i, chap. 1.
+
+
+In the last years of the sixteenth century the persecutions for
+witchcraft and magic were therefore especially cruel; and in the
+western districts of Germany the main instrument in them was
+Binsfeld, Suffragan Bishop of Treves.
+
+At that time Cornelius Loos was a professor at the university of
+that city.  He was a devoted churchman, and one of the most
+brilliant opponents of Protestantism, but he finally saw through
+the prevailing belief regarding occult powers, and in an evil
+hour for himself embodied his idea in a book entitled True and
+False Magic.  The book, though earnest, was temperate, but this
+helped him and his cause not at all.  The texts of Scripture
+clearly sanctioning belief in sorcery and magic stood against
+him, and these had been confirmed by the infallible teachings of
+the Church and the popes from time immemorial; the book was
+stopped in the press, the manuscript confiscated, and Loos thrown
+into a dungeon.
+
+The inquisitors having wrought their will upon him, in the spring
+of 1593 he was brought out of prison, forced to recant on his
+knees before the assembled dignitaries of the Church, and
+thenceforward kept constantly under surveillance and at times in
+prison.  Even this was considered too light a punishment, and his
+arch-enemy, the Jesuit Delrio, declared that, but for his death
+by the plague, he would have been finally sent to the stake.[254]
+
+[254] What remains of the manuscript of Loos, which until
+recently was supposed to be lost, was found, hidden away on the
+shelves of the old Jesuit library at Treves, by Mr. George
+Lincoln Burr, now a professor at Cornell University; and Prof.
+Burr's copy of the manuscript is now in the library of that
+institution.  For a full account of the discovery and its
+significance, see the New York Nation for November 11, 1886.  The
+facts regarding the after-life of Loos were discovered by Prof.
+Burr in manuscript records at Brussels.
+
+
+That this threat was not unmeaning had been seen a few years
+earlier in a case even more noted, and in the same city.  During
+the last decades of the sixteenth century, Dietrich Flade, an
+eminent jurist, was rector of the University of Treves, and chief
+judge of the Electoral Court, and in the latter capacity he had
+to pass judgment upon persons tried on the capital charge of
+magic and witchcraft.  For a time he yielded to the long line of
+authorities, ecclesiastical and judicial, supporting the reality
+of this crime; but he at last seems to have realized that it was
+unreal, and that the confessions in his torture chamber, of
+compacts with Satan, riding on broomsticks to the witch-sabbath,
+raising tempests, producing diseases, and the like, were either
+the results of madness or of willingness to confess anything and
+everything, and even to die, in order to shorten the fearful
+tortures to which the accused were in all cases subjected until a
+satisfactory confession was obtained.
+
+On this conviction of the unreality of many at least of the
+charges Flade seems to have acted, and he at once received his
+reward.  He was arrested by the authority of the archbishop and
+charged with having sold himself to Satan--the fact of his
+hesitation in the persecution being perhaps what suggested his
+guilt.  He was now, in his turn, brought into the torture chamber
+over which he had once presided, was racked until he confessed
+everything which his torturers suggested, and finally, in 1589,
+was strangled and burnt.
+
+Of that trial a record exists in the library of Cornell
+University in the shape of the original minutes of the case, and
+among them the depositions of Flade when under torture, taken
+down from his own lips in the torture chamber.  In these
+depositions this revered and venerable scholar and jurist
+acknowledged the truth of every absurd charge brought against
+him--anything, everything, which would end the fearful torture:
+compared with that, death was nothing.[255]
+
+[255] For the case of Flade, see the careful study by Prof. Burr,
+The Fate of Dietrich Flade, in the Papers of the American
+Historical Association, 1891.
+
+
+Nor was even a priest secure who ventured to reveal the unreality
+of magic.  When Friedrich Spee, the Jesuit poet of western
+Germany, found, in taking the confessions of those about to be
+executed for magic, that without exception, just when about to
+enter eternity and utterly beyond hope of pardon, they all
+retracted their confessions made under torture, his sympathies as
+a man rose above his loyalty to his order, and he published his
+Cautio Criminalis as a warning, stating with entire moderation
+the facts he had observed and the necessity of care.  But he did
+not dare publish it under his own name, nor did he even dare
+publish it in a Catholic town; he gave it to the world
+anonymously, and, in order to prevent any tracing of the work to
+him through the confessional, he secretly caused it to be
+published in the Protestant town of Rinteln.
+
+Nor was this all.  Nothing shows so thoroughly the hold that this
+belief in magic had obtained as the conduct of Spee's powerful
+friend and contemporary, John Philip von Schonborn, later the
+Elector and Prince Archbishop of Mayence.
+
+As a youth, Schonborn had loved and admired Spee, and had
+especially noted his persistent melancholy and his hair whitened
+even in his young manhood.  On Schonborn's pressing him for the
+cause, Spee at last confessed that his sadness, whitened hair,
+and premature old age were due to his recollections of the scores
+of men and women and children whom he had been obliged to see
+tortured and sent to the scaffold and stake for magic and
+witchcraft, when he as their father confessor positively knew
+them to be innocent.  The result was that, when Schonborn became
+Elector and Archbishop of Mayence, he stopped the witch
+persecutions in that province, and prevented them as long as he
+lived.  But here was shown the strength of theological and
+ecclesiastical traditions and precedents.  Even a man so strong
+by family connections, and enjoying such great temporal and
+spiritual power as Schonborn, dared not openly give his reasons
+for this change of policy.  So far as is known, he never uttered
+a word publicly against the reality of magic, and under his
+successor in the electorate witch trials were resumed.
+
+The great upholders of the orthodox view retained full possession
+of the field.  The victorious Bishop Binsfeld, of Treves, wrote a
+book to prove that everything confessed by the witches under
+torture, especially the raising of storms and the general
+controlling of the weather, was worthy of belief; and this book
+became throughout Europe a standard authority, both among
+Catholics and Protestants.  Even more inflexible was Remigius,
+criminal judge in Lorraine.  On the title-page of his manual he
+boasts that within fifteen years he had sent nine hundred persons
+to death for this imaginary crime.[256]
+
+[256] For Spee and Schonborn, see Soldan and other German
+authorities.  There are copies of the first editions of the
+Cautio Criminalis in the library of Cornell University.
+Binsfeld's book bore the title of Tractatus de confessionibus
+maleficorum et sagarum.  First published at Treves in 1589, it
+appeared subsequently four times in the original Latin, as well
+as in two distinct German translations, and in a French one.
+Remigius's manual was entitled Daemonolatreia, and was first
+printed at Lyons in 1595.
+
+
+Protestantism fell into the superstition as fully as Catholicism.
+In the same century John Wier, a disciple of Agrippa, tried to
+frame a pious theory which, while satisfying orthodoxy, should do
+something to check the frightful cruelties around him.  In his
+book De Praestigiis Daemonum, published in 1563, he proclaimed
+his belief in witchcraft, but suggested that the compacts with
+Satan, journeys through the air on broomsticks, bearing children
+to Satan, raising storms and producing diseases--to which so many
+women and children confessed under torture--were delusions
+suggested and propagated by Satan himself, and that the persons
+charged with witchcraft were therefore to be considered "as
+possessed"--that is, rather as sinned against than sinning.[257]
+
+[257] For Wier, or Weyer,s ee, besides his own works, the
+excellent biography by Prof. Binz, of Bonn.
+
+
+But neither Catholics nor Protestants would listen for a moment
+to any such suggestion.  Wier was bitterly denounced and
+persecuted.  Nor did Bekker, a Protestant divine in Holland, fare
+any better in the following century.  For his World Bewitched,
+in which he ventured not only to question the devil's power over
+the weather, but to deny his bodily existence altogether, he was
+solemnly tried by the synod of his Church and expelled from his
+pulpit, while his views were condemned as heresy, and overwhelmed
+with a flood of refutations whose mere catalogue would fill
+pages; and these cases were typical of many.
+
+The Reformation had, indeed, at first deepened the superstition;
+the new Church being anxious to show itself equally orthodox and
+zealous with the old.  During the century following the first
+great movement, the eminent Lutheran jurist and theologian
+Benedict Carpzov, whose boast was that he had read the Bible
+fifty-three times, especially distinguished himself by his skill
+in demonstrating the reality of witchcraft, and by his cruelty in
+detecting and punishing it.  The torture chambers were set at
+work more vigorously than ever, and a long line of theological
+jurists followed to maintain the system and to extend it.
+
+To argue against it, or even doubt it, was exceedingly dangerous.
+Even as late as the beginning of the eighteenth century, when
+Christian Thomasius, the greatest and bravest German between
+Luther and Lessing, began the efforts which put an end to it in
+Protestant Germany, he did not dare at first, bold as he was, to
+attack it in his own name, but presented his views as the
+university thesis of an irresponsible student.[258]
+
+[258] For Thomasius, see his various bigraphies by Luden and
+others; also the treatises on witchcraft by Soldan and others.
+Manuscript notes of his lectures, and copies of his earliest
+books on witchcraft as well as on other forms of folly, are to be
+found in the library of Cornell University.
+
+
+The same stubborn resistance to the gradual encroachment of the
+scientific spirit upon the orthodox doctrine of witchcraft was
+seen in Great Britain.  Typical as to the attitude both of Scotch
+and English Protestants were the theory and practice of King
+James I, himself the author of a book on Demonology, and nothing
+if not a theologian.  As to theory, his treatise on Demonology
+supported the worst features of the superstition; as to
+practice, he ordered the learned and acute work of Reginald Scot,
+The Discoverie of Witchcraft, one of the best treatises ever
+written on the subject, to be burned by the hangman, and he
+applied his own knowledge to investigating the causes of the
+tempests which beset his bride on her voyage from Denmark.
+Skilful use of unlimited torture soon brought these causes to
+light.  A Dr. Fian, while his legs were crushed in the "boots"
+and wedges were driven under his finger nails, confessed that
+several hundred witches had gone to sea in a sieve from the port
+of Leith, and had raised storms and tempests to drive back the
+princess.
+
+With the coming in of the Puritans the persecution was even more
+largely, systematically, and cruelly developed.  The great
+witch-finder, Matthew Hopkins, having gone through the county of
+Suffolk and tested multitudes of poor old women by piercing them
+with pins and needles, declared that county to be infested with
+witches.  Thereupon Parliament issued a commission, and sent two
+eminent Presbyterian divines to accompany it, with the result
+that in that county alone sixty persons were hanged for
+witchcraft in a single year.  In Scotland matters were even
+worse.  The auto da fe of Spain was celebrated in Scotland under
+another name, and with Presbyterian ministers instead of Roman
+Catholic priests as the main attendants.  At Leith, in 1664, nine
+women were burned together.  Condemnations and punishments of
+women in batches were not uncommon.  Torture was used far more
+freely than in England, both in detecting witches and in
+punishing them.  The natural argument developed in hundreds of
+pulpits was this:  If the Allwise God punishes his creatures with
+tortures infinite in cruelty and duration, why should not his
+ministers, as far as they can, imitate him?
+
+The strongest minds in both branches of the Protestant Church in
+Great Britain devoted themselves to maintaining the superstition.
+The newer scientific modes of thought, and especially the new
+ideas regarding the heavens, revealed first by Copernicus and
+Galileo and later by Newton, Huygens, and Halley, were gradually
+dissipating the whole domain of the Prince of the Power of the
+Air; but from first to last a long line of eminent divines,
+Anglican and Calvinistic, strove to resist the new thought.  On
+the Anglican side, in the seventeenth century, Meric Casaubon,
+Doctor of Divinity and a high dignitary of Canterbury,--Henry
+More, in many respects the most eminent scholar in the
+Church,--Cudworth, by far the most eminent philosopher, and Dr.
+Joseph Glanvil, the most cogent of all writers in favour of
+witchcraft, supported the orthodox superstition in treatises of
+great power; and Sir Matthew Hale, the greatest jurist of the
+period, condemning two women to be burned for witchcraft,
+declared that he based his judgment on the direct testimony of
+Holy Scripture.  On the Calvinistic side were the great names of
+Richard Baxter, who applauded some of the worst cruelties in
+England, and of Increase and Cotton Mather, who stimulated the
+worst in America; and these marshalled in behalf of this cruel
+superstition a long line of eminent divines, the most earnest of
+all, perhaps, being John Wesley.
+
+Nor was the Lutheran Church in Sweden and the other Scandinavian
+countries behind its sister churches, either in persecuting
+witchcraft or in repressing doubts regarding the doctrine which
+supported it.
+
+But in spite of all these great authorities in every land, in
+spite of such summary punishments as those of Flade, Loos, and
+Bekker, and in spite of the virtual exclusion from church
+preferment of all who doubted the old doctrine, the new
+scientific view of the heavens was developed more and more; the
+physical sciences were more and more cultivated; the new
+scientific atmosphere in general more and more prevailed; and at
+the end of the seventeenth century this vast growth of
+superstition began to wither and droop.  Montaigne, Bayle, and
+Voltaire in France, Thomasius in Germany, Calef in New England,
+and Beccaria in Italy, did much also to create an intellectual
+and moral atmosphere fatal to it.
+
+And here it should be stated, to the honour of the Church of
+England, that several of her divines showed great courage in
+opposing the dominant doctrine.  Such men as Harsnet, Archbishop
+of York, and Morton, Bishop of Lichfield, who threw all their
+influence against witch-finding cruelties even early in the
+seventeenth century, deserve lasting gratitude.  But especially
+should honour be paid to the younger men in the Church, who wrote
+at length against the whole system:  such men as Wagstaffe and
+Webster and Hutchinson, who in the humbler ranks of the clergy
+stood manfully for truth, with the certainty that by so doing
+they were making their own promotion impossible.
+
+By the beginning of the eighteenth century the doctrine was
+evidently dying out.  Where torture had been abolished, or even
+made milder, "weather-makers" no longer confessed, and the
+fundamental proofs in which the system was rooted were evidently
+slipping away.  Even the great theologian Fromundus, at the
+University of Louvain, the oracle of his age, who had
+demonstrated the futility of the Copernican theory, had foreseen
+this and made the inevitable attempt at compromise, declaring
+that devils, though OFTEN, are not ALWAYS or even for the most
+part the causes of thunder.  The learned Jesuit Caspar Schott,
+whose Physica Curiosa was one of the most popular books of the
+seventeenth century, also ventured to make the same mild
+statement.  But even such concessions by such great champions of
+orthodoxy did not prevent frantic efforts in various quarters to
+bring the world back under the old dogma:  as late as 1743 there
+was published in Catholic Germany a manual by Father Vincent of
+Berg, in which the superstition was taught to its fullest extent,
+with the declaration that it was issued for the use of priests
+under the express sanction of the theological professors of the
+University of Cologne; and twenty-five years later, in 1768, we
+find in Protestant England John Wesley standing firmly for
+witchcraft, and uttering his famous declaration, "The giving up
+of witchcraft is in effect the giving up of the Bible."  The
+latest notable demonstration in Scotland was made as late as
+1773, when "the divines of the Associated Presbytery" passed a
+resolution declaring their belief in witchcraft, and deploring
+the general scepticism regarding it.[259]
+
+[259] For Carpzov and his successors, see authorities already
+given.  The best account of James's share in the extortion of
+confessions may be found in the collection of Curious Tracts
+published at Edinburgh in 1820.  See also King James's own
+Demonologie, and Pitcairn's Criminal Trials of Scotland, vol. i,
+part ii, pp. 213-223.  For Casaubon, see his Credulity and
+Incredulity in Things Natural, pp. 66, 67.  For Glanvil, More,
+Casaubon, Baxter, Wesley, and others named, see Lecky, as above.
+As to Increase Mather, in his sermons, already cited, on The
+Voice of God in Stormy Winds, Boston, 1704, he says: "when there
+are great tempests, the Angels oftentimes have a Hand therein. .
+. . Yea, and sometimes, by Divine Permission, Evil Angels have a
+Hand in such Storms and Tempests as are very hurtful to Men on
+the Earth."  Yet "for the most part, such Storms are sent by the
+Providence of God as a Sign of His Displeasure for the Sins of
+Men," and sometimes "as Prognosticks and terrible Warnings of
+Great Judgements not far off."  From the height of his erudition
+Mather thus rebukes the timid voice of scientific scepticism:
+"There are some who would be esteemed the Wits of the World, that
+ridicule those as Superstitious and Weak Persons, which look upon
+Dreadful Tempests as Prodromous of other Judgements.
+Nevertheless, the most Learned and Judicious Writers, not only of
+the Gentiles, but amongst Christians, have Embraced such a
+Persuasion; their Sentiments therein being Confirmed by the
+Experience of many Ages."  For another curious turn given to this
+theory, with reference to sanitary science, see Deodat Lawson's
+famous sermon at Salem, in 1692, on Christ's Fidelity a Shield
+against Satan's Malignity, p. 21 of the second edition.  For
+Cotton Mather, see his biography by Barrett Wendell, pp. 91, 92;
+also the chapter on Diabolism and Hysteria in this work.  For
+Fromundus, see his Meteorologica (London, 1656), lib. iii, c. 9,
+and lib. ii, c. 3.  For Schott, see his Physica Curiosa (edition
+of Wurzburg, 1667), p. 1249.  For Father Vincent of Berg, see his
+Enchiridium quadripartitum (Cologne, 1743).  Besides benedictions
+and exorcisms for all emergencies, it contains full directions
+for the manufacture of Agnes Dei, and of another sacred panacea
+called "Heiligthum," not less effective against evil powers,--
+gives formulae to be worn for protection against the devil,--
+suggests a list of signs by which diabolical possession may be
+recognised, and prescribes the question to be asked by priests in
+the examination of witches.  For Wesley, see his Journal for
+1768.  The whole citation is given in Lecky.
+
+
+
+IV.  FRANKLIN'S LIGHTNING-ROD.
+
+
+But in the midst of these efforts by Catholics like Father
+Vincent and by Protestants like John Wesley to save the old
+sacred theory, it received its death-blow.  In 1752 Franklin made
+his experiments with the kite on the banks of the Schuylkill;
+and, at the moment when he drew the electric spark from the
+cloud, the whole tremendous fabric of theological meteorology
+reared by the fathers, the popes, the medieval doctors, and the
+long line of great theologians, Catholic and Protestant,
+collapsed; the "Prince of the Power of the Air" tumbled from his
+seat; the great doctrine which had so long afflicted the earth
+was prostrated forever.
+
+The experiment of Franklin was repeated in various parts of
+Europe, but, at first, the Church seemed careful to take no
+notice of it.  The old church formulas against the Prince of the
+Power of the Air were still used, but the theological theory,
+especially in the Protestant Church, began to grow milder.  Four
+years after Franklin's discovery Pastor Karl Koken, member of the
+Consistory and official preacher to the City Council of
+Hildesheim, was moved by a great hailstorm to preach and publish
+a sermon on The Revelation of God in Weather.  Of "the Prince of
+the Power of the Air" he says nothing; the theory of diabolical
+agency he throws overboard altogether; his whole attempt is to
+save the older and more harmless theory, that the storm is the
+voice of God.  He insists that, since Christ told Nicodemus that
+men "know not whence the wind cometh," it can not be of mere
+natural origin, but is sent directly by God himself, as David
+intimates in the Psalm, "out of His secret places."  As to the
+hailstorm, he lays great stress upon the plague of hail sent by
+the Almighty upon Egypt, and clinches all by insisting that God
+showed at Mount Sinai his purpose to startle the body before
+impressing the conscience.
+
+While the theory of diabolical agency in storms was thus drooping
+and dying, very shrewd efforts were made at compromise.  The
+first of these attempts we have already noted, in the effort to
+explain the efficacy of bells in storms by their simple use in
+stirring the faithful to prayer, and in the concession made by
+sundry theologians, and even by the great Lord Bacon himself,
+that church bells might, under the sanction of Providence,
+disperse storms by agitating the air.  This gained ground
+somewhat, though it was resisted by one eminent Church authority,
+who answered shrewdly that, in that case, cannon would be even
+more pious instruments.  Still another argument used in trying to
+save this part of the theological theory was that the bells were
+consecrated instruments for this purpose, "like the horns at
+whose blowing the walls of Jericho fell."[260]
+
+[260] For Koken, see his Offenbarung Gottes in Wetter,
+Hildesheim, c1756; and for the answer to Bacon, see Gretser's De
+Benedictionibus, lib. ii, cap. 46.
+
+
+But these compromises were of little avail.  In 1766 Father
+Sterzinger attacked the very groundwork of the whole diabolic
+theory.  He was, of course, bitterly assailed, insulted, and
+hated; but the Church thought it best not to condemn him.  More
+and more the "Prince of the Power of the Air" retreated before
+the lightning-rod of Franklin.  The older Church, while clinging
+to the old theory, was finally obliged to confess the supremacy
+of Franklin's theory practically; for his lightning-rod did what
+exorcisms, and holy water, and processions, and the Agnus Dei,
+and the ringing of church bells, and the rack, and the burning of
+witches, had failed to do.  This was clearly seen, even by the
+poorest peasants in eastern France, when they observed that the
+grand spire of Strasburg Cathedral, which neither the sacredness
+of the place, nor the bells within it, nor the holy water and
+relics beneath it, could protect from frequent injuries by
+lightning, was once and for all protected by Franklin's rod.
+Then came into the minds of multitudes the answer to the question
+which had so long exercised the leading theologians of Europe and
+America, namely, "Why should the Almighty strike his own
+consecrated temples, or suffer Satan to strike them?  "
+
+Yet even this practical solution of the question was not received
+without opposition.
+
+In America the earthquake of 1755 was widely ascribed, especially
+in Massachusetts, to Franklin's rod.  The Rev. Thomas Prince,
+pastor of the Old South Church, published a sermon on the
+subject, and in the appendix expressed the opinion that the
+frequency of earthquakes may be due to the erection of "iron
+points invented by the sagacious Mr. Franklin."  He goes on to
+argue that "in Boston are more erected than anywhere else in New
+England, and Boston seems to be more dreadfully shaken.  Oh!
+there is no getting out of the mighty hand of God."
+
+Three years later, John Adams, speaking of a conversation with
+Arbuthnot, a Boston physician, says:  "He began to prate upon the
+presumption of philosophy in erecting iron rods to draw the
+lightning from the clouds.  He railed and foamed against the
+points and the presumption that erected them.  He talked of
+presuming upon God, as Peter attempted to walk upon the water,
+and of attempting to control the artillery of heaven."
+
+As late as 1770 religious scruples regarding lightning-rods were
+still felt, the theory being that, as thunder and lightning were
+tokens of the Divine displeasure, it was impiety to prevent their
+doing their full work.  Fortunately, Prof. John Winthrop, of
+Harvard, showed himself wise in this, as in so many other things:
+in a lecture on earthquakes he opposed the dominant theology;
+and as to arguments against Franklin's rods, he declared, "It is
+as much our duty to secure ourselves against the effects of
+lightning as against those of rain, snow, and wind by the means
+God has put into our hands."
+
+Still, for some years theological sentiment had to be regarded
+carefully.  In Philadelphia, a popular lecturer on science for
+some time after Franklin's discovery thought it best in
+advertising his lectures to explain that "the erection of
+lightning-rods is not chargeable with presumption nor
+inconsistent with any of the principles either of natural or
+revealed religion."[261]
+
+[261] Regarding opposition to Franklin's rods in America, see
+Prince's sermon, especially p. 23; also Quincy, History of
+Harvard University, vol. ii, p. 219; also Works of John Adams,
+vol. ii, pp. 51, 52; also Parton's Life of Franklin, vol. i, p.
+294.
+
+
+In England, the first lightning conductor upon a church was not
+put up until 1762, ten years after Franklin's discovery.  The
+spire of St. Bride's Church in London was greatly injured by
+lightning in 1750, and in 1764 a storm so wrecked its masonry
+that it had to be mainly rebuilt; yet for years after this the
+authorities refused to attach a lightning-rod.  The Protestant
+Cathedral of St. Paul's, in London, was not protected until
+sixteen years after Franklin's discovery, and the tower of the
+great Protestant church at Hamburg not until a year later still.
+As late as 1783 it was declared in Germany, on excellent
+authority, that within a space of thirty-three years nearly four
+hundred towers had been damaged and one hundred and twenty
+bell-ringers killed.
+
+In Roman Catholic countries a similar prejudice was shown, and
+its cost at times was heavy.  In Austria, the church of
+Rosenberg, in the mountains of Carinthia, was struck so
+frequently and with such loss of life that the peasants feared at
+last to attend service.  Three times was the spire rebuilt, and
+it was not until 1778--twenty-six years after Franklin's
+discovery--that the authorities permitted a rod to be attached.
+Then all trouble ceased.
+
+A typical case in Italy was that of the tower of St. Mark's, at
+Venice.  In spite of the angel at its summit and the bells
+consecrated to ward off the powers of the air, and the relics in
+the cathedral hard by, and the processions in the adjacent
+square, the tower was frequently injured and even ruined by
+lightning.  In 1388 it was badly shattered; in 1417, and again
+in 1489, the wooden spire surmounting it was utterly consumed; it
+was again greatly injured in 1548, 1565, 1653, and in 1745 was
+struck so powerfully that the whole tower, which had been rebuilt
+of stone and brick, was shattered in thirty-seven places.
+Although the invention of Franklin had been introduced into Italy
+by the physicist Beccaria, the tower of St. Mark's still went
+unprotected, and was again badly struck in 1761 and 1762; and
+not until 1766--fourteen years after Franklin's discovery--was a
+lightning-rod placed upon it; and it has never been struck
+since.[262]
+
+[262] For reluctance in England to protect churches with
+Franklin's rods, see Priestley, History of Electricity, London,
+1775, vol. i, pp. 407, 465 et seq.
+
+
+So, too, though the beautiful tower of the Cathedral of Siena,
+protected by all possible theological means, had been struck
+again and again, much opposition was shown to placing upon it
+what was generally known as "the heretical rod," but the tower
+was at last protected by Franklin's invention, and in 1777,
+though a very heavy bolt passed down the rod, the church received
+not the slightest injury.  This served to reconcile theology and
+science, so far as that city was concerned; but the case which
+did most to convert the Italian theologians to the scientific
+view was that of the church of San Nazaro, at Brescia.  The
+Republic of Venice had stored in the vaults of this church over
+two hundred thousand pounds of powder.  In 1767, seventeen years
+after Franklin's discovery, no rod having been placed upon it, it
+was struck by lightning, the powder in the vaults was exploded,
+one sixth of the entire city destroyed, and over three thousand
+lives were lost.[263]
+
+[263] See article on Lightning in the Edinburgh Review for
+October, 1844.
+
+
+Such examples as these, in all parts of Europe, had their effect.
+The formulas for conjuring off storms, for consecrating bells to
+ward off lightning and tempests, and for putting to flight the
+powers of the air, were still allowed to stand in the liturgies;
+but the lightning-rod, the barometer, and the thermometer,
+carried the day.  A vigorous line of investigators succeeding
+Franklin completed his victory, The traveller in remote districts
+of Europe still hears the church bells ringing during tempests;
+the Polish or Italian peasant is still persuaded to pay fees for
+sounding bells to keep off hailstorms; but the universal
+tendency favours more and more the use of the lightning-rod, and
+of the insurance offices where men can be relieved of the ruinous
+results of meteorological disturbances in accordance with the
+scientific laws of average, based upon the ascertained recurrence
+of storms.  So, too, though many a poor seaman trusts to his
+charm that has been bathed in holy water, or that has touched
+some relic, the tendency among mariners is to value more and more
+those warnings which are sent far and wide each day over the
+earth and under the sea by the electric wires in accordance with
+laws ascertained by observation.
+
+Yet, even in our own time, attempts to revive the old theological
+doctrine of meteorology have not been wanting.  Two of these, one
+in a Roman Catholic and another in a Protestant country, will
+serve as types of many, to show how completely scientific truth
+has saturated and permeated minds supposed to be entirely
+surrendered to the theological view.
+
+The Island of St. Honorat, just off the southern coast of
+France, is deservedly one of the places most venerated in
+Christendom. The monastery of Lerins, founded there in the fourth
+century, became a mother of similar institutions in western
+Europe, and a centre of religious teaching for the Christian
+world.  In its atmosphere, legends and myths grew in beauty and
+luxuriance. Here, as the chroniclers tell us, at the touch of St.
+Honorat, burst forth a stream of living water, which a recent
+historian of the monastery declares a greater miracle than that
+of Moses;  here he destroyed, with a touch of his staff, the
+reptiles which infested the island, and then forced the sea to
+wash away their foul remains.  Here, to please his sister,
+Sainte-Marguerite, a cherry tree burst into full bloom every
+month; here he threw his cloak upon the waters and it became a
+raft, which bore him safely to visit the neighbouring island;
+here St. Patrick received from St. Just the staff with which he
+imitated St. Honorat by driving all reptiles from Ireland.
+Pillaged by Saracens and pirates, the island was made all the
+more precious by the blood of Christian martyrs.  Popes and kings
+made pilgrimages to it; saints, confessors, and bishops went
+forth from it into all Europe; in one of its cells St. Vincent
+of Lerins wrote that famous definition of pure religion which,
+for nearly fifteen hundred years, has virtually superseded that
+of St. James.  Naturally the monastery became most illustrious,
+and its seat "the Mediterranean Isle of Saints."
+
+But toward the close of the last century, its inmates having
+become slothful and corrupt, it was dismantled, all save a small
+portion torn down, and the island became the property first of
+impiety, embodied in a French actress, and finally of heresy,
+embodied in an English clergyman.
+
+Bought back for the Church by the Bishop of Frejus in 1859, there
+was little revival of life for twelve years.  Then came the
+reaction, religious and political, after the humiliation of
+France and the Vatican by Germany; and of this reaction the
+monastery of St. Honorat was made one of the most striking
+outward and visible signs.  Pius IX interested himself directly
+in it, called into it a body of Cistercian monks, and it became
+the chief seat of their order in France.  To restore its
+sacredness the strict system of La Trappe was
+established--labour, silence, meditation on death.  The word thus
+given from Rome was seconded in France by cardinals, archbishops,
+and all churchmen especially anxious for promotion in this world
+or salvation in the next.  Worn-out dukes and duchesses of the
+Faubourg Saint-Germain united in this enterprise of pious
+reaction with the frivolous youngsters, the petits creves, who
+haunt the purlieus of Notre Dame de Lorette.  The great church of
+the monastery was handsomely rebuilt and a multitude of altars
+erected; and beautiful frescoes and stained windows came from the
+leaders of the reaction.  The whole effect was, perhaps, somewhat
+theatrical and thin, but it showed none the less earnestness in
+making the old "Isle of Saints" a protest against the hated
+modern world.
+
+As if to bid defiance still further to modern liberalism, great
+store of relics was sent in; among these, pieces of the true
+cross, of the white and purple robes, of the crown of thorns,
+sponge, lance, and winding-sheet of Christ,--the hair, robe,
+veil, and girdle of the Blessed Virgin; relics of St. John the
+Baptist, St. Joseph, St. Mary Magdalene, St. Paul, St.
+Barnabas, the four evangelists, and a multitude of other saints:
+so many that the bare mention of these treasures requires
+twenty-four distinct heads in the official catalogue recently
+published at the monastery.  Besides all this--what was
+considered even more powerful in warding off harm from the
+revived monastery--the bones of Christian martyrs were brought
+from the Roman catacombs and laid beneath the altars.[264]
+
+[264] See the Guide des Visiteurs a Lerins, published at the
+Monastery in 1880, p. 204; also the Histoire de Lerins, mentioned
+below.
+
+
+All was thus conformed to the medieval view; nothing was to be
+left which could remind one of the nineteenth century; the "ages
+of faith" were to be restored in their simplicity.  Pope Leo XIII
+commended to the brethren the writings of St. Thomas Aquinas as
+their one great object of study, and works published at the
+monastery dwelt upon the miracles of St. Honorat as the most
+precious refutation of modern science.
+
+High in the cupola, above the altars and relics, were placed the
+bells.  Sent by pious donors, they were solemnly baptized and
+consecrated in 1871, four bishops officiating, a multitude of the
+faithful being present from all parts of Europe, and the sponsors
+of the great tenor bell being the Bourbon claimant to the ducal
+throne of Parma and his duchess.  The good bishop who baptized
+the bells consecrated them with a formula announcing their
+efficacy in driving away the "Prince of the Power of the Air" and
+the lightning and tempests he provokes.
+
+And then, above all, at the summit of the central spire, high
+above relics, altars, and bells, was placed--A
+LIGHTNING-ROD![265]
+
+[265] See Guide, as above, p. 84.  Les Isles de Lerins, by the
+Abbe Alliez (Paris, 1860), and the Histoire de Lerins, by the
+same author, are the authorities for the general history of the
+abbey, and are especially strong in presenting the miracles of
+St. Honorat, etc.  The Cartulaire of the monastery, recently
+published, is also valuable.  But these do not cover the recent
+revival, for an account of which recourse must be had to the very
+interesting and naive Guide already cited.
+
+
+The account of the monastery, published under the direction of
+the present worthy abbot, more than hints at the saving, by its
+bells, of a ship which was wrecked a few years since on that
+coast; and yet, to protect the bells and church and monks and
+relics from the very foe whom, in the medieval faith, all these
+were thought most powerful to drive away, recourse was had to the
+scientific discovery of that "arch-infidel," Benjamin Franklin!
+
+Perhaps the most striking recent example in Protestant lands of
+this change from the old to the new occurred not long since in
+one of the great Pacific dependencies of the British crown.  At a
+time of severe drought an appeal was made to the bishop, Dr.
+Moorhouse, to order public prayers for rain.  The bishop refused,
+advising the petitioners for the future to take better care of
+their water supply, virtually telling them, "Heaven helps those
+who help themselves."  But most noteworthy in this matter was it
+that the English Government, not long after, scanning the horizon
+to find some man to take up the good work laid down by the
+lamented Bishop Fraser, of Manchester, chose Dr. Moorhouse; and
+his utterance upon meteorology, which a few generations since
+would have been regarded by the whole Church as blasphemy, was
+universally alluded to as an example of strong good sense,
+proving him especially fit for one of the most important
+bishoprics in England.
+
+Throughout Christendom, the prevalence of the conviction that
+meteorology is obedient to laws is more and more evident.  In
+cities especially, where men are accustomed each day to see
+posted in public places charts which show the storms moving over
+various parts of the country, and to read in the morning papers
+scientific prophecies as to the weather, the old view can hardly
+be very influential.
+
+Significant of this was the feeling of the American people during
+the fearful droughts a few years since in the States west of the
+Missouri.  No days were appointed for fasting and prayer to bring
+rain; there was no attribution of the calamity to the wrath of
+God or the malice of Satan; but much was said regarding the
+folly of our people in allowing the upper regions of their vast
+rivers to be denuded of forests, thus subjecting the States below
+to alternations of drought and deluge.  Partly as a result of
+this, a beginning has been made of teaching forest culture in
+many schools, tree-planting societies have been formed, and
+"Arbor Day" is recognised in several of the States.  A true and
+noble theology can hardly fail to recognise, in the love of
+Nature and care for our fellow-men thus promoted, something far
+better, both from a religious and a moral point of view, than any
+efforts to win the Divine favour by flattery, or to avert Satanic
+malice by fetichism.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+FROM MAGIC TO CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.
+
+I.
+
+
+In all the earliest developments of human thought we find a
+strong tendency to ascribe mysterious powers over Nature to men
+and women especially gifted or skilled.  Survivals of this view
+are found to this day among savages and barbarians left behind in
+the evolution of civilization, and especially is this the case
+among the tribes of Australia, Africa, and the Pacific coast of
+America.  Even in the most enlightened nations still appear
+popular beliefs, observances, or sayings, drawn from this earlier
+phase of thought.
+
+Between the prehistoric savage developing this theory, and
+therefore endeavouring to deal with the powers of Nature by
+magic, and the modern man who has outgrown it, appears a long
+line of nations struggling upward through it.  As the
+hieroglyphs, cuneiform inscriptions, and various other records of
+antiquity are read, the development of this belief can be studied
+in Egypt, India, Babylonia, Assyria, Persia, and Phoenicia.  From
+these civilizations it came into the early thought of Greece and
+Rome, but especially into the Jewish and Christian sacred books.
+Both in the Old Testament and in the New we find magic,
+witchcraft, and soothsaying constantly referred to as
+realities.[266]
+
+
+[266] For magic in prehistoric times and survivals of it since,
+with abundant citation of authorities, see Tylor, Primitive
+Culture, chap. iv; also The Early History of Mankind, by the same
+author, third edition, pp. 115 et seq., also p. 380.; also Andrew
+Lang, Myth, Ritual, and Religion, vol. i, chap iv.  For magic in
+Egypt, see Lenormant, Chaldean Magic, chaps. vi-viii; also
+Maspero, Histoire Ancienne des Peuples de l'Orient; also Maspero
+and Sayce, The Dawn of Civilization, p. 282, and for the threat
+of magicians to wreck heaven, see ibid, p. 17, note, and
+especially the citations from Chabas, Le Papyrus Magique Harris,
+in chap. vii; also Maury, La Magie et l'Astrologie dans
+l'Antiquite et au Moyen Age.  For magic in Chaldea, see Lenormant
+as above; also Maspero and Sayce, pp. 780 et seq.  For examples
+of magical powers in India, see Max Muller's Sacred Books of the
+East, vol. xvi, pp. 121 et seq.  For a legendary view of magic in
+Media, see the Zend Avesta, part i, p. 14, translated by
+Darmsteter; and for a more highly developed view, see the Zend
+Avesta, part iii, p. 239, translated by Mill.  For magic in
+Greece and Rome, and especially in the Neoplatonic school, as
+well as in the Middle Ages, see especially Maury, La Magie et
+l'Astrologie, chaps. iii-v.  For various sorts of magic
+recognised and condemned in our sacred books, see Deuteronomy
+xviii, 10, 11; and for the burning of magical books at Ephesus
+under the influence of St. Paul, see Acts xix, 14.  See also
+Ewald, History of Israel, Martineau's translation, fourth
+edition, vol. iii, pp. 45-51.  For a very elaborate summing up of
+the passages in our sacred books recognizing magic as a fact, see
+De Haen, De Magia, Leipsic, 1775, chaps. i, ii, and iii, of the
+first part.  For the general subject of magic, see Ennemoser,
+History of Magic, translated by Howitt, which, however,
+constantly mixes sorcery with magic proper.
+
+
+The first distinct impulse toward a higher view of research into
+natural laws was given by the philosophers of Greece.  It is true
+that philosophical opposition to physical research was at times
+strong, and that even a great thinker like Socrates considered
+certain physical investigations as an impious intrusion into the
+work of the gods.  It is also true that Plato and Aristotle,
+while bringing their thoughts to bear upon the world with great
+beauty and force, did much to draw mankind away from those
+methods which in modern times have produced the best results.
+
+Plato developed a world in which the physical sciences had little
+if any real reason for existing; Aristotle, a world in which the
+same sciences were developed largely indeed by observation of
+what is, but still more by speculation on what ought to be.  From
+the former of these two great men came into Christian theology
+many germs of medieval magic, and from the latter sundry modes of
+reasoning which aided in the evolution of these; yet the impulse
+to human thought given by these great masters was of inestimable
+value to our race, and one legacy from them was especially
+precious--the idea that a science of Nature is possible, and that
+the highest occupation of man is the discovery of its laws.
+Still another gift from them was greatest of all, for they gave
+scientific freedom.  They laid no interdict upon new paths; they
+interposed no barriers to the extension of knowledge; they
+threatened no doom in this life or in the next against
+investigators on new lines; they left the world free to seek any
+new methods and to follow any new paths which thinking men could
+find.
+
+This legacy of belief in science, of respect for scientific
+pursuits, and of freedom in scientific research, was especially
+received by the school of Alexandria, and above all by
+Archimedes, who began, just before the Christian era, to open new
+paths through the great field of the inductive sciences by
+observation, comparison, and experiment.[267]
+
+[267] As to the beginnings of physical science in Greece, and of
+the theological opposition to physical science, also Socrates's
+view regarding certain branches as interdicted to human study,
+see Grote's History of Greece, vol. i, pp. 495 and 504, 505; also
+Jowett's introduction to his translation of the Timaeus, and
+Whewell's History of the Inductive Sciences.  For examples
+showing the incompatibility of Plato's methods in physical
+science with that pursued in modern times, see Zeller, Plato and
+the Older Academy, English translation by Alleyne and Goodwin,
+pp. 375 et. seq.  The supposed opposition to freedom of opinion
+in the Laws of Plato, toward the end of his life, can hardly make
+against the whole spirit of Greek thought.
+
+
+The establishment of Christianity, beginning a new evolution of
+theology, arrested the normal development of the physical
+sciences for over fifteen hundred years.  The cause of this
+arrest was twofold:  First, there was created an atmosphere in
+which the germs of physical science could hardly grow--an
+atmosphere in which all seeking in Nature for truth as truth was
+regarded as futile.  The general belief derived from the New
+Testament Scriptures was, that the end of the world was at hand;
+that the last judgment was approaching; that all existing
+physical nature was soon to be destroyed:  hence, the greatest
+thinkers in the Church generally poured contempt upon all
+investigators into a science of Nature, and insisted that
+everything except the saving of souls was folly.
+
+This belief appears frequently through the entire period of the
+Middle Ages; but during the first thousand years it is clearly
+dominant.  From Lactantius and Eusebius, in the third century,
+pouring contempt, as we have seen, over studies in astronomy, to
+Peter Damian, the noted chancellor of Pope Gregory VII, in the
+eleventh century, declaring all worldly sciences to be
+"absurdities" and "fooleries," it becomes a very important
+element in the atmosphere of thought.[268]
+
+[268] For the view of Peter Damian and others through the Middle
+Ages as to the futility of scientific investigation, see
+citations in Eicken, Geschichte und System der mittelalterlichen
+Weltanschauung, chap. vi.
+
+
+Then, too, there was established a standard to which all science
+which did struggle up through this atmosphere must be made to
+conform--a standard which favoured magic rather than science, for
+it was a standard of rigid dogmatism obtained from literal
+readings in the Jewish and Christian Scriptures.  The most
+careful inductions from ascertained facts were regarded as
+wretchedly fallible when compared with any view of nature
+whatever given or even hinted at in any poem, chronicle, code,
+apologue, myth, legend, allegory, letter, or discourse of any
+sort which had happened to be preserved in the literature which
+had come to be held as sacred.
+
+For twelve centuries, then, the physical sciences were thus
+discouraged or perverted by the dominant orthodoxy.  Whoever
+studied nature studied it either openly to find illustrations of
+the sacred text, useful in the "saving of souls," or secretly to
+gain the aid of occult powers, useful in securing personal
+advantage.  Great men like Bede, Isidore of Seville, and Rabanus
+Maurus, accepted the scriptural standard of science and used it
+as a means of Christian edification.  The views of Bede and
+Isidore on kindred subjects have been shown in former chapters;
+and typical of the view taken by Rabanus is the fact that in his
+great work on the Universe there are only two chapters which
+seem directly or indirectly to recognise even the beginnings of a
+real philosophy of nature.  A multitude of less-known men found
+warrant in Scripture for magic applied to less worthy
+purposes.[269]
+
+[269] As typical examples, see utterances of Eusibius and
+Lactantius regarding astronomers given in the chapter on
+Astronomy.  For a summary of Rabanus Maurus's doctrine of
+physics, see Heller, Geschichte der Physik, vol. i, pp. 172 et
+seq.  For Bede and Isidore, see the earlier chapters of this
+work.  For an excellent statement regarding the application of
+scriptural standards to scientific research in the Middle Ages,
+see Kretschemr, Die physische Erdkunde im christlichen
+Mittelalter, pp. 5 et seq.  For the distinctions in magic
+recognised in the mediaeval Church, see the long catalogue of
+various sorts given in the Abbe Migne's Encyclopedie Theologique,
+third series, article Magic.
+
+
+But after the thousand years had passed to which various thinkers
+in the Church, upon supposed scriptural warrant, had lengthened
+out the term of the earth's existence, "the end of all things"
+seemed further off than ever; and in the twelfth and thirteenth
+centuries, owing to causes which need not be dwelt upon here,
+came a great revival of thought, so that the forces of theology
+and of science seemed arrayed for a contest.  On one side came a
+revival of religious fervour, and to this day the works of the
+cathedral builders mark its depth and strength; on the other
+side came a new spirit of inquiry incarnate in a line of powerful
+thinkers.
+
+First among these was Albert of Bollstadt, better known as Albert
+the Great, the most renowned scholar of his time.  Fettered
+though he was by the methods sanctioned in the Church, dark as
+was all about him, he had conceived better methods and aims; his
+eye pierced the mists of scholasticism.  he saw the light, and
+sought to draw the world toward it.  He stands among the great
+pioneers of physical and natural science; he aided in giving
+foundations to botany and chemistry; he rose above his time, and
+struck a heavy blow at those who opposed the possibility of human
+life on opposite sides of the earth; he noted the influence of
+mountains, seas, and forests upon races and products, so that
+Humboldt justly finds in his works the germs of physical
+geography as a comprehensive science.
+
+But the old system of deducing scientific truth from scriptural
+texts was renewed in the development of scholastic theology, and
+ecclesiastical power, acting through thousands of subtle
+channels, was made to aid this development.  The old idea of the
+futility of physical science and of the vast superiority of
+theology was revived.  Though Albert's main effort was to
+Christianize science, he was dealt with by the authorities of the
+Dominican order, subjected to suspicion and indignity, and only
+escaped persecution for sorcery by yielding to the ecclesiastical
+spirit of the time, and working finally in theological channels
+by, scholastic methods.
+
+It was a vast loss to the earth; and certainly, of all
+organizations that have reason to lament the pressure of
+ecclesiasticism which turned Albert the Great from natural
+philosophy to theology, foremost of all in regret should be the
+Christian Church, and especially the Roman branch of it.  Had
+there been evolved in the Church during the thirteenth century a
+faith strong enough to accept the truths in natural science which
+Albert and his compeers could have given, and to have encouraged
+their growth, this faith and this encouragement would to this day
+have formed the greatest argument for proving the Church directly
+under Divine guidance; they would have been among the brightest
+jewels in her crown.  The loss to the Church by this want of
+faith and courage has proved in the long run even greater than
+the loss to science.[270]
+
+[270] For a very careful discussion of Albert's strength in
+investigation and weakness in yielding to scholastic authority,
+see Kopp, Ansichten uber die Aufgabe der Chemie von Geber bis
+Stahl, Braunschweig, 1875, pp. 64 et seq.  For a very extended
+and enthusiastic biographical sketch, see Pouchet.  For
+comparison of his work with that of Thomas Aquinas, see Milman,
+History of Latin Christianity, vol. vi, p. 461.  "Il etat aussi
+tres-habile dans les arts mecaniques, ce que le fit soupconner
+d'etre sorcier" (Sprengel, Histoire de la Medecine, vol. ii, p.
+389).  For Albert's biography treated strictly in accordance with
+ecclesiastical methods, see Albert the Great, by Joachim Sighart,
+translated by the Rev. T. A. Dickson, of the Order of Preachers,
+published under the sanction of the Dominican censor and of the
+Cardinal Archbishop of Westminster, London, 1876.  How an
+Englishman like Cardinal Manning could tolerate among Englishmen
+such glossing over of historical truth is one of the wonders of
+contemporary history.  For choice specimens, see chapters ii, and
+iv.  For one of the best and most recent summaries, see Heller,
+Geschichte der Physik, Stuttgart, 1882, vol. i, pp. 179 et seq.
+
+
+The next great man of that age whom the theological and
+ecclesiastical forces of the time turned from the right path was
+Vincent of Beauvais.  During the first half of the twelfth
+century he devoted himself to the study of Nature in several of
+her most interesting fields.  To astronomy, botany, and zoology
+he gave special attention, but in a larger way he made a general
+study of the universe, and in a series of treatises undertook to
+reveal the whole field of science.  But his work simply became a
+vast commentary on the account of creation given in the book of
+Genesis.  Beginning with the work of the Trinity at the creation,
+he goes on to detail the work of angels in all their fields, and
+makes excursions into every part of creation, visible and
+invisible, but always with the most complete subordination of his
+thought to the literal statements of Scripture.  Could he have
+taken the path of experimental research, the world would have
+been enriched with most precious discoveries; but the force
+which had given wrong direction to Albert of Bollstadt, backed as
+it was by the whole ecclesiastical power of his time, was too
+strong, and in all the life labour of Vincent nothing appears of
+any permanent value.  He reared a structure which the adaptation
+of facts to literal interpretations of Scripture and the
+application of theological subtleties to nature combine to make
+one of the most striking monuments of human error.[271]
+
+[271] For Vincent de Beauvais, see Etudes sur Vincent de
+Beauvais, par l'Abbe Bourgeat, chaps. xii, xiii, and xiv; also
+Pouchet, Histoire des Sciences Naturelles au Moyen Age, Paris,
+1853, pp. 470 et seq; also other histories cited hereafter.
+
+
+But the theological spirit of the thirteenth century gained its
+greatest victory in the work of St. Thomas Aquinas.  In him was
+the theological spirit of his age incarnate.  Although he yielded
+somewhat at one period to love of natural science, it was he who
+finally made that great treaty or compromise which for ages
+subjected science entirely to theology.  He it was who reared the
+most enduring barrier against those who in that age and in
+succeeding ages laboured to open for science the path by its own
+methods toward its own ends.
+
+He had been the pupil of Albert the Great, and had gained much
+from him.  Through the earlier systems of philosophy, as they
+were then known, and through the earlier theologic thought, he
+had gone with great labour and vigour; and all his mighty powers,
+thus disciplined and cultured, he brought to bear in making a
+truce which was to give theology permanent supremacy over
+science.
+
+The experimental method had already been practically initiated:
+Albert of Bollstadt and Roger Bacon had begun their work in
+accordance with its methods; but St. Thomas gave all his
+thoughts to bringing science again under the sway of theological
+methods and ecclesiastical control.  In his commentary on
+Aristotle's treatise upon Heaven and Earth he gave to the world a
+striking example of what his method could produce, illustrating
+all the evils which arise in combining theological reasoning and
+literal interpretation of Scripture with scientific facts; and
+this work remains to this day a monument of scientific genius
+perverted by theology.[272]
+
+[272] For citations showing this subordination of science to
+theology, see Eicken, chap. vi.
+
+
+The ecclesiastical power of the time hailed him as a deliverer,
+it was claimed that miracles were vouchsafed, proving that the
+blessing of Heaven rested upon his labours, and among the legends
+embodying this claim is that given by the Bollandists and
+immortalized by a renowned painter.  The great philosopher and
+saint is represented in the habit of his order, with book and pen
+in hand, kneeling before the image of Christ crucified, and as he
+kneels the image thus addresses him:  "Thomas, thou hast written
+well concerning me; what price wilt thou receive for thy
+labour?"   The myth-making faculty of the people at large was
+also brought into play.  According to a widespread and
+circumstantial legend, Albert, by magical means, created an
+android--an artificial man, living, speaking, and answering all
+questions with such subtlety that St. Thomas, unable to answer
+its reasoning, broke it to pieces with his staff.
+
+Historians of the Roman Church like Rohrbacher, and historians of
+science like Pouchet, have found it convenient to propitiate the
+Church by dilating upon the glories of St. Thomas Aquinas in
+thus making an alliance between religious and scientific thought,
+and laying the foundations for a "sanctified science"; but the
+unprejudiced historian can not indulge in this enthusiastic view:
+the results both for the Church and for science have been most
+unfortunate.  It was a wretched delay in the evolution of
+fruitful thought, for the first result of this great man's great
+compromise was to close for ages that path in science which above
+all others leads to discoveries of value--the experimental
+method--and to reopen that old path of mixed theology and science
+which, as Hallam declares, "after three or four hundred years had
+not untied a single knot or added one unequivocal truth to the
+domain of philosophy"--the path which, as all modern history
+proves, has ever since led only to delusion and evil.[273]
+
+[273] For the work of Aquinas, see his Liber de Caelo et Mundo,
+section xx; also Life and Labours of St. Thomas of Aquin, by
+Archbishop Vaughn, pp. 459 et seq.  For his labours in natural
+science, see Hoefer, Histoire de la Chimie, Paris, 1843, vol. i,
+p. 381.  For theological views of science in the Middle Ages, and
+rejoicing thereat, see Pouchet, Hist. des Sci. Nat. au Moyen Age,
+ubi supra. Pouchet says: " En general au milieu du moyen age les
+sciences sont essentiellement chretiennes, leur but est tout-a-
+fait religieux, et elles sembent beaucoup moins s'inquieter de
+l'avancement intellectuel de l'homme que de son salut eternel."
+Pouchet calls this "conciliation" into a "harmonieux ensemble"
+"la plus glorieuse des conquetes intellectuelles du moyen age."
+Pouchet belongs to Rouen, and the shadow of the Rouen Cathedral
+seems thrown over all his history.  See, also, l'Abbe Rohrbacher,
+Hist. de l'Eglise Catholique, Paris, 1858, vol. xviii, pp. 421 et
+seq.  The abbe dilates upon the fact that "the Church organizes
+the agreement of all the sciences by the labours of St. Thomas of
+Aquin and his contemporaries."  For the complete subordination of
+science to theology by St. Thomas, see Eicken, chap. vi.  For the
+theological character of science in the Middle Ages, recognised
+by a Protestant philosophic historian, see the well-known passage
+in Guizot, History of Civilization in Europe; and by a noted
+Protestant ecclesiatic, see Bishop Hampden's Life of Thomas
+Aquinas, chaps. xxxvi, xxxvii; see also Hallam, Middle Ages,
+chap. ix.  For dealings of Pope John XXII, of the Kings of France
+and England, and of the Republic of Venice, see Figuier,
+L'Alchimie et la Alchimistes, pp. 140, 141, where, in a note, the
+text of the bull Spondet paritur is given.  For popular legends
+regarding Albert and St. Thomas, see Eliphas Levi, Hist. de la
+Magie, liv. iv, chap. iv.
+
+
+The theological path thus opened by these strong men became the
+main path for science during ages, and it led the world ever
+further and further from any fruitful fact or useful method.
+Roger Bacon's investigations already begun were discredited:
+worthless mixtures of scriptural legends with imperfectly
+authenticated physical facts took their place.  Thus it was that
+for twelve hundred years the minds in control of Europe regarded
+all real science as FUTILE, and diverted the great current of
+earnest thought into theology.
+
+The next stage in this evolution was the development of an idea
+which acted with great force throughout the Middle Ages--the idea
+that science is DANGEROUS.  This belief was also of very ancient
+origin.  From the time when the Egyptian magicians made their
+tremendous threat that unless their demands were granted they
+would reach out to the four corners of the earth, pull down the
+pillars of heaven, wreck the abodes of the gods above and crush
+those of men below, fear of these representatives of science is
+evident in the ancient world.
+
+But differences in the character of magic were recognised, some
+sorts being considered useful and some baleful.  Of the former
+was magic used in curing diseases, in determining times
+auspicious for enterprises, and even in contributing to
+amusement; of the latter was magic used to bring disease and
+death on men and animals or tempests upon the growing crops.
+Hence gradually arose a general distinction between white magic,
+which dealt openly with the more beneficent means of nature, and
+black magic, which dealt secretly with occult, malignant powers.
+
+Down to the Christian era the fear of magic rarely led to any
+persecution very systematic or very cruel.  While in Greece and
+Rome laws were at times enacted against magicians, they were only
+occasionally enforced with rigour, and finally, toward the end of
+the pagan empire, the feeling against them seemed dying out
+altogether.  As to its more kindly phases, men like Marcus
+Aurelius and Julian did not hesitate to consult those who claimed
+to foretell the future.  As to black magic, it seemed hardly
+worth while to enact severe laws, when charms, amulets, and even
+gestures could thwart its worst machinations.
+
+Moreover, under the old empire a real science was coming in, and
+thought was progressing.  Both the theory and practice of magic
+were more and more held up to ridicule.  Even as early a writer
+as Ennius ridiculed the idea that magicians, who were generally
+poor and hungry themselves, could bestow wealth on others; Pliny,
+in his Natural Philosophy, showed at great length their
+absurdities and cheatery; others followed in the same line of
+thought, and the whole theory, except among the very lowest
+classes, seemed dying out.
+
+But with the development of Christian theology came a change.
+The idea of the active interference of Satan in magic, which had
+come into the Hebrew mind with especial force from Persia during
+the captivity of Israel, had passed from the Hebrew Scriptures
+into Christianity, and had been made still stronger by various
+statements in the New Testament.  Theologians laid stress
+especially upon the famous utterances of the Psalmist that "all
+the gods of the heathen are devils," and of St. Paul that "the
+things which the Gentiles sacrifice, they sacrifice to devils";
+and it was widely held that these devils were naturally indignant
+at their dethronement and anxious to wreak vengeance upon
+Christianity.  Magicians were held to be active agents of these
+dethroned gods, and this persuasion was strengthened by sundry
+old practitioners in the art of magic--impostors who pretended to
+supernatural powers, and who made use of old rites and phrases
+inherited from paganism.
+
+Hence it was that as soon as Christianity came into power it more
+than renewed the old severities against the forbidden art, and
+one of the first acts of the Emperor Constantine after his
+conversion was to enact a most severe law against magic and
+magicians, under which the main offender might be burned alive.
+But here, too, it should be noted that a distinction between the
+two sorts of magic was recognised, for Constantine shortly
+afterward found it necessary to issue a proclamation stating that
+his intention was only to prohibit deadly and malignant magic;
+that he had no intention of prohibiting magic used to cure
+diseases and to protect the crops from hail and tempests.  But as
+new emperors came to the throne who had not in them that old
+leaven of paganism which to the last influenced Constantine, and
+as theology obtained a firmer hold, severity against magic
+increased.  Toleration of it, even in its milder forms, was more
+and more denied.  Black magic and white were classed together.
+
+This severity went on increasing and threatened the simplest
+efforts in physics and chemistry; even the science of
+mathematics was looked upon with dread.  By the twelfth and
+thirteenth centuries, the older theology having arrived at the
+climax of its development in Europe, terror of magic and
+witchcraft took complete possession of the popular mind.  In
+sculpture, painting, and literature it appeared in forms ever
+more and more striking. The lives of saints were filled with it.
+The cathedral sculpture embodied it in every part.  The storied
+windows made it all the more impressive.  The missal painters
+wrought it not only into prayer books, but, despite the fact that
+hardly a trace of the belief appears in the Psalms, they
+illustrated it in the great illuminated psalters from which the
+noblest part of the service was sung before the high altar.  The
+service books showed every form of agonizing petition for
+delivery from this dire influence, and every form of exorcism for
+thwarting it.
+
+All the great theologians of the Church entered into this belief
+and aided to develop it.  The fathers of the early Church were
+full and explicit, and the medieval doctors became more and more
+minute in describing the operations of the black art and in
+denouncing them.  It was argued that, as the devil afflicted Job,
+so he and his minions continue to cause diseases; that, as Satan
+is the Prince of the power of the air, he and his minions cause
+tempests; that the cases of Nebuchadnezzar and Lot's wife prove
+that sorcerers can transform human beings into animals or even
+lifeless matter; that, as the devils of Gadara were cast into
+swine, all animals could be afflicted in the same manner; and
+that, as Christ himself had been transported through the air by
+the power of Satan, so any human being might be thus transported
+to "an exceeding high mountain."
+
+Thus the horror of magic and witchcraft increased on every hand,
+and in 1317 Pope John XXII issued his bull Spondent pariter,
+levelled at the alchemists, but really dealing a terrible blow at
+the beginnings of chemical science.  That many alchemists were
+knavish is no doubt true, but no infallibility in separating the
+evil from the good was shown by the papacy in this matter.  In
+this and in sundry other bulls and briefs we find Pope John, by
+virtue of his infallibility as the world's instructor in all that
+pertains to faith and morals, condemning real science and
+pseudo-science alike.  In two of these documents, supposed to be
+inspired by wisdom from on high, he complains that both he and
+his flock are in danger of their lives by the arts of the
+sorcerers; he declares that such sorcerers can send devils into
+mirrors and finger rings, and kill men and women by a magic word;
+that they had tried to kill him by piercing a waxen image of him
+with needles in the name of the devil.  He therefore called on
+all rulers, secular and ecclesiastical, to hunt down the
+miscreants who thus afflicted the faithful, and he especially
+increased the powers of inquisitors in various parts of Europe
+for this purpose.
+
+The impulse thus given to childish fear and hatred against the
+investigation of nature was felt for centuries; more and more
+chemistry came to be known as one of the "seven devilish arts."
+
+Thus began a long series of demonstrations against magic from the
+centre of Christendom.  In 1437, and again in 1445, Pope Eugene
+IV issued bulls exhorting inquisitors to be more diligent in
+searching out and delivering over to punishment magicians and
+witches who produced bad weather, the result being that
+persecution received a fearful impulse.  But the worst came forty
+years later still, when, in 1484, there came the yet more
+terrible bull of Pope Innocent VIII, known as Summis
+Desiderantes, which let inquisitors loose upon Germany, with
+Sprenger at their head, armed with the Witch-Hammer, the fearful
+manual Malleus Maleficarum, to torture and destroy men and women
+by tens of thousands for sorcery and magic.  Similar bulls were
+issued in 1504 by Julius II, and in 1523 by Adrian VI.
+
+The system of repression thus begun lasted for hundreds of years.
+The Reformation did little to change it, and in Germany, where
+Catholics and Protestants vied with each other in proving their
+orthodoxy, it was at its worst.  On German soil more than one
+hundred thousand victims are believed to have been sacrificed to
+it between the middle of the fifteenth and the middle of the
+sixteenth centuries.
+
+Thus it was that from St. Augustine to St. Thomas Aquinas, from
+Aquinas to Luther, and from Luther to Wesley, theologians of both
+branches of the Church, with hardly an exception, enforced the
+belief in magic and witchcraft, and, as far as they had power,
+carried out the injunction, "Thou shalt not suffer a witch to
+live."
+
+How this was ended by the progress of scientific modes of thought
+I shall endeavour to show elsewhere:  here we are only concerned
+with the effect of this widespread terrorism on the germs and
+early growth of the physical sciences.
+
+Of course, the atmosphere created by this persecution of
+magicians was deadly to any open beginnings of experimental
+science.  The conscience of the time, acting in obedience to the
+highest authorities of the Church, and, as was supposed, in
+defence of religion, now brought out a missile which it hurled
+against scientific investigators with deadly effect.  The
+mediaeval battlefields of thought were strewn with various forms
+of it. This missile was the charge of unlawful compact with
+Satan, and it was most effective.  We find it used against every
+great investigator of nature in those times and for ages after.
+The list of great men in those centuries charged with magic, as
+given by Naude, is astounding; it includes every man of real
+mark, and in the midst of them stands one of the most thoughtful
+popes, Sylvester II (Gerbert), and the foremost of mediaeval
+thinkers on natural science, Albert the Great.  It came to be the
+accepted idea that, as soon as a man conceived a wish to study
+the works of God, his first step must be a league with the devil.
+
+It was entirely natural, then, that in 1163 Pope Alexander III,
+in connection with the Council of Tours, forbade the study of
+physics to all ecclesiastics, which, of course, in that age meant
+prohibition of all such scientific studies to the only persons
+likely to make them.  What the Pope then expressly forbade was,
+in the words of the papal bull, "the study of physics or the laws
+of the world," and it was added that any person violating this
+rule "shall be avoided by all and excommunicated."[274]
+
+[274] For the charge of magic against scholars and others, see
+Naude, Apologie pour les Grands Hommes soupconnes de Magie,
+passim; also Maury, Hist. de la Magie, troisieme edition, pp.
+214, 215; also Cuvier, Hist. des Sciences Naturelles, vol. i, p.
+396.  For the prohibition by the Council of Tours and Alexander
+III, see the Acta Conciliorum (ed. Harduin), tom. vi, pars ii, p.
+1598, Canon viii.
+
+
+The first great thinker who, in spite of some stumbling into
+theologic pitfalls, persevered in a truly scientific path, was
+Roger Bacon.  His life and works seem until recently to have been
+generally misunderstood:  he was formerly ranked as a
+superstitious alchemist who happened upon some inventions, but
+more recent investigation has shown him to be one of the great
+masters in the evolution of human thought.  The advance of sound
+historical judgment seems likely to bring the fame of the two who
+bear the name of Bacon nearly to equality.  Bacon of the
+chancellorship and of the Novum Organum may not wane, but Bacon
+of the prison cell and the Opus Majus steadily approaches him in
+brightness.
+
+More than three centuries before Francis Bacon advocated the
+experimental method, Roger Bacon practised it, and the results as
+now revealed are wonderful.  He wrought with power in many
+sciences, and his knowledge was sound and exact.  By him, more
+than by any other man of the Middle Ages, was the world brought
+into the more fruitful paths of scientific thought--the paths
+which have led to the most precious inventions; and among these
+are clocks, lenses, and burning specula, which were given by him
+to the world, directly or indirectly.  In his writings are found
+formulae for extracting phosphorus, manganese, and bismuth.  It
+is even claimed, with much appearance of justice, that he
+investigated the power of steam, and he seems to have very nearly
+reached some of the principal doctrines of modern chemistry.  But
+it should be borne in mind that his METHOD of investigation was
+even greater than its RESULTS.  In an age when theological
+subtilizing was alone thought to give the title of scholar, he
+insisted on REAL reasoning and the aid of natural science by
+mathematics; in an age when experimenting was sure to cost a man
+his reputation, and was likely to cost him his life, he insisted
+on experimenting, and braved all its risks.  Few greater men have
+lived.  As we follow Bacon's process of reasoning regarding the
+refraction of light, we see that he was divinely inspired.
+
+On this man came the brunt of the battle.  The most conscientious
+men of his time thought it their duty to fight him, and they
+fought him steadily and bitterly.  His sin was not disbelief in
+Christianity, not want of fidelity to the Church, not even
+dissent from the main lines of orthodoxy; on the contrary, he
+showed in all his writings a desire to strengthen Christianity,
+to build up the Church, and to develop orthodoxy.  He was
+attacked and condemned mainly because he did not believe that
+philosophy had become complete, and that nothing more was to be
+learned; he was condemned, as his opponents expressly declared,
+"on account of certain suspicious novelties"--"propter quasdam
+novitates suspectas."
+
+Upon his return to Oxford, about 1250, the forces of unreason
+beset him on all sides.  Greatest of all his enemies was
+Bonaventura.  This enemy was the theologic idol of the period:
+the learned world knew him as the "seraphic Doctor"; Dante gave
+him an honoured place in the great poem of the Middle Ages; the
+Church finally enrolled him among the saints.  By force of great
+ability in theology he had become, in the middle of the
+thirteenth century, general of the Franciscan order:  thus, as
+Bacon's master, his hands were laid heavily on the new teaching,
+so that in 1257 the troublesome monk was forbidden to lecture;
+all men were solemnly warned not to listen to his teaching, and
+he was ordered to Paris, to be kept under surveillance by the
+monastic authorities.  Herein was exhibited another of the myriad
+examples showing the care exercised over scientific teaching by
+the Church.  The reasons for thus dealing with Bacon were
+evident: First, he had dared attempt scientific explanations of
+natural phenomena, which under the mystic theology of the Middle
+Ages had been referred simply to supernatural causes.  Typical
+was his explanation of the causes and character of the rainbow.
+It was clear, cogent, a great step in the right direction as
+regards physical science:  but there, in the book of Genesis,
+stood the legend regarding the origin of the rainbow, supposed to
+have been dictated immediately by the Holy Spirit; and, according
+to that, the "bow in the cloud" was not the result of natural
+laws, but a "sign" arbitrarily placed in the heavens for the
+simple purpose of assuring mankind that there was not to be
+another universal deluge.
+
+But this was not the worst:  another theological idea was arrayed
+against him--the idea of Satanic intervention in science; hence
+he was attacked with that goodly missile which with the epithets
+"infidel" and "atheist" has decided the fate of so many
+battles--the charge of magic and compact with Satan.
+
+He defended himself with a most unfortunate weapon--a weapon
+which exploded in his hands and injured him more than the enemy;
+for he argued against the idea of compacts with Satan, and showed
+that much which is ascribed to demons results from natural means.
+This added fuel to the flame.  To limit the power of Satan was
+deemed hardly less impious than to limit the power of God.
+
+The most powerful protectors availed him little.  His friend Guy
+of Foulques, having in 1265 been made Pope under the name of
+Clement IV, shielded him for a time; but the fury of the enemy
+was too strong, and when he made ready to perform a few
+experiments before a small audience, we are told that all Oxford
+was in an uproar.  It was believed that Satan was about to be let
+loose.  Everywhere priests, monks, fellows, and students rushed
+about, their garments streaming in the wind, and everywhere rose
+the cry, "Down with the magician!" and this cry, "Down with the
+magician!" resounded from cell to cell and from hall to hall.
+
+Another weapon was also used upon the battlefields of science in
+that time with much effect.  The Arabs had made many noble
+discoveries in science, and Averroes had, in the opinion of many,
+divided the honours with St. Thomas Aquinas; these facts gave
+the new missile--it was the epithet "Mohammedan"; this, too, was
+flung with effect at Bacon.
+
+The attack now began to take its final shape.  The two great
+religious orders, Franciscan and Dominican, then in all the
+vigour of their youth, vied with each other in fighting the new
+thought in chemistry and physics.  St. Dominic solemnly
+condemned research by experiment and observation; the general of
+the Franciscan order took similar ground.  In 1243 the Dominicans
+interdicted every member of their order from the study of
+medicine and natural philosophy, and in 1287 this interdiction
+was extended to the study of chemistry.
+
+In 1278 the authorities of the Franciscan order assembled at
+Paris, solemnly condemned Bacon's teaching, and the general of
+the Franciscans, Jerome of Ascoli, afterward Pope, threw him into
+prison, where he remained for fourteen years, Though Pope Clement
+IV had protected him, Popes Nicholas III and IV, by virtue of
+their infallibility, decided that he was too dangerous to be at
+large, and he was only released at the age of eighty--but a year
+or two before death placed him beyond the reach of his enemies.
+How deeply the struggle had racked his mind may be gathered from
+that last affecting declaration of his, "Would that I had not
+given myself so much trouble for the love of science!"
+
+The attempt has been made by sundry champions of the Church to
+show that some of Bacon's utterances against ecclesiastical and
+other corruptions in his time were the main cause of the severity
+which the Church authorities exercised against him.  This helps
+the Church but little, even if it be well based; but it is not
+well based.  That some of his utterances of this sort made him
+enemies is doubtless true, but the charges on which St.
+Bonaventura silenced him, and Jerome of Ascoli imprisoned him,
+and successive popes kept him in prison for fourteen years, were
+"dangerous novelties" and suspected sorcery.
+
+Sad is it to think of what this great man might have given to the
+world had ecclesiasticism allowed the gift.  He held the key of
+treasures which would have freed mankind from ages of error and
+misery.  With his discoveries as a basis, with his method as a
+guide, what might not the world have gained! Nor was the wrong
+done to that age alone; it was done to this age also.  The
+nineteenth century was robbed at the same time with the
+thirteenth.  But for that interference with science the
+nineteenth century would be enjoying discoveries which will not
+be reached before the twentieth century, and even later.
+Thousands of precious lives shall be lost, tens of thousands
+shall suffer discomfort, privation, sickness, poverty, ignorance,
+for lack of discoveries and methods which, but for this mistaken
+dealing with Roger Bacon and his compeers, would now be blessing
+the earth.
+
+In two recent years sixty thousand children died in England and
+in Wales of scarlet fever; probably quite as many died in the
+United States.  Had not Bacon been hindered, we should have had
+in our hands, by this time, the means to save two thirds of these
+victims; and the same is true of typhoid, typhus, cholera, and
+that great class of diseases of whose physical causes science is
+just beginning to get an inkling.  Put together all the efforts
+of all the atheists who have ever lived, and they have not done
+so much harm to Christianity and the world as has been done by
+the narrow-minded, conscientious men who persecuted Roger Bacon,
+and closed the path which he gave his life to open.
+
+But despite the persecution of Bacon and the defection of those
+who ought to have followed him, champions of the experimental
+method rose from time to time during the succeeding centuries.
+We know little of them personally; our main knowledge of their
+efforts is derived from the endeavours of their persecutors.
+
+Under such guidance the secular rulers were naturally vigorous.
+In France Charles V forbade, in 1380, the possession of furnaces
+and apparatus necessary for chemical processes; under this law
+the chemist John Barrillon was thrown into prison, and it was
+only by the greatest effort that his life was saved.  In England
+Henry IV, in 1404, issued a similar decree.  In Italy the
+Republic of Venice, in 1418, followed these examples.  The
+judicial torture and murder of Antonio de Dominis were not simply
+for heresy his investigations in the phenomena of light were an
+additional crime.  In Spain everything like scientific research
+was crushed out among Christians.  Some earnest efforts were
+afterward made by Jews and Moors, but these were finally ended by
+persecution; and to this hour the Spanish race, in some respects
+the most gifted in Europe, which began its career with everything
+in its favour and with every form of noble achievement, remains
+in intellectual development behind every other in Christendom.
+
+To question the theological view of physical science was, even
+long after the close of the Middle Ages, exceedingly perilous.
+We have seen how one of Roger Bacon's unpardonable offences was
+his argument against the efficacy of magic, and how, centuries
+afterward, Cornelius Agrippa, Weyer, Flade, Loos, Bekker, and a
+multitude of other investigators and thinkers, suffered
+confiscation of property, loss of position, and even torture and
+death, for similar views.[275]
+
+[275] For an account of Bacon's treatise, De Nullitate Magiae,
+see Hoefer.  For the uproar caused by Bacon's teaching at Oxford,
+see Kopp, Geschichte der Chemie, Braunschweig, 1869, vol. i, p.
+63; and for a somewhat reactionary discussion of Bacon's relation
+to the progress of chemistry, see a recent work by the same
+author, Ansichten uber die Aufgabe der Chemie, Braunschweig,
+1874, pp. 85 et seq.; also, for an excellent summary, see Hoefer,
+Hist. de la Chimie, vol. i, pp. 368 et seq.  For probably the
+most thorough study of Bacon's general works in science, and for
+his views of the universe, see Prof. Werner, Die Kosmologie und
+allgemeine Naturlehre des Roger Baco, Wein, 1879.  For summaries
+of his work in other fields, see Whewell, vol. i, pp. 367, 368;
+Draper, p. 438; Saisset, Descartes et ses Precurseurs, deuxieme
+edition, pp. 397 et seq.; Nourrisson, Progres de la Pensee
+humaine, pp. 271, 272; Sprengel, Histoire de la Medecine, Paris,
+1865, vol. ii, p. 397; Cuvier, Histoire des Sciences Naturelles,
+vol. i, p. 417.  As to Bacon's orthodoxy, see Saisset, pp. 53,
+55.  For special examination of causes of Bacon's condemnation,
+see Waddington, cited by Saisset, p. 14.  For a brief but
+admirable statement of Roger Bacon's realtion to the world in his
+time, and of what he might have done had he not been thwarted by
+theology, see Dollinger, Studies in European History, English
+translation, London, 1890, pp. 178, 179. For a good example of
+the danger of denying the full power of Satan, even in much more
+recent times and in a Protestant country, see account of
+treatment in Bekker's Monde Enchante by the theologians of
+Holland, in Nisard, Histoire des Livres Populaires, vol. i, pp.
+172, 173.  Kopp, in his Ansichten, pushes criticism even to some
+scepticism as to Roger Bacon being the DISCOVERER of many of the
+things generally attributed to him; but, after all deductions are
+carefully made, enough remains to make Bacon the greatest
+benefactor to humanity during the Middle Ages.  For Roger Bacon's
+deep devotion to religion and the Church, see citation and
+remarks in Schneider, Roger Bacon, Augsburg, 1873, p. 112; also,
+citation from the Opus Majus, in Eicken, chap. vi.  On Bacon as a
+"Mohammedan," see Saisset, p. 17.  For the interdiction of
+studies in physical science by the Dominicans and Franciscans,
+see Henri Martin, Histoire de France, vol. iv, p. 283.  For
+suppression of chemical teaching by the Parliament of Paris, see
+ibid., vol. xii, pp. 14, 15.  For proofs that the world is
+steadily working toward great discoveries as to the cause and
+prevention of zymotic diseases and their propogation, see Beale's
+Disease Germs, Baldwin Latham's Sanitary Engineering, Michel
+Levy's Traite a Hygiene Publique et Privee.  For a summary of the
+bull Spondent pariter, and for an example of injury done by it,
+see Schneider, Geschichte der Alchemie, p. 160; and for a
+studiously moderate statement, Milman, Latin Christianity, book
+xii, chap. vi.  For character and general efforts of John XXII,
+see Lea, Inquisition, vol. iii, p. 436, also pp. 452 et seq.  For
+the character of the two papal briefs, see Rydberg, p. 177.  For
+the bull Summis Desiderantes, see previous chapters of this work.
+For Antonio de Dominis, see Montucla, Hist. des Mathematiques,
+vol. i, p. 705; Humboldt, Cosmos; Libri, vol. iv, pp. 145 et seq.
+For Weyer, Flade, Bekker, Loos, and others, see the chapters of
+this work on Meteorology, Demoniacal Possession and Insanity, and
+Diabolism and Hysteria.
+
+
+The theological atmosphere, which in consequence settled down
+about the great universities and colleges, seemed likely to
+stifle all scientific effort in every part of Europe, and it is
+one of the great wonders in human history that in spite of this
+deadly atmosphere a considerable body of thinking men, under such
+protection as they could secure, still persisted in devoting
+themselves to the physical sciences.
+
+In Italy, in the latter half of the sixteenth century, came a
+striking example of the difficulties which science still
+encountered even after the Renaissance had undermined the old
+beliefs.  At that time John Baptist Porta was conducting his
+investigations, and, despite a considerable mixture of
+pseudo-science, they were fruitful.  His was not "black magic,"
+claiming the aid of Satan, but "white magic," bringing into
+service the laws of nature--the precursor of applied science.
+His book on meteorology was the first in which sound ideas were
+broached on this subject; his researches in optics gave the
+world the camera obscura, and possibly the telescope; in
+chemistry he seems to have been the first to show how to reduce
+the metallic oxides, and thus to have laid the foundation of
+several important industries.  He did much to change natural
+philosophy from a black art to a vigorous open science.  He
+encountered the old ecclesiastical policy.  The society founded
+by him for physical research, "I Secreti," was broken up, and he
+was summoned to Rome by Pope Paul III and forbidden to continue
+his investigations.
+
+So, too, in France.  In 1624, some young chemists at Paris having
+taught the experimental method and cut loose from Aristotle, the
+faculty of theology beset the Parliament of Paris, and the
+Parliament prohibited these new chemical researches under the
+severest penalties.
+
+The same war continued in Italy.  Even after the belief in magic
+had been seriously weakened, the old theological fear and dislike
+of physical science continued.  In 1657 occurred the first
+sitting of the Accademia del Cimento at Florence, under the
+presidency of Prince Leopold de' Medici This academy promised
+great things for science; it was open to all talent; its only
+fundamental law was "the repudiation of any favourite system or
+sect of philosophy, and the obligation to investigate Nature by
+the pure light of experiment"; it entered into scientific
+investigations with energy.  Borelli in mathematics, Redi in
+natural history, and many others, enlarged the boundaries of
+knowledge.  Heat, light, magnetism, electricity, projectiles,
+digestion, and the incompressibility of water were studied by the
+right method and with results that enriched the world.
+
+The academy was a fortress of science, and siege was soon laid to
+it.  The votaries of scholastic learning denounced it as
+irreligious, quarrels were fomented, Leopold was bribed with a
+cardinal's hat and drawn away to Rome, and, after ten years of
+beleaguering, the fortress fell:  Borelli was left a beggar;
+Oliva killed himself in despair.
+
+So, too, the noted Academy of the Lincei at times incurred the
+ill will of the papacy by the very fact that it included
+thoughtful investigators.  It was "patronized" by Pope Urban VIII
+in such manner as to paralyze it, and it was afterward vexed by
+Pope Gregory XVI.  Even in our own time sessions of scientific
+associations were discouraged and thwarted by as kindly a pontiff
+as Pius IX.[276]
+
+[276] For Porta, see the English translation of his main summary,
+Natural Magick, London, 1658.  The first chapters are especially
+interesting, as showing what the word "magic" had come to mean in
+the mind of a man in whom mediaeval and modern ideas were
+curiously mixed; see also Hoefer, Histoire de la Chimie, vol. ii,
+pp. 102-106; also Kopp; also Sprengel, Histoire de la Medecine,
+vol. iii, p. 239; also Musset-Pathay.  For the Accademia del
+Cimento, see Napier, Florentine History, vol. v, p. 485;
+Tiraboschi, Storia della Litteratura; Henri Martin, Histoire de
+France; Jevons, Principles of Science, vol. ii, pp. 36-40.  For
+value attached to Borelli's investigations by Newton and Huygens,
+see Brewster's Life of Sir Isaac Newton, London, 1875, pp. 128,
+129.  Libri, in his first Essai sur Galilee, p. 37, says that
+Oliva was summoned to Rome and so tortured by the Inquisition
+that, to escape further cruelty, he ended his life by throwing
+himself from a window.  For interference by Pope Gregory XVI with
+the Academy of the Lincei, and with public instruction generally,
+see Carutti, Storia della Accademia dei Lincei, p. 126.  Pius IX,
+with all his geniality, seems to have allowed his hostility to
+voluntary associations to carry him very far at times.  For his
+answer to an application made through Lord Odo Russell regarding
+a society for the prevention of cruelty to animals and his answer
+that "such an association could not be sanctioned by the Holy
+See, being founded on a theological error, to wit, that
+Christians owed any duties to animals," see Frances Power Cobbe,
+Hopes of the Human Race, p. 207.
+
+
+A hostility similar in kind, though less in degree, was shown in
+Protestant countries.
+
+Even after Thomasius in Germany and Voltaire in France and
+Beccaria in Italy had given final blows to the belief in magic
+and witchcraft throughout Christendom, the traditional orthodox
+distrust of the physical sciences continued for a long time.
+
+In England a marked dislike was shown among various leading
+ecclesiastics and theologians towards the Royal Society, and
+later toward the Association for the Advancement of Science; and
+this dislike, as will hereafter be seen, sometimes took shape in
+serious opposition.
+
+As a rule, both in Protestant and Catholic countries instruction
+in chemistry and physics was for a long time discouraged by
+Church authorities; and, when its suppression was no longer
+possible, great pains were taken to subordinate it to instruction
+supposed to be more fully in accordance with the older methods of
+theological reasoning.
+
+I have now presented in outline the more direct and open struggle
+of the physical sciences with theology, mainly as an exterior
+foe.  We will next consider their warfare with the same foe in
+its more subtle form, mainly as a vitiating and sterilizing
+principle in science itself.
+
+We have seen thus far, first, how such men as Eusebius,
+Lactantius, and their compeers, opposed scientific investigation
+as futile; next, how such men as Albert the Great, St. Thomas
+Aquinas, and the multitude who followed them, turned the main
+current of medieval thought from science to theology; and,
+finally, how a long line of Church authorities from Popes John
+XXII and Innocent VIII, and the heads of the great religious
+orders, down to various theologians and ecclesiastics, Catholic
+and Protestant, of a very recent period, endeavoured first to
+crush and afterward to discourage scientific research as
+dangerous.
+
+Yet, injurious as all this was to the evolution of science, there
+was developed something in many respects more destructive; and
+this was the influence of mystic theology, penetrating,
+permeating, vitiating, sterilizing nearly every branch of science
+for hundreds of years.  Among the forms taken by this development
+in the earlier Middle Ages we find a mixture of physical science
+with a pseudo-science obtained from texts of Scripture.  In
+compounding this mixture, Jews and Christians vied with each
+other.  In this process the sacred books were used as a fetich;
+every word, every letter, being considered to have a divine and
+hidden meaning.  By combining various scriptural letters in
+various abstruse ways, new words of prodigious significance in
+magic were obtained, and among them the great word embracing the
+seventy-two mystical names of God--the mighty word
+"Schemhamphoras."  Why should men seek knowledge by observation
+and experiment in the book of Nature, when the book of
+Revelation, interpreted by the Kabbalah, opened such treasures to
+the ingenious believer?
+
+So, too, we have ancient mystical theories of number which the
+theological spirit had made Christian, usurping an enormous place
+in medieval science.  The sacred power of the number three was
+seen in the Trinity; in the three main divisions of the
+universe--the empyrean, the heavens, and the earth; in the three
+angelic hierarchies; in the three choirs of seraphim, cherubim,
+and thrones; in the three of dominions, virtues, and powers; in
+the three of principalities, archangels, and angels; in the
+three orders in the Church--bishops, priests, and deacons; in the
+three classes--the baptized, the communicants, and the monks; in
+the three degrees of attainment--light, purity, and knowledge; in
+the three theological virtues--faith, hope, and charity--and in
+much else.  All this was brought into a theologico-scientific
+relation, then and afterward, with the three dimensions of space;
+with the three divisions of time--past, present, and future; with
+the three realms of the visible world--sky, earth, and sea; with
+the three constituents of man--body, soul, and spirit; with the
+threefold enemies of man--the world, the flesh, and the devil;
+with the three kingdoms in nature--mineral, vegetable, and
+animal; with "the three colours"--red, yellow, and blue; with
+"the three eyes of the honey-bee"--and with a multitude of other
+analogues equally precious.  The sacred power of the number seven
+was seen in the seven golden candlesticks and the seven churches
+in the Apocalypse; in the seven cardinal virtues and the seven
+deadly sins; in the seven liberal arts and the seven devilish
+arts, and, above all, in the seven sacraments.  And as this
+proved in astrology that there could be only seven planets, so it
+proved in alchemy that there must be exactly seven metals.  The
+twelve apostles were connected with the twelve signs in the
+zodiac, and with much in physical science.  The seventy-two
+disciples, the seventy-two interpreters of the Old Testament, the
+seventy-two mystical names of God, were connected with the
+alleged fact in anatomy that there were seventy-two joints in the
+human frame.
+
+Then, also, there were revived such theologic and metaphysical
+substitutes for scientific thought as the declaration that the
+perfect line is a circle, and hence that the planets must move in
+absolute circles--a statement which led astronomy astray even
+when the great truths of the Copernican theory were well in
+sight; also, the declaration that nature abhors a vacuum--a
+statement which led physics astray until Torricelli made his
+experiments; also, the declaration that we see the lightning
+before we hear the thunder because "sight is nobler than
+hearing."
+
+In chemistry we have the same theologic tendency to magic, and,
+as a result, a muddle of science and theology, which from one
+point of view seems blasphemous and from another idiotic, but
+which none the less sterilized physical investigation for ages.
+That debased Platonism which had been such an important factor in
+the evolution of Christian theology from the earliest days of the
+Church continued its work.  As everything in inorganic nature was
+supposed to have spiritual significance, the doctrines of the
+Trinity and Incarnation were turned into an argument in behalf of
+the philosopher's stone; arguments for the scheme of redemption
+and for transubstantiation suggested others of similar
+construction to prove the transmutation of metals; the doctrine
+of the resurrection of the human body was by similar mystic
+jugglery connected with the processes of distillation and
+sublimation.  Even after the Middle Ages were past, strong men
+seemed unable to break away from such reasoning as this--among
+them such leaders as Basil Valentine in the fifteenth century,
+Agricola in the sixteenth, and Van Helmont in the seventeenth.
+
+The greatest theologians contributed to the welter of unreason
+from which this pseudo-science was developed.  One question
+largely discussed was, whether at the Redemption it was necessary
+for God to take the human form.  Thomas Aquinas answered that it
+was necessary, but William Occam and Duns Scotus answered that it
+was not; that God might have taken the form of a stone, or of a
+log, or of a beast.  The possibilities opened to wild substitutes
+for science by this sort of reasoning were infinite.  Men have
+often asked how it was that the Arabians accomplished so much in
+scientific discovery as compared with Christian investigators;
+but the answer is easy:  the Arabians were comparatively free
+from these theologic allurements which in Christian Europe
+flickered in the air on all sides, luring men into paths which
+led no-whither.
+
+Strong investigators, like Arnold of Villanova, Raymond Lully,
+Basil Valentine, Paracelsus, and their compeers, were thus drawn
+far out of the only paths which led to fruitful truths.  In a
+work generally ascribed to the first of these, the student is
+told that in mixing his chemicals he must repeat the psalm
+Exsurge Domine, and that on certain chemical vessels must be
+placed the last words of Jesus on the cross.  Vincent of Beauvais
+insisted that, as the Bible declares that Noah, when five hundred
+years old, had children born to him, he must have possessed
+alchemical means of preserving life; and much later Dickinson
+insisted that the patriarchs generally must have owed their long
+lives to such means.  It was loudly declared that the reality of
+the philosopher's stone was proved by the words of St. John in
+the Revelation.  "To him that overcometh I will give a white
+stone."  The reasonableness of seeking to develop gold out of the
+baser metals was for many generations based upon the doctrine of
+the resurrection of the physical body, which, though explicitly
+denied by St. Paul, had become a part of the creed of the Church.
+Martin Luther was especially drawn to believe in the alchemistic
+doctrine of transmutation by this analogy.  The Bible was
+everywhere used, both among Protestants and Catholics, in support
+of these mystic adulterations of science, and one writer, as late
+as 1751, based his alchemistic arguments on more than a hundred
+passages of Scripture.  As an example of this sort of reasoning,
+we have a proof that the elect will preserve the philosopher's
+stone until the last judgment, drawn from a passage in St.
+Paul's Epistle to the Corinthians, "We have this treasure in
+earthen vessels."
+
+The greatest thinkers devoted themselves to adding new
+ingredients to this strange mixture of scientific and theologic
+thought.  The Catholic philosophy of Thomas Aquinas, the
+Protestant mysticism of Jacob Boehme, and the alchemistic
+reveries of Basil Valentine were all cast into this seething
+mass.
+
+And when alchemy in its old form had been discredited, we find
+scriptural arguments no less perverse, and even comical, used on
+the other side.  As an example of this, just before the great
+discoveries by Stahl, we find the valuable scientific efforts of
+Becher opposed with the following syllogism:  "King Solomon,
+according to the Scriptures, possessed the united wisdom of
+heaven and earth; but King Solomon knew nothing about alchemy
+[or chemistry in the form it then took], and sent his vessels to
+Ophir to seek gold, and levied taxes upon his subjects; ergo
+alchemy [or chemistry] has no reality or truth."  And we find
+that Becher is absolutely turned away from his labours, and
+obliged to devote himself to proving that Solomon used more money
+than he possibly could have obtained from Ophir or his subjects,
+and therefore that he must have possessed a knowledge of chemical
+methods and the philosopher's stone as the result of them.[277]
+
+[277] For an extract from Agrippa's Occulta Philosophia, giving
+examples of the way in which mystical names were obtained from
+the Bible, see Rydberg, Magic of the Middle Ages, pp. 143 et seq.
+For the germs of many mystic beliefs regarding number and the
+like, which were incorporated into mediaeval theology, see
+Zeller, Plato and the Older Academy, English translation, pp. 254
+and 572, and elsewhere.  As to the connection of spiritual things
+with inorganic nature in relation to chemistry, see Eicken, p.
+634.  On the injury to science wrought by Platonism acting
+through mediaeval theology, see Hoefer, Histoire de la Chimie,
+vol. i, p. 90.  As to the influence of mysticism upon strong men
+in science, see Hoefer; also Kopp, Geschichte der Alchemie, vol.
+i, p. 211.  For a very curious Catholic treatise on sacred
+numbers, see the Abbe Auber, Symbolisme Religieux, Paris, 1870;
+also Detzel, Christliche Ikonographie, pp. 44 et seq.; and for an
+equally important Protestant work, see Samuell, Seven the Sacred
+number, London 1887.  It is interesting to note that the latter
+writer, having been forced to give up the seven planets, consoles
+himself with the statement that "the earth is the seventh planet,
+counting from Neptune and calling the asteroids one" (see p.
+426).  For the electrum magicum, the seven metals composing it,
+and its wonderful qualities, see extracts from Paracelsus's
+writings in Hartmann's Life of Paracelsus, London, 1887, pp. 168
+et seq.  As to the more rapid transition of light than sound, the
+following expresses the scholastic method well: "What is the
+cause why we see sooner the lightning than we heare the thunder
+clappe?  That is because our sight is both nobler and sooner
+perceptive of its object than our eare; as being the more active
+part, and priore to our hearing: besides, the visible species are
+more subtile and less corporeal than the audible species."--
+Person's Varieties, Meteors, p. 82.  For Basil Valentine's view,
+see Hoefer, vol. i, pp. 453-465; Schmieder, Geschichte der
+Alchemie, pp. 197-209; Allgemeine deutsche Biographies, article
+Basilius.  For the discussions referred to on possibilities of
+God assuming forms of stone, or log, or beast, see Lippert,
+Christenthum, Volksglaube, und Volksbrauch, pp. 372, 373, where
+citations are given, etc.  For the syllogism regarding Solomon,
+see Figuier, L'Alchimie et les Alchimistes, pp. 106, 107.  For
+careful appreciation of Becher's position in the history of
+chemistry, see Kopp, Ansichten uber die Aufgabe der Chemie, etc.,
+von Geber bis Stahl, Braunschweig, 1875, pp. 201 et seq.  For the
+text proving the existence of the philosopher's stone from the
+book of Revelation, see Figuier, p. 22.
+
+
+Of the general reasoning enforced by theology regarding physical
+science, every age has shown examples; yet out of them all I
+will select but two, and these are given because they show how
+this mixture of theological with scientific ideas took hold upon
+the strongest supporters of better reasoning even after the power
+of medieval theology seemed broken.
+
+The first of these examples is Melanchthon.  He was the scholar
+of the Reformation, and justly won the title "Preceptor of
+Germany." His mind was singularly open, his sympathies broad, and
+his usual freedom from bigotry drew down upon him that wrath of
+Protestant heresy-hunters which embittered the last years of his
+life and tortured him upon his deathbed.  During his career at
+the University of Wittenberg he gave a course of lectures on
+physics, and in these he dwelt upon scriptural texts as affording
+scientific proofs, accepted the interference of the devil in
+physical phenomena as in other things, and applied the medieval
+method throughout his whole work.[278]
+
+[278] For Melanchthon's ideas on physics, see his Initia
+Doctrinae Physicae, Wittenberg, 1557, especially pp. 243 and 274;
+also in vol. xiii of Bretschneider's edition of the collected
+works, and especially pp. 339-343.
+
+
+Yet far more remarkable was the example, a century later, of the
+man who more than any other led the world out of the path opened
+by Aquinas, and into that through which modern thought has
+advanced to its greatest conquests.  Strange as it may at first
+seem, Francis Bacon, whose keenness of sight revealed the
+delusions of the old path and the promises of the new, and whose
+boldness did so much to turn the world from the old path into the
+new, presents in his own writings one of the most striking
+examples of the evil he did so much to destroy.
+
+The Novum Organon, considering the time when it came from his
+pen, is doubtless one of the greatest exhibitions of genius in
+the history of human thought.  It showed the modern world the way
+out of the scholastic method and reverence for dogma into the
+experimental method and reverence for fact.  In it occur many
+passages which show that the great philosopher was fully alive to
+the danger both to religion and to science arising from their
+mixture.  He declares that the "corruption of philosophy from
+superstition and theology introduced the greatest amount of evil
+both into whole systems of philosophy and into their parts."  He
+denounces those who "have endeavoured to found a natural
+philosophy on the books of Genesis and Job and other sacred
+Scriptures, so `seeking the dead among the living.'"  He speaks
+of the result as "an unwholesome mixture of things human and
+divine; not merely fantastic philosophy, but heretical religion."
+
+He refers to the opposition of the fathers to the doctrine of the
+rotundity of the earth, and says that, "thanks to some of them,
+you may find the approach to any kind of philosophy, however
+improved, entirely closed up."  He charges that some of these
+divines are "afraid lest perhaps a deeper inquiry into nature
+should, penetrate beyond the allowed limits of sobriety"; and
+finally speaks of theologians as sometimes craftily conjecturing
+that, if science be little understood, "each single thing can be
+referred more easily to the hand and rod of God," and says, "THIS
+IS NOTHING MORE OR LESS THAN WISHING TO PLEASE GOD BY A LIE."
+
+No man who has reflected much upon the annals of his race can,
+without a feeling of awe, come into the presence of such
+clearness of insight and boldness of utterance, and the first
+thought of the reader is that, of all men, Francis Bacon is the
+most free from the unfortunate bias he condemns; that he,
+certainly, can not be deluded into the old path.  But as we go on
+through his main work we are surprised to find that the strong
+arm of Aquinas has been stretched over the intervening ages, and
+has laid hold upon this master-thinker of the seventeenth
+century; for only a few chapters beyond those containing the
+citations already made we find Bacon alluding to the recent
+voyage of Columbus, and speaking of the prophecy of Daniel
+regarding the latter days, that "many shall run to and fro, and
+knowledge be increased," as clearly signifying "that...the
+circumnavigation of the world and the increase of science should
+happen in the same age."[279]
+
+[279] See the Novum Organon, translated by the Rev. G. W.
+Kitchin, Oxford, 1855, chaps. lxv and lxxxix.
+
+
+In his great work on the Advancement of Learning the firm grasp
+which the methods he condemned held upon him is shown yet more
+clearly.  In the first book of it he asserts that "that excellent
+book of Job, if it be revolved with diligence, will be found
+pregnant and swelling with natural philosophy," and he endeavours
+to show that in it the "roundness of the earth," the "fixing of
+the stars, ever standing at equal distances," the "depression of
+the southern pole," the "matter of generation," and "matter of
+minerals" are "with great elegancy noted."  But, curiously
+enough, he uses to support some of these truths the very texts
+which the fathers of the Church used to destroy them, and those
+for which he finds Scripture warrant most clearly are such as
+science has since disproved.  So, too, he says that Solomon was
+enabled in his Proverbs, "by donation of God, to compile a
+natural history of all verdure."[280]
+
+[280] See Bacon, Advancement of Learning, edited by W. Aldis
+Wright, London, 1873, pp. 47, 48.  Certainly no more striking
+examples of the strength of the evil which he had all along been
+denouncing could be exhibited that these in his own writings.
+Nothing better illustrates the sway of the mediaeval theology, or
+better explains his blindness to the discoveries of Copernicus
+and to the experiments of Gilbert.  For a very contemptuous
+statement of Lord Bacon's claim to his position as a philosopher,
+see Lange, Geschichte des Materialismus, Leipsic, 1872, vol.i, p.
+219.  For a more just statement, see Brewster, Life of Sir Isaac
+Newton, London, 1874, vol. ii, p. 298.
+
+
+Such was the struggle of the physical sciences in general.  Let
+us now look briefly at one special example out of many, which
+reveals, as well as any, one of the main theories which prompted
+theological interference with them.
+
+It will doubtless seem amazing to many that for ages the weight
+of theological thought in Christendom was thrown against the idea
+of the suffocating properties of certain gases, and especially of
+carbonic acid.  Although in antiquity we see men forming a right
+theory of gases in mines, we find that, early in the history of
+the Church, St. Clement of Alexandria put forth the theory that
+these gases are manifestations of diabolic action, and that,
+throughout Christendom, suffocation in caverns, wells, and
+cellars was attributed to the direct action of evil spirits.
+Evidences of this view abound through the medieval period, and
+during the Reformation period a great authority, Agricola, one of
+the most earnest and truthful of investigators, still adhered to
+the belief that these gases in mines were manifestations of
+devils, and he specified two classes--one of malignant imps, who
+blow out the miners' lamps, and the other of friendly imps, who
+simply tease the workmen in various ways.  He went so far as to
+say that one of these spirits in the Saxon mine of Annaberg
+destroyed twelve workmen at once by the power of his breath.
+
+At the end of the sixteenth century we find a writer on
+mineralogy complaining that the mines in France and Germany had
+been in large part abandoned on account of the "evil spirits of
+metals which had taken possession of them."
+
+Even as late as the seventeenth century, Van Helmont, after he
+had broken away from alchemy and opened one of the great paths to
+chemistry--even after he had announced to the world the existence
+of various gases and the mode of their generation--was not strong
+enough to free himself from theologic bias; he still inclined to
+believe that the gases he had discovered, were in some sense
+living spirits, beneficent or diabolical.
+
+But at various.  periods glimpses of the truth had been gained.
+The ancient view had not been entirely forgotten; and as far
+back as the first part of the thirteenth century Albert the Great
+suggested a natural cause in the possibility of exhalations from
+minerals causing a "corruption of the air"; but he, as we have
+seen, was driven or dragged off into, theological studies, and
+the world relapsed into the theological view.
+
+Toward the end of the fifteenth century there had come a great
+genius laden with important truths in chemistry, but for whom the
+world was not ready--Basil Valentine.  His discoveries
+anticipated much that has brought fame and fortune to chemists
+since, yet so fearful of danger was he that his work was
+carefully concealed. Not until after his death was his treatise
+on alchemy found, and even then it was for a long time not known
+where and when he lived.  The papal bull, Spondent pariter, and
+the various prohibitions it bred, forcing other alchemists to
+conceal their laboratories, led him to let himself be known
+during his life at Erfurt simply as an apothecary, and to wait
+until after his death to make a revelation of truth which during
+his lifetime might have cost him dear.  Among the legacies of
+this greatest of the alchemists was the doctrine that the air
+which asphyxiates workers in mines is similar to that which is
+produced by fermentation of malt, and a recommendation that, in
+order to drive away the evil and to prevent serious accidents,
+fires be lighted and jets of steam used to ventilate the
+mines--stress being especially laid upon the idea that the danger
+in the mines is produced by "exhalations of metals."
+
+Thanks to men like Valentine, this idea of the interference of
+Satan and his minions with the mining industry was gradually
+weakened, and the working of the deserted mines was resumed; yet
+even at a comparatively recent period we find it still lingering,
+and among leading divines in the very heart of Protestant
+Germany.  In 1715 a cellar-digger having been stifled at Jena,
+the medical faculty of the university decided that the cause was
+not the direct action of the devil, but a deadly gas.  Thereupon
+Prof. Loescher, of the University of Wittenberg, entered a solemn
+protest, declaring that the decision of the medical faculty was
+"only a proof of the lamentable license which has so taken
+possession of us, and which, if we are not earnestly on our
+guard, will finally turn away from us the blessing of God."[281]
+But denunciations of this kind could not hold back the little
+army of science; in spite of adverse influences, the evolution
+of physics and chemistry went on.  More and more there rose men
+bold enough to break away from theological methods and strong
+enough to resist ecclesiastical bribes and threats.  As alchemy
+in its first form, seeking for the philosopher's stone and the
+transmutation of metals, had given way to alchemy in its second
+form, seeking for the elixir of life and remedies more or less
+magical for disease, so now the latter yielded to the search for
+truth as truth.  More and more the "solemnly constituted
+impostors" were resisted in every field.  A great line of
+physicists and chemists began to appear.[282]
+
+[281] For Loescher's protest, see Julian Schmidt, Geschichte des
+geistigen Lebens, etc., vol. i, p. 319.
+
+[282] For the general view of noxious gases as imps of Satan, see
+Hoefer, Histoire de la Chimie, vol. i, p. 350; vol. ii, p. 48.
+For the work of Black, Priestley, Bergmann, and others, see main
+authorities already cited, and especially the admirable paper of
+Dr. R. G. Eccles on The Evolution of Chemistry, New York, D.
+Appleton & Co., 1891.  For the treatment of Priesley, see
+Spence's Essays, London, 1892; also Rutt, Life and Correspondence
+of Priestley, vol. ii, pp. 115 et seq.
+
+
+
+II.
+
+
+Just at the middle of the seventeenth century, and at the very
+centre of opposition to physical science, Robert Boyle began the
+new epoch in chemistry.  Strongly influenced by the writings of
+Bacon and the discoveries of Galileo, he devoted himself to
+scientific research, establishing at Oxford a laboratory and
+putting into it a chemist from Strasburg.  For this he was at
+once bitterly attacked.  In spite of his high position, his
+blameless life, his liberal gifts to charity and learning, the
+Oxford pulpit was especially severe against him, declaring that
+his researches were destroying religion and his experiments
+undermining the university.  Public orators denounced him, the
+wits ridiculed him, and his associates in the peerage were
+indignant that he should condescend to pursuits so unworthy.  But
+Boyle pressed on.  His discoveries opened new paths in various
+directions and gave an impulse to a succession of vigorous
+investigators.  Thus began the long series of discoveries
+culminating those of Black, Bergmann, Cavendish, Priestley, and
+Lavoisier, who ushered in the chemical science of the nineteenth
+century.
+
+Yet not even then without a sore struggle against unreason.  And
+it must here be noticed that this unreason was not all
+theological.  The unreasoning heterodox when intrusted with
+irresponsible power can be as short-sighted and cruel as the
+unreasoning orthodox.  Lavoisier, one of the best of our race,
+not only a great chemist but a true man, was sent to the scaffold
+by the Parisian mob, led by bigoted "liberals" and atheists, with
+the sneer that the republic had no need of savants.  As to
+Priestley, who had devoted his life to science and to every good
+work among his fellow-men, the Birmingham mob, favoured by the
+Anglican clergymen who harangued them as "fellow-churchmen,"
+wrecked his house, destroyed his library, philosophical
+instruments, and papers containing the results of long years of
+scientific research, drove him into exile, and would have
+murdered him if they could have laid their hands upon him.  Nor
+was it entirely his devotion to rational liberty, nor even his
+disbelief in the doctrine of the Trinity, which brought on this
+catastrophe.  That there was a deep distrust of his scientific
+pursuits, was evident when the leaders of the mob took pains to
+use his electrical apparatus to set fire to his papers.
+
+Still, though theological modes of thought continued to sterilize
+much effort in chemistry, the old influence was more and more
+thrown off, and truth sought more and more for truth's sake.
+"Black magic" with its Satanic machinery vanished, only
+reappearing occasionally among marvel-mongers and belated
+theologians.  "White magic" became legerdemain.
+
+In the early years of the nineteenth century, physical research,
+though it went on with ever-increasing vigour, felt in various
+ways the reaction which followed the French Revolution.  It was
+not merely under the Bourbons and Hapsburgs that resistance was
+offered; even in England the old spirit lingered long.  As late
+as 1832, when the British Association for the Advancement of
+Science first visited Oxford, no less amiable a man than John
+Keble--at that time a power in the university--condemned
+indignantly the conferring of honorary degrees upon the leading
+men thus brought together.  In a letter of that date to Dr. Pusey
+he complained bitterly, to use his own words, that "the Oxford
+doctors have truckled sadly to the spirit of the times in
+receiving the hotchpotch of philosophers as they did."  It is
+interesting to know that among the men thus contemptuously
+characterized were Brewster, Faraday, and Dalton.
+
+Nor was this a mere isolated exhibition of feeling; it lasted
+many years, and was especially shown on both sides of the
+Atlantic in all higher institutions of learning where theology
+was dominant.  Down to a period within the memory of men still in
+active life, students in the sciences, not only at Oxford and
+Cambridge but at Harvard and Yale, were considered a doubtful if
+not a distinctly inferior class, intellectually and socially--to
+be relegated to different instructors and buildings, and to
+receive their degrees on a different occasion and with different
+ceremonies from those appointed for students in literature.  To
+the State University of Michigan, among the greater American
+institutions of learning which have never possessed or been
+possessed by a theological seminary, belongs the honour of first
+breaking down this wall of separation.
+
+But from the middle years of the century chemical science
+progressed with ever-accelerating force, and the work of Bunsen,
+Kirchhoff, Dalton, and Faraday has, in the last years of the
+century, led up to the establishment of Mendeleef's law, by which
+chemistry has become predictive, as astronomy had become
+predictive by the calculations of Newton, and biology by the
+discoveries of Darwin.
+
+While one succession of strong men were thus developing chemistry
+out of one form of magic, another succession were developing
+physics out of another form.
+
+First in this latter succession may be mentioned that line of
+thinkers who divined and reasoned out great physical laws--a line
+extending from Galileo and Kepler and Newton to Ohm and Faraday
+and Joule and Helmholtz.  These, by revealing more and more
+clearly the reign of law, steadily undermined the older
+theological view of arbitrary influence in nature.  Next should
+be mentioned the line of profound observers, from Galileo and
+Torricelli to Kelvin.  These have as thoroughly undermined the
+old theologic substitution of phrases for facts.  When Galileo
+dropped the differing weights from the Leaning Tower of Pisa, he
+began the end of Aristotelian authority in physics.  When
+Torricelli balanced a column of mercury against a column of water
+and each of these against a column of air, he ended the theologic
+phrase that "nature abhors a vacuum."  When Newton approximately
+determined the velocity of sound, he ended the theologic argument
+that we see the flash before we hear the roar because "sight is
+nobler than hearing."  When Franklin showed that lightning is
+caused by electricity, and Ohm and Faraday proved that
+electricity obeys ascertained laws, they ended the theological
+idea of a divinity seated above the clouds and casting
+thunderbolts.
+
+Resulting from the labour of both these branches of physical
+science, we have the establishment of the great laws of the
+indestructibility of matter, the correlation of forces, and
+chemical affinity.  Thereby is ended, with various other sacred
+traditions, the theological theory of a visible universe created
+out of nothing, so firmly imbedded in the theological thought of
+the Middle Ages and in the Westminster Catechism.[283]
+
+[283] For a reappearance of the fundamental doctrines of black
+magic among theologians, see Rev. Dr. Jewett, Professor of
+Pastoral Theology in the Prot. Episc. Gen. Theolog. Seminary of
+New York, Diabolology: The Person and the Kingdom of Satan, New
+York, 1889.  For their appearance among theosophists, see Eliphas
+Levi, Histoire de la Magie, especially the final chapters.  For
+opposition to Boyle and chemistry studies at Oxford in the latter
+half of the seventeenth century, see the address of Prof. Dixon,
+F. R. S., before the British Association, 1894.  For the recent
+progress of chemistry, and opposition to its earlier development
+at Oxford, see Lord Salisbury's address as President of the
+British Association, in 1894.  For the Protestant survival of the
+mediaeval assertion that the universe was created out of nothing,
+see the Westminster Catechism, question 15.
+
+
+In our own time some attempt has been made to renew this war
+against the physical sciences.  Joseph de Maistre, uttering his
+hatred of them, declaring that mankind has paid too dearly for
+them, asserting that they must be subjected to theology, likening
+them to fire--good when confined and dangerous when scattered
+about--has been one of the main leaders among those who can not
+relinquish the idea that our body of sacred literature should be
+kept a controlling text-book of science.  The only effect of such
+teachings has been to weaken the legitimate hold of religion upon
+men.
+
+In Catholic countries exertion has of late years been mainly
+confined to excluding science or diluting it in university
+teachings.  Early in the present century a great effort was made
+by Ferdinand VII of Spain.  He simply dismissed the scientific
+professors from the University of Salamanca, and until a recent
+period there has been general exclusion from Spanish universities
+of professors holding to the Newtonian physics.  So, too, the
+contemporary Emperor of Austria attempted indirectly something of
+the same sort; and at a still later period Popes Gregory XVI and
+Pius IX discouraged, if they did not forbid, the meetings of
+scientific associations in Italy.  In France, war between
+theology and science, which had long been smouldering, came in
+the years 1867 and 1868 to an outbreak.  Toward the end of the
+last century, after the Church had held possession of advanced
+instruction for more than a thousand years, and had, so far as it
+was able, kept experimental science in servitude--after it had
+humiliated Buffon in natural science, thrown its weight against
+Newton in the physical sciences, and wrecked Turgot's noble plans
+for a system of public instruction--the French nation decreed the
+establishment of the most thorough and complete system of higher
+instruction in science ever known.  It was kept under lay control
+and became one of the glories of France; but, emboldened by the
+restoration of the Bourbons in 1815, the Church began to
+undermine this hated system, and in 1868 had made such progress
+that all was ready for the final assault.
+
+Foremost among the leaders of the besieging party was the Bishop
+of Orleans, Dupanloup, a man of many winning characteristics and
+of great oratorical power.  In various ways, and especially in an
+open letter, he had fought the "materialism" of science at Paris,
+and especially were his attacks levelled at Profs.  Vulpian and
+See and the Minister of Public instruction, Duruy, a man of great
+merit, whose only crime was devotion to the improvement of
+education and to the promotion of the highest research in
+science.[284]
+
+[284] For the exertions of the restored Bourbons to crush the
+universities of Spain, see Hubbard, Hist. Contemporaine de
+l'Espagne, Paris, 1878, chaps. i and ii.  For Dupanloup, Lettre a
+un Cardinal, see the Revue de Therapeutique of 1868, p. 221.
+
+
+The main attack was made rather upon biological science than upon
+physics and chemistry, yet it was clear that all were involved
+together.
+
+The first onslaught was made in the French Senate, and the
+storming party in that body was led by a venerable and
+conscientious prelate, Cardinal de Bonnechose, Archbishop of
+Rouen.  It was charged by him and his party that the tendencies
+of the higher scientific teaching at Paris were fatal to religion
+and morality.  Heavy missiles were hurled--such phrases as
+"sapping the foundations," "breaking down the bulwarks," and the
+like; and, withal, a new missile was used with much effect--the
+epithet "materialist."
+
+The results can be easily guessed:  crowds came to the
+lecture-rooms of the attacked professors, and the lecture-room of
+Prof. See, the chief offender, was crowded to suffocation.
+
+A siege was begun in due form.  A young physician was sent by the
+cardinal's party into the heterodox camp as a spy.  Having heard
+one lecture of Prof. See, he returned with information that
+seemed to promise easy victory to the besieging party:  he
+brought a terrible statement--one that seemed enough to overwhelm
+See, Vulpian, Duruy, and the whole hated system of public
+instruction in France--the statement that See had denied the
+existence of the human soul.
+
+Cardinal Bonnechose seized the tremendous weapon at once.  Rising
+in his place in the Senate, he launched a most eloquent invective
+against the Minister of State who could protect such a fortress
+of impiety as the College of Medicine; and, as a climax, he
+asserted, on the evidence of his spy fresh from Prof. See's
+lecture-room, that the professor had declared, in his lecture of
+the day before, that so long as he had the honour to hold his
+professorship he would combat the false idea of the existence of
+the soul.  The weapon seemed resistless and the wound fatal, but
+M. Duruy rose and asked to be heard.
+
+His statement was simply that he held in his hand documentary
+proofs that Prof. See never made such a declaration.  He held
+the notes used by Prof. See in his lecture.  Prof. See, it
+appeared, belonged to a school in medical science which combated
+certain ideas regarding medicine as an ART.  The inflamed
+imagination of the cardinal's heresy-hunting emissary had, as the
+lecture-notes proved, led him to mistake the word "art" for
+"ame," and to exhibit Prof. See as treating a theological when he
+was discussing a purely scientific question.  Of the existence of
+the soul the professor had said nothing.
+
+The forces of the enemy were immediately turned; they retreated
+in confusion, amid the laughter of all France; and a quiet,
+dignified statement as to the rights of scientific instructors by
+Wurtz, dean of the faculty, completed their discomfiture.  Thus a
+well-meant attempt to check science simply ended in bringing
+ridicule on religion, and in thrusting still deeper into the
+minds of thousands of men that most mistaken of all mistaken
+ideas:  the conviction that religion and science are
+enemies.[285]
+
+[285] For a general account of the Vulpian and See matter, see
+Revue des Deux Mondes, 31 mai, 1868, "Chronique de la Quinzaine,"
+pp. 763-765.  As to the result on popular thought, may be noted
+the following comment on the affair by the Revue, which is as
+free as possible from anything like rabid anti-ecclesiastical
+ideas: "Elle a ete vraiment curieuse, instructive, assez triste
+et meme un peu amusante."  For Wurtz's statement, see Revue de
+Therapeutique for 1868, p. 303.
+
+
+But justice forbids raising an outcry against Roman Catholicism
+for this.  In 1864 a number of excellent men in England drew up a
+declaration to be signed by students in the natural sciences,
+expressing "sincere regret that researches into scientific truth
+are perverted by some in our time into occasion for casting doubt
+upon the truth and authenticity of the Holy Scriptures."  Nine
+tenths of the leading scientific men of England refused to sign
+it; nor was this all:  Sir John Herschel, Sir John Bowring, and
+Sir W.  R.  Hamilton administered, through the press,
+castigations which roused general indignation against the
+proposers of the circular, and Prof. De Morgan, by a parody,
+covered memorial and memorialists with ridicule.  It was the old
+mistake, and the old result followed in the minds of multitudes
+of thoughtful young men.[286]
+
+[286] De Morgan, Paradoxes, pp. 421-428; also Daubeny's Essays.
+
+
+And in yet another Protestant country this same mistake was made.
+In 1868 several excellent churchmen in Prussia thought it their
+duty to meet for the denunciation of "science falsely so called."
+Two results followed:  upon the great majority of these really
+self-sacrificing men--whose first utterances showed complete
+ignorance of the theories they attacked--there came quiet and
+widespread contempt; upon Pastor Knak, who stood forth and
+proclaimed views of the universe which he thought scriptural, but
+which most schoolboys knew to be childish, came a burst of
+good-natured derision from every quarter of the German
+nation.[287]
+
+[287] See the Berlin newspapers for the summer of 1868,
+especially Kladderdatsch.
+
+
+But in all the greater modern nations warfare of this kind, after
+the first quarter of the nineteenth century, became more and more
+futile.  While conscientious Roman bishops, and no less
+conscientious Protestant clergymen in Europe and America
+continued to insist that advanced education, not only in
+literature but in science, should be kept under careful control
+in their own sectarian universities and colleges, wretchedly
+one-sided in organization and inadequate in equipment; while
+Catholic clerical authorities in Spain were rejecting all
+professors holding the Newtonian theory, and in Austria and Italy
+all holding unsafe views regarding the Immaculate Conception, and
+while Protestant clerical authorities in Great Britain and
+America were keeping out of professorships men holding
+unsatisfactory views regarding the Incarnation, or Infant
+Baptism, or the Apostolic Succession, or Ordination by Elders, or
+the Perseverance of the Saints; and while both Catholic and
+Protestant ecclesiastics were openly or secretly weeding out of
+university faculties all who showed willingness to consider
+fairly the ideas of Darwin, a movement was quietly in progress
+destined to take instruction, and especially instruction in the
+physical and natural sciences, out of its old subordination to
+theology and ecclesiasticism.[288]
+
+[288] Whatever may be thought of the system of philosophy
+advocated by President McCosh at Princeton, every thinking man
+must honor him for the large way in which he, at least, broke
+away from the traditions of that centre of thought; prevented, so
+far as he was able, persecution of scholars for holding to the
+Darwinian view; and paved the way for the highest researches in
+physical science in that university.  For a most eloquent
+statement of the opposition of modern physical science to
+mediaeval theological views, as shown in the case of Sir Isaac
+Newton, see Dr. Thomas Chalmers, cited in Gore, Art of Scientific
+Discovery, London, 1878, p. 247.
+
+
+The most striking beginnings of this movement had been seen when,
+in the darkest period of the French Revolution, there was founded
+at Paris the great Conservatory of Arts and Trades, and when, in
+the early years of the nineteenth century, scientific and
+technical education spread quietly upon the Continent.  By the
+middle of the century France and Germany were dotted with
+well-equipped technical and scientific schools, each having
+chemical and physical laboratories.
+
+The English-speaking lands lagged behind.  In England, Oxford and
+Cambridge showed few if any signs of this movement, and in the
+United States, down to 1850, evidences of it were few and feeble.
+Very significant is it that, at that period, while Yale College
+had in its faculty Silliman and Olmsted--the professor of
+chemistry and the professor of physics most widely known in the
+United States--it had no physical or chemical laboratory in the
+modern sense, and confined its instruction in these subjects to
+examinations upon a text-book and the presentation of a few
+lectures.  At the State University of Michigan, which had even
+then taken a foremost place in the higher education west of the
+Great Lakes, there was very meagre instruction in chemistry and
+virtually none in physics.  This being the state of things in the
+middle of the century in institutions remarkably free from
+clerical control, it can be imagined what was the position of
+scientific instruction in smaller colleges and universities where
+theological considerations were entirely dominant.
+
+But in 1851, with the International Exhibition at London, began
+in Great Britain and America a movement in favour of scientific
+education; men of wealth and public spirit began making
+contributions to them, and thus came the growth of a new system
+of instruction in which Chemistry and Physics took just rank.
+
+By far the most marked feature in this movement was seen in
+America, when, in 1857, Justin S.  Morrill, a young member of
+Congress from Vermont, presented the project of a law endowing
+from the public lands a broad national system of colleges in
+which scientific and technical studies should be placed on an
+equality with studies in classical literature, one such college
+to be established in every State of the Union.  The bill, though
+opposed mainly by representatives from the Southern States, where
+doctrinaire politics and orthodox theology were in strong
+alliance with negro slavery, was passed by both Houses of
+Congress, but vetoed by President Buchanan, in whom the
+doctrinaire and orthodox spirit was incarnate.  But Morrill
+persisted and again presented his bill, which was again carried
+in spite of the opposition of the Southern members, and again
+vetoed in 1859 by President Buchanan.  Then came the civil war;
+but Morrill and his associates did not despair of the republic.
+In the midst of all the measures for putting vast armies into the
+field and for saving the Union from foreign interference as well
+as from domestic anarchy, they again passed the bill, and in
+1862, in the darkest hour of the struggle for national existence,
+it became a law by the signature of President Lincoln.
+
+And here it should not be unrecorded, that, while the vast
+majority of the supporters of the measure were laymen, most
+efficient service was rendered by a clergyman, the Rev. Dr.
+Amos Brown, born in New Hampshire, but at that time an instructor
+in a little village of New York.  His ideas were embodied in the
+bill, and his efforts did much for its passage.
+
+Thus was established, in every State of the American Union, at
+least one institution in which scientific and technical studies
+were given equal rank with classical, and promoted by
+laboratories for research in physical and natural science.  Of
+these institutions there are now nearly fifty:  all have proved
+valuable, and some of them, by the addition of splendid gifts
+from individuals and from the States in which they are situated,
+have been developed into great universities.
+
+Nor was this all.  Many of the older universities and colleges
+thus received a powerful stimulus in the new direction.  The
+great physical and chemical laboratories founded by gifts from
+public-spirited individuals, as at Harvard, Yale, and Chicago, or
+by enlightened State legislators, as in Michigan, Wisconsin,
+Minnesota, California, Kansas, and Nebraska, have also become
+centres from which radiate influences favouring the unfettered
+search for truth as truth.
+
+This system has been long enough in operation to enable us to
+note in some degree its effects on religion, and these are
+certainly such as to relieve those who have feared that religion
+was necessarily bound up with the older instruction controlled by
+theology.  While in Europe, by a natural reaction, the colleges
+under strict ecclesiastical control have sent forth the most
+powerful foes the Christian Church has ever known, of whom
+Voltaire and Diderot and Volney and Sainte-Beuve and Renan are
+types, no such effects have been noted in these newer
+institutions.  While the theological way of looking at the
+universe has steadily yielded, there has been no sign of any
+tendency toward irreligion.  On the contrary, it is the testimony
+of those best acquainted with the American colleges and
+universities during the last forty-five years that there has been
+in them a great gain, not only as regards morals, but as regards
+religion in its highest and best sense.  The reason is not far to
+seek.  Under the old American system the whole body of students
+at a university were confined to a single course, for which the
+majority cared little and very many cared nothing, and, as a
+result, widespread idleness and dissipation were inevitable.
+Under the new system, presenting various courses, and especially
+courses in various sciences, appealing to different tastes and
+aims, the great majority of students are interested, and
+consequently indolence and dissipation have steadily diminished.
+Moreover, in the majority of American institutions of learning
+down to the middle of the century, the main reliance for the
+religious culture of students was in the perfunctory presentation
+of sectarian theology, and the occasional stirring up of what
+were called "revivals," which, after a period of unhealthy
+stimulus, inevitably left the main body of students in a state of
+religious and moral reaction and collapse.  This method is now
+discredited, and in the more important American universities it
+has become impossible.  Religious truth, to secure the attention
+of the modern race of students in the better American
+institutions, is presented, not by "sensation preachers," but by
+thoughtful, sober-minded scholars.  Less and less avail sectarian
+arguments; more and more impressive becomes the presentation of
+fundamental religious truths.  The result is, that while young
+men care less and less for the great mass of petty, cut-and-dried
+sectarian formulas, they approach the deeper questions of
+religion with increasing reverence.
+
+While striking differences exist between the European
+universities and those of the United States, this at least may be
+said, that on both sides of the Atlantic the great majority of
+the leading institutions of learning are under the sway of
+enlightened public opinion as voiced mainly by laymen, and that,
+this being the case, the physical and natural sciences are
+henceforth likely to be developed normally, and without fear of
+being sterilized by theology or oppressed by ecclesiasticism.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+FROM MIRACLES TO MEDICINE.
+
+I.  THE EARLY AND SACRED THEORIES OF DISEASE.
+
+
+Nothing in the evolution of human thought appears more inevitable
+than the idea of supernatural intervention in producing and
+curing disease.  The causes of disease are so intricate that they
+are reached only after ages of scientific labour.  In those
+periods when man sees everywhere miracle and nowhere law,--when
+he attributes all things which he can not understand to a will
+like his own,--he naturally ascribes his diseases either to the
+wrath of a good being or to the malice of an evil being.
+
+This idea underlies the connection of the priestly class with the
+healing art:  a connection of which we have survivals among rude
+tribes in all parts of the world, and which is seen in nearly
+every ancient civilization--especially in the powers over disease
+claimed in Egypt by the priests of Osiris and Isis, in Assyria by
+the priests of Gibil, in Greece by the priests of Aesculapius,
+and in Judea by the priests and prophets of Jahveh.
+
+In Egypt there is evidence, reaching back to a very early period,
+that the sick were often regarded as afflicted or possessed by
+demons; the same belief comes constantly before us in the great
+religions of India and China; and, as regards Chaldea, the
+Assyrian tablets recovered in recent years, while revealing the
+source of so many myths and legends transmitted to the modern
+world through the book of Genesis, show especially this idea of
+the healing of diseases by the casting out of devils.  A similar
+theory was elaborated in Persia.  Naturally, then, the Old
+Testament, so precious in showing the evolution of religious and
+moral truth among men, attributes such diseases as the leprosy of
+Miriam and Uzziah, the boils of Job, the dysentery of Jehoram,
+the withered hand of Jeroboam, the fatal illness of Asa, and many
+other ills, to the wrath of God or the malice of Satan; while,
+in the New Testament, such examples as the woman "bound by
+Satan," the rebuke of the fever, the casting out of the devil
+which was dumb, the healing of the person whom "the devil
+ofttimes casteth into the fire"--of which case one of the
+greatest modern physicians remarks that never was there a truer
+description of epilepsy--and various other episodes, show this
+same inevitable mode of thought as a refracting medium through
+which the teachings and doings of the Great Physician were
+revealed to future generations.
+
+In Greece, though this idea of an occult evil agency in producing
+bodily ills appeared at an early period, there also came the
+first beginnings, so far as we know, of a really scientific
+theory of medicine.  Five hundred years before Christ, in the
+bloom period of thought--the period of Aeschylus, Phidias,
+Pericles, Socrates, and Plato--appeared Hippocrates, one of the
+greatest names in history.  Quietly but thoroughly he broke away
+from the old tradition, developed scientific thought, and laid
+the foundations of medical science upon experience, observation,
+and reason so deeply and broadly that his teaching remains to
+this hour among the most precious possessions of our race.
+
+His thought was passed on to the School of Alexandria, and there
+medical science was developed yet further, especially by such men
+as Herophilus and Erasistratus.  Under their lead studies in
+human anatomy began by dissection; the old prejudice which had
+weighed so long upon science, preventing that method of
+anatomical investigation without which there can be no real
+results, was cast aside apparently forever.[289]
+
+[289] For extended statements regarding medicine in Egypt, Judea,
+and Eastern nations generally, see Sprengel, Histoire de la
+Medecine, and Haeser; and for more succinct accounts, Baas,
+Geschichte der Medicin, pp. 15-29; also Isensee; also Fredault,
+Histoire de la Medecine, chap. i.  For the effort in Egyptian
+medicine to deal with demons and witches, see Heinrich Brugsch,
+Die Aegyptologie, Leipsic, 1891, p. 77; and for references to the
+Papyrus Ebers, etc., pp. 155, 407, and following.  For fear of
+dissection and prejudices against it in Egypt, like those in
+mediaeval Europe, see Maspero and Sayce, Dawn of Civilization, p.
+216. For the derivation of priestly medicine in Egypt, see Baas,
+pp. 16, 22.  For the fame of Egyptian medicine at Rome, see
+Sharpe, History of Egypt, vol. ii, pp. 151, 184.  For Assyria,
+see especially George Smith in Delitzsch's German translation, p.
+34, and F. Delitzsch's appendix, p. 27.  On the cheapness and
+commonness of miracles of healing in antiquity, see Sharpe,
+quoting St. Jerome, vol. ii, pp. 276, 277.  As to the influence
+of Chaldean ideas of magic and disease, see Lecky, History of
+European Morals, vol. i, p. 404 and note.  But, on the other
+hand, see reference in Homer to diseases caused by a "demon."
+For the evolution of medicine before and after Hippocrates, see
+Sprengel.  For a good summing up of the work of Hippocrates, see
+Baas, p. 201.  For the necessary passage of medicine in its early
+stages under priestly control, see Cabanis, The Revolution of
+Medical Science, London, 1806, chap. ii.  On Jewish ideas
+regarding demons, and their relation to sickness, see Toy,
+Judaism and Christianity, Boston, 1891, pp. 168 et seq.  For
+avoidance of dissections of human subjects even by Galen and his
+disciples, see Maurice Albert, Les Medecins Grecs a Rome, Paris,
+1894, chap. xi.  For Herophilus, Erasistratus, and the School of
+Alexandria, see Sprengel, vol. i, pp. 433, 434 et seq.
+
+
+But with the coming in of Christianity a great new chain of
+events was set in motion which modified this development most
+profoundly.  The influence of Christianity on the healing art was
+twofold:  there was first a blessed impulse--the thought,
+aspiration, example, ideals, and spirit of Jesus of Nazareth.
+This spirit, then poured into the world, flowed down through the
+ages, promoting self-sacrifice for the sick and wretched.
+Through all those succeeding centuries, even through the rudest,
+hospitals and infirmaries sprang up along this blessed stream.
+Of these were the Eastern establishments for the cure of the sick
+at the earliest Christian periods, the Infirmary of Monte Cassino
+and the Hotel-Dieu at Lyons in the sixth century, the Hotel-Dieu
+at Paris in the seventh, and the myriad refuges for the sick and
+suffering which sprang up in every part of Europe during the
+following centuries.  Vitalized by this stream, all medieval
+growths of mercy bloomed luxuriantly.  To say nothing of those at
+an earlier period, we have in the time of the Crusades great
+charitable organizations like the Order of St. John of
+Jerusalem, and thenceforward every means of bringing the spirit
+of Jesus to help afflicted humanity.  So, too, through all those
+ages we have a succession of men and women devoting themselves to
+works of mercy, culminating during modern times in saints like
+Vincent de Paul, Francke, Howard, Elizabeth Fry, Florence
+Nightingale, and Muhlenberg.
+
+But while this vast influence, poured forth from the heart of the
+Founder of Christianity, streamed through century after century,
+inspiring every development of mercy, there came from those who
+organized the Church which bears his name, and from those who
+afterward developed and directed it, another stream of
+influence--a theology drawn partly from prehistoric conceptions
+of unseen powers, partly from ideas developed in the earliest
+historic nations, but especially from the letter of the Hebrew
+and Christian sacred books.
+
+The theology deveLoped out of our sacred literature in relation
+to the cure of disease was mainly twofold:  first, there was a
+new and strong evolution of the old idea that physical disease is
+produced by the wrath of God or the malice of Satan, or by a
+combination of both, which theology was especially called in to
+explain; secondly, there were evolved theories of miraculous
+methods of cure, based upon modes of appeasing the Divine anger,
+or of thwarting Satanic malice.
+
+Along both these streams of influence, one arising in the life of
+Jesus, and the other in the reasonings of theologians, legends of
+miracles grew luxuriantly.  It would be utterly unphilosophical
+to attribute these as a whole to conscious fraud.  Whatever part
+priestcraft may have taken afterward in sundry discreditable
+developments of them, the mass of miraculous legends, Century
+after century, grew up mainly in good faith, and as naturally as
+elms along water-courses or flowers upon the prairie.
+
+
+
+II.  GROWTH OF LEGENDS OF HEALING.
+--  THE LIFE OF XAVIER AS A TYPICAL EXAMPLE.
+
+
+Legends of miracles have thus grown about the lives of all great
+benefactors of humanity in early ages, and about saints and
+devotees.  Throughout human history the lives of such personages,
+almost without exception, have been accompanied or followed by a
+literature in which legends of miraculous powers form a very
+important part--a part constantly increasing until a different
+mode of looking at nature and of weighing testimony causes
+miracles to disappear.  While modern thought holds the testimony
+to the vast mass of such legends in all ages as worthless, it is
+very widely acknowledged that great and gifted beings who endow
+the earth with higher religious ideas, gaining the deepest hold
+upon the hearts and minds of multitudes, may at times exercise
+such influence upon those about them that the sick in mind or
+body are helped or healed.
+
+We have within the modern period very many examples which enable
+us to study the evolution of legendary miracles.  Out of these I
+will select but one, which is chosen because it is the life of
+one of the most noble and devoted men in the history of humanity,
+one whose biography is before the world with its most minute
+details--in his own letters, in the letters of his associates, in
+contemporary histories, and in a multitude of biographies:  this
+man is St. Francis Xavier.  From these sources I draw the facts
+now to be given, but none of them are of Protestant origin;
+every source from which I shall draw is Catholic and Roman, and
+published under the sanction of the Church.
+
+Born a Spanish noble, Xavier at an early age cast aside all
+ordinary aims, devoted himself to study, was rapidly advanced to
+a professorship at Paris, and in this position was rapidly
+winning a commanding influence, when he came under the sway of
+another Spaniard even greater, though less brilliantly endowed,
+than himself--Ignatius Loyola, founder of the Society of Jesus.
+The result was that the young professor sacrificed the brilliant
+career on which he had entered at the French capital, went to the
+far East as a simple missionary, and there devoted his remaining
+years to redeeming the lowest and most wretched of our race.
+
+Among the various tribes, first in lower India and afterward in
+Japan, he wrought untiringly--toiling through village after
+village, collecting the natives by the sound of a hand-bell,
+trying to teach them the simplest Christian formulas; and thus
+he brought myriads of them to a nominal Confession of the
+Christian faith.  After twelve years of such efforts, seeking new
+conquests for religion, he sacrificed his life on the desert
+island of San Chan.
+
+During his career as a missionary he wrote great numbers of
+letters, which were preserved and have since been published; and
+these, with the letters of his contemporaries, exhibit clearly
+all the features of his life.  His own writings are very minute,
+and enable us to follow him fully.  No account of a miracle
+wrought by him appears either in his own letters or in any
+contemporary document.[290] At the outside, but two or three
+things occurred in his whole life, as exhibited so fully by
+himself and his contemporaries, for which the most earnest
+devotee could claim anything like Divine interposition; and
+these are such as may be read in the letters of very many fervent
+missionaries, Protestant as well as Catholic.  For example, in
+the beginning of his career, during a journey in Europe with an
+ambassador, one of the servants in fording a stream got into deep
+water and was in danger of drowning.  Xavier tells us that the
+ambassador prayed very earnestly, and that the man finally
+struggled out of the stream.  But within sixty years after his
+death, at his canonization, and by various biographers, this had
+been magnified into a miracle, and appears in the various
+histories dressed out in glowing colours.  Xavier tells us that
+the ambassador prayed for the safety of the young man; but his
+biographers tell us that it was Xavier who prayed, and finally,
+by the later writers, Xavier is represented as lifting horse and
+rider out of the stream by a clearly supernatural act.
+
+[290] This statement was denied with much explosive emphasis by a
+writer in the Catholic World for September and October, 1891, but
+he brought no FACT to support this denial.  I may perhaps be
+allowed to remind the reverend writer that since the days of
+Pascal, whose eminence in the Church he will hardly dispute, the
+bare assertion even of a Jesuit father against established facts
+needs some support other than mere scurrility.
+
+
+Still another claim to miracle is based upon his arriving at
+Lisbon and finding his great colleague, Simon Rodriguez, ill of
+fever.  Xavier informs us in a very simple way that Rodriguez was
+so overjoyed to see him that the fever did not return.  This is
+entirely similar to the cure which Martin Luther wrought upon
+Melanchthon.  Melanchthon had broken down and was supposed to be
+dying, when his joy at the long-delayed visit of Luther brought
+him to his feet again, after which he lived for many years.
+
+Again, it is related that Xavier, finding a poor native woman
+very ill, baptized her, saying over her the prayers of the
+Church, and she recovered.
+
+Two or three occurrences like these form the whole basis for the
+miraculous account, so far as Xavier's own writings are
+concerned.
+
+Of miracles in the ordinary sense of the word there is in these
+letters of his no mention.  Though he writes of his doings with
+especial detail, taking evident pains to note everything which he
+thought a sign of Divine encouragement, he says nothing of his
+performing miracles, and evidently knows nothing of them.  This
+is clearly not due to his unwillingness to make known any token
+of Divine favour.  As we have seen, he is very prompt to report
+anything which may be considered an answer to prayer or an
+evidence of the power of religious means to improve the bodily or
+spiritual health of those to whom he was sent.
+
+Nor do the letters of his associates show knowledge of any
+miracles wrought by him.  His brother missionaries, who were in
+constant and loyal fellowship with him, make no allusions to them
+in their communications with each other or with their brethren in
+Europe.
+
+Of this fact we have many striking evidences.  Various
+collections of letters from the Jesuit missionaries in India and
+the East generally, during the years of Xavier's activity, were
+published, and in not one of these letters written during
+Xavier's lifetime appears any account of a miracle wrought by
+him.  As typical of these collections we may take perhaps the
+most noted of all, that which was published about twenty years
+after Xavier's death by a Jesuit father, Emanuel Acosta.
+
+The letters given in it were written by Xavier and his associates
+not only from Goa, which was the focus of all missionary effort
+and the centre of all knowledge regarding their work in the East,
+but from all other important points in the great field.  The
+first of them were written during the saint's lifetime, but,
+though filled with every sort of detail regarding missionary life
+and work, they say nothing regarding any miracles by Xavier.
+
+The same is true of various other similar collections published
+during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.  In not one of
+them does any mention of a miracle by Xavier appear in a letter
+from India or the East contemporary with him.
+
+This silence regarding his miracles was clearly not due to any
+"evil heart of unbelief."  On the contrary, these good missionary
+fathers were prompt to record the slightest occurrence which they
+thought evidence of the Divine favour:  it is indeed touching to
+see how eagerly they grasp at the most trivial things which could
+be thus construed.
+
+Their ample faith was fully shown.  One of them, in Acosta's
+collection, sends a report that an illuminated cross had been
+recently seen in the heavens; another, that devils had been cast
+out of the natives by the use of holy water; another, that
+various cases of disease had been helped and even healed by
+baptism; and sundry others sent reports that the blind and dumb
+had been restored, and that even lepers had been cleansed by the
+proper use of the rites of the Church; but to Xavier no miracles
+are imputed by his associates during his life or during several
+years after his death.
+
+On the contrary, we find his own statements as to his personal
+limitations, and the difficulties arising from them, fully
+confirmed by his brother workers.  It is interesting, for
+example, in view of the claim afterward made that the saint was
+divinely endowed for his mission with the "gift of tongues," to
+note in these letters confirmation of Xavier's own statement
+utterly disproving the existence of any such Divine gift, and
+detailing the difficulties which he encountered from his want of
+knowing various languages, and the hard labour which he underwent
+in learning the elements of the Japanese tongue.
+
+Until about ten years after Xavier's death, then, as Emanuel
+Acosta's publication shows, the letters of the missionaries
+continued without any indication of miracles performed by the
+saint.  Though, as we shall see presently, abundant legends had
+already begun to grow elsewhere, not one word regarding these
+miracles came as yet from the country which, according to later
+accounts accepted and sanctioned by the Church, was at this very
+period filled with miracles; not the slightest indication of
+them from the men who were supposed to be in the very thick of
+these miraculous manifestations.
+
+But this negative evidence is by no means all.  There is also
+positive evidence--direct testimony from the Jesuit order
+itself--that Xavier wrought no miracles.
+
+For not only did neither Xavier nor his co-workers know anything
+of the mighty works afterward attributed to him, but the highest
+contemporary authority on the whole subject, a man in the closest
+correspondence with those who knew most about the saint, a member
+of the Society of Jesus in the highest standing and one of its
+accepted historians, not only expressly tells us that Xavier
+wrought no miracles, but gives the reasons why he wrought none.
+
+This man was Joseph Acosta, a provincial of the Jesuit order, its
+visitor in Aragon, superior at Valladolid, and finally rector of
+the University of Salamanca.  In 1571, nineteen years after
+Xavier's death, Acosta devoted himself to writing a work mainly
+concerning the conversion of the Indies, and in this he refers
+especially and with the greatest reverence to Xavier, holding him
+up as an ideal and his work as an example.
+
+But on the same page with this tribute to the great missionary
+Acosta goes on to discuss the reasons why progress in the world's
+conversion is not so rapid as in the early apostolic times, and
+says that an especial cause why apostolic preaching could no
+longer produce apostolic results "lies in the missionaries
+themselves, because there is now no power of working miracles."
+He then asks, "Why should our age be so completely destitute of
+them?"  This question he answers at great length, and one of his
+main contentions is that in early apostolic times illiterate men
+had to convert the learned of the world, whereas in modern times
+the case is reversed, learned men being sent to convert the
+illiterate; and hence that "in the early times miracles were
+necessary, but in our time they are not."
+
+This statement and argument refer, as we have seen, directly to
+Xavier by name, and to the period covered by his activity and
+that of the other great missionaries of his time.  That the
+Jesuit order and the Church at large thought this work of Acosta
+trustworthy is proved by the fact that it was published at
+Salamanca a few years after it was written, and republished
+afterward with ecclesiastical sanction in France.[291]  Nothing
+shows better than the sequel how completely the evolution of
+miraculous accounts depends upon the intellectual atmosphere of
+any land and time, and how independent it is of fact.
+
+[291]The work of Joseph Acosta is in the Cornell University
+Library, its title being as follows: De Natura Novi Orbis libri
+duo et De Promulgatione Evangelii apud Barbaros, sive De
+Procuranda Indorum Salute, libri sex, autore Jesepho Acosta,
+presbytero Societis Jesu. I. H. S. Salmanticas, apud Guillelmum
+Foquel, MDLXXXIX.  For the passages cited directly contradicting
+the working of miracles by Xavier and his associates, see lib.
+ii, cap. ix, of which the title runs, Cur Miracula in Conversione
+gentium non fiant nunc, ut olim, a Christi praedicatoribus,
+especially pp. 242-245; also lib. ii, cap. viii, pp. 237 et seq.
+For a passage which shows that Xavier was not then at all
+credited with "the miraculous gift of tongues," see lib. i, cap.
+vii, p. 173.  Since writing the above, my attention has been
+called to the alleged miraculous preservation of Xavier's body
+claimed in sundry letters contemporary with its disinterment at
+San Chan and reinterment at Goa.  There is no reason why this
+preservation in itself need be doubted, and no reason why it
+should be counted miraculous.  Such exceptional preservation of
+bodies has been common enough in all ages, and, alas for the
+claims of the Church, quite as common of pagans or Protestants as
+of good Catholics.  One of the most famous cases is that of the
+fair Roman maiden, Julia, daughter of Claudius, over whose
+exhumation at Rome, in 1485, such ado was made by the sceptical
+scholars of the Renaissance.  Contemporary observers tell us
+enthusiastically that she was very beautiful, perfectly
+preserved, "the bloom of youth still upom her cheeks," and
+exhaling a "sweet odour"; but this enthusiasm was so little to
+the taste of Pope Innocent VIII that he had her reburied secretly
+by night.  Only the other day, in June of the year 1895, there
+was unearthed at Stade, in Hanover, the "perfectly preserved"
+body of a soldier of the eighth century.  So, too, I might
+mention the bodies preserved at the church of St. Thomas at
+Strasburg, beneath the Cathedral of Bremen, and elsewhere during
+hundreds of years past; also the cases of "adiposeration" in
+various American cemeteries, which never grow less wonderful by
+repetition from mouth to mouth and in the public prints.  But,
+while such preservation is not incredible or even strange, there
+is much reason why precisely in the case of a saint like St.
+Francis Xavier the evidence for it should be received with
+especial caution.  What the touching fidelity of disciples may
+lead them to believe and proclaim regarding an adored leader in a
+time when faith is thought more meritorious than careful
+statement, and miracle more probable than the natural course of
+things, is seen, for example, in similar pious accounts regarding
+the bodies of many other saints, especially that of St. Carlo
+Borromeo, so justly venerated by the Church for his beautiful and
+charitable life.  And yet any one looking at the relics of
+various saints, especially those of St. Carlo, preserved with
+such tender care in the crypt of Milan Cathedral, will see that
+they have shared the common fate, being either mummified or
+reduced to skeletons; and this is true in all cases, as far as my
+observation has extended.  What even a great theologian can be
+induced to believe and testify in a somewhat similar matter, is
+seen in St. Augustine's declaration that the flesh of the
+peacock, which in antiquity and in the early Church was
+considered a bird somewhat supernaturally endowed, is
+incorruptible.  The saint declares that he tested it and found it
+so (see the De Civitate dei, xxi, c. 4, under the passage
+beginning Quis enim Deus).  With this we may compare the
+testimony of the pious author of Sir John Mandeville's Travels,
+that iron floats upon the Dead Sea while feathers sink in it, and
+that he would not have believed this had he not seen it.  So,
+too, testimony to the "sweet odour" diffused by the exhumed
+remains of the saint seem to indicate feeling rather than
+fact--those highly wrought feelings of disciples standing by--the
+same feeling which led those who visited St. Simon Stylites on
+his heap of ordure, and other hermits unwashed and living in
+filth, to dwell upon the delicious "odour of sanctity' pervading
+the air.  In point, perhaps, is Louis Veuillot's idealization of
+the "parfum de Rome," in face of the fact, to which the present
+writer and thousands of others can testify, that under Papal rule
+Rome was materially one of the most filthy cities in Christendom.
+For the case of Julia, see the contemporary letter printed by
+Janitschek, Gesellschaft der Renaissance in Italien, p. 120, note
+167; also Infessura, Diarium Rom. Urbis, in Muratori, tom. iii,
+pt. 2, col. 1192, 1193, and elsewhere; also Symonds, Renaissance
+in Italy: Age of Despots, p. 22.  For the case at Stade, see
+press dispatch from Berlin in newspapers of June 24, 25, 1895.
+The copy of Emanuel Acosta I have mainly used is that in the
+Royal Library at Munich, De Japonicus rebus epistolarum libri
+iii, item recogniti; et in Latinum ex Hispanico sermone conversi,
+Dilingae, MDLXXI.  I have since obtained and used the work now in
+the library of Cornell University, being the letters and
+commentary published by Emanuel Acosta and attached to Maffei's
+book on the History of the Indies, published at Antwerp in 1685.
+For the first beginnings of miracles wrought by Xavier, as given
+in the letters of the missionaries, see that of Almeida, lib. ii,
+p. 183.  Of other collections, or selections from collections, of
+letters which fail to give any indication of miracles wrought by
+Xavier during his life, see Wytfliet and Magin, Histoire
+Universelle des Indes Occidentales et Orientales, et de la
+Conversion des Indiens, Douay, 1611.  Though several letters of
+Xavier and his fellow-missionaries are given, dated at the very
+period of his alleged miracles, not a trace of miracles appears
+in these.  Also Epistolae Japonicae de multorum in variis Insulis
+Gentilium ad Christi fidem Conversione, Lovanii, 1570.  These
+letters were written by Xavier and his companions from the East
+Indies and Japan, and cover the years from 1549 to 1564.  Though
+these refer  frequently to Xavier, there is no mention of a
+miracle wrought by him in any of them written during his
+lifetime.
+
+
+For, shortly after Xavier's heroic and beautiful death in 1552,
+stories of miracles wrought by him began to appear.  At first
+they were few and feeble; and two years later Melchior Nunez,
+Provincial of the Jesuits in the Portuguese dominions, with all
+the means at his command, and a correspondence extending
+throughout Eastern Asia, had been able to hear of but three.
+These were entirely from hearsay.  First, John Deyro said he knew
+that Xavier had the gift of prophecy; but, unfortunately, Xavier
+himself had reprimanded and cast off Deyro for untruthfulness and
+cheatery.  Secondly, it was reported vaguely that at Cape Comorin
+many persons affirmed that Xavier had raised a man from the dead.
+Thirdly, Father Pablo de Santa Fe had heard that in Japan Xavier
+had restored sight to a blind man.  This seems a feeble
+beginning, but little by little the stories grew, and in 1555 De
+Quadros, Provincial of the Jesuits in Ethiopia, had heard of nine
+miracles, and asserted that Xavier had healed the sick and cast
+out devils.  The next year, being four years after Xavier's
+death, King John III of Portugal, a very devout man, directed his
+viceroy Barreto to draw up and transmit to him an authentic
+account of Xavier's miracles, urging him especially to do the
+work "with zeal and speedily."  We can well imagine what
+treasures of grace an obsequious viceroy, only too anxious to
+please a devout king, could bring together by means of the
+hearsay of ignorant, compliant natives through all the little
+towns of Portuguese India.
+
+But the letters of the missionaries who had been co-workers or
+immediate successors of Xavier in his Eastern field were still
+silent as regards any miracles by him, and they remained silent
+for nearly ten years.  In the collection of letters published by
+Emanuel Acosta and others no hint at any miracles by him is
+given, until at last, in 1562, fully ten years after Xavier's
+death, the first faint beginnings of these legends appear in
+them.
+
+At that time the Jesuit Almeida, writing at great length to the
+brethren, stated that he had found a pious woman who believed
+that a book left behind by Xavier had healed sick folk when it
+was laid upon them, and that he had met an old man who preserved
+a whip left by the saint which, when properly applied to the
+sick, had been found good both for their bodies and their souls.
+From these and other small beginnings grew, always luxuriant and
+sometimes beautiful, the vast mass of legends which we shall see
+hereafter.
+
+This growth was affectionately garnered by the more zealous and
+less critical brethren in Europe until it had become enormous;
+but it appears to have been thought of little value by those best
+able to judge.
+
+For when, in 1562, Julius Gabriel Eugubinus delivered a solemn
+oration on the condition and glory of the Church, before the
+papal legates and other fathers assembled at the Council of
+Trent, while he alluded to a multitude of things showing the
+Divine favour, there was not the remotest allusion to the vast
+multitude of miracles which, according to the legends, had been
+so profusely lavished on the faithful during many years, and
+which, if they had actually occurred, formed an argument of
+prodigious value in behalf of the special claims of the Church.
+
+The same complete absence of knowledge of any such favours
+vouchsafed to the Church, or at least of any belief in them,
+appears in that great Council of Trent among the fathers
+themselves.  Certainly there, if anywhere, one might on the Roman
+theory expect Divine illumination in a matter of this kind.  The
+presence of the Holy Spirit in the midst of it was especially
+claimed, and yet its members, with all their spiritual as well as
+material advantages for knowing what had been going on in the
+Church during the previous thirty years, and with Xavier's own
+friend and colleague, Laynez, present to inform them, show not
+the slightest sign of any suspicion of Xavier's miracles.  We
+have the letters of Julius Gabriel to the foremost of these
+fathers assembled at Trent, from 1557 onward for a considerable
+time, and we have also a multitude of letters written from the
+Council by bishops, cardinals, and even by the Pope himself,
+discussing all sorts of Church affairs, and in not one of these
+is there evidence of the remotest suspicion that any of these
+reports, which they must have heard, regarding Xavier's miracles,
+were worthy of mention.
+
+Here, too, comes additional supplementary testimony of much
+significance.  With these orations and letters, Eugubinus gives a
+Latin translation of a letter, "on religious affairs in the
+Indies," written by a Jesuit father twenty years after Xavier's
+death.  Though the letter came from a field very distant from
+that in which Xavier laboured, it was sure, among the general
+tokens of Divine favour to the Church and to the order, on which
+it dwelt, to have alluded to miracles wrought by Xavier had there
+been the slightest ground for believing in them; but no such
+allusion appears.[292]
+
+[292] For the work referred to, see Julii Gabrielii Eugubini
+orationum et epistolarum, etc., libri duo [et] Epitola de rebus
+Indicis a quodam Societatis Jesu presbytero, etc., Venetiis,
+1569.  The Epistola begins at fol. 44.
+
+
+So, too, when in 1588, thirty-six years after Xavier's death, the
+Jesuit father Maffei, who had been especially conversant with
+Xavier's career in the East, published his History of India,
+though he gave a biography of Xavier which shows fervent
+admiration for his subject, he dwelt very lightly on the alleged
+miracles.  But the evolution of miraculous legends still went on.
+Six years later, in 1594, Father Tursellinus published his Life
+of Xavier, and in this appears to have made the first large use
+of the information collected by the Portuguese viceroy and the
+more zealous brethren.  This work shows a vast increase in the
+number of miracles over those given by all sources together up to
+that time.  Xavier is represented as not only curing the sick,
+but casting out devils, stilling the tempest, raising the dead,
+and performing miracles of every sort.
+
+In 1622 came the canonization proceedings at Rome.  Among the
+speeches made in the presence of Pope Gregory XV, supporting the
+claims of Xavier to saintship, the most important was by Cardinal
+Monte.  In this the orator selects out ten great miracles from
+those performed by Xavier during his lifetime and describes them
+minutely.  He insists that on a certain occasion Xavier, by the
+sign of the cross, made sea-water fresh, so that his
+fellow-passengers and the crew could drink it; that he healed
+the sick and raised the dead in various places; brought back a
+lost boat to his ship; was on one occasion lifted from the earth
+bodily and transfigured before the bystanders; and that, to
+punish a blaspheming town, he caused an earthquake and buried the
+offenders in cinders from a volcano:  this was afterward still
+more highly developed, and the saint was represented in
+engravings as calling down fire from heaven and thus destroying
+the town.
+
+The most curious miracle of all is the eighth on the cardinal's
+list.  Regarding this he states that, Xavier having during one of
+his voyages lost overboard a crucifix, it was restored to him
+after he had reached the shore by a crab.
+
+The cardinal also dwelt on miracles performed by Xavier's relics
+after his death, the most original being that sundry lamps placed
+before the image of the saint and filled with holy water burned
+as if filled with oil.
+
+This latter account appears to have deeply impressed the Pope,
+for in the Bull of Canonization issued by virtue of his power of
+teaching the universal Church infallibly in all matters
+pertaining to faith and morals, His Holiness dwells especially
+upon the miracle of the lamp filled with holy water and burning
+before Xavier's image.
+
+Xavier having been made a saint, many other Lives of him
+appeared, and, as a rule, each surpassed its predecessor in the
+multitude of miracles.  In 1622 appeared that compiled and
+published under the sanction of Father Vitelleschi, and in it not
+only are new miracles increased, but some old ones are greatly
+improved.  One example will suffice to show the process.  In his
+edition of 1596, Tursellinus had told how, Xavier one day needing
+money, and having asked Vellio, one of his friends, to let him
+have some, Vellio gave him the key of a safe containing thirty
+thousand gold pieces.  Xavier took three hundred and returned the
+key to Vellio; whereupon Vellio, finding only three hundred
+pieces gone, reproached Xavier for not taking more, saying that
+he had expected to give him half of all that the strong box
+contained.  Xavier, touched by this generosity, told Vellio that
+the time of his death should be made known to him, that he might
+have opportunity to repent of his sins and prepare for eternity.
+But twenty-six years later the Life of Xavier published under
+the sanction of Vitelleschi, giving the story, says that Vellio
+on opening the safe found that ALL HIS MONEY remained as he had
+left it, and that NONE AT ALL had disappeared; in fact, that
+there had been a miraculous restitution.  On his blaming Xavier
+for not taking the money, Xavier declares to Vellio that not only
+shall he be apprised of the moment of his death, but that the box
+shall always be full of money.  Still later biographers improved
+the account further, declaring that Xavier promised Vellio that
+the strong box should always contain money sufficient for all his
+needs.  In that warm and uncritical atmosphere this and other
+legends grew rapidly, obedient to much the same laws which govern
+the evolution of fairy tales.[293]
+
+[293] The writer in the Catholic World, already mentioned, rather
+rashly asserts that there is no such Life of Xavier as that I
+have above quoted.  The reverend Jesuit father has evidently
+glanced over the bibliographies of Carayon and De Backer, and,
+not finding it there under the name of Vitelleschi, has spared
+himself further trouble.  It is sufficient to say that the book
+may be seen by him in the library of Cornell University.  Its
+full title is as follows: Compendio della Vita del s. p.
+Francesco Xaviero dell Campagnia di Giesu, Canonizato con s.
+Ignatio Fondatore dell' istessa Religione dalla Santita di N. S.
+Gregorio XV. Composto, e dato in luce per ordine del Reverendiss.
+P Mutio Vitelleschi Preposito Generale della Comp. di Giesu. In
+Venetia, MDCXXII, Appresso Antonio Pinelli. Con Licenza de'
+Superiori.  My critic hazards a guess that the book may be a
+later edition of Torsellino (Tursellinus), but here again he is
+wrong.  It is entirely a different book, giving in its preface a
+list of sources comprising eleven authorities besides Torsellino.
+
+
+In 1682, one hundred and thirty years after Xavier's death,
+appeared his biography by Father Bouhours; and this became a
+classic.  In it the old miracles of all kinds were enormously
+multiplied, and many new ones given.  Miracles few and small in
+Tursellinus became many and great in Bouhours.  In Tursellinus,
+Xavier during his life saves one person from drowning, in
+Bouhours he saves during his life three; in Tursellinus, Xavier
+during his life raises four persons from the dead, in Bouhours
+fourteen; in Tursellinus there is one miraculous supply of
+water, in Bouhours three; in Tursellinus there is no miraculous
+draught of fishes, in Bouhours there is one; in Tursellinus,
+Xavier is transfigured twice, in Bouhours five times:  and so
+through a long series of miracles which, in the earlier lives
+appearing either not at all or in very moderate form, are greatly
+increased and enlarged by Tursellinus, and finally enormously
+amplified and multiplied by Father Bouhours.
+
+And here it must be borne in mind that Bouhours, writing ninety
+years after Tursellinus, could not have had access to any new
+sources.  Xavier had been dead one hundred and thirty years, and
+of course all the natives upon whom he had wrought his miracles,
+and their children and grandchildren, were gone.  It can not then
+be claimed that Bouhours had the advantage of any new witnesses,
+nor could he have had anything new in the way of contemporary
+writings; for, as we have seen, the missionaries of Xavier's
+time wrote nothing regarding his miracles, and certainly the
+ignorant natives of India and Japan did not commit any account of
+his miracles to writing.  Nevertheless, the miracles of healing
+given in Bouhours were more numerous and brilliant than ever.
+But there was far more than this.  Although during the lifetime
+of Xavier there is neither in his own writings nor in any
+contemporary account any assertion of a resurrection from the
+dead wrought by him, we find that shortly after his death stories
+of such resurrections began to appear.  A simple statement of the
+growth of these may throw some light on the evolution of
+miraculous accounts generally.  At first it was affirmed that
+some people at Cape Comorin said that he had raised one person;
+then it was said that there were two persons; then in various
+authors--Emanuel Acosta, in his commentaries written as an
+afterthought nearly twenty years after Xavier's death, De
+Quadros, and others--the story wavers between one and two cases;
+finally, in the time of Tursellinus, four cases had been
+developed.  In 1622, at the canonization proceedings, three were
+mentioned; but by the time of Father Bouhours there were
+fourteen--all raised from the dead by Xavier himself during his
+lifetime--and the name, place, and circumstances are given with
+much detail in each case.[294]
+
+[294] The writer in the Catholic World, already referred to, has
+based an attack here upon a misconception--I will not call it a
+deliberate misrepresentation--of his own by stating that these
+resurrections occurred after Xavier's death, and were due to his
+intercession or the use of his relics.  The statement of the
+Jesuit father is utterly without foundation, as a simple
+reference to Bouhours will show.  I take the liberty of
+commending to his attention The Life of St. Francis Xavier, by
+Father Dominic Bouhours, translated by James Dryden, Dublin,
+1838.  For examples of raising the dead by the saint DURING HIS
+LIFETIME, see pp. 69, 82, 93, 111, 218, 307, 316, 321--fourteen
+cases in all.
+
+
+It seems to have been felt as somewhat strange at first that
+Xavier had never alluded to any of these wonderful miracles; but
+ere long a subsidiary legend was developed, to the effect that
+one of the brethren asked him one day if he had raised the dead,
+whereat he blushed deeply and cried out against the idea, saying:
+"And so I am said to have raised the dead! What a misleading man
+I am!  Some men brought a youth to me just as if he were dead,
+who, when I commanded him to arise in the name of Christ,
+straightway arose."
+
+Noteworthy is the evolution of other miracles.  Tursellinus,
+writing in 1594, tells us that on the voyage from Goa to Malacca,
+Xavier having left the ship and gone upon an island, was
+afterward found by the persons sent in search of him so deeply
+absorbed in prayer as to be unmindful of all things about him.
+But in the next century Father Bouhours develops the story as
+follows:  "The servants found the man of God raised from the
+ground into the air, his eyes fixed upon heaven, and rays of
+light about his countenance."
+
+Instructive, also, is a comparison between the successive
+accounts of his noted miracle among the Badages at Travancore, in
+1544 Xavier in his letters makes no reference to anything
+extraordinary; and Emanuel Acosta, in 1571, declares simply that
+"Xavier threw himself into the midst of the Christians, that
+reverencing him they might spare the rest."  The inevitable
+evolution of the miraculous goes on; and twenty years later
+Tursellinus tells us that, at the onslaught of the Badages, "they
+could not endure the majesty of his countenance and the splendour
+and rays which issued from his eyes, and out of reverence for him
+they spared the others."  The process of incubation still goes on
+during ninety years more, and then comes Father Bouhours's
+account.  Having given Xavier's prayer on the battlefield,
+Bouhours goes on to say that the saint, crucifix in hand, rushed
+at the head of the people toward the plain where the enemy was
+marching, and "said to them in a threatening voice, `I forbid you
+in the name of the living God to advance farther, and on His part
+command you to return in the way you came.' These few words cast
+a terror into the minds of those soldiers who were at the head of
+the army; they remained confounded and without motion.  They who
+marched afterward, seeing that the foremost did not advance,
+asked the reason of it.  The answer was returned from the front
+ranks that they had before their eyes an unknown person habited
+in black, of more than human stature, of terrible aspect, and
+darting fire from his eyes....They were seized with amazement
+at the sight, and all of them fled in precipitate confusion."
+
+Curious, too, is the after-growth of the miracle of the crab
+restoring the crucifix.  In its first form Xavier lost the
+crucifix in the sea, and the earlier biographers dwell on the
+sorrow which he showed in consequence; but the later historians
+declare that the saint threw the crucifix into the sea in order
+to still a tempest, and that, after his safe getting to land, a
+crab brought it to him on the shore.  In this form we find it
+among illustrations of books of devotion in the next century.
+
+But perhaps the best illustration of this evolution of Xavier's
+miracles is to be found in the growth of another legend; and it
+is especially instructive because it grew luxuriantly despite the
+fact that it was utterly contradicted in all parts of Xavier's
+writings as well as in the letters of his associates and in the
+work of the Jesuit father, Joseph Acosta.
+
+Throughout his letters, from first to last, Xavier constantly
+dwells upon his difficulties with the various languages of the
+different tribes among whom he went.  He tells us how he
+surmounted these difficulties:  sometimes by learning just enough
+of a language to translate into it some of the main Church
+formulas; sometimes by getting the help of others to patch
+together some pious teachings to be learned by rote; sometimes
+by employing interpreters; and sometimes by a mixture of various
+dialects, and even by signs.  On one occasion he tells us that a
+very serious difficulty arose, and that his voyage to China was
+delayed because, among other things, the interpreter he had
+engaged had failed to meet him.
+
+In various Lives which appeared between the time of his death
+and his canonization this difficulty is much dwelt upon; but
+during the canonization proceedings at Rome, in the speeches then
+made, and finally in the papal bull, great stress was laid upon
+the fact that Xavier possessed THE GIFT OF TONGUES.  It was
+declared that he spoke to the various tribes with ease in their
+own languages.  This legend of Xavier's miraculous gift of
+tongues was especially mentioned in the papal bull, and was
+solemnly given forth by the pontiff as an infallible statement to
+be believed by the universal Church.  Gregory XV having been
+prevented by death from issuing the Bull of Canonization, it was
+finally issued by Urban VIII; and there is much food for
+reflection in the fact that the same Pope who punished Galileo,
+and was determined that the Inquisition should not allow the
+world to believe that the earth revolves about the sun, thus
+solemnly ordered the world, under pain of damnation, to believe
+in Xavier's miracles, including his "gift of tongues," and the
+return of the crucifix by the pious crab.  But the legend was
+developed still further:  Father Bouhours tells us, "The holy man
+spoke very well the language of those barbarians without having
+learned it, and had no need of an interpreter when he
+instructed."  And, finally, in our own time, the Rev. Father
+Coleridge, speaking of the saint among the natives, says, "He
+could speak the language excellently, though he had never learned
+it."
+
+In the early biography, Tursellinus writes.  "Nothing was a
+greater impediment to him than his ignorance of the Japanese
+tongues; for, ever and anon, when some uncouth expression
+offended their fastidious and delicate ears, the awkward speech
+of Francis was a cause of laughter."  But Father Bouhours, a
+century later, writing of Xavier at the same period, says, "He
+preached in the afternoon to the Japanese in their language, but
+so naturally and with so much ease that he could not be taken for
+a foreigner."
+
+And finally, in 1872, Father Coleridge, of the Society of Jesus,
+speaking of Xavier at this time, says, "He spoke freely,
+flowingly, elegantly, as if he had lived in Japan all his life."
+
+Nor was even this sufficient:  to make the legend complete, it
+was finally declared that, when Xavier addressed the natives of
+various tribes, each heard the sermon in his own language in
+which he was born.
+
+All this, as we have seen, directly contradicts not only the
+plain statements of Xavier himself, and various incidental
+testimonies in the letters of his associates, but the explicit
+declaration of Father Joseph Acosta.  The latter historian dwells
+especially on the labour which Xavier was obliged to bestow on
+the study of the Japanese and other languages, and says, "Even if
+he had been endowed with the apostolic gift of tongues, he could
+not have spread more widely the glory of Christ."[295]
+
+[295] For the evolution of the miracles of Xavier, see his
+Letters, with Life, published by Leon Pages, Paris, 1855; also
+Maffei, Historiarum Indicarum libri xvi, Venice, 1589; also the
+lives by Tursellinus, various editions, beginning with that of
+1594; Vitelleschi, 1622; Bouhours, 1683; Massei, second edition,
+1682 (Rome), and others; Bartoli, Baltimore, 1868; Coleridge,
+1872.  In addition to these, I have compared, for a more extended
+discussion of this subject hereafter, a very great number of
+editions of these and other biographies of the saint, with
+speeches at the canonization, the bull of Gregory XV, various
+books of devotion, and a multitude of special writings, some of
+them in manuscript, upon the glories of the saint, including a
+large mass of material at the Royal Library in Munich and in the
+British Museum.  I have relied entirely upon Catholic authors,
+and have not thought it worth while to consult any Protestant
+author.  The illustration of the miracle of the crucifix and the
+crab in its final form is given in La Devotion de Dix Vendredis a
+l'Honneur de St. Francois Xavier, Bruxelles, 1699, Fig. 24: the
+pious crab is represented as presenting the crucifix by which a
+journey of forty leagues he has brought from the depths of the
+ocean to Xavier, who walks upon the shore.  The book is in the
+Cornell University Library.  For the letter of King John to
+Barreto, see Leon Pages's Lettres de Francois Xavier, Paris,
+1855, vol. ii, p. 465.  For the miracle among the Badages,
+compare Tursellinus, lib. ii, c. x, p. 16, with Bouhours,
+Dryden's translation, pp. 146, 147.  For the miracle of the gift
+of tongues, in its higher development, see Bouhours, p. 235, and
+Coleridge, vo. i, pp. 151, 154, and vol. ii, p. 551
+
+
+It is hardly necessary to attribute to the orators and
+biographers generally a conscious attempt to deceive.  The simple
+fact is, that as a rule they thought, spoke, and wrote in
+obedience to the natural laws which govern the luxuriant growth
+of myth and legend in the warm atmosphere of love and devotion
+which constantly arises about great religious leaders in times
+when men have little or no knowledge of natural law, when there
+is little care for scientific evidence, and when he who believes
+most is thought most meritorious.[296]
+
+[296] Instances can be given of the same evolution of miraculous
+legend in our own time.  To say nothing of the sacred fountain at
+La Salette, which preserves its healing powers in spite of the
+fact that the miracle that gave rise to them has twice been
+pronounced fraudulent by the French courts, and to pass without
+notice a multitude of others, not only in Catholic but in
+Protestant countries, the present writer may allude to one which
+in the year 1893 came under his own observation.  On arriving in
+St. Petersburg to begin an official residence there, his
+attention was arrested by various portraits of a priest of the
+Russo-Greek Church; they were displayed in shop windows and held
+an honoured place in many private dwellings.  These portraits
+ranged from lifelike photographs, which showed a plain, shrewd,
+kindly face, to those which were idealized until they bore a
+strong resemblance to the conventional representations of Jesus
+of Nazareth.  On making inquiries, the writer found that these
+portraits represented Father Ivan, of Cronstadt, a priest noted
+for his good works, and very widely believed to be endowed with
+the power of working miracles.
+
+One day, in one of the most brilliant reception rooms of the
+northern capital, the subject of Father Ivan's miracles having
+been introduced, a gentleman in very high social position and
+entirely trustworthy spoke as follows: "There is something very
+surprising about these miracles.  I am slow to believe in them,
+but I know the following to be a fact: The late Metropolitan
+Archbishop of St. Petersburg loved quiet, and was very adverse to
+anything which could possibly cause scandal.  Hearing of Father
+Ivan's miracles, he summoned him to his presence and solemnly
+commanded him to abstain from all of the things which had given
+rise to his reported miracles, and with this injunction,
+dismissed him.  Hardly had the priest left the room when the
+archbishop was struck with blindness and remained in this
+condition until the priest returned and removed his blindness by
+intercessory prayers."  When the present writer asked the person
+giving this account if he directly knew these facts, he replied
+that he was, of course, not present when the miracle was wrought,
+but that he had the facts immediately from persons who knew all
+the parties concerned and were cognizant directly of the
+circumstances of the case.
+
+Some time afterward, the present writer being at an afternoon
+reception at one of the greater embassies, the same subject was
+touched upon, when an eminent general spoke as follows: "I am not
+inclined to believe in miracles, in fact am rather sceptical, but
+the proofs of those wrought by Father Ivan are overwhelming."  He
+then went on to say that the late Metropolitan Archbishop was a
+man who loved quiet and disliked scandal; and that on this
+account he had summoned Father Ivan to his palace and ordered him
+to put an end to the conduct which had caused the reports
+concerning his miraculous powers, and then, with a wave of the
+arm, had dismissed him.  The priest left the room, and from that
+moment the archbishop's arm was paralyzed, and it remained so
+until the penitent prelate summoned the priest again, by whose
+prayers the arm was restored to its former usefulness.  There was
+present at the time another person besides the writer who had
+heard the previous statement as to the blindness of the
+archbishop, and on their both questioning the general if he were
+sure that the archbishop's arm was paralyzed, as stated, he
+declared that he could not doubt it, as he had it directly from
+persons entirely trustworthy, who were cognizant of all the
+facts.
+
+Some time later, the present writer, having an interview with the
+most eminent lay authority in the Greek Church, a functionary
+whose duties  had brought him into almost daily contact with the
+late archbishop, asked him which of these stories was correct.
+This gentleman answered immediately: "Neither; I saw the
+archbishop constantly, and no such event occurred; he was never
+paralyzed and never blind."
+
+The same gentleman went on to say that, in his belief, Father
+Ivan had shown remarkable powers in healing the sick, and the
+greatest charity in relieving the distressed.  It was made
+clearly evident that Father Ivan is a saintlike man, devoted to
+the needy and distressed and exercising an enormous influence
+over them--an influence so great that crowds await him whenever
+he visits the capital.  In the atmosphere of Russian devotion
+myths and legends grow luxuriantly about him, nor is belief in
+him confined to the peasant class.  In the autumn of 1894 he was
+summoned to the bedside of the Emperor Alexander III.
+Unfortunately for the peace of Europe, his intercession at that
+time proved unavailing.
+
+
+These examples will serve to illustrate the process which in
+thousands of cases has gone on from the earliest days of the
+Church until a very recent period.  Everywhere miraculous cures
+became the rule rather than the exception throughout Christendom.
+
+
+
+III.  THE MEDIAEVAL MIRACLES OF HEALING CHECK MEDICAL SCIENCE.
+
+
+So it was that, throughout antiquity, during the early history of
+the Church, throughout the Middle Ages, and indeed down to a
+comparatively recent period, testimony to miraculous
+interpositions which would now be laughed at by a schoolboy was
+accepted by the leaders of thought.  St. Augustine was certainly
+one of the strongest minds in the early Church, and yet we find
+him mentioning, with much seriousness, a story that sundry
+innkeepers of his time put a drug into cheese which metamorphosed
+travellers into domestic animals, and asserting that the peacock
+is so favoured by the Almighty that its flesh will not decay, and
+that he has tested it and knows this to be a fact.  With such a
+disposition regarding the wildest stories, it is not surprising
+that the assertion of St. Gregory of Nazianzen, during the
+second century, as to the cures wrought by the martyrs Cosmo and
+Damian, was echoed from all parts of Europe until every hamlet
+had its miracle-working saint or relic.
+
+The literature of these miracles is simply endless.  To take our
+own ancestors alone, no one can read the Ecclesiastical History
+of Bede, or Abbot Samson's Miracles of St. Edmund, or the
+accounts given by Eadmer and Osbern of the miracles of St.
+Dunstan, or the long lists of those wrought by Thomas a Becket,
+or by any other in the army of English saints, without seeing the
+perfect naturalness of this growth.  This evolution of miracle in
+all parts of Europe came out of a vast preceding series of
+beliefs, extending not merely through the early Church but far
+back into paganism.  Just as formerly patients were cured in the
+temples of Aesculapius, so they were cured in the Middle Ages,
+and so they are cured now at the shrines of saints.  Just as the
+ancient miracles were solemnly attested by votive tablets, giving
+names, dates, and details, and these tablets hung before the
+images of the gods, so the medieval miracles were attested by
+similar tablets hung before the images of the saints; and so
+they are attested to-day by similar tablets hung before the
+images of Our Lady of La Salette or of Lourdes.  Just as faith in
+such miracles persisted, in spite of the small percentage of
+cures at those ancient places of healing, so faith persists
+to-day, despite the fact that in at least ninety per cent of the
+cases at Lourdes prayers prove unavailing.  As a rule, the
+miracles of the sacred books were taken as models, and each of
+those given by the sacred chroniclers was repeated during the
+early ages of the Church and through the medieval period with
+endless variations of circumstance, but still with curious
+fidelity to the original type.
+
+It should be especially kept in mind that, while the vast
+majority of these were doubtless due to the myth-making faculty
+and to that development of legends which always goes on in ages
+ignorant of the relation between physical causes and effects,
+some of the miracles of healing had undoubtedly some basis in
+fact.  We in modern times have seen too many cures performed
+through influences exercised upon the imagination, such as those
+of the Jansenists at the Cemetery of St. Medard, of the
+Ultramontanes at La Salette and Lourdes, of the Russian Father
+Ivan at St. Petersburg, and of various Protestant sects at Old
+Orchard and elsewhere, as well as at sundry camp meetings, to
+doubt that some cures, more or less permanent, were wrought by
+sainted personages in the early Church and throughout the Middle
+Ages.[297]
+
+[297] For the story of travellers converted into domestic
+animals, see St. Augustine, De Civ. Dei, liber xviii, chaps.
+xvii, xviii, in Migne, tom. xli, p.574.  For Gregory of Nazianen
+and the similarity of these Christian cures in general character
+to those wrought in the temples of Aesculapius, see Sprengel,
+vol. ii, pp. 145, 146.  For the miracles wrought at the shrine of
+St. Edmund, see Samsonis Abbatis Opus de Miraculis Sancti
+Aedmundi, in the Master of the Rolls' series, passim, but
+especially chaps. xiv and xix for miracles of healing wrought on
+those who drank out of the saint's cup.  For the mighty works of
+St. Dunstan, see the Mirac. Sancti Dunstani, auctore Eadmero and
+auctore Osberno, in the Master of the Rolls' series.  As to
+Becket, see the Materials for the History of Thomas Becket, in
+the same series, and especially the lists of miracles--the mere
+index of them in the first volume requires thirteen octavo pages.
+For St. Martin of Tours, see the Guizot collection of French
+Chronicles.  For miracle and shrine cures chronicled by Bede, see
+his Ecclesiastical History, passim, but especially from page 110
+to page 267.  For similarity between the ancient custom of
+allowing invalids to sleep in the temples of Serapis and the
+mediaeval custom of having them sleep in the church of St.
+Anthony of Padua and other churches, see Meyer, Aberglaube des
+Mittelalters, Basel, 1884, chap. iv.  For the effect of "the
+vivid belief in supernatural action which attaches itself to the
+tombs of the saints," etc., as "a psychic agent of great value,"
+see Littre, Medecine et Medecins, p. 131. For the Jansenist
+miracles at Paris, see La Verite des Miracles operes par
+l'Intercession de M. de Paris, par Montgeron, Utrecht, 1737, and
+especially the cases of Mary Anne Couronneau, Philippe Sargent,
+and Gautier de Pezenas.  For some very thoughtful remarks as to
+the worthlessness of the testimony to miracles presented during
+the canonization proceedings at Rome, see Maury, Legendes
+Pieuses, pp. 4-7.
+
+
+There are undoubtedly serious lesions which yield to profound
+emotion and vigorous exertion born of persuasion, confidence, or
+excitement.  The wonderful power of the mind over the body is
+known to every observant student.  Mr. Herbert Spencer dwells
+upon the fact that intense feeling or passion may bring out great
+muscular force.  Dr. Berdoe reminds us that "a gouty man who has
+long hobbled about on his crutch, finds his legs and power to run
+with them if pursued by a wild bull"; and that "the feeblest
+invalid, under the influence of delirium or other strong
+excitement, will astonish her nurse by the sudden accession of
+strength."[298]
+
+[298] For the citation in the text, as well as for a brief but
+remarkably valuable discussion of the power of the mind over the
+body in disease, see Dr. Berdoe's Medical View of the Miracles at
+Lourdes, in The Nineteenth Century for October, 1895.
+
+
+But miraculous cures were not ascribed to persons merely.
+Another growth, developed by the early Church mainly from germs
+in our sacred books, took shape in miracles wrought by streams,
+by pools of water, and especially by relics.  Here, too, the old
+types persisted, and just as we find holy and healing wells,
+pools, and streams in all other ancient religions, so we find in
+the evolution of our own such examples as Naaman the Syrian cured
+of leprosy by bathing in the river Jordan, the blind man restored
+to sight by washing in the pool of Siloam, and the healing of
+those who touched the bones of Elisha, the shadow of St. Peter,
+or the handkerchief of St. Paul.
+
+St. Cyril, St. Ambrose, St. Augustine, and other great fathers
+of the early Church, sanctioned the belief that similar efficacy
+was to be found in the relics of the saints of their time; hence,
+St. Ambrose declared that "the precepts of medicine are contrary
+to celestial science, watching, and prayer," and we find this
+statement reiterated from time to time throughout the Middle
+Ages.  From this idea was evolved that fetichism which we shall
+see for ages standing in the way of medical science.
+
+Theology, developed in accordance with this idea, threw about all
+cures, even those which resulted from scientific effort, an
+atmosphere of supernaturalism.  The vividness with which the
+accounts of miracles in the sacred books were realized in the
+early Church continued the idea of miraculous intervention
+throughout the Middle Ages.  The testimony of the great fathers
+of the Church to the continuance of miracles is overwhelming; but
+everything shows that they so fully expected miracles on the
+slightest occasion as to require nothing which in these days
+would be regarded as adequate evidence.
+
+In this atmosphere of theologic thought medical science was at
+once checked.  The School of Alexandria, under the influence
+first of Jews and later of Christians, both permeated with
+Oriental ideas, and taking into their theory of medicine demons
+and miracles, soon enveloped everything in mysticism.  In the
+Byzantine Empire of the East the same cause produced the same
+effect; the evolution of ascertained truth in medicine, begun by
+Hippocrates and continued by Herophilus, seemed lost forever.
+Medical science, trying to advance, was like a ship becalmed in
+the Sargasso Sea:  both the atmosphere about it and the medium
+through which it must move resisted all progress.  Instead of
+reliance upon observation, experience, experiment, and thought,
+attention was turned toward supernatural agencies.[299]
+
+[299] For the mysticism which gradually enveloped the School of
+Alexandria, see Barthelemy Saint-Hilaire, De l'Ecole
+d'Alexandrie, Paris, 1845, vol. vi, p. 161.  For the effect of
+the new doctrines on the Empire of the East, see Sprengel, vol.
+ii, p. 240.  As to the more common miracles of healing and the
+acknowledgment of non-Christian miracles of healing by Christian
+fathers, see Fort, p. 84.
+
+
+
+
+IV.  THE ATTRIBUTION OF DISEASE TO SATANIC INFLUENCE.
+--"PASTORAL MEDICINE" CHECKS SCIENTIFIC EFFORT.
+
+
+Especially prejudicial to a true development of medical science
+among the first Christians was their attribution of disease to
+diabolic influence.  As we have seen, this idea had come from
+far, and, having prevailed in Chaldea, Egypt, and Persia, had
+naturally entered into the sacred books of the Hebrews.
+Moreover, St. Paul had distinctly declared that the gods of the
+heathen were devils; and everywhere the early Christians saw in
+disease the malignant work of these dethroned powers of evil.
+The Gnostic and Manichaean struggles had ripened the theologic
+idea that, although at times diseases are punishments by the
+Almighty, the main agency in them is Satanic.  The great fathers
+and renowned leaders of the early Church accepted and
+strengthened this idea. Origen said:  "It is demons which produce
+famine, unfruitfulness, corruptions of the air, pestilences; they
+hover concealed in clouds in the lower atmosphere, and are
+attracted by the blood and incense which the heathen offer to
+them as gods."  St. Augustine said:  "All diseases of Christians
+are to be ascribed to these demons; chiefly do they torment
+fresh-baptized Christians, yea, even the guiltless, newborn
+infants."  Tertullian insisted that a malevolent angel is in
+constant attendance upon every person.  Gregory of Nazianzus
+declared that bodily pains are provoked by demons, and that
+medicines are useless, but that they are often cured by the
+laying on of consecrated hands.  St.  Nilus and St. Gregory of
+Tours, echoing St. Ambrose, gave examples to show the sinfulness
+of resorting to medicine instead of trusting to the intercession
+of saints.  St. Bernard, in a letter to certain monks, warned
+them that to seek relief from disease in medicine was in harmony
+neither with their religion nor with the honour and purity of
+their order. This view even found its way into the canon law,
+which declared the precepts of medicine contrary to Divine
+knowledge.  As a rule, the leaders of the Church discouraged the
+theory that diseases are due to natural causes, and most of them
+deprecated a resort to surgeons and physicians rather than to
+supernatural means.[300]
+
+[300] For Chaldean, Egyptian, and Persian ideas as to the
+diabolic origin of disease, see authorities already cited,
+especially Maspero and Sayce.  For Origen, see the Contra Celsum,
+lib. viii, chap. xxxi. For Augustine, see De Divinatione
+Daemonum, chap. iii (p.585 of Migne, vol. xl).  For Turtullian
+and Gregory of Nazianzus, see citations in Sprengel and in Fort,
+p. 6.  For St. Nilus, see his life, in the Bollandise Acta
+Sanctorum.  For Gregory of Tours, see his Historia Francorum,
+lib. v, cap. 6, and his De Mirac. S. Martini, lib. ii, cap. 60.
+I owe these citations to Mr. Lea (History of the Inquisition of
+the Middle Ages, vol. iii, p. 410, note).  For the letter of St.
+Bernard to the monks of St. Anastasius, see his Epistola in
+Migne, tom. 182, pp. 550, 551.  For the canon law, see under De
+Consecratione, dist. v, c. xxi, "Contraria sunt divinae
+cognitioni praecepta medicinae: a jejunio revocant, lucubrare non
+sinunt, ab omni intentione meditiationis abducunt."  For the
+turning of the Greek mythology into a demonology as largely due
+to St. Paul, see I Corinthians x, 20: "The things which the
+Gentiles sacrifice, they sacrifice to devils, and not to God."
+
+
+Out of these and similar considerations was developed the vast
+system of "pastoral medicine," so powerful not only through the
+Middle Ages, but even in modern times, both among Catholics and
+Protestants.  As to its results, we must bear in mind that, while
+there is no need to attribute the mass of stories regarding
+miraculous cures to conscious fraud, there was without doubt, at
+a later period, no small admixture of belief biased by
+self-interest, with much pious invention and suppression of
+facts.  Enormous revenues flowed into various monasteries and
+churches in all parts of Europe from relics noted for their
+healing powers.  Every cathedral, every great abbey, and nearly
+every parish church claimed possession of healing relics.  While,
+undoubtedly, a childlike faith was at the bottom of this belief,
+there came out of it unquestionably a great development of the
+mercantile spirit.  The commercial value of sundry relics was
+often very high.  In the year 1056 a French ruler pledged
+securities to the amount of ten thousand solidi for the
+production of the relics of St. Just and St. Pastor, pending a
+legal decision regarding the ownership between him and the
+Archbishop of Narbonne.  The Emperor of Germany on one occasion
+demanded, as a sufficient pledge for the establishment of a city
+market, the arm of St. George.  The body of St. Sebastian
+brought enormous wealth to the Abbey of Soissons; Rome,
+Canterbury, Treves, Marburg, every great city, drew large
+revenues from similar sources, and the Venetian Republic ventured
+very considerable sums in the purchase of relics.
+
+Naturally, then, corporations, whether lay or ecclesiastical,
+which drew large revenue from relics looked with little favour on
+a science which tended to discredit their investments.
+
+Nowhere, perhaps, in Europe can the philosophy of this
+development of fetichism be better studied to-day than at
+Cologne.  At the cathedral, preserved in a magnificent shrine
+since about the twelfth century, are the skulls of the Three
+Kings, or Wise Men of the East, who, guided by the star of
+Bethlehem, brought gifts to the Saviour.  These relics were an
+enormous source of wealth to the cathedral chapter during many
+centuries.  But other ecclesiastical bodies in that city were
+both pious and shrewd, and so we find that not far off, at the
+church of St. Gereon, a cemetery has been dug up, and the bones
+distributed over the walls as the relics of St. Gereon and his
+Theban band of martyrs! Again, at the neighbouring church of St.
+Ursula, we have the later spoils of another cemetery, covering
+the interior walls of the church as the bones of St. Ursula and
+her eleven thousand virgin martyrs:  the fact that many of them,
+as anatomists now declare, are the bones of MEN does not appear
+in the Middle Ages to have diminished their power of competing
+with the relics at the other shrines in healing efficiency.
+
+No error in the choice of these healing means seems to have
+diminished their efficacy.  When Prof. Buckland, the eminent
+osteologist and geologist, discovered that the relics of St.
+Rosalia at Palermo, which had for ages cured diseases and warded
+off epidemics, were the bones of a goat, this fact caused not the
+slightest diminution in their miraculous power.
+
+Other developments of fetich cure were no less discouraging to
+the evolution of medical science.  Very important among these was
+the Agnus Dei, or piece of wax from the Paschal candles, stamped
+with the figure of a lamb and consecrated by the Pope.  In 1471
+Pope Paul II expatiated to the Church on the efficacy of this
+fetich in preserving men from fire, shipwreck, tempest,
+lightning, and hail, as well as in assisting women in childbirth;
+and he reserved to himself and his successors the manufacture of
+it.  Even as late as 1517 Pope Leo X issued, for a consideration,
+tickets bearing a cross and the following inscription:  "This
+cross measured forty times makes the height of Christ in his
+humanity.  He who kisses it is preserved for seven days from
+falling-sickness, apoplexy, and sudden death."
+
+Naturally, the belief thus sanctioned by successive heads of the
+Church, infallible in all teaching regarding faith and morals,
+created a demand for amulets and charms of all kinds; and under
+this influence we find a reversion to old pagan fetiches.
+Nothing, on the whole, stood more constantly in the way of any
+proper development of medical science than these fetich cures,
+whose efficacy was based on theological reasoning and sanctioned
+by ecclesiastical policy.  It would be expecting too much from
+human nature to imagine that pontiffs who derived large revenues
+from the sale of the Agnus Dei, or priests who derived both
+wealth and honours from cures wrought at shrines under their
+care, or lay dignitaries who had invested heavily in relics,
+should favour the development of any science which undermined
+their interests.[301]
+
+[301] See Fort's Medical Economy during the Middle Ages, pp. 211-
+213; also the Handbooks of Murray and Baedeker for North Germany,
+and various histories of medicine passim; also Collin de Plancy
+and scores of others.  For the discovery that the relics of St.
+Rosaria at Palermo are simply the bones of a goat, see Gordon,
+Life of Buckland, pp. 94-96.  For an account of the Agnes Dei,
+see Rydberg, pp. 62, 63; and for "Conception Billets," pp. 64 and
+65.  For Leo X's tickets, see Hausser (professor at Heidelberg),
+Period of Reformation, English translation, p. 17.
+
+
+
+
+V.  THEOLOGICAL OPPOSITION TO ANATOMICAL STUDIES.
+
+
+Yet a more serious stumbling-block, hindering the beginnings of
+modern medicine and surgery, was a theory regarding the
+unlawfulness of meddling with the bodies of the dead.  This
+theory, like so many others which the Church cherished as
+peculiarly its own, had really been inherited from the old pagan
+civilizations.  So strong was it in Egypt that the embalmer was
+regarded as accursed; traces of it appear in Greco-Roman life,
+and hence it came into the early Church, where it was greatly
+strengthened by the addition of perhaps the most noble of mystic
+ideas--the recognition of the human body as the temple of the
+Holy Spirit.  Hence Tertullian denounced the anatomist Herophilus
+as a butcher, and St. Augustine spoke of anatomists generally in
+similar terms.
+
+But this nobler conception was alloyed with a medieval
+superstition even more effective, when the formula known as the
+Apostles' Creed had, in its teachings regarding the resurrection
+of the body, supplanted the doctrine laid down by St. Paul.
+Thence came a dread of mutilating the body in such a way that
+some injury might result to its final resurrection at the Last
+Day, and additional reasons for hindering dissections in the
+study of anatomy.
+
+To these arguments against dissection was now added another--one
+which may well fill us with amazement.  It is the remark of the
+foremost of recent English philosophical historians, that of all
+organizations in human history the Church of Rome has caused the
+greatest spilling of innocent blood.  No one conversant with
+history, even though he admit all possible extenuating
+circumstances, and honour the older Church for the great services
+which can undoubtedly be claimed for her, can deny this
+statement.  Strange is it, then, to note that one of the main
+objections developed in the Middle Ages against anatomical
+studies was the maxim that "the Church abhors the shedding of
+blood."
+
+On this ground, in 1248, the Council of Le Mans forbade surgery
+to monks.  Many other councils did the same, and at the end of
+the thirteenth century came the most serious blow of all; for
+then it was that Pope Boniface VIII, without any of that
+foresight of consequences which might well have been expected in
+an infallible teacher, issued a decretal forbidding a practice
+which had come into use during the Crusades, namely, the
+separation of the flesh from the bones of the dead whose remains
+it was desired to carry back to their own country.
+
+The idea lying at the bottom of this interdiction was in all
+probability that which had inspired Tertullian to make his bitter
+utterance against Herophilus; but, be that as it may, it soon
+came to be considered as extending to all dissection, and thereby
+surgery and medicine were crippled for more than two centuries;
+it was the worst blow they ever received, for it impressed upon
+the mind of the Church the belief that all dissection is
+sacrilege, and led to ecclesiastical mandates withdrawing from
+the healing art the most thoughtful and cultivated men of the
+Middle Ages and giving up surgery to the lowest class of nomadic
+charlatans.
+
+So deeply was this idea rooted in the mind of the universal
+Church that for over a thousand years surgery was considered
+dishonourable:  the greatest monarchs were often unable to secure
+an ordinary surgical operation; and it was only in 1406 that a
+better beginning was made, when the Emperor Wenzel of Germany
+ordered that dishonour should no longer attach to the surgical
+profession.[302]
+
+[302] As to religious scruples against dissection, and abhorrence
+of the Paraschites, or embalmer, see Maspero and Sayce, The Dawn
+of Civilization, p. 216.  For denunciation of surgery by the
+Church authorities, see Sprengel, vol. ii, pp. 432-435; also
+Fort, pp. 452 et seq.; and for the reasoning which led the Church
+to forbid surgery to priests, see especially Fredault, Histoire
+de la Medecine, p. 200.  As to the decretal of Boniface VIII, the
+usual statement is that he forbade all dissections.  While it was
+undoubtedly construed universally to prohibit dissections for
+anatomical purposes, its declared intent was as stated in the
+text; that it was constantly construed against anatomical
+investigations can not for a moment be denied.  This construction
+is taken for granted in the great Histoire Litteraire de la
+France, founded by the Benedictines, certainly a very high
+authority as to the main current of opinion in the Church.  For
+the decretal of Boniface VIII, see the Corpus Juris Canonici.  I
+have also used the edition of Paris, 1618, where it may be found
+on pp. 866, 867.  See also, in spite of the special pleading of
+Giraldi, the Benedictine Hist. Lit. de la France, tome xvi, p.
+98.
+
+
+
+
+VI.  NEW BEGINNINGS OF MEDICAL SCIENCE.
+
+
+In spite of all these opposing forces, the evolution of medical
+science continued, though but slowly.  In the second century of
+the Christian era Galen had made himself a great authority at
+Rome, and from Rome had swayed the medical science of the world:
+his genius triumphed over the defects of his method; but, though
+he gave a powerful impulse to medicine, his dogmatism stood in
+its way long afterward.
+
+The places where medicine, such as it thus became, could be
+applied, were at first mainly the infirmaries of various
+monasteries, especially the larger ones of the Benedictine order:
+these were frequently developed into hospitals.  Many monks
+devoted themselves to such medical studies as were permitted, and
+sundry churchmen and laymen did much to secure and preserve
+copies of ancient medical treatises.  So, too, in the cathedral
+schools established by Charlemagne and others, provision was
+generally made for medical teaching; but all this instruction,
+whether in convents or schools, was wretchedly poor.  It
+consisted not in developing by individual thought and experiment
+the gifts of Hippocrates, Aristotle, and Galen, but almost
+entirely in the parrot-like repetition of their writings.
+
+But, while the inherited ideas of Church leaders were thus
+unfavourable to any proper development of medical science, there
+were two bodies of men outside the Church who, though largely
+fettered by superstition, were far less so than the monks and
+students of ecclesiastical schools:  these were the Jews and
+Mohammedans.  The first of these especially had inherited many
+useful sanitary and hygienic ideas, which had probably been first
+evolved by the Egyptians, and from them transmitted to the modern
+world mainly through the sacred books attributed to Moses.
+
+The Jewish scholars became especially devoted to medical science.
+To them is largely due the building up of the School of Salerno,
+which we find flourishing in the tenth century.  Judged by our
+present standards its work was poor indeed, but compared with
+other medical instruction of the time it was vastly superior:  it
+developed hygienic principles especially, and brought medicine
+upon a higher plane.
+
+Still more important is the rise of the School of Montpellier;
+this was due almost entirely to Jewish physicians, and it
+developed medical studies to a yet higher point, doing much to
+create a medical profession worthy of the name throughout
+southern Europe.
+
+As to the Arabians, we find them from the tenth to the fourteenth
+century, especially in Spain, giving much thought to medicine,
+and to chemistry as subsidiary to it.  About the beginning of the
+ninth century, when the greater Christian writers were supporting
+fetich by theology, Almamon, the Moslem, declared, "They are the
+elect of God, his best and most useful servants, whose lives are
+devoted to the improvement of their rational faculties."  The
+influence of Avicenna, the translator of the works of Aristotle,
+extended throughout all Europe during the eleventh century.  The
+Arabians were indeed much fettered by tradition in medical
+science, but their translations of Hippocrates and Galen
+preserved to the world the best thus far developed in medicine,
+and still better were their contributions to pharmacy:  these
+remain of value to the present hour.[303]
+
+[303] For the great services rendered to the development of
+medicine by the Jews, see Monteil, Medecine en France, p. 58;
+also the historians of medicine generally.  For the quotation
+from Almamon, see Gibbon, vol. x, p. 42.  For the services of
+both Jews and Arabians, see Bedarride, Histoire des Juifs, p.
+115; also Sismondi, Histoire des Francais, tome i, p. 191.  For
+the Arabians, especially, see Rosseeuw Saint-Hilaire, Histoire
+d'Espagne, Paris, 1844, vol. iii, pp. 191 et seq.  For the
+tendency of the Mosaic books to insist on hygienic rather than
+therapeutical treatment, and its consequences among Jewish
+physicians, see Sprengel, but especially Fredault, p.14.
+
+
+Various Christian laymen also rose above the prevailing theologic
+atmosphere far enough to see the importance of promoting
+scientific development.  First among these we may name the
+Emperor Charlemagne; he and his great minister, Alcuin, not only
+promoted medical studies in the schools they founded, but also
+made provision for the establishment of botanic gardens in which
+those herbs were especially cultivated which were supposed to
+have healing virtues.  So, too, in the thirteenth century, the
+Emperor Frederick II, though under the ban of the Pope, brought
+together in his various journeys, and especially in his crusading
+expeditions, many Greek and Arabic manuscripts, and took special
+pains to have those which concerned medicine preserved and
+studied; he also promoted better ideas of medicine and embodied
+them in laws.
+
+Men of science also rose, in the stricter sense of the word, even
+in the centuries under the most complete sway of theological
+thought and ecclesiastical power; a science, indeed, alloyed
+with theology, but still infolding precious germs.  Of these were
+men like Arnold of Villanova, Bertrand de Gordon, Albert of
+Bollstadt, Basil Valentine, Raymond Lully, and, above all, Roger
+Bacon; all of whom cultivated sciences subsidiary to medicine,
+and in spite of charges of sorcery, with possibilities of
+imprisonment and death, kept the torch of knowledge burning, and
+passed it on to future generations.[304]
+
+[304] For the progress of sciences subsidiary to medicine even in
+the darkest ages, see Fort, pp. 374, 375; also Isensee,
+Geschichte der Medicin, pp. 225 et seq.; also Monteil, p. 89;
+Heller, Geschichte der Physik, vol. i, bk. 3; also Kopp,
+Geschichte der Chemie.  For Frederick II and his
+Medicinal-Gesetz, see Baas, p. 221, but especially Von Raumer,
+Geschichte der Hohenstaufen, Leipsic, 1872, vol. iii, p. 259.
+
+
+From the Church itself, even when the theological atmosphere was
+most dense, rose here and there men who persisted in something
+like scientific effort.  As early as the ninth century,
+Bertharius, a monk of Monte Cassino, prepared two manuscript
+volumes of prescriptions selected from ancient writers; other
+monks studied them somewhat, and, during succeeding ages,
+scholars like Hugo, Abbot of St. Denis,--Notker, monk of St.
+Gall,--Hildegard, Abbess of Rupertsberg,--Milo, Archbishop of
+Beneventum,--and John of St. Amand, Canon of Tournay, did
+something for medicine as they understood it.  Unfortunately,
+they generally understood its theory as a mixture of deductions
+from Scripture with dogmas from Galen, and its practice as a
+mixture of incantations with fetiches.  Even Pope Honorius III
+did something for the establishment of medical schools; but he
+did so much more to place ecclesiastical and theological fetters
+upon teachers and taught, that the value of his gifts may well be
+doubted.  All germs of a higher evolution of medicine were for
+ages well kept under by the theological spirit.  As far back as
+the sixth century so great a man as Pope Gregory I showed himself
+hostile to the development of this science.  In the beginning of
+the twelfth century the Council of Rheims interdicted the study
+of law and physic to monks, and a multitude of other councils
+enforced this decree.  About the middle of the same century St.
+Bernard still complained that monks had too much to do with
+medicine; and a few years later we have decretals like those of
+Pope Alexander III forbidding monks to study or practise it.  For
+many generations there appear evidences of a desire among the
+more broad-minded churchmen to allow the cultivation of medical
+science among ecclesiastics:  Popes like Clement III and
+Sylvester II seem to have favoured this, and we even hear of an
+Archbishop of Canterbury skilled in medicine; but in the
+beginning of the thirteenth century the Fourth Council of the
+Lateran forbade surgical operations to be practised by priests,
+deacons, and subdeacons; and some years later Honorius III
+reiterated this decree and extended it.  In 1243 the Dominican
+order forbade medical treatises to be brought into their
+monasteries, and finally all participation of ecclesiastics in
+the science and art of medicine was effectually prevented.[305]
+
+[305] For statements as to these decrees of the highest Church
+and monastic authorities against medicine and surgery, see
+Sprengel, Baas, Geschichte der Medicin, p. 204, and elsewhere;
+also Buckle, Posthumous Works, vol. ii, p. 567.  For a long list
+of Church dignitaries who practised a semi-theological medicine
+in the Middle Ages, see Baas, pp. 204, 205.  For Bertharius,
+Hildegard, and others mentioned, see also Sprengel and other
+historians of medicine.  For clandestine study and practice of
+medicine by sundry ecclesiastics in spite of the prohibition by
+the Church, see Von Raumer, Hohenstaufen, vol. vi, p. 438.  For
+some remarks on this subject by an eminent and learned
+ecclesiastic, see Ricker, O. S. B., professor in the University
+of Vienna, Pastoral-Psychiatrie, 1894, pp. 12,13.
+
+
+
+
+VII.  THEOLOGICAL DISCOURAGEMENT OF MEDICINE.
+
+
+While various churchmen, building better than they knew, thus did
+something to lay foundations for medical study, the Church
+authorities, as a rule, did even more to thwart it among the very
+men who, had they been allowed liberty, would have cultivated it
+to the highest advantage.
+
+Then, too, we find cropping out every where the feeling that,
+since supernatural means are so abundant, there is something
+irreligious in seeking cure by natural means:  ever and anon we
+have appeals to Scripture, and especially to the case of King
+Asa, who trusted to physicians rather than to the priests of
+Jahveh, and so died.  Hence it was that St. Bernard declared
+that monks who took medicine were guilty of conduct unbecoming to
+religion.  Even the School of Salerno was held in aversion by
+multitudes of strict churchmen, since it prescribed rules for
+diet, thereby indicating a belief that diseases arise from
+natural causes and not from the malice of the devil:  moreover,
+in the medical schools Hippocrates was studied, and he had
+especially declared that demoniacal possession is "nowise more
+divine, nowise more infernal, than any other disease."  Hence it
+was, doubtless, that the Lateran Council, about the beginning of
+the thirteenth century, forbade physicians, under pain of
+exclusion from the Church, to undertake medical treatment without
+calling in ecclesiastical advice.
+
+This view was long cherished in the Church, and nearly two
+hundred and fifty years later Pope Pius V revived it by renewing
+the command of Pope Innocent and enforcing it with penalties.
+Not only did Pope Pius order that all physicians before
+administering treatment should call in "a physician of the soul,"
+on the ground, as he declares, that "bodily infirmity frequently
+arises from sin," but he ordered that, if at the end of three
+days the patient had not made confession to a priest, the medical
+man should cease his treatment, under pain of being deprived of
+his right to practise, and of expulsion from the faculty if he
+were a professor, and that every physician and professor of
+medicine should make oath that he was strictly fulfilling these
+conditions.
+
+Out of this feeling had grown up another practice, which made the
+development of medicine still more difficult--the classing of
+scientific men generally with sorcerers and magic-mongers:  from
+this largely rose the charge of atheism against physicians, which
+ripened into a proverb, "Where there are three physicians there
+are two atheists."[306]
+
+[306] "Ubi sunt tres medici ibi sunt duo athei."  For the bull of
+Pius V, see the Bullarium Romanum, ed. Gaude, Naples, 1882, tom.
+vii, pp. 430, 431.
+
+
+Magic was so common a charge that many physicians seemed to
+believe it themselves.  In the tenth century Gerbert, afterward
+known as Pope Sylvester II, was at once suspected of sorcery when
+he showed a disposition to adopt scientific methods; in the
+eleventh century this charge nearly cost the life of Constantine
+Africanus when he broke from the beaten path of medicine; in the
+thirteenth, it gave Roger Bacon, one of the greatest benefactors
+of mankind, many years of imprisonment, and nearly brought him to
+the stake:  these cases are typical of very many.
+
+Still another charge against physicians who showed a talent for
+investigation was that of Mohammedanism and Averroism; and
+Petrarch stigmatized Averroists as "men who deny Genesis and bark
+at Christ."[307]
+
+[307] For Averroes, see Renan, Averroes et l'Averroisme, Paris,
+1861, pp. 327-335.  For a perfectly just statement of the only
+circumstances which can justify a charge of atheism, see Rev. Dr.
+Deems, in Popular Science Monthly, February, 1876.
+
+
+The effect of this widespread ecclesiastical opposition was, that
+for many centuries the study of medicine was relegated mainly to
+the lowest order of practitioners.  There was, indeed, one
+orthodox line of medical evolution during the later Middle Ages:
+St. Thomas Aquinas insisted that the forces of the body are
+independent of its physical organization, and that therefore
+these forces are to be studied by the scholastic philosophy and
+the theological method, instead of by researches into the
+structure of the body; as a result of this, mingled with
+survivals of various pagan superstitions, we have in anatomy and
+physiology such doctrines as the increase and decrease of the
+brain with the phases of the moon, the ebb and flow of human
+vitality with the tides of the ocean, the use of the lungs to fan
+the heart, the function of the liver as the seat of love, and
+that of the spleen as the centre of wit.
+
+Closely connected with these methods of thought was the doctrine
+of signatures.  It was reasoned that the Almighty must have set
+his sign upon the various means of curing disease which he has
+provided:  hence it was held that bloodroot, on account of its
+red juice, is good for the blood; liverwort, having a leaf like
+the liver, cures diseases of the liver; eyebright, being marked
+with a spot like an eye, cures diseases of the eyes; celandine,
+having a yellow juice, cures jaundice; bugloss, resembling a
+snake's head, cures snakebite; red flannel, looking like blood,
+cures blood-taints, and therefore rheumatism; bear's grease,
+being taken from an animal thickly covered with hair, is
+recommended to persons fearing baldness.[308]
+
+[308] For a summary of the superstitions which arose under the
+theological doctrine of signatures, see Dr. Eccles's admirable
+little tract on the Evolution of Medical Science, p. 140; see
+also Scoffern, Science and Folk Lore, p. 76.
+
+
+Still another method evolved by this theological pseudoscience
+was that of disgusting the demon with the body which he
+tormented--hence the patient was made to swallow or apply to
+himself various unspeakable ordures, with such medicines as the
+livers of toads, the blood of frogs and rats, fibres of the
+hangman's rope, and ointment made from the body of gibbeted
+criminals.  Many of these were survivals of heathen
+superstitions, but theologic reasoning wrought into them an
+orthodox significance.  As an example of this mixture of heathen
+with Christian magic, we may cite the following from a medieval
+medical book as a salve against "nocturnal goblin visitors":
+"Take hop plant, wormwood, bishopwort, lupine, ash-throat,
+henbane, harewort, viper's bugloss, heathberry plant, cropleek,
+garlic, grains of hedgerife, githrife, and fennel.  Put these
+worts into a vessel, set them under the altar, sing over them
+nine masses, boil them in butter and sheep's grease, add much
+holy salt, strain through a cloth, throw the worts into running
+water.  If any ill tempting occur to a man, or an elf or goblin
+night visitors come, smear his body with this salve, and put it
+on his eyes, and cense him with incense, and sign him frequently
+with the sign of the cross.  His condition will soon be
+better."[309]
+
+[309] For a list of unmentionable ordures used in Germany near
+the end of the seventeenth century, see Lammert, Volksmedizin und
+medizinischer Aberglaube in Bayern, Wurzburg, 1869, p. 34, note.
+For the English prescription given, see Cockayne, Leechdoms,
+Wort-cunning, and Star-craft of Early England, in the Master of
+the Rolls' series, London, 1865, vol. ii, pp. 345 and following.
+Still another of these prescriptions given by Cockayne covers
+three or four octavo pages.  For very full details of this sort
+of sacred pseudo-science in Germany, with accounts of survivals
+of it at the present time, see Wuttke, Prof. der Theologie in
+Halle, Der Deutsche Volksaberglaube der Gegenwart, Berlin, 1869,
+passim. For France, see Rambaud, Histoire de la Civilisation
+francaise, pp. 371 et seq.
+
+
+As to surgery, this same amalgamation of theology with survivals
+of pagan beliefs continued to check the evolution of medical
+science down to the modern epoch.  The nominal hostility of the
+Church to the shedding of blood withdrew, as we have seen, from
+surgical practice the great body of her educated men; hence
+surgery remained down to the fifteenth century a despised
+profession, its practice continued largely in the hands of
+charlatans, and down to a very recent period the name
+"barber-surgeon" was a survival of this.  In such surgery, the
+application of various ordures relieved fractures; the touch of
+the hangman cured sprains; the breath of a donkey expelled
+poison; friction with a dead man's tooth cured toothache.[310]
+
+[310] On the low estate of surgery during the Middle Ages, see
+the histories of medicine already cited, and especially
+Kotelmann, Gesundheitspflege im Mittelalter, Hamburg, 1890, pp.
+216 et seq.
+
+
+The enormous development of miracle and fetich cures in the
+Church continued during century after century, and here probably
+lay the main causes of hostility between the Church on the one
+hand and the better sort of physicians on the other; namely, in
+the fact that the Church supposed herself in possession of
+something far better than scientific methods in medicine.  Under
+the sway of this belief a natural and laudable veneration for the
+relics of Christian martyrs was developed more and more into pure
+fetichism.
+
+Thus the water in which a single hair of a saint had been dipped
+was used as a purgative; water in which St. Remy's ring had been
+dipped cured fevers; wine in which the bones of a saint had been
+dipped cured lunacy; oil from a lamp burning before the tomb of
+St. Gall cured tumours; St. Valentine cured epilepsy; St.
+Christopher, throat diseases; St. Eutropius, dropsy; St. Ovid,
+deafness; St. Gervase, rheumatism; St. Apollonia, toothache;
+St. Vitus, St. Anthony, and a multitude of other saints, the
+maladies which bear their names.  Even as late as 1784 we find
+certain authorities in Bavaria ordering that any one bitten by a
+mad dog shall at once put up prayers at the shrine of St. Hubert,
+and not waste his time in any attempts at medical or surgical
+cure.[311] In the twelfth century we find a noted cure attempted
+by causing the invalid to drink water in which St. Bernard had
+washed his hands.  Flowers which had rested on the tomb of a
+saint, when steeped in water, were supposed to be especially
+efficacious in various diseases.  The pulpit everywhere dwelt
+with unction on the reality of fetich cures, and among the choice
+stories collected by Archbishop Jacques de Vitry for the use of
+preachers was one which, judging from its frequent recurrence in
+monkish literature, must have sunk deep into the popular mind:
+"Two lazy beggars, one blind, the other lame, try to avoid the
+relics of St. Martin, borne about in procession, so that they may
+not be healed and lose their claim to alms.  The blind man takes
+the lame man on his shoulders to guide him, but they are caught
+in the crowd and healed against their will."[312]
+
+[311] See Baas, p. 614; aslo Biedermann.
+
+[312] For the efficacy of flowers, see the Bollandist Lives of
+the Saints, cited in Fort, p. 279; also pp. 457, 458.  For the
+story of those unwillingly cured, see the Exempla of Jacques de
+Vitry, edited by Prof. T. F. Crane, of Cornell University,
+London, 1890, pp. 52, 182.
+
+
+Very important also throughout the Middle Ages were the medical
+virtues attributed to saliva.  The use of this remedy had early
+Oriental sanction.  It is clearly found in Egypt.  Pliny devotes
+a considerable part of one of his chapters to it; Galen approved
+it; Vespasian, when he visited Alexandria, is said to have cured
+a blind man by applying saliva to his eves; but the great
+example impressed most forcibly upon the medieval mind was the
+use of it ascribed in the fourth Gospel to Jesus himself:  thence
+it came not only into Church ceremonial, but largely into medical
+practice.[313]
+
+[313] As to the use of saliva in medicine, see Story, Castle of
+St. Angelo, and Other Essays, London, 1877, pp. 208 and
+elsewhere.  For Pliny, Galen, and others, see the same, p. 211;
+see also the book of Tobit, chap. xi, 2-13.  For the case of
+Vespasian, see Suetonius, Life of Vespasian; also Tacitus,
+Historiae, lib. iv, c. 81.  For its use by St. Francis Xavier,
+see Coleridge, Life and Letters of St. Francis Xavier, London,
+1872.
+
+
+As the theological atmosphere thickened, nearly every country had
+its long list of saints, each with a special power over some one
+organ or disease.  The clergy, having great influence over the
+medical schools, conscientiously mixed this fetich medicine with
+the beginnings of science.  In the tenth century, even at the
+School of Salerno, we find that the sick were cured not only by
+medicine, but by the relics of St. Matthew and others.
+
+Human nature, too, asserted itself, then as now, by making
+various pious cures fashionable for a time and then allowing them
+to become unfashionable.  Just as we see the relics of St. Cosmo
+and St. Damian in great vogue during the early Middle Ages, but
+out of fashion and without efficacy afterward, so we find in the
+thirteenth century that the bones of St. Louis, having come into
+fashion, wrought multitudes of cures, while in the fourteenth,
+having become unfashionable, they ceased to act, and gave place
+for a time to the relics of St. Roch of Montpellier and St.
+Catherine of Sienna, which in their turn wrought many cures until
+they too became out of date and yielded to other saints.  Just so
+in modern times the healing miracles of La Salette have lost
+prestige in some measure, and those of Lourdes have come into
+fashion.[314]
+
+[314] For one of these lists of saints curing diseaes, see
+Pettigrew, On Superstitions connected with Medicine; for another,
+see Jacob, Superstitions Populaires, pp. 96-100; also Rydberg, p.
+69; also Maury, Rambaud, and others.  For a comparison of
+fashions in miracles with fashions in modern healing agents, see
+Littre, Medecine et Medecins, pp. 118, 136 and elsewhere; also
+Sprengel, vol. ii, p. 143.
+
+
+Even such serious matters as fractures, calculi, and difficult
+parturition, in which modern science has achieved some of its
+greatest triumphs, were then dealt with by relics; and to this
+hour the ex votos hanging at such shrines as those of St.
+Genevieve at Paris, of St. Antony at Padua, of the Druid image at
+Chartres, of the Virgin at Einsiedeln and Lourdes, of the
+fountain at La Salette, are survivals of this same conception of
+disease and its cure.
+
+So, too, with a multitude of sacred pools, streams, and spots of
+earth.  In Ireland, hardly a parish has not had one such sacred
+centre; in England and Scotland there have been many; and as
+late as 1805 the eminent Dr. Milner, of the Roman Catholic
+Church, gave a careful and earnest account of a miraculous cure
+wrought at a sacred well in Flintshire.  In all parts of Europe
+the pious resort to wells and springs continued long after the
+close of the Middle Ages, and has not entirely ceased to-day.
+It is not at all necessary to suppose intentional deception in
+the origin and maintenance of all fetich cures.  Although two
+different judicial investigations of the modern miracles at La
+Salette have shown their origin tainted with fraud, and though
+the recent restoration of the Cathedral of Trondhjem has revealed
+the fact that the healing powers of the sacred spring which once
+brought such great revenues to that shrine were assisted by
+angelic voices spoken through a tube in the walls, not unlike the
+pious machinery discovered in the Temple of Isis at Pompeii,
+there is little doubt that the great majority of fountain and
+even shrine cures, such as they have been, have resulted from a
+natural law, and that belief in them was based on honest argument
+from Scripture.  For the theological argument which thus stood in
+the way of science was simply this:  if the Almighty saw fit to
+raise the dead man who touched the bones of Elisha, why should he
+not restore to life the patient who touches at Cologne the bones
+of the Wise Men of the East who followed the star of the
+Nativity?   If Naaman was cured by dipping himself in the waters
+of the Jordan, and so many others by going down into the Pool of
+Siloam, why should not men still be cured by bathing in pools
+which men equally holy with Elisha have consecrated?   If one
+sick man was restored by touching the garments of St. Paul, why
+should not another sick man be restored by touching the seamless
+coat of Christ at Treves, or the winding-sheet of Christ at
+Besancon?   And out of all these inquiries came inevitably that
+question whose logical answer was especially injurious to the
+development of medical science:  Why should men seek to build up
+scientific medicine and surgery, when relics, pilgrimages, and
+sacred observances, according to an overwhelming mass of
+concurrent testimony, have cured and are curing hosts of sick
+folk in all parts of Europe?  [315]
+
+[315] For sacred fountains in modern times, see Pettigrew, as
+above, p. 42; also Dalyell, Darker Superstitions of Scotland, pp.
+82 and following; also Montalembert, Les Moines d'Occident, tome
+iii, p. 323, note.  For those in Ireland, with many curious
+details, see S. C. Hall, Ireland, its Scenery and Character,
+London, 1841, vol. i, p. 282, and passim.  For the case in
+Flintshire, see Authentic Documents relative to the Miraculous
+Cure of Winifred White, of the Town of Wolverhampton, at
+Holywell, Flintshire, on the 28th of June, 1805, by John Milner,
+D. D., Vicar Apostolic, etc., London, 1805.  For sacred wells in
+France, see Chevart, Histoire de Chartres, vol. i, pp. 84-89, and
+French local histories generally.  For superstitions attaching to
+springs in Germany, see Wuttke, Volksaberglaube, Sections 12 and
+356.  For one of the most exquisitely wrought works of modern
+fiction, showing perfectly the recent evolution of miraculous
+powers at a fashionable spring in France, see Gustave Droz,
+Autour d'une Source.  The reference to the old pious machinery at
+Trondhjem is based upon personal observation by the present
+writer in August, 1893.
+
+
+Still another development of the theological spirit, mixed with
+professional exclusiveness and mob prejudice, wrought untold
+injury.  Even to those who had become so far emancipated from
+allegiance to fetich cures as to consult physicians, it was
+forbidden to consult those who, as a rule, were the best.  From a
+very early period of European history the Jews had taken the lead
+in medicine; their share in founding the great schools of
+Salerno and Montpellier we have already noted, and in all parts
+of Europe we find them acknowledged leaders in the healing art.
+The Church authorities, enforcing the spirit of the time, were
+especially severe against these benefactors:  that men who openly
+rejected the means of salvation, and whose souls were undeniably
+lost, should heal the elect seemed an insult to Providence;
+preaching friars denounced them from the pulpit, and the rulers
+in state and church, while frequently secretly consulting them,
+openly proscribed them.
+
+Gregory of Tours tells us of an archdeacon who, having been
+partially cured of disease of the eyes by St. Martin, sought
+further aid from a Jewish physician, with the result that neither
+the saint nor the Jew could help him afterward.  Popes Eugene IV,
+Nicholas V, and Calixtus III especially forbade Christians to
+employ them.  The Trullanean Council in the eighth century, the
+Councils of Beziers and Alby in the thirteenth, the Councils of
+Avignon and Salamanca in the fourteenth, the Synod of Bamberg and
+the Bishop of Passau in the fifteenth, the Council of Avignon in
+the sixteenth, with many others, expressly forbade the faithful
+to call Jewish physicians or surgeons; such great preachers as
+John Geiler and John Herolt thundered from the pulpit against
+them and all who consulted them.  As late as the middle of the
+seventeenth century, when the City Council of Hall, in
+Wurtemberg, gave some privileges to a Jewish physician "on
+account of his admirable experience and skill," the clergy of the
+city joined in a protest, declaring that "it were better to die
+with Christ than to be cured by a Jew doctor aided by the devil."
+Still, in their extremity, bishops, cardinals, kings, and even
+popes, insisted on calling in physicians of the hated race.[316]
+
+[316] For the general subject of the influence of theological
+idea upon medicine, see Fort, History of Medical Economy during
+the Middle Ages, New York, 1883, chaps. xiii and xviii; also
+Colin de Plancy, Dictionnaire des Reliques, passim; also Rambaud,
+Histoire de la Civilisation francaise, Paris, 1885, vol. i, chap.
+xviii; also Sprengel, vol. ii, p. 345, and elsewhere; also Baas
+and others.  For proofs that the School of Salerno was not
+founded by the monks, Benedictine or other, but by laymen, who
+left out a faculty of theology from their organization, see
+Haeser, Lehrbuch der Geschichte der Medicin, vol. i, p. 646; also
+Baas.  For a very strong statement that married professors,
+women, and Jews were admitted to professional chairs, see Baas,
+pp. 208 et seq.; also summary by Dr. Payne, article in the Encyc.
+Brit.  Sprengel's old theory that the school was founded by
+Benedictines seems now entirely given up; see Haeser and Bass on
+the subject; also Daremberg, La Medecine, p. 133.  For the
+citation from Gregory of Tours, see his Hist. Francorum, lib. vi.
+For the eminence of Jewish physicians and proscription of them,
+see Beugnot, Les Juifs d'Occident, Paris, 1824, pp. 76-94; also
+Bedarride, Les Juifs en France, en Italie, et en Espagne, chaps.
+v, viii, x, and xiii; also Renouard, Histoire de la Medecine,
+Paris, 1846, tome i, p. 439; also especially Lammert,
+Volksmedizin, etc., in Bayern, p. 6, note.  For Church decrees
+against them, see the Acta Conciliorum, ed. Hardouin, vol. x, pp.
+1634, 1700, 1870, 1873, etc.  For denunciations of them by Geiler
+and others, see Kotelmann, Gesundheitspflege im Mittelalter, pp.
+194, 195.  For a list of kings and popes who persisted in having
+Jewish physicians and for other curious information of the sort,
+see Prof. Levi of Vercelli, Cristiani ed Ebrei nel Medio Evo, pp.
+200-207; and for a very valuable summary, see Lecky, History of
+Rationalism in Europe, vol. ii, pp. 265-271.
+
+
+
+
+VIII.  FETICH CURES UNDER PROTESTANTISM.--THE ROYAL TOUCH.
+
+
+The Reformation made no sudden change in the sacred theory of
+medicine.  Luther, as is well known, again and again ascribed his
+own diseases to "devils' spells," declaring that "Satan produces
+all the maladies which afflict mankind, for he is the prince of
+death," and that "he poisons the air"; but that "no malady comes
+from God."  From that day down to the faith cures of Boston, Old
+Orchard, and among the sect of "Peculiar People" in our own time,
+we see the results among Protestants of seeking the cause of
+disease in Satanic influence and its cure in fetichism.
+
+Yet Luther, with his sturdy common sense, broke away from one
+belief which has interfered with the evolution of medicine from
+the dawn of Christianity until now.  When that troublesome
+declaimer, Carlstadt, declared that "whoso falls sick shall use
+no physic, but commit his case to God, praying that His will be
+done," Luther asked, "Do you eat when you are hungry?" and the
+answer being in the affirmative, he continued, "Even so you may
+use physic, which is God's gift just as meat and drink is, or
+whatever else we use for the preservation of life."  Hence it
+was, doubtless, that the Protestant cities of Germany were more
+ready than others to admit anatomical investigation by proper
+dissections.[317]
+
+[317] For Luther's belief and his answer to Carlstadt, see his
+Table Talk, especially in Hazlitt's edition, pp. 250-257; also
+his letters passim.  For recent "faith cures," see Dr. Buckley's
+articles on Faith Healing and Kindred Phenomena, in The Century,
+1886.  For the greater readiness of Protestant cities to
+facilitate dissections, see Toth, Andreas Vesalius, p. 33.
+
+
+Perhaps the best-known development of a theological view in the
+Protestant Church was that mainly evolved in England out of a
+French germ of theological thought--a belief in the efficacy of
+the royal touch in sundry diseases, especially epilepsy and
+scrofula, the latter being consequently known as the king's evil.
+This mode of cure began, so far as history throws light upon it,
+with Edward the Confessor in the eleventh century, and came down
+from reign to reign, passing from the Catholic saint to
+Protestant debauchees upon the English throne, with
+ever-increasing miraculous efficacy.
+
+Testimony to the reality of these cures is overwhelming.  As a
+simple matter of fact, there are no miracles of healing in the
+history of the human race more thoroughly attested than those
+wrought by the touch of Henry VIII, Elizabeth, the Stuarts, and
+especially of that chosen vessel, Charles II.  Though Elizabeth
+could not bring herself fully to believe in the reality of these
+cures, Dr. Tooker, the Queen's chaplain, afterward Dean of
+Lichfield, testifies fully of his own knowledge to the cures
+wrought by her, as also does William Clowes, the Queen's surgeon.
+Fuller, in his Church History, gives an account of a Roman
+Catholic who was thus cured by the Queen's touch and converted to
+Protestantism.  Similar testimony exists as to cures wrought by
+James I.  Charles I also enjoyed the same power, in spite of the
+public declaration against its reality by Parliament.  In one
+case the King saw a patient in the crowd, too far off to be
+touched, and simply said, "God bless thee and grant thee thy
+desire"; whereupon, it is asserted, the blotches and humours
+disappeared from the patient's body and appeared in the bottle of
+medicine which he held in his hand; at least so says Dr. John
+Nicholas, Warden of Winchester College, who declares this of his
+own knowledge to be every word of it true.
+
+But the most incontrovertible evidence of this miraculous gift is
+found in the case of Charles II, the most thoroughly cynical
+debauchee who ever sat on the English throne before the advent of
+George IV.  He touched nearly one hundred thousand persons, and
+the outlay for gold medals issued to the afflicted on these
+occasions rose in some years as high as ten thousand pounds.
+John Brown, surgeon in ordinary to his Majesty and to St.
+Thomas's Hospital, and author of many learned works on surgery
+and anatomy, published accounts of sixty cures due to the touch
+of this monarch; and Sergeant-Surgeon Wiseman devotes an entire
+book to proving the reality of these cures, saying, "I myself
+have been frequent witness to many hundreds of cures performed by
+his Majesty's touch alone without any assistance of chirurgery,
+and these many of them had tyred out the endeavours of able
+chirurgeons before they came thither."  Yet it is especially
+instructive to note that, while in no other reign were so many
+people touched for scrofula, and in none were so many cures
+vouched for, in no other reign did so many people die of that
+disease:  the bills of mortality show this clearly, and the
+reason doubtless is the general substitution of supernatural for
+scientific means of cure.  This is but one out of many examples
+showing the havoc which a scientific test always makes among
+miracles if men allow it to be applied.
+
+To James II the same power continued; and if it be said, in the
+words of Lord Bacon, that "imagination is next of kin to
+miracle--a working faith," something else seems required to
+account for the testimony of Dr. Heylin to cures wrought by the
+royal touch upon babes in their mothers' arms.  Myth-making and
+marvel-mongering were evidently at work here as in so many other
+places, and so great was the fame of these cures that we find, in
+the year before James was dethroned, a pauper at Portsmouth, New
+Hampshire, petitioning the General Assembly to enable him to make
+the voyage to England in order that he may be healed by the royal
+touch.
+
+The change in the royal succession does not seem to have
+interfered with the miracle; for, though William III evidently
+regarded the whole thing as a superstition, and on one occasion
+is said to have touched a patient, saying to him, "God give you
+better health and more sense," Whiston assures us that this
+person was healed, notwithstanding William's incredulity.
+
+As to Queen Anne, Dr. Daniel Turner, in his Art of Surgery,
+relates that several cases of scrofula which had been
+unsuccessfully treated by himself and Dr. Charles Bernard,
+sergeant-surgeon to her Majesty, yielded afterward to the
+efficacy of the Queen's touch.  Naturally does Collier, in his
+Ecclesiastical History, say regarding these cases that to
+dispute them "is to come to the extreme of scepticism, to deny
+our senses and be incredulous even to ridiculousness."  Testimony
+to the reality of these cures is indeed overwhelming, and a
+multitude of most sober scholars, divines, and doctors of
+medicine declared the evidence absolutely convincing.  That the
+Church of England accepted the doctrine of the royal touch is
+witnessed by the special service provided in the Prayer-Book of
+that period for occasions when the King exercised this gift.  The
+ceremony was conducted with great solemnity and pomp:  during the
+reading of the service and the laying on of the King's hands, the
+attendant bishop or priest recited the words, "They shall lay
+their hands on the sick, and they shall recover"; afterward came
+special prayers, the Epistle and Gospel, with the blessing, and
+finally his Majesty washed his royal hands in golden vessels
+which high noblemen held for him.
+
+In France, too, the royal touch continued, with similar testimony
+to its efficacy.  On a certain Easter Sunday, that pious king,
+Louis XIV, touched about sixteen hundred persons at Versailles.
+
+This curative power was, then, acknowledged far and wide, by
+Catholics and Protestants alike, upon the Continent, in Great
+Britain, and in America; and it descended not only in spite of
+the transition of the English kings from Catholicism to
+Protestantism, but in spite of the transition from the legitimate
+sovereignty of the Stuarts to the illegitimate succession of the
+House of Orange.  And yet, within a few years after the whole
+world held this belief, it was dead; it had shrivelled away in
+the growing scientific light at the dawn of the eighteenth
+century.[318]
+
+[318] For the royal touch, see Becket, Free and Impartial Inquiry
+into the Antiquity and Efficacy of Touching for the King's Evil,
+1772, cited in Pettigrew, p. 128, and elsewhere; also Scoffern,
+Science and Folk Lore, London, 1870, pp. 413 and following; also
+Adams, The Healing Art, London, 1887, vol. i, pp. 53-60; and
+especially Lecky, History of European Morals, vol. i, chapter on
+The Conversion of Rome; also his History of England in the
+Eighteenth Century, vol. i, chap. i.  For curious details
+regarding the mode of conducting the ceremony, see Evelyn's
+Diary; also Lecky, as above. For the royal touch in France, and
+for a claim to its possession in feudal times by certain noble
+families, see Rambaud, Hist. de la Civ. francaise, p. 375.
+
+
+
+
+IX.  THE SCIENTIFIC STRUGGLE FOR ANATOMY.
+
+
+We may now take up the evolution of medical science out of the
+medieval view and its modern survivals.  All through the Middle
+Ages, as we have seen, some few laymen and ecclesiastics here and
+there, braving the edicts of the Church and popular superstition,
+persisted in medical study and practice:  this was especially
+seen at the greater universities, which had become somewhat
+emancipated from ecclesiastical control.  In the thirteenth
+century the University of Paris gave a strong impulse to the
+teaching of medicine, and in that and the following century we
+begin to find the first intelligible reports of medical cases
+since the coming in of Christianity.
+
+In the thirteenth century also the arch-enemy of the papacy, the
+Emperor Frederick II, showed his free-thinking tendencies by
+granting, from time to time, permissions to dissect the human
+subject.  In the centuries following, sundry other monarchs
+timidly followed his example:  thus John of Aragon, in 1391, gave
+to the University of Lerida the privilege of dissecting one dead
+criminal every three years.[319]
+
+[319] For the promotion of medical science and practice,
+especially in the thirteenth century, by the universities, see
+Baas, pp. 222-224.
+
+
+During the fifteenth century and the earlier years of the
+sixteenth the revival of learning, the invention of printing, and
+the great voyages of discovery gave a new impulse to thought, and
+in this medical science shared:  the old theological way of
+thinking was greatly questioned, and gave place in many quarters
+to a different way of looking at the universe.
+
+In the sixteenth century Paracelsus appears--a great genius,
+doing much to develop medicine beyond the reach of sacred and
+scholastic tradition, though still fettered by many
+superstitions.  More and more, in spite of theological dogmas,
+came a renewal of anatomical studies by dissection of the human
+subject.  The practice of the old Alexandrian School was thus
+resumed.  Mundinus, Professor of Medicine at Bologna early in the
+fourteenth century, dared use the human subject occasionally in
+his lectures; but finally came a far greater champion of
+scientific truth, Andreas Vesalius, founder of the modern science
+of anatomy.  The battle waged by this man is one of the glories
+of our race.
+
+From the outset Vesalius proved himself a master.  In the search
+for real knowledge he risked the most terrible dangers, and
+especially the charge of sacrilege, founded upon the teachings of
+the Church for ages.  As we have seen, even such men in the early
+Church as Tertullian and St. Augustine held anatomy in
+abhorrence, and the decretal of Pope Boniface VIII was
+universally construed as forbidding all dissection, and as
+threatening excommunication against those practising it.  Through
+this sacred conventionalism Vesalius broke without fear; despite
+ecclesiastical censure, great opposition in his own profession,
+and popular fury, he studied his science by the only method that
+could give useful results.  No peril daunted him.  To secure
+material for his investigations, he haunted gibbets and
+charnel-houses, braving the fires of the Inquisition and the
+virus of the plague.  First of all men he began to place the
+science of human anatomy on its solid modern foundations--on
+careful examination and observation of the human body:  this was
+his first great sin, and it was soon aggravated by one considered
+even greater.
+
+Perhaps the most unfortunate thing that has ever been done for
+Christianity is the tying it to forms of science which are doomed
+and gradually sinking.  Just as, in the time of Roger Bacon,
+excellent men devoted all their energies to binding Christianity
+to Aristotle; just as, in the time of Reuchlin and Erasmus, they
+insisted on binding Christianity to Thomas Aquinas; so, in the
+time of Vesalius, such men made every effort to link Christianity
+to Galen.  The cry has been the same in all ages; it is the same
+which we hear in this age for curbing scientific studies:  the
+cry for what is called "sound learning."  Whether standing for
+Aristotle against Bacon, or for Aquinas against Erasmus, or for
+Galen against Vesalius, the cry is always for "sound learning":
+the idea always has been that the older studies are "SAFE."
+
+At twenty-eight years of age Vesalius gave to the world his great
+work on human anatomy.  With it ended the old and began the new;
+its researches, by their thoroughness, were a triumph of science;
+its illustrations, by their fidelity, were a triumph of art.
+
+To shield himself, as far as possible, in the battle which he
+foresaw must come, Vesalius dedicated the work to the Emperor
+Charles V, and in his preface he argues for his method, and
+against the parrot repetitions of the mediaeval text-books; he
+also condemns the wretched anatomical preparations and specimens
+made by physicians who utterly refused to advance beyond the
+ancient master.  The parrot-like repeaters of Galen gave battle
+at once.  After the manner of their time their first missiles
+were epithets; and, the vast arsenal of these having been
+exhausted, they began to use sharper weapons--weapons theologic.
+
+In this case there were especial reasons why the theological
+authorities felt called upon to intervene.  First, there was the
+old idea prevailing in the Church that the dissection of the
+human body is forbidden to Christians:  this was used with great
+force against Vesalius, but he at first gained a temporary
+victory; for, a conference of divines having been asked to
+decide whether dissection of the human body is sacrilege, gave a
+decision in the negative.
+
+The reason was simple:  the great Emperor Charles V had made
+Vesalius his physician and could not spare him; but, on the
+accession of Philip II to the throne of Spain and the
+Netherlands, the whole scene changed.  Vesalius now complained
+that in Spain he could not obtain even a human skull for his
+anatomical investigations:  the medical and theological
+reactionists had their way, and to all appearance they have, as a
+rule, had it in Spain ever since.  As late as the last years of
+the eighteenth century an observant English traveller found that
+there were no dissections before medical classes in the Spanish
+universities, and that the doctrine of the circulation of the
+blood was still denied, more than a century and a half after
+Sarpi and Harvey had proved it.
+
+Another theological idea barred the path of Vesalius.  Throughout
+the Middle Ages it was believed that there exists in man a bone
+imponderable, incorruptible, incombustible--the necessary nucleus
+of the resurrection body.  Belief in a resurrection of the
+physical body, despite St. Paul's Epistle to the Corinthians,
+had been incorporated into the formula evolved during the early
+Christian centuries and known as the Apostles' Creed, and was
+held throughout Christendom, "always, everywhere, and by all."
+This hypothetical bone was therefore held in great veneration,
+and many anatomists sought to discover it; but Vesalius,
+revealing so much else, did not find it.  He contented himself
+with saying that he left the question regarding the existence of
+such a bone to the theologians.  He could not lie; he did not
+wish to fight the Inquisition; and thus he fell under suspicion.
+
+The strength of this theological point may be judged from the
+fact that no less eminent a surgeon than Riolan consulted the
+executioner to find out whether, when he burned a criminal, all
+the parts were consumed; and only then was the answer received
+which fatally undermined this superstition.  Yet, in 1689 we find
+it still lingering in France, stimulating opposition in the
+Church to dissection.  Even as late as the eighteenth century,
+Bernouilli having shown that the living human body constantly
+undergoes a series of changes, so that all its particles are
+renewed in a given number of years, so much ill feeling was drawn
+upon him, from theologians, who saw in this statement danger to
+the doctrine of the resurrection of the body, that for the sake
+of peace he struck out his argument on this subject from his
+collected works.[320]
+
+[320] For permissions to dissect the human subject, given here
+and there during the Middle Ages, see Roth's Andreas Vesalius,
+Berlin, 1892, pp. 3, 13 et seq.  For religious antipathies as a
+factor in the persecution of Vesalius, see the biographies by
+Boerhaave and Albinos, 1725; Burggraeve's Etudes, 1841; also
+Haeser, Kingsley, and the latest and most thorough of all, Roth,
+as above.  Even Goethals, despite the timidity natural to a city
+librarian in a town like Brussels, in which clerical power is
+strong and relentless, feels obliged to confess that there was a
+certain admixture of religious hatred in the treatment of
+Vesalius.  See his Notice Biographique sur Andre Vesale.  For the
+resurrection bones, see Roth, as above, pp. 154, 155, and notes.
+For Vesalius, see especially Portal, Hist. de l'Anatomie et de la
+Chirurgie, Paris, 1770, tome i, p. 407.  For neglect of
+dissection and opposition to Harvey's discovery in Spain, see
+Townsend's Travels, edition of 1792, cited in Buckle, History of
+Civilization in England, vol. ii, pp. 74, 75.  Also Henry Morley,
+in his Clement Marot, and Other Essays.  For Bernouilli and his
+trouble with the theologians, see Wolf, Biographien zur
+Culturgeschichte der Schweiz, vol. ii, p. 95.  How different
+Mundinus's practice of dissection was from that of Vesalius may
+be seen by Cuvier's careful statement that the entire number of
+dissections by the former was three; the usual statement is that
+there were but two.  See Cuvier, Hist. des Sci. Nat., tome ii, p.
+7; also Sprengel, Fredault, Hallam, and Littre.  Also Whewell,
+Hist. of the Inductive Sciences, vol. iii, p. 328; also, for a
+very full statement regarding the agency of Mundinus in the
+progress of Anatomy, see Portal, vol. i, pp. 209-216.
+
+
+Still other encroachments upon the theological view were made by
+the new school of anatomists, and especially by Vesalius.  During
+the Middle Ages there had been developed various theological
+doctrines regarding the human body; these were based upon
+arguments showing what the body OUGHT TO BE, and naturally,
+when anatomical science showed what it IS, these doctrines fell.
+An example of such popular theological reasoning is seen in a
+widespread belief of the twelfth century, that, during the year
+in which the cross of Christ was captured by Saladin, children,
+instead of having thirty or thirty-two teeth as before, had
+twenty or twenty-two.  So, too, in Vesalius's time another
+doctrine of this sort was dominant:  it had long been held that
+Eve, having been made by the Almighty from a rib taken out of
+Adam's side, there must be one rib fewer on one side of every man
+than on the other.  This creation of Eve was a favourite subject
+with sculptors and painters, from Giotto, who carved it upon his
+beautiful Campanile at Florence, to the illuminators of missals,
+and even to those who illustrated Bibles and religious books in
+the first years after the invention of printing; but Vesalius
+and the anatomists who followed him put an end among thoughtful
+men to this belief in the missing rib, and in doing this dealt a
+blow at much else in the sacred theory.  Naturally, all these
+considerations brought the forces of ecclesiasticism against the
+innovators in anatomy.[321]
+
+[321] As to the supposed change in the number of teeth, see the
+Gesta Philippi Augusti Francorum Regis, . . . descripta a
+magistro Rigardo, 1219, edited by Father Francois Duchesne, in
+Histories Francorum Scriptores, tom. v, Paris, 1649, p. 24.  For
+representations of Adam created by the Almighty out of a pile of
+dust, and of Eve created from a rib of Adam, see the earlier
+illustrations in the Nuremberg Chronicle.  As to the relation of
+anatomy to theology as regards to Adam's rib, see Roth, pp. 154,
+155.
+
+
+A new weapon was now forged:  Vesalius was charged with
+dissecting a living man, and, either from direct persecution, as
+the great majority of authors assert, or from indirect
+influences, as the recent apologists for Philip II admit, he
+became a wanderer:  on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, apparently
+undertaken to atone for his sin, he was shipwrecked, and in the
+prime of his life and strength he was lost to the world.
+
+And yet not lost.  In this century a great painter has again
+given him to us.  By the magic of Hamann's pencil Vesalius again
+stands on earth, and we look once more into his cell.  Its
+windows and doors, bolted and barred within, betoken the storm of
+bigotry which rages without; the crucifix, toward which he turns
+his eyes, symbolizes the spirit in which he labours; the corpse
+of the plague-stricken beneath his hand ceases to be repulsive;
+his very soul seems to send forth rays from the canvas, which
+strengthen us for the good fight in this age.[322]
+
+[322] The original painting of Vesalius at work in his cell, by
+Hamann, is now at Cornell University.
+
+
+His death was hastened, if not caused, by men who conscientiously
+supposed that he was injuring religion:  his poor, blind foes
+aided in destroying one of religion's greatest apostles.  What
+was his influence on religion?   He substituted, for the
+repetition of worn-out theories, a conscientious and reverent
+search into the works of the great Power giving life to the
+universe; he substituted, for representations of the human
+structure pitiful and unreal, representations revealing truths
+most helpful to the whole human race.
+
+The death of this champion seems to have virtually ended the
+contest.  Licenses to dissect soon began to be given by sundry
+popes to universities, and were renewed at intervals of from
+three to four years, until the Reformation set in motion trains
+of thought which did much to release science from this
+yoke.[323]
+
+[323] For a curious example of weapons drawn from Galen and used
+against Vesalius, see Lewes, Life of Goethe, p. 343, note.  For
+proofs that I have not overestimated Vesalius, see Portal, ubi
+supra. Portal speaks of him as "le genie le plus droit qu'eut
+l'Europe"; and again, "Vesale me parait un des plus grands hommes
+qui ait existe."  For the charge that anatomists dissected living
+men--against men of science before Vesalius's time--see Littre's
+chapter on Anatomy.  For the increased liberty given anatomy by
+the Reformation, see Roth's Vesalius, p. 33.
+
+
+
+
+X.  THEOLOGICAL OPPOSITION TO INOCULATION, VACCINATION,
+AND THE USE OF ANAESTHETICS.
+
+I hasten now to one of the most singular struggles of medical
+science during modern times.  Early in the last century Boyer
+presented inoculation as a preventive of smallpox in France, and
+thoughtful physicians in England, inspired by Lady Montagu and
+Maitland, followed his example.  Ultra-conservatives in medicine
+took fright at once on both sides of the Channel, and theology
+was soon finding profound reasons against the new practice.  The
+French theologians of the Sorbonne solemnly condemned it; the
+English theologians were most loudly represented by the Rev.
+Edward Massey, who in 1772 preached and published a sermon
+entitled The Dangerous and Sinful Practice of Inoculation.  In
+this he declared that Job's distemper was probably confluent
+smallpox; that he had been inoculated doubtless by the devil;
+that diseases are sent by Providence for the punishment of sin;
+and that the proposed attempt to prevent them is "a diabolical
+operation."  Not less vigorous was the sermon of the Rev. Mr.
+Delafaye, entitled Inoculation an Indefensible Practice.  This
+struggle went on for thirty years.  It is a pleasure to note some
+churchmen--and among them Madox, Bishop of Worcester--giving
+battle on the side of right reason; but as late as 1753 we have
+a noted rector at Canterbury denouncing inoculation from his
+pulpit in the primatial city, and many of his brethren following
+his example.
+
+The same opposition was vigorous in Protestant Scotland.  A large
+body of ministers joined in denouncing the new practice as
+"flying in the face of Providence," and "endeavouring to baffle a
+Divine judgment."
+
+On our own side of the ocean, also, this question had to be
+fought out.  About the year 1721 Dr. Zabdiel Boylston, a
+physician in Boston, made an experiment in inoculation, one of
+his first subjects being his own son.  He at once encountered
+bitter hostility, so that the selectmen of the city forbade him
+to repeat the experiment.  Foremost among his opponents was Dr.
+Douglas, a Scotch physician, supported by the medical profession
+and the newspapers.  The violence of the opposing party knew no
+bounds; they insisted that inoculation was "poisoning," and they
+urged the authorities to try Dr. Boylston for murder.  Having
+thus settled his case for this world, they proceeded to settle it
+for the next, insisting that "for a man to infect a family in the
+morning with smallpox and to pray to God in the evening against
+the disease is blasphemy"; that the smallpox is "a judgment of
+God on the sins of the people," and that "to avert it is but to
+provoke him more"; that inoculation is "an encroachment on the
+prerogatives of Jehovah, whose right it is to wound and smite."
+Among the mass of scriptural texts most remote from any possible
+bearing on the subject one was employed which was equally cogent
+against any use of healing means in any disease--the words of
+Hosea:  "He hath torn, and he will heal us; he hath smitten, and
+he will bind us up."
+
+So bitter was this opposition that Dr. Boylston's life was in
+danger; it was considered unsafe for him to be out of his house
+in the evening; a lighted grenade was even thrown into the house
+of Cotton Mather, who had favoured the new practice, and had
+sheltered another clergyman who had submitted himself to it.
+
+To the honour of the Puritan clergy of New England, it should be
+said that many of them were Boylston's strongest supporters.
+Increase and Cotton Mather had been among the first to move in
+favour of inoculation, the latter having called Boylston's
+attention to it; and at the very crisis of affairs six of the
+leading clergymen of Boston threw their influence on Boylston's
+side and shared the obloquy brought upon him.  Although the
+gainsayers were not slow to fling into the faces of the Mathers
+their action regarding witchcraft, urging that their credulity in
+that matter argued credulity in this, they persevered, and among
+the many services rendered by the clergymen of New England to
+their country this ought certainly to be remembered; for these
+men had to withstand, shoulder to shoulder with Boylston and
+Benjamin Franklin, the same weapons which were hurled at the
+supporters of inoculation in Europe--charges of "unfaithfulness
+to the revealed law of God."
+
+The facts were soon very strong against the gainsayers:  within a
+year or two after the first experiment nearly three hundred
+persons had been inoculated by Boylston in Boston and
+neighbouring towns, and out of these only six had died; whereas,
+during the same period, out of nearly six thousand persons who
+had taken smallpox naturally, and had received only the usual
+medical treatment, nearly one thousand had died.  Yet even here
+the gainsayers did not despair, and, when obliged to confess the
+success of inoculation, they simply fell back upon a new
+argument, and answered:  "It was good that Satan should be
+dispossessed of his habitation which he had taken up in men in
+our Lord's day, but it was not lawful that the children of the
+Pharisees should cast him out by the help of Beelzebub.  We must
+always have an eye to the matter of what we do as well as the
+result, if we intend to keep a good conscience toward God."  But
+the facts were too strong; the new practice made its way in the
+New World as in the Old, though bitter opposition continued, and
+in no small degree on vague scriptural grounds, for more than
+twenty years longer.[324]
+
+[324] For the general subject, see Sprengel, Histoire de la
+Medecine, vol. vi, pp. 39-80.  For the opposition of the Paris
+faculty of Theology to inoculation, see the Journal de Barbier,
+vol. vi, p. 294; also the Correspondance de Grimm et Diderot,
+vol. iii, pp. 259 et seq.  For bitter denunciations of inoculation
+by the English clergy, and for the noble stand against them by
+Madox, see Baron, Life of Jenner, vol. i, pp. 231, 232, and vol.
+ii, pp. 39, 40.  For the strenuous opposition of the same clergy,
+see Weld, History of the Royal Society, vol. i, p. 464, note;
+also, for its comical side, see Nichol's Literary Illustrations,
+vol. v, p. 800.  For the same matter in Scotland, see Lecky's
+History of the Eighteenth Century, vol. ii, p. 83.  For New
+England, see Green, History of Medicine in Massachusetts, Boston,
+1881, pp. 58 et seq; also chapter x of the Memorial History of
+Boston, by the same author and O. W. Holmes.  For a letter of Dr.
+Franklin's, see Massachusetts Historical Collections, second
+series, vol. vii, p. 17.  Several most curious publications
+issued during the heat of the inoculation controversy have been
+kindly placed in my hands by the librarians of Harvard College
+and of the Massachusetts Historical Society, among them A Reply
+to Increase Mather, by John Williams, Boston, printed by J.
+Franklin, 1721, from which the above scriptural arguments are
+cited.  For the terrible virulence of the smallpox in New England
+up to the introduction of the inoculation, see McMaster, History
+of the People of the United States, first edition, vol. i, p. 30.
+
+
+The steady evolution of scientific medicine brings us next to
+Jenner's discovery of vaccination.  Here, too, sundry vague
+survivals of theological ideas caused many of the clergy to side
+with retrograde physicians.  Perhaps the most virulent of
+Jenner's enemies was one of his professional brethren, Dr.
+Moseley, who placed on the title-page of his book, Lues Bovilla,
+the motto, referring to Jenner and his followers, "Father,
+forgive them, for they know not what they do":  this book of Dr.
+Moseley was especially indorsed by the Bishop of Dromore.  In
+1798 an Anti-vaccination Society was formed by physicians and
+clergymen, who called on the people of Boston to suppress
+vaccination, as "bidding defiance to Heaven itself, even to the
+will of God," and declared that "the law of God prohibits the
+practice."  As late as 1803 the Rev. Dr. Ramsden thundered
+against vaccination in a sermon before the University of
+Cambridge, mingling texts of Scripture with calumnies against
+Jenner; but Plumptre and the Rev. Rowland Hill in England,
+Waterhouse in America, Thouret in France, Sacco in Italy, and a
+host of other good men and true, pressed forward, and at last
+science, humanity, and right reason gained the victory.  Most
+striking results quickly followed.  The diminution in the number
+of deaths from the terrible scourge was amazing.  In Berlin,
+during the eight years following 1783, over four thousand
+children died of the smallpox; while during the eight years
+following 1814, after vaccination had been largely adopted, out
+of a larger number of deaths there were but five hundred and
+thirty-five from this disease.  In Wurtemberg, during the
+twenty-four years following 1772, one in thirteen of all the
+children died of smallpox, while during the eleven years after
+1822 there died of it only one in sixteen hundred.  In
+Copenhagen, during twelve years before the introduction of
+vaccination, fifty-five hundred persons died of smallpox, and
+during the sixteen years after its introduction only one hundred
+and fifty-eight persons died of it throughout all Denmark.  In
+Vienna, where the average yearly mortality from this disease had
+been over eight hundred, it was steadily and rapidly reduced,
+until in 1803 it had fallen to less than thirty; and in London,
+formerly so afflicted by this scourge, out of all her inhabitants
+there died of it in 1890 but one.  As to the world at large, the
+result is summed up by one of the most honoured English
+physicians of our time, in the declaration that "Jenner has
+saved, is now saving, and will continue to save in all coming
+ages, more lives in one generation than were destroyed in all the
+wars of Napoleon."
+
+It will have been noticed by those who have read this history
+thus far that the record of the Church generally was far more
+honourable in this struggle than in many which preceded it:  the
+reason is not difficult to find; the decline of theology enured
+to the advantage of religion, and religion gave powerful aid to
+science.
+
+Yet there have remained some survivals both in Protestantism and
+in Catholicism which may be regarded with curiosity.  A small
+body of perversely ingenious minds in the medical profession in
+England have found a few ardent allies among the less
+intellectual clergy.  The Rev. Mr. Rothery and the Rev. Mr.
+Allen, of the Primitive Methodists, have for sundry vague
+theological reasons especially distinguished themselves by
+opposition to compulsory vaccination; but it is only just to say
+that the great body of the English clergy have for a long time
+taken the better view.
+
+Far more painful has been the recent history of the other great
+branch of the Christian Church--a history developed where it
+might have been least expected:  the recent annals of the world
+hardly present a more striking antithesis between Religion and
+Theology.
+
+On the religious side few things in the history of the Roman
+Church have been more beautiful than the conduct of its clergy in
+Canada during the great outbreak of ship-fever among immigrants
+at Montreal about the middle of the present century.  Day and
+night the Catholic priesthood of that city ministered fearlessly
+to those victims of sanitary ignorance; fear of suffering and
+death could not drive these ministers from their work; they laid
+down their lives cheerfully while carrying comfort to the poorest
+and most ignorant of our kind:  such was the record of their
+religion.  But in 1885 a record was made by their theology.  In
+that year the smallpox broke out with great virulence in
+Montreal.  The Protestant population escaped almost entirely by
+vaccination; but multitudes of their Catholic fellow-citizens,
+under some vague survival of the old orthodox ideas, refused
+vaccination; and suffered fearfully.  When at last the plague
+became so serious that travel and trade fell off greatly and
+quarantine began to be established in neighbouring cities, an
+effort was made to enforce compulsory vaccination.  The result
+was, that large numbers of the Catholic working population
+resisted and even threatened bloodshed.  The clergy at first
+tolerated and even encouraged this conduct:  the Abbe
+Filiatrault, priest of St. James's Church, declared in a sermon
+that, "if we are afflicted with smallpox, it is because we had a
+carnival last winter, feasting the flesh, which has offended the
+Lord; it is to punish our pride that God has sent us smallpox."
+The clerical press went further:  the Etendard exhorted the
+faithful to take up arms rather than submit to vaccination, and
+at least one of the secular papers was forced to pander to the
+same sentiment. The Board of Health struggled against this
+superstition, and addressed a circular to the Catholic clergy,
+imploring them to recommend vaccination; but, though two or three
+complied with this request, the great majority were either silent
+or openly hostile.  The Oblate Fathers, whose church was situated
+in the very heart of the infected district, continued to denounce
+vaccination; the faithful were exhorted to rely on devotional
+exercises of various sorts; under the sanction of the hierarchy
+a great procession was ordered with a solemn appeal to the
+Virgin, and the use of the rosary was carefully specified.
+
+Meantime, the disease, which had nearly died out among the
+Protestants, raged with ever-increasing virulence among the
+Catholics; and, the truth becoming more and more clear, even to
+the most devout, proper measures were at last enforced and the
+plague was stayed, though not until there had been a fearful
+waste of life among these simple-hearted believers, and germs of
+scepticism planted in the hearts of their children which will
+bear fruit for generations to come.[325]
+
+[325] For the opposition of concientious men to vaccination in
+England, see Baron, Life of Jenner, as above; also vol. ii, p.
+43; also Dun's Life of Simpson, London, 1873, pp. 248, 249; also
+Works of Sir J. Y. Simpson, vol. ii.  For a multitude of
+statistics ahowing the diminution of smallpox after the
+introduction of vaccination, see Russell, p. 380.  For the
+striking record in London for 1890, see an article in the
+Edinburgh review for January, 1891.  The general statement
+referred to was made in a speech some years since by Sir Spencer
+Wells.  For recent scattered cases of feeble opposition to
+vaccination by Protestant ministers, see William White, The Great
+Delusion, London, 1885, passim.  For opposition of the Roman
+Catholic clergy and peasantry in Canada to vaccination during the
+smallpox plague of 1885, see the English, Canadian, and American
+newspapers, but especially the very temperate and accurate
+correspondence in the New York Evening Post during September and
+October of that year.
+
+
+Another class of cases in which the theologic spirit has allied
+itself with the retrograde party in medical science is found in
+the history of certain remedial agents; and first may be named
+cocaine.  As early as the middle of the sixteenth century the
+value of coca had been discovered in South America; the natives
+of Peru prized it highly, and two eminent Jesuits, Joseph Acosta
+and Antonio Julian, were converted to this view.  But the
+conservative spirit in the Church was too strong; in 1567 the
+Second Council of Lima, consisting of bishops from all parts of
+South America, condemned it, and two years later came a royal
+decree declaring that "the notions entertained by the natives
+regarding it are an illusion of the devil."
+
+As a pendant to this singular mistake on the part of the older
+Church came another committed by many Protestants.  In the early
+years of the seventeenth century the Jesuit missionaries in South
+America learned from the natives the value of the so-called
+Peruvian bark in the treatment of ague; and in 1638, the
+Countess of Cinchon, Regent of Peru, having derived great benefit
+from the new remedy, it was introduced into Europe.  Although its
+alkaloid, quinine, is perhaps the nearest approach to a medical
+specific, and has diminished the death rate in certain regions to
+an amazing extent, its introduction was bitterly opposed by many
+conservative members of the medical profession, and in this
+opposition large numbers of ultra-Protestants joined, out of
+hostility to the Roman Church.  In the heat of sectarian feeling
+the new remedy was stigmatized as "an invention of the devil";
+and so strong was this opposition that it was not introduced into
+England until 1653, and even then its use was long held back,
+owing mainly to anti-Catholic feeling.
+
+What the theological method on the ultra-Protestant side could do
+to help the world at this very time is seen in the fact that,
+while this struggle was going on, Hoffmann was attempting to give
+a scientific theory of the action of the devil in causing Job's
+boils.  This effort at a quasi-scientific explanation which
+should satisfy the theological spirit, comical as it at first
+seems, is really worthy of serious notice, because it must be
+considered as the beginning of that inevitable effort at
+compromise which we see in the history of every science when it
+begins to appear triumphant.[326]
+
+[326] For the opposition of the South American Church authorities
+to the introduction of coca, etc., see Martindale, Coca, Cocaine,
+and its Salts, London, 1886, p. 7.  As to theological and
+sectarian resistance to quinine, see Russell, pp. 194, 253; also
+Eccles; also Meryon, History of Medicine, London, 1861, vol. i,
+p. 74, note.  For the great decrease in deaths by fever after the
+use of Peruvian bark began, see statistical tables given in
+Russell, p. 252; and for Hoffmann's attempt at compromise, ibid.,
+p. 294.
+
+
+But I pass to a typical conflict in our days, and in a Protestant
+country.  In 1847, James Young Simpson, a Scotch physician, who
+afterward rose to the highest eminence in his profession, having
+advocated the use of anaesthetics in obstetrical cases, was
+immediately met by a storm of opposition.  This hostility flowed
+from an ancient and time-honoured belief in Scotland.  As far
+back as the year 1591, Eufame Macalyane, a lady of rank, being
+charged with seeking the aid of Agnes Sampson for the relief of
+pain at the time of the birth of her two sons, was burned alive
+on the Castle Hill of Edinburgh; and this old theological view
+persisted even to the middle of the nineteenth century.  From
+pulpit after pulpit Simpson's use of chloroform was denounced as
+impious and contrary to Holy Writ; texts were cited abundantly,
+the ordinary declaration being that to use chloroform was "to
+avoid one part of the primeval curse on woman."  Simpson wrote
+pamphlet after pamphlet to defend the blessing which he brought
+into use; but he seemed about to be overcome, when he seized a
+new weapon, probably the most absurd by which a great cause was
+ever won:  "My opponents forget," he said, "the twenty-first
+verse of the second chapter of Genesis; it is the record of the
+first surgical operation ever performed, and that text proves
+that the Maker of the universe, before he took the rib from
+Adam's side for the creation of Eve, caused a deep sleep to fall
+upon Adam."  This was a stunning blow, but it did not entirely
+kill the opposition; they had strength left to maintain that the
+"deep sleep of Adam took place before the introduction of pain
+into the world--in a state of innocence."  But now a new champion
+intervened--Thomas Chalmers:  with a few pungent arguments from
+his pulpit he scattered the enemy forever, and the greatest
+battle of science against suffering was won.  This victory was
+won not less for religion.  Wisely did those who raised the
+monument at Boston to one of the discoverers of anaesthetics
+inscribe upon its pedestal the words from our sacred text, "This
+also cometh forth from the Lord of hosts, which is wonderful in
+counsel, and excellent in working."[327]
+
+[327] For the case of Eufame Macalyane, se Dalyell, Darker
+Superstitions of Scotland, pp. 130, 133. For the contest of
+Simpson with Scotch ecclesiatical authorities, see Duns, Life of
+Sir J. Y. Simpson, London, 1873, pp. 215-222, and 256-260.
+
+
+
+
+XI.  FINAL BREAKING AWAY OF THE THEOLOGICAL THEORY IN MEDICINE.
+
+
+While this development of history was going on, the central idea
+on which the whole theologic view rested--the idea of diseases as
+resulting from the wrath of God or malice of Satan--was steadily
+weakened; and, out of the many things which show this, one may
+be selected as indicating the drift of thought among theologians
+themselves.
+
+Toward the end of the eighteenth century the most eminent divines
+of the American branch of the Anglican Church framed their Book
+of Common Prayer.  Abounding as it does in evidences of their
+wisdom and piety, few things are more noteworthy than a change
+made in the exhortation to the faithful to present themselves at
+the communion.  While, in the old form laid down in the English
+Prayer Book, the minister was required to warn his flock not "to
+kindle God's wrath" or "provoke him to plague us with divers
+diseases and sundry kinds of death," from the American form all
+this and more of similar import in various services was left out.
+
+Since that day progress in medical science has been rapid indeed,
+and at no period more so than during the last half of the
+nineteenth century.
+
+The theological view of disease has steadily faded, and the
+theological hold upon medical education has been almost entirely
+relaxed.  In three great fields, especially, discoveries have
+been made which have done much to disperse the atmosphere of
+miracle. First, there has come knowledge regarding the relation
+between imagination and medicine, which, though still defective,
+is of great importance.  This relation has been noted during the
+whole history of the science.  When the soldiers of the Prince of
+Orange, at the siege of Breda in 1625, were dying of scurvy by
+scores, he sent to the physicians "two or three small vials
+filled with a decoction of camomile, wormwood, and camphor, gave
+out that it was a very rare and precious medicine--a medicine of
+such virtue that two or three drops sufficed to impregnate a
+gallon of water, and that it had been obtained from the East with
+great difficulty and danger."  This statement, made with much
+solemnity, deeply impressed the soldiers; they took the medicine
+eagerly, and great numbers recovered rapidly.  Again, two
+centuries later, young Humphry Davy, being employed to apply the
+bulb of the thermometer to the tongues of certain patients at
+Bristol after they had inhaled various gases as remedies for
+disease, and finding that the patients supposed this application
+of the thermometer-bulb was the cure, finally wrought cures by
+this application alone, without any use of the gases whatever.
+Innumerable cases of this sort have thrown a flood of light upon
+such cures as those wrought by Prince Hohenlohe, by the "metallic
+tractors," and by a multitude of other agencies temporarily in
+vogue, but, above all, upon the miraculous cures which in past
+ages have been so frequent and of which a few survive.
+
+The second department is that of hypnotism.  Within the last
+half-century many scattered indications have been collected and
+supplemented by thoughtful, patient investigators of genius, and
+especially by Braid in England and Charcot in France.  Here, too,
+great inroads have been made upon the province hitherto sacred to
+miracle, and in 1888 the cathedral preacher, Steigenberger, of
+Augsburg, sounded an alarm.  He declared his fears "lest
+accredited Church miracles lose their hold upon the public,"
+denounced hypnotism as a doctrine of demons, and ended with the
+singular argument that, inasmuch as hypnotism is avowedly
+incapable of explaining all the wonders of history, it is idle to
+consider it at all.  But investigations in hypnotism still go on,
+and may do much in the twentieth century to carry the world yet
+further from the realm of the miraculous.
+
+In a third field science has won a striking series of victories.
+Bacteriology, beginning in the researches of Leeuwenhoek in the
+seventeenth century, continued by O. F. Muller in the eighteenth,
+and developed or applied with wonderful skill by Ehrenberg, Cohn,
+Lister, Pasteur, Koch, Billings, Bering, and their compeers in
+the nineteenth, has explained the origin and proposed the
+prevention or cure of various diseases widely prevailing, which
+until recently have been generally held to be "inscrutable
+providences."  Finally, the closer study of psychology,especially
+in its relations to folklore, has revealed processes involved in
+the development of myths and legends:  the phenomena of
+"expectant attention," the tendency to marvel-mongering, and the
+feeling of "joy in believing."
+
+In summing up the history of this long struggle between science
+and theology, two main facts are to be noted:  First, that in
+proportion as the world approached the "ages of faith" it receded
+from ascertained truth, and in proportion as the world has
+receded from the "ages of faith" it has approached ascertained
+truth; secondly, that, in proportion as the grasp of theology
+Upon education tightened, medicine declined, and in proportion as
+that grasp has relaxed, medicine has been developed.
+
+The world is hardly beyond the beginning of medical discoveries,
+yet they have already taken from theology what was formerly its
+strongest province--sweeping away from this vast field of human
+effort that belief in miracles which for more than twenty
+centuries has been the main stumblingblock in the path of
+medicine; and in doing this they have cleared higher paths not
+only for science, but for religion.[328]
+
+[328] For the rescue of medical education from the control of
+theology, especially in France, see Rambaud, La Civilisation
+Contemporaine en France, pp. 682, 683.  For miraculous cures
+wrought by imagination, see Tuke, Influence of Mind on Body, vol.
+ii.  For opposition to the scientific study of hypnotism, see
+Hypnotismus und Wunder: ein Vortrag, mit Weiterungen, von Max
+Steigenberger, Domprediger, Augsburg, 1888, reviewed in Science,
+Feb. 15, 1889, p. 127.  For a recent statement regarding the
+development of studies in hypnotism, see Liegeois, De la
+Suggestion et du Somnambulisme dans leurs rapports avec la
+Jurisprudence, Paris, 1889, chap. ii.  As to joy in believing and
+exaggerating marvels, see in the London Graphic for January 2,
+1892, an account of Hindu jugglers by "Professor" Hofmann,
+himself an expert conjurer.  He shows that the Hindu performances
+have been grossly and persistently exaggerated in the accounts of
+travellers; that they are easily seen through, and greatly
+inferior to the jugglers' tricks seen every day in European
+capitals.  The eminent Prof. De Gubernatis, who also had
+witnessed the Hindu performances, assured the present writer that
+the current accounts of them were monstrously exaggerated.  As to
+the miraculous in general, the famous Essay of Hume holds a most
+important place in the older literature of the subject; but, for
+perhaps the most remarkable of all discussions of it, see Conyers
+Middleton, D. D., A Free Inquiry into the Miraculous Powers which
+are supposed to have subsisted in the Christian Church, London,
+1749.  For probably the most judicially fair discussion, see
+Lecky, History of European Morals, vol. i, chap. iii; also his
+Rationalism in Europe, vol. i, chaps. i and ii; and for perhaps
+the boldest and most suggestive of recent statements, see Max
+Muller, Physical Religion, being the Gifford Lectures before the
+University of Glasgow for 1890, London, 1891, lecture xiv.  See
+also, for very cogent statements and arguments, Matthew Arnold's
+Literature and Dogma, especially chap. v, and, for a recent
+utterance of great clearness and force, Prof. Osler's Address
+before the Johns Hopkins University, given in Science for March
+27, 1891.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+FROM FETICH TO HYGIENE.
+
+I.  THE THEOLOGICAL VIEW OF EPIDEMICS AND SANITATION.
+
+
+A very striking feature in recorded history has been the
+recurrence of great pestilences.  Various indications in ancient
+times show their frequency, while the famous description of the
+plague of Athens given by Thucydides, and the discussion of it by
+Lucretius, exemplify their severity.  In the Middle Ages they
+raged from time to time throughout Europe:  such plagues as the
+Black Death and the sweating sickness swept off vast multitudes,
+the best authorities estimating that of the former, at the middle
+of the fourteenth century, more than half the population of
+England died, and that twenty-five millions of people perished in
+various parts of Europe.  In 1552 sixty-seven thousand patients
+died of the plague at Paris alone, and in 1580 more than twenty
+thousand.  The great plague in England and other parts of Europe
+in the seventeenth century was also fearful, and that which swept
+the south of Europe in the early part of the eighteenth century,
+as well as the invasions by the cholera at various times during
+the nineteenth, while less terrible than those of former years,
+have left a deep impress upon the imaginations of men.
+
+From the earliest records we find such pestilences attributed to
+the wrath or malice of unseen powers.  This had been the
+prevailing view even in the most cultured ages before the
+establishment of Christianity:  in Greece and Rome especially,
+plagues of various sorts were attributed to the wrath of the
+gods; in Judea, the scriptural records of various plagues sent
+upon the earth by the Divine fiat as a punishment for sin show
+the continuance of this mode of thought.  Among many examples and
+intimations of this in our sacred literature, we have the
+epidemic which carried off fourteen thousand seven hundred of the
+children of Israel, and which was only stayed by the prayers and
+offerings of Aaron, the high priest; the destruction of seventy
+thousand men in the pestilence by which King David was punished
+for the numbering of Israel, and which was only stopped when the
+wrath of Jahveh was averted by burnt-offerings; the plague
+threatened by the prophet Zechariah, and that delineated in the
+Apocalypse.  From these sources this current of ideas was poured
+into the early Christian Church, and hence it has been that
+during nearly twenty centuries since the rise of Christianity,
+and down to a period within living memory, at the appearance of
+any pestilence the Church authorities, instead of devising
+sanitary measures, have very generally preached the necessity of
+immediate atonement for offences against the Almighty.
+
+This view of the early Church was enriched greatly by a new
+development of theological thought regarding the powers of Satan
+and evil angels, the declaration of St. Paul that the gods of
+antiquity were devils being cited as its sufficient
+warrant.[329]
+
+[329] For plague during the Peloponnesian war, see Thucydides,
+vol. ii, pp.47-55, and vol. iii, p. 87.  For a general statement
+regarding this and other plagues in ancient times, see Lucretius,
+vol. vi, pp. 1090 et seq.; and for a translation, see vol. i, p.
+179, in Munro's edition of 1886.  For early views of sanitary
+science in Greece and Rome, see Forster's Inquiry, in The
+Pamphleteer, vol. xxiv, p. 404.  For the Greek view of the
+interference of the gods in disease, especially in pestilence,
+see Grote's History of Greece, vol. i, pp. 251, 485, and vol. vi,
+p. 213; see also Herodotus, lib. iii, c. xxxviii, and elsewhere.
+For the Hebrew view of the same interference by the Almighty, see
+especially Numbers xi, 4-34; also xvi, 49; I Samuel xxiv; also
+Psalm cvi, 29; also the well-known texts in Zechariah and
+Revelation. For St. Paul's declaration that the gods of the
+heathen are devils, see I Cor. x, 20.  As to the earlier origin
+of the plague in Egypt, see Haeser, 'Lehrbuch der Geschichte der
+Medicin und der epidemischen Krankheiten, Jena, 1875-'82, vol.
+iii, pp. 15 et seq.
+
+
+Moreover, comets, falling stars, and earthquakes were thought,
+upon scriptural authority, to be "signs and wonders"-- evidences
+of the Divine wrath, heralds of fearful visitations; and this
+belief, acting powerfully upon the minds of millions, did much to
+create a panic-terror sure to increase epidemic disease wherever
+it broke forth.
+
+The main cause of this immense sacrifice of life is now known to
+have been the want of hygienic precaution, both in the Eastern
+centres, where various plagues were developed, and in the
+European towns through which they spread.  And here certain
+theological reasonings came in to resist the evolution of a
+proper sanitary theory.  Out of the Orient had been poured into
+the thinking of western Europe the theological idea that the
+abasement of man adds to the glory of God; that indignity to the
+body may secure salvation to the soul; hence, that cleanliness
+betokens pride and filthiness humility.  Living in filth was
+regarded by great numbers of holy men, who set an example to the
+Church and to society, as an evidence of sanctity.  St. Jerome
+and the Breviary of the Roman Church dwell with unction on the
+fact that St. Hilarion lived his whole life long in utter
+physical uncleanliness; St. Athanasius glorifies St. Anthony
+because he had never washed his feet; St. Abraham's most striking
+evidence of holiness was that for fifty years he washed neither
+his hands nor his feet; St. Sylvia never washed any part of her
+body save her fingers; St. Euphraxia belonged to a convent in
+which the nuns religiously abstained from bathing.  St. Mary of
+Egypt was eminent for filthiness; St. Simnon Stylites was in this
+respect unspeakable--the least that can be said is, that he lived
+in ordure and stench intolerable to his visitors.  The Lives of
+the Saints dwell with complacency on the statement that, when
+sundry Eastern monks showed a disposition to wash themselves, the
+Almighty manifested his displeasure by drying up a neighbouring
+stream until the bath which it had supplied was destroyed.
+
+The religious world was far indeed from the inspired utterance
+attributed to John Wesley, that "cleanliness is near akin to
+godliness."  For century after century the idea prevailed that
+filthiness was akin to holiness; and, while we may well believe
+that the devotion of the clergy to the sick was one cause why,
+during the greater plagues, they lost so large a proportion of
+their numbers, we can not escape the conclusion that their want
+of cleanliness had much to do with it.  In France, during the
+fourteenth century, Guy de Chauliac, the great physician of his
+time, noted particularly that certain Carmelite monks suffered
+especially from pestilence, and that they were especially filthy.
+During the Black Death no less than nine hundred Carthusian monks
+fell victims in one group of buildings.
+
+Naturally, such an example set by the venerated leaders of
+thought exercised great influence throughout society, and all the
+more because it justified the carelessness and sloth to which
+ordinary humanity is prone.  In the principal towns of Europe, as
+well as in the country at large, down to a recent period, the
+most ordinary sanitary precautions were neglected, and
+pestilences continued to be attributed to the wrath of God or the
+malice of Satan.  As to the wrath of God, a new and powerful
+impulse was given to this belief in the Church toward the end of
+the sixth century by St. Gregory the Great.  In 590, when he was
+elected Pope, the city of Rome was suffering from a dreadful
+pestilence:  the people were dying by thousands; out of one
+procession imploring the mercy of Heaven no less than eighty
+persons died within an hour:  what the heathen in an earlier
+epoch had attributed to Apollo was now attributed to Jehovah, and
+chroniclers tell us that fiery darts were seen flung from heaven
+into the devoted city.  But finally, in the midst of all this
+horror, Gregory, at the head of a penitential procession, saw
+hovering over the mausoleum of Hadrian the figure of the
+archangel Michael, who was just sheathing a flaming sword, while
+three angels were heard chanting the Regina Coeli.  The legend
+continues that the Pope immediately broke forth into hallelujahs
+for this sign that the plague was stayed, and, as it shortly
+afterward became less severe, a chapel was built at the summit of
+the mausoleum and dedicated to St. Michael; still later, above
+the whole was erected the colossal statue of the archangel
+sheathing his sword, which still stands to perpetuate the legend.
+Thus the greatest of Rome's ancient funeral monuments was made to
+bear testimony to this medieval belief; the mausoleum of Hadrian
+became the castle of St. Angelo.  A legend like this, claiming
+to date from the greatest of the early popes, and vouched for by
+such an imposing monument, had undoubtedly a marked effect upon
+the dominant theology throughout Europe, which was constantly
+developing a great body of thought regarding the agencies by
+which the Divine wrath might be averted.
+
+First among these agencies, naturally, were evidences of
+devotion, especially gifts of land, money, or privileges to
+churches, monasteries, and shrines--the seats of fetiches which
+it was supposed had wrought cures or might work them.  The whole
+evolution of modern history, not only ecclesiastical but civil,
+has been largely affected by the wealth transferred to the clergy
+at such periods.  It was noted that in the fourteenth century,
+after the great plague, the Black Death, had passed, an immensely
+increased proportion of the landed and personal property of every
+European country was in the hands of the Church.  Well did a
+great ecclesiastic remark that "pestilences are the harvests of
+the ministers of God."[330]
+
+[330] For triumphant mention of St. Hilarion's filth, see the
+Roman Breviary for October 21st; and for details, see S.
+Hieronymus, Vita S. Hilarionis Eremitae, in Migne, Patrologia,
+vol. xxiii.  For Athanasius's reference to St. Anthony's filth,
+see works of St. Athanasius in the Nicene and Post-Nicene
+Fathers, second series, vol. iv, p. 209.  For the filthiness of
+the other saints named, see citations from the Lives of the
+Saints, in Lecky's History of European Morals, vol. ii, pp. 117,
+118.  For Guy de Chauliac's observation on the filthiness of
+Carmelite monks and their great losses by pestilence, see Meryon,
+History of Medicine, vol. i, p. 257.  For the mortality among the
+Carthusian monks in time of plague, see Mrs. Lecky's very
+interesting Visit to the Grand Chartreuse, in The Nineteenth
+Century for March, 1891.  For the plague at Rome in 590, the
+legend regarding the fiery darts, mentioned by Pope Gregory
+himself, and that of the castle of St. Angelo, see Gregorovius,
+Geschichte der Stadt Rom im Mittelalter, vol. ii, pp. 26-35; also
+Story, Castle of St. Angelo, etc., chap. ii.  For the remark that
+"pestilences are the harvest of the ministers of God," see
+reference to Charlevoix, in Southey, History of Brazil, vol. ii,
+p. 254, cited in Buckle, vol. i, p. 130, note.
+
+
+Other modes of propitiating the higher powers were penitential
+processions, the parading of images of the Virgin or of saints
+through plague-stricken towns, and fetiches innumerable.  Very
+noted in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries were the
+processions of the flagellants, trooping through various parts of
+Europe, scourging their naked bodies, shrieking the penitential
+psalms, and often running from wild excesses of devotion to the
+maddest orgies.
+
+Sometimes, too, plagues were attributed to the wrath of lesser
+heavenly powers.  Just as, in former times, the fury of
+"far-darting Apollo" was felt when his name was not respectfully
+treated by mortals, so, in 1680, the Church authorities at Rome
+discovered that the plague then raging resulted from the anger of
+St. Sebastian because no monument had been erected to him.  Such
+a monument was therefore placed in the Church of St. Peter ad
+Vincula, and the plague ceased.
+
+So much for the endeavour to avert the wrath of the heavenly
+powers.  On the other hand, theological reasoning no less subtle
+was used in thwarting the malice of Satan.  This idea, too, came
+from far.  In the sacred books of India and Persia, as well as in
+our own, we find the same theory of disease, leading to similar
+means of cure.  Perhaps the most astounding among Christian
+survivals of this theory and its resultant practices was seen
+during the plague at Rome in 1522.  In that year, at that centre
+of divine illumination, certain people, having reasoned upon the
+matter, came to the conclusion that this great scourge was the
+result of Satanic malice; and, in view of St. Paul's declaration
+that the ancient gods were devils, and of the theory that the
+ancient gods of Rome were the devils who had the most reason to
+punish that city for their dethronement, and that the great
+amphitheatre was the chosen haunt of these demon gods, an ox
+decorated with garlands, after the ancient heathen manner, was
+taken in procession to the Colosseum and solemnly sacrificed.
+Even this proved vain, and the Church authorities then ordered
+expiatory processions and ceremonies to propitiate the Almighty,
+the Virgin, and the saints, who had been offended by this
+temporary effort to bribe their enemies.
+
+But this sort of theological reasoning developed an idea far more
+disastrous, and this was that Satan, in causing pestilences, used
+as his emissaries especially Jews and witches.  The proof of this
+belief in the case of the Jews was seen in the fact that they
+escaped with a less percentage of disease than did the Christians
+in the great plague periods.  This was doubtless due in some
+measure to their remarkable sanitary system, which had probably
+originated thousands of years before in Egypt, and had been
+handed down through Jewish lawgivers and statesmen.  Certainly
+they observed more careful sanitary rules and more constant
+abstinence from dangerous foods than was usual among Christians;
+but the public at large could not understand so simple a cause,
+and jumped to the conclusion that their immunity resulted from
+protection by Satan, and that this protection was repaid and the
+pestilence caused by their wholesale poisoning of Christians.  As
+a result of this mode of thought, attempts were made in all parts
+of Europe to propitiate the Almighty, to thwart Satan, and to
+stop the plague by torturing and murdering the Jews.  Throughout
+Europe during great pestilences we hear of extensive burnings of
+this devoted people.  In Bavaria, at the time of the Black Death,
+it is computed that twelve thousand Jews thus perished; in the
+small town of Erfurt the number is said to have been three
+thousand; in Strasburg, the Rue Brulee remains as a monument to
+the two thousand Jews burned there for poisoning the wells and
+causing the plague of 1348; at the royal castle of Chinon, near
+Tours, an immense trench was dug, filled with blazing wood, and
+in a single day one hundred and sixty Jews were burned.
+Everywhere in continental Europe this mad persecution went on;
+but it is a pleasure to say that one great churchman, Pope
+Clement VI, stood against this popular unreason, and, so far as
+he could bring his influence to bear on the maddened populace,
+exercised it in favour of mercy to these supposed enemies of the
+Almighty.[331]
+
+[331] For an early conception in India of the Divinity acting
+through medicine, see The Bhagavadgita, translated by Telang, p.
+82, in Max Muller's Sacred Books of the East.  For the necessity
+of religious means of securing knowledge of medicine, see the
+Anugita, translated by Telang, in Max Muller's Sacred Books of
+the East, p. 388.  For ancient Persian ideas of sickness as sent
+by the spirit of evil and to be cured by spells, but not
+excluding medicine and surgery, and for sickness generally as
+caused by the evil principle in demons, see the Zend-Avesta,
+Darmesteter's translation, introduction, passim, but especially
+p. xciii.  For diseases wrought by witchcraft, see the same, pp.
+230, 293. On the preferences of spells in healing over medicine
+and surgery, see Zend-Avesta, vol. i, pp. 85, 86.  For healing by
+magic in ancient Greece, see, e. g., the cure of Ulysses in the
+Odyssey, "They stopped the black blood by a spell" (Odyssey,
+xxix, 457).  For medicine in Egypt as partly priestly and partly
+in the hands of physicians, see Rawlinson's Herodotus, vol. ii,
+p. 136, note.  For ideas of curing of disease by expulsion of
+demons still surviving among various tribes and nations of Asia,
+see J. G. Frazer, The Golden Bough: a Study of Comparative
+Religion, London, 1890, pp. 184-192.  For the Flagellants and
+their processions at the time of the Black Death, see Lea,
+History of the Inquisition, New York, 1888, vol. ii, pp. 381 et
+seq.  For the persecution of the Jews in time of pestilence, see
+ibid., p. 379 and following, with authorities in the notes.  For
+the expulsion of the Jews from Padua, see the Acta Sanctorum,
+September, tom. viii, p. 893.
+
+
+Yet, as late as 1527, the people of Pavia, being threatened with
+plague, appealed to St. Bernardino of Feltro, who during his
+life had been a fierce enemy of the Jews, and they passed a
+decree promising that if the saint would avert the pestilence
+they would expel the Jews from the city.  The saint apparently
+accepted the bargain, and in due time the Jews were expelled.
+
+As to witches, the reasons for believing them the cause of
+pestilence also came from far.  This belief, too, had been poured
+mainly from Oriental sources into our sacred books and thence
+into the early Church, and was strengthened by a whole line of
+Church authorities, fathers, doctors, and saints; but, above
+all, by the great bull, Summis Desiderantes, issued by Pope
+Innocent VIII, in 1484.  This utterance from the seat of St.
+Peter infallibly committed the Church to the idea that witches
+are a great cause of disease, storms, and various ills which
+afflict humanity; and the Scripture on which the action
+recommended against witches in this papal bull, as well as in so
+many sermons and treatises for centuries afterward, was based,
+was the famous text, "Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live."
+This idea persisted long, and the evolution of it is among the
+most fearful things in human history.[332]
+
+[332] On the plagues generally, see Hecker, Epidemics of the
+Middle Ages, passim; but especially Haeser, as above, III. Band,
+pp. 1-202; also Sprengel, Baas, Isensee, et al.  For brief
+statement showing the enormous loss of life in these plagues, see
+Littre, Medecine et Medecins, Paris, 1875, pp. 3 et seq.  For a
+summary of the effects of the Black Plague throughout England,
+see Green's Short History of the English People, chap. v.  For
+the mortality in the Paris hospitals, see Desmazes, Supplices,
+Prisons et Graces en France, Paris 1866.  For striking
+descriptions of plague-stricken cities, see the well-known
+passages in Thucydides, Boccaccio, De Foe, and, above all,
+Manzoni's Promessi Sposi.  For examples of averting the plagues
+by processions, see Leopold  Delisle, Etudes sur la Condition de
+la Classe Agricole, etc., en Normandie au Moyen Age, p. 630; also
+Fort, chap. xxiii.  For the anger of St. Sebastian as a cause of
+the plague at Rome, and its cessation when a monument had been
+erected to him, see Paulus Diaconus, cited in Gregorovius, vol.
+ii. p. 165.  For the sacrifice of an ox in the Colosseum to the
+ancient gods as a means of averting the plague of 1522, at Rome,
+see Gregorovius, vol. viii, p. 390.  As to massacres of the Jews
+in order to avert the wrath of God in pestilence, see L'Ecole et
+la Science, Paris, 1887, p. 178; also Hecker, and especially
+Hoeniger, Gang und Verbreitung des Schwarzen Todes in
+Deutschalnd, Berlin, 1889.  For a long list of towns in which
+burnings of Jews took place for this imaginary cause, see pp.
+7-11.  As to absolute want of sanitary precautions, see Hecker,
+p. 292.  As to condemnation by strong religionists of medical
+means in the plague, see Fort, p. 130.  For a detailed account of
+the action of Popes Eugene IV, Innocent VIII, and other popes,
+against witchcraft, ascribing to it storms and diseases, and for
+the bull Summis Desiderantes, see the chapters on Meteorology and
+Magic in this series.  The text of the bull is given in the
+Malleus Maleficarum, in Binsfield, and in Roskoff, Geschichte des
+Teufels, Leipzig, 1869, vol. i, pp. 222-225, and a good summary
+and analysis of it in Soldan, Geschichte der Hexenprocesse.  For
+a concise and admirable statement of the contents and effects of
+the bull, see Lea, History of the Inquisition, vol. iii, pp. 40
+et seq.; and for the best statement known to me of the general
+subject, Prof. George L. Burr's paper on The Literature of
+Witchcraft, read before the American Historical Association at
+Washington, 1890.
+
+
+In Germany its development was especially terrible.  From the
+middle of the sixteenth century to the middle of the seventeenth,
+Catholic and Protestant theologians and ecclesiastics vied with
+each other in detecting witches guilty of producing sickness or
+bad weather; women were sent to torture and death by thousands,
+and with them, from time to time, men and children.  On the
+Catholic side sufficient warrant for this work was found in the
+bull of Pope Innocent VIII, and the bishops' palaces of south
+Germany became shambles,--the lordly prelates of Salzburg,
+Wurzburg, and Bamberg taking the lead in this butchery.
+
+In north Germany Protestantism was just as conscientiously cruel.
+It based its theory and practice toward witches directly upon the
+Bible, and above all on the great text which has cost the lives
+of so many myriads of innocent men, women, and children, "Thou
+shalt not suffer a witch to live."  Naturally the Protestant
+authorities strove to show that Protestantism was no less
+orthodox in this respect than Catholicism; and such theological
+jurists as Carpzov, Damhouder, and Calov did their work
+thoroughly.  An eminent authority on this subject estimates the
+number of victims thus sacrificed during that century in Germany
+alone at over a hundred thousand.
+
+Among the methods of this witch activity especially credited in
+central and southern Europe was the anointing of city walls and
+pavements with a diabolical unguent causing pestilence.  In 1530
+Michael Caddo was executed with fearful tortures for thus
+besmearing the pavements of Geneva.  But far more dreadful was
+the torturing to death of a large body of people at Milan, in the
+following century, for producing the plague by anointing the
+walls; and a little later similar punishments for the same crime
+were administered in Toulouse and other cities.  The case in
+Milan may be briefly summarized as showing the ideas on sanitary
+science of all classes, from highest to lowest, in the
+seventeenth century.  That city was then under the control of
+Spain; and, its authorities having received notice from the
+Spanish Government that certain persons suspected of witchcraft
+had recently left Madrid, and had perhaps gone to Milan to anoint
+the walls, this communication was dwelt upon in the pulpits as
+another evidence of that Satanic malice which the Church alone
+had the means of resisting, and the people were thus excited and
+put upon the alert.  One morning, in the year 1630, an old woman,
+looking out of her window, saw a man walking along the street and
+wiping his fingers upon the walls; she immediately called the
+attention of another old woman, and they agreed that this man
+must be one of the diabolical anointers.  It was perfectly
+evident to a person under ordinary conditions that this
+unfortunate man was simply trying to remove from his fingers the
+ink gathered while writing from the ink-horn which he carried in
+his girdle; but this explanation was too simple to satisfy those
+who first observed him or those who afterward tried him:  a mob
+was raised and he was thrown into prison.  Being tortured, he at
+first did not know what to confess; but, on inquiring from the
+jailer and others, he learned what the charge was, and, on being
+again subjected to torture utterly beyond endurance, he confessed
+everything which was suggested to him; and, on being tortured
+again and again to give the names of his accomplices, he accused,
+at hazard, the first people in the city whom he thought of.
+These, being arrested and tortured beyond endurance, confessed
+and implicated a still greater number, until members of the
+foremost families were included in the charge.  Again and again
+all these unfortunates were tortured beyond endurance.  Under
+paganism, the rule regarding torture had been that it should not
+be carried beyond human endurance; and we therefore find Cicero
+ridiculing it as a means of detecting crime, because a stalwart
+criminal of strong nerves might resist it and go free, while a
+physically delicate man, though innocent, would be forced to
+confess.  Hence it was that under paganism a limit was imposed to
+the torture which could be administered; but, when Christianity
+had become predominant throughout Europe, torture was developed
+with a cruelty never before known.  There had been evolved a
+doctrine of "excepted cases"--these "excepted cases" being
+especially heresy and witchcraft; for by a very simple and
+logical process of theological reasoning it was held that Satan
+would give supernatural strength to his special devotees--that
+is, to heretics and witches--and therefore that, in dealing with
+them, there should be no limit to the torture.  The result was in
+this particular case, as in tens of thousands besides, that the
+accused confessed everything which could be suggested to them,
+and often in the delirium of their agony confessed far more than
+all that the zeal of the prosecutors could suggest.  Finally, a
+great number of worthy people were sentenced to the most cruel
+death which could be invented.  The records of their trials and
+deaths are frightful.  The treatise which in recent years has
+first brought to light in connected form an authentic account of
+the proceedings in this affair, and which gives at the end
+engravings of the accused subjected to horrible tortures on their
+way to the stake and at the place of execution itself, is one of
+the most fearful monuments of theological reasoning and human
+folly.
+
+To cap the climax, after a poor apothecary had been tortured into
+a confession that he had made the magic ointment, and when he had
+been put to death with the most exquisite refinements of torture,
+his family were obliged to take another name, and were driven out
+from the city; his house was torn down, and on its site was
+erected "The Column of Infamy," which remained on this spot
+until, toward the end of the eighteenth century, a party of young
+radicals, probably influenced by the reading of Beccaria, sallied
+forth one night and leveled this pious monument to the ground.
+
+Herein was seen the culmination and decline of the bull Summis
+Desiderantes.  It had been issued by him whom a majority of the
+Christian world believes to be infallible in his teachings to the
+Church as regards faith and morals; yet here was a deliberate
+utterance in a matter of faith and morals which even children now
+know to be utterly untrue.  Though Beccaria's book on Crimes and
+Punishments, with its declarations against torture, was placed
+by the Church authorities upon the Index, and though the
+faithful throughout the Christian world were forbidden to read
+it, even this could not prevent the victory of truth over this
+infallible utterance of Innocent VIII.[333]
+
+[333] As to the fearful effects of the papal bull Summis
+Desiderantes in south Germany, as to the Protestant severities in
+north Germany, as to the immense number of women and children put
+to death for witchcraft in Germany generally for spreading storms
+and pestilence, and as to the monstrous doctrine of "excepted
+cases," see the standard authorities on witchcraft, especially
+Wachter, Beitrage zur Geschichte des Strafrechts, Soldan, Horst,
+Hauber, and Langin; also Burr, as above.  In another series of
+chapters on The Warfare of Humanity with Theology, I hope to go
+more fully into the subject.  For the magic spreading of the
+plague at Milan, see Manzoni, I Promessi Sposi and La Colonna
+Infame; and for the origin of the charges, with all the details
+of the trail, see the Precesso Originale degli Untori, Milan,
+1839, passim, but especially the large folding plate at the end,
+exhibiting the tortures.  For the after-history of the Column of
+Infamy, and for the placing of Beccaria's book on the Index, see
+Cantu, Vita di Beccaria.  For the magic spreading of the plague
+in general, see Littre, pp. 492 and following.
+
+
+As the seventeenth century went on, ingenuity in all parts of
+Europe seemed devoted to new developments of fetichism.  A very
+curious monument of this evolution in Italy exists in the Royal
+Gallery of Paintings at Naples, where may be seen several
+pictures representing the measures taken to save the city from
+the plague during the seventeenth century, but especially from
+the plague of 1656.  One enormous canvas gives a curious example
+of the theological doctrine of intercession between man and his
+Maker, spun out to its logical length.  In the background is the
+plague-stricken city:  in the foreground the people are praying
+to the city authorities to avert the plague; the city authorities
+are praying to the Carthusian monks; the monks are praying to St.
+Martin, St. Bruno, and St. Januarius; these three saints in
+their turn are praying to the Virgin; the Virgin prays to Christ;
+and Christ prays to the Almighty.  Still another picture
+represents the people, led by the priests, executing with
+horrible tortures the Jews, heretics, and witches who were
+supposed to cause the pestilence of 1656, while in the heavens
+the Virgin and St. Januarius are interceding with Christ to
+sheathe his sword and stop the plague.
+
+In such an atmosphere of thought it is no wonder that the death
+statistics were appalling.  We hear of districts in which not
+more than one in ten escaped, and some were entirely depopulated.
+
+Such appeals to fetich against pestilence have continued in
+Naples down to our own time, the great saving power being the
+liquefaction of the blood of St. Januarius.  In 1856 the present
+writer saw this miracle performed in the gorgeous chapel of the
+saint forming part of the Cathedral of Naples.  The chapel was
+filled with devout worshippers of every class, from the officials
+in court dress, representing the Bourbon king, down to the lowest
+lazzaroni.  The reliquary of silver-gilt, shaped like a large
+human head, and supposed to contain the skull of the saint, was
+first placed upon the altar; next, two vials containing a dark
+substance said to be his blood, having been taken from the wall,
+were also placed upon the altar near the head.  As the priests
+said masses, they turned the vials from time to time, and the
+liquefaction being somewhat delayed, the great crowd of people
+burst out into more and more impassioned expostulation and
+petitions to the saint.  Just in front of the altar were the
+lazzaroni who claimed to be descendants of the saint's family,
+and these were especially importunate:  at such times they beg,
+they scold, they even threaten; they have been known to abuse
+the saint roundly, and to tell him that, if he did not care to
+show his favour to the city by liquefying his blood, St. Cosmo
+and St. Damian were just as good saints as he, and would no doubt
+be very glad to have the city devote itself to them.  At last, on
+the occasion above referred to, the priest, turning the vials
+suddenly, announced that the saint had performed the miracle, and
+instantly priests, people, choir, and organ burst forth into a
+great Te Deum; bells rang, and cannon roared; a procession was
+formed, and the shrine containing the saint's relics was carried
+through the streets, the people prostrating themselves on both
+sides of the way and throwing showers of rose leaves upon the
+shrine and upon the path before it.  The contents of these
+precious vials are an interesting relic indeed, for they
+represent to us vividly that period when men who were willing to
+go to the stake for their religious opinions thought it not wrong
+to save the souls of their fellowmen by pious mendacity and
+consecrated fraud.  To the scientific eye this miracle is very
+simple:  the vials contain, no doubt, one of those mixtures
+fusing at low temperature, which, while kept in its place within
+the cold stone walls of the church, remains solid, but upon being
+brought out into the hot, crowded chapel, and fondled by the warm
+hands of the priests, gradually softens and becomes liquid.  It
+was curious to note, at the time above mentioned, that even the
+high functionaries representing the king looked at the miracle
+with awe:  they evidently found "joy in believing," and one of
+them assured the present writer that the only thing which COULD
+cause it was the direct exercise of miraculous power.
+
+It may be reassuring to persons contemplating a visit to that
+beautiful capital in these days, that, while this miracle still
+goes on, it is no longer the only thing relied upon to preserve
+the public health.  An unbelieving generation, especially taught
+by the recent horrors of the cholera, has thought it wise to
+supplement the power of St. Januarius by the "Risanamento,"
+begun mainly in 1885 and still going on.  The drainage of the
+city has thus been greatly improved, the old wells closed, and
+pure water introduced from the mountains.  Moreover, at the last
+outburst of cholera a few years since, a noble deed was done
+which by its moral effect exercised a widespread healing power.
+Upon hearing of this terrific outbreak of pestilence, King
+Humbert, though under the ban of the Church, broke from all the
+entreaties of his friends and family, went directly into the
+plague-stricken city, and there, in the streets, public places,
+and hospitals, encouraged the living, comforted the sick and
+dying, and took means to prevent a further spread of the
+pestilence.  To the credit of the Church it should also be said
+that the Cardinal Archbishop San Felice joined him in this.
+
+Miracle for miracle, the effect of this visit of the king seems
+to have surpassed anything that St. Januarius could do, for it
+gave confidence and courage which very soon showed their effects
+in diminishing the number of deaths.  It would certainly appear
+that in this matter the king was more directly under Divine
+inspiration and guidance than was the Pope; for the fact that
+King Humbert went to Naples at the risk of his life, while Leo
+XIII remained in safety at the Vatican, impressed the Italian
+people in favour of the new regime and against the old as
+nothing else could have done.
+
+In other parts of Italy the same progress is seen under the new
+Italian government.  Venice, Genoa, Leghorn, and especially Rome,
+which under the sway of the popes was scandalously filthy, are
+now among the cleanest cities in Europe.  What the relics of St.
+Januarius, St. Anthony, and a multitude of local fetiches
+throughout Italy were for ages utterly unable to do, has been
+accomplished by the development of the simplest sanitary
+principles.
+
+Spain shows much the same characteristics of a country where
+theological considerations have been all-controlling for
+centuries.  Down to the interference of Napoleon with that
+kingdom, all sanitary efforts were looked upon as absurd if not
+impious.  The most sober accounts of travellers in the Spanish
+Peninsula until a recent period are sometimes irresistibly comic
+in their pictures of peoples insisting on maintaining
+arrangements more filthy than any which would be permitted in an
+American backwoods camp, while taking enormous pains to stop
+pestilence by bell-ringings, processions, and new dresses
+bestowed upon the local Madonnas; yet here, too, a healthful
+scepticism has begun to work for good.  The outbreaks of cholera
+in recent years have done some little to bring in better sanitary
+measures.[334]
+
+[334] As to the recourse to fetichism in Italy in time of plague,
+and the pictures showing the intercession of Januarius and other
+saints, I have relied on my own notes made at various visits to
+Naples. For the general subject, see Peter, Etudes Napolitaines,
+especially chapters v  and vi.  For detailed accounts of the
+liquefaction of St. Januarius's blood by eye-witnesses, one an
+eminent Catholic of the seventeenth century, and the other a
+distinguished Protestant of our own time, see Murray's Handbook
+for South Italy and Naples, description of the Cathedral of San
+Gennaro.  For an interesting series of articles on the subject,
+see The Catholic World for September, October, and November,
+1871.  For the incredible filthiness of the great cities of
+Spain, and the resistance of the people, down to a recent period,
+to the most ordinary regulations prompted by decency, see
+Bascome, History of the Epidemic Pestilences, especially pp. 119,
+120.  See also the Autobiography of D'Ewes, London, 1845, vol.
+ii, p. 446; also, for various citations, the second volume of
+Buckle, History of Civilization in England.
+
+
+
+II.  GRADUAL DECAY OF THEOLOGICAL VIEWS REGARDING SANITATION.
+
+
+We have seen how powerful in various nations especially obedient
+to theology were the forces working in opposition to the
+evolution of hygiene, and we shall find this same opposition,
+less effective, it is true, but still acting with great power, in
+countries which had become somewhat emancipated from theological
+control.  In England, during the medieval period, persecutions of
+Jews were occasionally resorted to, and here and there we hear of
+persecutions of witches; but, as torture was rarely used in
+England, there were, from those charged with producing plague,
+few of those torture-born confessions which in other countries
+gave rise to widespread cruelties.  Down to the sixteenth and
+seventeenth centuries the filthiness in the ordinary mode of life
+in England was such as we can now hardly conceive:  fermenting
+organic material was allowed to accumulate and become a part of
+the earthen floors of rural dwellings; and this undoubtedly
+developed the germs of many diseases.  In his noted letter to the
+physician of Cardinal Wolsey, Erasmus describes the filth thus
+incorporated into the floors of English houses, and, what is of
+far more importance, he shows an inkling of the true cause of the
+wasting diseases of the period.  He says, "If I entered into a
+chamber which had been uninhabited for months, I was immediately
+seized with a fever."  He ascribed the fearful plague of the
+sweating sickness to this cause.  So, too, the noted Dr. Caius
+advised sanitary precautions against the plague, and in
+after-generations, Mead, Pringle, and others urged them; but the
+prevailing thought was too strong, and little was done.  Even the
+floor of the presence chamber of Queen Elizabeth in Greenwich
+Palace was "covered with hay, after the English fashion," as one
+of the chroniclers tells us.
+
+In the seventeenth century, aid in these great scourges was
+mainly sought in special church services.  The foremost English
+churchmen during that century being greatly given to study of the
+early fathers of the Church; the theological theory of disease,
+so dear to the fathers, still held sway, and this was the case
+when the various visitations reached their climax in the great
+plague of London in 1665, which swept off more than a hundred
+thousand people from that city.  The attempts at meeting it by
+sanitary measures were few and poor; the medical system of the
+time was still largely tinctured by superstitions resulting from
+medieval modes of thought; hence that plague was generally
+attributed to the Divine wrath caused by "the prophaning of the
+Sabbath."  Texts from Numbers, the Psalms, Zechariah, and the
+Apocalypse were dwelt upon in the pulpits to show that plagues
+are sent by the Almighty to punish sin; and perhaps the most
+ghastly figure among all those fearful scenes described by De Foe
+is that of the naked fanatic walking up and down the streets with
+a pan of fiery coals upon his head, and, after the manner of
+Jonah at Nineveh, proclaiming woe to the city, and its
+destruction in forty days.
+
+That sin caused this plague is certain, but it was sanitary sin.
+Both before and after this culmination of the disease cases of
+plague were constantly occurring in London throughout the
+seventeenth century; but about the beginning of the eighteenth
+century it began to disappear.  The great fire had done a good
+work by sweeping off many causes and centres of infection, and
+there had come wider streets, better pavements, and improved
+water supply; so that, with the disappearance of the plague,
+other diseases, especially dysenteries, which had formerly raged
+in the city, became much less frequent.
+
+But, while these epidemics were thus checked in London, others
+developed by sanitary ignorance raged fearfully both there and
+elsewhere, and of these perhaps the most fearful was the jail
+fever.  The prisons of that period were vile beyond belief.  Men
+were confined in dungeons rarely if ever disinfected after the
+death of previous occupants, and on corridors connecting directly
+with the foulest sewers:  there was no proper disinfection,
+ventilation, or drainage; hence in most of the large prisons for
+criminals or debtors the jail fever was supreme, and from these
+centres it frequently spread through the adjacent towns.  This
+was especially the case during the sixteenth and seventeenth
+centuries.  In the Black Assize at Oxford, in 1577, the chief
+baron, the sheriff, and about three hundred men died within forty
+hours.  Lord Bacon declared the jail fever "the most pernicious
+infection next to the plague."  In 1730, at the Dorsetshire
+Assize, the chief baron and many lawyers were killed by it.  The
+High Sheriff of Somerset also took the disease and died.  A
+single Scotch regiment, being infected from some prisoners, lost
+no less than two hundred.  In 1750 the disease was so virulent at
+Newgate, in the heart of London, that two judges, the lord mayor,
+sundry aldermen, and many others, died of it.
+
+It is worth noting that, while efforts at sanitary dealing with
+this state of things were few, the theological spirit developed a
+new and special form of prayer for the sufferers and placed it in
+the Irish Prayer Book.
+
+These forms of prayer seem to have been the main reliance through
+the first half of the eighteenth century.  But about 1750 began
+the work of John Howard, who visited the prisons of England, made
+known their condition to the world, and never rested until they
+were greatly improved.  Then he applied the same benevolent
+activity to prisons in other countries, in the far East, and in
+southern Europe, and finally laid down his life, a victim to
+disease contracted on one of his missions of mercy; but the
+hygienic reforms he began were developed more and more until this
+fearful blot upon modern civilization was removed.[335]
+
+[335] For Erasmus, see the letter cited in Bascome, History of
+Epidemic Pestilences, London, 1851.  For the account of the
+condition of Queen Elizabeth's presence chamber, see the same, p.
+206; see also the same for attempts at sanitation by Caius, Mead,
+Pringle, and others; also see Baas and various medical
+authorities.  For the plague in London, see Green's History of
+the English People, chap. ix, sec. 2; and for a more detailed
+account, see Lingard, History of England, enlarged edition of
+1849, vol. ix, pp. 107 et seq.  For full scientific discussion of
+this and other plagues from a medical point of view, see
+Creighton, History of Epidemics in Great Britain, vol. ii, chap.
+i.  For the London plague as a punishment for Sabbath-breaking,
+see A Divine Tragedie lately acted, or A collection of sundry
+memorable examples of God's judgements upon Sabbath Breakers and
+other like libertines, etc., by the worthy divine, Mr. Henry
+Burton, 1641.  The book gives fifty-six accounts of Sabbath-
+breakers sorely punished, generally struck dead, in England, with
+places, names, and dates.  For a general account of the condition
+of London in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and the
+diminution of the plague by the rebuilding of some parts of the
+city after the great fire, see Lecky, History of England in the
+Eighteenth Century, vol. i, pp. 592, 593.  For the jail fever,
+see Lecky, vol. i, pp. 500-503.
+
+
+The same thing was seen in the Protestant colonies of America;
+but here, while plagues were steadily attributed to Divine wrath
+or Satanic malice, there was one case in which it was claimed
+that such a visitation was due to the Divine mercy.  The
+pestilence among the INDIANS, before the arrival of the Plymouth
+Colony, was attributed in a notable work of that period to the
+Divine purpose of clearing New England for the heralds of the
+gospel; on the other hand, the plagues which destroyed the WHITE
+population were attributed by the same authority to devils and
+witches.  In Cotton Mather's Wonder of the Invisible World,
+published at Boston in 1693, we have striking examples of this.
+The great Puritan divine tells us:
+
+"Plagues are some of those woes, with which the Divil troubles
+us.  It is said of the Israelites, in 1 Cor.  10.  10.  THEY WERE
+DESTROYED OF THE DESTROYER.  That is, they had the Plague among
+them.  'Tis the Destroyer, or the Divil, that scatters Plagues
+about the World:  Pestilential and Contagious Diseases, 'tis the
+Divel, who do's oftentimes Invade us with them.  'Tis no uneasy
+thing, for the Divel, to impregnate the Air about us, with such
+Malignant Salts, as meeting with the Salt of our Microcosm, shall
+immediately cast us into that Fermentation and Putrefaction,
+which will utterly dissolve All the Vital Tyes within us; Ev'n
+as an Aqua Fortis, made with a conjunction of Nitre and Vitriol,
+Corrodes what it Siezes upon.  And when the Divel has raised
+those Arsenical Fumes, which become Venomous.  Quivers full of
+Terrible Arrows, how easily can he shoot the deleterious Miasms
+into those Juices or Bowels of Men's Bodies, which will soon
+Enflame them with a Mortal Fire! Hence come such Plagues, as that
+Beesome of Destruction which within our memory swept away such a
+throng of people from one English City in one Visitation:  and
+hence those Infectious Feavers, which are but so many Disguised
+Plagues among us, Causing Epidemical Desolations."
+
+Mather gives several instances of witches causing diseases, and
+speaks of "some long Bow'd down under such a Spirit of Infirmity"
+being "Marvelously Recovered upon the Death of the Witches," of
+which he gives an instance.  He also cites a case where a patient
+"was brought unto death's door and so remained until the witch
+was taken and carried away by the constable, when he began at
+once to recover and was soon well."[336]
+
+[336] For the passages from Cotton Mather, see his book as cited,
+pp. 17, 18, also 134, 145.  Johnson declares that "by this meanes
+Christ . . . not only made roome for His people to plant, but
+also tamed the hard and cruell hearts of these barbarous Indians,
+insomuch that a halfe a handful of His people landing not long
+after in Plymouth Plantation, found little resistance."   See The
+History of New England, by Edward Johnson, London, 1654.
+Reprinted in the Massachusetts Historical Society's Collection,
+second series, vol. i, p. 67.
+
+
+In France we see, during generation after generation, a similar
+history evolved; pestilence after pestilence came, and was met
+by various fetiches.  Noteworthy is the plague at Marseilles near
+the beginning of the last century.  The chronicles of its sway
+are ghastly.  They speak of great heaps of the unburied dead in
+the public places, "forming pestilential volcanoes"; of
+plague-stricken men and women in delirium wandering naked through
+the streets; of churches and shrines thronged with great crowds
+shrieking for mercy; of other crowds flinging themselves into
+the wildest debauchery; of robber bands assassinating the dying
+and plundering the dead; of three thousand neglected children
+collected in one hospital and then left to die; and of the
+death-roll numbering at last fifty thousand out of a population
+of less than ninety thousand.
+
+In the midst of these fearful scenes stood a body of men and
+women worthy to be held in eternal honour--the physicians from
+Paris and Montpellier; the mayor of the city, and one or two of
+his associates; but, above all, the Chevalier Roze and Bishop
+Belzunce.  The history of these men may well make us glory in
+human nature; but in all this noble group the figure of Belzunce
+is the most striking.  Nobly and firmly, when so many others even
+among the regular and secular ecclesiastics fled, he stood by his
+flock:  day and night he was at work in the hospitals, cheering
+the living, comforting the dying, and doing what was possible for
+the decent disposal of the dead.  In him were united the, two
+great antagonistic currents of religion and of theology.  As a
+theologian he organized processions and expiatory services,
+which, it must be confessed, rather increased the disease than
+diminished it; moreover, he accepted that wild dream of a
+hysterical nun--the worship of the material, physical sacred
+heart of Jesus--and was one of the first to consecrate his
+diocese to it; but, on the other hand, the religious spirit gave
+in him one of its most beautiful manifestations in that or any
+other century; justly have the people of Marseilles placed his
+statue in the midst of their city in an attitude of prayer and
+blessing.
+
+In every part of Europe and America, down to a recent period, we
+find pestilences resulting from carelessness or superstition
+still called "inscrutable providences."  As late as the end of
+the eighteenth century, when great epidemics made fearful havoc
+in Austria, the main means against them seem to have been
+grovelling before the image of St. Sebastian and calling in
+special "witch-doctors"--that is, monks who cast out devils.  To
+seek the aid of physicians was, in the neighbourhood of these
+monastic centres, very generally considered impious, and the
+enormous death rate in such neighbourhoods was only diminished in
+the present century, when scientific hygiene began to make its
+way.
+
+The old view of pestilence had also its full course in
+Calvinistic Scotland; the only difference being that, while in
+Roman Catholic countries relief was sought by fetiches, gifts,
+processions, exorcisms, burnings of witches, and other works of
+expiation, promoted by priests; in Scotland, after the
+Reformation, it was sought in fast-days and executions of witches
+promoted by Protestant elders.  Accounts of the filthiness of
+Scotch cities and villages, down to a period well within this
+century, seem monstrous.  All that in these days is swept into
+the sewers was in those allowed to remain around the houses or
+thrown into the streets.  The old theological theory, that "vain
+is the help of man," checked scientific thought and paralyzed
+sanitary endeavour.  The result was natural:  between the
+thirteenth and seventeenth centuries thirty notable epidemics
+swept the country, and some of them carried off multitudes; but
+as a rule these never suggested sanitary improvement; they were
+called "visitations," attributed to Divine wrath against human
+sin, and the work of the authorities was to announce the
+particular sin concerned and to declaim against it.  Amazing
+theories were thus propounded--theories which led to spasms of
+severity; and, in some of these, offences generally punished much
+less severely were visited with death.  Every pulpit interpreted
+the ways of God to man in such seasons so as rather to increase
+than to diminish the pestilence.  The effect of thus seeking
+supernatural causes rather than natural may be seen in such facts
+as the death by plague of one fourth of the whole population of
+the city of Perth in a single year of the fifteenth century,
+other towns suffering similarly both then and afterward.
+
+Here and there, physicians more wisely inspired endeavoured to
+push sanitary measures, and in 1585 attempts were made to clean
+the streets of Edinburgh; but the chroniclers tell us that "the
+magistrates and ministers gave no heed."  One sort of calamity,
+indeed, came in as a mercy--the great fires which swept through
+the cities, clearing and cleaning them.  Though the town council
+of Edinburgh declared the noted fire of 1700 "a fearful rebuke of
+God," it was observed that, after it had done its work, disease
+and death were greatly diminished.[337]
+
+[337] For the plague at Marseilles and its depopulation, see
+Henri Martin, Histoire de France, vol. xv, especially document
+cited in appendix; also Gibbon, Decline and Fall, chap. xliii;
+also Rambaud.  For the resort to witch doctors in Austria against
+pestilence, down to the end of the eighteenth century, see
+Biedermann, Deutschland im Achtzehnten Jahrhundert.  For the
+resort to St. Sebastian, see the widespread editions of the Vita
+et Gesta Sancti Sebastiani, contra pestem patroni, prefaced with
+commendations from bishops and other high ecclesiastics.  The
+edition in the Cornell University Library is that of Augsburg,
+1693.  For the reign of filth and pestilence in Scotland, see
+Charles Rogers, D. D., Social Life in Scotland, Edinburgh, 1884,
+vol. i, pp. 305-316; see also Buckle's second volume.
+
+
+
+
+III.  THE TRIUMPH OF SANITARY SCIENCE.
+
+
+But by those standing in the higher places of thought some
+glimpses of scientific truth had already been obtained, and
+attempts at compromise between theology and science in this field
+began to be made, not only by ecclesiastics, but first of all, as
+far back as the seventeenth century, by a man of science eminent
+both for attainments and character--Robert Boyle.  Inspired by
+the discoveries in other fields, which had swept away so much of
+theological thought, he could no longer resist the conviction
+that some epidemics are due--in his own words--"to a tragical
+concourse of natural causes"; but he argued that some of these
+may be the result of Divine interpositions provoked by human
+sins.  As time went on, great difficulties showed themselves in
+the way of this compromise--difficulties theological not less
+than difficulties scientific.  To a Catholic it was more and more
+hard to explain the theological grounds why so many orthodox
+cities, firm in the faith, were punished, and so many heretical
+cities spared; and why, in regions devoted to the Church, the
+poorer people, whose faith in theological fetiches was
+unquestioning, died in times of pestilence like flies, while
+sceptics so frequently escaped.  Difficulties of the same sort
+beset devoted Protestants; they, too, might well ask why it was
+that the devout peasantry in their humble cottages perished,
+while so much larger a proportion of the more sceptical upper
+classes were untouched.  Gradually it dawned both upon Catholic
+and Protestant countries that, if any sin be punished by
+pestilence, it is the sin of filthiness; more and more it began
+to be seen by thinking men of both religions that Wesley's great
+dictum stated even less than the truth; that not only was
+"cleanliness akin to godliness," but that, as a means of keeping
+off pestilence, it was far superior to godliness as godliness was
+then generally understood.[338]
+
+[338] For Boyle's attempt at compromise, see Discourse on the
+Air, in his works, vol. iv, pp. 288, 289, cited by Buckle, vol.
+i, pp. 128, 129, note.
+
+
+The recent history of sanitation in all civilized countries shows
+triumphs which might well fill us with wonder, did there not rise
+within us a far greater wonder that they were so long delayed.
+Amazing is it to see how near the world has come again and again
+to discovering the key to the cause and cure of pestilence.  It
+is now a matter of the simplest elementary knowledge that some of
+the worst epidemics are conveyed in water.  But this fact seems
+to have been discovered many times in human history.  In the
+Peloponnesian war the Athenians asserted that their enemies had
+poisoned their cisterns; in the Middle Ages the people generally
+declared that the Jews had poisoned their wells; and as late as
+the cholera of 1832 the Parisian mob insisted that the
+water-carriers who distributed water for drinking purposes from
+the Seine, polluted as it was by sewage, had poisoned it, and in
+some cases murdered them on this charge:  so far did this feeling
+go that locked covers were sometimes placed upon the
+water-buckets.  Had not such men as Roger Bacon and his long line
+of successors been thwarted by theological authority,--had not
+such men as Thomas Aquinas, Vincent of Beauvais, and Albert the
+Great been drawn or driven from the paths of science into the
+dark, tortuous paths of theology, leading no whither,--the world
+to-day, at the end of the nineteenth century, would have arrived
+at the solution of great problems and the enjoyment of great
+results which will only be reached at the end of the twentieth
+century, and even in generations more remote.  Diseases like
+typhoid fever, influenza and pulmonary consumption, scarlet
+fever, diphtheria, pneumonia, and la grippe, which now carry off
+so many most precious lives, would have long since ceased to
+scourge the world.
+
+Still, there is one cause for satisfaction:  the law governing
+the relation of theology to disease is now well before the world,
+and it is seen in the fact that, just in proportion as the world
+progressed from the sway of Hippocrates to that of the ages of
+faith, so it progressed in the frequency and severity of great
+pestilences; and that, on the other hand, just in proportion as
+the world has receded from that period when theology was
+all-pervading and all-controlling, plague after plague has
+disappeared, and those remaining have become less and less
+frequent and virulent.[339]
+
+[339] For the charge of poisoning water and producing pestilence
+among the Greeks, see Grote, History of Greece, vol. vi, p. 213.
+For a similar charge against the Jews in the Middle Ages, see
+various histories already cited; and for the great popular
+prejudice against water-carriers at Paris in recent times, see
+the larger recent French histories.
+
+
+The recent history of hygiene in all countries shows a long
+series of victories, and these may well be studied in Great
+Britain and the United States.  In the former, though there had
+been many warnings from eminent physicians, and above all in the
+seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, from men like Caius, Mead,
+and Pringle, the result was far short of what might have been
+gained; and it was only in the year 1838 that a systematic
+sanitary effort was begun in England by the public authorities.
+The state of things at that time, though by comparison with the
+Middle Ages happy, was, by comparison with what has since been
+gained, fearful:  the death rate among all classes was high, but
+among the poor it was ghastly.  Out of seventy-seven thousand
+paupers in London during the years 1837 and 1838, fourteen
+thousand were suffering from fever, and of these nearly six
+thousand from typhus.  In many other parts of the British Islands
+the sanitary condition was no better.  A noble body of men
+grappled with the problem, and in a few years one of these rose
+above his fellows--the late Edwin Chadwick.  The opposition to
+his work was bitter, and, though many churchmen aided him, the
+support given by theologians and ecclesiastics as a whole was
+very far short of what it should have been.  Too many of them
+were occupied in that most costly and most worthless of all
+processes, "the saving of souls" by the inculcation of dogma.
+Yet some of the higher ecclesiastics and many of the lesser
+clergy did much, sometimes risking their lives, and one of them,
+Sidney Godolphin Osborne, deserves lasting memory for his
+struggle to make known the sanitary wants of the peasantry.
+
+Chadwick began to be widely known in 1848 as a member of the
+Board of Health, and was driven out for a time for overzeal; but
+from one point or another, during forty years, he fought the
+opposition, developed the new work, and one of the best exhibits
+of its results is shown in his address before the Sanitary
+Conference at Brighton in 1888.  From this and other perfectly
+trustworthy sources some idea may be gained of the triumph of the
+scientific over the theological method of dealing with disease,
+whether epidemic or sporadic.
+
+In the latter half of the seventeenth century the annual
+mortality of London is estimated at not less than eighty in a
+thousand; about the middle of this century it stood at
+twenty-four in a thousand; in 1889 it stood at less than
+eighteen in a thousand; and in many parts the most recent
+statistics show that it has been brought down to fourteen or
+fifteen in a thousand.  A quarter of a century ago the death rate
+from disease in the Royal Guards at London was twenty in a
+thousand; in 1888 it had been reduced to six in a thousand.  In
+the army generally it had been seventeen in a thousand, but it
+has been reduced until it now stands at eight.  In the old Indian
+army it had been sixty-nine in a thousand, but of late it has
+been brought down first to twenty, and finally to fourteen.  Mr.
+Chadwick in his speech proved that much more might be done, for
+he called attention to the German army, where the death rate from
+disease has been reduced to between five and six in a thousand.
+The Public Health Act having been passed in 1875, the death rate
+in England among men fell, between 1871 and 1880, more than four
+in a thousand, and among women more than six in a thousand.  In
+the decade between 1851 and 1860 there died of diseases
+attributable to defective drainage and impure water over four
+thousand persons in every million throughout England:  these
+numbers have declined until in 1888 there died less than two
+thousand in every million. The most striking diminution of the
+deaths from such causes was found in 1891, in the case of typhoid
+fever, that diminution being fifty per cent.  As to the scourge
+which, next to plagues like the Black Death, was formerly the
+most dreaded--smallpox--there died of it in London during the
+year 1890 just one person.  Drainage in Bristol reduced the death
+rate by consumption from 4.4 to 2.3; at Cardiff, from 3.47 to
+2.31; and in all England and Wales, from 2.68 in 1851 to 1.55 in
+1888.
+
+What can be accomplished by better sanitation is also seen to-day
+by a comparison between the death rate among the children outside
+and inside the charity schools.  The death rate among those
+outside in 1881 was twelve in a thousand; while inside, where
+the children were under sanitary regulations maintained by
+competent authorities, it has been brought down first to eight,
+then to four, and finally to less than three in a thousand.
+
+In view of statistics like these, it becomes clear that Edwin
+Chadwick and his compeers among the sanitary authorities have in
+half a century done far more to reduce the rate of disease and
+death than has been done in fifteen hundred years by all the
+fetiches which theological reasoning could devise or
+ecclesiastical power enforce.
+
+Not less striking has been the history of hygiene in France:
+thanks to the decline of theological control over the
+universities, to the abolition of monasteries, and to such
+labours in hygienic research and improvement as those of Tardieu,
+Levy, and Bouchardat, a wondrous change has been wrought in
+public health.  Statistics carefully kept show that the mean
+length of human life has been remarkably increased.  In the
+eighteenth century it was but twenty-three years; from 1825 to
+1830 it was thirty-two years and eight months; and since 1864,
+thirty-seven years and six months.
+
+
+
+IV.  THE RELATION OF SANITARY SCIENCE TO RELIGION.
+
+
+The question may now arise whether this progress in sanitary
+science has been purchased at any real sacrifice of religion in
+its highest sense.  One piece of recent history indicates an
+answer to this question.  The Second Empire in France had its
+head in Napoleon III, a noted Voltairean.  At the climax of his
+power he determined to erect an Academy of Music which should be
+the noblest building of its kind.  It was projected on a scale
+never before known, at least in modern times, and carried on for
+years, millions being lavished upon it.  At the same time the
+emperor determined to rebuild the Hotel-Dieu, the great Paris
+hospital; this, too, was projected on a greater scale than
+anything of the kind ever before known, and also required
+millions.  But in the erection of these two buildings the
+emperor's determination was distinctly made known, that with the
+highest provision for aesthetic enjoyment there should be a
+similar provision, moving on parallel lines, for the relief of
+human suffering.  This plan was carried out to the letter:  the
+Palace of the Opera and the Hotel-Dieu went on with equal steps,
+and the former was not allowed to be finished before the latter.
+Among all the "most Christian kings" of the house of Bourbon who
+had preceded him for five hundred years, history shows no such
+obedience to the religious and moral sense of the nation.
+Catharine de' Medici and her sons, plunging the nation into the
+great wars of religion, never showed any such feeling; Louis XIV,
+revoking the Edict of Nantes for the glory of God, and bringing
+the nation to sorrow during many generations, never dreamed of
+making the construction of his palaces and public buildings wait
+upon the demands of charity.  Louis XV, so subservient to the
+Church in all things, never betrayed the slightest consciousness
+that, while making enormous expenditures to gratify his own and
+the national vanity, he ought to carry on works, pari passu, for
+charity.  Nor did the French nation, at those periods when it was
+most largely under the control of theological considerations,
+seem to have any inkling of the idea that nation or monarch
+should make provision for relief from human suffering, to justify
+provision for the sumptuous enjoyment of art:  it was reserved
+for the second half of the nineteenth century to develop this
+feeling so strongly, though quietly, that Napoleon III,
+notoriously an unbeliever in all orthodoxy, was obliged to
+recognise it and to set this great example.
+
+Nor has the recent history of the United States been less
+fruitful in lessons.  Yellow fever, which formerly swept not only
+Southern cities but even New York and Philadelphia, has now been
+almost entirely warded off.  Such epidemics as that in Memphis a
+few years since, and the immunity of the city from such
+visitations since its sanitary condition was changed by Mr.
+Waring, are a most striking object lesson to the whole country.
+Cholera, which again and again swept the country, has ceased to
+be feared by the public at large.  Typhus fever, once so deadly,
+is now rarely heard of.  Curious is it to find that some of the
+diseases which in the olden time swept off myriads on myriads in
+every country, now cause fewer deaths than some diseases thought
+of little account, and for the cure of which people therefore
+rely, to their cost, on quackery instead of medical science.
+
+This development of sanitary science and hygiene in the United
+States has also been coincident with a marked change in the
+attitude of the American pulpit as regards the theory of disease.
+In this country, as in others, down to a period within living
+memory, deaths due to want of sanitary precautions were
+constantly dwelt upon in funeral sermons as "results of national
+sin," or as "inscrutable Providences."  That view has mainly
+passed away among the clergy of the more enlightened parts of the
+country, and we now find them, as a rule, active in spreading
+useful ideas as to the prevention of disease.  The religious
+press has been especially faithful in this respect, carrying to
+every household more just ideas of sanitary precautions and
+hygienic living.
+
+The attitude even of many among the most orthodox rulers in
+church and state has been changed by facts like these.  Lord
+Palmerston refusing the request of the Scotch clergy that a fast
+day be appointed to ward off cholera, and advising them to go
+home and clean their streets,--the devout Emperor William II
+forbidding prayer-meetings in a similar emergency, on the ground
+that they led to neglect of practical human means of help,--all
+this is in striking contrast to the older methods.
+
+Well worthy of note is the ground taken in 1893, at Philadelphia,
+by an eminent divine of the Protestant Episcopal Church.  The
+Bishop of Pennsylvania having issued a special call to prayer in
+order to ward off the cholera, this clergyman refused to respond
+to the call, declaring that to do so, in the filthy condition of
+the streets then prevailing in Philadelphia, would be
+blasphemous.
+
+In summing up the whole subject, we see that in this field, as in
+so many others, the triumph of scientific thought has gradually
+done much to evolve in the world not only a theology but also a
+religious spirit more and more worthy of the goodness of God and
+of the destiny of man.[340]
+
+[340] On the improvement in sanitation in London and elsewhere in
+the north of Europe, see the editorial and Report of the
+Conference  on Sanitation at Brighton, given in the London Times
+of August 27, 1888.  For the best authorities on the general
+subject in England, see Sir John Simon on English Sanitary
+Institutions, 1890; also his published Health Reports for 1887,
+cited in the Edinburgh Review for January, 1891.  See also
+Parkes's Hygiene, passim.  For the great increase in the mean
+length of life in France under better hygienic conditions, see
+Rambaud, La Civilisation contemporaine en France, p. 682.  For
+the approach to depopulation at Memphis, under the cesspool
+system in 1878, see Parkes, Hygiene, American appendix, p. 397.
+For the facts brought out in the investigation of the department
+of the city of New York by the Committee of the State Senate, of
+which the present writer was a member, see New York Senate
+Documents for 1865.  For decrease of death rate in New York city
+under the new Board of Health, beginning in 1866, and especially
+among children, see Buck, Hygiene and Popular Health, New York,
+1879, vol. ii, p. 573; and for wise remarks on religious duties
+during pestilence, see ibid., vol. ii, p. 579.  For a contrast
+between the old and new ideas regarding pestilences, see Charles
+Kingsley in Fraser's Magazine, vol. lviii, p. 134; also the
+sermon of Dr. Burns, in 1875, at the Cathedral of Glasgow before
+the Social Science Congress.  For a particularly bright and
+valuable statement of the triumphs of modern sanitation, see Mrs.
+Plunkett's article in The Popular Science Monthly for June, 1891.
+For the reply of Lord Palmerston to the Scotch clergy, see the
+well-known passage in Buckle.  For the order of the Emperor
+William, see various newspapers for September, 1892, and
+especially Public Opinion for September 24th.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+FROM "DEMONIACAL POSSESSION" TO INSANITY.
+
+I.  THEOLOGICAL IDEAS OF LUNACY AND ITS TREATMENT.
+
+
+Of all the triumphs won by science for humanity, few have been
+farther-reaching in good effects than the modern treatment of the
+insane.  But this is the result of a struggle long and severe
+between two great forces.  On one side have stood the survivals
+of various superstitions, the metaphysics of various
+philosophies, the dogmatism of various theologies, the literal
+interpretation of various sacred books, and especially of our
+own--all compacted into a creed that insanity is mainly or
+largely demoniacal possession; on the other side has stood
+science, gradually accumulating proofs that insanity is always
+the result of physical disease.
+
+I purpose in this chapter to sketch, as briefly as I may, the
+history of this warfare, or rather of this evolution of truth out
+of error.
+
+Nothing is more simple and natural, in the early stages of
+civilization, than belief in occult, self-conscious powers of
+evil.  Troubles and calamities come upon man; his ignorance of
+physical laws forbids him to attribute them to physical causes;
+he therefore attributes them sometimes to the wrath of a good
+being, but more frequently to the malice of an evil being.
+
+Especially is this the case with diseases.  The real causes of
+disease are so intricate that they are reached only after ages of
+scientific labour; hence they, above all, have been attributed
+to the influence of evil spirits.[341]
+
+[341] On the general attribution of disease to demoniacal
+influence, see Sprenger, History of Medicine, passim (note, for a
+later attitude, vol. ii, pp. 150-170, 178); Calmeil, De la Folie,
+Paris, 1845, vol. i, pp. 104, 105; Esquirol, Des Maladies
+Mentales, Paris, 1838, vol. i, p. 482; also Tylor, Primitive
+Culture. For a very plain and honest statement of this view in
+our own sacred books, see Oort, Hooykaas, and Kuenen, The Bible
+for Young People, English translation, chap. v, p. 167 and
+following; also Farrar's Life of Christ, chap. xvii.  For this
+idea in Greece and elsewhere, see Maury, La Magie, etc., vol.
+iii, p. 276, giving, among other citations, one from book v of
+the Odyssey.  On the influence of Platonism, see Esquirol and
+others, as above--the main passage cited is from the Phaedo.  For
+the devotion of the early fathers and doctors to this idea, see
+citations from Eusebius, Lactantius, St. Jerome, St. Augustine,
+St. John Chrysostom, St. Gregory Nazianzen, in Tissot,
+L'Imagination, p. 369; also Jacob (i.e., Paul Lecroix), Croyances
+Populaires, p. 183.  For St. Augustine, see also his De Civitate
+Dei, lib. xxii, chap. vii, and his Enarration in Psal., cxxxv, 1.
+For the breaking away of the religious orders in Italy from the
+entire supremacy of this idea, see Becavin, L'Ecole de Salerne,
+Paris, 1888; also Daremberg, Histoire de la Medecine.  Even so
+late as the Protestant Reformation, Martin Luther maintained
+(Table Talk, Hazlitt's translation, London, 1872, pp. 250, 256)
+that "Satan produces all the maladies which afflict mankind."
+
+
+But, if ordinary diseases were likely to be attributed to
+diabolical agency, how much more diseases of the brain, and
+especially the more obscure of these! These, indeed, seemed to
+the vast majority of mankind possible only on the theory of
+Satanic intervention:  any approach to a true theory of the
+connection between physical causes and mental results is one of
+the highest acquisitions of science.
+
+Here and there, during the whole historic period, keen men had
+obtained an inkling of the truth; but to the vast multitude,
+down to the end of the seventeenth century, nothing was more
+clear than that insanity is, in many if not in most cases,
+demoniacal possession.
+
+Yet at a very early date, in Greece and Rome, science had
+asserted itself, and a beginning had been made which seemed
+destined to bring a large fruitage of blessings.[342] In the
+fifth century before the Christian era, Hippocrates of Cos
+asserted the great truth that all madness is simply disease of
+the brain, thereby beginning a development of truth and mercy
+which lasted nearly a thousand years.  In the first century after
+Christ, Aretaeus carried these ideas yet further, observed the
+phenomena of insanity with great acuteness, and reached yet more
+valuable results.  Near the beginning of the following century,
+Soranus went still further in the same path, giving new results
+of research, and strengthening scientific truth.  Toward the end
+of the same century a new epoch was ushered in by Galen, under
+whom the same truth was developed yet further, and the path
+toward merciful treatment of the insane made yet more clear.  In
+the third century Celius Aurelianus received this deposit of
+precious truth, elaborated it, and brought forth the great idea
+which, had theology, citing biblical texts, not banished it,
+would have saved fifteen centuries of cruelty--an idea not fully
+recognised again till near the beginning of the present
+century--the idea that insanity is brain disease, and that the
+treatment of it must be gentle and kind.  In the sixth century
+Alexander of Tralles presented still more fruitful researches,
+and taught the world how to deal with melancholia; and, finally,
+in the seventh century, this great line of scientific men,
+working mainly under pagan auspices, was closed by Paul of
+Aegina, who under the protection of Caliph Omar made still
+further observations, but, above all, laid stress on the cure of
+madness as a disease, and on the absolute necessity of mild
+treatment.
+
+[342] It is significant of this scientific attitude that the
+Greek word for superstition means, literally, fear of gods or
+demons.
+
+
+Such was this great succession in the apostolate of science:
+evidently no other has ever shown itself more directly under
+Divine grace, illumination, and guidance.  It had given to the
+world what might have been one of its greatest blessings.[343]
+
+[343] For authorities regarding this development of scientific
+truth and mercy in antiquity, see especially Krafft-Ebing,
+Lehrbuch des Psychiatrie, Stuttgart, 1888, p. 40 and the pages
+following; Trelat, Recherches Historiques sur la Folie, Paris,
+1839; Semelaigne, L'Alienation mentale dans l'Antiquitie, Paris,
+1869; Dagron, Des Alienes, Paris, 1875; also Calmeil, De la
+Folie, Sprenger, and especially Isensee, Geschichte der Medicin,
+Berlin, 1840.
+
+
+This evolution of divine truth was interrupted by theology.
+There set into the early Church a current of belief which was
+destined to bring all these noble acquisitions of science and
+religion to naught, and, during centuries, to inflict tortures,
+physical and mental, upon hundreds of thousands of innocent men
+and women--a belief which held its cruel sway for nearly eighteen
+centuries; and this belief was that madness was mainly or largely
+possession by the devil.
+
+This idea of diabolic agency in mental disease had grown
+luxuriantly in all the Oriental sacred literatures.  In the
+series of Assyrian mythological tablets in which we find those
+legends of the Creation, the Fall, the Flood, and other early
+conceptions from which the Hebrews so largely drew the accounts
+wrought into the book of Genesis, have been discovered the
+formulas for driving out the evil spirits which cause disease.
+In the Persian theology regarding the struggle of the great
+powers of good and evil this idea was developed to its highest
+point.  From these and other ancient sources the Jews naturally
+received this addition to their earlier view:  the Mocker of the
+Garden of Eden became Satan, with legions of evil angels at his
+command; and the theory of diabolic causes of mental disease took
+a firm place in our sacred books.  Such cases in the Old
+Testament as the evil spirit in Saul, which we now see to have
+been simply melancholy--and, in the New Testament, the various
+accounts of the casting out of devils, through which is refracted
+the beautiful and simple story of that power by which Jesus of
+Nazareth soothed perturbed minds by his presence or quelled
+outbursts of madness by his words, give examples of this.  In
+Greece, too, an idea akin to this found lodgment both in the
+popular belief and in the philosophy of Plato and Socrates; and
+though, as we have seen, the great leaders in medical science had
+taught with more or less distinctness that insanity is the result
+of physical disease, there was a strong popular tendency to
+attribute the more troublesome cases of it to hostile spiritual
+influence.[344]
+
+[344] For the exorcism against disease found at Ninevah, see G.
+Smith, Delitzsch's German translation, p. 34.  For a very
+interesting passage regarding the representaion of a diabolic
+personage on a Babylonian bronze, and for a very frank statement
+regarding the transmission of ideas regarding Satanic power to
+our sacred books, see Sayce, Herodotus, appendix ii, p. 393.  It
+is, indeed, extremely doubtful whether Plato himself or his
+contemporaries knew anything of evil demons, this conception
+probably coming into the Greek world, as into the Latin, with the
+Oriental influences that began to prevail about the time of the
+birth of Christ; but to the early Christians, a demon was a
+demon, and Plato's, good or bad, were pagan, and therefore
+devils.  The Greek word "epilepsy" is itself a survival of the
+old belief, fossilized in a word, since its literal meaning
+refers to the SEIZURE of the patient by evil spirits.
+
+
+From all these sources, but especially from our sacred books and
+the writings of Plato, this theory that mental disease is caused
+largely or mainly by Satanic influence passed on into the early
+Church.  In the apostolic times no belief seems to have been more
+firmly settled.  The early fathers and doctors in the following
+age universally accepted it, and the apologists generally spoke
+of the power of casting out devils as a leading proof of the
+divine origin of the Christian religion.
+
+This belief took firm hold upon the strongest men.  The case of
+St. Gregory the Great is typical.  He was a pope of exceedingly
+broad mind for his time, and no one will think him unjustly
+reckoned one of the four Doctors of the Western Church.  Yet he
+solemnly relates that a nun, having eaten some lettuce without
+making the sign of the cross, swallowed a devil, and that, when
+commanded by a holy man to come forth, the devil replied:  "How
+am I to blame?   I was sitting on the lettuce, and this woman,
+not having made the sign of the cross, ate me along with
+it."[345]
+
+[345] For a striking statement of the Jewish belief in diabolical
+interference, see Josephus, De Bello Judaico, vii, 6, iii; also
+his Antiquities, vol. viii, Whiston's translation.  On the "devil
+cast out," in Mark ix, 17-29, as undoubtedly a case of epilepsy,
+see Cherullier, Essai sur l'Epilepsie; also Maury, art. Demonique
+in the Encyclopedie Moderne. In one text, at least, the popular
+belief is perfectly shown as confounding madness and possession:
+"He hath a devil,and is mad," John x, 20.  Among the multitude of
+texts, those most relied upon were Matthew viii, 28, and Luke x,
+17; and for the use of fetiches in driving out evil spirits, the
+account of the cures wrought by touching the garments of St. Paul
+in Acts xix, 12.  On the general subject, see authorities already
+given, and as a typical passage, Tertullian, Ad. Scap., ii.  For
+the very gross view taken by St. Basil, see Cudworth,
+Intellectual System, vol. ii, p. 648; also Archdeacon Farrar's
+Life of Christ.  For the case related by St. Gregory the Great
+with comical details, see the Exempla of Archbishop Jacques de
+Vitrie, edited by Prof. T. F. Crane, of Cornell University, p.
+59, art. cxxx.  For a curious presentation of Greek views, see
+Lelut, Le demon Socrate, Paris, 1856; and for the transmission of
+these to Christianity, see the same, p. 201 and following.
+
+
+As a result of this idea, the Christian Church at an early period
+in its existence virtually gave up the noble conquests of Greek
+and Roman science in this field, and originated, for persons
+supposed to be possessed, a regular discipline, developed out of
+dogmatic theology.  But during the centuries before theology and
+ecclesiasticism had become fully dominant this discipline was, as
+a rule, gentle and useful.  The afflicted, when not too violent,
+were generally admitted to the exercises of public worship, and a
+kindly system of cure was attempted, in which prominence was
+given to holy water, sanctified ointments, the breath or spittle
+of the priest, the touching of relics, visits to holy places, and
+submission to mild forms of exorcism.  There can be no doubt that
+many of these things, when judiciously used in that spirit of
+love and gentleness and devotion inherited by the earlier
+disciples from "the Master," produced good effects in soothing
+disturbed minds and in aiding their cure.
+
+Among the thousands of fetiches of various sorts then resorted to
+may be named, as typical, the Holy Handkerchief of Besancon.
+During many centuries multitudes came from far and near to touch
+it; for, it was argued, if touching the garments of St. Paul at
+Ephesus had cured the diseased, how much more might be expected
+of a handkerchief of the Lord himself!
+
+With ideas of this sort was mingled a vague belief in medical
+treatment, and out of this mixture were evolved such
+prescriptions as the following:
+
+"If an elf or a goblin come, smear his forehead with this salve,
+put it on his eyes, cense him with incense, and sign him
+frequently with the sign of the cross."
+
+"For a fiend-sick man:  When a devil possesses a man, or controls
+him from within with disease, a spew-drink of lupin, bishopswort,
+henbane, garlic.  Pound these together, add ale and holy water."
+
+And again:  "A drink for a fiend-sick man, to be drunk out of a
+church bell:  Githrife, cynoglossum, yarrow, lupin,
+flower-de-luce, fennel, lichen, lovage.  Work up to a drink with
+clear ale, sing seven masses over it, add garlic and holy water,
+and let the possessed sing the Beati Immaculati; then let him
+drink the dose out of a church bell, and let the priest sing over
+him the Domine Sancte Pater Omnipotens."[346]
+
+[346] See Cockayne, Leechdoms, Wort-cunning, and Star-Craft of
+Early England in the Rolls Series, vol. ii, p. 177; also pp. 355,
+356. For the great value of priestly saliva, see W. W. Story's
+essays.
+
+
+Had this been the worst treatment of lunatics developed in the
+theological atmosphere of the Middle Ages, the world would have
+been spared some of the most terrible chapters in its history;
+but, unfortunately, the idea of the Satanic possession of
+lunatics led to attempts to punish the indwelling demon.  As this
+theological theory and practice became more fully developed, and
+ecclesiasticism more powerful to enforce it, all mildness began
+to disappear; the admonitions to gentle treatment by the great
+pagan and Moslem physicians were forgotten, and the treatment of
+lunatics tended more and more toward severity:  more and more
+generally it was felt that cruelty to madmen was punishment of
+the devil residing within or acting upon them.
+
+A few strong churchmen and laymen made efforts to resist this
+tendency.  As far back as the fourth century, Nemesius, Bishop of
+Emesa, accepted the truth as developed by pagan physicians, and
+aided them in strengthening it.  In the seventh century, a
+Lombard code embodied a similar effort.  In the eighth century,
+one of Charlemagne's capitularies seems to have had a like
+purpose.  In the ninth century, that great churchman and
+statesman, Agobard, Archbishop of Lyons, superior to his time in
+this as in so many other things, tried to make right reason
+prevail in this field; and, near the beginning of the tenth
+century, Regino, Abbot of Prum, in the diocese of Treves,
+insisted on treating possession as disease.  But all in vain; the
+current streaming most directly from sundry texts in the
+Christian sacred books, and swollen by theology, had become
+overwhelming.[347]
+
+[347]  For a very thorough and interesting statement on the
+general subject, see Kirchhoff, Beziehungen des Damonen- und
+Hexenwesens zur deutschen Irrenpflege in the Allgemeine
+Zeitschrift fur Psychiatrie, Berlin, 1888, Bd. xliv, Heft 25.
+For Roman Catholic authority, see Addis and Arnold, Catholic
+Dictionary, article Energumens.  For a brief and eloquent
+summary, see Krefft-Ebing, Lehrbuch der Psychiatrie, as above;
+and for a clear view of the transition from pagan mildness in the
+care of the insane to severity and cruelty under the Christian
+Church, see Maudsley, The Pathology of the Mind, London, 1879, p.
+523.  See also Buchmann, Die undfreie und die freie Kirche,
+Bresleau, 1873, p. 251.  For other citations, see Kirchoff, as
+above, pp. 334-346.  For Bishop Nemesius, see Trelat, p. 48. For
+an account of Agobard's general position in regard to this and
+allied superstitions, see Reginald Lane Poole's Illustrations of
+the History of Medieval Thought, London, 1884.
+
+
+The first great tributary poured into this stream, as we approach
+the bloom of the Middle Ages, appears to have come from the brain
+of Michael Psellus.  Mingling scriptural texts, Platonic
+philosophy, and theological statements by great doctors of the
+Church, with wild utterances obtained from lunatics, he gave
+forth, about the beginning of the twelfth century, a treatise on
+The Work of Demons.  Sacred science was vastly enriched thereby
+in various ways; but two of his conclusions, the results of his
+most profound thought, enforced by theologians and popularized by
+preachers, soon took special hold upon the thinking portion of
+the people at large.  The first of these, which he easily based
+upon Scripture and St. Basil, was that, since all demons suffer
+by material fire and brimstone, they must have material bodies;
+the second was that, since all demons are by nature cold, they
+gladly seek a genial warmth by entering the bodies of men and
+beasts.[348]
+
+[348] See Baas and Werner, cited by Kirchhoff,as above; also
+Lecky, Rationalism in Europe, vol. i, p. 68, and note, New York,
+1884.  As to Basil's belief in the corporeality of devils, see
+his Commentary on Isaiah, cap. i.
+
+
+Fed by this stream of thought, and developed in the warm
+atmosphere of medieval devotion, the idea of demoniacal
+possession as the main source of lunacy grew and blossomed and
+bore fruit in noxious luxuriance.
+
+There had, indeed, come into the Middle Ages an inheritance of
+scientific thought.  The ideas of Hippocrates, Celius Aurelianus,
+Galen, and their followers, were from time to time revived; the
+Arabian physicians, the School of Salerno, such writers as
+Salicetus and Guy de Chauliac, and even some of the religious
+orders, did something to keep scientific doctrines alive; but
+the tide of theological thought was too strong; it became
+dangerous even to seem to name possible limits to diabolical
+power.  To deny Satan was atheism; and perhaps nothing did so
+much to fasten the epithet "atheist" upon the medical profession
+as the suspicion that it did not fully acknowledge diabolical
+interference in mental disease.  Following in the lines of the
+earlier fathers, St. Anselm, Abelard, St. Thomas Aquinas, Vincent
+of Beauvais, all the great doctors in the medieval Church, some
+of them in spite of occasional misgivings, upheld the idea that
+insanity is largely or mainly demoniacal possession, basing their
+belief steadily on the sacred Scriptures; and this belief was
+followed up in every quarter by more and more constant citation
+of the text "Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live."  No other
+text of Scripture--save perhaps one--has caused the shedding of
+so much innocent blood.
+
+As we look over the history of the Middle Ages, we do, indeed,
+see another growth from which one might hope much; for there
+were two great streams of influence in the Church, and never were
+two powers more unlike each other.
+
+On one side was the spirit of Christianity, as it proceeded from
+the heart and mind of its blessed Founder, immensely powerful in
+aiding the evolution of religious thought and effort, and
+especially of provision for the relief of suffering by religious
+asylums and tender care.  Nothing better expresses this than the
+touching words inscribed upon a great medieval hospital, "Christo
+in pauperibus suis."  But on the other side was the theological
+theory--proceeding, as we have seen, from the survival of ancient
+superstitions, and sustained by constant reference to the texts
+in our sacred books--that many, and probably most, of the insane
+were possessed by the devil or in league with him, and that the
+cruel treatment of lunatics was simply punishment of the devil
+and his minions.  By this current of thought was gradually
+developed one of the greatest masses of superstitious cruelty
+that has ever afflicted humanity.  At the same time the stream of
+Christian endeavour, so far as the insane were concerned, was
+almost entirely cut off.  In all the beautiful provision during
+the Middle Ages for the alleviation of human suffering, there was
+for the insane almost no care.  Some monasteries, indeed, gave
+them refuge.  We hear of a charitable work done for them at the
+London Bethlehem Hospital in the thirteenth century, at Geneva in
+the fifteenth, at Marseilles in the sixteenth, by the Black
+Penitents in the south of France, by certain Franciscans in
+northern France, by the Alexian Brothers on the Rhine, and by
+various agencies in other parts of Europe; but, curiously
+enough, the only really important effort in the Christian Church
+was stimulated by the Mohammedans.  Certain monks, who had much
+to do with them in redeeming Christian slaves, found in the
+fifteenth century what John Howard found in the eighteenth, that
+the Arabs and Turks made a large and merciful provision for
+lunatics, such as was not seen in Christian lands; and this
+example led to better establishments in Spain and Italy.
+
+All honour to this work and to the men who engaged in it; but,
+as a rule, these establishments were few and poor, compared with
+those for other diseases, and they usually degenerated into
+"mad-houses," where devils were cast out mainly by
+cruelty.[349]
+
+[349] For a very full and learned, if somewhat one-sided, account
+of the earlier effects of this stream of charitable thought, see
+Tollemer, Des Origines de la Charite Catholique, Paris, 1858.  It
+is instructive to note that, while this book is very full in
+regard to the action of the Church on slavery and on provision
+for the widows and orphans, the sick, infirm, captives, and
+lepers, there is hardly a trace of any care for the insane.  This
+same want is incidentally shown by a typical example in Kriegk,
+Aerzte, Heilanstalten und Geisteskranke im mittelalterlichen
+Frankfurt, Frankfurt a. M., 1863, pp. 16, 17; also Kirschhof, pp.
+396, 397.  On the general subject, see Semelaigne, as above, p.
+214; also Calmeil, vol. i, pp. 116, 117.  For the effect of
+Muslem example in Spain and Italy, see Krafft-Ebing, as above, p.
+45, note.
+
+
+The first main weapon against the indwelling Satan continued to
+be the exorcism; but under the influence of inferences from
+Scripture farther and farther fetched, and of theological
+reasoning more and more subtle, it became something very
+different from the gentle procedure of earlier times, and some
+description of this great weapon at the time of its highest
+development will throw light on the laws which govern the growth
+of theological reasoning, as well as upon the main subject in
+hand.
+
+A fundamental premise in the fully developed exorcism was that,
+according to sacred Scripture, a main characteristic of Satan is
+pride.  Pride led him to rebel; for pride he was cast down;
+therefore the first thing to do, in driving him out of a lunatic,
+was to strike a fatal blow at his pride,--to disgust him.
+
+This theory was carried out logically, to the letter.  The
+treatises on the subject simply astound one by their wealth of
+blasphemous and obscene epithets which it was allowable for the
+exorcist to use in casting out devils.  The Treasury of
+Exorcisms contains hundreds of pages packed with the vilest
+epithets which the worst imagination could invent for the purpose
+of overwhelming the indwelling Satan.[350]
+
+[350] Thesaurus Exorcismorum atque Conjurationum terribilium,
+potentissimorum, efficacissimorum, cum PRACTICA probatissima:
+quibus spiritus maligni, Daemones Maleficiaque omnia de
+Corporibus humanis obsessis, tanquam Flagellis Fustibusque
+fugantur, expelluntur, . . . Cologne, 1626.  Many of the books of
+the exorcists were put upon the various indexes of the Church,
+but this, the richest collection of all, and including nearly all
+those condemned, was not prohibited until 1709.  Scarcely less
+startling manuals continued even later in use; and exorcisms
+adapted to every emergency may of course still be found in all
+the Benedictionals of the Church, even the latest.  As an
+example, see the Manuale Benedictionum, published by the Bishop
+of Passau in 1849, or the Exorcismus in Satanam, etc., issued in
+1890 by the present Pope, and now on sale at the shop of the
+Propoganda in Rome.
+
+
+Some of those decent enough to be printed in these degenerate
+days ran as follows:
+
+"Thou lustful and stupid one,...thou lean sow, famine-stricken
+and most impure,...thou wrinkled beast, thou mangy beast, thou
+beast of all beasts the most beastly,...thou mad spirit,...
+thou bestial and foolish drunkard,...most greedy wolf,...most
+abominable whisperer,...thou sooty spirit from Tartarus!...I cast
+thee down, O Tartarean boor, into the infernal kitchen!...
+Loathsome cobbler,...dingy collier,...filthy sow (scrofa
+stercorata),...perfidious boar,...envious crocodile,...
+malodorous drudge,...wounded basilisk,...rust-coloured
+asp,... swollen toad,...entangled spider,...lousy swine-herd
+(porcarie pedicose),...lowest of the low,...cudgelled ass," etc.
+
+But, in addition to this attempt to disgust Satan's pride with
+blackguardism, there was another to scare him with tremendous
+words.  For this purpose, thunderous names, from Hebrew and
+Greek, were imported, such as Acharon, Eheye, Schemhamphora,
+Tetragrammaton, Homoousion, Athanatos, Ischiros, Aecodes, and the
+like.[351]
+
+[351] See the Conjuratio on p. 300 of the Thesaurus, and the
+general directions given on pp. 251, 251.
+
+
+Efforts were also made to drive him out with filthy and
+rank-smelling drugs; and, among those which can be mentioned in
+a printed article, we may name asafoetida, sulphur, squills,
+etc., which were to be burned under his nose.
+
+Still further to plague him, pictures of the devil were to be
+spat upon, trampled under foot by people of low condition, and
+sprinkled with foul compounds.
+
+But these were merely preliminaries to the exorcism proper.  In
+this the most profound theological thought and sacred science of
+the period culminated.
+
+Most of its forms were childish, but some rise to almost Miltonic
+grandeur.  As an example of the latter, we may take the
+following:
+
+"By the Apocalypse of Jesus Christ, which God hath given to make
+known unto his servants those things which are shortly to be;
+and hath signified, sending by his angel,...I exorcise you, ye
+angels of untold perversity!
+
+"By the seven golden candlesticks,...and by one like unto the
+Son of man, standing in the midst of the candlesticks; by his
+voice, as the voice of many waters;...by his words, `I am
+living, who was dead; and behold, I live forever and ever; and
+I have the keys of death and of hell,' I say unto you, Depart, O
+angels that show the way to eternal perdition!"
+
+Besides these, were long litanies of billingsgate, cursing, and
+threatening.  One of these "scourging" exorcisms runs partly as
+follows:
+
+"May Agyos strike thee, as he did Egypt, with frogs!...May all
+the devils that are thy foes rush forth upon thee, and drag thee
+down to hell!...May...Tetragrammaton...drive thee forth and
+stone thee, as Israel did to Achan!...May the Holy One trample
+on thee and hang thee up in an infernal fork, as was done to the
+five kings of the Amorites!...May God set a nail to your skull,
+and pound it in with a hammer, as Jael did unto Sisera!...
+May...Sother...break thy head and cut off thy hands, as was done
+to the cursed Dagon!...May God hang thee in a hellish yoke, as
+seven men were hanged by the sons of Saul!"  And so on, through
+five pages of close-printed Latin curses.[352]
+
+[352] Thesaurus Exorcismorum, pp. 812-817.
+
+
+Occasionally the demon is reasoned with, as follows:  "O
+obstinate, accursed, fly!...why do you stop and hold back, when
+you know that your strength is lost on Christ?   For it is hard
+for thee to kick against the pricks; and, verily, the longer it
+takes you to go, the worse it will go with you.  Begone, then:
+take flight, thou venomous hisser, thou lying worm, thou begetter
+of vipers!"[353]
+
+[353] Ibid., p. 859.
+
+
+This procedure and its results were recognised as among the
+glories of the Church.  As typical, we may mention an exorcism
+directed by a certain Bishop of Beauvais, which was so effective
+that five devils gave up possession of a sufferer and signed
+their names, each for himself and his subordinate imps, to an
+agreement that the possessed should be molested no more.  So,
+too, the Jesuit fathers at Vienna, in 1583, gloried in the fact
+that in such a contest they had cast out twelve thousand six
+hundred and fifty-two living devils.  The ecclesiastical annals
+of the Middle Ages, and, indeed, of a later period, abound in
+boasts of such "mighty works."[354]
+
+[354] In my previous chapters, especially that on meteorology, I
+have quoted extensively from the original treatises, of which a
+very large collection is in my posession; but in this chapter I
+have mainly availed myself of the copious translations given by
+M. H. Dziewicki, in his excellent article in The Nineteenth
+Century for October, 1888, entitled Exorcizo Te.  For valuable
+citations on the origin and spread of exorcism, see Lecky's
+European Morals (third English edition), vol. i, pp. 379-385.
+
+
+Such was the result of a thousand years of theological reasoning,
+by the strongest minds in Europe, upon data partly given in
+Scripture and partly inherited from paganism, regarding Satan and
+his work among men.
+
+Under the guidance of theology, always so severe against "science
+falsely so called," the world had come a long way indeed from the
+soothing treatment of the possessed by him who bore among the
+noblest of his titles that of "The Great Physician."  The result
+was natural:  the treatment of the insane fell more and more into
+the hands of the jailer, the torturer, and the executioner.
+
+To go back for a moment to the beginnings of this unfortunate
+development.  In spite of the earlier and more kindly tendency in
+the Church, the Synod of Ancyra, as early as 314 A.D., commanded
+the expulsion of possessed persons from the Church; the
+Visigothic Christians whipped them; and Charlemagne, in spite of
+some good enactments, imprisoned them.  Men and women, whose
+distempered minds might have been restored to health by
+gentleness and skill, were driven into hopeless madness by
+noxious medicines and brutality.  Some few were saved as mere
+lunatics--they were surrendered to general carelessness, and
+became simply a prey to ridicule and aimless brutality; but vast
+numbers were punished as tabernacles of Satan.
+
+One of the least terrible of these punishments, and perhaps the
+most common of all, was that of scourging demons out of the body
+of a lunatic.  This method commended itself even to the judgment
+of so thoughtful and kindly a personage as Sir Thomas More, and
+as late as the sixteenth century.  But if the disease continued,
+as it naturally would after such treatment, the authorities
+frequently felt justified in driving out the demons by
+torture.[355]
+
+[355] For prescription of the whipping-post by Sir Thomas More,
+see D. H. Tuke's History of Insanity in the British Isles,
+London, 1882, p. 41.
+
+
+Interesting monuments of this idea, so fruitful in evil, still
+exist.  In the great cities of central Europe, "witch towers,"
+where witches and demoniacs were tortured, and "fool towers,"
+where the more gentle lunatics were imprisoned, may still be
+seen.
+
+In the cathedrals we still see this idea fossilized.  Devils and
+imps, struck into stone, clamber upon towers, prowl under
+cornices, peer out from bosses of foliage, perch upon capitals,
+nestle under benches, flame in windows.  Above the great main
+entrance, the most common of all representations still shows
+Satan and his imps scowling, jeering, grinning, while taking
+possession of the souls of men and scourging them with serpents,
+or driving them with tridents, or dragging them with chains into
+the flaming mouth of hell.  Even in the most hidden and sacred
+places of the medieval cathedral we still find representations of
+Satanic power in which profanity and obscenity run riot.  In
+these representations the painter and the glass-stainer vied with
+the sculptor.  Among the early paintings on canvas a well-known
+example represents the devil in the shape of a dragon, perched
+near the head of a dying man, eager to seize his soul as it
+issues from his mouth, and only kept off by the efforts of the
+attendant priest.  Typical are the colossal portrait of Satan,
+and the vivid picture of the devils cast out of the possessed and
+entering into the swine, as shown in the cathedral-windows of
+Strasburg.  So, too, in the windows of Chartres Cathedral we see
+a saint healing a lunatic:  the saint, with a long devil-scaring
+formula in Latin issuing from his mouth; and the lunatic, with a
+little detestable hobgoblin, horned, hoofed, and tailed, issuing
+from HIS mouth.  These examples are but typical of myriads in
+cathedrals and abbeys and parish churches throughout Europe; and
+all served to impress upon the popular mind a horror of
+everything called diabolic, and a hatred of those charged with
+it.  These sermons in stones preceded the printed book; they
+were a sculptured Bible, which preceded Luther's pictorial
+Bible.[356]
+
+[356] I cite these instances out of a vast number which I have
+personally noted in visits to various cathedrals.  For striking
+examples of mediaeval grotesques, see Wright's History of
+Caricature and the Grotesque, London, 1875; Langlois's Stalles de
+la Cathedrale de Rouen, 1838; Adeline's Les Sculptures Grotesques
+et Symboliques, Rouen, 1878; Viollet le Duc, Dictionnaire de
+l'Architecture; Gailhabaud, Sur l'Architecture, etc.  For a
+reproduction of an illuminated manuscript in which devils fly out
+of the mouths of the possessed under the influence of exorcisms,
+see Cahier and Martin, Nouveaux Melanges d' Archeologie for 1874,
+p. 136; and for a demon emerging from a victim's mouth in a puff
+of smoke at the command of St. Francis Xavier, see La Devotion de
+Dix Vendredis, etc., Plate xxxii.
+
+
+Satan and his imps were among the principal personages in every
+popular drama, and "Hell's Mouth" was a piece of stage scenery
+constantly brought into requisition.  A miracle-play without a
+full display of the diabolic element in it would have stood a
+fair chance of being pelted from the stage.[357]
+
+[357] See Wright, History of Caricature and the Grotesque; F. J.
+Mone, Schauspiele des Mittelalters, Carlsruhe, 1846; Dr. Karl
+Hase, Miracle-Plays and Sacred Dramas, Boston,1880 (translation
+from the German).  Examples of the miracle-plays may be found in
+Marriott's Collection of English Miracle-Plays, 1838; in Hone's
+Ancient Mysteries; in T. Sharpe's Dissertaion on the Pageants . .
+. anciently performed at Coventry, Coventry, 1828; in the
+publications of the Shakespearean and other societies.  See
+especially The Harrowing of Hell, a miracle-play, edited from the
+original now in the British Museum, by T. O. Halliwell, London,
+1840.  One of the items still preserved is a sum of money paid
+for keeping a fire burning in hell's mouth.  Says Hase (as above,
+p. 42): "In wonderful satyrlike masquerade, in which neither
+horns, tails, nor hoofs were ever . . . wanting, the devil
+prosecuted on the stage his business of fetching souls," which
+left the mouths of the dying "in the form of small images."
+
+
+Not only the popular art but the popular legends embodied these
+ideas.  The chroniclers delighted in them; the Lives of the
+Saints abounded in them; sermons enforced them from every
+pulpit.  What wonder, then, that men and women had vivid dreams
+of Satanic influence, that dread of it was like dread of the
+plague, and that this terror spread the disease enormously, until
+we hear of convents, villages, and even large districts, ravaged
+by epidemics of diabolical possession![358]
+
+[358] I shall discuss these epidemics of possession, which form a
+somewhat distinct class of phenomena, in the next chapter.
+
+
+And this terror naturally bred not only active cruelty toward
+those supposed to be possessed, but indifference to the
+sufferings of those acknowledged to be lunatics.  As we have
+already seen, while ample and beautiful provision was made for
+every other form of human suffering, for this there was
+comparatively little; and, indeed, even this little was
+generally worse than none.  Of this indifference and cruelty we
+have a striking monument in a single English word--a word
+originally significant of gentleness and mercy, but which became
+significant of wild riot, brutality, and confusion-- Bethlehem
+Hospital became "Bedlam."
+
+Modern art has also dwelt upon this theme, and perhaps the most
+touching of all its exhibitions is the picture by a great French
+master, representing a tender woman bound to a column and exposed
+to the jeers, insults, and missiles of street ruffians.[359]
+
+[359] The typical picture representing a priest's struggle with
+the devil is in the city gallery of Rouen.  The modern picture is
+Robert Fleury's painting in the Luxembourg Gallery at Paris.
+
+
+Here and there, even in the worst of times, men arose who
+attempted to promote a more humane view, but with little effect.
+One expositor of St. Matthew, having ventured to recall the fact
+that some of the insane were spoken of in the New Testament as
+lunatics and to suggest that their madness might be caused by the
+moon, was answered that their madness was not caused by the moon,
+but by the devil, who avails himself of the moonlight for his
+work.[360]
+
+[360] See Geraldus Cambrensis, cited by Tuke, as above, pp. 8, 9.
+
+
+One result of this idea was a mode of cure which especially
+aggravated and spread mental disease:  the promotion of great
+religious processions.  Troops of men and women, crying, howling,
+imploring saints, and beating themselves with whips, visited
+various sacred shrines, images, and places in the hope of driving
+off the powers of evil.  The only result was an increase in the
+numbers of the diseased.
+
+For hundreds of years this idea of diabolic possession was
+steadily developed.  It was believed that devils entered into
+animals, and animals were accordingly exorcised, tried, tortured,
+convicted, and executed.  The great St. Ambrose tells us that a
+priest, while saying mass, was troubled by the croaking of frogs
+in a neighbouring marsh; that he exorcised them, and so stopped
+their noise.  St. Bernard, as the monkish chroniclers tell us,
+mounting the pulpit to preach in his abbey, was interrupted by a
+cloud of flies; straightway the saint uttered the sacred formula
+of excommunication, when the flies fell dead upon the pavement in
+heaps, and were cast out with shovels! A formula of exorcism
+attributed to a saint of the ninth century, which remained in use
+down to a recent period, especially declares insects injurious to
+crops to be possessed of evil spirits, and names, among the
+animals to be excommunicated or exorcised, mice, moles, and
+serpents.  The use of exorcism against caterpillars and
+grasshoppers was also common.  In the thirteenth century a Bishop
+of Lausanne, finding that the eels in Lake Leman troubled the
+fishermen, attempted to remove the difficulty by exorcism, and
+two centuries later one of his successors excommunicated all the
+May-bugs in the diocese.  As late as 1731 there appears an entry
+on the Municipal Register of Thonon as follows:  "RESOLVED, That
+this town join with other parishes of this province in obtaining
+from Rome an excommunication against the insects, and that it
+will contribute pro rata to the expenses of the same."
+
+Did any one venture to deny that animals could be possessed by
+Satan, he was at once silenced by reference to the entrance of
+Satan into the serpent in the Garden of Eden, and to the casting
+of devils into swine by the Founder of Christianity
+himself.[361]
+
+[361] See Menabrea, Proces au Moyen Age contre les Animaux,
+Chambery, 1846, pp. 31 and following; also Desmazes, Supplices,
+Prisons et Grace en France, pp. 89, 90, and 385-395.  For a
+formula and ceremonies used in excommunicating insects, see
+Rydberg, pp. 75 and following.
+
+
+One part of this superstition most tenaciously held was the
+belief that a human being could be transformed into one of the
+lower animals.  This became a fundamental point.  The most
+dreaded of predatory animals in the Middle Ages were the wolves.
+Driven from the hills and forests in the winter by hunger, they
+not only devoured the flocks, but sometimes came into the
+villages and seized children.  From time to time men and women
+whose brains were disordered dreamed that they had been changed
+into various animals, and especially into wolves.  On their
+confessing this, and often implicating others, many executions of
+lunatics resulted; moreover, countless sane victims, suspected of
+the same impossible crime, were forced by torture to confess it,
+and sent unpitied to the stake.  The belief in such a
+transformation pervaded all Europe, and lasted long even in
+Protestant countries.  Probably no article in the witch creed had
+more adherents in the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth
+centuries than this.  Nearly every parish in Europe had its
+resultant horrors.
+
+The reformed Church in all its branches fully accepted the
+doctrines of witchcraft and diabolic possession, and developed
+them still further.  No one urged their fundamental ideas more
+fully than Luther.  He did, indeed, reject portions of the
+witchcraft folly; but to the influence of devils he not only
+attributed his maladies, but his dreams, and nearly everything
+that thwarted or disturbed him.  The flies which lighted upon his
+book, the rats which kept him awake at night, he believed to be
+devils; the resistance of the Archbishop of Mayence to his
+ideas, he attributed to Satan literally working in that prelate's
+heart; to his disciples he told stories of men who had been
+killed by rashly resisting the devil.  Insanity, he was quite
+sure, was caused by Satan, and he exorcised sufferers.  Against
+some he appears to have advised stronger remedies; and his horror
+of idiocy, as resulting from Satanic influence, was so great,
+that on one occasion he appears to have advised the killing of an
+idiot child, as being the direct offspring of Satan.  Yet Luther
+was one of the most tender and loving of men; in the whole range
+of literature there is hardly anything more touching than his
+words and tributes to children.  In enforcing his ideas regarding
+insanity, he laid stress especially upon the question of St.
+Paul as to the bewitching of the Galatians, and, regarding
+idiocy, on the account in Genesis of the birth of children whose
+fathers were "sons of God" and whose mothers were "daughters of
+men."  One idea of his was especially characteristic.  The
+descent of Christ into hell was a frequent topic of discussion in
+the Reformed Church.  Melanchthon, with his love of Greek
+studies, held that the purpose of the Saviour in making such a
+descent was to make himself known to the great and noble men of
+antiquity--Plato, Socrates, and the rest; but Luther insisted
+that his purpose was to conquer Satan in a hand-to-hand struggle.
+
+This idea of diabolic influence pervaded his conversation, his
+preaching, his writings, and spread thence to the Lutheran Church
+in general.  Calvin also held to the same theory, and, having
+more power with less kindness of heart than Luther, carried it
+out with yet greater harshness.  Beza was especially severe
+against those who believed insanity to be a natural malady, and
+declared, "Such persons are refuted both by sacred and profane
+history."
+
+Under the influence, then, of such infallible teachings, in the
+older Church and in the new, this superstition was developed more
+and more into cruelty; and as the biblical texts, popularized in
+the sculptures and windows and mural decorations of the great
+medieval cathedrals, had done much to develop it among the
+people, so Luther's translation of the Bible, especially in the
+numerous editions of it illustrated with engravings, wrought with
+enormous power to spread and deepen it.  In every peasant's
+cottage some one could spell out the story of the devil bearing
+Christ through the air and placing him upon the pinnacle of the
+Temple--of the woman with seven devils--of the devils cast into
+the swine.  Every peasant's child could be made to understand the
+quaint pictures in the family Bible or the catechism which
+illustrated vividly all those texts.  In the ideas thus deeply
+implanted, the men who in the seventeenth and eighteenth
+centuries struggled against this mass of folly and cruelty found
+the worst barrier to right reason.[362]
+
+[362] For Luther, see, among the vast number of similar passages
+in his works, the Table Talk, Hazlitt's translation, pp. 251,
+252.  As to the grotesques in mediaeval churches, the writer of
+this article, in visiting the town church of Wittenberg, noticed,
+just opposite the pulpit where Luther so often preached, a very
+spirited figure of an imp peering out upon the congregation.  One
+can but suspect that this mediaeval survival frequently suggested
+Luther's favourite topic during his sermons.  For Beza, see his
+Notes on the New Testament, Matthew iv, 24.
+
+
+Such was the treatment of demoniacs developed by theology, and
+such the practice enforced by ecclesiasticism for more than a
+thousand years.
+
+How an atmosphere was spread in which this belief began to
+dissolve away, how its main foundations were undermined by
+science, and how there came in gradually a reign of humanity,
+will now be related.
+
+
+
+II.  BEGINNINGS OF A HEALTHFUL SCEPTICISM.
+
+
+We have now seen the culmination of the old procedure regarding
+insanity, as it was developed under theology and enforced by
+ecclesiasticism; and we have noted how, under the influence of
+Luther and Calvin, the Reformation rather deepened than weakened
+the faith in the malice and power of a personal devil.  Nor was
+this, in the Reformed churches any more than in the old, mere
+matter of theory.  As in the early ages of Christianity, its
+priests especially appealed, in proof of the divine mission, to
+their power over the enemy of mankind in the bodies of men, so
+now the clergy of the rival creeds eagerly sought opportunities
+to establish the truth of their own and the falsehood of their
+opponents' doctrines by the visible casting out of devils.  True,
+their methods differed somewhat:  where the Catholic used holy
+water and consecrated wax, the Protestant was content with texts
+of Scripture and importunate prayer; but the supplementary
+physical annoyance of the indwelling demon did not greatly vary.
+Sharp was the competition for the unhappy objects of treatment.
+Each side, of course, stoutly denied all efficacy to its
+adversaries' efforts, urging that any seeming victory over Satan
+was due not to the defeat but to the collusion of the fiend.  As,
+according to the Master himself, "no man can by Beelzebub cast
+out devils," the patient was now in greater need of relief than
+before; and more than one poor victim had to bear alternately
+Lutheran, Roman, and perhaps Calvinistic exorcism.[363]
+
+[363] For instances of this competition, see Freytag, Aus dem
+Jahrh. d. Reformation, pp. 359-375.  The Jesuit Stengel, in his
+De judiciis divinis (Ingolstadt, 1651), devotes a whole chapter
+to an exorcism, by the great Canisius, of a spirit that had
+baffled Protestant conjuration.  Among the most jubilant Catholic
+satires of the time are those exulting in Luther's alleged
+failure as an exorcist.
+
+
+But far more serious in its consequences was another rivalry to
+which in the sixteenth century the clergy of all creeds found
+themselves subject.  The revival of the science of medicine,
+under the impulse of the new study of antiquity, suddenly bade
+fair to take out of the hands of the Church the profession of
+which she had enjoyed so long and so profitable a monopoly.  Only
+one class of diseases remained unquestionably hers--those which
+were still admitted to be due to the direct personal interference
+of Satan--and foremost among these was insanity.[364]] It was
+surely no wonder that an age of religious controversy and
+excitement should be exceptionally prolific in ailments of the
+mind; and, to men who mutually taught the utter futility of that
+baptismal exorcism by which the babes of their misguided
+neighbours were made to renounce the devil and his works, it
+ought not to have seemed strange that his victims now became more
+numerous.[365] But so simple an explanation did not satisfy
+these physicians of souls; they therefore devised a simpler one:
+their patients, they alleged, were bewitched, and their increase
+was due to the growing numbers of those human allies of Satan
+known as witches.
+
+[364] For the attitude of the Catholic clergy, the best sources
+are the confidential Jesuit Litterae Annuae.  To this day the
+numerous treatises on "pastoral medicine" in use in the older
+Church devote themselves mainly to this sort of warfare with the
+devil.
+
+[365] Baptismal exorcism continued in use among the Lutherans
+till the eighteenth century, though the struggle over its
+abandonment had been long and sharp.  See Krafft, Histories vom
+Exorcismo, Hamburg, 1750.
+
+
+Already, before the close of the fifteenth century, Pope Innocent
+VIII had issued the startling bull by which he called on the
+archbishops, bishops, and other clergy of Germany to join hands
+with his inquisitors in rooting out these willing bond-servants
+of Satan, who were said to swarm throughout all that country and
+to revel in the blackest crimes.  Other popes had since
+reiterated the appeal; and, though none of these documents
+touched on the blame of witchcraft for diabolic possession, the
+inquisitors charged with their execution pointed it out most
+clearly in their fearful handbook, the Witch-Hammer, and
+prescribed the special means by which possession thus caused
+should be met.  These teachings took firm root in religious minds
+everywhere; and during the great age of witch-burning that
+followed the Reformation it may well be doubted whether any
+single cause so often gave rise to an outbreak of the persecution
+as the alleged bewitchment of some poor mad or foolish or
+hysterical creature. The persecution, thus once under way, fed
+itself; for, under the terrible doctrine of "excepted cases," by
+which in the religious crimes of heresy and witchcraft there was
+no limit to the use of torture, the witch was forced to confess
+to accomplices, who in turn accused others, and so on to the end
+of the chapter.[366]
+
+[366] The Jesuit Stengel, professor at Ingolstadt, who (in his
+great work, De judiciis divinis) urges, as reasons why a merciful
+God permits illness, his wish to glorify himself through the
+miracles wrought by his Church, and his desire to test the faith
+of men by letting them choose between the holy aid of the Church
+and the illicit resort to medicine, declares that there is a
+difference between simple possession and that brought by
+bewitchment, and insists that the latter is the more difficult to
+treat.
+
+
+The horrors of such a persecution, with the consciousness of an
+ever-present devil it breathed and the panic terror of him it
+inspired, could not but aggravate the insanity it claimed to
+cure.  Well-authenticated, though rarer than is often believed,
+were the cases where crazed women voluntarily accused themselves
+of this impossible crime.  One of the most eminent authorities on
+diseases of the mind declares that among the unfortunate beings
+who were put to death for witchcraft he recognises well-marked
+victims of cerebral disorders; while an equally eminent
+authority in Germany tells us that, in a most careful study of
+the original records of their trials by torture, he has often
+found their answers and recorded conversations exactly like those
+familiar to him in our modern lunatic asylums, and names some
+forms of insanity which constantly and un mistakably appear among
+those who suffered for criminal dealings with the devil.[367]
+The result of this widespread terror was naturally, therefore, a
+steady increase in mental disorders.  A great modern authority
+tells us that, although modern civilization tends to increase
+insanity, the number of lunatics at present is far less than in
+the ages of faith and in the Reformation period.  The treatment
+of the "possessed," as we find it laid down in standard
+treatises, sanctioned by orthodox churchmen and jurists, accounts
+for this abundantly.  One sort of treatment used for those
+accused of witchcraft will also serve to show this--the "tortura
+insomniae."  Of all things in brain-disease, calm and regular
+sleep is most certainly beneficial; yet, under this practice,
+these half-crazed creatures were prevented, night after night and
+day after day, from sleeping or even resting.  In this way
+temporary delusion became chronic insanity, mild cases became
+violent, torture and death ensued, and the "ways of God to man"
+were justified.[368]  But the most contemptible creatures in
+all those centuries were the physicians who took sides with
+religious orthodoxy.  While we have, on the side of truth, Flade
+sacrificing his life, Cornelius Agrippa his liberty, Wier and
+Loos their hopes of preferment, Bekker his position, and
+Thomasius his ease, reputation, and friends, we find, as allies
+of the other side, a troop of eminently respectable doctors
+mixing Scripture, metaphysics, and pretended observations to
+support the "safe side" and to deprecate interference with the
+existing superstition, which seemed to them "a very safe belief
+to be held by the common people."[369]
+
+[367] See D. H. Tuke, Chapters in the History of the Insane in
+the British Isles, London, 1822, p. 36; also Kirchhoff, p. 340.
+The forms of insanity especially mentioned are "dementia senilis"
+and epilepsy.  A striking case of voluntary confession of
+witchcraft by a woman who lived to recover from the delusion is
+narrated in great detail by Reginald Scot, in his Discovery of
+Witchcraft, London, 1584.  It is, alas, only too likely that the
+"strangeness" caused by slight and unrecognised mania led often
+to the accusation of witchcraft instead of to the suspicion of
+possession.
+
+[368] See Kirchhoff, as above.
+
+[369] For the arguments used by creatures of this sort, see
+Diefenbach, Der Hexenwahn vor und nach der Glaubensspaltung in
+Deutschland, pp. 342-346.  A long list of their infamous names is
+given on p. 345.
+
+
+Against one form of insanity both Catholics and Protestants were
+especially cruel.  Nothing is more common in all times of
+religious excitement than strange personal hallucinations,
+involving the belief, by the insane patient, that he is a divine
+person.  In the most striking representation of insanity that has
+ever been made, Kaulbach shows, at the centre of his wonderful
+group, a patient drawing attention to himself as the Saviour of
+the world.
+
+Sometimes, when this form of disease took a milder hysterical
+character, the subject of it was treated with reverence, and even
+elevated to sainthood:  such examples as St. Francis of Assisi
+and St. Catherine of Siena in Italy, St. Bridget in Sweden, St.
+Theresa in Spain, St. Mary Alacoque in France, and Louise Lateau
+in Belgium, are typical.  But more frequently such cases shocked
+public feeling, and were treated with especial rigour:  typical
+of this is the case of Simon Marin, who in his insanity believed
+himself to be the Son of God, and was on that account burned
+alive at Paris and his ashes scattered to the winds.[370]
+
+[370] As to the frequency among the insane of this form of
+belief, see Calmeil, vol. ii, p. 257; also Maudsley, Pathology of
+Mind, pp. 201, 202, and 418-424; also Rambaud, Histoire de la
+Civilisation en France, vol. ii, p. 110.  For the peculiar
+abberations of the saints above named and other ecstatics, see
+Maudsley, as above, pp. 71, 72, and 149, 150.  Maudsley's
+chapters on this and cognate subjects are certainly among the
+most valuable contributions to modern thought.  For a discussion
+of the most recent case, see Warlomont, Louise Lateau, Paris,
+1875.
+
+
+The profundity of theologians and jurists constantly developed
+new theories as to the modes of diabolic entrance into the
+"possessed."  One such theory was that Satan could be taken into
+the mouth with one's food--perhaps in the form of an insect
+swallowed on a leaf of salad, and this was sanctioned, as we have
+seen, by no less infallible an authority than Gregory the Great,
+Pope and Saint--Another theory was that Satan entered the body
+when the mouth was opened to breathe, and there are
+well-authenticated cases of doctors and divines who, when casting
+out evil spirits, took especial care lest the imp might jump into
+their own mouths from the mouth of the patient.  Another theory
+was that the devil entered human beings during sleep; and at a
+comparatively recent period a King of Spain was wont to sleep
+between two monks, to keep off the devil.[371]
+
+[371] As to the devil's entering into the mouth while eating, see
+Calmeil, as above, vol. ii, pp. 105, 106.  As to the dread of Dr.
+Borde lest the evil spirit, when exorcised, might enter his own
+body, see Tuke, as above, p. 28.  As to the King of Spain, see
+the noted chapter in Buckle's History of Civilization in England.
+
+
+The monasteries were frequent sources of that form of mental
+disease which was supposed to be caused by bewitchment.  From the
+earliest period it is evident that monastic life tended to
+develop insanity.  Such cases as that of St. Anthony are typical
+of its effects upon the strongest minds; but it was especially
+the convents for women that became the great breeding-beds of
+this disease.  Among the large numbers of women and girls thus
+assembled--many of them forced into monastic seclusion against
+their will, for the reason that their families could give them no
+dower--subjected to the unsatisfied longings, suspicions,
+bickerings, petty jealousies, envies, and hatreds, so inevitable
+in convent life--mental disease was not unlikely to be developed
+at any moment.  Hysterical excitement in nunneries took shapes
+sometimes comical, but more generally tragical.  Noteworthy is it
+that the last places where executions for witchcraft took place
+were mainly in the neighbourhood of great nunneries; and the
+last famous victim, of the myriads executed in Germany for this
+imaginary crime, was Sister Anna Renata Singer, sub-prioress of a
+nunnery near Wurzburg.[372]
+
+[372] Among the multitude of authorities on this point, see
+Kirchhoff, as above, p. 337; and for a most striking picture of
+this dark side of convent life, drawn, indeed, by a devoted Roman
+Catholic, see Manzoni's Promessi Sposi.  On Anna Renata there is
+a striking essay by the late Johannes Scherr, in his
+Hammerschlage und Historien.  On the general subject of hysteria
+thus developed, see the writings of Carpenter and Tuke; and as to
+its natural development in nunneries, see Maudsley,
+Responsibility in Mental Disease, p. 9.  Especial attention will
+be paid to this in the chapter on Diabolism and Hysteria.
+
+
+The same thing was seen among young women exposed to sundry
+fanatical Protestant preachers.  Insanity, both temporary and
+permanent, was thus frequently developed among the Huguenots of
+France, and has been thus produced in America, from the days of
+the Salem persecution down to the "camp meetings" of the present
+time.[373]
+
+[373] This branch of the subject will be discussed more at length
+in a future chapter.
+
+
+At various times, from the days of St. Agobard of Lyons in the
+ninth century to Pomponatius in the sixteenth, protests or
+suggestions, more or less timid, had been made by thoughtful men
+against this system.  Medicine had made some advance toward a
+better view, but the theological torrent had generally
+overwhelmed all who supported a scientific treatment.  At last,
+toward the end of the sixteenth century, two men made a beginning
+of a much more serious attack upon this venerable superstition.
+The revival of learning, and the impulse to thought on material
+matters given during the "age of discovery," undoubtedly produced
+an atmosphere which made the work of these men possible.  In the
+year 1563, in the midst of demonstrations of demoniacal
+possession by the most eminent theologians and judges, who sat in
+their robes and looked wise, while women, shrieking, praying, and
+blaspheming, were put to the torture, a man arose who dared to
+protest effectively that some of the persons thus charged might
+be simply insane; and this man was John Wier, of Cleves.
+
+His protest does not at this day strike us as particularly bold.
+In his books, De Praestigiis Daemonum and De Lamiis, he did his
+best not to offend religious or theological susceptibilities;
+but he felt obliged to call attention to the mingled fraud and
+delusion of those who claimed to be bewitched, and to point out
+that it was often not their accusers, but the alleged witches
+themselves, who were really ailing, and to urge that these be
+brought first of all to a physician.
+
+His book was at once attacked by the most eminent theologians.
+One of the greatest laymen of his time, Jean Bodin, also wrote
+with especial power against it, and by a plentiful use of
+scriptural texts gained to all appearance a complete victory:
+this superstition seemed thus fastened upon Europe for a thousand
+years more.  But doubt was in the air, and, about a quarter of a
+century after the publication of Wier's book there were published
+in France the essays of a man by no means so noble, but of far
+greater genius--Michel de Montaigne.  The general scepticism
+which his work promoted among the French people did much to
+produce an atmosphere in which the belief in witchcraft and
+demoniacal possession must inevitably wither.  But this process,
+though real, was hidden, and the victory still seemed on the
+theological side.
+
+The development of the new truth and its struggle against the old
+error still went on.  In Holland, Balthazar Bekker wrote his
+book against the worst forms of the superstition, and attempted
+to help the scientific side by a text from the Second Epistle of
+St. Peter, showing that the devils had been confined by the
+Almighty, and therefore could not be doing on earth the work
+which was imputed to them.  But Bekker's Protestant brethren
+drove him from his pulpit, and he narrowly escaped with his life.
+
+The last struggles of a great superstition are very frequently
+the worst.  So it proved in this case.  In the first half of
+the seventeenth century the cruelties arising from the old
+doctrine were more numerous and severe than ever before.  In
+Spain, Sweden, Italy, and, above all, in Germany, we see constant
+efforts to suppress the evolution of the new truth.
+
+But in the midst of all this reactionary rage glimpses of right
+reason began to appear.  It is significant that at this very
+time, when the old superstition was apparently everywhere
+triumphant, the declaration by Poulet that he and his brother and
+his cousin had, by smearing themselves with ointment, changed
+themselves into wolves and devoured children, brought no severe
+punishment upon them.  The judges sent him to a mad-house.  More
+and more, in spite of frantic efforts from the pulpit to save the
+superstition, great writers and jurists, especially in France,
+began to have glimpses of the truth and courage to uphold it.
+Malebranche spoke against the delusion; Seguier led the French
+courts to annul several decrees condemning sorcerers; the great
+chancellor, D'Aguesseau, declared to the Parliament of Paris
+that, if they wished to stop sorcery, they must stop talking
+about it--that sorcerers are more to be pitied than
+blamed.[374]
+
+[374] See Esquirol, Des Maladies mentales, vol. i, pp. 488, 489;
+vol. ii, p. 529.
+
+
+But just at this time, as the eighteenth century was approaching,
+the theological current was strengthened by a great
+ecclesiastic--the greatest theologian that France has produced,
+whose influence upon religion and upon the mind of Louis XIV was
+enormous--Bossuet, Bishop of Meaux.  There had been reason to
+expect that Bossuet would at least do something to mitigate the
+superstition; for his writings show that, in much which before
+his day had been ascribed to diabolic possession, he saw simple
+lunacy.  Unfortunately, the same adherence to the literal
+interpretation of Scripture which led him to oppose every other
+scientific truth developed in his time, led him also to attack
+this:  he delivered and published two great sermons, which, while
+showing some progress in the form of his belief, showed none the
+less that the fundamental idea of diabolic possession was still
+to be tenaciously held.  What this idea was may be seen in one
+typical statement:  he declared that "a single devil could turn
+the earth round as easily as we turn a marble."[375]
+
+[375] See the two sermons, Sur les Demons (which are virtually
+but two versions of the same sermon), in Bousset's works, edition
+of 1845, vol. iii, p. 236 et seq.; also Dziewicki, in The
+Nineteenth Century, as above.  On Bousset's resistance to other
+scientific truths, especially in astronomy, geology, and
+political economy, see other chapters in this work.
+
+
+
+
+III.  THE FINAL STRUGGLE AND VICTORY OF SCIENCE.--
+PINEL AND TUKE.
+
+
+The theological current, thus re-enforced, seemed to become again
+irresistible; but it was only so in appearance.  In spite of it,
+French scepticism continued to develop; signs of quiet change
+among the mass of thinking men were appearing more and more; and
+in 1672 came one of great significance, for, the Parliament of
+Rouen having doomed fourteen sorcerers to be burned, their
+execution was delayed for two years, evidently on account of
+scepticism among officials; and at length the great minister of
+Louis XIV, Colbert, issued an edict checking such trials, and
+ordering the convicted to be treated for madness.
+
+Victory seemed now to incline to the standard of science, and in
+1725 no less a personage than St. Andre, a court physician,
+dared to publish a work virtually showing "demoniacal possession"
+to be lunacy.
+
+The French philosophy, from the time of its early development in
+the eighteenth century under Montesquieu and Voltaire, naturally
+strengthened the movement; the results of post-mortem
+examinations of the brains of the "possessed" confirmed it; and
+in 1768 we see it take form in a declaration by the Parliament of
+Paris, that possessed persons were to be considered as simply
+diseased.  Still, the old belief lingered on, its life
+flickering up from time to time in those parts of France most
+under ecclesiastical control, until in these last years of the
+nineteenth century a blow has been given it by the researches of
+Charcot and his compeers which will probably soon extinguish it.
+One evidence of Satanic intercourse with mankind especially, on
+which for many generations theologians had laid peculiar stress,
+and for which they had condemned scores of little girls and
+hundreds of old women to a most cruel death, was found to be
+nothing more than one of the many results of hysteria.[376]
+
+[376] For Colbert's influence, see Dagron, p. 8; also Rambaud, as
+above, vol. ii, p. 155.  For St. Andre, see Lacroix, as above,
+pp. 189, 190.  For Charcot's researches into the disease now
+known as Meteorismus hystericus, but which was formerly regarded
+in the ecclesiastical courts as an evidence of pregnancy through
+relations with Satan, see Snell, Hexenprocesse un Geistesstorung,
+Munchen, 1891, chaps. xii and xiii.
+
+
+In England the same warfare went on.  John Locke had asserted
+the truth, but the theological view continued to control public
+opinion.  Most prominent among those who exercised great power
+in its behalf was John Wesley, and the strength and beauty of his
+character made his influence in this respect all the more
+unfortunate.  The same servitude to the mere letter of Scripture
+which led him to declare that "to give up witchcraft is to give
+up the Bible," controlled him in regard to insanity.  He
+insisted, on the authority of the Old Testament, that bodily
+diseases are sometimes caused by devils, and, upon the authority
+of the New Testament, that the gods of the heathen are demons; he
+believed that dreams, while in some cases caused by bodily
+conditions and passions, are shown by Scripture to be also caused
+by occult powers of evil; he cites a physician to prove that
+"most lunatics are really demoniacs."  In his great sermon on
+Evil Angels, he dwells upon this point especially; resists the
+idea that "possession" may be epilepsy, even though ordinary
+symptoms of epilepsy be present; protests against "giving up to
+infidels such proofs of an invisible world as are to be found in
+diabolic possession"; and evidently believes that some who have
+been made hysterical by his own preaching are "possessed of
+Satan."  On all this, and much more to the same effect, he
+insisted with all the power given to him by his deep religious
+nature, his wonderful familiarity with the Scriptures, his
+natural acumen, and his eloquence.
+
+But here, too, science continued its work.  The old belief was
+steadily undermined, an atmosphere favourable to the truth was
+more and more developed, and the act of Parliament, in 1735,
+which banished the crime of witchcraft from the statute book, was
+the beginning of the end.
+
+In Germany we see the beginnings of a similar triumph for
+science.  In Prussia, that sturdy old monarch, Frederick William
+I, nullified the efforts of the more zealous clergy and orthodox
+jurists to keep up the old doctrine in his dominions; throughout
+Protestant Germany, where it had raged most severely, it was, as
+a rule, cast out of the Church formulas, catechisms, and hymns,
+and became more and more a subject for jocose allusion.  From
+force of habit, and for the sake of consistency, some of the more
+conservative theologians continued to repeat the old arguments,
+and there were many who insisted upon the belief as absolutely
+necessary to ordinary orthodoxy; but it is evident that it had
+become a mere conventionality, that men only believed that they
+believed it, and now a reform seemed possible in the treatment of
+the insane.[377]
+
+[377] For John Locke, see King's Life of Locke, pp. 326, 327.
+For Wesley, out of his almost innumerable writings bearing on the
+subject, I may select the sermon on Evil Angels, and his Letter
+to Dr. Middleton; and in his collected works, there are many
+striking statements and arguments, especially in vols. iii, vi,
+and ix.  See also Tyerman's Life of Wesley, vol. ii, pp. 260 et
+seq. Luther's great hymn, Ein' feste Burg, remained, of course, a
+prominent exception to the rule; but a popular proverb came to
+express the general feeling: "Auf Teufel reimt sich Zweifel."
+See Langin, as above, pp. 545, 546.
+
+
+In Austria, the government set Dr. Antonio Haen at making
+careful researches into the causes of diabolic possession.  He
+did not think it best, in view of the power of the Church, to
+dispute the possibility or probability of such cases, but simply
+decided, after thorough investigation, that out of the many cases
+which had been brought to him, not one supported the belief in
+demoniacal influence.  An attempt was made to follow up this
+examination, and much was done by men like Francke and Van
+Swieten, and especially by the reforming emperor, Joseph II, to
+rescue men and women who would otherwise have fallen victims to
+the prevalent superstition.  Unfortunately, Joseph had arrayed
+against himself the whole power of the Church, and most of his
+good efforts seemed brought to naught.  But what the noblest of
+the old race of German emperors could not do suddenly, the German
+men of science did gradually.  Quietly and thoroughly, by proofs
+that could not be gainsaid, they recovered the old scientific
+fact established in pagan Greece and Rome, that madness is simply
+physical disease.  But they now established it on a basis that
+can never again be shaken; for, in post-mortem examinations of
+large numbers of "possessed" persons, they found evidence of
+brain-disease.  Typical is a case at Hamburg in 1729.  An
+afflicted woman showed in a high degree all the recognised
+characteristics of diabolic possession:  exorcisms, preachings,
+and sanctified remedies of every sort were tried in vain; milder
+medical means were then tried, and she so far recovered that she
+was allowed to take the communion before she died:  the autopsy,
+held in the presence of fifteen physicians and a public notary,
+showed it to be simply a case of chronic meningitis.  The work of
+German men of science in this field is noble indeed; a great
+succession, from Wier to Virchow, have erected a barrier against
+which all the efforts of reactionists beat in vain.[378]
+
+[378] See Kirchhoff, pp. 181-187; also Langin, Religion und
+Hexenprozess, as above cited.
+
+
+In America, the belief in diabolic influence had, in the early
+colonial period, full control.  The Mathers, so superior to
+their time in many things, were children of their time in this:
+they supported the belief fully, and the Salem witchcraft horrors
+were among its results; but the discussion of that folly by Calef
+struck it a severe blow, and a better influence spread rapidly
+throughout the colonies.
+
+By the middle of the eighteenth century belief in diabolic
+possession had practically disappeared from all enlightened
+countries, and during the nineteenth century it has lost its hold
+even in regions where the medieval spirit continues strongest.
+Throughout the Middle Ages, as we have seen, Satan was a leading
+personage in the miracle-plays, but in 1810 the Bavarian
+Government refused to allow the Passion Play at Ober-Ammergau if
+Satan was permitted to take any part in it; in spite of heroic
+efforts to maintain the old belief, even the childlike faith of
+the Tyrolese had arrived at a point which made a representation
+of Satan simply a thing to provoke laughter.
+
+Very significant also was the trial which took place at Wemding,
+in southern Germany, in 1892.  A boy had become hysterical, and
+the Capuchin Father Aurelian tried to exorcise him, and charged a
+peasant's wife, Frau Herz, with bewitching him, on evidence that
+would have cost the woman her life at any time during the
+seventeenth century.  Thereupon the woman's husband brought suit
+against Father Aurelian for slander.  The latter urged in his
+defence that the boy was possessed of an evil spirit, if anybody
+ever was; that what had been said and done was in accordance
+with the rules and regulations of the Church, as laid down in
+decrees, formulas, and rituals sanctioned by popes, councils, and
+innumerable bishops during ages.  All in vain.  The court
+condemned the good father to fine and imprisonment.  As in a
+famous English case, "hell was dismissed, with costs."  Even more
+significant is the fact that recently a boy declared by two
+Bavarian priests to be possessed by the devil, was taken, after
+all Church exorcisms had failed, to Father Kneipp's hydropathic
+establishment and was there speedily cured.[379]
+
+[379] For remarkably interesting articles showing the recent
+efforts of sundry priests in Italy and South Germany to revive
+the belief in diabolic possession--efforts in which the Bishop of
+Augsburg took part--see Prof. E. P. Evans, on Modern Instances of
+Diabolic Possession, and on Recent Recrudescence of Superstition
+in The Popular Science Monthly for Dec. 1892, and for Oct., Nov.,
+1895.
+
+Speaking of the part played by Satan at Ober-Ammergau, Hase says:
+"Formerly, seated on his infernal throne, surrounded by his hosts
+with Sin and Death, he opened the play, . . . and . . . retained
+throughout a considerable part; but he has been surrendered to
+the progress of that enlightenment which even the Bavarian
+highlands have not been able to escape" (p. 80).
+
+The especial point to be noted is, that from the miracle-play of
+the present day Satan and his works have disappeared.  The
+present writer was unable to detect, in a representation of the
+Passion Play at Ober-Ammergau, in 1881, the slightest reference
+to diabolic interference with the course of events as represented
+from the Old Testament, or from the New, in a series of tableaux
+lasting, with a slight intermission, from nine in the morning to
+after four in the afternoon.  With the most thorough exhibition
+of minute events in the life of Christ, and at times with
+hundreds of figures on the stage, there was not a person or a
+word which recalled that main feature in the mediaeval Church
+plays.  The present writer also made a full collection of the
+photographs of tableaux, of engravings of music, and of works
+bearing upon these representations for twenty years before, and
+in none of these was there an apparent survival of the old
+belief.
+
+
+But, although the old superstition had been discarded, the
+inevitable conservatism in theology and medicine caused many old
+abuses to be continued for years after the theological basis for
+them had really disappeared.  There still lingered also a
+feeling of dislike toward madmen, engendered by the early feeling
+of hostility toward them, which sufficed to prevent for many
+years any practical reforms.
+
+What that old theory had been, even under the most favourable
+circumstances and among the best of men, we have seen in the fact
+that Sir Thomas More ordered acknowledged lunatics to be publicly
+flogged; and it will be remembered that Shakespeare makes one of
+his characters refer to madmen as deserving "a dark house and a
+whip."  What the old practice was and continued to be we know but
+too well.  Taking Protestant England as an example--and it was
+probably the most humane--we have a chain of testimony.  Toward
+the end of the sixteenth century, Bethlehem Hospital was reported
+too loathsome for any man to enter; in the seventeenth century,
+John Evelyn found it no better; in the eighteenth, Hogarth's
+pictures and contemporary reports show it to be essentially what
+it had been in those previous centuries.[380]
+
+[380] On Sir Thomas More and the condition of Bedlam, see Tuke,
+History of the Insane in the British Isles, pp. 63-73.  One of
+the passages of Shakespeare is in As You Like It, Act iii, scene
+2.  As to the survival of indifference to the sufferings of the
+insane so long after the belief which caused it had generally
+disappeared, see some excellent remarks in Maudsley's
+Responsibility in Mental Disease, London, 1885, pp. 10-12.
+
+The older English practice is thus quaintly described by Richard
+Carew (in his Survey of Cornwall, London, 1602, 1769): "In our
+forefathers' daies, when devotion as much exceeded knowledge, as
+knowledge now commeth short of devotion, there were many
+bowssening places, for curing of mad men, and amongst the rest,
+one at Alternunne in this Hundred, called S. Nunnespoole, which
+Saints Altar (it may be) . . . gave name to the church. . . The
+watter running from S. Nunnes well, fell into a square and close
+walled plot, which might bee filled at what depth they listed.
+Vpon this wall was the franticke person set to stand, his backe
+towards the poole, and from thence with a sudden blow in the
+brest, tumbled headlong into the pond; where a strong fellowe,
+provided for the nonce, tooke him, and tossed him vp and downe,
+alongst and athwart the water, vntill the patient, by forgoing
+strength, had somewhat forgot his fury.  Then there was hee
+conveyed to the Church, and certain Masses sung over him; vpon
+which handling, if his right wits returned, S. Nunne had the
+thanks; but if there appeared any small amendment, he was
+bowsened againe, and againe, while there remayned in him any hope
+of life, for recovery."
+
+
+The first humane impulse of any considerable importance in this
+field seems to have been aroused in America.  In the year 1751
+certain members of the Society of Friends founded a small
+hospital for the insane, on better principles, in Pennsylvania.
+To use the language of its founders, it was intended "as a good
+work, acceptable to God."  Twenty years later Virginia
+established a similar asylum, and gradually others appeared in
+other colonies.
+
+But it was in France that mercy was to be put upon a scientific
+basis, and was to lead to practical results which were to convert
+the world to humanity.  In this case, as in so many others, from
+France was spread and popularized not only the scepticism which
+destroyed the theological theory, but also the devotion which
+built up the new scientific theory and endowed the world with a
+new treasure of civilization.
+
+In 1756 some physicians of the great hospital at Paris known as
+the Hotel-Dieu protested that the cruelties prevailing in the
+treatment of the insane were aggravating the disease; and some
+protests followed from other quarters.  Little effect was
+produced at first; but just before the French Revolution, Tenon,
+La Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, and others took up the subject, and
+in 1791 a commission was appointed to undertake a reform.
+
+By great good fortune, the man selected to lead in the movement
+was one who had already thrown his heart into it--Jean Baptiste
+Pinel.  In 1792 Pinel was made physician at Bicetre, one of the
+most extensive lunatic asylums in France, and to the work there
+imposed upon him he gave all his powers.  Little was heard of
+him at first.  The most terrible scenes of the French Revolution
+were drawing nigh; but he laboured on, modestly and
+devotedly--apparently without a thought of the great political
+storm raging about him.
+
+His first step was to discard utterly the whole theological
+doctrine of "possession," and especially the idea that insanity
+is the result of any subtle spiritual influence.  He simply put
+in practice the theory that lunacy is the result of bodily
+disease.
+
+It is a curious matter for reflection, that but for this sway of
+the destructive philosophy of the eighteenth century, and of the
+Terrorists during the French Revolution, Pinel's blessed work
+would in all probability have been thwarted, and he himself
+excommunicated for heresy and driven from his position.
+Doubtless the same efforts would have been put forth against him
+which the Church, a little earlier, had put forth against
+inoculation as a remedy for smallpox; but just at that time the
+great churchmen had other things to think of besides crushing
+this particular heretic:  they were too much occupied in keeping
+their own heads from the guillotine to give attention to what was
+passing in the head of Pinel.  He was allowed to work in peace,
+and in a short time the reign of diabolism at Bicetre was ended.
+What the exorcisms and fetiches and prayers and processions, and
+drinking of holy water, and ringing of bells, had been unable to
+accomplish during eighteen hundred years, he achieved in a few
+months.  His method was simple:  for the brutality and cruelty
+which had prevailed up to that time, he substituted kindness and
+gentleness.  The possessed were taken out of their dungeons,
+given sunny rooms, and allowed the liberty of pleasant ground for
+exercise; chains were thrown aside.  At the same time, the
+mental power of each patient was developed by its fitting
+exercise, and disease was met with remedies sanctioned by
+experiment, observation, and reason.  Thus was gained one of the
+greatest, though one of the least known, triumphs of modern
+science and humanity.
+
+The results obtained by Pinel had an instant effect, not only in
+France but throughout Europe:  the news spread from hospital to
+hospital.  At his death, Esquirol took up his work; and, in the
+place of the old training of judges, torturers, and executioners
+by theology to carry out its ideas in cruelty, there was now
+trained a school of physicians to develop science in this field
+and carry out its decrees in mercy.[381]
+
+[381] For the services of Tenon and his associates, and also for
+the work of Pinel, see especially Esquirol, Des Maladies
+mentales, Paris, 1838, vol. i, p. 35; and for the general
+subject, and the condition of the hospitals at this period, see
+Dagron, as above.
+
+
+A similar evolution of better science and practice took place in
+England.  In spite of the coldness, and even hostility, of the
+greater men in the Established Church, and notwithstanding the
+scriptural demonstrations of Wesley that the majority of the
+insane were possessed of devils, the scientific method steadily
+gathered strength.  In 1750 the condition of the insane began to
+attract especial attention; it was found that mad-houses were
+swayed by ideas utterly indefensible, and that the practices
+engendered by these ideas were monstrous.  As a rule, the
+patients were immured in cells, and in many cases were chained to
+the walls; in others, flogging and starvation played leading
+parts, and in some cases the patients were killed.  Naturally
+enough, John Howard declared, in 1789, that he found in
+Constantinople a better insane asylum than the great St.  Luke's
+Hospital in London.  Well might he do so; for, ever since Caliph
+Omar had protected and encouraged the scientific investigation of
+insanity by Paul of Aegina, the Moslem treatment of the insane
+had been far more merciful than the system prevailing throughout
+Christendom.[382]
+
+[382] See D. H. Tuke, as above, p. 110; also Trelat, as already
+cited.
+
+
+In 1792--the same year in which Pinel began his great work in
+France--William Tuke began a similar work in England.  There
+seems to have been no connection between these two reformers;
+each wrought independently of the other, but the results arrived
+at were the same.  So, too, in the main, were their methods; and
+in the little house of William Tuke, at York, began a better era
+for England.
+
+The name which this little asylum received is a monument both of
+the old reign of cruelty and of the new reign of humanity.
+Every old name for such an asylum had been made odious and
+repulsive by ages of misery; in a happy moment of inspiration
+Tuke's gentle Quaker wife suggested a new name; and, in
+accordance with this suggestion, the place became known as a
+"Retreat."
+
+From the great body of influential classes in church and state
+Tuke received little aid.  The influence of the theological
+spirit was shown when, in that same year, Dr. Pangster published
+his Observations on Mental Disorders, and, after displaying much
+ignorance as to the causes and nature of insanity, summed up by
+saying piously, "Here our researches must stop, and we must
+declare that `wonderful are the works of the Lord, and his ways
+past finding out.'" Such seemed to be the view of the Church at
+large:  though the new "Retreat" was at one of the two great
+ecclesiastical centres of England, we hear of no aid or
+encouragement from the Archbishop of York or from his clergy.
+Nor was this the worst:  the indirect influence of the
+theological habit of thought and ecclesiastical prestige was
+displayed in the Edinburgh Review.  That great organ of opinion,
+not content with attacking Tuke, poured contempt upon his work,
+as well as on that of Pinel.  A few of Tuke's brother and sister
+Quakers seem to have been his only reliance; and in a letter
+regarding his efforts at that time he says, "All men seem to
+desert me."[383]
+
+[383] See D. H. Tuke, as above, p. 116-142, and 512; also the
+Edinburgh Review for April, 1803.
+
+
+In this atmosphere of English conservative opposition or
+indifference the work could not grow rapidly.  As late as 1815,
+a member of Parliament stigmatized the insane asylums of England
+as the shame of the nation; and even as late as 1827, and in a
+few cases as late as 1850, there were revivals of the old
+absurdity and brutality.  Down to a late period, in the hospitals
+of St. Luke and Bedlam, long rows of the insane were chained to
+the walls of the corridors.  But Gardner at Lincoln, Donnelly at
+Hanwell, and a new school of practitioners in mental disease,
+took up the work of Tuke, and the victory in England was gained
+in practice as it had been previously gained in theory.
+
+There need be no controversy regarding the comparative merits of
+these two benefactors of our race, Pinel and Tuke.  They clearly
+did their thinking and their work independently of each other,
+and thereby each strengthened the other and benefited mankind.
+All that remains to be said is, that while France has paid high
+honours to Pinel, as to one who did much to free the world from
+one of its most cruel superstitions and to bring in a reign of
+humanity over a wide empire, England has as yet made no fitting
+commemoration of her great benefactor in this field.  York
+Minster holds many tombs of men, of whom some were blessings to
+their fellow-beings, while some were but "solemnly constituted
+impostors" and parasites upon the body politic; yet, to this
+hour, that great temple has received no consecration by a
+monument to the man who did more to alleviate human misery than
+any other who has ever entered it.
+
+But the place of these two men in history is secure.  They stand
+with Grotius, Thomasius, and Beccaria--the men who in modern
+times have done most to prevent unmerited sorrow.  They were
+not, indeed, called to suffer like their great compeers; they
+were not obliged to see their writings--among the most blessed
+gifts of God to man--condemned, as were those of Grotius and
+Beccaria by the Catholic Church, and those of Thomasius by a
+large section of the Protestant Church; they were not obliged to
+flee for their lives, as were Grotius and Thomasius; but their
+effort is none the less worthy.  The French Revolution, indeed,
+saved Pinel, and the decay of English ecclesiasticism gave Tuke
+his opportunity; but their triumphs are none the less among the
+glories of our race; for they were the first acknowledged victors
+in a struggle of science for humanity which had lasted nearly two
+thousand years.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+FROM DIABOLISM TO HYSTERIA.
+
+I.  THE EPIDEMICS OF "POSSESSION."
+
+
+In the foregoing chapter I have sketched the triumph of science
+in destroying the idea that individual lunatics are "possessed by
+devils," in establishing the truth that insanity is physical
+disease, and in substituting for superstitious cruelties toward
+the insane a treatment mild, kindly, and based upon ascertained
+facts.
+
+The Satan who had so long troubled individual men and women thus
+became extinct; henceforth his fossil remains only were
+preserved:  they may still be found in the sculptures and storied
+windows of medieval churches, in sundry liturgies, and in popular
+forms of speech.
+
+But another Satan still lived--a Satan who wrought on a larger
+scale--who took possession of multitudes.  For, after this
+triumph of the scientific method, there still remained a class of
+mental disorders which could not be treated in asylums, which
+were not yet fully explained by science, and which therefore gave
+arguments of much apparent strength to the supporters of the old
+theological view:  these were the epidemics of "diabolic
+possession" which for so many centuries afflicted various parts
+of the world.
+
+When obliged, then, to retreat from their old position in regard
+to individual cases of insanity, the more conservative
+theologians promptly referred to these epidemics as beyond the
+domain of science--as clear evidences of the power of Satan;
+and, as the basis of this view, they cited from the Old Testament
+frequent references to witchcraft, and, from the New Testament,
+St.  Paul's question as to the possible bewitching of the
+Galatians, and the bewitching of the people of Samaria by Simon
+the Magician.
+
+Naturally, such leaders had very many adherents in that class, so
+large in all times, who find that
+
+
+"To follow foolish precedents and wink
+With both our eyes, is easier than to think."[384]
+
+[384] As to eminent physicians' finding a stumbling-block in
+hysterical mania, see Kirchhoff's article, p. 351, cited in
+previous chapter.
+
+
+It must be owned that their case seemed strong.  Though in all
+human history, so far as it is closely known, these phenomena had
+appeared, and though every classical scholar could recall the
+wild orgies of the priests, priestesses, and devotees of Dionysus
+and Cybele, and the epidemic of wild rage which took its name
+from some of these, the great fathers and doctors of the Church
+had left a complete answer to any scepticism based on these
+facts; they simply pointed to St.  Paul's declaration that the
+gods of the heathen were devils:  these examples, then, could be
+transformed into a powerful argument for diabolic
+possession.[385]
+
+[385] As to the Maenads, Corybantes, and the disease
+"Corybantism," see, for accessible and adequate statements,
+Smith's Dictionary of Antiquities and Lewis and Short's Lexicon;
+also reference in Hecker's Essays upon the Black Death and the
+Dancing Mania.  For more complete discussion, see Semelaigne,
+L'Alienation mentale dans l'Antiquite, Paris, 1869.
+
+
+But it was more especially the epidemics of diabolism in medieval
+and modern times which gave strength to the theological view, and
+from these I shall present a chain of typical examples.
+
+As early as the eleventh century we find clear accounts of
+diabolical possession taking the form of epidemics of raving,
+jumping, dancing, and convulsions, the greater number of the
+sufferers being women and children.  In a time so rude, accounts
+of these manifestations would rarely receive permanent record;
+but it is very significant that even at the beginning of the
+eleventh century we hear of them at the extremes of Europe--in
+northern Germany and in southern Italy.  At various times during
+that century we get additional glimpses of these exhibitions, but
+it is not until the beginning of the thirteenth century that we
+have a renewal of them on a large scale.  In 1237, at Erfurt, a
+jumping disease and dancing mania afflicted a hundred children,
+many of whom died in consequence; it spread through the whole
+region, and fifty years later we hear of it in Holland.
+
+But it was the last quarter of the fourteenth century that saw
+its greatest manifestations.  There was abundant cause for them.
+It was a time of oppression, famine, and pestilence:  the
+crusading spirit, having run its course, had been succeeded by a
+wild, mystical fanaticism; the most frightful plague in human
+history--the Black Death--was depopulating whole
+regions--reducing cities to villages, and filling Europe with
+that strange mixture of devotion and dissipation which we always
+note during the prevalence of deadly epidemics on a large scale.
+
+It was in this ferment of religious, moral, and social disease
+that there broke out in 1374, in the lower Rhine region, the
+greatest, perhaps, of all manifestations of "possession"--an
+epidemic of dancing, jumping, and wild raving.  The cures
+resorted to seemed on the whole to intensify the disease:  the
+afflicted continued dancing for hours, until they fell in utter
+exhaustion. Some declared that they felt as if bathed in blood,
+some saw visions, some prophesied.
+
+Into this mass of "possession" there was also clearly poured a
+current of scoundrelism which increased the disorder.
+
+The immediate source of these manifestations seems to have been
+the wild revels of St. John's Day.  In those revels sundry old
+heathen ceremonies had been perpetuated, but under a nominally
+Christian form:  wild Bacchanalian dances had thus become a
+semi-religious ceremonial.  The religious and social atmosphere
+was propitious to the development of the germs of diabolic
+influence vitalized in these orgies, and they were scattered far
+and wide through large tracts of the Netherlands and Germany, and
+especially through the whole region of the Rhine.  At Cologne we
+hear of five hundred afflicted at once; at Metz of eleven
+hundred dancers in the streets; at Strasburg of yet more painful
+manifestations; and from these and other cities they spread
+through the villages and rural districts.
+
+The great majority of the sufferers were women, but there were
+many men, and especially men whose occupations were sedentary.
+Remedies were tried upon a large scale-exorcisms first, but
+especially pilgrimages to the shrine of St. Vitus.  The
+exorcisms accomplished so little that popular faith in them grew
+small, and the main effect of the pilgrimages seemed to be to
+increase the disorder by subjecting great crowds to the diabolic
+contagion. Yet another curative means was seen in the flagellant
+processions--vast crowds of men, women, and children who wandered
+through the country, screaming, praying, beating themselves with
+whips, imploring the Divine mercy and the intervention of St.
+Vitus.  Most fearful of all the main attempts at cure were the
+persecutions of the Jews.  A feeling had evidently spread among
+the people at large that the Almighty was filled with wrath at
+the toleration of his enemies, and might be propitiated by their
+destruction:  in the principal cities and villages of Germany,
+then, the Jews were plundered, tortured, and murdered by tens of
+thousands.  No doubt that, in all this, greed was united with
+fanaticism; but the argument of fanaticism was simple and
+cogent; the dart which pierced the breast of Israel at that time
+was winged and pointed from its own sacred books:  the biblical
+argument was the same used in various ages to promote
+persecution; and this was, that the wrath of the Almighty was
+stirred against those who tolerated his enemies, and that because
+of this toleration the same curse had now come upon Europe which
+the prophet Samuel had denounced against Saul for showing mercy
+to the enemies of Jehovah.
+
+It is but just to say that various popes and kings exerted
+themselves to check these cruelties.  Although the argument of
+Samuel to Saul was used with frightful effect two hundred years
+later by a most conscientious pope in spurring on the rulers of
+France to extirpate the Huguenots, the papacy in the fourteenth
+century stood for mercy to the Jews.  But even this intervention
+was long without effect; the tide of popular superstition had
+become too strong to be curbed even by the spiritual and temporal
+powers.[386]
+
+[386] See Wellhausen, article Israel, in the Encyclopaedia
+Britannica, ninth edition; also the reprint of it in his History
+of Israel, London, 1885, p. 546.  On the general subject of the
+demoniacal epidemics, see Isensee, Geschichte der Medicin, vol.
+i, pp. 260 et seq.; also Hecker's essay.  As to the history of
+Saul, as a curious landmark in the general development of the
+subject, see The Case of Saul, showing that his Disorder was a
+Real Spiritual Possession, by Granville Sharp, London, 1807,
+passim.  As to the citation of Saul's case by the reigning Pope
+to spur on the French kings against the Huguenots, I hope to give
+a list of authorities in a future chapter on The Church and
+International Law.  For the general subject, with interesting
+details, see Laurent, Etudes sur l'Histoire de l'Humanities.  See
+also Maury, La Magie et l'Astrologie dans l'Antiquite et au
+Moyen Age.
+
+
+Against this overwhelming current science for many generations
+could do nothing.  Throughout the whole of the fifteenth century
+physicians appeared to shun the whole matter.  Occasionally some
+more thoughtful man ventured to ascribe some phase of the disease
+to natural causes; but this was an unpopular doctrine, and
+evidently dangerous to those who developed it.
+
+Yet, in the beginning of the sixteenth century, cases of
+"possession" on a large scale began to be brought within the
+scope of medical research, and the man who led in this evolution
+of medical science was Paracelsus.  He it was who first bade
+modern Europe think for a moment upon the idea that these
+diseases are inflicted neither by saints nor demons, and that the
+"dancing possession" is simply a form of disease, of which the
+cure may be effected by proper remedies and regimen.
+
+Paracelsus appears to have escaped any serious interference:  it
+took some time, perhaps, for the theological leaders to
+understand that he had "let a new idea loose upon the planet,"
+but they soon understood it, and their course was simple.  For
+about fifty years the new idea was well kept under; but in 1563
+another physician, John Wier, of Cleves, revived it at much risk
+to his position and reputation.[387]
+
+[387] For Paracelsus, see Isensee, vol. i, chap. xi; also
+Pettigrew, Superstitions connected with the History and Practice
+of Medicine and Surgery, London, 1844, introductory chapter.  For
+Wier, see authorities given in my previous chapter.
+
+
+Although the new idea was thus resisted, it must have taken some
+hold upon thoughtful men, for we find that in the second half of
+the same century the St.  Vitus's dance and forms of demoniacal
+possession akin to it gradually diminished in frequency and were
+sometimes treated as diseases.  In the seventeenth century, so
+far as the north of Europe is concerned, these displays of
+"possession" on a great scale had almost entirely ceased; here
+and there cases appeared, but there was no longer the wild rage
+extending over great districts and afflicting thousands of
+people.  Yet it was, as we shall see, in this same seventeenth
+century, in the last expiring throes of this superstition, that
+it led to the worst acts of cruelty.[388]
+
+[388] As to this diminution of widespread epidemic at the end of
+the sixteenth century, see citations from Schenck von Grafenberg
+in Hecker, as above; also Horst.
+
+
+While this Satanic influence had been exerted on so great a scale
+throughout northern Europe, a display strangely like it, yet
+strangely unlike it, had been going on in Italy.  There, too,
+epidemics of dancing and jumping seized groups and communities;
+but they were attributed to a physical cause--the theory being
+that the bite of a tarantula in some way provoked a supernatural
+intervention, of which dancing was the accompaniment and cure.
+
+In the middle of the sixteenth century Fracastoro made an evident
+impression on the leaders of Italian opinion by using medical
+means in the cure of the possessed; though it is worthy of note
+that the medicine which he applied successfully was such as we
+now know could not by any direct effects of its own accomplish
+any cure:  whatever effect it exerted was wrought upon the
+imagination of the sufferer.  This form of "possession," then,
+passed out of the supernatural domain, and became known as
+"tarantism."  Though it continued much longer than the
+corresponding manifestations in northern Europe, by the beginning
+of the eighteenth century it had nearly disappeared; and, though
+special manifestations of it on a small scale still break out
+occasionally, its main survival is the "tarantella," which the
+traveller sees danced at Naples as a catchpenny assault upon his
+purse.[389]
+
+[389] See Hecker's Epidemics of the Middle Ages, pp. 87-104; also
+extracts and observations in Carpenter's Mental Physiology,
+London, 1888, pp. 321-315; also Maudsley, Pathology of Mind, pp.
+73 and following.
+
+
+But, long before this form of "possession" had begun to
+disappear, there had arisen new manifestations, apparently more
+inexplicable.  As the first great epidemics of dancing and
+jumping had their main origin in a religious ceremony, so various
+new forms had their principal source in what were supposed to be
+centres of religious life--in the convents, and more especially
+in those for women.
+
+Out of many examples we may take a few as typical.
+
+In the fifteenth century the chroniclers assure us that, an
+inmate of a German nunnery having been seized with a passion for
+biting her companions, her mania spread until most, if not all,
+of her fellow-nuns began to bite each other; and that this
+passion for biting passed from convent to convent into other
+parts of Germany, into Holland, and even across the Alps into
+Italy.
+
+So, too, in a French convent, when a nun began to mew like a cat,
+others began mewing; the disease spread, and was only checked by
+severe measures.[390]
+
+[390] See citation from Zimmermann's Solitude, in Carpenter, pp.
+34, 314.
+
+
+In the sixteenth century the Protestant Reformation gave new
+force to witchcraft persecutions in Germany, the new Church
+endeavouring to show that in zeal and power she exceeded the old.
+But in France influential opinion seemed not so favourable to
+these forms of diabolical influence, especially after the
+publication of Montaigne's Essays, in 1580, had spread a
+sceptical atmosphere over many leading minds.
+
+In 1588 occurred in France a case which indicates the growth of
+this sceptical tendency even in the higher regions of the french
+Church, In that year Martha Brossier, a country girl, was, it was
+claimed, possessed of the devil.  The young woman was to all
+appearance under direct Satanic influence.  She roamed about,
+begging that the demon might be cast out of her, and her
+imprecations and blasphemies brought consternation wherever she
+went.  Myth-making began on a large scale; stories grew and
+sped. The Capuchin monks thundered from the pulpit throughout
+France regarding these proofs of the power of Satan:  the alarm
+spread, until at last even jovial, sceptical King Henry IV was
+disquieted, and the reigning Pope was asked to take measures to
+ward off the evil.
+
+Fortunately, there then sat in the episcopal chair of Angers a
+prelate who had apparently imbibed something of Montaigne's
+scepticism--Miron; and, when the case was brought before him, he
+submitted it to the most time-honoured of sacred tests.  He
+first brought into the girl's presence two bowls, one containing
+holy water, the other ordinary spring water, but allowed her to
+draw a false inference regarding the contents of each:  the
+result was that at the presentation of the holy water the devils
+were perfectly calm, but when tried with the ordinary water they
+threw Martha into convulsions.
+
+The next experiment made by the shrewd bishop was to similar
+purpose.  He commanded loudly that a book of exorcisms be
+brought, and under a previous arrangement, his attendants brought
+him a copy of Virgil.  No sooner had the bishop begun to read the
+first line of the Aeneid than the devils threw Martha into
+convulsions.  On another occasion a Latin dictionary, which she
+had reason to believe was a book of exorcisms, produced a similar
+effect.
+
+Although the bishop was thereby led to pronounce the whole matter
+a mixture of insanity and imposture, the Capuchin monks denounced
+this view as godless.  They insisted that these tests really
+proved the presence of Satan--showing his cunning in covering up
+the proofs of his existence.  The people at large sided with
+their preachers, and Martha was taken to Paris, where various
+exorcisms were tried, and the Parisian mob became as devoted to
+her as they had been twenty years before to the murderers of the
+Huguenots, as they became two centuries later to Robespierre, and
+as they more recently were to General Boulanger.
+
+But Bishop Miron was not the only sceptic.  The Cardinal de
+Gondi, Archbishop of Paris, charged the most eminent physicians
+of the city, and among them Riolan, to report upon the case.
+Various examinations were made, and the verdict was that Martha
+was simply a hysterical impostor.  Thanks, then, to medical
+science, and to these two enlightened ecclesiastics who summoned
+its aid, what fifty or a hundred years earlier would have been
+the centre of a widespread epidemic of possession was isolated,
+and hindered from producing a national calamity.
+
+In the following year this healthful growth of scepticism
+continued.  Fourteen persons had been condemned to death for
+sorcery, but public opinion was strong enough to secure a new
+examination by a special commission, which reported that "the
+prisoners stood more in need of medicine than of punishment," and
+they were released.[391]
+
+[391] For the Brossier case, see Clameil, La Folie, tome i, livre
+3, c. 2.  For the cases at Tours, see Madden, Phantasmata, vol.
+i, pp. 309, 310.
+
+
+But during the seventeenth century, the clergy generally having
+exerted themselves heroically to remove this "evil heart of
+unbelief" so largely due to Montaigne, a theological reaction was
+brought on not only in France but in all parts of the Christian
+world, and the belief in diabolic possession, though certainly
+dying, flickered up hectic, hot, and malignant through the whole
+century.  In 1611 we have a typical case at Aix.  An epidemic
+of possession having occurred there, Gauffridi, a man of note,
+was burned at the stake as the cause of the trouble.  Michaelis,
+one of the priestly exorcists, declared that he had driven out
+sixty-five hundred devils from one of the possessed.  Similar
+epidemics occurred in various parts of the world.[392]
+
+[392] See Dagron, chap. ii.
+
+
+Twenty years later a far more striking case occurred at Loudun,
+in western France, where a convent of Ursuline nuns was
+"afflicted by demons."
+
+The convent was filled mainly with ladies of noble birth, who,
+not having sufficient dower to secure husbands, had, according to
+the common method of the time, been made nuns.
+
+It is not difficult to understand that such an imprisonment of a
+multitude of women of different ages would produce some woeful
+effects.  Any reader of Manzoni's Promessi Sposi, with its
+wonderful portrayal of the feelings and doings of a noble lady
+kept in a convent against her will, may have some idea of the
+rage and despair which must have inspired such assemblages in
+which pride, pauperism, and the attempted suppression of the
+instincts of humanity wrought a fearful work.
+
+What this work was may be seen throughout the Middle Ages; but
+it is especially in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries that
+we find it frequently taking shape in outbursts of diabolic
+possession.[393]
+
+[393] On monasteries as centres of "possession" and hysterical
+epidemics, see Figuier, Le Merveilleux, p. 40 and following; also
+Calmeil, Langin, Kirchhoff, Maudsley, and others.  On similar
+results from excitement at Protestant meetings in Scotland and
+camp meetings in England and America, see Hecker's Essay,
+concluding chapters.
+
+
+In this case at Loudun, the usual evidences of Satanic influence
+appeared.  One after another of the inmates fell into
+convulsions: some showed physical strength apparently
+supernatural; some a keenness of perception quite as surprising;
+many howled forth blasphemies and obscenities.
+
+Near the convent dwelt a priest--Urbain Grandier--noted for his
+brilliancy as a writer and preacher, but careless in his way of
+living.  Several of the nuns had evidently conceived a passion
+for him, and in their wild rage and despair dwelt upon his name.
+In the same city, too, were sundry ecclesiastics and laymen with
+whom Grandier had fallen into petty neighbourhood quarrels, and
+some of these men held the main control of the convent.
+
+Out of this mixture of "possession" within the convent and
+malignity without it came a charge that Grandier had bewitched
+the young women.
+
+The Bishop of Poictiers took up the matter.  A trial was held,
+and it was noted that, whenever Grandier appeared, the
+"possessed" screamed, shrieked, and showed every sign of diabolic
+influence. Grandier fought desperately, and appealed to the
+Archbishop of Bordeaux, De Sourdis.  The archbishop ordered a
+more careful examination, and, on separating the nuns from each
+other and from certain monks who had been bitterly hostile to
+Grandier, such glaring discrepancies were found in their
+testimony that the whole accusation was brought to naught.
+
+But the enemies of Satan and of Grandier did not rest.  Through
+their efforts Cardinal Richelieu, who appears to have had an old
+grudge against Grandier, sent a representative, Laubardemont, to
+make another investigation.  Most frightful scenes were now
+enacted:  the whole convent resounded more loudly than ever with
+shrieks, groans, howling, and cursing, until finally Grandier,
+though even in the agony of torture he refused to confess the
+crimes that his enemies suggested, was hanged and burned.
+
+From this centre the epidemic spread:  multitudes of women and
+men were affected by it in various convents; several of the great
+cities of the south and west of France came under the same
+influence; the "possession" went on for several years longer and
+then gradually died out, though scattered cases have occurred
+from that day to this.[394]
+
+[394] Among the many statements of Grandier's case,one of the
+best in English may be found in Trollope's Sketches from French
+History, London, 1878. See also Bazin, Louis XIII.
+
+
+A few years later we have an even more striking example among the
+French Protestants.  The Huguenots, who had taken refuge in the
+mountains of the Cevennes to escape persecution, being pressed
+more and more by the cruelties of Louis XIV, began to show signs
+of a high degree of religious exaltation.  Assembled as they
+were for worship in wild and desert places, an epidemic broke out
+among them, ascribed by them to the Almighty, but by their
+opponents to Satan.  Men, women, and children preached and
+prophesied.  Large assemblies were seized with trembling.  Some
+underwent the most terrible tortures without showing any signs of
+suffering.  Marshal de Villiers, who was sent against them,
+declared that he saw a town in which all the women and girls,
+without exception, were possessed of the devil, and ran leaping
+and screaming through the streets.  Cases like this,
+inexplicable to the science of the time, gave renewed strength to
+the theological view.[395]
+
+[395] See Bersot, Mesmer et la Magnetisme animal, third edition,
+Paris, 1864, pp. 95 et seq.
+
+
+Toward the end of the same century similar manifestations began
+to appear on a large scale in America.
+
+The life of the early colonists in New England was such as to
+give rapid growth to the germs of the doctrine of possession
+brought from the mother country.  Surrounded by the dark pine
+forests; having as their neighbours Indians, who were more than
+suspected of being children of Satan; harassed by wild beasts
+apparently sent by the powers of evil to torment the elect; with
+no varied literature to while away the long winter evenings;
+with few amusements save neighbourhood quarrels; dwelling
+intently on every text of Scripture which supported their gloomy
+theology, and adopting its most literal interpretation, it is not
+strange that they rapidly developed ideas regarding the darker
+side of nature.[396]
+
+[396] For the idea that America before the Pilgims had been
+especially given over to Satan, see the literature of the early
+Puritan period, and especially the poetry of Wigglesworth,
+treated in Tylor's History of American Literature, vol. ii, p. 25
+et seq.
+
+
+This fear of witchcraft received a powerful stimulus from the
+treatises of learned men.  Such works, coming from Europe, which
+was at that time filled with the superstition, acted powerfully
+upon conscientious preachers, and were brought by them to bear
+upon the people at large.  Naturally, then, throughout the
+latter half of the seventeenth century we find scattered cases of
+diabolic possession.  At Boston, Springfield, Hartford, Groton,
+and other towns, cases occurred, and here and there we hear of
+death-sentences.
+
+In the last quarter of the seventeenth century the fruit of these
+ideas began to ripen.  In the year 1684 Increase Mather
+published his book, Remarkable Providences, laying stress upon
+diabolic possession and witchcraft.  This book, having been sent
+over to England, exercised an influence there, and came back with
+the approval of no less a man than Richard Baxter:  by this its
+power at home was increased.
+
+In 1688 a poor family in Boston was afflicted by demons:  four
+children, the eldest thirteen years of age, began leaping and
+barking like dogs or purring like cats, and complaining of being
+pricked, pinched, and cut; and, to help the matter, an old
+Irishwoman was tried and executed.
+
+All this belief might have passed away like a troubled dream had
+it not become incarnate in a strong man.  This man was Cotton
+Mather, the son of Increase Mather.  Deeply religious, possessed
+of excellent abilities, a great scholar, anxious to promote the
+welfare of his flock in this world and in the next, he was far in
+advance of ecclesiastics generally on nearly all the main
+questions between science and theology.  He came out of his
+earlier superstition regarding the divine origin of the Hebrew
+punctuation; he opposed the old theologic idea regarding the
+taking of interest for money; he favoured inoculation as a
+preventive of smallpox when a multitude of clergymen and laymen
+opposed it; he accepted the Newtonian astronomy despite the
+outcries against its "atheistic tendency"; he took ground
+against the time-honoured dogma that comets are "signs and
+wonders."  He had, indeed, some of the defects of his qualities,
+and among them pedantic vanity, pride of opinion, and love of
+power; but he was for his time remarkably liberal and undoubtedly
+sincere.  He had thrown off a large part of his father's
+theology, but one part of it he could not throw off:  he was one
+of the best biblical scholars of his time, and he could not break
+away from the fact that the sacred Scriptures explicitly
+recognise witchcraft and demoniacal possession as realities, and
+enjoin against witchcraft the penalty of death.  Therefore it was
+that in 1689 he published his Memorable Providences relating to
+Witchcrafts and Possessions.  The book, according to its
+title-page, was "recommended by the Ministers of Boston and
+Charleston," and its stories soon became the familiar reading of
+men, women, and children throughout New England.
+
+Out of all these causes thus brought to bear upon public opinion
+began in 1692 a new outbreak of possession, which is one of the
+most instructive in history.  The Rev. Samuel Parris was the
+minister of the church in Salem, and no pope ever had higher
+ideas of his own infallibility, no bishop a greater love of
+ceremony, no inquisitor a greater passion for prying and
+spying.[397]
+
+[397] For curious examples of this, see Upham's History of Salem
+Witchcraft, vol. i.
+
+
+Before long Mr. Parris had much upon his hands.  Many of his
+hardy, independent parishioners disliked his ways.  Quarrels
+arose.  Some of the leading men of the congregation were pitted
+against him.  The previous minister, George Burroughs, had left
+the germs of troubles and quarrels, and to these were now added
+new complications arising from the assumptions of Parris.  There
+were innumerable wranglings and lawsuits; in fact, all the
+essential causes for Satanic interference which we saw at work in
+and about the monastery at Loudun, and especially the turmoil of
+a petty village where there is no intellectual activity, and
+where men and women find their chief substitute for it in
+squabbles, religious, legal, political, social, and personal.
+
+In the darkened atmosphere thus charged with the germs of disease
+it was suddenly discovered that two young girls in the family of
+Mr. Parris were possessed of devils:  they complained of being
+pinched, pricked, and cut, fell into strange spasms and made
+strange speeches--showing the signs of diabolic possession handed
+down in fireside legends or dwelt upon in popular witch
+literature--and especially such as had lately been described by
+Cotton Mather in his book on Memorable Providences.  The two
+girls, having been brought by Mr. Parris and others to tell who
+had bewitched them, first charged an old Indian woman, and the
+poor old Indian husband was led to join in the charge.  This at
+once afforded new scope for the activity of Mr. Parris.
+Magnifying his office, he immediately began making a great stir
+in Salem and in the country round about.  Two magistrates were
+summoned.  With them came a crowd, and a court was held at the
+meeting-house.  The scenes which then took place would have been
+the richest of farces had they not led to events so tragical.
+The possessed went into spasms at the approach of those charged
+with witchcraft, and when the poor old men and women attempted to
+attest their innocence they were overwhelmed with outcries by the
+possessed, quotations of Scripture by the ministers, and
+denunciations by the mob.  One especially--Ann Putnam, a child
+of twelve years--showed great precocity and played a striking
+part in the performances.  The mania spread to other children;
+and two or three married women also, seeing the great attention
+paid to the afflicted, and influenced by that epidemic of morbid
+imitation which science now recognises in all such cases, soon
+became similarly afflicted, and in their turn made charges
+against various persons.  The Indian woman was flogged by her
+master, Mr. Parris, until she confessed relations with Satan;
+and others were forced or deluded into confession.  These
+hysterical confessions, the results of unbearable torture, or the
+reminiscences of dreams, which had been prompted by the witch
+legends and sermons of the period, embraced such facts as flying
+through the air to witch gatherings, partaking of witch
+sacraments, signing a book presented by the devil, and submitting
+to Satanic baptism.  The possessed had begun with charging their
+possession upon poor and vagrant old women, but ere long,
+emboldened by their success, they attacked higher game, struck at
+some of the foremost people of the region, and did not cease
+until several of these were condemned to death, and every man,
+woman, and child brought under a reign of terror.  Many fled
+outright, and one of the foremost citizens of Salem went
+constantly armed, and kept one of his horses saddled in the
+stable to flee if brought under accusation.  The hysterical
+ingenuity of the possessed women grew with their success.  They
+insisted that they saw devils prompting the accused to defend
+themselves in court.  Did one of the accused clasp her hands in
+despair, the possessed clasped theirs; did the accused, in
+appealing to Heaven, make any gesture, the possessed
+simultaneously imitated it; did the accused in weariness drop
+her head, the possessed dropped theirs, and declared that the
+witch was trying to break their necks.  The court-room resounded
+with groans, shrieks, prayers, and curses; judges, jury, and
+people were aghast, and even the accused were sometimes thus led
+to believe in their own guilt.
+
+Very striking in all these cases was the alloy of frenzy with
+trickery.  In most of the madness there was method.  Sundry
+witches charged by the possessed had been engaged in controversy
+with the Salem church people.  Others of the accused had
+quarrelled with Mr. Parris.  Still others had been engaged in old
+lawsuits against persons more or less connected with the girls.
+One of the most fearful charges, which cost the life of a noble
+and lovely woman, arose undoubtedly from her better style of
+dress and living.   Old slumbering neighbourhood or personal
+quarrels bore in this way a strange fruitage of revenge; for the
+cardinal doctrine of a fanatic's creed is that his enemies are
+the enemies of God.
+
+Any person daring to hint the slightest distrust of the
+proceedings was in danger of being immediately brought under
+accusation of a league with Satan.  Husbands and children were
+thus brought to the gallows for daring to disbelieve these
+charges against their wives and mothers.  Some of the clergy
+were accused for endeavouring to save members of their
+churches.[398]
+
+[398] This is admirably brought out by Upham, and the lawyerlike
+thoroughness with which he has examined all these hidden springs
+of the charges is one of the main things which render his book
+one of the most valuable contributions to the history and
+philosophy of demoniacal possession ever written.
+
+
+One poor woman was charged with "giving a look toward the great
+meeting-house of Salem, and immediately a demon entered the house
+and tore down a part of it."  This cause for the falling of a bit
+of poorly nailed wainscoting seemed perfectly satisfactory to Dr.
+Cotton Mather, as well as to the judge and jury, and she was
+hanged, protesting her innocence.  Still another lady, belonging
+to one of the most respected families of the region, was charged
+with the crime of witchcraft.  The children were fearfully
+afflicted whenever she appeared near them.  It seemed never to
+occur to any one that a bitter old feud between the Rev. Mr.
+Parris and the family of the accused might have prejudiced the
+children and directed their attention toward the woman.  No
+account was made of the fact that her life had been entirely
+blameless; and yet, in view of the wretched insufficiency of
+proof, the jury brought in a verdict of not guilty.  As they
+brought in this verdict, all the children began to shriek and
+scream, until the court committed the monstrous wrong of causing
+her to be indicted anew.  In order to warrant this, the judge
+referred to one perfectly natural and harmless expression made by
+the woman when under examination.  The jury at last brought her
+in guilty.  She was condemned; and, having been brought into the
+church heavily ironed, was solemnly excommunicated and delivered
+over to Satan by the minister.  Some good sense still prevailed,
+and the Governor reprieved her; but ecclesiastical pressure and
+popular clamour were too powerful.  The Governor was induced to
+recall his reprieve, and she was executed, protesting her
+innocence and praying for her enemies.[399]
+
+[399] See Drake, The Witchcraft Delusion in New England, vol.
+iii, pp. 34 et seq.
+
+
+Another typical case was presented.  The Rev. Mr. Burroughs,
+against whom considerable ill will had been expressed, and whose
+petty parish quarrel with the powerful Putnam family had led to
+his dismissal from his ministry, was named by the possessed as
+one of those who plagued them, one of the most influential among
+the afflicted being Ann Putnam.  Mr. Burroughs had led a
+blameless life, the main thing charged against him by the Putnams
+being that he insisted strenuously that his wife should not go
+about the parish talking of her own family matters.  He was
+charged with afflicting the children, convicted, and executed.
+At the last moment he repeated the Lord's Prayer solemnly and
+fully, which it was supposed that no sorcerer could do, and this,
+together with his straightforward Christian utterances at the
+execution, shook the faith of many in the reality of diabolic
+possession.  Ere long it was known that one of the girls had
+acknowledged that she had belied some persons who had been
+executed, and especially Mr. Burroughs, and that she had begged
+forgiveness; but this for a time availed nothing.  Persons who
+would not confess were tied up and put to a sort of torture which
+was effective in securing new revelations.
+
+In the case of Giles Corey the horrors of the persecution
+culminated.  Seeing that his doom was certain, and wishing to
+preserve his family from attainder and their property from
+confiscation, he refused to plead.  Though eighty years of age,
+he was therefore pressed to death, and when, in his last agonies,
+his tongue was pressed out of his mouth, the sheriff with his
+walking-stick thrust it back again.
+
+Everything was made to contribute to the orthodox view of
+possession.  On one occasion, when a cart conveying eight
+condemned persons to the place of execution stuck fast in the
+mire, some of the possessed declared that they saw the devil
+trying to prevent the punishment of his associates.  Confessions
+of witchcraft abounded; but the way in which these confessions
+were obtained is touchingly exhibited in a statement afterward
+made by several women.  In explaining the reasons why, when
+charged with afflicting sick persons, they made a false
+confession, they said:
+
+"...By reason of that suddain surprizal, we knowing ourselves
+altogether Innocent of that Crime, we were all exceedingly
+astonished and amazed, and consternated and affrighted even out
+of our Reason; and our nearest and dearest Relations, seeing us
+in that dreadful condition, and knowing our great danger,
+apprehending that there was no other way to save our lives,...
+out of tender...pitty perswaded us to confess what we did
+confess.  And indeed that Confession, that it is said we made,
+was no other than what was suggested to us by some Gentlemen;
+they telling us, that we were Witches, and they knew it, and we
+knew it, and they knew that we knew it, which made us think that
+it was so; and our understanding, our reason, and our faculties
+almost gone, we were not capable of judging our condition; as
+also the hard measures they used with us, rendred us uncapable of
+making our Defence, but said anything and everything which they
+desired, and most of what we said, was in effect a consenting to
+what they said...."[400]
+
+[400] See Calef, in Drake, vol.ii; also Upham.
+
+
+Case after case, in which hysteria, fanaticism, cruelty,
+injustice, and trickery played their part, was followed up to the
+scaffold.  In a short time twenty persons had been put to a
+cruel death, and the number of the accused grew larger and
+larger.   The highest position and the noblest character formed
+no barrier. Daily the possessed became more bold, more tricky,
+and more wild. No plea availed anything.  In behalf of several
+women, whose lives had been of the purest and gentlest, petitions
+were presented, but to no effect.  A scriptural text was always
+ready to aid in the repression of mercy:  it was remembered that
+"Satan himself is transformed into an angel of light," and above
+all resounded the Old Testament injunction, which had sent such
+multitudes in Europe to the torture-chamber and the stake, "Thou
+shalt not suffer a witch to live."
+
+Such clergymen as Noyes, Parris, and Mather, aided by such judges
+as Stoughton and Hathorn, left nothing undone to stimulate these
+proceedings.  The great Cotton Mather based upon this outbreak
+of disease thus treated his famous book, Wonders of the Invisible
+World, thanking God for the triumphs over Satan thus gained at
+Salem; and his book received the approbation of the Governor of
+the Province, the President of Harvard College, and various
+eminent theologians in Europe as well as in America.
+
+But, despite such efforts as these, observation, and thought upon
+observation, which form the beginning of all true science,
+brought in a new order of things.  The people began to fall
+away. Justice Bradstreet, having committed thirty or forty
+persons, became aroused to the absurdity of the whole matter; the
+minister of Andover had the good sense to resist the theological
+view; even so high a personage as Lady Phips, the wife of the
+Governor, began to show lenity.
+
+Each of these was, in consequence of this disbelief, charged with
+collusion with Satan; but such charges seemed now to lose their
+force.
+
+In the midst of all this delusion and terrorism stood Cotton
+Mather firm as ever.  His efforts to uphold the declining
+superstition were heroic.  But he at last went one step too far.
+Being himself possessed of a mania for myth-making and
+wonder-mongering, and having described a case of witchcraft with
+possibly greater exaggeration than usual, he was confronted by
+Robert Calef.  Calef was a Boston merchant, who appears to have
+united the good sense of a man of business to considerable
+shrewdness in observation, power in thought, and love for truth;
+and he began writing to Mather and others, to show the weak
+points in the system.  Mather, indignant that a person so much
+his inferior dared dissent from his opinion, at first affected to
+despise Calef; but, as Calef pressed him more and more closely,
+Mather denounced him, calling him among other things "A Coal from
+Hell."  All to no purpose:  Calef fastened still more firmly upon
+the flanks of the great theologian.  Thought and reason now
+began to resume their sway.
+
+The possessed having accused certain men held in very high
+respect, doubts began to dawn upon the community at large.  Here
+was the repetition of that which had set men thinking in the
+German bishoprics when those under trial for witchcraft there had
+at last, in their desperation or madness, charged the very
+bishops and the judges upon the bench with sorcery.  The party
+of reason grew stronger.  The Rev. Mr. Parris was soon put upon
+the defensive:  for some of the possessed began to confess that
+they had accused people wrongfully.  Herculean efforts were made
+by certain of the clergy and devout laity to support the
+declining belief, but the more thoughtful turned more and more
+against it; jurymen prominent in convictions solemnly retracted
+their verdicts and publicly craved pardon of God and man.  Most
+striking of all was the case of Justice Sewall.  A man of the
+highest character, he had in view of authority deduced from
+Scripture and the principles laid down by the great English
+judges, unhesitatingly condemned the accused; but reason now
+dawned upon him.  He looked back and saw the baselessness of the
+whole proceedings, and made a public statement of his errors.
+His diary contains many passages showing deep contrition, and
+ever afterward, to the end of his life, he was wont, on one day
+in the year, to enter into solitude, and there remain all the day
+long in fasting, prayer, and penitence.
+
+Chief-Justice Stoughton never yielded.  To the last he lamented
+the "evil spirit of unbelief" which was thwarting the glorious
+work of freeing New England from demons.
+
+The church of Salem solemnly revoked the excommunications of the
+condemned and drove Mr. Parris from the pastorate.  Cotton
+Mather passed his last years in groaning over the decline of the
+faith and the ingratitude of a people for whom he had done so
+much. Very significant is one of his complaints, since it shows
+the evolution of a more scientific mode of thought abroad as well
+as at home:  he laments in his diary that English publishers
+gladly printed Calef's book, but would no longer publish his own,
+and he declares this "an attack upon the glory of the Lord."
+
+About forty years after the New England epidemic of "possession"
+occurred another typical series of phenomena in France.  In 1727
+there died at the French capital a simple and kindly
+ecclesiastic, the Archdeacon Paris.  He had lived a pious,
+Christian life, and was endeared to multitudes by his charity;
+unfortunately, he had espoused the doctrine of Jansen on grace
+and free will, and, though he remained in the Gallican Church, he
+and those who thought like him were opposed by the Jesuits, and
+finally condemned by a papal bull.
+
+His remains having been buried in the cemetery of St. Medard,
+the Jansenists flocked to say their prayers at his grave, and
+soon miracles began to be wrought there.  Ere long they were
+multiplied.  The sick being brought and laid upon the tombstone,
+many were cured.  Wonderful stories were attested by
+eye-witnesses.  The myth-making tendency--the passion for
+developing, enlarging, and spreading tales of wonder--came into
+full play and was given free course.
+
+Many thoughtful men satisfied themselves of the truth of these
+representations.  One of the foremost English scholars came
+over, examined into them, and declared that there could be no
+doubt as to the reality of the cures.
+
+This state of things continued for about four years, when, in
+1731, more violent effects showed themselves.  Sundry persons
+approaching the tomb were thrown into convulsions, hysterics, and
+catalepsy; these diseases spread, became epidemic, and soon
+multitudes were similarly afflicted.  Both religious parties
+made the most of these cases.  In vain did such great authorities
+in medical science as Hecquet and Lorry attribute the whole to
+natural causes:  the theologians on both sides declared them
+supernatural--the Jansenists attributing them to God, the Jesuits
+to Satan.
+
+Of late years such cases have been treated in France with much
+shrewdness.  When, about the middle of the present century, the
+Arab priests in Algiers tried to arouse fanaticism against the
+French Christians by performing miracles, the French Government,
+instead of persecuting the priests, sent Robert-Houdin, the most
+renowned juggler of his time, to the scene of action, and for
+every Arab miracle Houdin performed two:  did an Arab marabout
+turn a rod into a serpent, Houdin turned his rod into two
+serpents; and afterward showed the people how he did it.
+
+So, too, at the last International Exposition, the French
+Government, observing the evil effects produced by the mania for
+table turning and tipping, took occasion, when a great number of
+French schoolmasters and teachers were visiting the exposition,
+to have public lectures given in which all the business of dark
+closets, hand-tying, materialization of spirits, presenting the
+faces of the departed, and ghostly portraiture was fully
+performed by professional mountebanks, and afterward as fully
+explained.
+
+So in this case.  The Government simply ordered the gate of the
+cemetery to be locked, and when the crowd could no longer
+approach the tomb the miracles ceased.  A little Parisian
+ridicule helped to end the matter.  A wag wrote up over the gate
+of the cemetery.
+
+
+"De par le Roi, defense a Dieu
+  De faire des miracles dans ce lieu"--
+
+
+which, being translated from doggerel French into doggerel
+English, is--
+
+"By order of the king, the Lord must forbear
+  To work any more of his miracles here."
+
+
+But the theological spirit remained powerful.  The French
+Revolution had not then intervened to bring it under healthy
+limits.  The agitation was maintained, and, though the miracles
+and cases of possession were stopped in the cemetery, it spread.
+Again full course was given to myth-making and the retailing of
+wonders.  It was said that men had allowed themselves to be
+roasted before slow fires, and had been afterward found
+uninjured; that some had enormous weights piled upon them, but
+had supernatural powers of resistance given them; and that, in
+one case, a voluntary crucifixion had taken place.
+
+This agitation was long, troublesome, and no doubt robbed many
+temporarily or permanently of such little brains as they
+possessed.  It was only when the violence had become an old
+story and the charm of novelty had entirely worn off, and the
+afflicted found themselves no longer regarded with especial
+interest, that the epidemic died away.[401]
+
+[401] See Madden, Phantasmata, chap. xiv; also Sir James Stephen,
+History of France, lecture xxvi; also Henry Martin, Histoire de
+France, vol. xv, pp. 168 et seq.; also Calmeil, liv. v, chap.
+xxiv; also Hecker's essay; and, for samples of myth-making, see
+the apocryphal Souvenirs de Crequy.
+
+
+But in Germany at that time the outcome of this belief was far
+more cruel.  In 1749 Maria Renata Singer, sub-prioress of a
+convent at Wurzburg, was charged with bewitching her fellow-nuns.
+There was the usual story--the same essential facts as at
+Loudun--women shut up against their will, dreams of Satan
+disguised as a young man, petty jealousies, spites, quarrels,
+mysterious uproar, trickery, utensils thrown about in a way not
+to be accounted for, hysterical shrieking and convulsions, and,
+finally, the torture, confession, and execution of the supposed
+culprit.[402]
+
+[402] See Soldan, Scherr, Diefenbach, and others.
+
+
+Various epidemics of this sort broke out from time to time in
+other parts of the world, though happily, as modern scepticism
+prevailed, with less cruel results.
+
+In 1760 some congregations of Calvinistic Methodists in Wales
+became so fervent that they began leaping for joy.  The mania
+spread, and gave rise to a sect called the "Jumpers."  A similar
+outbreak took place afterward in England, and has been repeated
+at various times and places since in our own country.[403]
+
+[403] See Adam's Dictionary of All Religions, article on Jumpers;
+also Hecker.
+
+
+In 1780 came another outbreak in France; but this time it was
+not the Jansenists who were affected, but the strictly orthodox.
+A large number of young girls between twelve and nineteen years
+of age, having been brought together at the church of St. Roch,
+in Paris, with preaching and ceremonies calculated to arouse
+hysterics, one of them fell into convulsions.  Immediately other
+children were similarly taken, until some fifty or sixty were
+engaged in the same antics.  This mania spread to other churches
+and gatherings, proved very troublesome, and in some cases led to
+results especially painful.
+
+About the same period came a similar outbreak among the
+Protestants of the Shetland Isles.  A woman having been seized
+with convulsions at church, the disease spread to others, mainly
+women, who fell into the usual contortions and wild shriekings.
+A very effective cure proved to be a threat to plunge the
+diseased into a neighbouring pond.
+
+
+
+II.  BEGINNINGS OF HELPFUL SCEPTICISM.
+
+
+But near the end of the eighteenth century a fact very important
+for science was established.  It was found that these
+manifestations do not arise in all cases from supernatural
+sources.  In 1787 came the noted case at Hodden Bridge, in
+Lancashire.  A girl working in a cotton manufactory there put a
+mouse into the bosom of another girl who had a great dread of
+mice.  The girl thus treated immediately went into convulsions,
+which lasted twenty-four hours.  Shortly afterward three other
+girls were seized with like convulsions, a little later six more,
+and then others, until, in all, twenty-four were attacked.  Then
+came a fact throwing a flood of light upon earlier occurrences.
+This epidemic, being noised abroad, soon spread to another
+factory five miles distant.  The patients there suffered from
+strangulation, danced, tore their hair, and dashed their heads
+against the walls.  There was a strong belief that it was a
+disease introduced in cotton, but a resident physician amused the
+patients with electric shocks, and the disease died out.
+
+In 1801 came a case of like import in the Charite Hospital in
+Berlin.  A girl fell into strong convulsions.  The disease
+proved contagious, several others becoming afflicted in a similar
+way; but nearly all were finally cured, principally by the
+administration of opium, which appears at that time to have been
+a fashionable remedy.
+
+Of the same sort was a case at Lyons in 1851.  Sixty women were
+working together in a shop, when one of them, after a bitter
+quarrel with her husband, fell into a violent nervous paroxysm.
+The other women, sympathizing with her, gathered about to assist
+her, but one after another fell into a similar condition, until
+twenty were thus prostrated, and a more general spread of the
+epidemic was only prevented by clearing the premises.[404]
+
+[404] For these examples and others, see Tuke, Influence of the
+Mind upon the Body, vol. i, pp. 100, 277; also Hecker's essay.
+
+
+But while these cases seemed, in the eye of Science, fatal to the
+old conception of diabolic influence, the great majority of such
+epidemics, when unexplained, continued to give strength to the
+older view.
+
+In Roman Catholic countries these manifestations, as we have
+seen, have generally appeared in convents, or in churches where
+young girls are brought together for their first communion, or at
+shrines where miracles are supposed to be wrought.
+
+In Protestant countries they appear in times of great religious
+excitement, and especially when large bodies of young women are
+submitted to the influence of noisy and frothy preachers.
+Well-known examples of this in America are seen in the "Jumpers,"
+"Jerkers," and various revival extravagances, especially among
+the negroes and "poor whites" of the Southern States.
+
+The proper conditions being given for the development of the
+disease--generally a congregation composed mainly of young
+women--any fanatic or overzealous priest or preacher may
+stimulate hysterical seizures, which are very likely to become
+epidemic.
+
+As a recent typical example on a large scale, I take the case of
+diabolic possession at Morzine, a French village on the borders
+of Switzerland; and it is especially instructive, because it was
+thoroughly investigated by a competent man of science.
+
+About the year 1853 a sick girl at Morzine, acting strangely, was
+thought to be possessed of the devil, and was taken to Besancon,
+where she seems to have fallen into the hands of kindly and
+sensible ecclesiastics, and, under the operation of the relics
+preserved in the cathedral there--especially the handkerchief of
+Christ--the devil was cast out and she was cured.  Naturally,
+much was said of the affair among the peasantry, and soon other
+cases began to show themselves.  The priest at Morzine attempted
+to quiet the matter by avowing his disbelief in such cases of
+possession; but immediately a great outcry was raised against
+him, especially by the possessed themselves.  The matter was now
+widely discussed, and the malady spread rapidly; myth-making and
+wonder-mongering began; amazing accounts were thus developed and
+sent out to the world.  The afflicted were said to have climbed
+trees like squirrels; to have shown superhuman strength; to
+have exercised the gift of tongues, speaking in German, Latin,
+and even in Arabic; to have given accounts of historical events
+they had never heard of; and to have revealed the secret thoughts
+of persons about them.  Mingled with such exhibitions of power
+were outbursts of blasphemy and obscenity.
+
+But suddenly came something more miraculous, apparently, than all
+these wonders.  Without any assigned cause, this epidemic of
+possession diminished and the devil disappeared.
+
+Not long after this, Prof. Tissot, an eminent member of the
+medical faculty at Dijon, visited the spot and began a series of
+researches, of which he afterward published a full account.  He
+tells us that he found some reasons for the sudden departure of
+Satan which had never been published.  He discovered that the
+Government had quietly removed one or two very zealous
+ecclesiastics to another parish, had sent the police to Morzine
+to maintain order, and had given instructions that those who
+acted outrageously should be simply treated as lunatics and sent
+to asylums.  This policy, so accordant with French methods of
+administration, cast out the devil:  the possessed were mainly
+cured, and the matter appeared ended.
+
+But Dr. Tissot found a few of the diseased still remaining, and
+he soon satisfied himself by various investigations and
+experiments that they were simply suffering from hysteria.  One
+of his investigations is especially curious.  In order to observe
+the patients more carefully, he invited some of them to dine with
+him, gave them without their knowledge holy water in their wine
+or their food, and found that it produced no effect whatever,
+though its results upon the demons when the possessed knew of its
+presence had been very marked.  Even after large draughts of
+holy water had been thus given, the possessed remained afflicted,
+urged that the devil should be cast out, and some of them even
+went into convulsions; the devil apparently speaking from their
+mouths.  It was evident that Satan had not the remotest idea
+that he had been thoroughly dosed with the most effective
+medicine known to the older theology.[405]
+
+[405] For an amazing delineation of the curative and other
+virtues of holy water, see the Abbe Gaume, L'Eau benite au XIXme
+Siecle, Paris, 1866.
+
+
+At last Tissot published the results of his experiments, and the
+stereotyped answer was soon made.  It resembled the answer made
+by the clerical opponents of Galileo when he showed them the
+moons of Jupiter through his telescope, and they declared that
+the moons were created by the telescope.  The clerical opponents
+of Tissot insisted that the non-effect of the holy water upon the
+demons proved nothing save the extraordinary cunning of Satan;
+that the archfiend wished it to be thought that he does not
+exist, and so overcame his repugnance to holy water, gulping it
+down in order to conceal his presence.
+
+Dr. Tissot also examined into the gift of tongues exercised by
+the possessed.  As to German and Latin, no great difficulty was
+presented:  it was by no means hard to suppose that some of the
+girls might have learned some words of the former language in the
+neighbouring Swiss cantons where German was spoken, or even in
+Germany itself; and as to Latin, considering that they had heard
+it from their childhood in the church, there seemed nothing very
+wonderful in their uttering some words in that language also.
+As to Arabic, had they really spoken it, that might have been
+accounted for by the relations of the possessed with Zouaves or
+Spahis from the French army; but, as Tissot could discover no
+such relations, he investigated this point as the most puzzling
+of all.
+
+On a close inquiry, he found that all the wonderful examples of
+speaking Arabic were reduced to one.  He then asked whether
+there was any other person speaking or knowing Arabic in the
+town. He was answered that there was not.  He asked whether any
+person had lived there, so far as any one could remember, who had
+spoken or understood Arabic, and he was answered in the negative.
+
+He then asked the witnesses how they knew that the language
+spoken by the girl was Arabic:  no answer was vouchsafed him; but
+he was overwhelmed with such stories as that of a pig which, at
+sight of the cross on the village church, suddenly refused to go
+farther; and he was denounced thoroughly in the clerical
+newspapers for declining to accept such evidence.
+
+At Tissot's visit in 1863 the possession had generally ceased,
+and the cases left were few and quiet.  But his visits stirred a
+new controversy, and its echoes were long and loud in the pulpits
+and clerical journals.  Believers insisted that Satan had been
+removed by the intercession of the Blessed Virgin; unbelievers
+hinted that the main cause of the deliverance was the reluctance
+of the possessed to be shut up in asylums.
+
+Under these circumstances the Bishop of Annecy announced that he
+would visit Morzine to administer Confirmation, and word appears
+to have spread that he would give a more orthodox completion to
+the work already done, by exorcising the devils who remained.
+Immediately several new cases of possession appeared; young
+girls who had been cured were again affected; the embers thus
+kindled were fanned into a flame by a "mission" which sundry
+priests held in the parish to arouse the people to their
+religious duties--a mission in Roman Catholic countries being
+akin to a "revival" among some Protestant sects.  Multitudes of
+young women, excited by the preaching and appeals of the clergy,
+were again thrown into the old disease, and at the coming of the
+good bishop it culminated.
+
+The account is given in the words of an eye-witness:
+
+"At the solemn entrance of the bishop into the church, the
+possessed persons threw themselves on the ground before him, or
+endeavoured to throw themselves upon him, screaming frightfully,
+cursing, blaspheming, so that the people at large were struck
+with horror.  The possessed followed the bishop, hooted him, and
+threatened him, up to the middle of the church.  Order was only
+established by the intervention of the soldiers.  During the
+confirmation the diseased redoubled their howls and infernal
+vociferations, and tried to spit in the face of the bishop and to
+tear off his pastoral raiment.  At the moment when the prelate
+gave his benediction a still more outrageous scene took place.
+The violence of the diseased was carried to fury, and from all
+parts of the church arose yells and fearful howling; so
+frightful was the din that tears fell from the eyes of many of
+the spectators, and many strangers were thrown into
+consternation."
+
+Among the very large number of these diseased persons there were
+only two men; of the remainder only two were of advanced age;
+the great majority were young women between the ages of eighteen
+and twenty-five years.
+
+The public authorities shortly afterward intervened, and sought
+to cure the disease and to draw the people out of their mania by
+singing, dancing, and sports of various sorts, until at last it
+was brought under control.[406]
+
+[406] See Tissot, L'Imagination: ses Bienfaits et ses Egarements
+sutout dans le Domaine du Merveilleux, Paris, 1868, liv. iv, ch.
+vii, S 7: Les Possedees de Morzine; also Constans, Relation sur
+une Epidemie de Hystero-Demonopathies, Paris, 1863.
+
+
+Scenes similar to these, in their essential character, have
+arisen more recently in Protestant countries, but with the
+difference that what has been generally attributed by Roman
+Catholic ecclesiastics to Satan is attributed by Protestant
+ecclesiastics to the Almighty.  Typical among the greater
+exhibitions of this were those which began in the Methodist
+chapel at Redruth in Cornwall--convulsions, leaping, jumping,
+until some four thousand persons were seized by it.  The same
+thing is seen in the ruder parts of America at "revivals" and
+camp meetings.  Nor in the ruder parts of America alone.  In
+June, 1893, at a funeral in the city of Brooklyn, one of the
+mourners having fallen into hysterical fits, several other cases
+at once appeared in various parts of the church edifice, and some
+of the patients were so seriously affected that they were taken
+to a hospital.
+
+In still another field these exhibitions are seen, but more after
+a medieval pattern:  in the Tigretier of Abyssinia we have
+epidemics of dancing which seek and obtain miraculous cures.
+
+Reports of similar manifestations are also sent from missionaries
+from the west coast of Africa, one of whom sees in some of them
+the characteristics of cases of possession mentioned in our
+Gospels, and is therefore inclined to attribute them to
+Satan.[407]
+
+[407] For the cases in Brooklyn, see the New York Tribune of
+about June 10, 1893.  For the Tigretier, with especially
+interesting citations, see Hecker, chap. iii, sec. 1.  For the
+cases in western Africa, see the Rev. J. L. Wilson, Western
+Africa, p. 217.
+
+
+
+
+III.  THEOLOGICAL "RESTATEMENTS."--FINAL TRIUMPH
+OF THE SCIENTIFIC VIEW AND METHODS.
+
+
+But, happily, long before these latter occurrences, science had
+come into the field and was gradually diminishing this class of
+diseases.  Among the earlier workers to this better purpose was
+the great Dutch physician Boerhaave.  Finding in one of the
+wards in the hospital at Haarlem a number of women going into
+convulsions and imitating each other in various acts of frenzy,
+he immediately ordered a furnace of blazing coals into the midst
+of the ward, heated cauterizing irons, and declared that he would
+burn the arms of the first woman who fell into convulsions.  No
+more cases occurred.[408]
+
+[408] See Figuier, Histoire de Merveilleux, vol. i, p. 403.
+
+
+These and similar successful dealings of medical science with
+mental disease brought about the next stage in the theological
+development.  The Church sought to retreat, after the usual
+manner, behind a compromise.  Early in the eighteenth century
+appeared a new edition of the great work by the Jesuit Delrio
+which for a hundred years had been a text-book for the use of
+ecclesiastics in fighting witchcraft; but in this edition the
+part played by Satan in diseases was changed:  it was suggested
+that, while diseases have natural causes, it is necessary that
+Satan enter the human body in order to make these causes
+effective.  This work claims that Satan "attacks lunatics at the
+full moon, when their brains are full of humours"; that in other
+cases of illness he "stirs the black bile"; and that in cases of
+blindness and deafness he "clogs the eyes and ears."  By the
+close of the century this "restatement" was evidently found
+untenable, and one of a very different sort was attempted in
+England.
+
+In the third edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, published
+in 1797, under the article Daemoniacs, the orthodox view was
+presented in the following words:  "The reality of demoniacal
+possession stands upon the same evidence with the gospel system
+in general."
+
+This statement, though necessary to satisfy the older theological
+sentiment, was clearly found too dangerous to be sent out into
+the modern sceptical world without some qualification.  Another
+view was therefore suggested, namely, that the personages of the
+New Testament "adopted the vulgar language in speaking of those
+unfortunate persons who were generally imagined to be possessed
+with demons."  Two or three editions contained this curious
+compromise; but near the middle of the present century the whole
+discussion was quietly dropped.
+
+Science, declining to trouble itself with any of these views,
+pressed on, and toward the end of the century we see Dr. Rhodes
+at Lyons curing a very serious case of possession by the use of a
+powerful emetic; yet myth-making came in here also, and it was
+stated that when the emetic produced its effect people had seen
+multitudes of green and yellow devils cast forth from the mouth
+of the possessed.
+
+The last great demonstration of the old belief in England was
+made in 1788.  Near the city of Bristol at that time lived a
+drunken epileptic, George Lukins.  In asking alms, he insisted
+that he was "possessed," and proved it by jumping, screaming,
+barking, and treating the company to a parody of the Te Deum.
+
+He was solemnly brought into the Temple Church, and seven
+clergymen united in the effort to exorcise the evil spirit.
+Upon their adjuring Satan, he swore "by his infernal den" that he
+would not come out of the man--"an oath," says the chronicler,
+"nowhere to be found but in Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, from
+which Lukins probably got it."
+
+But the seven clergymen were at last successful, and seven devils
+were cast out, after which Lukins retired, and appears to have
+been supported during the remainder of his life as a monument of
+mercy.
+
+With this great effort the old theory in England seemed
+practically exhausted.
+
+Science had evidently carried the stronghold.  In 1876, at a
+little town near Amiens, in France, a young woman suffering with
+all the usual evidences of diabolic possession was brought to the
+priest.  The priest was besought to cast out the devil, but he
+simply took her to the hospital, where, under scientific
+treatment, she rapidly became better.[409]
+
+[409] See Figuier; also Collin de Plancy, Dictionnaire Infernale,
+article Posseses.
+
+
+The final triumph of science in this part of the great field has
+been mainly achieved during the latter half of the present
+century.
+
+Following in the noble succession of Paracelsus and John Hunter
+and Pinel and Tuke and Esquirol, have come a band of thinkers and
+workers who by scientific observation and research have developed
+new growths of truth, ever more and more precious.
+
+Among the many facts thus brought to bear upon this last
+stronghold of the Prince of Darkness, may be named especially
+those indicating "expectant attention"--an expectation of
+phenomena dwelt upon until the longing for them becomes morbid
+and invincible, and the creation of them perhaps unconscious.
+Still other classes of phenomena leading to epidemics are found
+to arise from a morbid tendency to imitation.  Still other
+groups have been brought under hypnotism.  Multitudes more have
+been found under the innumerable forms and results of hysteria.
+A study of the effects of the imagination upon bodily functions
+has also yielded remarkable results.
+
+And, finally, to supplement this work, have come in an array of
+scholars in history and literature who have investigated
+myth-making and wonder-mongering.
+
+Thus has been cleared away that cloud of supernaturalism which so
+long hung over mental diseases, and thus have they been brought
+within the firm grasp of science.[410]
+
+[410] To go into even leading citations in this vast and
+beneficent literature would take me far beyond my plan and space,
+but I may name, among easily accessible authorities, Brierre de
+Boismont on Hallucinations, Hulme's translation, 1860; also James
+Braid, The Power of the Mind over the Body, London, 1846; Krafft-
+Ebing, Lehrbuch der Psychiatrie, Stuttgart, 1888; Tuke, Influence
+of the Mind on the Body, London, 1884; Maudsley, Pathology of the
+Mind, London, 1879; Carpenter, Mental Physiology, sixth edition,
+London, 1888; Lloyd Tuckey, Faith Cure, in The Nineteenth Century
+for December, 1888; Pettigrew, Superstitions connected with the
+Practice of Medicine and Surgery, London, 1844; Snell,
+Hexenprocesse und Geistesstorung, Munchen, 1891. For a very
+valuable study of interesting cases, see The Law of Hypnotism, by
+Prof. R. S. Hyer, of the Southwestern University, Georgetown,
+Texas, 1895.
+
+As to myth-making and wonder-mongering, the general reader will
+find interesting supplementary accounts in the recent works of
+Andrew Lang and Baring-Gould.
+
+A very curious evidence of the effects of the myth-making
+tendency has recently come to the attention of the writer of this
+article. Periodically, for many years past, we have seen, in
+books of travel and in the newspapers, accounts of the wonderful
+performances of the jugglers in India; of the stabbing of a child
+in a small basket in the midst of an arena, and the child
+appearing alive in the surrounding crowd; of seeds planted,
+sprouted, and becoming well-grown trees under the hand of the
+juggler; of ropes thrown into the air and sustained by invisible
+force. Count de Gubernatis, the eminent professor and Oriental
+scholar at Florence, informed the present writer that he had
+recently seen and studied these exhibitions, and that, so far
+from being wonderful, they were much inferior to the jugglery so
+well known in all our Western capitals.
+
+
+Conscientious men still linger on who find comfort in holding
+fast to some shred of the old belief in diabolic possession.
+The sturdy declaration in the last century by John Wesley, that
+"giving up witchcraft is giving up the Bible," is echoed feebly
+in the latter half of this century by the eminent Catholic
+ecclesiastic in France who declares that "to deny possession by
+devils is to charge Jesus and his apostles with imposture," and
+asks, "How can the testimony of apostles, fathers of the Church,
+and saints who saw the possessed and so declared, be denied?"
+And a still fainter echo lingers in Protestant England.[411]
+
+[411] See the Abbe Barthelemi, in the Dictionnaire de la
+Conversation; also the Rev. W. Scott's Doctrine of Evil Spirits
+proved, London, 1853; also the vigorous protest of Dean Burgon
+against the action of the New Testament revisers, in substituting
+the word "epileptic" for "lunatic" in Matthew xvii, 15, published
+in the Quarterly Review for January, 1882.
+
+
+But, despite this conscientious opposition, science has in these
+latter days steadily wrought hand in hand with Christian charity
+in this field, to evolve a better future for humanity.  The
+thoughtful physician and the devoted clergyman are now constantly
+seen working together; and it is not too much to expect that
+Satan, having been cast out of the insane asylums, will ere long
+disappear from monasteries and camp meetings, even in the most
+unenlightened regions of Christendom.
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+
+FROM BABEL TO COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY.
+
+I.  THE SACRED THEORY IN ITS FIRST FORM.
+
+
+Among the sciences which have served as entering wedges into the
+heavy mass of ecclesiastical orthodoxy--to cleave it,
+disintegrate it, and let the light of Christianity into it--none
+perhaps has done a more striking work than Comparative Philology.
+In one very important respect the history of this science differs
+from that of any other; for it is the only one whose conclusions
+theologians have at last fully adopted as the result of their own
+studies.  This adoption teaches a great lesson, since, while it
+has destroyed theological views cherished during many centuries,
+and obliged the Church to accept theories directly contrary to
+the plain letter of our sacred books, the result is clearly seen
+to have helped Christianity rather than to have hurt it.  It has
+certainly done much to clear our religious foundations of the
+dogmatic rust which was eating into their structure.
+
+How this result was reached, and why the Church has so fully
+accepted it, I shall endeavour to show in the present chapter.
+At a very early period in the evolution of civilization men began
+to ask questions regarding language; and the answers to these
+questions were naturally embodied in the myths, legends, and
+chronicles of their sacred books.
+
+Among the foremost of these questions were three:  "Whence came
+language?"  "Which was the first language?"  "How came the
+diversity of language?"
+
+The answer to the first of these was very simple:  each people
+naturally held that language was given it directly or indirectly
+by some special or national deity of its own; thus, to the
+Chaldeans by Oannes, to the Egyptians by Thoth, to the Hebrews by
+Jahveh.
+
+The Hebrew answer is embodied in the great poem which opens our
+sacred books.  Jahveh talks with Adam and is perfectly
+understood; the serpent talks with Eve and is perfectly
+understood; Jahveh brings the animals before Adam, who bestows on
+each its name.  Language, then, was God-given and complete.  Of
+the fact that every language is the result of a growth process
+there was evidently, among the compilers of our sacred books, no
+suspicion.
+
+The answer to the second of these questions was no less simple.
+As, very generally, each nation believed its own chief divinity
+to be "a god above all gods,"--as each believed itself "a chosen
+people,"--as each believed its own sacred city the actual centre
+of the earth, so each believed its own language to be the
+first--the original of all.  This answer was from the first
+taken for granted by each "chosen people," and especially by the
+Hebrews:  throughout their whole history, whether the Almighty
+talks with Adam in the Garden or writes the commandments on Mount
+Sinai, he uses the same language--the Hebrew.
+
+The answer to the third of these questions, that regarding the
+diversity of languages, was much more difficult.  Naturally,
+explanations of this diversity frequently gave rise to legends
+somewhat complicated.
+
+The "law of wills and causes," formulated by Comte, was
+exemplified here as in so many other cases.  That law is, that,
+when men do not know the natural causes of things, they simply
+attribute them to wills like their own; thus they obtain a
+theory which provisionally takes the place of science, and this
+theory forms a basis for theology.
+
+Examples of this recur to any thinking reader of history.
+Before the simpler laws of astronomy were known, the sun was
+supposed to be trundled out into the heavens every day and the
+stars hung up in the firmament every night by the right hand of
+the Almighty. Before the laws of comets were known, they were
+thought to be missiles hurled by an angry God at a wicked world.
+Before the real cause of lightning was known, it was supposed to
+be the work of a good God in his wrath, or of evil spirits in
+their malice. Before the laws of meteorology were known, it was
+thought that rains were caused by the Almighty or his angels
+opening "the windows of heaven" to let down upon the earth "the
+waters that be above the firmament."  Before the laws governing
+physical health were known, diseases were supposed to result from
+the direct interposition of the Almighty or of Satan.  Before the
+laws governing mental health were known, insanity was generally
+thought to be diabolic possession.  All these early conceptions
+were naturally embodied in the sacred books of the world, and
+especially in our own.[412]
+
+[412] Any one who wishes to realize the mediaeval view of the
+direct personal attention of the Almighty to the universe, can
+perhaps do so most easily by looking over the engravings in the
+well-known Nuremberg Chronicle, representing him in the work of
+each of the six days, and resting afterward.
+
+
+So, in this case, to account for the diversity of tongues, the
+direct intervention of the Divine Will was brought in.  As this
+diversity was felt to be an inconvenience, it was attributed to
+the will of a Divine Being in anger.  To explain this anger, it
+was held that it must have been provoked by human sin.
+
+Out of this conception explanatory myths and legends grew as
+thickly and naturally as elms along water-courses; of these the
+earliest form known to us is found in the Chaldean accounts, and
+nowhere more clearly than in the legend of the Tower of Babel.
+
+The inscriptions recently found among the ruins of Assyria have
+thrown a bright light into this and other scriptural myths and
+legends:  the deciphering of the characters in these inscriptions
+by Grotefend, and the reading of the texts by George Smith,
+Oppert, Sayce, and others, have given us these traditions more
+nearly in their original form than they appear in our own
+Scriptures.
+
+The Hebrew story of Babel, like so many other legends in the
+sacred books of the world, combined various elements.  By a play
+upon words, such as the history of myths and legends frequently
+shows, it wrought into one fabric the earlier explanations of the
+diversities of human speech and of the great ruined tower at
+Babylon.  The name Babel (bab-el) means "Gate of God" or "Gate
+of the Gods."  All modern scholars of note agree that this was
+the real significance of the name; but the Hebrew verb which
+signifies TO CONFOUND resembles somewhat the word Babel, so that
+out of this resemblance, by one of the most common processes in
+myth formation, came to the Hebrew mind an indisputable proof
+that the tower was connected with the confusion of tongues, and
+this became part of our theological heritage.
+
+In our sacred books the account runs as follows:
+
+"And the whole earth was of one language, and of one speech.
+
+"And it came to pass, as they journeyed from the east, that they
+found a plain in the land of Shinar; and they dwelt there.
+
+"And they said one to another, Go to, let us make brick, and burn
+them thoroughly.  And they had brick for stone, and slime had
+they for mortar.
+
+"And they said, Go to, let us build us a city, and a tower, whose
+top may reach unto heaven; and let us make us a name, lest we be
+scattered abroad upon the face of the whole earth.
+
+"And the Lord came down to see the city and the tower, which the
+children of men builded.
+
+"And the Lord said, Behold, the people is one, and they have all
+one language; and this they begin to do:  and now nothing will
+be restrained from them, which they have imagined to do.
+
+"Go to, let us go down, and there confound their language, that
+they may not understand one another's speech.
+
+"So the Lord scattered them abroad from thence upon the face of
+all the earth:  and they left off to build the city.
+
+"Therefore is the name of it called Babel; because the Lord did
+there confound the language of all the earth:  and from thence
+did the Lord scatter them abroad upon the face of all the earth."
+(Genesis xi, 1-9.)
+
+Thus far the legend had been but slightly changed from the
+earlier Chaldean form in which it has been found in the Assyrian
+inscriptions.  Its character is very simple:  to use the words of
+Prof. Sayce, "It takes us back to the age when the gods were
+believed to dwell in the visible sky, and when man, therefore,
+did his best to rear his altars as near them as possible."  And
+this eminent divine might have added that it takes us back also
+to a time when it was thought that Jehovah, in order to see the
+tower fully, was obliged to come down from his seat above the
+firmament.
+
+As to the real reasons for the building of the towers which
+formed so striking a feature in Chaldean architecture--any one of
+which may easily have given rise to the explanatory myth which
+found its way into our sacred books--there seems a substantial
+agreement among leading scholars that they were erected primarily
+as parts of temples, but largely for the purpose of astronomical
+observations, to which the Chaldeans were so devoted, and to
+which their country, with its level surface and clear atmosphere,
+was so well adapted.  As to the real cause of the ruin of such
+structures, one of the inscribed cylinders discovered in recent
+times, speaking of a tower which most of the archaeologists
+identify with the Tower of Babel, reads as follows:
+
+"The building named the Stages of the Seven Spheres, which was
+the Tower of Borsippa, had been built by a former king.  He had
+completed forty-two cubits, but he did not finish its head.
+During the lapse of time, it had become ruined; they had not
+taken care of the exit of the waters, so that rain and wet had
+penetrated into the brickwork; the casing of burned brick had
+swollen out, and the terraces of crude brick are scattered in
+heaps."
+
+We can well understand how easily "the gods, assisted by the
+winds," as stated in the Chaldean legend, could overthrow a tower
+thus built.
+
+It may be instructive to compare with the explanatory myth
+developed first by the Chaldeans, and in a slightly different
+form by the Hebrews, various other legends to explain the same
+diversity of tongues.  The Hindu legend of the confusion of
+tongues is as follows:
+
+"There grew in the centre of the earth the wonderful `world
+tree,' or `knowledge tree.' It was so tall that it reached almost
+to heaven.  It said in its heart, `I shall hold my head in
+heaven and spread my branches over all the earth, and gather all
+men together under my shadow, and protect them, and prevent them
+from separating.' But Brahma, to punish the pride of the tree,
+cut off its branches and cast them down on the earth, when they
+sprang up as wata trees, and made differences of belief and
+speech and customs to prevail on the earth, to disperse men upon
+its surface."
+
+Still more striking is a Mexican legend:  according to this, the
+giant Xelhua built the great Pyramid of Cholula, in order to
+reach heaven, until the gods, angry at his audacity, threw fire
+upon the building and broke it down, whereupon every separate
+family received a language of its own.
+
+Such explanatory myths grew or spread widely over the earth.  A
+well-known form of the legend, more like the Chaldean than the
+Hebrew later form, appeared among the Greeks.  According to
+this, the Aloidae piled Mount Ossa upon Olympus and Pelion upon
+Ossa, in their efforts to reach heaven and dethrone Jupiter.
+
+Still another form of it entered the thoughts of Plato.  He held
+that in the golden age men and beasts all spoke the same
+language, but that Zeus confounded their speech because men were
+proud and demanded eternal youth and immortality.[413]
+
+[413] For the identification of the Tower of Babel with the "Birs
+Nimrad" amid the ruins of the city of Borsippa, see Rawlinson;
+also Schrader, The Cuneiform Inscriptions and the Old Testament,
+London, 1885, pp. 106-112 and following; and especially George
+Smith, Assyrian Discoveries, p. 59.  For some of these
+inscriptions discovered and read by George Smith, see his
+Chaldean Account of Genesis, new York, 1876, pp. 160-162.  For
+the statement regarding the origin of the word Babel, see Ersch
+and Gruber, article Babylon; also the Rev. Prof. A. H. Sayce in
+the latest edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica; also Colenso,
+Pentateuch Examined, part iv, p. 302; also John Fiske, Myths and
+Myth-makers, p. 72; also Lenormont, Histoire Ancienne de
+l'Orient, Paris, 1881, vol. i, pp. 115 et seq.  As to the
+character and purpose of the great tower of the temple of Belus,
+see Smith's Bible Dictionary, article Babel, quoting Diodorus;
+also Rawlinson, especially in Journal of the Asiatic Society for
+1861; also Sayce, Religion of the Ancient Babylonians (Hibbert
+Lectures for 1887), London, 1887, chap. ii and elsewhere,
+especially pages 96, 397, 407; also Max Duncker, History of
+Antiquity, Abbott's translation, vol. ii, chaps. ii, and iii.
+For similar legends in other parts of the world, see Delitzsch;
+also Humboldt, American Researches; also Brinton, Myths of the
+New World; also Colenso, as above.  The Tower of Cholula is well
+known, having been described by Humboldt and Lord Kingsborough.
+For superb engravings showing the view of Babel as developed by
+the theological imagination, see Kircher, Turris Babel,
+Amsterdam, 1679.  For the Law of Wills and Causes, with
+deductions from it well stated, see Beattie Crozier, Civilization
+and Progress, London, 1888, pp. 112, 178, 179, 273.  For Plato,
+see the Politicus, p. 272, ed. Stephani, cited in Ersch and
+Gruber, article Babylon.  For a good general statement, see Bible
+Myths, New York, 1883, chap. iii.  For Aristotle's strange want
+of interest in any classification of the varieties of human
+speech, see Max Muller, Lectures on the Science of Language,
+London, 1864, series i, chap. iv, pp. 123-125.
+
+
+But naturally the version of the legend which most affected
+Christendom was that modification of the Chaldean form developed
+among the Jews and embodied in their sacred books.  To a
+thinking man in these days it is very instructive.  The coming
+down of the Almighty from heaven to see the tower and put an end
+to it by dispersing its builders, points to the time when his
+dwelling was supposed to be just above the firmament or solid
+vault above the earth:  the time when he exercised his beneficent
+activity in such acts as opening "the windows of heaven" to give
+down rain upon the earth; in bringing out the sun every day and
+hanging up the stars every night to give light to the earth; in
+hurling comets, to give warning; in placing his bow in the cloud,
+to give hope; in, coming down in the cool of the evening to walk
+and talk with the man he had made; in making coats of skins for
+Adam and Eve; in enjoying the odour of flesh which Noah burned
+for him; in eating with Abraham under the oaks of Mamre; in
+wrestling with Jacob; and in writing with his own finger on the
+stone tables for Moses.
+
+So came the answer to the third question regarding language; and
+all three answers, embodied in our sacred books and implanted in
+the Jewish mind, supplied to the Christian Church the germs of a
+theological development of philology.  These germs developed
+rapidly in the warm atmosphere of devotion and ignorance of
+natural law which pervaded the early Church, and there grew a
+great orthodox theory of language, which was held throughout
+Christendom, "always, everywhere, and by all," for nearly two
+thousand years, and to which, until the present century, all
+science has been obliged, under pains and penalties, to conform.
+
+There did, indeed, come into human thought at an early period
+some suggestions of the modern scientific view of philology.
+Lucretius had proposed a theory, inadequate indeed, but still
+pointing toward the truth, as follows:  "Nature impelled man to
+try the various sounds of the tongue, and so struck out the names
+of things, much in the same way as the inability to speak is seen
+in its turn to drive children to the use of gestures."  But,
+among the early fathers of the Church, the only one who seems to
+have caught an echo of this utterance was St. Gregory of Nyssa:
+as a rule, all the other great founders of Christian theology, as
+far as they expressed themselves on the subject, took the view
+that the original language spoken by the Almighty and given by
+him to men was Hebrew, and that from this all other languages
+were derived at the destruction of the Tower of Babel.  This
+doctrine was especially upheld by Origen, St. Jerome, and St.
+Augustine. Origen taught that "the language given at the first
+through Adam, the Hebrew, remained among that portion of mankind
+which was assigned not to any angel, but continued the portion of
+God himself."  St. Augustine declared that, when the other races
+were divided by their own peculiar languages, Heber's family
+preserved that language which is not unreasonably believed to
+have
+been the common language of the race, and that on this account it
+was henceforth called Hebrew.  St. Jerome wrote, "The whole of
+antiquity affirms that Hebrew, in which the Old Testament is
+written, was the beginning of all human speech."
+
+Amid such great authorities as these even Gregory of Nyssa
+struggled in vain.  He seems to have taken the matter very
+earnestly, and to have used not only argument but ridicule.  He
+insists that God does not speak Hebrew, and that the tongue used
+by Moses was not even a pure dialect of one of the languages
+resulting from "the confusion."  He makes man the inventor of
+speech, and resorts to raillery:  speaking against his opponent
+Eunomius, he says that, "passing in silence his base and abject
+garrulity," he will "note a few things which are thrown into the
+midst of his useless or wordy discourse, where he represents God
+teaching words and names to our first parents, sitting before
+them like some pedagogue or grammar master."  But, naturally, the
+great authority of Origen, Jerome, and Augustine prevailed; the
+view suggested by Lucretius, and again by St. Gregory of Nyssa,
+died, out; and "always, everywhere, and by all," in the Church,
+the doctrine was received that the language spoken by the
+Almighty was Hebrew,--that it was taught by him to Adam,--and
+that all other languages on the face of the earth originated from
+it at the dispersion attending the destruction of the Tower of
+Babel.[414]
+
+[414] For Lucretius's statement, see the De Rerum Natura, lib. v,
+Munro's edition, with translation, Cambridge, 1886, vol. iii. p.
+141.  For the opinion of Gregory of Nyssa, see Benfey, Geschichte
+der Sprachwissenschaft in Deutschland, Munchen, 1869, p. 179; and
+for the passage cited, see Gregory of Nyssa in his Contra
+Eunomium, xii, in Migne's Patr. Graeca, vol. ii, p. 1043.  For
+St. Jerome, see his Epistle XVIII, in Migne's Patr. Lat., vol.
+xxii, p. 365.  For citation from St. Augustine, see the City of
+God, Dod's translation, Edinburgh, 1871, vol. ii, p. 122.  For
+citation from Origen, see his Homily XI, cited by Guichard in
+preface to L'Harmonie Etymologique, Paris, 1631, lib. xvi, chap.
+xi. For absolutely convincing proofs that the Jews derived the
+Babel and other legends of their sacred books fro the Chaldeans,
+see George Smith, Chaldean Account of Genesis, passim; but
+especially for a most candid though somewhat reluctant summing
+up, see p. 291.
+
+
+This idea threw out roots and branches in every direction, and so
+developed ever into new and strong forms.  As all scholars now
+know, the vowel points in the Hebrew language were not adopted
+until at some period between the second and tenth centuries; but
+in the mediaeval Church they soon came to be considered as part
+of the great miracle,--as the work of the right hand of the
+Almighty; and never until the eighteenth century was there any
+doubt allowed as to the divine origin of these rabbinical
+additions to the text.  To hesitate in believing that these
+points were dotted virtually by the very hand of God himself came
+to be considered a fearful heresy.
+
+The series of battles between theology and science in the field
+of comparative philology opened just on this point, apparently so
+insignificant:  the direct divine inspiration of the rabbinical
+punctuation.  The first to impugn this divine origin of these
+vocal points and accents appears to have been a Spanish monk,
+Raymundus Martinus, in his Pugio Fidei, or Poniard of the Faith,
+which he put forth in the thirteenth century.  But he and his
+doctrine disappeared beneath the waves of the orthodox ocean, and
+apparently left no trace.  For nearly three hundred years longer
+the full sacred theory held its ground; but about the opening of
+the sixteenth century another glimpse of the truth was given by a
+Jew, Elias Levita, and this seems to have had some little effect,
+at least in keeping the germ of scientific truth alive.
+
+The Reformation, with its renewal of the literal study of the
+Scriptures, and its transfer of all infallibility from the Church
+and the papacy to the letter of the sacred books, intensified for
+a time the devotion of Christendom to this sacred theory of
+language.  The belief was strongly held that the writers of the
+Bible were merely pens in the hand of God (Dei calami.{;?}  Hence
+the conclusion that not only the sense but the words, letters,
+and even the punctuation proceeded from the Holy Spirit.  Only
+on this one question of the origin of the Hebrew points was there
+any controversy, and this waxed hot.  It began to be especially
+noted that these vowel points in the Hebrew Bible did not exist
+in the synagogue rolls, were not mentioned in the Talmud, and
+seemed unknown to St. Jerome; and on these grounds some earnest
+men ventured to think them no part of the original revelation to
+Adam.  Zwingli, so much before most of the Reformers in other
+respects, was equally so in this.  While not doubting the divine
+origin and preservation of the Hebrew language as a whole, he
+denied the antiquity of the vocal points, demonstrated their
+unessential character, and pointed out the fact that St. Jerome
+makes no mention of them.  His denial was long the refuge of
+those who shared this heresy.
+
+But the full orthodox theory remained established among the vast
+majority both of Catholics and Protestants.  The attitude of the
+former is well illustrated in the imposing work of the canon
+Marini, which appeared at Venice in 1593, under the title of
+Noah's Ark:  A New Treasury of the Sacred Tongue.  The huge
+folios begin with the declaration that the Hebrew tongue was
+"divinely inspired at the very beginning of the world," and the
+doctrine is steadily maintained that this divine inspiration
+extended not only to the letters but to the punctuation.
+
+Not before the seventeenth century was well under way do we find
+a thorough scholar bold enough to gainsay this preposterous
+doctrine.  This new assailant was Capellus, Professor of Hebrew
+at Saumur; but he dared not put forth his argument in France:  he
+was obliged to publish it in Holland, and even there such
+obstacles were thrown in his way that it was ten years before he
+published another treatise of importance.
+
+The work of Capellus was received as settling the question by
+very many open-minded scholars, among whom was Hugo Grotius.
+But many theologians felt this view to be a blow at the sanctity
+and integrity of the sacred text; and in 1648 the great scholar,
+John Buxtorf the younger, rose to defend the orthodox citadel:
+in his Anticritica he brought all his stores of knowledge to
+uphold the doctrine that the rabbinical points and accents had
+been jotted down by the right hand of God.
+
+The controversy waxed hot:  scholars like Voss and Brian Walton
+supported Capellus; Wasmuth and many others of note were as
+fierce against him.  The Swiss Protestants were especially
+violent on the orthodox side; their formula consensus of 1675
+declared the vowel points to be inspired, and three years later
+the Calvinists of Geneva, by a special canon, forbade that any
+minister should be received into their jurisdiction until he
+publicly confessed that the Hebrew text, as it to-day exists in
+the Masoretic copies, is, both as to the consonants and vowel
+points, divine and authentic.
+
+While in Holland so great a man as Hugo Grotius supported the
+view of Capellus, and while in France the eminent Catholic
+scholar Richard Simon, and many others, Catholic and Protestant,
+took similar ground against this divine origin of the Hebrew
+punctuation, there was arrayed against them a body apparently
+overwhelming.  In France, Bossuet, the greatest theologian that
+France has ever produced, did his best to crush Simon.  In
+Germany, Wasmuth, professor first at Rostock and afterward at
+Kiel, hurled his Vindiciae at the innovators.  Yet at this very
+moment the battle was clearly won; the arguments of Capellus
+were irrefragable, and, despite the commands of bishops, the
+outcries of theologians, and the sneering of critics, his
+application of strictly scientific observation and reasoning
+carried the day.
+
+Yet a casual observer, long after the fate of the battle was
+really settled, might have supposed that it was still in doubt.
+As is not unusual in theologic controversies, attempts were made
+to galvanize the dead doctrine into an appearance of life.
+Famous among these attempts was that made as late as the
+beginning of the eighteenth century by two Bremen theologians,
+Hase and Iken.  They put forth a compilation in two huge folios
+simultaneously at Leyden and Amsterdam, prominent in which work
+is the treatise on The Integrity of Scripture, by Johann Andreas
+Danzius, Professor of Oriental Languages and Senior Member of the
+Philosophical Faculty of Jena, and, to preface it, there was a
+formal and fulsome approval by three eminent professors of
+theology at Leyden.  With great fervour the author pointed out
+that "religion itself depends absolutely on the infallible
+inspiration, both verbal and literal, of the Scripture text"; and
+with impassioned eloquence he assailed the blasphemers who dared
+question the divine origin of the Hebrew points.  But this was
+really the last great effort.  That the case was lost was seen by
+the fact that Danzius felt obliged to use other missiles than
+arguments, and especially to call his opponents hard names.  From
+this period the old sacred theory as to the origin of the Hebrew
+points may be considered as dead and buried.
+
+
+
+II.  THE SACRED THEORY OF LANGUAGE IN ITS SECOND FORM.
+
+
+But the war was soon to be waged on a wider and far more
+important field.  The inspiration of the Hebrew punctuation
+having been given up, the great orthodox body fell back upon the
+remainder of the theory, and intrenched this more strongly than
+ever:  the theory that the Hebrew language was the first of all
+languages--that which was spoken by the Almighty, given by him to
+Adam, transmitted through Noah to the world after the Deluge--and
+that the "confusion of tongues" was the origin of all other
+languages.
+
+In giving account of this new phase of the struggle, it is well
+to go back a little.  From the Revival of Learning and the
+Reformation had come the renewed study of Hebrew in the fifteenth
+and sixteenth centuries, and thus the sacred doctrine regarding
+the origin of the Hebrew language received additional authority.
+All the early Hebrew grammars, from that of Reuchlin down, assert
+the divine origin and miraculous claims of Hebrew.  It is
+constantly mentioned as "the sacred tongue"--sancta lingua.  In
+1506, Reuchlin, though himself persecuted by a large faction in
+the Church for advanced views, refers to Hebrew as "spoken by the
+mouth of God."
+
+This idea was popularized by the edition of the Margarita
+Philosophica, published at Strasburg in 1508.  That work, in
+its successive editions a mirror of human knowledge at the close
+of the Middle Ages and the opening of modern times, contains a
+curious introduction to the study of Hebrew, In this it is
+declared that Hebrew was the original speech "used between God
+and man and between men and angels."  Its full-page frontispiece
+represents Moses receiving from God the tables of stone written
+in Hebrew; and, as a conclusive argument, it reminds us that
+Christ himself, by choosing a Hebrew maid for his mother, made
+that his mother tongue.
+
+It must be noted here, however, that Luther, in one of those
+outbursts of strong sense which so often appear in his career,
+enforced the explanation that the words "God said" had nothing to
+do with the articulation of human language.  Still, he evidently
+yielded to the general view.  In the Roman Church at the same
+period we have a typical example of the theologic method applied
+to philology, as we have seen it applied to other sciences, in
+the statement by Luther's great opponent, Cajetan, that the three
+languages of the inscription on the cross of Calvary "were the
+representatives of all languages, because the number three
+denotes perfection."
+
+In 1538 Postillus made a very important endeavour at a
+comparative study of languages, but with the orthodox assumption
+that all were derived from one source, namely, the Hebrew.
+Naturally, Comparative Philology blundered and stumbled along
+this path into endless absurdities.  The most amazing efforts
+were made to trace back everything to the sacred language.
+English and Latin dictionaries appeared, in which every word was
+traced back to a Hebrew root.  No supposition was too absurd in
+this attempt to square Science with Scripture.  It was declared
+that, as Hebrew is written from right to left, it might be read
+either way, in order to produce a satisfactory etymology.  The
+whole effort in all this sacred scholarship was, not to find what
+the truth is--not to see how the various languages are to be
+classified, or from what source they are really derived--but to
+demonstrate what was supposed necessary to maintain what was then
+held to be the truth of Scripture; namely, that all languages are
+derived from the Hebrew.
+
+This stumbling and blundering, under the sway of orthodox
+necessity, was seen among the foremost scholars throughout
+Europe.  About the middle of the sixteenth century the great
+Swiss scholar, Conrad Gesner, beginning his Mithridates, says,
+"While of all languages Hebrew is the first and oldest, of all is
+alone pure and unmixed, all the rest are much mixed, for there is
+none which has not some words derived and corrupted from Hebrew."
+
+Typical, as we approach the end of the sixteenth century, are the
+utterances of two of the most noted English divines.  First of
+these may be mentioned Dr. William Fulke, Master of Pembroke
+Hall, in the University of Cambridge.  In his Discovery of the
+Dangerous Rock of the Romish Church, published in 1580, he
+speaks of "the Hebrew tongue,...the first tongue of the world,
+and for the excellency thereof called `the holy tongue.'"
+
+Yet more emphatic, eight years later, was another eminent divine,
+Dr. William Whitaker, Regius Professor of Divinity and Master
+of St. John's College at Cambridge.  In his Disputation on Holy
+Scripture, first printed in 1588, he says:  "The Hebrew is the
+most ancient of all languages, and was that which alone prevailed
+in the world before the Deluge and the erection of the Tower of
+Babel.  For it was this which Adam used and all men before the
+Flood, as is manifest from the Scriptures, as the fathers
+testify."  He then proceeds to quote passages on this subject
+from St. Jerome, St. Augustine, and others, and cites St.
+Chrysostom in support of the statement that "God himself showed
+the model and method of writing when he delivered the Law written
+by his own finger to Moses."[415]
+
+[415] For the whole scriptural argument, embracing the various
+texts on which the sacred science of Philology was founded, with
+the use made of such texts, see Benfey, Geschichte der
+Sprachwissenschaft in Deutschland, Munchen, 1869, pp. 22-26.  As
+to the origin of the vowel points, see Benfey, as above; he holds
+that they began to be inserted in the second century A.D., and
+that the process lasted until about the tenth.  For Raymundus and
+his Pugio Fidei, see G. L. Bauer, Prolegomena to his revision of
+Glassius's Philologia Sacra, Leipsic, 1795,--see especially pp.
+8-14, in tome ii of the work.  For Zwingli, see Praef. in Apol.
+comp. Isaiae (Opera, iii).  See also Morinus, De Lingua primaeva,
+p.447.  For Marini, see his Arca Noe: Thesaurus Linguae Sanctae,
+Venet., 1593, and especially the preface.  For general account of
+Capellus, see G. L. Bauer, in his Prolegomena, as above, vol. ii,
+pp. 8-14.  His Arcanum Premetationis Revelatum was brought out at
+Leyden in 1624; his Critica Sacra ten years later.  See on
+Capellus and Swiss theologues, Wolfius, Bibliotheca Nebr., tome
+ii, p. 27.  For the struggle, see Schnedermann, Die Controverse
+des Ludovicus Capellus mit den Buxtorfen, Leipsic, 1879, cited in
+article Hebrew, in Encyclopaedia Britannica.  For Wasmuth, see
+his Vindiciae Sanctae Hebraicae Scripturae, Rostock, 1664.  For
+Reuchlin, see the dedicatory preface to his Rudimenta Hebraica,
+Pforzheim, 1506, folio, in which he speaks of the "in divina
+scriptura dicendi genus, quale os Dei locatum est."  The
+statement in the Margarita Philosophica as to Hebrew is doubtless
+based on Reuchlin's Rudimenta Hebraica, which it quotes, and
+which first appeared in 1506.  It is significant that this
+section disappeared from the Margarita in the following editions;
+but this disappearence is easily understood when we recall the
+fact that Gregory Reysch, its author, having become one of the
+Papal Commission to judge Reuchlin in his quarrel with the
+Dominicans, thought it prudent to side with the latter, and
+therefore, doubtless, considered it wise to suppress all evidence
+of Reuchlin's influence upon his beliefs.  All the other editions
+of the Margarita in my possession are content with teaching,
+under the head of the Alphabet, that the Hebrew letters were
+invented by Adam.  On Luther's view of the words "God said," see
+Farrar, Language and Languages.  For a most valuable statement
+regarding the clashing opinions at the Reformation, see Max
+Muller, as above, lecture iv, p. 132.  For the prevailing view
+among the Reformers, see Calovius, vol. i, p. 484, and Thulock,
+The Doctrine of Inspiration, in Theolog. Essays, Boston, 1867.
+Both Muller and Benfey note, as especially important, the
+difference between the Church view and the ancient heathen view
+regarding "barbarians."  See Muller, as above, lecture iv, p.
+127, and Benfey, as above, pp. 170 et seq.  For a very remarkable
+list of Bibles printed at an early period, see Benfey, p. 569.
+On the attempts to trace all words back to Hebrew roots, see
+Sayce, Introduction to the Science of Language, chap. vi.  For
+Gesner, see his Mithridates (de differentiis linguarum), Zurich,
+1555.  For a similar attempt to prove that Italian was also
+derived from Hebrew, see Giambullari, cited in Garlanda, p. 174.
+For Fulke, see the Parker Society's Publications, 1848, p. 224.
+For Whitaker, see his Disputation on Holy Scripture in the same
+series, pp. 112-114.
+
+
+This sacred theory entered the seventeenth century in full force,
+and for a time swept everything before it.  Eminent
+commentators, Catholic and Protestant, accepted and developed it.
+
+Great prelates, Catholic and Protestant, stood guard over it,
+favouring those who supported it, doing their best to destroy
+those who would modify it.
+
+In 1606 Stephen Guichard built new buttresses for it in Catholic
+France.  He explains in his preface that his intention is "to
+make the reader see in the Hebrew word not only the Greek and
+Latin, but also the Italian, the Spanish, the French, the German,
+the Flemish, the English, and many others from all languages."
+As the merest tyro in philology can now see, the great difficulty
+that Guichard encounters is in getting from the Hebrew to the
+Aryan group of languages.  How he meets this difficulty may be
+imagined from his statement, as follows:  "As for the derivation
+of words by addition, subtraction, and inversion of the letters,
+it is certain that this can and ought thus to be done, if we
+would find etymologies--a thing which becomes very credible when
+we consider that the Hebrews wrote from right to left and the
+Greeks and others from left to right.  All the learned recognise
+such derivations as necessary;...and...certainly otherwise one
+could scarcely trace any etymology back to Hebrew."
+
+Of course, by this method of philological juggling, anything
+could be proved which the author thought necessary to his pious
+purpose.
+
+Two years later, Andrew Willett published at London his Hexapla,
+or Sixfold Commentary upon Genesis.  In this he insists that
+the one language of all mankind in the beginning "was the Hebrew
+tongue preserved still in Heber's family."  He also takes pains
+to say that the Tower of Babel "was not so called of Belus, as
+some have imagined, but of confusion, for so the Hebrew word
+ballal signifieth"; and he quotes from St. Chrysostom to
+strengthen his position.
+
+In 1627 Dr. Constantine l'Empereur was inducted into the chair
+of Philosophy of the Sacred Language in the University of Leyden.
+In his inaugural oration on The Dignity and Utility of the Hebrew
+Tongue, he puts himself on record in favour of the Divine origin
+and miraculous purity of that language.  "Who," he says, "can
+call in question the fact that the Hebrew idiom is coeval with
+the world itself, save such as seek to win vainglory for their
+own sophistry?"
+
+Two years after Willett, in England, comes the famous Dr.
+Lightfoot, the most renowned scholar of his time in Hebrew,
+Greek, and Latin; but all his scholarship was bent to suit
+theological requirements.  In his Erubhin, published in 1629,
+he goes to the full length of the sacred theory, though we begin
+to see a curious endeavour to get over some linguistic
+difficulties.
+
+One passage will serve to show both the robustness of his faith
+and the acuteness of his reasoning, in view of the difficulties
+which scholars now began to find in the sacred theory."  Other
+commendations this tongue (Hebrew) needeth none than what it hath
+of itself; namely, for sanctity it was the tongue of God; and for
+antiquity it was the tongue of Adam.  God the first founder, and
+Adam the first speaker of it....It began with the world and the
+Church, and continued and increased in glory till the captivity
+in Babylon....As the man in Seneca, that through sickness lost
+his memory and forgot his own name, so the Jews, for their sins,
+lost their language and forgot their own tongue....Before the
+confusion of tongues all the world spoke their tongue and no
+other but since the confusion of the Jews they speak the language
+of all the world and not their own."
+
+But just at the middle of the century (1657) came in England a
+champion of the sacred theory more important than any of
+these--Brian Walton, Bishop of Chester.  His Polyglot Bible
+dominated English scriptural criticism throughout the remainder
+of the century.  He prefaces his great work by proving at length
+the divine origin of Hebrew, and the derivation from it of all
+other forms of speech.  He declares it "probable that the first
+parent of mankind was the inventor of letters."  His chapters on
+this subject are full of interesting details.  He says that the
+Welshman, Davis, had already tried to prove the Welsh the
+primitive speech; Wormius, the Danish; Mitilerius, the German;
+but the bishop stands firmly by the sacred theory, informing us
+that "even in the New World are found traces of the Hebrew
+tongue, namely, in New England and in New Belgium, where the word
+Aguarda signifies earth, and the name Joseph is found among the
+Hurons."  As we have seen, Bishop Walton had been forced to give
+up the inspiration of the rabbinical punctuation, but he seems to
+have fallen back with all the more tenacity on what remained of
+the great sacred theory of language, and to have become its
+leading champion among English-speaking peoples.
+
+At that same period the same doctrine was put forth by a great
+authority in Germany.  In 1657 Andreas Sennert published his
+inaugural address as Professor of Sacred Letters and Dean of the
+Theological Faculty at Wittenberg.  All his efforts were given
+to making Luther's old university a fortress of the orthodox
+theory.  His address, like many others in various parts of
+Europe, shows that in his time an inaugural with any save an
+orthodox statement of the theological platform would not be
+tolerated.  Few things in the past are to the sentimental mind
+more pathetic, to the philosophical mind more natural, and to the
+progressive mind more ludicrous, than addresses at high festivals
+of theological schools.  The audience has generally consisted
+mainly of estimable elderly gentlemen, who received their
+theology in their youth, and who in their old age have watched
+over it with jealous care to keep it well protected from every
+fresh breeze of thought.  Naturally, a theological professor
+inaugurated under such auspices endeavours to propitiate his
+audience.  Sennert goes to great lengths both in his address and
+in his grammar, published nine years later; for, declaring the
+Divine origin of Hebrew to be quite beyond controversy, he says:
+"Noah received it from our first parents, and guarded it in the
+midst of the waters; Heber and Peleg saved it from the confusion
+of tongues."
+
+The same doctrine was no less loudly insisted upon by the
+greatest authority in Switzerland, Buxtorf, professor at Basle,
+who proclaimed Hebrew to be "the tongue of God, the tongue of
+angels, the tongue of the prophets"; and the effect of this
+proclamation may be imagined when we note in 1663 that his book
+had reached its sixth edition.
+
+It was re-echoed through England, Germany, France, and America,
+and, if possible, yet more highly developed.  In England
+Theophilus Gale set himself to prove that not only all the
+languages, but all the learning of the world, had been drawn from
+the Hebrew records.
+
+This orthodox doctrine was also fully vindicated in Holland.
+Six years before the close of the seventeenth century, Morinus,
+Doctor of Theology, Professor of Oriental Languages, and pastor
+at Amsterdam, published his great work on Primaeval Language.
+Its frontispiece depicts the confusion of tongues at Babel, and,
+as a pendant to this, the pentecostal gift of tongues to the
+apostles.  In the successive chapters of the first book he
+proves that language could not have come into existence save as a
+direct gift from heaven; that there is a primitive language, the
+mother of all the rest; that this primitive language still exists
+in its pristine purity; that this language is the Hebrew.  The
+second book is devoted to proving that the Hebrew letters were
+divinely received, have been preserved intact, and are the source
+of all other alphabets.  But in the third book he feels obliged
+to allow, in the face of the contrary dogma held, as he says, by
+"not a few most eminent men piously solicitous for the authority
+of the sacred text," that the Hebrew punctuation was, after all,
+not of Divine inspiration, but a late invention of the rabbis.
+
+France, also, was held to all appearance in complete subjection
+to the orthodox idea up to the end of the century.  In 1697
+appeared at Paris perhaps the most learned of all the books
+written to prove Hebrew the original tongue and source of all
+others.  The Gallican Church was then at the height of its
+power.  Bossuet as bishop, as thinker, and as adviser of Louis
+XIV, had crushed all opposition to orthodoxy.  The Edict of
+Nantes had been revoked, and the Huguenots, so far as they could
+escape, were scattered throughout the world, destined to repay
+France with interest a thousandfold during the next two
+centuries.  The bones of the Jansenists at Port Royal were dug up
+and scattered.  Louis XIV stood guard over the piety of his
+people.  It was in the midst of this series of triumphs that
+Father Louis Thomassin, Priest of the Oratory, issued his
+Universal Hebrew Glossary.  In this, to use his own language,
+"the divinity, antiquity, and perpetuity of the Hebrew tongue,
+with its letters, accents, and other characters," are established
+forever and beyond all cavil, by proofs drawn from all peoples,
+kindreds, and nations under the sun.  This superb,
+thousand-columned folio was issued from the royal press, and is
+one of the most imposing monuments of human piety and
+folly--taking rank with the treatises of Fromundus against
+Galileo, of Quaresmius on Lot's Wife, and of Gladstone on Genesis
+and Geology.
+
+The great theologic-philologic chorus was steadily maintained,
+and, as in a responsive chant, its doctrines were echoed from
+land to land.  From America there came the earnest words of John
+Eliot, praising Hebrew as the most fit to be made a universal
+language, and declaring it the tongue "which it pleased our Lord
+Jesus to make use of when he spake from heaven unto Paul."  At
+the close of the seventeenth century came from England a strong
+antiphonal answer in this chorus; Meric Casaubon, the learned
+Prebendary of Canterbury, thus declared:  "One language, the
+Hebrew, I hold to be simply and absolutely the source of all."
+And, to swell the chorus, there came into it, in complete unison,
+the voice of Bentley--the greatest scholar of the old sort whom
+England has ever produced.  He was, indeed, one of the most
+learned and acute critics of any age; but he was also Master of
+Trinity, Archdeacon of Bristol, held two livings besides, and
+enjoyed the honour of refusing the bishopric of Bristol, as not
+rich enough to tempt him.  Noblesse oblige:  that Bentley should
+hold a brief for the theological side was inevitable, and we need
+not be surprised when we hear him declaring:  "We are sure, from
+the names of persons and places mentioned in Scripture before the
+Deluge, not to insist upon other arguments, that the Hebrew was
+the primitive language of mankind, and that it continued pure
+above three thousand years until the captivity in Babylon."  The
+power of the theologic bias, when properly stimulated with
+ecclesiastical preferment, could hardly be more perfectly
+exemplified than in such a captivity of such a man as Bentley.
+
+Yet here two important exceptions should be noted.  In England,
+Prideaux, whose biblical studies gave him much authority, opposed
+the dominant opinion; and in America, Cotton Mather, who in
+taking his Master's degree at Harvard had supported the doctrine
+that the Hebrew vowel points were of divine origin, bravely
+recanted and declared for the better view.[416]
+
+[416] The quotation from Guichard is from L'Harmonie Etymologique
+des Langues, . . . dans laquelle par plusiers Antiquites et
+Etymologies de toute sorte, je demonstre evidemment que toutes
+les langues sont descendues de l'Hebraique; par M. Estienne
+Guichard, Paris, 1631.  The first edition appeared in 1606.  For
+Willett, see his Hexapla, London, 1608, pp. 125-128.  For the
+Address of L'Empereur, see his publication, Leyden, 1627.  The
+quotation from Lightfoot, beginning "Other commendations," etc.,
+is taken from his Erubhin, or Miscellanies, edition of 1629; see
+also his works, vol. iv, pp. 46, 47, London, 1822.  For Bishop
+Brian Walton, see the Cambridge edition of his works, 1828,
+Prolegomena S 1 and 3.  As to Walton's giving up the rabbinical
+points, he mentions in one of the latest editions of his works
+the fact that Isaac Casabon, Joseph Scaliger, Isaac Vossius,
+Grotius, Beza, Luther, Zwingli, Brentz, Oecolampadius, Calvin,
+and even some of the Popes were with him in this.  For Sennert,
+see his Dissertation de Ebraicae S. S. Linguae Origine, etc.,
+Wittenberg, 1657; also his Grammitica Orientalis, Wittenberg,
+1666.  For Buxtorf, see the preface to his Thesaurus Grammaticus
+Linguae Sanctae Hebraeae, sixth edition, 1663.  For Gale, see his
+Court of the Gentiles, Oxford, 1672.  For Morinus, see his
+Exercitationes de Lingua Primaeva, Utrecht, 1697.  For Thomassin,
+see his Glossarium Universale Hebraicum, Paris, 1697.  For John
+Eliot's utterance, see Mather's Magnalia, book iii, p. 184.  For
+Meric Casaubon, see his De Lingua Anglia Vet., p. 160, cited by
+Massey, p. 16 of Origin and Progress of Letters.  For Bentley,
+see his works, London, 1836, vol. ii, p. 11, and citations by
+Welsford, Mithridates Minor, p. 2.  As to Bentley's position as a
+scholar, see the famous estimate in Macaulay's Essays.  For a
+short but very interesting account of him, see Mark Pattison's
+article in vol. iii of the last edition of the Encyclopaedia
+Britannica.  The postion of Pattison as an agnostic dignitary in
+the English Church eminently fitted him to understand Bentley's
+career, both as regards the orthodox and the scholastic world.
+For perhaps the most striking account of the manner in which
+Bentley lorded it in the scholastic world of his time, see Monk's
+Life of Bentley, vol. ii, chap. xvii, and especially his
+contemptuous reply to the judges, as given in vol. ii, pp. 211,
+212.  For Cotton Mather, see his biography by Samuel Mather,
+Boston, 1729, pp. 5, 6.
+
+
+But even this dissent produced little immediate effect, and at
+the beginning of the eighteenth century this sacred doctrine,
+based upon explicit statements of Scripture, seemed forever
+settled.  As we have seen, strong fortresses had been built for
+it in every Christian land:  nothing seemed more unlikely than
+that the little groups of scholars scattered through these
+various countries could ever prevail against them.  These
+strongholds were built so firmly, and had behind them so vast an
+army of religionists of every creed, that to conquer them seemed
+impossible.  And yet at that very moment their doom was decreed.
+Within a few years from this period of their greatest triumph,
+the garrisons of all these sacred fortresses were in hopeless
+confusion, and the armies behind them in full retreat; a little
+later, all the important orthodox fortresses and forces were in
+the hands of the scientific philologists.
+
+How this came about will be shown in the third part of this
+chapter.
+
+
+
+III.  BREAKING DOWN OF THE THEOLOGICAL VIEW.
+
+
+We have now seen the steps by which the sacred theory of human
+language had been developed:  how it had been strengthened in
+every land until it seemed to bid defiance forever to advancing
+thought; how it rested firmly upon the letter of Scripture, upon
+the explicit declarations of leading fathers of the Church, of
+the great doctors of the Middle Ages, of the most eminent
+theological scholars down to the beginning of the eighteenth
+century, and was guarded by the decrees of popes, kings, bishops,
+Catholic and Protestant, and the whole hierarchy of authorities
+in church and state.
+
+And yet, as we now look back, it is easy to see that even in that
+hour of its triumph it was doomed.
+
+The reason why the Church has so fully accepted the conclusions
+of science which have destroyed the sacred theory is instructive.
+The study of languages has been, since the Revival of Learning
+and the Reformation, a favourite study with the whole Western
+Church, Catholic and Protestant.  The importance of understanding
+the ancient tongues in which our sacred books are preserved first
+stimulated the study, and Church missionary efforts have
+contributed nobly to supply the material for extending it, and
+for the application of that comparative method which, in
+philology as in other sciences, has been so fruitful.  Hence it
+is that so many leading theologians have come to know at first
+hand the truths given by this science, and to recognise its
+fundamental principles.  What the conclusions which they, as
+well as all other scholars in this field, have been absolutely
+forced to accept, I shall now endeavour to show.
+
+The beginnings of a scientific theory seemed weak indeed, but
+they were none the less effective.  As far back as 1661,
+Hottinger, professor at Heidelberg, came into the chorus of
+theologians like a great bell in a chime; but like a bell whose
+opening tone is harmonious and whose closing tone is discordant.
+For while, at the beginning, Hottinger cites a formidable list of
+great scholars who had held the sacred theory of the origin of
+language, he goes on to note a closer resemblance to the Hebrew
+in some languages than in others, and explains this by declaring
+that the confusion of tongues was of two sorts, total and
+partial:  the Arabic and Chaldaic he thinks underwent only a
+partial confusion; the Egyptian, Persian, and all the European
+languages a total one.  Here comes in the discord; here gently
+sounds forth from the great chorus a new note--that idea of
+grouping and classifying languages which at a later day was to
+destroy utterly the whole sacred theory.
+
+But the great chorus resounded on, as we have seen, from shore to
+shore, until the closing years of the seventeenth century; then
+arose men who silenced it forever.  The first leader who threw
+the weight of his knowledge, thought, and authority against it
+was Leibnitz.  He declared, "There is as much reason for
+supposing Hebrew to have been the primitive language of mankind
+as there is for adopting the view of Goropius, who published a
+work at Antwerp in 1580 to prove that Dutch was the language
+spoken in paradise."
+
+In a letter to Tenzel, Leibnitz wrote, "To call Hebrew the
+primitive language is like calling the branches of a tree
+primitive branches, or like imagining that in some country hewn
+trunks could grow instead of trees."  He also asked, "If the
+primeval language existed even up to the time of Moses, whence
+came the Egyptian language?"
+
+But the efficiency of Leibnitz did not end with mere suggestions.
+He applied the inductive method to linguistic study, made great
+efforts to have vocabularies collected and grammars drawn up
+wherever missionaries and travellers came in contact with new
+races, and thus succeeded in giving the initial impulse to at
+least three notable collections--that of Catharine the Great, of
+Russia; that of the Spanish Jesuit, Lorenzo Hervas; and, at a
+later period, the Mithridates of Adelung.  The interest of the
+Empress Catharine in her collection of linguistic materials was
+very strong, and her influence is seen in the fact that
+Washington, to please her, requested governors and generals to
+send in materials from various parts of the United States and the
+Territories.  The work of Hervas extended over the period from
+1735 to 1809:  a missionary in America, he enlarged his catalogue
+of languages to six volumes, which were published in Spanish in
+1800, and contained specimens of more than three hundred
+languages, with the grammars of more than forty.  It should be
+said to his credit that Hervas dared point out with especial care
+the limits of the Semitic family of languages, and declared, as a
+result of his enormous studies, that the various languages of
+mankind could not have been derived from the Hebrew.
+
+While such work was done in Catholic Spain, Protestant Germany
+was honoured by the work of Adelung.  It contained the Lord's
+Prayer in nearly five hundred languages and dialects, and the
+comparison of these, early in the nineteenth century, helped to
+end the sway of theological philology.
+
+But the period which intervened between Leibnitz and this modern
+development was a period of philological chaos.  It began mainly
+with the doubts which Leibnitz had forced upon Europe, and ended
+only with the beginning of the study of Sanskrit in the latter
+half of the eighteenth century, and with the comparisons made by
+means of the collections of Catharine, Hervas, and Adelung at the
+beginning of the nineteenth.  The old theory that Hebrew was the
+original language had gone to pieces; but nothing had taken its
+place as a finality.  Great authorities, like Buddeus, were
+still cited in behalf of the narrower belief; but everywhere
+researches, unorganized though they were, tended to destroy it.
+The story of Babel continued indeed throughout the whole
+eighteenth century to hinder or warp scientific investigation,
+and a very curious illustration of this fact is seen in the book
+of Lord Nelme on The Origin and Elements of Language.  He
+declares that connected with the confusion was the cleaving of
+America from Europe, and he regards the most terrible chapters in
+the book of Job as intended for a description of the Flood, which
+in all probability Job had from Noah himself.  Again, Rowland
+Jones tried to prove that Celtic was the primitive tongue, and
+that it passed through Babel unharmed.  Still another effect was
+made by a Breton to prove that all languages took their rise in
+the language of Brittany.  All was chaos.  There was much
+wrangling, but little earnest controversy.  Here and there
+theologians were calling out frantically, beseeching the Church
+to save the old doctrine as "essential to the truth of
+Scripture"; here and there other divines began to foreshadow the
+inevitable compromise which has always been thus vainly attempted
+in the history of every science.  But it was soon seen by
+thinking men that no concessions as yet spoken of by theologians
+were sufficient.  In the latter half of the century came the
+bloom period of the French philosophers and encyclopedists, of
+the English deists, of such German thinkers as Herder, Kant, and
+Lessing; and while here and there some writer on the theological
+side, like Perrin, amused thinking men by his flounderings in
+this great chaos, all remained without form and void.[417]
+
+[417] For Hottinger, see the preface to his Etymologicum
+Orientale, Frankfort, 1661.  For Leibnitz, Catharine the Great,
+Hervas, and Adelung, see Max Muller, as above, from whom I have
+quoted very fully; see also Benfey, Geschichte der
+Sprachwissenschaft, etc., p. 269.  Benfey declares that the
+Catalogue of Hervas is even now a mine for the philologist.  For
+the first two citations from Leibnitz, as well as for a statement
+of his importance in the history of languages, see Max Muller, as
+above, pp. 135, 136.  For the third quotation, Leibnitz, Opera,
+Geneva, 1768, vi, part ii, p. 232.  For Nelme, see his Origin and
+Elements of Language, London, 1772, pp. 85-100.  For Rowland
+Jones, see The Origin of Language and Nations, London, 1764, and
+preface.  For the origin of languages in Brittany, see Le
+Brigant, Paris, 1787.  For Herder and Lessing, see Canon Farrar's
+treatise; on Lessing, see Sayce, as above.  As to Perrin, see his
+essay Sur l'Origine et l'Antiquite des Langues, London, 1767.
+
+
+Nothing better reveals to us the darkness and duration of this
+chaos in England than a comparison of the articles on Philology
+given in the successive editions of the Encyclopaedia
+Britannica.  The first edition of that great mirror of British
+thought was printed in 1771:  chaos reigns through the whole of
+its article on this subject.  The writer divides languages into
+two classes, seems to indicate a mixture of divine inspiration
+with human invention, and finally escapes under a cloud.  In the
+second edition, published in 1780, some progress has been made.
+The author states the sacred theory, and declares:  "There are
+some divines who pretend that Hebrew was the language in which
+God talked with Adam in paradise, and that the saints will make
+use of it in heaven in those praises which they will eternally
+offer to the Almighty.  These doctors seem to be as certain in
+regard to what is past as to what is to come."
+
+This was evidently considered dangerous.  It clearly outran the
+belief of the average British Philistine; and accordingly we
+find in the third edition, published seventeen years later, a new
+article, in which, while the author gives, as he says, "the best
+arguments on both sides," he takes pains to adhere to a fairly
+orthodox theory.
+
+This soothing dose was repeated in the fourth and fifth editions.
+In 1824 appeared a supplement to the fourth, fifth, and sixth
+editions, which dealt with the facts so far as they were known;
+but there was scarcely a reference to the biblical theory
+throughout the article.  Three years later came another
+supplement.  While this chaos was fast becoming cosmos in
+Germany, such a change had evidently not gone far in England, for
+from this edition of the Encyclopaedia the subject of philology
+was omitted.  In fact, Babel and Philology made nearly as much
+trouble to encyclopedists as Noah's Deluge and Geology.  Just as
+in the latter case they had been obliged to stave off a
+presentation of scientific truth, by the words "For Deluge, see
+Flood" and "For Flood, see Noah," so in the former they were
+obliged to take various provisional measures, some of them
+comical.  In 1842 came the seventh edition.  In this the first
+part of the old article on Philology which had appeared in the
+third, fourth, and fifth editions was printed, but the
+supernatural part was mainly cut out.  Yet we find a curious
+evidence of the continued reign of chaos in a foot-note inserted
+by the publishers, disavowing any departure from orthodox views.
+In 1859 appeared the eighth edition.  This abandoned the old
+article completely, and in its place gave a history of philology
+free from admixture of scriptural doctrines.
+
+Finally, in the year 1885, appeared the ninth edition, in which
+Professors Whitney of Yale and Sievers of Tubingen give admirably
+and in fair compass what is known of philology, making short work
+of the sacred theory--in fact, throwing it overboard entirely.
+
+
+IV.  TRIUMPH OF THE NEW SCIENCE.
+
+
+Such was that chaos of thought into which the discovery of
+Sanskrit suddenly threw its great light.  Well does one of the
+foremost modern philologists say that this "was the electric
+spark which caused the floating elements to crystallize into
+regular forms."  Among the first to bring the knowledge of
+Sanskrit to Europe were the Jesuit missionaries, whose services
+to the material basis of the science of comparative philology had
+already been so great; and the importance of the new discovery
+was soon seen among all scholars, whether orthodox or scientific.
+In 1784 the Asiatic Society at Calcutta was founded, and with it
+began Sanskrit philology.  Scholars like Sir William Jones,
+Carey, Wilkins, Foster, Colebrooke, did noble work in the new
+field.  A new spirit brooded over that chaos, and a great new orb
+of science was evolved.
+
+The little group of scholars who gave themselves up to these
+researches, though almost without exception reverent Christians,
+were recognised at once by theologians as mortal foes of the
+whole sacred theory of language.  Not only was the dogma of the
+multiplication of languages at the Tower of Babel swept out of
+sight by the new discovery, but the still more vital dogma of the
+divine origin of language, never before endangered, was felt to
+be in peril, since the evidence became overwhelming that so many
+varieties had been produced by a process of natural growth.
+
+Heroic efforts were therefore made, in the supposed interest of
+Scripture, to discredit the new learning.  Even such a man as
+Dugald Stewart declared that the discovery of Sanskrit was
+altogether fraudulent, and endeavoured to prove that the Brahmans
+had made it up from the vocabulary and grammar of Greek and
+Latin.  Others exercised their ingenuity in picking the new
+discovery to pieces, and still others attributed it all to the
+machinations of Satan.
+
+On the other hand, the more thoughtful men in the Church
+endeavoured to save something from the wreck of the old system by
+a compromise.  They attempted to prove that Hebrew is at least a
+cognate tongue with the original speech of mankind, if not the
+original speech itself; but here they were confronted by the
+authority they dreaded most--the great Christian scholar, Sir
+William Jones himself.  His words were:  "I can only declare my
+belief that the language of Noah is irretrievably lost.  After
+diligent search I can not find a single word used in common by
+the Arabian, Indian, and Tartar families, before the intermixture
+of dialects occasioned by the Mohammedan conquests."
+
+So, too, in Germany came full acknowledgment of the new truth,
+and from a Roman Catholic, Frederick Schlegel.  He accepted the
+discoveries in the old language and literature of India as final:
+he saw the significance of these discoveries as regards
+philology, and grouped the languages of India, Persia, Greece,
+Italy, and Germany under the name afterward so universally
+accepted--Indo-Germanic.
+
+It now began to be felt more and more, even among the most
+devoted churchmen, that the old theological dogmas regarding the
+origin of language, as held "always, everywhere, and by all,"
+were wrong, and that Lucretius and sturdy old Gregory of Nyssa
+might be right.
+
+But this was not the only wreck.  During ages the great men in
+the Church had been calling upon the world to admire the amazing
+exploit of Adam in naming the animals which Jehovah had brought
+before him, and to accept the history of language in the light of
+this exploit.  The early fathers, the mediaeval doctors, the
+great divines of the Reformation period, Catholic and Protestant,
+had united in this universal chorus.  Clement of Alexandria
+declared Adam's naming of the animals proof of a prophetic gift.
+St. John Chrysostom insisted that it was an evidence of
+consummate intelligence.  Eusebius held that the phrase "That was
+the name thereof" implied that each name embodied the real
+character and description of the animal concerned.
+
+This view was echoed by a multitude of divines in the seventeenth
+and eighteenth centuries.  Typical among these was the great Dr.
+South, who, in his sermon on The State of Man before the Fall,
+declared that "Adam came into the world a philosopher, which
+sufficiently appears by his writing the nature of things upon
+their names."
+
+In the chorus of modern English divines there appeared one of
+eminence who declared against this theory:  Dr. Shuckford,
+chaplain in ordinary to his Majesty George II, in the preface to
+his work on The Creation and Fall of Man, pronounced the whole
+theory "romantic and irrational."  He goes on to say:  "The
+original of our speaking was from God; not that God put into
+Adam's mouth the very sounds which he designed he should use as
+the names of things; but God made Adam with the powers of a man;
+he had the use of an understanding to form notions in his mind of
+the things about him, and he had the power to utter sounds which
+should be to himself the names of things according as he might
+think fit to call them."
+
+This echo of Gregory of Nyssa was for many years of little avail.
+Historians of philosophy still began with Adam, because only a
+philosopher could have named all created things.  There was,
+indeed, one difficulty which had much troubled some theologians:
+this was, that fishes were not specially mentioned among the
+animals brought by Jehovah before Adam for naming.  To meet this
+difficulty there was much argument, and some theologians laid
+stress on the difficulty of bringing fishes from the sea to the
+Garden of Eden to receive their names; but naturally other
+theologians replied that the almighty power which created the
+fishes could have easily brought them into the garden, one by
+one, even from the uttermost parts of the sea.  This point,
+therefore, seems to have been left in abeyance.[418]
+
+[418] For the danger of "the little system of the history of the
+world," see Sayce, as above.  On Dugald Stewart's contention, see
+Max Muller, Lectures on Language, pp. 167, 168.  For Sir William
+Jones, see his Works, London, 1807, vol. i, p. 199.  For
+Schlegel, see Max Muller, as above.  For an enormous list of
+great theologians, from the fathers down, who dwelt on the divine
+inspiration and wonderful gifts of Adam on this subject, see
+Canon Farrar, Language and Languages.  The citation from Clement
+of Alexandria is Strom.. i, p. 335.  See also Chrysostom, Hom.
+XIV in Genesin; also Eusebius, Praep. Evang. XI, p. 6.  For the
+two quotations given above from Shuckford, see The Creation and
+Fall of Man, London, 1763, preface, p. lxxxiii; also his Sacred
+and Profane History of the World, 1753; revised edition by
+Wheeler, London, 1858.  For the argument regarding the difficulty
+of bringing the fishes to be named into the Garden of Eden, see
+Massey, Origin and Progress of Letters, London, 1763, pp. 14-19.
+
+
+It had continued, then, the universal belief in the Church that
+the names of all created things, except possibly fishes, were
+given by Adam and in Hebrew; but all this theory was whelmed in
+ruin when it was found that there were other and indeed earlier
+names for the same animals than those in the Hebrew language;
+and especially was this enforced on thinking men when the
+Egyptian discoveries began to reveal the pictures of animals with
+their names in hieroglyphics at a period earlier than that agreed
+on by all the sacred chronologists as the date of the Creation.
+
+Still another part of the sacred theory now received its
+death-blow.  Closely allied with the question of the origin of
+language was that of the origin of letters.  The earlier writers
+had held that letters were also a divine gift to Adam; but as we
+go on in the eighteenth century we find theological opinion
+inclining to the belief that this gift was reserved for Moses.
+This, as we have seen, was the view of St. John Chrysostom; and
+an eminent English divine early in the eighteenth century, John
+Johnson, Vicar of Kent, echoed it in the declaration concerning
+the alphabet, that "Moses first learned it from God by means of
+the lettering on the tables of the law."  But here a difficulty
+arose--the biblical statement that God commanded Moses to "write
+in a book" his decree concerning Amalek before he went up into
+Sinai.  With this the good vicar grapples manfully.  He supposes
+that God had previously concealed the tables of stone in Mount
+Horeb, and that Moses, "when he kept Jethro's sheep thereabout,
+had free access to these tables, and perused them at discretion,
+though he was not permitted to carry them down with him."  Our
+reconciler then asks for what other reason could God have kept
+Moses up in the mountain forty days at a time, except to teach
+him to write; and says, "It seems highly probable that the angel
+gave him the alphabet of the Hebrew, or in some other way unknown
+to us became his guide."
+
+But this theory of letters was soon to be doomed like the other
+parts of the sacred theory.  Studies in Comparative Philology,
+based upon researches in India, began to be reenforced by facts
+regarding the inscriptions in Egypt, the cuneiform inscriptions
+of Assyria, the legends of Chaldea, and the folklore of
+China--where it was found in the sacred books that the animals
+were named by Fohi, and with such wisdom and insight that every
+name disclosed the nature of the corresponding animal.
+
+But, although the old theory was doomed, heroic efforts were
+still made to support it.  In 1788 James Beattie, in all the
+glory of his Oxford doctorate and royal pension, made a vigorous
+onslaught, declaring the new system of philology to be "degrading
+to our nature," and that the theory of the natural development of
+language is simply due to the beauty of Lucretius' poetry.  But
+his main weapon was ridicule, and in this he showed himself a
+master.  He tells the world, "The following paraphrase has
+nothing of the elegance of Horace or Lucretius, but seems to have
+all the elegance that so ridiculous a doctrine deserves":
+
+"When men out of the earth of old
+A dumb and beastly vermin crawled;
+For acorns, first, and holes of shelter,
+They tooth and nail, and helter skelter,
+Fought fist to fist; then with a club
+Each learned his brother brute to drub;
+Till, more experienced grown, these cattle
+Forged fit accoutrements for battle.
+At last (Lucretius says and Creech)
+They set their wits to work on SPEECH:
+And that their thoughts might all have marks
+To make them known, these learned clerks
+Left off the trade of cracking crowns,
+And manufactured verbs and nouns."
+
+
+But a far more powerful theologian entered the field in England
+to save the sacred theory of language--Dr. Adam Clarke.  He
+was no less severe against Philology than against Geology.  In
+1804, as President of the Manchester Philological Society, he
+delivered an address in which he declared that, while men of all
+sects were eligible to membership, "he who rejects the
+establishment of what we believe to be a divine revelation, he
+who would disturb the peace of the quiet, and by doubtful
+disputations unhinge the minds of the simple and unreflecting,
+and endeavour to turn the unwary out of the way of peace and
+rational subordination, can have no seat among the members of
+this institution."  The first sentence in this declaration gives
+food for reflection, for it is the same confusion of two ideas
+which has been at the root of so much interference of theology
+with science for the last two thousand years.  Adam Clarke speaks
+of those "who reject the establishment of what, WE BELIEVE, to be
+a divine revelation."  Thus comes in that customary begging of
+the question--the substitution, as the real significance of
+Scripture, of "WHAT WE BELIEVE" for what IS.
+
+The intended result, too, of this ecclesiastical sentence was
+simple enough.  It was, that great men like Sir William Jones,
+Colebrooke, and their compeers, must not be heard in the
+Manchester Philological Society in discussion with Dr. Adam
+Clarke on questions regarding Sanskrit and other matters
+regarding which they knew all that was then known, and Dr.
+Clarke knew nothing.
+
+But even Clarke was forced to yield to the scientific current.
+Thirty years later, in his Commentary on the Old Testament, he
+pitched the claims of the sacred theory on a much lower key.  He
+says:  "Mankind was of one language, in all likelihood the
+Hebrew....The proper names and other significations given in
+the Scripture seem incontestable evidence that the Hebrew
+language was the original language of the earth,--the language in
+which God spoke to man, and in which he gave the revelation of
+his will to Moses and the prophets."  Here are signs that this
+great champion is growing weaker in the faith:  in the citations
+made it will be observed he no longer says "IS," but "SEEMS"; and
+finally we have him saying, "What the first language was is
+almost useless to inquire, as it is impossible to arrive at any
+satisfactory information on this point."
+
+In France, during the first half of the nineteenth century, yet
+more heavy artillery was wheeled into place, in order to make a
+last desperate defence of the sacred theory.  The leaders in
+this effort were the three great Ultramontanes, De Maistre, De
+Bonald, and Lamennais.  Condillac's contention that "languages
+were gradually and insensibly acquired, and that every man had
+his share of the general result," they attacked with reasoning
+based upon premises drawn from the book of Genesis.  De Maistre
+especially excelled in ridiculing the philosophic or scientific
+theory.  Lamennais, who afterward became so vexatious a thorn in
+the side of the Church, insisted, at this earlier period, that
+"man can no more think without words than see without light."
+And then, by that sort of mystical play upon words so well known
+in the higher ranges of theologic reasoning, he clinches his
+argument by saying, "The Word is truly and in every sense `the
+light which lighteth every man that cometh into the world.'"
+
+But even such champions as these could not stay the progress of
+thought.  While they seemed to be carrying everything before them
+in France, researches in philology made at such centres of
+thought as the Sorbonne and the College of France were
+undermining their last great fortress.  Curious indeed is it to
+find that the Sorbonne, the stronghold of theology through so
+many centuries, was now made in the nineteenth century the
+arsenal and stronghold of the new ideas.  But the most striking
+result of the new tendency in France was seen when the greatest
+of the three champions, Lamennais himself, though offered the
+highest Church preferment, and even a cardinal's hat, braved the
+papal anathema, and went over to the scientific side.[419]
+
+[419] For Johnson's work, showing how Moses learned the alphabet,
+see the Collection of Discourses by Rev. John Johnson, A. M.,
+Vicar of Kent, London, 1728, p. 42, and the preface.  For
+Beattie, see his Theory of Language, London, 1788, p. 98; also
+pp. 100, 101.  For Adam Clarke, see, for the speech cited, his
+Miscellaneous Works, London, 1837; for the passage from his
+Commentary, see the London edition of 1836, vol. i, p. 93; for
+the other passage, see Introduction to Bibliographical
+Miscellany, quoted in article, Origin of Language and
+Alphabetical Characters, in Methodist Magazine, vol. xv, p. 214.
+For De Bonald, see his Recherches Philosophiques, part iii, chap.
+ii, De l'Origine du Language, in his Oeuvres, Bruxelles, 1852,
+vol. i, Les Soirees de Saint Petersbourg, deuxieme entretien,
+passim.  For Lamennais, see his Oeuvres Completes, Paris, 1836-
+'37, tome ii, pp.78-81, chap. xv of Essai sur l'Indifference en
+Matiere de Religion.
+
+
+In Germany philological science took so strong a hold that its
+positions were soon recognised as impregnable.  Leaders like the
+Schlegels, Wilhelm von Humboldt, and above all Franz Bopp and
+Jacob Grimm, gave such additional force to scientific truth that
+it could no longer be withstood.  To say nothing of other
+conquests, the demonstration of that great law in philology which
+bears Grimm's name brought home to all thinking men the evidence
+that the evolution of language had not been determined by the
+philosophic utterances of Adam in naming the animals which
+Jehovah brought before him, but in obedience to natural law.
+
+True, a few devoted theologians showed themselves willing to lead
+a forlorn hope; and perhaps the most forlorn of all was that of
+1840, led by Dr. Gottlieb Christian Kayser, Professor of
+Theology at the Protestant University of Erlangen.  He does not,
+indeed, dare put in the old claim that Hebrew is identical with
+the primitive tongue, but he insists that it is nearer it than
+any other.  He relinquishes the two former theological
+strongholds--first, the idea that language was taught by the
+Almighty to Adam, and, next, that the alphabet was thus taught to
+Moses--and falls back on the position that all tongues are thus
+derived from Noah, giving as an example the language of the
+Caribbees, and insisting that it was evidently so derived.  What
+chance similarity in words between Hebrew and the Caribbee tongue
+he had in mind is past finding out.  He comes out strongly in
+defence of the biblical account of the Tower of Babel, and
+insists that "by the symbolical expression `God said, Let us go
+down,' a further natural phenomenon is intimated, to wit, the
+cleaving of the earth, whereby the return of the dispersed became
+impossible--that is to say, through a new or not universal flood,
+a partial inundation and temporary violent separation of great
+continents until the time of the rediscovery" By these words the
+learned doctor means nothing less than the separation of Europe
+from America.
+
+While at the middle of the nineteenth century the theory of the
+origin and development of language was upon the continent
+considered as settled, and a well-ordered science had there
+emerged from the old chaos, Great Britain still held back, in
+spite of the fact that the most important contributors to the
+science were of British origin.  Leaders in every English church
+and sect vied with each other, either in denouncing the
+encroachments of the science of language or in explaining them
+away.
+
+But a new epoch had come, and in a way least expected.  Perhaps
+the most notable effort in bringing it in was made by Dr.
+Wiseman, afterward Cardinal Archbishop of Westminster.  His is
+one of the best examples of a method which has been used with
+considerable effect during the latest stages of nearly all the
+controversies between theology and science.  It consists in
+stating, with much fairness, the conclusions of the scientific
+authorities, and then in persuading one's self and trying to
+persuade others that the Church has always accepted them and
+accepts them now as "additional proofs of the truth of
+Scripture."  A little juggling with words, a little amalgamation
+of texts, a little judicious suppression, a little imaginative
+deduction, a little unctuous phrasing, and the thing is done.
+One great service this eminent and kindly Catholic champion
+undoubtedly rendered:  by this acknowledgment, so widely spread
+in his published lectures, he made it impossible for Catholics or
+Protestants longer to resist the main conclusions of science.
+Henceforward we only have efforts to save theological
+appearances, and these only by men whose zeal outran their
+discretion.
+
+On both sides of the Atlantic, down to a recent period, we see
+these efforts, but we see no less clearly that they are mutually
+destructive.  Yet out of this chaos among English-speaking
+peoples the new science began to develop steadily and rapidly.
+Attempts did indeed continue here and there to save the old
+theory.  Even as late as 1859 we hear the eminent Presbyterian
+divine, Dr. John Cumming, from his pulpit in London, speaking of
+Hebrew as "that magnificent tongue--that mother-tongue, from
+which all others are but distant and debilitated progenies."
+
+But the honour of producing in the nineteenth century the most
+absurd known attempt to prove Hebrew the primitive tongue belongs
+to the youngest of the continents, Australia.  In the year 1857
+was printed at Melbourne The Triumph of Truth, or a Popular
+Lecture on the Origin of Languages, by B. Atkinson,
+M.R.C.P.L.--whatever that may mean.  In this work, starting with
+the assertion that "the Hebrew was the primary stock whence all
+languages were derived," the author states that Sanskrit is "a
+dialect of the Hebrew," and declares that "the manuscripts found
+with mummies agree precisely with the Chinese version of the
+Psalms of David."  It all sounds like Alice in Wonderland.
+Curiously enough, in the latter part of his book, evidently
+thinking that his views would not give him authority among
+fastidious philologists, he says, "A great deal of our consent to
+the foregoing statements arises in our belief in the Divine
+inspiration of the Mosaic account of the creation of the world
+and of our first parents in the Garden of Eden."  A yet more
+interesting light is thrown upon the author's view of truth, and
+of its promulgation, by his dedication:  he says that, "being
+persuaded that literary men ought to be fostered by the hand of
+power," he dedicates his treatise "to his Excellency Sir H.
+Barkly," who was at the time Governor of Victoria.
+
+Still another curious survival is seen in a work which appeared
+as late as 1885, at Edinburgh, by William Galloway, M.A., Ph.D.,
+M.D.  The author thinks that he has produced abundant
+evidence to prove that "Jehovah, the Second Person of the
+Godhead, wrote the first chapter of Genesis on a stone pillar,
+and that this is the manner by which he first revealed it to
+Adam; and thus Adam was taught not only to speak but to read and
+write by Jehovah, the Divine Son; and that the first lesson he
+got was from the first chapter of Genesis."  He goes on to say:
+"Jehovah wrote these first two documents; the first containing
+the history of the Creation, and the second the revelation of
+man's redemption,...for Adam's and Eve's instruction; it is
+evident that he wrote them in the Hebrew tongue, because that was
+the language of Adam and Eve."  But this was only a flower out of
+season.
+
+And, finally, in these latter days Mr. Gladstone has touched
+the subject.  With that well-known facility in believing anything
+he wishes to believe, which he once showed in connecting
+Neptune's trident with the doctrine of the Trinity, he floats
+airily over all the impossibilities of the original Babel legend
+and all the conquests of science, makes an assertion regarding
+the results of philology which no philologist of any standing
+would admit, and then escapes in a cloud of rhetoric after his
+well-known fashion.
+
+This, too, must be set down simply as a survival, for in the
+British Isles as elsewhere the truth has been established.  Such
+men as Max Muller and Sayce in England,--Steinthal, Schleicher,
+Weber, Karl Abel, and a host of others in Germany,--Ascoli and De
+Gubernatis in Italy,--and Whitney, with the scholars inspired by
+him, in America, have carried the new science to a complete
+triumph.  The sons of Yale University may well be proud of the
+fact that this old Puritan foundation was made the headquarters
+of the American Oriental Society, which has done so much for the
+truth in this field.[420]
+
+[420] For Mr. Gladstone's view, see his Impregnable Rock of Holy
+Scripture, London, 1890, pp. 241 et seq.  The passage connecting
+the trident of Neptune with the Trinity is in his Juventus Mundi.
+To any American boy who sees how inevitably, both among Indian
+and white fishermen, the fish spear takes the three-pronged form,
+this utterance of Mr. Gladstone is amazing.
+
+
+
+V.  SUMMARY.
+
+
+It may be instructive, in conclusion, to sum up briefly the
+history of the whole struggle.
+
+First, as to the origin of speech, we have in the beginning the
+whole Church rallying around the idea that the original language
+was Hebrew; that this language, even including the medieval
+rabbinical punctuation, was directly inspired by the Almighty;
+that Adam was taught it by God himself in walks and talks; and
+that all other languages were derived from it at the "confusion
+of Babel."
+
+Next, we see parts of this theory fading out:  the inspiration of
+the rabbinical points begins to disappear.  Adam, instead of
+being taught directly by God, is "inspired" by him.
+
+Then comes the third stage:  advanced theologians endeavour to
+compromise on the idea that Adam was "given verbal roots and a
+mental power."
+
+Finally, in our time, we have them accepting the theory that
+language is the result of an evolutionary process in obedience to
+laws more or less clearly ascertained.  Babel thus takes its
+place quietly among the sacred myths.
+
+As to the origin of writing, we have the more eminent theologians
+at first insisting that God taught Adam to write; next we find
+them gradually retreating from this position, but insisting that
+writing was taught to the world by Noah.  After the retreat from
+this position, we find them insisting that it was Moses whom God
+taught to write.  But scientific modes of thought still
+progressed, and we next have influential theologians agreeing
+that writing was a Mosaic invention; this is followed by another
+theological retreat to the position that writing was a
+post-Mosaic invention.  Finally, all the positions are
+relinquished, save by some few skirmishers who appear now and
+then upon the horizon, making attempts to defend some subtle
+method of "reconciling" the Babel myth with modern science.
+
+Just after the middle of the nineteenth century the last stage of
+theological defence was evidently reached--the same which is seen
+in the history of almost every science after it has successfully
+fought its way through the theological period--the declaration
+which we have already seen foreshadowed by Wiseman, that the
+scientific discoveries in question are nothing new, but have
+really always been known and held by the Church, and that they
+simply substantiate the position taken by the Church.  This new
+contention, which always betokens the last gasp of theological
+resistance to science, was now echoed from land to land.  In
+1856 it was given forth by a divine of the Anglican Church,
+Archdeacon Pratt, of Calcutta.  He gives a long list of eminent
+philologists who had done most to destroy the old supernatural
+view of language, reads into their utterances his own wishes, and
+then exclaims, "So singularly do their labours confirm the
+literal truth of Scripture."
+
+Two years later this contention was echoed from the American
+Presbyterian Church, and Dr. B. W. Dwight, having stigmatized as
+"infidels" those who had not incorporated into their science the
+literal acceptance of Hebrew legend, declared that "chronology,
+ethnography, and etymology have all been tortured in vain to make
+them contradict the Mosaic account of the early history of man."
+Twelve years later this was re-echoed from England.  The Rev.
+Dr. Baylee, Principal of the College of St. Aidan's, declared,
+"With regard to the varieties of human language, the account of
+the confusion of tongues is receiving daily confirmation by all
+the recent discoveries in comparative philology."  So, too, in
+the same year (1870), in the United Presbyterian Church of
+Scotland, Dr. John Eadie, Professor of Biblical Literature and
+Exegesis, declared, "Comparative philology has established the
+miracle of Babel."
+
+A skill in theology and casuistry so exquisite as to contrive
+such assertions, and a faith so robust as to accept them,
+certainly leave nothing to be desired.  But how baseless these
+contentions are is shown, first, by the simple history of the
+attitude of the Church toward this question; and, secondly, by
+the fact that comparative philology now reveals beyond a doubt
+that not only is Hebrew not the original or oldest language upon
+earth, but that it is not even the oldest form in the Semitic
+group to which it belongs.  To use the words of one of the most
+eminent modern authorities, "It is now generally recognised that
+in grammatical structure the Arabic preserves much more of the
+original forms than either the Hebrew or Aramaic."
+
+History, ethnology, and philology now combine inexorably to place
+the account of the confusion of tongues and the dispersion of
+races at Babel among the myths; but their work has not been
+merely destructive:  more and more strong are the grounds for
+belief in an evolution of language.
+
+A very complete acceptance of the scientific doctrines has been
+made by Archdeacon Farrar, Canon of Westminster.  With a
+boldness which in an earlier period might have cost him dear, and
+which merits praise even now for its courage, he says:  "For all
+reasoners except that portion of the clergy who in all ages have
+been found among the bitterest enemies of scientific discovery,
+these considerations have been conclusive.  But, strange to say,
+here, as in so many other instances, this self-styled
+orthodoxy--more orthodox than the Bible itself--directly
+contradicts the very Scriptures which it professes to explain,
+and by sheer misrepresentation succeeds in producing a needless
+and deplorable collision between the statements of Scripture and
+those other mighty and certain truths which have been revealed to
+science and humanity as their glory and reward."
+
+Still another acknowledgment was made in America through the
+instrumentality of a divine of the Methodist Episcopal Church,
+whom the present generation at least will hold in honour not only
+for his scholarship but for his patriotism in the darkest hour of
+his country's need--John McClintock.  In the article on
+Language, in the Biblical Cyclopaedia, edited by him and the Rev.
+Dr. Strong, which appeared in 1873, the whole sacred theory is
+given up, and the scientific view accepted.[421]
+
+[421] For Kayser, see his work, Ueber die Ursprache, oder uber
+eine Behauptung Mosis, dass alle Sprachen der Welt von einer
+einzigen der Noahhischen abstammen, Erlangen, 1840; see
+especially pp. 5, 80, 95, 112.  For Wiseman, see his Lectures on
+the Connection between Science and Revealed Religion, London,
+1836.  For examples typical of very many in this field, see the
+works of Pratt, 1856; Dwight, 1858; Jamieson, 1868.  For citation
+from Cumming, see his Great Tribulation, London, 1859, p. 4; see
+also his Things Hard to be Understood, London, 1861, p. 48.  For
+an admirable summary of the work of the great modern
+philologists, and a most careful estimate of the conclusions
+reached, see Prof. Whitney's article on Philology in the
+Encyclopaedia Britannica.  A copy of Mr. Atkinson's book is in the
+Harvard College Library, it having been presented by the Trustees
+of the Public Library of Victoria.  For Galloway, see his
+Philosophy of the Creation, Edinburgh and London, 1885, pp. 21,
+238, 239, 446.  For citation from Baylee, see his Verbal
+Inspiration the True Characteristic of God's Holy Word, London,
+1870, p. 14 and elsewhere.  For Archdeacon Pratt, see his
+Scripture and Science not at Variance, London, 1856, p. 55.  For
+the citation from Dr. Eadie, see his Biblical Cyclopaedia,
+London, 1870, p. 53.  For Dr. Dwight, see The New-Englander, vol.
+xvi, p. 465.  For the theological article referred to as giving
+up the sacred theory, see the Cyclopaedia of Biblical,
+Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature, prepared by Rev. John
+McClintock, D. D., and James Strong, New York, 1873, vol. v, p.
+233.  For Arabic as an earlier Semitic development than Hebrew,
+as well as for much other valuable information on the questions
+recently raised, see article Hebrew, by W. R. Smith, in the
+latest edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica.  For quotation
+from Canon Farrar, see his language and Languages, London, 1878,
+pp. 6,7.
+
+
+It may, indeed, be now fairly said that the thinking leaders of
+theology have come to accept the conclusions of science regarding
+the origin of language, as against the old explanations by myth
+and legend.  The result has been a blessing both to science and
+to religion.  No harm has been done to religion; what has been
+done is to release it from the clog of theories which thinking
+men saw could no longer be maintained.  No matter what has become
+of the naming of the animals by Adam, of the origin of the name
+Babel, of the fear of the Almighty lest men might climb up into
+his realm above the firmament, and of the confusion of tongues
+and the dispersion of nations; the essentials of Christianity, as
+taught by its blessed Founder, have simply been freed, by
+Comparative Philology, from one more great incubus, and have
+therefore been left to work with more power upon the hearts and
+minds of mankind.
+
+Nor has any harm been done to the Bible.  On the contrary, this
+divine revelation through science has made it all the more
+precious to us.  In these myths and legends caught from earlier
+civilizations we see an evolution of the most important religious
+and moral truths for our race.  Myth, legend, and parable seem,
+in obedience to a divine law, the necessary setting for these
+truths, as they are successively evolved, ever in higher and
+higher forms.  What matters it, then, that we have come to know
+that the accounts of Creation, the Fall, the Deluge, and much
+else in our sacred books, were remembrances of lore obtained from
+the Chaldeans?  What matters it that the beautiful story of
+Joseph is found to be in part derived from an Egyptian romance,
+of which the hieroglyphs may still be seen?  What matters it that
+the story of David and Goliath is poetry; and that Samson, like
+so many men of strength in other religions, is probably a
+sun-myth?  What matters it that the inculcation of high duty in
+the childhood of the world is embodied in such quaint stories as
+those of Jonah and Balaam?  The more we realize these facts, the
+richer becomes that great body of literature brought together
+within the covers of the Bible.  What matters it that those who
+incorporated the Creation lore of Babylonia and other Oriental
+nations into the sacred books of the Hebrews, mixed it with their
+own conceptions and deductions?  What matters it that Darwin
+changed the whole aspect of our Creation myths; that Lyell and
+his compeers placed the Hebrew story of Creation and of the
+Deluge of Noah among legends; that Copernicus put an end to the
+standing still of the sun for Joshua; that Halley, in
+promulgating his law of comets, put an end to the doctrine of
+"signs and wonders"; that Pinel, in showing that all insanity is
+physical disease, relegated to the realm of mythology the witch
+of Endor and all stories of demoniacal possession; that the Rev.
+Dr. Schaff, and a multitude of recent Christian travellers
+in Palestine, have put into the realm of legend the story of
+Lot's wife transformed into a pillar of salt; that the
+anthropologists, by showing how man has risen everywhere from low
+and brutal beginnings, have destroyed the whole theological
+theory of "the fall of man"?  Our great body of sacred literature
+is thereby only made more and more valuable to us:  more and more
+we see how long and patiently the forces in the universe which
+make for righteousness have been acting in and upon mankind
+through the only agencies fitted for such work in the earliest
+ages of the world--through myth, legend, parable, and poem.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+FROM THE DEAD SEA LEGENDS TO COMPARATIVE MYTHOLOGY,
+
+I.  THE GROWTH OF EXPLANATORY TRANSFORMATION MYTHS.
+
+
+A few years since, Maxime Du Camp, an eminent member of the
+French Academy, travelling from the Red Sea to the Nile through
+the Desert of Kosseir, came to a barren slope covered with
+boulders, rounded and glossy.
+
+His Mohammedan camel-driver accounted for them on this wise:
+
+"Many years ago Hadji Abdul-Aziz, a sheik of the dervishes, was
+travelling on foot through this desert:  it was summer:  the sun
+was hot and the dust stifling; thirst parched his lips, fatigue
+weighed down his back, sweat dropped from his forehead, when
+looking up he saw--on this very spot--a garden beautifully green,
+full of fruit, and, in the midst of it, the gardener.
+
+"`O fellow-man,' cried Hadji Abdul-Aziz, `in the name of Allah,
+clement and merciful, give me a melon and I will give you my
+prayers.'"
+
+The gardener answered:  `I care not for your prayers; give me
+money, and I will give you fruit.'
+
+"`But,' said the dervish, `I am a beggar; I have never had
+money; I am thirsty and weary, and one of your melons is all that
+I need.'
+
+"`No,' said the gardener; `go to the Nile and quench your
+thirst.'
+
+"Thereupon the dervish, lifting his eyes toward heaven, made this
+prayer:  `O Allah, thou who in the midst of the desert didst make
+the fountain of Zem-Zem spring forth to satisfy the thirst of
+Ismail, father of the faithful:  wilt thou suffer one of thy
+creatures to perish thus of thirst and fatigue?  '
+
+"And it came to pass that, hardly had the dervish spoken, when an
+abundant dew descended upon him, quenching his thirst and
+refreshing him even to the marrow of his bones.
+
+"Now at the sight of this miracle the gardener knew that the
+dervish was a holy man, beloved of Allah, and straightway offered
+him a melon.
+
+"`Not so,' answered Hadji Abdul-Aziz; `keep what thou hast, thou
+wicked man.  May thy melons become as hard as thy heart, and thy
+field as barren as thy soul!'
+
+"And straightway it came to pass that the melons were changed
+into these blocks of stone, and the grass into this sand, and
+never since has anything grown thereon."
+
+In this story, and in myriads like it, we have a survival of that
+early conception of the universe in which so many of the leading
+moral and religious truths of the great sacred books of the world
+are imbedded.
+
+All ancient sacred lore abounds in such mythical explanations of
+remarkable appearances in nature, and these are most frequently
+prompted by mountains, rocks, and boulders seemingly misplaced.
+
+In India we have such typical examples among the Brahmans as the
+mountain-peak which Durgu threw at Parvati; and among the
+Buddhists the stone which Devadatti hurled at Buddha.
+
+In Greece the Athenian, rejoicing in his belief that Athena
+guarded her chosen people, found it hard to understand why the
+great rock Lycabettus should be just too far from the Acropolis
+to be of use as an outwork; but a myth was developed which
+explained all.  According to this, Athena had intended to make
+Lycabettus a defence for the Athenians, and she was bringing it
+through the air from Pallene for that very purpose; but,
+unfortunately, a raven met her and informed her of the wonderful
+birth of Erichthonius, which so surprised the goddess that she
+dropped the rock where it now stands.
+
+So, too, a peculiar rock at Aegina was accounted for by a long
+and circumstantial legend to the effect that Peleus threw it at
+Phocas.
+
+A similar mode of explaining such objects is seen in the
+mythologies of northern Europe.  In Scandinavia we constantly
+find rocks which tradition accounts for by declaring that they
+were hurled by the old gods at each other, or at the early
+Christian churches.
+
+In Teutonic lands, as a rule, wherever a strange rock or stone is
+found, there will be found a myth or a legend, heathen or
+Christian, to account for it.
+
+So, too, in Celtic countries:  typical of this mode of thought in
+Brittany and in Ireland is the popular belief that such features
+in the landscape were dropped by the devil or by fairies.
+
+Even at a much later period such myths have grown and bloomed.
+Marco Polo gives a long and circumstantial legend of a mountain
+in Asia Minor which, not long before his visit, was removed by a
+Christian who, having "faith as a grain of mustard seed," and
+remembering the Saviour's promise, transferred the mountain to
+its present place by prayer, "at which marvel many Saracens
+became Christians."[422]
+
+[422] For Maxime Du Camp, see Le Nil: Egypte et Nubie, Paris,
+1877, chapter v.  For India, see Duncker, Geschichte des
+Alterthums, vol. iii, p. 366; also Coleman, Mythology of the
+Hindus, p. 90.  For Greece, as to the Lycabettus myth, see Leake,
+Topography of Athens, vol. i, sec. 3; also Burnouf, La Legende
+Athenienne, p. 152.  For the rock at Aegina, see Charton, vol. i,
+p. 310.  For Scandanavia, see Thorpe, Northern Antiquities,
+passim.  For Teutonic countries, see Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie;
+Panzer, Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie, vol. ii; Zingerle,
+Sagen aus Tyrol, pp. 111 et seq., 488, 504, 543; and especially
+J. B. Friedrich, Symbolik und Mythologie der Natur, pp. 116 et
+seq.  For Celtic examples I am indebted to that learned and
+genial scholar, Prof. J. P. Mahaffy, of Trinity College, Dublin.
+See also story of the devil dropping a rock when forced by the
+archangel Michael to aid him in building Mont Saint-Michel on the
+west coast of France, in Sebillot's Traditions de la Haute
+Bretagne, vol. i, p. 22; also multitudes of other examples in the
+same work.  For Marco Polo, see in Grynaeus, p. 337; also
+Charton, Voyageurs anciens et modernes, tome ii, pp. 274 et seq.,
+where the legend is given in full.
+
+
+Similar mythical explanations are also found, in all the older
+religions of the world, for curiously marked meteoric stones,
+fossils, and the like.
+
+Typical examples are found in the imprint of Buddha's feet on
+stones in Siam and Ceylon; in the imprint of the body of Moses,
+which down to the middle of the last century was shown near Mount
+Sinai; in the imprint of Poseidon's trident on the Acropolis at
+Athens; in the imprint of the hands or feet of Christ on stones
+in France, Italy, and Palestine; in the imprint of the Virgin's
+tears on stones at Jerusalem; in the imprint of the feet of
+Abraham at Jerusalem and of Mohammed on a stone in the Mosque of
+Khait Bey at Cairo; in the imprint of the fingers of giants on
+stones in the Scandinavian Peninsula, in north Germany, and in
+western France; in the imprint of the devil's thighs on a rock
+in Brittany, and of his claws on stones which he threw at
+churches in Cologne and Saint-Pol-de-Leon; in the imprint of the
+shoulder of the devil's grand mother on the "elbow-stone" at the
+Mohriner see; in the imprint of St. Otho's feet on a stone
+formerly preserved in the castle church at Stettin; in the
+imprint of the little finger of Christ and the head of Satan at
+Ehrenberg; and in the imprint of the feet of St. Agatha at
+Catania, in Sicily. To account for these appearances and myriads
+of others, long and interesting legends were developed, and out
+of this mass we may take one or two as typical.
+
+One of the most beautiful was evolved at Rome.  On the border of
+the medieval city stands the church of "Domine quo vadis"; it
+was erected in honour of a stone, which is still preserved,
+bearing a mark resembling a human footprint--perhaps the bed of a
+fossil.
+
+Out of this a pious legend grew as naturally as a wild rose in a
+prairie.  According to this story, in one of the first great
+persecutions the heart of St. Peter failed him, and he
+attempted to flee from the city:  arriving outside the walls he
+was suddenly confronted by the Master, whereupon Peter in
+amazement asked, "Lord, whither goest thou?"  (Domine quo
+vadis?); to which the Master answered, "To Rome, to be crucified
+again."  The apostle, thus rebuked, returned to martyrdom; the
+Master vanished, but left, as a perpetual memorial, his footprint
+in the solid rock.
+
+Another legend accounts for a curious mark in a stone at
+Jerusalem.  According to this, St. Thomas, after the ascension
+of the Lord, was again troubled with doubts, whereupon the Virgin
+Mother threw down her girdle, which left its imprint upon the
+rock, and thus converted the doubter fully and finally.
+
+And still another example is seen at the very opposite extreme of
+Europe, in the legend of the priestess of Hertha in the island of
+Rugen.  She had been unfaithful to her vows, and the gods
+furnished a proof of her guilt by causing her and her child to
+sink into the rock on which she stood.[423]
+
+[423] For myths and legend crystallizing about boulders and other
+stones curiously shaped or marked, see, on the general subject,
+in addition to works already cited, Des Brosses, Les Dieux
+Fetiches, 1760, passim, but especially pages 166, 167; and for a
+condensed statement as to worship paid them, see Gerard de
+Rialle, Mythologie comparee, vol. vi, chapter ii.   For imprints
+of Buddha's feet, see Tylor, Researches into the Early History of
+Mankind, London, 1878, pp. 115 et seq.; also Coleman, p. 203, and
+Charton, Voyageurs anciens et modernes, tome i, pp. 365, 366,
+where engravings of one of the imprints, and of the temple above
+another, are seen.  There are five which are considered authentic
+by the Siamese, and a multitude of others more or less strongly
+insisted upon.  For the imprint os Moses' body, see travellers
+from Sir John Mandeville down.  For the mark of Neptune's
+trident, see last edition of Murray's Handbook of Greece, vol. i,
+p. 322; and Burnouf, La Legende Athenienne, p. 153.  For imprint
+of the feet of Christ, and of the Virgin's girdle and tears, see
+many of the older travellers in Palestine, as Arculf, Bouchard,
+Roger, and especially Bertrandon de la Brocquiere in Wright's
+collection, pp. 339, 340; also Maundrell's Travels, and
+Mandeville.  For the curious legend regarding the imprint of
+Abraham's foot, see Weil, Biblische Legenden der Muselmanner, pp.
+91 et seq.  For many additional examples in Palestine,
+particularly the imprints of the bodies of three apostles on
+stones in the Garden of Gethsemane and of St. Jerome's body in
+the desert, see Beauvau, Relation du Voyage du Lavant, Nancy,
+1615, passim.  For the various imprints made by Satan and giants
+in Scandanavia and Germany, see Thorpe, vol. ii, p. 85;
+Friedrichs, pp. 126 and passim.  For a very rich collection of
+such explanatory legends regarding stones and marks in Germany,
+see Karl Bartsch, Sagen, Marchen und Gebrauche aus Meklenburg,
+Wien, 1880, vol. ii, pp. 420 et seq.  For a woodcut representing
+the imprint of Christ's feet on the stone from which he ascended
+to heaven, see woodcut in Mandeville, edition of 1484, in the
+White Library, Cornell University.  For the legend of Domine quo
+vadis, see many books of travel and nearly all guide books for
+Rome, from the mediaeval Mirabilia Romae to the latest edition of
+Murray.  The footprints of Mohammed at Cairo were shown to the
+present writer in 1889.  On the general subject, with many
+striking examples, see Falsan, La Periode glaciaire, Paris, 1889,
+pp. 17, 294, 295.
+
+
+Another and very fruitful source of explanatory myths is found in
+ancient centres of volcanic action, and especially in old craters
+of volcanoes and fissures filled with water.
+
+In China we have, among other examples, Lake Man, which was once
+the site of the flourishing city Chiang Shui--overwhelmed and
+sunk on account of the heedlessness of its inhabitants regarding
+a divine warning.
+
+In Phrygia, the lake and morass near Tyana were ascribed to the
+wrath of Zeus and Hermes, who, having visited the cities which
+formerly stood there, and having been refused shelter by all the
+inhabitants save Philemon and Baucis, rewarded their benefactors,
+but sunk the wicked cities beneath the lake and morass.
+
+Stories of similar import grew up to explain the crater near
+Sipylos in Asia Minor and that of Avernus in Italy:  the latter
+came to be considered the mouth of the infernal regions, as every
+schoolboy knows when he has read his Virgil.
+
+In the later Christian mythologies we have such typical legends
+as those which grew up about the old crater in Ceylon; the salt
+water in it being accounted for by supposing it the tears of Adam
+and Eve, who retreated to this point after their expulsion from
+paradise and bewailed their sin during a hundred years.
+
+So, too, in Germany we have multitudes of lakes supposed to owe
+their origin to the sinking of valleys as a punishment for human
+sin.  Of these are the "Devil's Lake," near Gustrow, which rose
+and covered a church and its priests on account of their
+corruption; the lake at Probst-Jesar, which rose and covered an
+oak grove and a number of peasants resting in it on account of
+their want of charity to beggars; and the Lucin Lake, which rose
+and covered a number of soldiers on account of their cruelty to a
+poor peasant.
+
+Such legends are found throughout America and in Japan, and will
+doubtless be found throughout Asia and Africa, and especially
+among the volcanic lakes of South America, the pitch lakes of the
+Caribbean Islands, and even about the Salt Lake of Utah; for
+explanatory myths and legends under such circumstances are
+inevitable.[424]
+
+[424] As to myths explaining volcanic craters and lakes, and
+embodying ideas of the wrath of Heaven against former inhabitants
+of the neighboring country, see Forbiger, Alte Geographie,
+Hamburg, 1877, vol. i, p. 563.  For exaggerations concerning the
+Dead Sea, see ibid., vol. i, p. 575.  For the sinking of Chiang
+Shui and other examples, see Denny's Folklore of China, pp. 126
+et seq.  For the sinking of the Phrygian region, the destruction
+of its inhabitants, and the saving of Philemon and Baucis, see
+Ovid's Metamorphoses, book viii; also Botticher, Baumcultus der
+Alten, etc.  For the lake in Ceylon arising from the tears of
+Adam and Eve, see variants of the original legend in Mandeville
+and in Jurgen Andersen, Reisebeschreibung, 1669, vol. ii, p. 132.
+For the volcanic nature of the Dead Sea, see Daubeny, cited in
+Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, s.v. Palestine.  For lakes in
+Germany owing their origin to human sin and various supernatural
+causes, see Karl Bartsch, Sagen, Marche und Gebrauche aus
+Meklenburg, vol. i, pp. 397 et seq.  For lakes in America, see
+any good collection of Indian legends.  For lakes in Japan sunk
+supernaturally, see Braun's Japanesische Marche und Sagen,
+Leipsic, 1885, pp. 350, 351.
+
+
+To the same manner of explaining striking appearances in physical
+geography, and especially strange rocks and boulders, we mainly
+owe the innumerable stories of the transformation of living
+beings, and especially of men and women, into these natural
+features.
+
+In the mythology of China we constantly come upon legends of such
+transformations--from that of the first Counsellor of the Han
+dynasty to those of shepherds and sheep.  In the Brahmanic
+mythology of India, Salagrama, the fossil ammonite, is recognised
+as containing the body of Vishnu's wife, and the Binlang stone
+has much the same relation to Siva; so, too, the nymph Ramba was
+changed, for offending Ketu, into a mass of sand; by the breath
+of Siva elephants were turned into stone; and in a very touching
+myth Luxman is changed into stone but afterward released.  In
+the Buddhist mythology a Nat demon is represented as changing
+himself into a grain of sand.
+
+Among the Greeks such transformation myths come constantly before
+us--both the changing of stones to men and the changing of men to
+stones.  Deucalion and Pyrrha, escaping from the flood,
+repeopled the earth by casting behind them stones which became
+men and women; Heraulos was changed into stone for offending
+Mercury; Pyrrhus for offending Rhea; Phineus, and Polydectes with
+his guests, for offending Perseus:  under the petrifying glance
+of Medusa's head such transformations became a thing of course.
+
+To myth-making in obedience to the desire of explaining unusual
+natural appearances, coupled with the idea that sin must be
+followed by retribution, we also owe the well-known Niobe myth.
+Having incurred the divine wrath, Niobe saw those dearest to her
+destroyed by missiles from heaven, and was finally transformed
+into a rock on Mount Sipylos which bore some vague resemblance to
+the human form, and her tears became the rivulets which trickled
+from the neighbouring strata.
+
+Thus, in obedience to a moral and intellectual impulse, a
+striking geographical appearance was explained, and for ages
+pious Greeks looked with bated breath upon the rock at Sipylos
+which was once Niobe, just as for ages pious Jews, Christians,
+and Mohammedans looked with awe upon the salt pillar at the Dead
+Sea which was once Lot's wife.
+
+Pausanias, one of the most honest of ancient travellers, gives us
+a notable exhibition of this feeling.  Having visited this
+monument of divine vengeance at Mount Sipylos, he tells us very
+naively that, though he could discern no human features when
+standing near it, he thought that he could see them when standing
+at a distance.  There could hardly be a better example of that
+most common and deceptive of all things--belief created by the
+desire to believe.
+
+In the pagan mythology of Scandinavia we have such typical
+examples as Bors slaying the giant Ymir and transforming his
+bones into boulders; also "the giant who had no heart"
+transforming six brothers and their wives into stone; and, in
+the old Christian mythology, St. Olaf changing into stone the
+wicked giants who opposed his preaching.
+
+So, too, in Celtic countries we have in Ireland such legends as
+those of the dancers turned into stone; and, in Brittany, the
+stones at Plesse, which were once hunters and dogs violating the
+sanctity of Sunday; and the stones of Carnac, which were once
+soldiers who sought to kill St. Cornely.
+
+Teutonic mythology inherited from its earlier Eastern days a
+similar mass of old legends, and developed a still greater mass
+of new ones.  Thus, near the Konigstein, which all visitors to
+the Saxon Switzerland know so well, is a boulder which for ages
+was believed to have once been a maiden transformed into stone
+for refusing to go to church; and near Rosenberg in Mecklenburg
+is another curiously shaped stone of which a similar story is
+told.  Near Spornitz, in the same region, are seven boulders
+whose forms and position are accounted for by a long and
+circumstantial legend that they were once seven impious herdsmen;
+near Brahlsdorf is a stone which, according to a similar
+explanatory myth, was once a blasphemous shepherd; near Schwerin
+are three boulders which were once wasteful servants; and at
+Neustadt, down to a recent period, was shown a collection of
+stones which were once a bride and bridegroom with their
+horses--all punished for an act of cruelty; and these stories are
+but typical of thousands.
+
+At the other extremity of Europe we may take, out of the
+multitude of explanatory myths, that which grew about the
+well-known group of boulders near Belgrade.  In the midst of
+them stands one larger than the rest:  according to the legend
+which was developed to account for all these, there once lived
+there a swineherd, who was disrespectful to the consecrated Host;
+whereupon he was changed into the larger stone, and his swine
+into the smaller ones.  So also at Saloniki we have the pillars
+of the ruined temple, which are widely believed, especially among
+the Jews of that region, to have once been human beings, and are
+therefore known as the "enchanted columns."
+
+Among the Arabs we have an addition to our sacred account of
+Adam--the legend of the black stone of the Caaba at Mecca, into
+which the angel was changed who was charged by the Almighty to
+keep Adam away from the forbidden fruit, and who neglected his
+duty.
+
+Similar old transformation legends are abundant among the Indians
+of America, the negroes of Africa, and the natives of Australia
+and the Pacific islands.
+
+Nor has this making of myths to account for remarkable
+appearances yet ceased, even in civilized countries.
+
+About the beginning of this century the Grand Duke of Weimar,
+smitten with the classical mania of his time, placed in the
+public park near his palace a little altar, and upon this was
+carved, after the manner so frequent in classical antiquity, a
+serpent taking a cake from it.  And shortly there appeared, in
+the town and the country round about, a legend to explain this
+altar and its decoration.  It was commonly said that a huge
+serpent had laid waste that region in the olden time, until a
+wise and benevolent baker had rid the world of the monster by
+means of a poisoned biscuit.
+
+So, too, but a few years since, in the heart of the State of New
+York, a swindler of genius having made and buried a "petrified
+giant," one theologian explained it by declaring it a Phoenician
+idol, and published the Phoenician inscription which he thought
+he had found upon it; others saw in it proofs that "there were
+giants in those days," and within a week after its discovery
+myths were afloat that the neighbouring remnant of the Onondaga
+Indians had traditions of giants who frequently roamed through
+that region.[425]
+
+[425] For transformation myths and legends, identifying rocks and
+stones with gods and heroes, see Welcker, Gotterlehre, vol. i, p.
+220.  For recent and more accessible statements for the general
+reader, see Robertson Smith's admirable Lectures on the Religion
+of the Semites, Edinburgh, 1889, pp. 86 et seq.  For some
+thoughtful remarks on the ancient adoration of stones rather than
+statues, with refernce to the anointing of stones at Bethel by
+Jacob, see Dodwell, Tour through Greece, vol. ii, p. 172; also
+Robertson Smith, as above, Lecture V.  For Chinese transformation
+legends, see Denny's Folklore of China, pp. 96, 128.  For Hindu
+and other ancient legends of transformations, see Dawson,
+Dictionary of Hindu Mythology; also Coleman, as above; also Cox,
+Mythology of the Aryan Nations, pp. 81-97, etc.  For such
+transformations in Greece, see the Iliad, and Ovid, as above;
+also Stark, Niobe und die Niobiden, p. 444 and elsewhere; also
+Preller, Griechische Mythologie, passim; also Baumeister,
+Denkmaler des classischen Alterthums, article Niobe; also
+Botticher,as above; also Curtius, Griechische Geschichte, vol.i,
+pp. 71, 72.  For Pausanius's naive confession regarding the
+Sipylos rock, see book i, p. 215.  See also Texier, Asie Mineure,
+pp. 265 et seq.; also Chandler, Travels in Greece, vol. ii, p.
+80, who seems to hold to the later origin of the statue.  At the
+end of Baumeister there is an engraving copied from Stuart which
+seems to show that, as to the Niobe legend, at a later period,
+Art was allowed to help Nature.  For the general subject, see
+Scheiffle, Programm des K. Gymnasiums in Ellwangen: Mythologische
+Parallelen, 1865.  For Scandinavian and Teutonic transformation
+legends, see Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie, vierte Ausg., vol. i, p.
+457; also Thorpe, Northern Antiquities; also Friedrich, passim,
+especially p. 116 et seq.; also, for a mass of very curious ones,
+Karl Bartsch, Sagen, Marchen und gebrauche aus Meklenburg, vol.
+i, pp. 420 et seq.; also Karl Simrock's edition of the Edda,
+ninth edition, p. 319; also John Fiske, Myths and Myth-makers,
+pp. 8, 9.  On the universality of such legends and myths, see
+Ritter's Erdkunde, vol. xiv, pp. 1098-1122.  For Irish examples,
+see Manz, Real-Encyclopadie, article Stein; and for multitudes of
+examples in Brittany, see Sebillot, Traditions de la Haute-
+Bretagne.  For the enchanted columns at Saloniki, see the latest
+edition of Murray's Handbook of Turkey, vol. ii, p. 711.  For the
+legend of the angel changed into stone for neglecting to guard
+Adam, see Weil, university librarian at Heidelberg, Biblische
+Legende der Muselmanner, Frankfort-am-Main, 1845, pp. 37, 84.
+For similar transformation legends in Australia and among the
+American Indians, see Andrew Lang, Mythology, French translation,
+pp. 83, 102; also his Myth, Ritual, and Religion, vol. i, pp. 150
+et seq., citing numerous examples from J. G. Muller,
+Urreligionen, and Dorman's Primitive Superstitions; also Report
+of the Bureau of Ethnoligy for 1880-'81; and for an African
+example, see account of the rock at Balon which was once a woman,
+in Berenger-Feraud, Contes populaires de la Senegambie, chap.
+viii.  For the Weimar legend, see Lewes, Life of Goethe, book iv.
+For the myths which arose about the swindling "Cardiff giant" in
+the State of New York, see especially an article by G. A.
+Stockwell, M. D., in The Popular Science Monthly for June, 1878;
+see also W. A. McKinney in The New-Englander for October, 1875;
+and for the "Phoenician inscription," given at length with a
+translation, see the Rev. Alexander McWhorter, in The Galaxy for
+July, 1872.  The present writer visited the "giant" shortly after
+it was "discovered," carefully observed it, and the myths to
+which it gave rise, has in his possession a mass of curious
+documents regarding this fraud, and hopes ere long to prepare a
+supplement to Dr. Stockwell's valuable paper.
+
+
+To the same stage of thought belongs the conception of human
+beings changed into trees.  But, in the historic evolution of
+religion and morality, while changes into stone or rock were
+considered as punishments, or evidences of divine wrath, those
+into trees and shrubs were frequently looked upon as rewards, or
+evidences of divine favour.
+
+A very beautiful and touching form of this conception is seen in
+such myths as the change of Philemon into the oak, and of Baucis
+into the linden; of Myrrha into the myrtle; of Melos into the
+apple tree; of Attis into the pine; of Adonis into the rose
+tree; and in the springing of the vine and grape from the blood
+of the Titans, the violet from the blood of Attis, and the
+hyacinth from the blood of Hyacinthus.
+
+Thus it was, during the long ages when mankind saw everywhere
+miracle and nowhere law, that, in the evolution of religion and
+morality, striking features in physical geography became
+connected with the idea of divine retribution.[426]
+
+
+[426] For the view taken in Greece and Rome of transformations
+into trees and shrubs, see Botticher, Baumcultus der Hellenen,
+book i, chap. xix; also Ovid, Metamorphoses, passim; also
+foregoing notes.
+
+
+But, in the natural course of intellectual growth, thinking men
+began to doubt the historical accuracy of these myths and
+legends--or, at least, to doubt all save those of the theology in
+which they happened to be born; and the next step was taken when
+they began to make comparisons between the myths and legends of
+different neighbourhoods and countries:  so came into being the
+science of comparative mythology--a science sure to be of vast
+value, because, despite many stumblings and vagaries, it shows
+ever more and more how our religion and morality have been
+gradually evolved, and gives a firm basis to a faith that higher
+planes may yet be reached.
+
+Such a science makes the sacred books of the world more and more
+precious, in that it shows how they have been the necessary
+envelopes of our highest spiritual sustenance; how even myths
+and legends apparently the most puerile have been the natural
+husks and rinds and shells of our best ideas; and how the
+atmosphere is created in which these husks and rinds and shells
+in due time wither, shrivel, and fall away, so that the fruit
+itself may be gathered to sustain a nobler religion and a purer
+morality.
+
+The coming in of Christianity contributed elements of inestimable
+value in this evolution, and, at the centre of all, the thoughts,
+words, and life of the Master.  But when, in the darkness that
+followed the downfall of the Roman Empire, there was developed a
+theology and a vast ecclesiastical power to enforce it, the most
+interesting chapters in this evolution of religion and morality
+were removed from the domain of science.
+
+So it came that for over eighteen hundred years it has been
+thought natural and right to study and compare the myths and
+legends arising east and west and south and north of Palestine
+with each other, but never with those of Palestine itself; so it
+came that one of the regions most fruitful in materials for
+reverent thought and healthful comparison was held exempt from
+the unbiased search for truth; so it came that, in the name of
+truth, truth was crippled for ages.  While observation, and
+thought upon observation, and the organized knowledge or science
+which results from these, progressed as regarded the myths and
+legends of other countries, and an atmosphere was thus produced
+giving purer conceptions of the world and its government, myths
+of that little geographical region at the eastern end of the
+Mediterranean retained possession of the civilized world in their
+original crude form, and have at times done much to thwart the
+noblest efforts of religion, morality, and civilization.
+
+
+
+II.  MEDIAEVAL GROWTH OF THE DEAD SEA LEGENDS.
+
+
+The history of myths, of their growth under the earlier phases of
+human thought and of their decline under modern thinking, is one
+of the most interesting and suggestive of human studies; but,
+since to treat it as a whole would require volumes, I shall
+select only one small group, and out of this mainly a single
+myth--one about which there can no longer be any dispute--the
+group of myths and legends which grew upon the shore of the Dead
+Sea, and especially that one which grew up to account for the
+successive salt columns washed out by the rains at its
+southwestern extremity.
+
+The Dead Sea is about fifty miles in length and ten miles in
+width; it lies in a very deep fissure extending north and south,
+and its surface is about thirteen hundred feet below that of the
+Mediterranean.  It has, therefore, no outlet, and is the
+receptacle for the waters of the whole system to which it
+belongs, including those collected by the Sea of Galilee and
+brought down thence by the river Jordan.
+
+It certainly--or at least the larger part of it--ranks
+geologically among the oldest lakes on earth.  In a broad sense
+the region is volcanic:  On its shore are evidences of volcanic
+action, which must from the earliest period have aroused wonder
+and fear, and stimulated the myth-making tendency to account for
+them.  On the eastern side are impressive mountain masses which
+have been thrown up from old volcanic vents; mineral and hot
+springs abound, some of them spreading sulphurous odours;
+earthquakes have been frequent, and from time to time these have
+cast up masses of bitumen; concretions of sulphur and large
+formations of salt constantly appear.
+
+The water which comes from the springs or oozes through the salt
+layers upon its shores constantly brings in various salts in
+solution, and, being rapidly evaporated under the hot sun and dry
+wind, there has been left, in the bed of the lake, a strong brine
+heavily charged with the usual chlorides and bromides--a sort of
+bitter "mother liquor" This fluid has become so dense as to have
+a remarkable power of supporting the human body; it is of an
+acrid and nauseating bitterness; and by ordinary eyes no
+evidence of life is seen in it.
+
+Thus it was that in the lake itself, and in its surrounding
+shores, there was enough to make the generation of explanatory
+myths on a large scale inevitable.
+
+The main northern part of the lake is very deep, the plummet
+having shown an abyss of thirteen hundred feet; but the southern
+end is shallow and in places marshy.
+
+The system of which it forms a part shows a likeness to that in
+South America of which the mountain lake Titicaca is the main
+feature; as a receptacle for surplus waters, only rendering them
+by evaporation, it resembles the Caspian and many other seas; as
+a sort of evaporating dish for the leachings of salt rock, and
+consequently holding a body of water unfit to support the higher
+forms of animal life, it resembles, among others, the Median lake
+of Urumiah; as a deposit of bitumen, it resembles the pitch
+lakes of Trinidad.[427]
+
+[427] For modern views of the Dead Sea, see the Rev. Edward
+Robinson, D. D., Biblical Researches, various editions; Lynch's
+Exploring Expedition; De Saulcy, Voyage autour de la Mer Morte;
+Stanley's Palestine and Syria; Schaff's Through Bible Lands; and
+other travellers hereafter quoted.  For good photogravures,
+showing the character of the whole region, see the atlas forming
+part of De Luynes's monumental Voyage d'Exploration.  For
+geographical summaries, see Reclus, La Terre, Paris, 1870, pp.
+832-834; Ritter, Erdkunde, volumes devoted to Palestine and
+especially as supplemented in Gage's translation with additions;
+Reclus, Nouvelle Geographie Universelle, vol. ix, p. 736, where a
+small map is given presenting the difference in depth between the
+two ends of the lake, of which so much was made theologically
+before Lartet.  For still better maps, see De Saulcy, and
+especially De Luynes, Voyage d'Exploration (atlas).  For very
+interesting panoramic views, see last edition of Canon Tristram's
+Land of Israel, p. 635.  For the geology, see Lartet, in his
+reports to the French Geographical Society, and especially in
+vol. iii of De Luynes's work, where there is an admirable
+geological map with sections, etc.; also Ritter; also Sir J. W.
+Dawson's Egypt and Syria, published by the Religious Tract
+Society; also Rev. Cunningham Geikie, D. D., Geology of
+Palestine; and for pictures showing salt formation, Tristram, as
+above.  For the meteorology, see Vignes, report to De Luynes, pp.
+65 et seq.  For chemistry of the Dead Sea, see as above, and
+Terreil's report, given in Gage's Ritter, vol. iii, appendix 2,
+and tables in De Luynes's third volume.  For zoology of the Dead
+Sea, as to entire absence of life in it, see all earlier
+travellers; as to presence of lower forms of life, see
+Ehrenberg's microscopic examinations in Gage's Ritter.  See also
+reports in third volume of De Luynes.  For botany of the Dead
+Sea, and especially regarding "apples of Sodom," see Dr. Lortet's
+La Syrie, p. 412; also Reclus, Nouvelle Geographie, vol. ix, p.
+737; also for photographic representations of them, see portfolio
+forming part of De Luynes's work, plate 27.  For Strabo's very
+perfect description, see his Geog., lib. xvi, cap. ii; also
+Fallmerayer, Werke, pp. 177, 178.  For names and positions of a
+large number of salt lakes in various parts of the world more or
+less resembling the Dead Sea, see De Luynes, vol. iii, pp. 242 et
+seq.  For Trinidad "pitch lakes," found by Sir Walter Raleigh in
+1595, see Lengegg, El Dorado, part i, p. 103, and part ii, p.
+101; also Reclus, Ritter, et al.  For the general subject, see
+Schenkel, Bibel-Lexikon, s.v. Todtes Meer, an excellent summery.
+The description of the Dead Sea in Lenormant's great history is
+utterly unworthy of him, and must have been thrown together from
+old notes after his death.  It is amazing to see in such a work
+the old superstitions that birds attempting to fly over the sea
+are sufficated.  See Lenormant, Histoire ancienne de l'Orient,
+edition of 1888, vol. vi, p. 112.  For the absorption and
+adoption of foreign myths and legends by the Jews, see
+Baring-Gould, Curious Myths of the Middle Ages, p. 390.  For the
+views of Greeks and Romans, see especially Tacitus, Historiae,
+book v, Pliny, and Strabo, in whose remarks are the germs of many
+of the mediaeval myths.  For very curious examples of these, see
+Baierus, De Excidio Sodomae, Halle, 1690, passim.
+
+
+In all this there is nothing presenting any special difficulty to
+the modern geologist or geographer; but with the early dweller
+in Palestine the case was very different.  The rocky, barren
+desolation of the Dead Sea region impressed him deeply; he
+naturally reasoned upon it; and this impression and reasoning we
+find stamped into the pages of his sacred literature, rendering
+them all the more precious as a revelation of the earlier thought
+of mankind.  The long circumstantial account given in Genesis,
+its application in Deuteronomy, its use by Amos, by Isaiah, by
+Jeremiah, by Zephaniah, and by Ezekiel, the references to it in
+the writings attributed to St. Paul, St. Peter, and St.
+Jude, in the Apocalypse, and, above all, in more than one
+utterance of the Master himself--all show how deeply these
+geographical features impressed the Jewish mind.
+
+At a very early period, myths and legends, many and
+circumstantial, grew up to explain features then so
+incomprehensible.
+
+As the myth and legend grew up among the Greeks of a refusal of
+hospitality to Zeus and Hermes by the village in Phrygia, and the
+consequent sinking of that beautiful region with its inhabitants
+beneath a lake and morass, so there came belief in a similar
+offence by the people of the beautiful valley of Siddim, and the
+consequent sinking of that valley with its inhabitants beneath
+the waters of the Dead Sea.  Very similar to the accounts of the
+saving of Philemon and Baucis are those of the saving of Lot and
+his family.
+
+But the myth-making and miracle-mongering by no means ceased in
+ancient times; they continued to grow through the medieval and
+modern period until they have quietly withered away in the light
+of modern scientific investigation, leaving to us the religious
+and moral truths they inclose.
+
+It would be interesting to trace this whole group of myths:
+their origin in times prehistoric, their development in Greece
+and Rome, their culmination during the ages of faith, and their
+disappearance in the age of science.  It would be especially
+instructive to note the conscientious efforts to prolong their
+life by making futile compromises between science and theology
+regarding them; but I shall mention this main group only
+incidentally, confining my self almost entirely to the one above
+named--the most remarkable of all--the myth which grew about the
+salt pillars of Usdum.
+
+I select this mainly because it involves only elementary
+principles, requires no abstruse reasoning, and because all
+controversy regarding it is ended.  There is certainly now no
+theologian with a reputation to lose who will venture to revive
+the idea regarding it which was sanctioned for hundreds, nay,
+thousands, of years by theology, was based on Scripture, and was
+held by the universal Church until our own century.
+
+The main feature of the salt region of Usdum is a low range of
+hills near the southwest corner of the Dead Sea, extending in a
+southeasterly direction for about five miles, and made up mainly
+of salt rock.  This rock is soft and friable, and, under the
+influence of the heavy winter rains, it has been, without doubt,
+from a period long before human history, as it is now, cut ever
+into new shapes, and especially into pillars or columns, which
+sometimes bear a resemblance to the human form.
+
+An eminent clergyman who visited this spot recently speaks of the
+appearance of this salt range as follows:
+
+"Fretted by fitful showers and storms, its ridge is exceedingly
+uneven, its sides carved out and constantly changing;...and
+each traveller might have a new pillar of salt to wonder over at
+intervals of a few years."[428]
+
+[428] As to the substance of the "pillars" or "statues" or
+"needles" of salt at Usdum, many travellers speak of it as "marl
+and salt."  Irby and Mangles, in their Travels in Egypt, Nubia,
+Syria, and the Holy Land, chap. vii, call it "salt and hardened
+sand."  The citation as to frequent carving out of new "pillars"
+is from the Travels in Palestine of the Rev. H. F. Osborn, D. D.;
+see also Palmer, Desert of the Exodus, vol.ii, pp. 478, 479.  For
+engravings of the salt pillar at different times, compare that
+given by Lynch in 1848, when it appeared as a column forty feet
+high, with that given by Palmer as the frontpiece to his Desert
+of the Exodus, Cambridge, England, 1871, when it was small and
+"does really bear a curious resemblance to an Arab woman with a
+child upon he shoulders", and this again with the picture of the
+salt formation at Usdum given by Canon Tristram, at whose visit
+there was neither "pillar" nor "statue."  See The Land of Israel,
+by H. B. Tristram, D. D., F. R. S., London, 1882, p. 324.  For
+similar pillars of salt washed out from the mud at Catalonia, see
+Lyell.
+
+
+Few things could be more certain than that, in the indolent
+dream-life of the East, myths and legends would grow up to
+account for this as for other strange appearances in all that
+region.  The question which a religious Oriental put to himself
+in ancient times at Usdum was substantially that which his
+descendant to-day puts to himself at Kosseir.  "Why is this
+region thus blasted?"  "Whence these pillars of salt?"  or
+"Whence these blocks of granite?"  "What aroused the vengeance of
+Jehovah or of Allah to work these miracles of desolation?"
+
+And, just as Maxime Du Camp recorded the answer of the modern
+Shemite at Kosseir, so the compilers of the Jewish sacred books
+recorded the answer of the ancient Shemite at the Dead Sea; just
+as Allah at Kosseir blasted the land and transformed the melons
+into boulders which are seen to this day, so Jehovah at Usdum
+blasted the land and transformed Lot's wife into a pillar of
+salt, which is seen to this day.
+
+No more difficulty was encountered in the formation of the Lot
+legend, to account for that rock resembling the human form, than
+in the formation of the Niobe legend, which accounted for a
+supposed resemblance in the rock at Sipylos:  it grew up just as
+we have seen thousands of similar myths and legends grow up about
+striking natural appearances in every early home of the human
+race.  Being thus consonant with the universal view regarding
+the relation of physical geography to the divine government, it
+became a treasure of the Jewish nation and of the Christian
+Church--a treasure not only to be guarded against all hostile
+intrusion, but to be increased, as we shall see, by the
+myth-making powers of Jews, Christians, and Mohammedans for
+thousands of years.  The spot where the myth originated was
+carefully kept in mind; indeed, it could not escape, for in that
+place alone were constantly seen the phenomena which gave rise to
+it.  We have a steady chain of testimony through the ages, all
+pointing to the salt pillar as the irrefragable evidence of
+divine judgment.  That great theological test of truth, the
+dictum of St. Vincent of Lerins, would certainly prove that the
+pillar was Lot's wife, for it was believed so to be by Jews,
+Christians, and Mohammedans from the earliest period down to a
+time almost within present memory-- "always, everywhere, and by
+all."  It would stand perfectly the ancient test insisted upon by
+Cardinal Newman," Securus judicat orbis terrarum."
+
+For, ever since the earliest days of Christianity, the identity
+of the salt pillar with Lot's wife has been universally held and
+supported by passages in Genesis, in St. Luke's Gospel, and in
+the Second Epistle of St. Peter--coupled with a passage in the
+book of the Wisdom of Solomon, which to this day, by a majority
+in the Christian Church, is believed to be inspired, and from
+which are specially cited the words, "A standing pillar of salt
+is a monument of an unbelieving soul."[429]
+
+[429] For the usual biblical citations, see Genesis xix, 26; St.
+Luke xvii, 32; II Peter ii, 6.  For the citation from Wisdom, see
+chap. x, v. 7.  For the account of the transformation of Lot's
+wife put into its proper relations with the Jehovistic and
+Elohistic documents, see Lenormant's La Genese, Paris, 1883, pp.
+53, 199, and 317, 318.
+
+
+Never was chain of belief more continuous.  In the first century
+of the Christian era Josephus refers to the miracle, and declares
+regarding the statue, "I have seen it, and it remains at this
+day"; and Clement, Bishop of Rome, one of the most revered
+fathers of the Church, noted for the moderation of his
+statements, expresses a similar certainty, declaring the
+miraculous statue to be still standing.
+
+In the second century that great father of the Church, bishop and
+martyr, Irenaeus, not only vouched for it, but gave his approval
+to the belief that the soul of Lot's wife still lingered in the
+statue, giving it a sort of organic life:  thus virtually began
+in the Church that amazing development of the legend which we
+shall see taking various forms through the Middle Ages--the story
+that the salt statue exercised certain physical functions which
+in these more delicate days can not be alluded to save under
+cover of a dead language.
+
+This addition to the legend, which in these signs of life, as in
+other things, is developed almost exactly on the same lines with
+the legend of the Niobe statue in the rock of Mount Sipylos and
+with the legends of human beings transformed into boulders in
+various mythologies, was for centuries regarded as an additional
+confirmation of revealed truth.
+
+In the third century the myth burst into still richer bloom in a
+poem long ascribed to Tertullian.  In this poem more miraculous
+characteristics of the statue are revealed.  It could not be
+washed away by rains; it could not be overthrown by winds; any
+wound made upon it was miraculously healed; and the earlier
+statements as to its physical functions were amplified in
+sonorous Latin verse.
+
+With this appeared a new legend regarding the Dead Sea; it
+became universally believed, and we find it repeated throughout
+the whole medieval period, that the bitumen could only he
+dissolved by such fluids as in the processes of animated nature
+came from the statue.
+
+The legend thus amplified we shall find dwelt upon by pious
+travellers and monkish chroniclers for hundreds of years:  so it
+came to he more and more treasured by the universal Church, and
+held more and more firmly--"always, everywhere, and by all."
+
+In the two following centuries we have an overwhelming mass of
+additional authority for the belief that the very statue of salt
+into which Lot's wife was transformed was still existing.  In
+the fourth, the continuance of the statue was vouched for by St.
+Silvia, who visited the place:  though she could not see it, she
+was told by the Bishop of Segor that it had been there some time
+before, and she concluded that it had been temporarily covered by
+the sea.  In both the fourth and fifth centuries such great
+doctors in the Church as St. Jerome, St. John Chrysostom, and
+St. Cyril of Jerusalem agreed in this belief and statement; hence
+it was, doubtless, that the Hebrew word which is translated in
+the authorized English version "pillar," was translated in the
+Vulgate, which the majority of Christians believe virtually
+inspired, by the word "statue"; we shall find this fact insisted
+upon by theologians arguing in behalf of the statue, as a result
+and monument of the miracle, for over fourteen hundred years
+afterward.[430]
+
+[430] See Josephus, Antiquities, book i, chap. xi; Epist. I;
+Cyril Hieros, Catech., xix; Chrysostom, Hom. XVIII, XLIV, in
+Genes.; Irenaeus, lib. iv, c. xxxi, of his Heresies, edition
+Oxon., 1702.  For St. Silvia, see S. Silviae Aquitanae
+Peregrinatio ad Loca Sancta, Romae, 1887, p. 55; also edition of
+1885, p. 25.  For recent translation, see Pilgrimage of St.
+Silvia, p. 28, in publications of Palestine Text Society for
+1891.  For legends of signs of continued life in boulders and
+stones into which human beings have been transformed for sin, see
+Karl Bartsch, Sage, etc., vol. ii, pp. 420 et seq.
+
+
+About the middle of the sixth century Antoninus Martyr visited
+the Dead Sea region and described it, but curiously reversed a
+simple truth in these words:  "Nor do sticks or straws float
+there, nor can a man swim, but whatever is cast into it sinks
+to the bottom."  As to the statue of Lot's wife, he threw doubt
+upon its miraculous renewal, but testified that it was still
+standing.
+
+In the seventh century the Targum of Jerusalem not only testified
+that the salt pillar at Usdum was once Lot's wife, but declared
+that she must retain that form until the general resurrection.
+In the seventh century too, Bishop Arculf travelled to the Dead
+Sea, and his work was added to the treasures of the Church.  He
+greatly develops the legend, and especially that part of it given
+by Josephus.  The bitumen that floats upon the sea "resembles
+gold and the form of a bull or camel"; "birds can not live near
+it"; and "the very beautiful apples" which grow there, when
+plucked, "burn and are reduced to ashes, and smoke as if they
+were still burning."
+
+In the eighth century the Venerable Bede takes these statements
+of Arculf and his predecessors, binds them together in his work
+on The Holy Places, and gives the whole mass of myths and
+legends an enormous impulse.[431]
+
+[431] For Antoninus Martyr, see Tobler's edition of his work in
+the Itinera, vol. i, p. 100, Geneva, 1877.  For the Targum of
+Jerusalem, see citation in Quaresmius, Terrae Sanctae
+Elucidation, Peregrinatio vi, cap. xiv; new Venice edition.  For
+Arculf, see Tobler.  For Bede, see his De Locis Sanctis in
+Tobler's Itinera, vol. i, p. 228.  For an admirable statement of
+the mediaeval theological view of scientific research, see
+Eicken, Geschichte der mittelalterlichen Weltanschauung,
+Stuttgart, 1887, chap. vi.
+
+
+In the tenth century new force is given to it by the pious Moslem
+Mukadassi.  Speaking of the town of Segor, near the salt region,
+he says that the proper translation of its name is "Hell"; and
+of the lake he says, "Its waters are hot, even as though the
+place stood over hell-fire."
+
+In the crusading period, immediately following, all the legends
+burst forth more brilliantly than ever.
+
+The first of these new travellers who makes careful statements is
+Fulk of Chartres, who in 1100 accompanied King Baldwin to the
+Dead Sea and saw many wonders; but, though he visited the salt
+region at Usdum, he makes no mention of the salt pillar:
+evidently he had fallen on evil times; the older statues had
+probably been washed away, and no new one had happened to be
+washed out of the rocks just at that period.
+
+But his misfortune was more than made up by the triumphant
+experience of a far more famous traveller, half a century
+later--Rabbi Benjamin of Tudela.
+
+Rabbi Benjamin finds new evidences of miracle in the Dead Sea,
+and develops to a still higher point the legend of the salt
+statue of Lot's wife, enriching the world with the statement that
+it was steadily and miraculously rene wed; that, though the
+cattle of the region licked its surface, it never grew smaller.
+Again a thrill of joy went through the monasteries and pulpits of
+Christendom at this increasing "evidence of the truth of
+Scripture."
+
+Toward the end of the thirteenth century there appeared in
+Palestine a traveller superior to most before or since--Count
+Burchard, monk of Mount Sion.  He had the advantage of knowing
+something of Arabic, and his writings show him to have been
+observant and thoughtful.  No statue of Lot's wife appears to
+have been washed clean of the salt rock at his visit, but he
+takes it for granted that the Dead Sea is "the mouth of hell,"
+and that the vapour rising from it is the smoke from Satan's
+furnaces.
+
+These ideas seem to have become part of the common stock, for
+Ernoul, who travelled to the Dead Sea during the same century,
+always speaks of it as the "Sea of Devils."
+
+Near the beginning of the fourteenth century appeared the book of
+far wider influence which bears the name of Sir John Mandeville,
+and in the various editions of it myths and legends of the Dead
+Sea and of the pillar of salt burst forth into wonderful
+luxuriance.
+
+This book tells us that masses of fiery matter are every day
+thrown up from the water "as large as a horse"; that, though it
+contains no living thing, it has been shown that men thrown into
+it can not die; and, finally, as if to prove the worthlessness
+of devout testimony to the miraculous, he says:  "And whoever
+throws a piece of iron therein, it floats; and whoever throws a
+feather therein, it sinks to the bottom; and, because that is
+contrary to nature, I was not willing to believe it until I saw
+it."
+
+The book, of course, mentions Lot's wife, and says that the
+pillar of salt "stands there to-day," and "has a right salty
+taste."
+
+Injustice has perhaps been done to the compilers of this famous
+work in holding them liars of the first magnitude.  They simply
+abhorred scepticism, and thought it meritorious to believe all
+pious legends.  The ideal Mandeville was a man of overmastering
+faith, and resembled Tertullian in believing some things "because
+they are impossible"; he was doubtless entirely conscientious;
+the solemn ending of the book shows that he listened, observed,
+and wrote under the deepest conviction, and those who re-edited
+his book were probably just as honest in adding the later stories
+of pious travellers.
+
+The Travels of Sir John Mandeville, thus appealing to the
+popular heart, were most widely read in the monasteries and
+repeated among the people.  Innumerable copies were made in
+manuscript, and finally in print, and so the old myths received a
+new life.[432]
+
+[432] For Fulk of Chartres and crusading travellers generally,
+see Bongars' Gesta Dei and the French Recueil; also Histories of
+the Crusades by Wilken, Sybel, Kugler, and others; see also
+Robinson, Biblical Researches, vol. ii, p. 109, and Tobler,
+Bibliographia Geographica Palestinae, 1867, p. 12.  For Benjamin
+of Tudela's statement, see Wright's Collection of Travels in
+Palestine, p. 84, and Asher's edition of Benjamin of Tudela's
+travels, vol. i, pp. 71, 72; also Charton, vol. i, p. 180.  For
+Borchard or Burchard, see full text in the Reyssbuch dess
+Heyligen Landes; also Grynaeus, Nov. Orbis, Basil, 1532, fol.
+298, 329.  For Ernoul, see his L'Estat de la Cite de Hierusalem,
+in Michelant and Reynaud, Itineraires Francaises au 12me et 13me
+Siecles.  For Petrus Diaconus, see his book De Locis Sanctis,
+edited by Gamurrini, Rome, 1887, pp. 126, 127.  For Mandeville I
+have compared several editions, especially those in the
+Reyssbuch, in Canisius, and in Wright, with Halliwell's reprint
+and with the rare Strasburg edition of 1484 in the Cornell
+University Library: the whole statement regarding the experiment
+with iron and feathers is given differently in different copies.
+The statement that he saw the feathers sink and the iron swim is
+made in the Reyssbuch edition, Frankfort, 1584.  The story, like
+the saints' legends, evidently grew as time went on, but is none
+the less interesting as showing the general credulity.  Since
+writing the above, I have been glad to find my view of
+Mandeville's honesty confirmed by the Rev. Dr. Robinson, and by
+Mr. Gage in his edition of Ritter's Palestine.
+
+
+In the fifteenth century wonders increased.  In 1418 we have the
+Lord of Caumont, who makes a pilgrimage and gives us a statement
+which is the result of the theological reasoning of centuries,
+and especially interesting as a typical example of the
+theological method in contrast with the scientific.  He could
+not understand how the blessed waters of the Jordan could be
+allowed to mingle with the accursed waters of the Dead Sea.  In
+spite, then, of the eye of sense, he beheld the water with the
+eye of faith, and calmly announced that the Jordan water passes
+through the sea, but that the two masses of water are not
+mingled.  As to the salt statue of Lot's wife, he declares it to
+be still existing; and, copying a table of indulgences granted by
+the Church to pious pilgrims, he puts down the visit to the salt
+statue as giving an indulgence of seven years.
+
+Toward the end of the century we have another traveller yet more
+influential:  Bernard of Breydenbach, Dean of Mainz.  His book of
+travels was published in 1486, at the famous press of Schoeffer,
+and in various translations it was spread through Europe,
+exercising an influence wide and deep.  His first important
+notice of the Dead Sea is as follows:  "In this, Tirus the
+serpent is found, and from him the Tiriac medicine is made.  He
+is blind, and so full of venom that there is no remedy for his
+bite except cutting off the bitten part.  He can only be taken by
+striking him and making him angry; then his venom flies into his
+head and tail."  Breydenbach calls the Dead Sea "the chimney of
+hell," and repeats the old story as to the miraculous solvent for
+its bitumen.  He, too, makes the statement that the holy water of
+the Jordan does not mingle with the accursed water of the
+infernal sea, but increases the miracle which Caumont had
+announced by saying that, although the waters appear to come
+together, the Jordan is really absorbed in the earth before it
+reaches the sea.
+
+As to Lot's wife, various travellers at that time had various
+fortunes.  Some, like Caumont and Breydenbach, took her
+continued existence for granted; some, like Count John of Solms,
+saw her and were greatly edified; some, like Hans Werli, tried to
+find her and could not, but, like St. Silvia, a thousand years
+before, were none the less edified by the idea that, for some
+inscrutable purpose, the sea had been allowed to hide her from
+them; some found her larger than they expected, even forty feet
+high, as was the salt pillar which happened to be standing at the
+visit of Commander Lynch in 1848; but this only added a new proof
+to the miracle, for the text was remembered, "There were giants
+in those days."
+
+Out of the mass of works of pilgrims during the fifteenth century
+I select just one more as typical of the theological view then
+dominant, and this is the noted book of Felix Fabri, a preaching
+friar of Ulm.  I select him, because even so eminent an
+authority in our own time as Dr. Edward Robinson declares him to
+have been the most thorough, thoughtful, and enlightened
+traveller of that century.
+
+Fabri is greatly impressed by the wonders of the Dead Sea, and
+typical of his honesty influenced by faith is his account of the
+Dead Sea fruit; he describes it with almost perfect accuracy,
+but adds the statement that when mature it is "filled with ashes
+and cinders."
+
+As to the salt statue, he says:  "We saw the place between the
+sea and Mount Segor, but could not see the statue itself because
+we were too far distant to see anything of human size; but we saw
+it with firm faith, because we believed Scripture, which speaks
+of it; and we were filled with wonder."
+
+To sustain absolute faith in the statue he reminds his reader's
+that "God is able even of these stones to raise up seed to
+Abraham," and goes into a long argument, discussing such
+transformations as those of King Atlas and Pygmalion's statue,
+with a multitude of others, winding up with the case, given in
+the miracles of St. Jerome, of a heretic who was changed into a
+log of wood, which was then burned.
+
+He gives a statement of the Hebrews that Lot's wife received her
+peculiar punishment because she had refused to add salt to the
+food of the angels when they visited her, and he preaches a short
+sermon in which he says that, as salt is the condiment of food,
+so the salt statue of Lot's wife "gives us a condiment of
+wisdom."[433]
+
+[433] For Bernard of Breydenbach, I have used the Latin edition,
+Mentz, 1486, in the White collection, Cornell University, also
+the German edition in the Reyssbuch.  For John of Solms, Werli,
+and the like, see the Reyssbuch, which gives a full text of their
+travels.  For Fabri (Schmid), see, for his value, Robinson; also
+Tobler, Bibliographia, pp. 53 et seq.; and for texts, see
+Reyssbuch, pp. 122b et seq., but best the Fratris Fel. Fabri
+Evagatorium, ed. Hassler, Stuttgart, 1843, vol. iii, pp. 172 et
+seq.  His book now has been translated into English by the
+Palestine Pilgrims' Text Society.
+
+
+There were, indeed, many discrepancies in the testimony of
+travellers regarding the salt pillar--so many, in fact, that at a
+later period the learned Dom Calmet acknowledged that they shook
+his belief in the whole matter; but, during this earlier time,
+under the complete sway of the theological spirit, these
+difficulties only gave new and more glorious opportunities for
+faith.
+
+For, if a considerable interval occurred between the washing of
+one salt pillar out of existence and the washing of another into
+existence, the idea arose that the statue, by virtue of the soul
+which still remained in it, had departed on some mysterious
+excursion.  Did it happen that one statue was washed out one
+year in one place and another statue another year in another
+place, this difficulty was surmounted by believing that Lot's
+wife still walked about.  Did it happen that a salt column was
+undermined by the rains and fell, this was believed to be but
+another sign of life.  Did a pillar happen to be covered in part
+by the sea, this was enough to arouse the belief that the statue
+from time to time descended into the Dead Sea depths--possibly to
+satisfy that old fatal curiosity regarding her former neighbours.
+
+Did some smaller block of salt happen to be washed out near the
+statue, it was believed that a household dog, also transformed
+into salt, had followed her back from beneath the deep.  Did more
+statues than one appear at one time, that simply made the mystery
+more impressive.
+
+In facts now so easy of scientific explanation the theologians
+found wonderful matter for argument.
+
+One great question among them was whether the soul of Lot's wife
+did really remain in the statue.  On one side it was insisted
+that, as Holy Scripture declares that Lot's wife was changed into
+a pillar of salt, and as she was necessarily made up of a soul
+and a body, the soul must have become part of the statue.  This
+argument was clinched by citing that passage in the Book of
+Wisdom in which the salt pillar is declared to be still standing
+as "the monument of an unbelieving SOUL."  On the other hand, it
+was insisted that the soul of the woman must have been
+incorporeal and immortal, and hence could not have been changed
+into a substance corporeal and mortal.  Naturally, to this it
+would be answered that the salt pillar was no more corporeal than
+the ordinary materials of the human body, and that it had been
+made miraculously immortal, and "with God all things are
+possible."  Thus were opened long vistas of theological
+discussion.[434]
+
+[434] For a brief statement of the main arguments for and against
+the idea that the soul of Lot's wife remained within the salt
+statue, see Cornelius a Lapide, Commentarius in Pentateuchum,
+Antwerp, 1697, chap. xix.
+
+
+As we enter the sixteenth century the Dead Sea myths, and
+especially the legends of Lot's wife, are still growing.  In
+1507 Father Anselm of the Minorites declares that the sea
+sometimes covers the feet of the statue, sometimes the legs,
+sometimes the whole body.
+
+In 1555, Gabriel Giraudet, priest at Puy, journeyed through
+Palestine.  His faith was robust, and his attitude toward the
+myths of the Dead Sea is seen by his declaration that its waters
+are so foul that one can smell them at a distance of three
+leagues; that straw, hay, or feathers thrown into them will
+sink, but that iron and other metals will float; that criminals
+have been kept in them three or four days and could not drown.
+As to Lot's wife, he says that he found her "lying there, her
+back toward heaven, converted into salt stone; for I touched her,
+scratched her, and put a piece of her into my mouth, and she
+tasted salt."
+
+At the centre of all these legends we see, then, the idea that,
+though there were no living beasts in the Dead Sea, the people of
+the overwhelmed cities were still living beneath its waters,
+probably in hell; that there was life in the salt statue; and
+that it was still curious regarding its old neighbours.
+
+Hence such travellers in the latter years of the century as Count
+Albert of Lowenstein and Prince Nicolas Radziwill are not at all
+weakened in faith by failing to find the statue.  What the former
+is capable of believing is seen by his statement that in a
+certain cemetery at Cairo during one night in the year the dead
+thrust forth their feet, hands, limbs, and even rise wholly from
+their graves.
+
+There seemed, then, no limit to these pious beliefs.  The idea
+that there is merit in credulity, with the love of myth-making
+and miracle-mongering, constantly made them larger.  Nor did the
+Protestant Reformation diminish them at first; it rather
+strengthened them and fixed them more firmly in the popular mind.
+They seemed destined to last forever.  How they were thus
+strengthened at first, under Protestantism, and how they were
+finally dissolved away in the atmosphere of scientific thought,
+will now be shown.[435]
+
+[435] For Father Anselm, see his Descriptio Terrae Sanctae, in H.
+Canisius, Thesaurus Monument Eccles., Basnage edition, Amsterdam,
+1725, vol. iv, p. 788.  For Giraudet, see his Discours du Voyage
+d'Outre-Mer, Paris, 1585, p. 56a.  For Radziwill and Lowenstein,
+see the Reyssbuch, especially p. 198a.
+
+
+
+
+III.  POST-REFORMATION CULMINATION OF THE DEAD SEA
+LEGENDS.--BEGINNINGS OF A HEALTHFUL SCEPTICISM.
+
+
+The first effect of the Protestant Reformation was to popularize
+the older Dead Sea legends, and to make the public mind still
+more receptive for the newer ones.
+
+Luther's great pictorial Bible, so powerful in fixing the ideas
+of the German people, showed by very striking engravings all
+three of these earlier myths--the destruction of the cities by
+fire from heaven, the transformation of Lot's wife, and the vile
+origin of the hated Moabites and Ammonites; and we find the salt
+statue, especially, in this and other pictorial Bibles, during
+generation after generation.
+
+Catholic peoples also held their own in this display of faith.
+About 1517 Francois Regnault published at Paris a compilation on
+Palestine enriched with woodcuts:  in this the old Dead Sea
+legend of the "serpent Tyrus" reappears embellished, and with it
+various other new versions of old stories.  Five years later
+Bartholomew de Salignac travels in the Holy Land, vouches for the
+continued existence of the Lot's wife statue, and gives new life
+to an old marvel by insisting that the sacred waters of the
+Jordan are not really poured into the infernal basin of the Dead
+Sea, but that they are miraculously absorbed by the earth.
+
+These ideas were not confined to the people at large; we trace
+them among scholars.
+
+In 1581, Bunting, a North German professor and theologian,
+published his Itinerary of Holy Scripture, and in this the Dead
+Sea and Lot legends continue to increase.  He tells us that the
+water of the sea "changes three times every day"; that it "spits
+forth fire" that it throws up "on high" great foul masses which
+"burn like pitch" and "swim about like huge oxen"; that the
+statue of Lot's wife is still there, and that it shines like
+salt.
+
+In 1590, Christian Adrichom, a Dutch theologian, published his
+famous work on sacred geography.  He does not insist upon the
+Dead Sea legends generally, but declares that the statue of Lot's
+wife is still in existence, and on his map he gives a picture of
+her standing at Usdum.
+
+Nor was it altogether safe to dissent from such beliefs.  Just
+as, under the papal sway, men of science were severely punished
+for wrong views of the physical geography of the earth in
+general, so, when Calvin decided to burn Servetus, he included in
+his indictment for heresy a charge that Servetus, in his edition
+of Ptolemy, had made unorthodox statements regarding the physical
+geography of Palestine.[436]
+
+[436] For biblical engravings showing Lot's wife transformed into
+a salt statue, etc., see Luther's Bible, 1534, p. xi; also the
+pictorial Electoral Bible; also Merian's Icones Biblicae of 1625;
+also the frontpiece of the Luther Bible published at Nuremberg in
+1708; also Scheuchzer's Kupfer-Bibel, Augsburg, 1731, Tab. lxxx.
+For the account of the Dead Sea serpent "Tyrus," etc., see La
+Grande Voyage de Hierusalem, Paris (1517?), p. xxi.  For De
+Salignac's assertion regarding the salt pillar and suggestion
+regarding the absorption of the Jordan before reaching the Dead
+Sea, see his Itinerarium Sacrae Scripturae, Magdeburg, 1593, SS
+34 and 35.  For Bunting, see his Itinerarium Sacrae Scripturae,
+Magdeburg, 1589, pp. 78, 79.  For Andrichom's picture of the salt
+statue, see map, p. 38, and text, p. 205, of his Theatrum Terrae
+Sanctae, 1613.  For Calvin and Servetus, see Willis, Servetus and
+Calvin, pp. 96, 307; also the Servetus edition of Ptolemy.
+
+
+Protestants and Catholics vied with each other in the making of
+new myths.  Thus, in his Most Devout Journey, published in
+1608, Jean Zvallart, Mayor of Ath in Hainault, confesses himself
+troubled by conflicting stories about the salt statue, but
+declares himself sound in the faith that "some vestige of it
+still remains," and makes up for his bit of freethinking by
+adding a new mythical horror to the region--"crocodiles," which,
+with the serpents and the "foul odour of the sea," prevented his
+visit to the salt mountains.
+
+In 1615 Father Jean Boucher publishes the first of many editions
+of his Sacred Bouquet of the Holy Land.  He depicts the horrors
+of the Dead Sea in a number of striking antitheses, and among
+these is the statement that it is made of mud rather than of
+water, that it soils whatever is put into it, and so corrupts the
+land about it that not a blade of grass grows in all that region.
+
+In the same spirit, thirteen years later, the Protestant
+Christopher Heidmann publishes his Palaestina, in which he
+speaks of a fluid resembling blood oozing from the rocks about
+the Dead Sea, and cites authorities to prove that the statue of
+Lot's wife still exists and gives signs of life.
+
+Yet, as we near the end of the sixteenth century, some evidences
+of a healthful and fruitful scepticism begin to appear.
+
+The old stream of travellers, commentators, and preachers,
+accepting tradition and repeating what they have been told, flows
+on; but here and there we are refreshed by the sight of a man
+who really begins to think and look for himself.
+
+First among these is the French naturalist Pierre Belon.  As
+regards the ordinary wonders, he had the simple faith of his
+time.  Among a multitude of similar things, he believed that he
+saw the stones on which the disciples were sleeping during the
+prayer of Christ; the stone on which the Lord sat when he raised
+Lazarus from the dead; the Lord's footprints on the stone from
+which he ascended into heaven; and, most curious of all, "the
+stone which the builders rejected."  Yet he makes some advance on
+his predecessors, since he shows in one passage that he had
+thought out the process by which the simpler myths of Palestine
+were made.  For, between Bethlehem and Jerusalem, he sees a
+field covered with small pebbles, and of these he says:  "The
+common people tell you that a man was once sowing peas there,
+when Our Lady passed that way and asked him what he was doing;
+the man answered "I am sowing pebbles" and straightway all the
+peas were changed into these little stones."
+
+His ascribing belief in this explanatory transformation myth to
+the "common people" marks the faint dawn of a new epoch.
+
+Typical also of this new class is the German botanist Leonhard
+Rauwolf.  He travels through Palestine in 1575, and, though
+devout and at times credulous, notes comparatively few of the old
+wonders, while he makes thoughtful and careful mention of things
+in nature that he really saw; he declines to use the eyes of the
+monks, and steadily uses his own to good purpose.
+
+As we go on in the seventeenth century, this current of new
+thought is yet more evident; a habit of observing more carefully
+and of comparing observations had set in; the great voyages of
+discovery by Columbus, Vasco da Gama, Magellan, and others were
+producing their effect; and this effect was increased by the
+inductive philosophy of Bacon, the reasonings of Descartes, and
+the suggestions of Montaigne.
+
+So evident was this current that, as far back as the early days
+of the century, a great theologian, Quaresmio of Lodi, had made
+up his mind to stop it forever.  In 1616, therefore, he began
+his ponderous work entitled The Historical, Theological, and
+Moral Explanation of the Holy Land.  He laboured upon it for nine
+years, gave nine years more to perfecting it, and then put it
+into the hands of the great publishing house of Plantin at
+Antwerp:  they were four years in printing and correcting it, and
+when it at last appeared it seemed certain to establish the
+theological view of the Holy Land for all time.  While taking
+abundant care of other myths which he believed sanctified by Holy
+Scripture, Quaresmio devoted himself at great length to the Dead
+Sea, but above all to the salt statue; and he divides his
+chapter on it into three parts, each headed by a question:
+First, "HOW was Lot's wife changed into a statue of salt?"
+secondly, "WHERE was she thus transformed?" and, thirdly, "DOES
+THAT STATUE STILL EXIST?"  Through each of these divisions he
+fights to the end all who are inclined to swerve in the slightest
+degree from the orthodox opinion.  He utterly refuses to
+compromise with any modern theorists.  To all such he says, "The
+narration of Moses is historical and is to be received in its
+natural sense, and no right-thinking man will deny this."  To
+those who favoured the figurative interpretation he says, "With
+such reasonings any passage of Scripture can be denied."
+
+As to the spot where the miracle occurred, he discusses four
+places, but settles upon the point where the picture of the
+statue is given in Adrichom's map.  As to the continued
+existence of the statue, he plays with the opposing view as a cat
+fondles a mouse; and then shows that the most revered ancient
+authorities, venerable men still living, and the Bedouins, all
+agree that it is still in being.  Throughout the whole chapter
+his thoroughness in scriptural knowledge and his profundity in
+logic are only excelled by his scorn for those theologians who
+were willing to yield anything to rationalism.
+
+So powerful was this argument that it seemed to carry everything
+before it, not merely throughout the Roman obedience, but among
+the most eminent theologians of Protestantism.
+
+As regards the Roman Church, we may take as a type the missionary
+priest Eugene Roger, who, shortly after the appearance of
+Quaresmio's book, published his own travels in Palestine.  He
+was an observant man, and his work counts among those of real
+value; but the spirit of Quaresmio had taken possession of him
+fully. His work is prefaced with a map showing the points of most
+importance in scriptural history, and among these he identifies
+the place where Samson slew the thousand Philistines with the
+jawbone of an ass, and where he hid the gates of Gaza; the
+cavern which Adam and Eve inhabited after their expulsion from
+paradise; the spot where Balaam's ass spoke; the tree on which
+Absalom was hanged; the place where Jacob wrestled with the
+angel; the steep place where the swine possessed of devils
+plunged into the sea; the spot where the prophet Elijah was taken
+up in a chariot of fire; and, of course, the position of the salt
+statue which was once Lot's wife.  He not only indicates places
+on land, but places in the sea; thus he shows where Jonah was
+swallowed by the whale, and "where St. Peter caught one hundred
+and fifty-three fishes."
+
+As to the Dead Sea miracles generally, he does not dwell on them
+at great length; he evidently felt that Quaresmio had exhausted
+the subject; but he shows largely the fruits of Quaresmio's
+teaching in other matters.
+
+So, too, we find the thoughts and words of Quaresmio echoing afar
+through the German universities, in public disquisitions,
+dissertations, and sermons.  The great Bible commentators, both
+Catholic and Protestant, generally agreed in accepting them.
+
+But, strong as this theological theory was, we find that, as time
+went on, it required to be braced somewhat, and in 1692 Wedelius,
+Professor of Medicine at Jena, chose as the subject of his
+inaugural address The Physiology of the Destruction of Sodom and
+of the Statue of Salt.
+
+It is a masterly example of "sanctified science."  At great
+length he dwells on the characteristics of sulphur, salt, and
+thunderbolts; mixes up scriptural texts, theology, and chemistry
+after a most bewildering fashion; and finally comes to the
+conclusion that a thunderbolt, flung by the Almighty, calcined
+the body of Lot's wife, and at the same time vitrified its
+particles into a glassy mass looking like salt.[437]
+
+[437] For Zvallart, see his Tres-devot Voyage de Ierusalem,
+Antwerp, 1608, book iv, chapter viii.  His journey was made
+twenty years before.  For Father Boucher, see his Bouquet de la
+Terre Saincte, Paris, 1622, pp. 447, 448.  For Heidmann, see his
+Palaestina, 1689, pp. 58-62.  For Belon's credulity in matters
+referred to, see his Observations de Plusieurs Singularitez,
+etc., Paris, 1553, pp. 141-144; and for the legend of the peas
+changed into pebbles, p. 145; see also Lartet in De Luynes, vol.
+iii, p. 11.  For Rauwolf, see the Reyssbuch, and Tobler,
+Bibliographia.  For a good acoount of the influence of Montaigne
+in developing French scepticism, see Prevost-Paradol's study on
+Montaigne prefixed to the Le Clerc edition of the Essays, Paris,
+1865; also the well-known passages in Lecky's Rationalism in
+Europe.  For Quaresmio I have consulted both the Plantin edition
+of 1639 and the superb new Venice edition of 1880-'82.  The
+latter, though less prized by book fanciers, is the more
+valuable, since it contains some very interesting recent notes.
+For the above discussion, see Plantin edition, vol. ii, pp. 758
+et seq., and Venice edition, vol. ii, pp. 572-574.  As to the
+effect of Quaresmio on the Protestant Church, see Wedelius, De
+Statua Salis, Jenae, 1692, pp.6, 7, and elswehere.  For Eugene
+Roger, see his La Terre Saincte, Paris, 1664; the map, showing
+various sites referred to, is in the preface; and for basilisks,
+salamanders, etc., see pp. 89-92, 139, 218, and elsewhere.
+
+
+Not only were these views demonstrated, so far as
+theologico-scientific reasoning could demonstrate anything, but
+it was clearly shown, by a continuous chain of testimony from the
+earliest ages, that the salt statue at Usdum had been recognised
+as the body of Lot's wife by Jews, Mohammedans, and the universal
+Christian Church, "always, everywhere, and by all."
+
+Under the influence of teachings like these--and of the winter
+rains--new wonders began to appear at the salt pillar.  In 1661
+the Franciscan monk Zwinner published his travels in Palestine,
+and gave not only most of the old myths regarding the salt
+statue, but a new one, in some respects more striking than any of
+the old--for he had heard that a dog, also transformed into salt,
+was standing by the side of Lot's wife.
+
+Even the more solid Benedictine scholars were carried away, and
+we find in the Sacred History by Prof. Mezger, of the order of
+St. Benedict, published in 1700, a renewal of the declaration
+that the salt statue must be a "PERPETUAL memorial."
+
+But it was soon evident that the scientific current was still
+working beneath this ponderous mass of theological authority.  A
+typical evidence of this we find in 1666 in the travels of
+Doubdan, a canon of St. Denis.  As to the Dead Sea, he says
+that he saw no smoke, no clouds, and no "black, sticky water"; as
+to the statue of Lot's wife, he says, "The moderns do not believe
+so easily that she has lasted so long"; then, as if alarmed at
+his own boldness, he concedes that the sea MAY be black and
+sticky in the middle; and from Lot's wife he escapes under cover
+of some pious generalities.  Four years later another French
+ecclesiastic, Jacques Goujon, referring in his published travels
+to the legends of the salt pillar, says:  "People may believe
+these stories as much as they choose; I did not see it, nor did
+I go there."  So, too, in 1697, Morison, a dignitary of the
+French Church, having travelled in Palestine, confesses that, as
+to the story of the pillar of salt, he has difficulty in
+believing it.
+
+The same current is observed working still more strongly in the
+travels of the Rev. Henry Maundrell, an English chaplain at
+Aleppo, who travelled through Palestine during the same year.
+He pours contempt over the legends of the Dead Sea in general:
+as to the story that birds could not fly over it, he says that he
+saw them flying there; as to the utter absence of life in the
+sea, he saw small shells in it; he saw no traces of any buried
+cities; and as to the stories regarding the statue of Lot's wife
+and the proposal to visit it, he says, "Nor could we give faith
+enough to these reports to induce us to go on such an errand."
+
+The influence of the Baconian philosophy on his mind is very
+clear; for, in expressing his disbelief in the Dead Sea apples,
+with their contents of ashes, he says that he saw none, and he
+cites Lord Bacon in support of scepticism on this and similar
+points.
+
+But the strongest effect of this growing scepticism is seen near
+the end of that century, when the eminent Dutch commentator
+Clericus (Le Clerc) published his commentary on the Pentateuch
+and his Dissertation on the Statue of Salt.
+
+At great length he brings all his shrewdness and learning to bear
+against the whole legend of the actual transformation of Lot's
+wife and the existence of the salt pillar, and ends by saying
+that "the whole story is due to the vanity of some and the
+credulity of more."
+
+In the beginning of the eighteenth century we find new
+tributaries to this rivulet of scientific thought.  In 1701
+Father Felix Beaugrand dismisses the Dead Sea legends and the
+salt statue very curtly and dryly--expressing not his belief in
+it, but a conventional wish to believe.
+
+In 1709 a scholar appeared in another part of Europe and of
+different faith, who did far more than any of his predecessors to
+envelop the Dead Sea legends in an atmosphere of truth--Adrian
+Reland, professor at the University of Utrecht.  His work on
+Palestine is a monument of patient scholarship, having as its
+nucleus a love of truth as truth:  there is no irreverence in
+him, but he quietly brushes away a great mass of myths and
+legends:  as to the statue of Lot's wife, he treats it warily,
+but applies the comparative method to it with killing effect, by
+showing that the story of its miraculous renewal is but one among
+many of its kind.[438]
+
+[438] For Zwinner, see his Blumenbuch des Heyligen Landes,
+Munchen, 1661, p. 454.  For Mezger, see his Sacra Historia,
+Augsburg, 1700, p. 30.  For Doubdan, see his Voyage de la Terre-
+Sainte, Paris, 1670, pp. 338, 339; also Tobler and Gage's Ritter.
+For Goujon, see his Histoire et Voyage de la Terre Saincte,
+Lyons, 1670, p. 230, etc.  For Morison, see his Voyage, book ii,
+pp. 516, 517.  For Maundrell, see in Wright's Collection, pp. 383
+et seq.  For Clericus, see his Dissertation de Salis Statua, in
+his Pentateuch, edition of 1696, pp. 327 et seq.  For Father
+Beaugrand, see his Voyage, Paris, 1701, pp. 137 et seq.  For
+Reland, see his Palaestina, Utrecht, 1714, vol. i, pp. 61-254,
+passim.
+
+
+Yet to superficial observers the old current of myth and marvel
+seemed to flow into the eighteenth century as strong as ever, and
+of this we may take two typical evidences.  The first of these
+is the Pious Pilgrimage of Vincent Briemle.  His journey was made
+about 171O; and his work, brought out under the auspices of a
+high papal functionary some years later, in a heavy quarto, gave
+new life to the stories of the hellish character of the Dead Sea,
+and especially to the miraculous renewal of the salt statue.
+
+In 172O came a still more striking effort to maintain the old
+belief in the north of Europe, for in that year the eminent
+theologian Masius published his great treatise on The Conversion
+of Lot's Wife into a Statue of Salt.
+
+Evidently intending that this work should be the last word on
+this subject in Germany, as Quaresmio had imagined that his work
+would be the last in Italy, he develops his subject after the
+high scholastic and theologic manner.  Calling attention first
+to the divine command in the New Testament, "Remember Lot's
+wife," he argues through a long series of chapters.  In the ninth
+of these he discusses "the impelling cause" of her looking back,
+and introduces us to the question, formerly so often treated by
+theologians, whether the soul of Lot's wife was finally saved.
+Here we are glad to learn that the big, warm heart of Luther
+lifted him above the common herd of theologians, and led him to
+declare that she was "a faithful and saintly woman," and that she
+certainly was not eternally damned.  In justice to the Roman
+Church also it should be said that several of her most eminent
+commentators took a similar view, and insisted that the sin of
+Lot's wife was venial, and therefore, at the worst, could only
+subject her to the fires of purgatory.
+
+The eleventh chapter discusses at length the question HOW she
+was converted into salt, and, mentioning many theological
+opinions, dwells especially upon the view of Rivetus, that a
+thunderbolt, made up apparently of fire, sulphur, and salt,
+wrought her transformation at the same time that it blasted the
+land; and he bases this opinion upon the twenty-ninth chapter of
+Deuteronomy and the one hundred and seventh Psalm.
+
+Later, Masius presents a sacred scientific theory that "saline
+particles entered into her until her whole body was infected";
+and with this he connects another piece of sanctified science, to
+the effect that "stagnant bile" may have rendered the surface of
+her body "entirely shining, bitter, dry, and deformed."
+
+Finally, he comes to the great question whether the salt pillar
+is still in existence.  On this he is full and fair.  On one
+hand he allows that Luther thought that it was involved in the
+general destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, and he cites various
+travellers who had failed to find it; but, on the other hand, he
+gives a long chain of evidence to show that it continued to
+exist:  very wisely he reminds the reader that the positive
+testimony of those who have seen it must outweigh the negative
+testimony of those who have not, and he finally decides that the
+salt statue is still in being.
+
+No doubt a work like this produced a considerable effect in
+Protestant countries; indeed, this effect seems evident as far
+off as England, for, in 172O, we find in Dean Prideaux's Old and
+New Testament connected a map on which the statue of salt is
+carefully indicated.  So, too, in Holland, in the Sacred
+Geography published at Utrecht in 1758 by the theologian
+Bachiene, we find him, while showing many signs of rationalism,
+evidently inclined to the old views as to the existence of the
+salt pillar; but just here comes a curious evidence of the real
+direction of the current of thought through the century, for,
+nine years later, in the German translation of Bachiene's work we
+find copious notes by the translator in a far more rationalistic
+spirit; indeed, we see the dawn of the inevitable day of
+compromise, for we now have, instead of the old argument that the
+divine power by one miraculous act changed Lot's wife into a salt
+pillar, the suggestion that she was caught in a shower of sulphur
+and saltpetre, covered by it, and that the result was a lump,
+which in a general way IS CALLED in our sacred books "a pillar
+of salt."[439]
+
+[439] For Briemle, see his Andachtige Pilgerfahrt, p. 129.  For
+Masius, see his De Uxore Lothi in Statuam Salis Conversa,
+Hafniae, 1720, especially pages 29-31.  For Dean Prideaux, see
+his Old and New Testament connected in the History of the Jews,
+1720,  map at page 7. For Bachiene, see his Historische und
+geographische Beschreibung von Palaestina, Leipzig, 1766, vol. i,
+pp. 118-120, and notes.
+
+
+But, from the middle of the eighteenth century, the new current
+sets through Christendom with ever-increasing strength.  Very
+interesting is it to compare the great scriptural commentaries of
+the middle of this century with those published a century
+earlier.
+
+Of the earlier ones we may take Matthew Poole's Synopsis as a
+type:  as authorized by royal decree in 1667 it contains very
+substantial arguments for the pious belief in the statue.  Of
+the later ones we may take the edition of the noted commentary of
+the Jesuit Tirinus seventy years later:  while he feels bound to
+present the authorities, he evidently endeavours to get rid of
+the subject as speedily as possible under cover of
+conventionalities; of the spirit of Quaresmio he shows no
+trace.[440]
+
+[440] For Poole (Polus) see his Synopsis, 1669, p. 179; and for
+Titinus, the Lyons edition of his Commentary, 1736, p. 10.
+
+
+About 1760 came a striking evidence of the strength of this new
+current.  The Abate Mariti then published his book upon the Holy
+Land; and of this book, by an Italian ecclesiastic, the most
+eminent of German bibliographers in this field says that it first
+broke a path for critical study of the Holy Land.  Mariti is
+entirely sceptical as to the sinking of the valley of Siddim and
+the overwhelming of the cities.  He speaks kindly of a Capuchin
+Father who saw everywhere at the Dead Sea traces of the divine
+malediction, while he himself could not see them, and says, "It
+is because a Capuchin carries everywhere the five senses of
+faith, while I only carry those of nature."  He speaks of "the
+lies of Josephus," and makes merry over "the rude and shapeless
+block" which the guide assured him was the statue of Lot's wife,
+explaining the want of human form in the salt pillar by telling
+him that this complete metamorphosis was part of her punishment.
+
+About twenty years later, another remarkable man, Volney,
+broaches the subject in what was then known as the "philosophic"
+spirit.  Between the years 1783 and 1785 he made an extensive
+journey through the Holy Land and published a volume of travels
+which by acuteness of thought and vigour of style secured general
+attention.  In these, myth and legend were thrown aside, and we
+have an account simply dictated by the love of truth as truth.
+He, too, keeps the torch of science burning by applying his
+geological knowledge to the regions which he traverses.
+
+As we look back over the eighteenth century we see mingled with
+the new current of thought, and strengthening it, a constantly
+increasing stream of more strictly scientific observation and
+reflection.
+
+To review it briefly:  in the very first years of the century
+Maraldi showed the Paris Academy of Sciences fossil fishes found
+in the Lebanon region; a little later, Cornelius Bruyn, in the
+French edition of his Eastern travels, gave well-drawn
+representations of fossil fishes and shells, some of them from
+the region of the Dead Sea; about the middle of the century
+Richard Pococke, Bishop of Meath, and Korte of Altona made more
+statements of the same sort; and toward the close of the
+century, as we have seen, Volney gave still more of these
+researches, with philosophical deductions from them.
+
+The result of all this was that there gradually dawned upon
+thinking men the conviction that, for ages before the appearance
+of man on the planet, and during all the period since his
+appearance, natural laws have been steadily in force in Palestine
+as elsewhere; this conviction obliged men to consider other than
+supernatural causes for the phenomena of the Dead Sea, and myth
+and marvel steadily shrank in value.
+
+But at the very threshold of the nineteenth century Chateaubriand
+came into the field, and he seemed to banish the scientific
+spirit, though what he really did was to conceal it temporarily
+behind the vapours of his rhetoric.  The time was propitious for
+him.  It was the period of reaction after the French Revolution,
+when what was called religion was again in fashion, and when even
+atheists supported it as a good thing for common people:  of such
+an epoch Chateaubriand, with his superficial information, thin
+sentiment, and showy verbiage, was the foreordained prophet.
+His enemies were wont to deny that he ever saw the Holy Land;
+whether he did or not, he added nothing to real knowledge, but
+simply threw a momentary glamour over the regions he described,
+and especially over the Dead Sea.  The legend of Lot's wife he
+carefully avoided, for he knew too well the danger of ridicule in
+France.
+
+As long as the Napoleonic and Bourbon reigns lasted, and indeed
+for some time afterward, this kind of dealing with the Holy Land
+was fashionable, and we have a long series of men, especially of
+Frenchmen, who evidently received their impulse from
+Chateaubriand.
+
+About 1831 De Geramb, Abbot of La Trappe, evidently a very noble
+and devout spirit, sees vapour above the Dead Sea, but stretches
+the truth a little--speaking of it as "vapour or smoke."  He
+could not find the salt statue, and complains of the "diversity
+of stories regarding it."  The simple physical cause of this
+diversity--the washing out of different statues in different
+years--never occurs to him; but he comforts himself with the
+scriptural warrant for the metamorphosis.[441]
+
+[441] For Mariti, see his Voyage, etc., vol. ii, pp. 352-356.
+For Tobler's high opinion of him, see the Bibliographia, pp. 132,
+133.  For Volney, see his Voyage en Syrie et Egypte, Paris, 1807,
+vol. i, pp. 308 et seq.; also, for a statement of contributions
+of the eighteenth century to geology, Lartet in De Luynes's Mer
+Morte, vol. iii, p. 12.  For Cornelius Bruyn, see French edition
+of his works, 1714 (in which his name is given as "Le Brun"),
+especially for representations of fossils, pp. 309, 375.  For
+Chateaubriand, see his Voyage, etc., vol. ii, part iii.  For De
+Geramb, see his Voyage, vol. ii, pp. 45-47.
+
+
+But to the honour of scientific men and scientific truth it
+should be said that even under Napoleon and the Bourbons there
+were men who continued to explore, observe, and describe with the
+simple love of truth as truth, and in spite of the probability
+that their researches would be received during their lifetime
+with contempt and even hostility, both in church and state.
+
+The pioneer in this work of the nineteenth century was the German
+naturalist Ulrich Seetzen.  He began his main investigation in
+1806, and soon his learning, courage, and honesty threw a flood
+of new light into the Dead Sea questions.
+
+In this light, myth and legend faded more rapidly than ever.
+Typical of his method is his examination of the Dead Sea fruit.
+He found, on reaching Palestine, that Josephus's story regarding
+it, which had been accepted for nearly two thousand years, was
+believed on all sides; more than this, he found that the
+original myth had so grown that a multitude of respectable people
+at Bethlehem and elsewhere assured him that not only apples, but
+pears, pomegranates, figs, lemons, and many other fruits which
+grow upon the shores of the Dead Sea, though beautiful to look
+upon, were filled with ashes.  These good people declared to
+Seetzen that they had seen these fruits, and that, not long
+before, a basketful of them which had been sent to a merchant of
+Jaffa had turned to ashes.
+
+Seetzen was evidently perplexed by this mass of testimony and
+naturally anxious to examine these fruits.  On arriving at the
+sea he began to look for them, and the guide soon showed him the
+"apples."  These he found to be simply an asclepia, which had
+been described by Linnaeus, and which is found in the East
+Indies, Arabia, Egypt, Jamaica, and elsewhere--the "ashes" being
+simply seeds.  He looked next for the other fruits, and the
+guide soon found for him the "lemons":  these he discovered to be
+a species of solanum found in other parts of Palestine and
+elsewhere, and the seeds in these were the famous "cinders."  He
+looked next for the pears, figs, and other accursed fruits; but,
+instead of finding them filled with ashes and cinders, he found
+them like the same fruits in other lands, and he tells us that he
+ate the figs with much pleasure.
+
+So perished a myth which had been kept alive two thousand
+years,--partly by modes of thought natural to theologians, partly
+by the self-interest of guides, and partly by the love of
+marvel-mongering among travellers.
+
+The other myths fared no better.  As to the appearance of the
+sea, he found its waters not "black and sticky," but blue and
+transparent; he found no smoke rising from the abyss, but tells
+us that sunlight and cloud and shore were pleasantly reflected
+from the surface.  As to Lot's wife, he found no salt pillar
+which had been a careless woman, but the Arabs showed him many
+boulders which had once been wicked men.
+
+His work was worthily continued by a long succession of true
+investigators,--among them such travellers or geographers as
+Burckhardt, Irby, Mangles, Fallmerayer, and Carl von Raumer:  by
+men like these the atmosphere of myth and legend was steadily
+cleared away; as a rule, they simply forgot Lot's wife
+altogether.
+
+In this noble succession should be mentioned an American
+theologian, Dr. Edward Robinson, professor at New York.
+Beginning about 1826, he devoted himself for thirty years to the
+thorough study of the geography of Palestine, and he found a
+worthy coadjutor in another American divine, Dr. Eli Smith.
+Neither of these men departed openly from the old traditions:
+that would have cost a heart-breaking price--the loss of all
+further opportunity to carry on their researches.  Robinson did
+not even think it best to call attention to the mythical
+character of much on which his predecessors had insisted; he
+simply brought in, more and more, the dry, clear atmosphere of
+the love of truth for truth's sake, and, in this, myths and
+legends steadily disappeared.  By doing this he rendered a far
+greater service to real Christianity than any other theologian
+had ever done in this field.
+
+Very characteristic is his dealing with the myth of Lot's wife.
+Though more than once at Usdum,--though giving valuable
+information regarding the sea, shore, and mountains there, he
+carefully avoids all mention of the salt pillar and of the legend
+which arose from it.  In this he set an example followed by most
+of the more thoughtful religious travellers since his time.
+Very significant is it to see the New Testament injunction,
+"Remember Lot's wife," so utterly forgotten.  These later
+investigators seem never to have heard of it; and this constant
+forgetfulness shows the change which had taken place in the
+enlightened thinking of the world.
+
+But in the year 1848 came an episode very striking in its
+character and effect.
+
+At that time, the war between the United States and Mexico having
+closed, Lieutenant Lynch, of the United States Navy, found
+himself in the port of Vera Cruz, commanding an old hulk, the
+Supply.  Looking about for something to do, it occurred to him
+to write to the Secretary of the Navy asking permission to
+explore the Dead Sea.  Under ordinary circumstances the proposal
+would doubtless have been strangled with red tape; but,
+fortunately, the Secretary at that time was Mr. John Y. Mason, of
+Virginia.  Mr. Mason was famous for his good nature.  Both at
+Washington and at Paris, where he was afterward minister, this
+predominant trait has left a multitude of amusing traditions; it
+was of him that Senator Benton said, "To be supremely happy he
+must have his paunch full of oysters and his hands full of
+cards."
+
+The Secretary granted permission, but evidently gave the matter
+not another thought.  As a result, came an expedition the most
+comical and one of the most rich in results to be found in
+American annals.  Never was anything so happy-go-lucky.
+Lieutenant Lynch started with his hulk, with hardly an instrument
+save those ordinarily found on shipboard, and with a body of men
+probably the most unfit for anything like scientific
+investigation ever sent on such an errand; fortunately, he picked
+up a young instructor in mathematics, Mr. Anderson, and added to
+his apparatus two strong iron boats.
+
+Arriving, after a tedious voyage, on the coast of Asia Minor, he
+set to work.  He had no adequate preparation in general history,
+archaeology, or the physical sciences; but he had his American
+patriotism, energy, pluck, pride, and devotion to duty, and these
+qualities stood him in good stead.  With great labour he got the
+iron boats across the country.  Then the tug of war began.
+First of all investigators, he forced his way through the whole
+length of the river Jordan and from end to end of the Dead Sea.
+There were constant difficulties--geographical, climatic, and
+personal; but Lynch cut through them all.  He was brave or
+shrewd, as there was need.  Anderson proved an admirable helper,
+and together they made surveys of distances, altitudes, depths,
+and sundry simple investigations in a geological, mineralogical,
+and chemical way.  Much was poorly done, much was left undone,
+but the general result was most honourable both to Lynch and
+Anderson; and Secretary Mason found that his easy-going patronage
+of the enterprise was the best act of his official life.
+
+The results of this expedition on public opinion were most
+curious.  Lynch was no scholar in any sense; he had travelled
+little, and thought less on the real questions underlying the
+whole investigation; as to the difference in depth of the two
+parts of the lake, he jumped--with a sailor's disregard of
+logic--to the conclusion that it somehow proved the mythical
+account of the overwhelming of the cities, and he indulged in
+reflections of a sort probably suggested by his recollections of
+American Sunday-schools.
+
+Especially noteworthy is his treatment of the legend of Lot's
+wife.  He found the pillar of salt.  It happened to be at that
+period a circular column of friable salt rock, about forty feet
+high; yet, while he accepts every other old myth, he treats the
+belief that this was once the wife of Lot as "a superstition."
+One little circumstance added enormously to the influence of this
+book, for, as a frontispiece, he inserted a picture of the salt
+column.  It was delineated in rather a poetic manner:  light
+streamed upon it, heavy clouds hung above it, and, as a
+background, were ranged buttresses of salt rock furrowed and
+channelled out by the winter rains:  this salt statue picture was
+spread far and wide, and in thousands of country pulpits and
+Sunday-schools it was shown as a tribute of science to Scripture.
+
+Nor was this influence confined to American Sunday-school
+children:  Lynch had innocently set a trap into which several
+European theologians stumbled.  One of these was Dr. Lorenz
+Gratz, Vicar-General of Augsburg, a theological professor.  In
+the second edition of his Theatre of the Holy Scriptures,
+published in 1858, he hails Lynch's discovery of the salt pillar
+with joy, forgets his allusion to the old theory regarding it as
+a superstition, and does not stop to learn that this was one of a
+succession of statues washed out yearly by the rains, but accepts
+it as the originaL Lot's wife.
+
+The French churchmen suffered most.  About two years after
+Lynch, De Saulcy visited the Dead Sea to explore it thoroughly,
+evidently in the interest of sacred science--and of his own
+promotion.  Of the modest thoroughness of Robinson there is no
+trace in his writings.  He promptly discovered the overwhelmed
+cities, which no one before or since has ever found, poured
+contempt on other investigators, and threw over his whole work an
+air of piety.  But, unfortunately, having a Frenchman's dread of
+ridicule, he attempted to give a rationalistic explanation of
+what he calls "the enormous needles of salt washed out by the
+winter rain," and their connection with the Lot's wife myth, and
+declared his firm belief that she, "being delayed by curiosity or
+terror, was crushed by a rock which rolled down from the
+mountain, and when Lot and his children turned about they saw at
+the place where she had been only the rock of salt which covered
+her body."
+
+But this would not do at all, and an eminent ecclesiastic
+privately and publicly expostulated with De Saulcy--very
+naturally declaring that "it was not Lot who wrote the book of
+Genesis."
+
+The result was that another edition of De Saulcy's work was
+published by a Church Book Society, with the offending passage
+omitted; but a passage was retained really far more suggestive of
+heterodoxy, and this was an Arab legend accounting for the origin
+of certain rocks near the Dead Sea curiously resembling salt
+formations.  This in effect ran as follows:
+
+"Abraham, the friend of God, having come here one day with his
+mule to buy salt, the salt-workers impudently told him that they
+had no salt to sell, whereupon the patriarch said:  `Your words
+are, true.  you have no salt to sell,' and instantly the salt of
+this whole region was transformed into stone, or rather into a
+salt which has lost its savour."
+
+Nothing could be more sure than this story to throw light into
+the mental and moral process by which the salt pillar myth was
+originally created.
+
+In the years 1864 and 1865 came an expedition on a much more
+imposing scale:  that of the Duc de Luynes.  His knowledge of
+archaeology and his wealth were freely devoted to working the
+mine which Lynch had opened, and, taking with him an iron vessel
+and several savants, he devoted himself especially to finding
+the cities of the Dead Sea, and to giving less vague accounts of
+them than those of De Saulcy.  But he was disappointed, and
+honest enough to confess his disappointment.  So vanished one of
+the most cherished parts of the legend.
+
+But worse remained behind.  In the orthodox duke's company was
+an acute geologist, Monsieur Lartet, who in due time made an
+elaborate report, which let a flood of light into the whole
+region.
+
+The Abbe Richard had been rejoicing the orthodox heart of France
+by exhibiting some prehistoric flint implements as the knives
+which Joshua had made for circumcision.  By a truthful statement
+Monsieur Lartet set all France laughing at the Abbe, and then
+turned to the geology of the Dead Sea basin.  While he conceded
+that man may have seen some volcanic crisis there, and may have
+preserved a vivid remembrance of the vapour then rising, his
+whole argument showed irresistibly that all the phenomena of the
+region are due to natural causes, and that, so far from a sudden
+rising of the lake above the valley within historic times, it has
+been for ages steadily subsiding.
+
+Since Balaam was called by Balak to curse his enemies, and
+"blessed them altogether," there has never been a more unexpected
+tribute to truth.
+
+Even the salt pillar at Usdum, as depicted in Lynch's book, aided
+to undermine the myth among thinking men; for the background of
+the picture showed other pillars of salt in process of formation;
+and the ultimate result of all these expeditions was to spread an
+atmosphere in which myth and legend became more and more
+attenuated.
+
+To sum up the main points in this work of the nineteenth century:
+Seetzen, Robinson, and others had found that a human being could
+traverse the lake without being killed by hellish smoke; that
+the waters gave forth no odours; that the fruits of the region
+were not created full of cinders to match the desolation of the
+Dead Sea, but were growths not uncommon in Asia Minor and
+elsewhere; in fact, that all the phenomena were due to natural
+causes.
+
+Ritter and others had shown that all noted features of the Dead
+Sea and the surrounding country were to be found in various other
+lakes and regions, to which no supernatural cause was ascribed
+among enlightened men.  Lynch, Van de Velde, Osborne, and others
+had revealed the fact that the "pillar of salt" was frequently
+formed anew by the rains; and Lartet and other geologists had
+given a final blow to the myths by making it clear from the
+markings on the neighbouring rocks that, instead of a sudden
+upheaval of the sea above the valley of Siddim, there had been a
+gradual subsidence for ages.[442]
+
+[442] For Seetzen, see his Reisen, edited by Kruse, Berlin, 1854-
+'59; for the "Dead Sea Fruits," vol. ii, pp. 231 et seq.; for the
+appearance of the sea, etc., p. 243, and elsewhere; for the Arab
+explanatory transformation legends, vol. iii, pp. 7, 14, 17.  As
+to similarity of the "pillars of salt" to columns washed out by
+rains elsewhere, see Kruse's commentary in vol. iv, p. 240; also
+Fallmerayer, vol. i, p. 197.  For Irby and Mangles, see work
+already cited.  For Robinson, see his Biblical Researches,
+London,1841; also his Later Biblical Researches, London, 1856.
+For Lynch, see his Narrative, London, 1849.  For Gratz, see his
+Schauplatz der Heyl. Schrift, pp. 186, 187.  For De Saulcy, see
+his Voyage autour de la Mer Morte, Paris, 1853, especially vol.
+i, p. 252, and his journal of the early months of 1851, in vol.
+ii, comparing it with his work of the same title published in
+1858 in the Bibliotheque Catholique de Voyages et du Romans, vol.
+i, pp. 78-81.  For Lartet, see his papers read before the
+Geographical Society at Paris; also citations in Robinson; but,
+above all, his elaborate reports which form the greater part of
+the second and third volumes of the monumental work which bears
+the name of De Luynes, already cited.  For exposures of De
+Saulcey's credulity and errors, see Van de Velde, Syria and
+Palestine, passim; also Canon Tristram's Land of Israel; also De
+Luynes, passim.
+
+
+Even before all this evidence was in, a judicial decision had
+been pronounced upon the whole question by an authority both
+Christian and scientific, from whom there could be no appeal.
+During the second quarter of the century Prof. Carl Ritter, of
+the University of Berlin, began giving to the world those
+researches which have placed him at the head of all geographers
+ancient or modern, and finally he brought together those relating
+to the geography of the Holy Land, publishing them as part of his
+great work on the physical geography of the earth.  He was a
+Christian, and nothing could be more reverent than his treatment
+of the whole subject; but his German honesty did not permit him
+to conceal the truth, and he simply classed together all the
+stories of the Dead Sea--old and new--no matter where found,
+whether in the sacred books of Jews, Christians, or Mohammedans,
+whether in lives of saints or accounts of travellers, as "myths"
+and "sagas."
+
+From this decision there has never been among intelligent men any
+appeal.
+
+The recent adjustment of orthodox thought to the scientific view
+of the Dead Sea legends presents some curious features.  As
+typical we may take the travels of two German theologians between
+1860 and 1870--John Kranzel, pastor in Munich, and Peter Schegg,
+lately professor in the university of that city.
+
+The archdiocese of Munich-Freising is one of those in which the
+attempt to suppress modern scientific thought has been most
+steadily carried on.  Its archbishops have constantly shown
+themselves assiduous in securing cardinals' hats by thwarting
+science and by stupefying education.  The twin towers of the old
+cathedral of Munich have seemed to throw a killing shadow over
+intellectual development in that region.  Naturally, then, these
+two clerical travellers from that diocese did not commit
+themselves to clearing away any of the Dead Sea myths; but it is
+significant that neither of them follows the example of so many
+of their clerical predecessors in defending the salt-pillar
+legend:  they steadily avoid it altogether.
+
+The more recent history of the salt pillar, since Lynch, deserves
+mention.  It appears that the travellers immediately after him
+found it shaped by the storms into a spire; that a year or two
+later it had utterly disappeared; and about the year 1870 Prof.
+Palmer, on visiting the place, found at some distance from the
+main salt bed, as he says, "a tall, isolated needle of rock,
+which does really bear a curious resemblance to an Arab woman
+with a child upon her shoulders."
+
+And, finally, Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, the standard work
+of reference for English-speaking scholars, makes its concession
+to the old belief regarding Sodom and Gomorrah as slight as
+possible, and the myth of Lot's wife entirely disappears.
+
+
+
+IV.  THEOLOGICAL EFFORTS AT COMPROMISE.--
+TRIUMPH OF THE SCIENTIFIC VIEW.
+
+
+The theological effort to compromise with science now came in
+more strongly than ever.  This effort had been made long before:
+as we have seen, it had begun to show itself decidedly as soon as
+the influence of the Baconian philosophy was felt.  Le Clerc
+suggested that the shock caused by the sight of fire from heaven
+killed Lot's wife instantly and made her body rigid as a statue.
+Eichhorn suggested that she fell into a stream of melted bitumen.
+Michaelis suggested that her relatives raised a monument of salt
+rock to her memory.  Friedrichs suggested that she fell into the
+sea and that the salt stiffened around her clothing, thus making
+a statue of her.  Some claimed that a shower of sulphur came
+down upon her, and that the word which has been translated "salt"
+could possibly be translated "sulphur."  Others hinted that the
+salt by its antiseptic qualities preserved her body as a mummy.
+De Saulcy, as we have seen, thought that a piece of salt rock
+fell upon her, and very recently Principal Dawson has ventured
+the explanation that a flood of salt mud coming from a volcano
+incrusted her.
+
+But theologians themselves were the first to show the inadequacy
+of these explanations.  The more rationalistic pointed out the
+fact that they were contrary to the sacred text:  Von Bohlen, an
+eminent professor at Konigsberg, in his sturdy German honesty,
+declared that the salt pillar gave rise to the story, and
+compared the pillar of salt causing this transformation legend to
+the rock in Greek mythology which gave rise to the transformation
+legend of Niobe.
+
+On the other hand, the more severely orthodox protested against
+such attempts to explain away the clear statements of Holy Writ.
+Dom Calmet, while presenting many of these explanations made as
+early as his time, gives us to understand that nearly all
+theologians adhered to the idea that Lot's wife was instantly and
+really changed into salt; and in our own time, as we shall
+presently see, have come some very vigorous protests.
+
+Similar attempts were made to explain the other ancient legends
+regarding the Dead Sea.  One of the most recent of these is that
+the cities of the plain, having been built with blocks of
+bituminous rock, were set on fire by lightning, a contemporary
+earthquake helping on the work.  Still another is that
+accumulations of petroleum and inflammable gas escaped through a
+fissure, took fire, and so produced the catastrophe.[443]
+
+[443] For Kranzel, see his Reise nach Jerusalem, etc.  For Schegg,
+see his Gedenkbuch einer Pilgerreise, etc., 1867, chap. xxiv.
+For Palmer, see his Desert of the Exodus, vol. ii, pp. 478, 479.
+For the various compromises, see works alredy cited, passim.  For
+Von Bohlen, see his Genesis, Konigsberg, 1835, pp. 200-213.  For
+Calmet, see his Dictionarium, etc, Venet., 1766.  For very recent
+compromises, see J. W. Dawson and Dr. Cunningham Geikie in works
+cited.
+
+
+The revolt against such efforts to RECONCILE scientific fact
+with myth and legend had become very evident about the middle of
+the nineteenth century.  In 1851 and 1852 Van de Velde made his
+journey.  He was a most devout man, but he confessed that the
+volcanic action at the Dead Sea must have been far earlier than
+the catastrophe mentioned in our sacred books, and that "the
+overthrow of Sodom and Gomorrah had nothing to do with this."  A
+few years later an eminent dignitary of the English Church, Canon
+Tristram, doctor of divinity and fellow of the Royal Society, who
+had explored the Holy Land thoroughly, after some generalities
+about miracles, gave up the whole attempt to make science agree
+with the myths, and used these words:  "It has been frequently
+assumed that the district of Usdum and its sister cities was the
+result of some tremendous geological catastrophe....Now,
+careful examination by competent geologists, such as Monsieur
+Lartet and others, has shown that the whole district has assumed
+its present shape slowly and gradually through a succession of
+ages, and that its peculiar phenomena are similar to those of
+other lakes."  So sank from view the whole mass of Dead Sea myths
+and legends, and science gained a victory both for geology and
+comparative mythology.
+
+As a protest against this sort of rationalism appeared in 1876 an
+edition of Monseigneur Mislin's work on The Holy Places.  In
+order to give weight to the book, it was prefaced by letters from
+Pope Pius IX and sundry high ecclesiastics--and from Alexandre
+Dumas! His hatred of Protestant missionaries in the East is
+phenomenal:  he calls them "bagmen," ascribes all mischief and
+infamy to them, and his hatred is only exceeded by his credulity.
+He cites all the arguments in favour of the salt statue at Usdum
+as the identical one into which Lot's wife was changed, adds some
+of his own, and presents her as "a type of doubt and heresy."
+With the proverbial facility of dogmatists in translating any
+word of a dead language into anything that suits their purpose,
+he says that the word in the nineteenth chapter of Genesis which
+is translated "statue" or "pillar," may be translated "eternal
+monument"; he is especially severe on poor Monsieur De Saulcy
+for thinking that Lot's wife was killed by the falling of a piece
+of salt rock; and he actually boasts that it was he who caused De
+Saulcy, a member of the French Institute, to suppress the
+obnoxious passage in a later edition.
+
+Between 1870 and 1880 came two killing blows at the older
+theories, and they were dealt by two American scholars of the
+highest character.  First of these may be mentioned Dr. Philip
+Schaff, a professor in the Presbyterian Theological Seminary at
+New York, who published his travels in 1877.  In a high degree
+he united the scientific with the religious spirit, but the trait
+which made him especially fit for dealing with this subject was
+his straightforward German honesty.  He tells the simple truth
+regarding the pillar of salt, so far as its physical origin and
+characteristics are concerned, and leaves his reader to draw the
+natural inference as to its relation to the myth.  With the fate
+of Dr. Robertson Smith in Scotland and Dr. Woodrow in South
+Carolina before him--both recently driven from their
+professorships for truth-telling-- Dr. Schaff deserves honour
+for telling as much as he does.
+
+Similar in effect, and even more bold in statement, were the
+travels of the Rev. Henry Osborn, published in 1878.  In a
+truly scientific spirit he calls attention to the similarity of
+the Dead Sea, with the river Jordan, to sundry other lake and
+river systems; points out the endless variations between writers
+describing the salt formations at Usdum; accounts rationally for
+these variations, and quotes from Dr. Anderson's report,
+saying, "From the soluble nature of the salt and the crumbling
+looseness of the marl, it may well be imagined that, while some
+of these needles are in the process of formation, others are
+being washed away."
+
+Thus came out, little by little, the truth regarding the Dead Sea
+myths, and especially the salt pillar at Usdum; but the final
+truth remained to be told in the Church, and now one of the
+purest men and truest divines of this century told it.  Arthur
+Stanley, Dean of Westminster, visiting the country and thoroughly
+exploring it, allowed that the physical features of the Dead Sea
+and its shores suggested the myths and legends, and he sums up
+the whole as follows:  "A great mass of legends and
+exaggerations, partly the cause and partly the result of the old
+belief that the cities were buried under the Dead Sea, has been
+gradually removed in recent years."
+
+So, too, about the same time, Dr. Conrad Furrer, pastor of the
+great church of St. Peter at Zurich, gave to the world a book
+of travels, reverent and thoughtful, and in this honestly
+acknowledged that the needles of salt at the southern end of the
+Dead Sea "in primitive times gave rise to the tradition that
+Lot's wife was transformed into a statue of salt."  Thus was the
+mythical character of this story at last openly confessed by
+Leading churchmen on both continents.
+
+Plain statements like these from such sources left the high
+theological position more difficult than ever, and now a new
+compromise was attempted.  As the Siberian mother tried to save
+her best-beloved child from the pursuing wolves by throwing over
+to them her less favoured children, so an effort was now made in
+a leading commentary to save the legends of the valley of Siddim
+and the miraculous destruction of the cities by throwing
+overboard the legend of Lot's wife.[444]
+
+[444] For Mislin, see his Les Saints Lieux, Paris, vol. iii, pp.
+290-293, especially note at foot of page 292.  For Schaff, see
+his Through Bible Lands, especially chapter xxix; see also Rev.
+H. S. Osborn, M. A., The Holy Land, pp. 267 et seq.; also
+Stanley's Sinai and Palestine, London, 1887, especially pp.
+290-293. For Furrer, see his En Palestine, Geneva, 1886, vol. i,
+p.246. For the attempt to save one legend by throwing overboard
+the other, see Keil and Delitzsch, Biblischer Commentar uber das
+Alte Testament, vol. i, pp. 155, 156.  For Van de Velde, see his
+Syria and Palestine, vol. ii, p. 120.
+
+
+An amusing result has followed this development of opinion.  As
+we have already seen, traveller after traveller, Catholic and
+Protestant, now visits the Dead Sea, and hardly one of them
+follows the New Testament injunction to "remember Lot's wife."
+Nearly every one of them seems to think it best to forget her.
+Of the great mass of pious legends they are shy enough, but that
+of Lot's wife, as a rule, they seem never to have heard of, and
+if they do allude to it they simply cover the whole subject with
+a haze of pious rhetoric.[445]
+
+[445] The only notice of the Lot's wife legend in the editions of
+Robinson at my command is a very curious one by Leopold von Buch,
+the eminent geologist. Robinson, with a fearlessness which does
+him credit, consulted Von Buch, who in his answer was evidently
+inclined to make things easier for Robinson by hinting that Lot
+was so much struck by the salt formations that HE IMAGINED that
+his wife had been changed into salt. On this theory, Robinson
+makes no comment. See Robinson, Biblical Researches in Palestine,
+etc., London, 1841, vol. ii, p. 674.
+
+
+Naturally, under this state of things, there has followed the
+usual attempt to throw off from Christendom the responsibility of
+the old belief, and in 1887 came a curious effort of this sort.
+In that year appeared the Rev. Dr. Cunningham Geikie's
+valuable work on The Holy Land and the Bible.  In it he makes the
+following statement as to the salt formation at Usdum:  "Here and
+there, hardened portions of salt withstanding the water, while
+all around them melts and wears off, rise up isolated pillars,
+one of which bears among the Arabs the name of `Lot's wife.'"
+
+In the light of the previous history, there is something at once
+pathetic and comical in this attempt to throw the myth upon the
+shoulders of the poor Arabs.  The myth was not originated by
+Mohammedans; it appears, as we have seen, first among the Jews,
+and, I need hardly remind the reader, comes out in the Book of
+Wisdom and in Josephus, and has been steadily maintained by
+fathers, martyrs, and doctors of the Church, by at least one
+pope, and by innumerable bishops, priests, monks, commentators,
+and travellers, Catholic and Protestant, ever since.  In thus
+throwing the responsibility of the myth upon the Arabs Dr.
+Geikie appears to show both the "perfervid genius" of his
+countrymen and their incapacity to recognise a joke.
+
+Nor is he more happy in his rationalistic explanations of the
+whole mass of myths.  He supposes a terrific storm, in which the
+lightning kindled the combustible materials of the cities, aided
+perhaps by an earthquake; but this shows a disposition to break
+away from the exact statements of the sacred books which would
+have been most severely condemned by the universal Church during
+at least eighteen hundred years of its history.  Nor would the
+explanations of Sir William Dawson have fared any better:  it is
+very doubtful whether either of them could escape unscathed today
+from a synod of the Free Church of Scotland, or of any of the
+leading orthodox bodies in the Southern States of the American
+Union.[446]
+
+[446] For these most recent explanations, see Rev. Cunningham
+Geikie, D. D., in work cited; also Sir J. W. Dawson, Egypt and
+Syria, published by the Religious Tract Society, 1887, pp. 125,
+126; see also Dawson's article in The Expositor for January,
+1886.
+
+
+How unsatisfactory all such rationalism must be to a truly
+theological mind is seen not only in the dealings with Prof.
+Robertson Smith in Scotland and Prof. Woodrow in South
+Carolina, but most clearly in a book published in 1886 by
+Monseigneur Haussmann de Wandelburg.  Among other things, the
+author was Prelate of the Pope's House-hold, a Mitred Abbot,
+Canon of the Holy Sepulchre, and a Doctor of Theology of the
+Pontifical University at Rome, and his work is introduced by
+approving letters from Pope Leo XIII and the Patriarch of
+Jerusalem.  Monseigneur de Wandelburg scorns the idea that the
+salt column at Usdum is not the statue of Lot's wife; he points
+out not only the danger of yielding this evidence of miracle to
+rationalism, but the fact that the divinely inspired authority of
+the Book of Wisdom, written, at the latest, two hundred and fifty
+years before Christ, distinctly refers to it.  He summons
+Josephus as a witness.  He dwells on the fact that St. Clement of
+Rome, Irenaeus, Hegesippus, and St. Cyril, "who as Bishop of
+Jerusalem must have known better than any other person what
+existed in Palestine," with St. Jerome, St. Chrysostom, and a
+multitude of others, attest, as a matter of their own knowledge
+or of popular notoriety, that the remains of Lot's wife really
+existed in their time in the form of a column of salt; and he
+points triumphantly to the fact that Lieutenant Lynch found this
+very column.  In the presence of such a continuous line of
+witnesses, some of them considered as divinely inspired, and all
+of them greatly revered--a line extending through thirty-seven
+hundred years--he condemns most vigorously all those who do not
+believe that the pillar of salt now at Usdum is identical with
+the wife of Lot, and stigmatizes them as people who "do not wish
+to believe the truth of the Word of God."
+
+His ignorance of many of the simplest facts bearing upon the
+legend is very striking, yet he does not hesitate to speak of men
+who know far more and have thought far more upon the subject as
+"grossly ignorant."  The most curious feature in his ignorance is
+the fact that he is utterly unaware of the annual changes in the
+salt statue.  He is entirely ignorant of such facts as that the
+priest Gabriel Giraudet in the sixteenth century found the statue
+lying down; that the monk Zwinner found it in the seventeenth
+century standing, and accompanied by a dog also transformed into
+salt; that Prince Radziwill found no statue at all; that the
+pious Vincent Briemle in the eighteenth century found the
+monument renewing itself; that about the middle of the nineteenth
+century Lynch found it in the shape of a tower or column forty
+feet high; that within two years afterward De Saulcy found it
+washed into the form of a spire; that a year later Van de Velde
+found it utterly washed away; and that a few years later Palmer
+found it "a statue bearing a striking resemblance to an Arab
+woman with a child in her arms."  So ended the last great
+demonstration, thus far, on the side of sacred science--the last
+retreating shot from the theological rear guard.
+
+It is but just to say that a very great share in the honour of
+the victory of science in this field is due to men trained as
+theologians.  It would naturally be so, since few others have
+devoted themselves to direct labour in it; yet great honour is
+none the less due to such men as Reland, Mariti, Smith, Robinson,
+Stanley, Tristram, and Schat.
+
+They have rendered even a greater service to religion than to
+science, for they have made a beginning, at least, of doing away
+with that enforced belief in myths as history which has become a
+most serious danger to Christianity.
+
+For the worst enemy of Christianity could wish nothing more than
+that its main Leaders should prove that it can not be adopted
+save by those who accept, as historical, statements which
+unbiased men throughout the world know to be mythical.  The
+result of such a demonstration would only be more and more to
+make thinking people inside the Church dissemblers, and thinking
+people outside, scoffers.  Far better is it to welcome the aid of
+science, in the conviction that all truth is one, and, in the
+light of this truth, to allow theology and science to work
+together in the steady evolution of religion and morality.
+
+The revelations made by the sciences which most directly deal
+with the history of man all converge in the truth that during the
+earlier stages of this evolution moral and spiritual teachings
+must be inclosed in myth, legend, and parable.  "The Master"
+felt this when he gave to the poor peasants about him, and so to
+the world, his simple and beautiful illustrations.  In making
+this truth clear, science will give to religion far more than it
+will take away, for it will throw new life and light into all
+sacred literature.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX.
+
+FROM LEVITICUS TO POLITICAL ECONOMY
+
+I.  ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF HOSTILITY TO LOANS AT INTEREST.
+
+
+Among questions on which the supporters of right reason in
+political and social science have only conquered theological
+opposition after centuries of war, is the taking of interest on
+loans.  In hardly any struggle has rigid adherence to the letter
+of our sacred books been more prolonged and injurious.
+
+Certainly, if the criterion of truth, as regards any doctrine, be
+that of St. Vincent of Lerins--that it has been held in the
+Church "always, everywhere, and by all"--then on no point may a
+Christian of these days be more sure than that every savings
+institution, every loan and trust company, every bank, every loan
+of capital by an individual, every means by which accumulated
+capital has been lawfully lent even at the most moderate
+interest, to make men workers rather than paupers, is based on
+deadly sin.
+
+The early evolution of the belief that taking interest for money
+is sinful presents a curious working together of metaphysical,
+theological, and humanitarian ideas.
+
+In the main centre of ancient Greek civilization, the loaning of
+money at interest came to be accepted at an early period as a
+condition of productive industry, and no legal restriction was
+imposed.  In Rome there was a long process of development:  the
+greed of creditors in early times led to laws against the taking
+of interest; but, though these lasted long, that strong
+practical sense which gave Rome the empire of the world
+substituted finally, for this absolute prohibition, the
+establishment of rates by law.  Yet many of the leading Greek and
+Roman thinkers opposed this practical settlement of the question,
+and, foremost of all, Aristotle.  In a metaphysical way he
+declared that money is by nature "barren"; that the birth of
+money from money is therefore "unnatural"; and hence that the
+taking of interest is to be censured and hated.  Plato, Plutarch,
+both the Catos, Cicero, Seneca, and various other leaders of
+ancient thought, arrived at much the same conclusion--sometimes
+from sympathy with oppressed debtors; sometimes from dislike of
+usurers; sometimes from simple contempt of trade.
+
+From these sources there came into the early Church the germ of a
+theological theory upon the subject.
+
+But far greater was the stream of influence from the Jewish and
+Christian sacred books.  In the Old Testament stood various
+texts condemning usury--the term usury meaning any taking of
+interest: the law of Moses, while it allowed usury in dealing
+with strangers, forbade it in dealing with Jews.  In the New
+Testament, in the Sermon on the Mount, as given by St. Luke,
+stood the text "Lend, hoping for nothing again."  These texts
+seemed to harmonize with the most beautiful characteristic of
+primitive Christianity; its tender care for the poor and
+oppressed:  hence we find, from the earliest period, the whole
+weight of the Church brought to bear against the taking of
+interest for money.[448]
+
+[448] On the general allowance of interest for money in Greece,
+even at high rates, see Bockh, Public Economy of the Athenians,
+translated by Lamb, Boston, 1857, especially chaps. xxii, xxiii,
+and xxiv of book i.  For a view of usury taken by Aristotle, see
+his Politics and Economics, translated by Walford, p. 27; also
+Grote, History of Greece, vol. iii, chap. xi.  For summary of
+opinions in Greece and Rome, and their relation to Christian
+thought, see Bohm-Bawerk, Capital and Interest, translated by
+Smart, London, 1890, chap. i.  For a very full list of scripture
+texts against the taking of interest, see Pearson, The Theories
+on Usury in Europe, 1100-1400, Cambridge (England), 1876, p. 6.
+The texts most frequently cited were Leviticus xxv, 36, 37;
+Deuteronomy xxiii, 19 and 26; Psalms, xv, 5; Ezekiel xviii, 8 and
+17; St. Luke, vi, 35.  For a curious modern use of them, see D.
+S. Dickinson's speech in the State of New York, in vol. i of his
+collected writings.  See also Lecky, History of Rationalism in
+Europe, vol. ii, chap. vi; and above all, as the most recent
+historical summary by a leading historian of political economy,
+Bohm-Bawerk, as above.
+
+
+The great fathers of the Eastern Church, and among them St.
+Basil, St. Chrysostom, and St. Gregory of Nyssa,--the fathers of
+the Western Church, and among them Tertullian, St. Ambrose, St.
+Augustine, and St. Jerome, joined most earnestly in this
+condemnation.  St. Basil denounces money at interest as a "fecund
+monster," and says, "The divine law declares expressly, `Thou
+shalt not lend on usury to thy brother or thy neighbour.'" St.
+Gregory of Nyssa calls down on him who lends money at interest
+the vengeance of the Almighty.  St. Chrysostom says:  "What can
+be more unreasonable than to sow without land, without rain,
+without ploughs?   All those who give themselves up to this
+damnable culture shall reap only tares.  Let us cut off these
+monstrous births of gold and silver; let us stop this execrable
+fecundity."
+
+Lactantius called the taking of interest "robbery."  St. Ambrose
+declared it as bad as murder, St. Jerome threw the argument into
+the form of a dilemma, which was used as a weapon against
+money-lenders for centuries.  Pope Leo the Great solemnly
+adjudged it a sin worthy of severe punishment.[449]
+
+[449] For St. Basil and St. Gregory of Nyssa, see French
+translation of their diatribes in Homelies contre les Usuriers,
+Paris, Hachette, 1861-'62, especially p. 30 of St. Basil.  For
+some doubtful reservations by St. Augustine, see Murray, History
+of Usury.  For St. Ambrose, see De Officiis, lib. iii, cap. ii,
+in Migne, Patr. Lat., vol. xvi; also the De Tobia, in Migne, vol.
+xiv.  For St. Augustine, see De Bapt. contr Donat., lib. iv, cap.
+ix, in Migne, vol. xliii.  For Lactantius, see his Opera, Leyden,
+1660, p. 608.  For Cyprian, see his Testimonies against the Jews,
+translated by Wallis, book iii, article 48.  For St. Jerome, see
+his Com. in Ezekiel, xviii, 8, in Migne, vol. xxv, pp. 170 et
+seq.  For Leo the Great, see his letter to the bishops of various
+provinces of Italy, cited in the Jus. Can., cap. vii, can. xiv,
+qu. 4.  For very fair statements of the attitude of the fathers
+on this question, see Addis and Arnold, Catholic Dictionary,
+London, 1884, and Smith and Cheetham, Dictionary of Christian
+Antiquities, London, 1875-'80; in each, under article Usury.
+
+
+This unanimity of the fathers of the Church brought about a
+crystallization of hostility to interest-bearing loans into
+numberless decrees of popes and councils and kings and
+legislatures throughout Christendom during more than fifteen
+hundred years, and the canon law was shaped in accordance with
+these.  At first these were more especially directed against the
+clergy, but we soon find them extending to the laity.  These
+prohibitions were enforced by the Council of Arles in 314, and a
+modern Church apologist insists that every great assembly of the
+Church, from the Council of Elvira in 306 to that of Vienne in
+1311, inclusive, solemnly condemned lending money at interest.
+The greatest rulers under the sway of the Church--Justinian, in
+the Empire of the East; Charlemagne, in the Empire of the West;
+Alfred, in England; St. Louis, in France--yielded fully to this
+dogma.  In the ninth century Alfred went so far as to confiscate
+the estates of money-lenders, denying them burial in Consecrated
+ground; and similar decrees were made in other parts of Europe.
+In the twelfth century the Greek Church seems to have relaxed its
+strictness somewhat, but the Roman Church grew more severe.  St.
+Anselm proved from the Scriptures that the taking of interest is
+a breach of the Ten Commandments.  Peter Lombard, in his
+Sentences, made the taking of interest purely and simply theft.
+St. Bernard, reviving religious earnestness in the Church, took
+the same view.  In 1179 the Third Council of the Lateran decreed
+that impenitent money-lenders should be excluded from the altar,
+from absolution in the hour of death, and from Christian burial.
+Pope Urban III reiterated the declaration that the passage in St.
+Luke forbade the taking of any interest whatever.  Pope
+Alexander III declared that the prohibition in this matter could
+never be suspended by dispensation.
+
+In the thirteenth century Pope Gregory IX dealt an especially
+severe blow at commerce by his declaration that even to advance
+on interest the money necessary in maritime trade was damnable
+usury; and this was fitly followed by Gregory X, who forbade
+Christian burial to those guilty of this practice; the Council
+of Lyons meted out the same penalty.  This idea was still more
+firmly fastened upon the world by the two greatest thinkers of
+the time: first, by St. Thomas Aquinas, who knit it into the mind
+of the Church by the use of the Scriptures and of Aristotle; and
+next by Dante, who pictured money-lenders in one of the worst
+regions of hell.
+
+About the beginning of the fourteenth century the "Subtile
+Doctor" of the Middle Ages, Duns Scotus, gave to the world an
+exquisite piece of reasoning in evasion of the accepted doctrine;
+but all to no purpose:  the Council of Vienne, presided over by
+Pope Clement V, declared that if any one "shall pertinaciously
+presume to affirm that the taking of interest for money is not a
+sin, we decree him to be a heretic, fit for punishment."  This
+infallible utterance bound the dogma with additional force on the
+conscience of the universal Church.
+
+Nor was this a doctrine enforced by rulers only; the people were
+no less strenuous.  In 1390 the city authorities of London
+enacted that, "if any person shall lend or put into the hands of
+any person gold or silver to receive gain thereby, such person
+shall have the punishment for usurers."  And in the same year the
+Commons prayed the king that the laws of London against usury
+might have the force of statutes throughout the realm.
+
+In the fifteenth century the Council of the Church at Salzburg
+excluded from communion and burial any who took interest for
+money, and this was a very general rule throughout Germany.
+
+An exception was, indeed, sometimes made:  some canonists held
+that Jews might be allowed to take interest, since they were to
+be damned in any case, and their monopoly of money-lending might
+prevent Christians from losing their souls by going into the
+business.  Yet even the Jews were from time to time punished for
+the crime of usury; and, as regards Christians, punishment was
+bestowed on the dead as well as the living--the bodies of dead
+money-lenders being here and there dug up and cast out of
+consecrated ground.
+
+The popular preachers constantly declaimed against all who took
+interest.  The medieval anecdote books for pulpit use are
+especially full on this point.  Jacques de Vitry tells us that
+demons on one occasion filled a dead money-lender's mouth with
+red-hot coins; Cesarius of Heisterbach declared that a toad was
+found thrusting a piece of money into a dead usurer's heart; in
+another case, a devil was seen pouring molten gold down a dead
+money-lender's throat.[450]
+
+[450] For an enumeration of councils condemning the taking of
+interest for money, see Liegeois, Essai sur l'Histoire et la
+Legislation de l'Usure, Paris, 1865, p. 78; also the Catholic
+Dictionary as above.  For curious additional details and sources
+regarding mediaeval horror of usurers, see Ducange, Glossarium,
+etc., article Caorcini. T he date 306, for the Council of Elvira
+is that assigned by Hefele.  For the decree of Alexander III, see
+citation from the Latin text in Lecky.  For a long catalogue of
+ecclesiastical and civil decrees against taking of interest, see
+Petit, Traite de l'Usure, Paris, 1840.  For the reasoning at the
+bottom of this, see Cunningham, Christian Opinion on Usury,
+London, 1884.  For the Salzburg decrees, see Zillner,
+Salzburgusche Culturgeschichte, p. 232; and for Germany
+generally, see Neumann, Geschichte des Wuchers in Deutschland,
+Halle, 1865, especially pp. 22 et seq; also Roscher, National-
+Oeconomis. For effect of mistranslation of the passage of Luke in
+the Vulgate, see Dollinger, p. 170, and especially pp. 224, 225
+For the capitularies of Charlemagne against usury, see Liegeois,
+p. 77.  For Gregory X and the Council of Lyons, see Sextus
+Decretalium liber, pp. 669 et. seq.  For Peter Lombard, see his
+Lib. Sententiarum, III, dist. xxxvii, 3.  For St. Thomas Aquinas,
+see his works, Migne, vol. iii, Paris 1889, quaestio 78, pp. 587
+et seq., citing the Scriptures and Aristotle, and especially
+developing Aristotle's metaphysical idea regarding the
+"barrenness" of money.  For a very good summary of St. Thomas's
+ideas, see Pearson. pp. 30 et seq.  For Dante, see in canto xi of
+the Inferno a revelation of the amazing depth of the hostility to
+the taking of interest.  For the London law of 1390 and the
+petition to the king, see Cunningham, Growth of English Industry
+and Commerce, pp. 210, 326; also the Abridgment of the Records in
+the Tower of London, p. 339.  For the theory that Jews, being
+damned already, might be allowed to practice usury, see Liegeois,
+Histoire de l'Usure, p. 82.  For St. Bernard's view, see Epist.
+CCCLXIII, in Migne, vol. clxxxii, p. 567.  For ideas and
+anecdotes for preachers' use, see Joannes a San Geminiano, Summa
+de Exemplis, Antwerp, 1629, fol. 493, a; also the edition of
+Venice, 1584, ff. 132, 159; but especially, for multitudes of
+examples, see the Exempla of Jacques de Vitry, edited by Prof. T.
+F. Crane, of Cornell University, London, 1890, pp. 203 et seq.
+For the canon law in regard to interest, see a long line of
+authorities cited in Die Wucherfrage, St. Louis, 1869, pp. 92 et
+seq., and especially Decret. Gregor., lib.v, lit. 19, cap. iii,
+and Clementin., lib. v, lit. 5, sec. 2; see also the Corpus Juris
+Canonici, Paris, 1618, pp. 227, 228.  For the position of the
+English Church, see Gibson's Corpus Juris Ecclesiastici
+Anglicani, pp. 1070, 1071, 1106.
+
+
+This theological hostility to the taking of interest was imbedded
+firmly in the canon law.  Again and again it defined usury to be
+the taking of anything of value beyond the exact original amount
+of a loan; and under sanction of the universal Church it
+denounced this as a crime and declared all persons defending it
+to be guilty of heresy.  What this meant the world knows but too
+well.
+
+The whole evolution of European civilization was greatly hindered
+by this conscientious policy.  Money could only be loaned in
+most countries at the risk of incurring odium in this world and
+damnation in the next; hence there was but little capital and
+few lenders.  The rates of interest became at times enormous; as
+high as forty per cent in England, and ten per cent a month in
+Italy and Spain.  Commerce, manufactures, and general enterprise
+were dwarfed, while pauperism flourished.
+
+Yet worse than these were the moral results.  Doing what one
+holds to be evil is only second in bad consequences to doing what
+is really evil; hence, all lending and borrowing, even for the
+most legitimate purposes and at the most reasonable rates, tended
+to debase both borrower and lender.  The prohibition of lending
+at interest in continental Europe promoted luxury and discouraged
+economy; the rich, who were not engaged in business, finding no
+easy way of employing their incomes productively, spent them
+largely in ostentation and riotous living.  One evil effect is
+felt in all parts of the world to this hour. The Jews, so acute
+in intellect and strong in will, were virtually drawn or driven
+out of all other industries or professions by the theory that
+their race, being accursed, was only fitted for the abhorred
+profession of money-lending.[451]
+
+[451] For evil economic results, and especially for the rise of
+the rate of interest in England and elsewhere at times to forty
+per cent, see Cunningham, Growth of English Industry and
+Commerce, Cambridge, 1890, p. 189; and for its rising to ten per
+cent a month, see Bedarride, Les Juifs en France, en Italie, at
+en Espagne, p. 220; see also Hallam's Middle Ages, London, 1853,
+pp. 401, 402.  For the evil moral effects of the Church doctrine
+against taking interest, see Montesquieu, Esprit des Lois, lib.
+xxi, chap. xx; see also Sismondi, cited in Lecky.  For the
+trifling with conscience, distinction between "consumptibles" and
+"fungibles," "possessio" and "dominium," etc., see Ashley,
+English Economic History, New York, pp. 152, 153; see also
+Leopold Delisle, Etudes, pp. 198, 468.  For the effects of these
+doctrines on the Jews, see Milman, History of the Jews, vol. iii,
+p. 179; also Wellhausen, History of Israel, London, 1885, p. 546;
+also Beugnot, Les Juifs d'Occident, Paris, 1824, pt. 2, p. 114
+(on driving Jews out of other industries than money-lending).
+For a noted mediaeval evasion of the Church rules against usury,
+see Peruzzi, Storia del Commercio e dei Banchieri di Firenze,
+Florence, 1868, pp. 172, 173.
+
+
+These evils were so manifest, when trade began to revive
+throughout Europe in the fifteenth century, that
+most earnest exertions were put forth to induce the Church to
+change its position.
+
+The first important effort of this kind was made by John Gerson.
+His general learning made him Chancellor of the University of
+Paris; his sacred learning made him the leading orator at the
+Council of Constance; his piety led men to attribute to him The
+Imitation of Christ.  Shaking off theological shackles, he
+declared, "Better is it to lend money at reasonable interest, and
+thus to give aid to the poor, than to see them reduced by poverty
+to steal, waste their goods, and sell at a low price their
+personal and real property."
+
+But this idea was at once buried beneath citations from the
+Scriptures, the fathers, councils, popes, and the canon law.
+Even in the most active countries there seemed to be no hope.  In
+England, under Henry VII, Cardinal Morton, the lord chancellor,
+addressed Parliament, asking it to take into consideration loans
+of money at interest.  The result was a law which imposed on
+lenders at interest a fine of a hundred pounds besides the
+annulment of the loan; and, to show that there was an offence
+against religion involved, there was added a clause "reserving to
+the Church, notwithstanding this punishment, the correction of
+their souls according to the laws of the same."
+
+Similar enactments were made by civil authority in various parts
+of Europe; and just when the trade, commerce, and manufactures
+of the modern epoch had received an immense impulse from the
+great series of voyages of discovery by such men as Columbus,
+Vasco da Gama, Magellan, and the Cabots, this barrier against
+enterprise was strengthened by a decree from no less enlightened
+a pontiff than Leo X.
+
+The popular feeling warranted such decrees.  As late as the end
+of the Middle Ages we find the people of Piacenza dragging the
+body of a money-lender out of his grave in consecrated ground and
+throwing it into the river Po, in order to stop a prolonged
+rainstorm; and outbreaks of the same spirit were frequent in
+other countries. [452]
+
+[452] For Gerson's argument favouring a reasonable rate of
+interest, see Coquelin and Guillaumin, Dictionnaire, article
+Interet. For the renewed opposition to the taking of interest in
+England, see Craik, History of British Commerce, chap. vi. The
+statute cited is 3 Henry VII, chap. vi; it is found in Gibson's
+Corpus Juris Eccles. Anglic., p. 1071. For the adverse decree of
+Leo X, see Liegeois, p. 76. See also Lecky, Rationalism, vol. ii.
+For the dragging out of the usurer's body at Piacenza, see
+Burckhardt, The Renaissance in Italy, London, 1878, vol. ii, p.
+339. For public opinion of similar strength on this subject in
+England, see Cunningham, p. 239; also Pike, History of Crime in
+England, vol. i, pp. 127, 193. For good general observations on
+the same, see Stephen, History of Criminal Law in England,
+London, 1883, vol. iii, pp. 195-197. For usury laws in Castile
+and Aragon, see Bedarride, pp. 191, 192. For exceedingly valuable
+details as to the attitude of the mediaeval Church, see Leopold
+Delisle, Etudes sur la Classe Agricole en Normandie au Moyen Age,
+Evreux, 1851, pp. 200 et seq., also p. 468. For penalties in
+France, see Matthew Paris, Chronica Majora, in the Rolls Series,
+especially vol. iii, pp. 191, 192. For a curious evasion,
+sanctioned by Popes Martin V and Calixtus III when Church
+corporations became money-lenders, see H. C. Lea on The
+Ecclesiastical Treatment of Usury, in the Yale Review for
+February, 1894. For a detailed development of interesting
+subordinate points, see Ashley, Introduction to English Economic
+History and Theory, vol. ii, ch, vi.
+
+
+Another mode of obtaining relief was tried.  Subtle theologians
+devised evasions of various sorts.  Two among these inventions
+of the schoolmen obtained much notoriety.
+
+The first was the doctrine of "damnum emergens":  if a lender
+suffered loss by the failure of the borrower to return a loan at
+a date named, compensation might be made.  Thus it was that, if
+the nominal date of payment was made to follow quickly after the
+real date of the loan, the compensation for the anticipated delay
+in payment had a very strong resemblance to interest.  Equally
+cogent was the doctrine of "lucrum cessans":  if a man, in order
+to lend money, was obliged to diminish his income from productive
+enterprises, it was claimed that he might receive in return, in
+addition to his money, an amount exactly equal to this diminution
+in his income.
+
+But such evasions were looked upon with little favour by the
+great body of theologians, and the name of St. Thomas Aquinas
+was triumphantly cited against them.
+
+Opposition on scriptural grounds to the taking of interest was
+not confined to the older Church.  Protestantism was led by
+Luther and several of his associates into the same line of
+thought and practice.  Said Luther.  "To exchange anything with
+any one and gain by the exchange is not to do a charity; but to
+steal.  Every usurer is a thief worthy of the gibbet.  I call
+those usurers who lend money at five or six per cent."  But it is
+only just to say that at a later period Luther took a much more
+moderate view.  Melanchthon, defining usury as any interest
+whatever, condemned it again and again; and the Goldberg
+Catechism of 1558, for which he wrote a preface and
+recommendation, declares every person taking interest for money a
+thief.  From generation to generation this doctrine was upheld by
+the more eminent divines of the Lutheran Church in all parts of
+Germany.  The English reformers showed the same hostility to
+interest-bearing loans.  Under Henry VIII the law of Henry VII
+against taking interest had been modified for the better; but
+the revival of religious feeling under Edward VI caused in 1552
+the passage of the "Bill of Usury."  In this it is said,
+"Forasmuch as usury is by the word of God utterly prohibited, as
+a vice most odious and detestable, as in divers places of the
+Holy Scriptures it is evident to be seen, which thing by no godly
+teachings and persuasions can sink into the hearts of divers
+greedy, uncharitable, and covetous persons of this realm, nor
+yet, by any terrible threatenings of God's wrath and vengeance,"
+etc., it is enacted that whosoever shall thereafter lend money
+"for any manner of usury, increase, lucre, gain, or interest, to
+be had, received, or hoped for," shall forfeit principal and
+interest, and suffer imprisonment and fine at the king's
+pleasure.[453]
+
+[453] For Luther's views, see his sermon, Von dem Wucher,
+Wittenberg, 1519; also the Table Talk, cited in Coquelin and
+Guillaumin, article Interet.  For the later, more moderate views
+of Luther, Melanchthon, and Zwingli, making a compromise with the
+needs of society, see Bohm-Bawerk, p. 27, citing Wiskemann.  For
+Melanchthon and a long line of the most eminent Lutheran divines
+who have denounced the taking of interest, see Die Wucherfrage,
+St. Louis, 1869, pp. 94 et seq.  For the law against usury under
+Edward VI, see Cobbett's Parliamentary History, vol. i, p. 596;
+see also Craik, History of British Commerce, chap. vi.
+
+
+But, most fortunately, it happened that Calvin, though at times
+stumbling over the usual texts against the taking of interest for
+money, turned finally in the right direction.  He cut through the
+metaphysical arguments of Aristotle, and characterized the
+subtleties devised to evade the Scriptures as "a childish game
+with God."  In place of these subtleties there was developed
+among Protestants a serviceable fiction--the statement that usury
+means ILLEGAL OR OPPRESSIVE INTEREST.  Under the action of this
+fiction, commerce and trade revived rapidly in Protestant
+countries, though with occasional checks from exact interpreters
+of Scripture.  At the same period in France, the great Protestant
+jurist Dumoulin brought all his legal learning and skill in
+casuistry to bear on the same side.  A certain ferretlike
+acuteness and litheness seem to have enabled him to hunt down the
+opponents of interest-taking through the most tortuous arguments
+of scholasticism.
+
+In England the struggle went on with varying fortune; statesmen
+on one side, and theologians on the other.  We have seen how,
+under Henry VIII, interest was allowed at a fixed rate, and how,
+the development of English Protestantism having at first
+strengthened the old theological view, there was, under Edward
+VI, a temporarily successful attempt to forbid the taking of
+interest by law.
+
+The Puritans, dwelling on Old Testament texts, continued for a
+considerable time especially hostile to the taking of any
+interest.  Henry Smith, a noted preacher, thundered from the
+pulpit of St. Clement Danes in London against "the evasions of
+Scripture" which permitted men to lend money on interest at all.
+In answer to the contention that only "biting" usury was
+oppressive, Wilson, a noted upholder of the strict theological
+view in political economy, declared:  "There is difference in
+deed between the bite of a dogge and the bite of a flea, and yet,
+though the flea doth lesse harm, yet the flea doth bite after hir
+kinde, yea, and draweth blood, too.  But what a world this is,
+that men will make sin to be but a fleabite, when they see God's
+word directly against them!"
+
+The same view found strong upholders among contemporary English
+Catholics.  One of the most eminent of these, Nicholas Sanders,
+revived very vigorously the use of an old scholastic argument.
+He insisted that "man can not sell time," that time is not a
+human possession, but something which is given by God alone:  he
+declared, "Time was not of your gift to your neighbour, but of
+God's gift to you both."
+
+In the Parliament of the period, we find strong assertions of the
+old idea, with constant reference to Scripture and the fathers.
+In one debate, Wilson cited from Ezekiel and other prophets and
+attributed to St. Augustine the doctrine that "to take but a
+cup of wine is usury and damnable."  Fleetwood recalled the law
+of King Edward the Confessor, which submitted usurers to the
+ordeal.
+
+But arguments of this sort had little influence upon Elizabeth
+and her statesmen.  Threats of damnation in the next world
+troubled them little if they could have their way in this.  They
+re-established the practice of taking interest under
+restrictions, and this, in various forms, has remained in England
+ever since.  Most notable in this phase of the evolution of
+scientific doctrine in political economy at that period is the
+emergence of a recognised difference between USURY and
+INTEREST. Between these two words, which had so long been
+synonymous, a distinction now appears:  the former being
+construed to indicate OPPRESSIVE INTEREST, and the latter JUST
+RATES for the use of money.  This idea gradually sank into the
+popular mind of Protestant countries, and the scriptural texts no
+longer presented any difficulty to the people at large, since
+there grew up a general belief that the word "usury," as employed
+in Scripture, had ALWAYS meant exorbitant interest; and this in
+spite of the parable of the Talents.  Still, that the old
+Aristotelian quibble had not been entirely forgotten, is clearly
+seen by various passages in Shakespeare's Merchant of Venice.
+But this line of reasoning seems to have received its quietus
+from Lord Bacon.  He did not, indeed, develop a strong and
+connected argument on the subject; but he burst the bonds of
+Aristotle, and based interest for money upon natural laws.  How
+powerful the new current of thought was, is seen from the fact
+that James I, of all monarchs the most fettered by scholasticism
+and theology, sanctioned a statute dealing with interest for
+money as absolutely necessary.  Yet, even after this, the old
+idea asserted itself; for the bishops utterly refused to agree to
+the law allowing interest until a proviso was inserted that
+"nothing in this law contained shall be construed or expounded to
+allow the practice of usury in point of religion or conscience."
+The old view cropped out from time to time in various public
+declarations.  Famous among these were the Treatise of Usury,
+published in 1612 by Dr. Fenton, who restated the old arguments
+with much force, and the Usury Condemned of John Blaxton,
+published in 1634.  Blaxton, who also was a clergyman, defined
+usury as the taking of any interest whatever for money, citing in
+support of this view six archbishops and bishops and over thirty
+doctors of divinity in the Anglican Church, some of their
+utterances being very violent and all of them running their roots
+down into texts of Scripture.  Typical among these is a sermon
+of Bishop Sands, in which he declares, regarding the taking of
+interest:  "This canker hath corrupted all England; we shall doe
+God and our country true service by taking away this evill;
+represse it by law, else the heavy hand of God hangeth over us
+and will strike us."
+
+
+
+II.  RETREAT OF THE CHURCH, PROTESTANT AND CATHOLIC.
+
+But about the middle of the seventeenth century Sir Robert Filmer
+gave this doctrine the heaviest blow it ever received in England.
+Taking up Dr. Fenton's treatise, he answered it, and all works
+like it, in a way which, however unsuitable to this century, was
+admirably adapted to that.  He cites Scripture and chops logic
+after a masterly manner.  Characteristic is this declaration:
+"St. Paul doth, with one breath, reckon up seventeen sins, and
+yet usury is none of them; but many preachers can not reckon up
+seven deadly sins, except they make usury one of them."  Filmer
+followed Fenton not only through his theology, but through his
+political economy, with such relentless keenness that the old
+doctrine seems to have been then and there practically worried
+out of existence, so far as England was concerned.
+
+Departures from the strict scriptural doctrines regarding
+interest soon became frequent in Protestant countries, and they
+were followed up with especial vigour in Holland.  Various
+theologians in the Dutch Church attempted to assert the
+scriptural view by excluding bankers from the holy communion;
+but the commercial vigour of the republic was too strong:
+Salmasius led on the forces of right reason brilliantly, and by
+the middle of the seventeenth century the question was settled
+rightly in that country.  This work was aided, indeed, by a far
+greater man, Hugo Grotius; but here was shown the power of an
+established dogma.  Great as Grotius was--and it may well be held
+that his book on War and Peace has wrought more benefit to
+humanity than any other attributed to human authorship--he was,
+in the matter of interest for money, too much entangled in
+theological reasoning to do justice to his cause or to himself.
+He declared the prohibition of it to be scriptural, but resisted
+the doctrine of Aristotle, and allowed interest on certain
+natural and practical grounds.
+
+In Germany the struggle lasted longer.  Of some little
+significance, perhaps, is the demand of Adam Contzen, in 1629,
+that lenders at interest should be punished as thieves; but by
+the end of the seventeenth century Puffendorf and Leibnitz had
+gained the victory.
+
+Protestantism, open as it was to the currents of modern thought,
+could not long continue under the dominion of ideas unfavourable
+to economic development, and perhaps the most remarkable proof of
+this was presented early in the eighteenth century in America, by
+no less strict a theologian than Cotton Mather.  In his
+Magnalia he argues against the whole theological view with a
+boldness, acuteness, and good sense which cause us to wonder that
+this can be the same man who was so infatuated regarding
+witchcraft.   After an argument so conclusive as his, there could
+have been little left of the old anti-economic doctrine in New
+England.[454]
+
+[454] For Calvin's views, see his letter published in the
+appendix to Pearson's Theories on Usury.  His position is well-
+stated in Bohm-Bawerk, pp. 28 et seq., where citations are given.
+See also Economic Tracts, No. IV, New York, 1881, pp. 34, 35; and
+for some serviceable Protestant fictions, see Cunningham,
+Christian Opinion on Usury, pp. 60, 61. For  Dumoulin
+(Molinaeus), see Bohm-Bawerk, as above, pp. 29 et seq.  For
+debates on usury in the British Parliament in Elizabeth's time,
+see Cobbett, Parliamentary History, vol. i, pp 756 et seq.  A
+striking passage in Shakespeare is found in the Merchant of
+Venice, Act I, scene iii: "If thou wilt lend this money, lend it
+not as to thy friend; for when did friendship take a breed for
+barren metal of his friend?"  For the right direction taken by
+Lord Bacon, see Neumann, Geschichte des Wuchers in Deutschland,
+Halle, 1864, pp. 497, 498.  For Salmasius, see his De Usuris,
+Leyden, 1638, and for others mentioned, see Bohm-Bawerk, pp. 34
+et seq.; also Lecky, vol. ii. p. 256.  For the saving clause
+inderted by the bishops in the statute of James I, see the Corpus
+Juris Eccles. Anglic., p. 1071; also Murray, History of Usury,
+Philadelphia, 1866, p. 49.
+
+For Blaxton, see his English Usurer, or Usury Condemned, by John
+Blaxton, Preacher of God's Word, London, 1634. Blaxton gives some
+of Calvin's earlier utterances against interest.  For Bishop
+Sands;s sermon, see p. 11. For Filmer, see his Quaestio
+Quodlibetica, London, 1652, reprinted in the Harleian Miscellany,
+vol.x, pp. 105 et seq.  For Grotius, see the De Jure Belli ac
+Pacis, lib. ii, cap.xii.  For Cotton Mather's argument, see the
+Magnalia, London, 1702, pp. 5, 52.
+
+
+But while the retreat of the Protestant Church from the old
+doctrine regarding the taking of interest was henceforth easy, in
+the Catholic Church it was far more difficult.  Infallible popes
+and councils, with saints, fathers, and doctors, had so
+constantly declared the taking of any interest at all to be
+contrary to Scripture, that the more exact though less fortunate
+interpretation of the sacred text relating to interest continued
+in Catholic countries.  When it was attempted in France in the
+seventeenth century to argue that usury "means oppressive
+interest," the Theological Faculty of the Sorbonne declared that
+usury is the taking of any interest at all, no matter how little;
+and the eighteenth chapter of Ezekiel was cited to clinch this
+argument.
+
+Another attempt to ease the burden of industry and commerce was
+made by declaring that "usury means interest demanded not as a
+matter of favour but as a matter of right."  This, too, was
+solemnly condemned by Pope innocent XI.
+
+Again an attempt was made to find a way out of the difficulty by
+declaring that "usury is interest greater than the law allows."
+This, too, was condemned, and so also was the declaration that
+"usury is interest on loans not for a fixed time."
+
+Still the forces of right reason pressed on, and among them, in
+the seventeenth century, in France, was Richard Simon.  He
+attempted to gloss over the declarations of Scripture against
+lending at interest, in an elaborate treatise, but was
+immediately confronted by Bossuet.  Just as Bossuet had mingled
+Scripture with astronomy and opposed the Copernican theory, so
+now he mingled Scripture with political economy and denounced the
+lending of money at interest.  He called attention to the fact
+that the Scriptures, the councils of the Church from the
+beginning, the popes, the fathers, had all interpreted the
+prohibition of "usury" to be a prohibition of any lending at
+interest; and he demonstrated this interpretation to be the true
+one.  Simon was put to confusion and his book condemned.
+
+There was but too much reason for Bossuet's interpretation.
+There stood the fact that the prohibition of one of the most
+simple and beneficial principles in political and economical
+science was affirmed, not only by the fathers, but by
+twenty-eight councils of the Church, six of them general
+councils, and by seventeen popes, to say nothing of innumerable
+doctors in theology and canon law.  And these prohibitions by the
+Church had been accepted as of divine origin by all obedient sons
+of the Church in the government of France.  Such rulers as
+Charles the Bald in the ninth century, and St. Louis in the
+thirteenth, had riveted this idea into the civil law so firmly
+that it seemed impossible ever to detach it.[455]
+
+[455] For the declaration of the Sorbonne in the seventeenth
+century against taking of interest, see Lecky, Rationalism, vol.
+ii, p. 248, note.  For the special condemnation by Innocent XI,
+see Viva, Damnatae Theses, Pavia, 1715, pp. 112-114.  For
+consideration of various ways of escaping the difficulty
+regarding interest, see Lecky, Rationalism, vol. ii, pp. 249,
+250.  For Bousset's strong declaration against taking interest,
+see his Oeuvres, Paris, 1845-'46, vol. i, p. 734, vol. vi, p.
+654, and vol. ix, p. 49 et seq.  For the number of councils and
+popes condemning usury, see Lecky,as above, vol. ii, p. 255,
+note, citing Concina.
+
+
+As might well be expected, Italy was one of the countries in
+which the theological theory regarding usury--lending at
+interest--was most generally asserted and assented to.  Among
+the great number of Italian canonists who supported the theory,
+two deserve especial mention, as affording a contrast to the
+practical manner in which the commercial Italians met the
+question.
+
+In the sixteenth century, very famous among canonists was the
+learned Benedictine, Vilagut.  In 1589 he published at Venice
+his great work on usury, supporting with much learning and vigour
+the most extreme theological consequences of the old doctrine.
+He defines usury as the taking of anything beyond the original
+loan, and declares it mortal sin; he advocates the denial to
+usurers of Christian burial, confession, the sacraments,
+absolution, and connection with the universities; he declares
+that priests receiving offerings from usurers should refrain from
+exercising their ministry until the matter is passed upon by the
+bishop.
+
+About the middle of the seventeenth century another ponderous
+folio was published in Venice upon the same subject and with the
+same title, by Onorato Leotardi.  So far from showing any signs
+of yielding, he is even more extreme than Vilagut had been, and
+quotes with approval the old declaration that lenders of money at
+interest are not only robbers but murderers.
+
+So far as we can learn, no real opposition was made in either
+century to this theory, as a theory; as to PRACTICE, it was
+different.  The Italian traders did not answer theological
+argument; they simply overrode it.  In spite of theology, great
+banks were established, and especially that of Venice at the end
+of the twelfth century, and those of Barcelona and Genoa at the
+beginning of the fifteenth.  Nowhere was commerce carried on in
+more complete defiance of this and other theological theories
+hampering trade than in the very city where these great treatises
+were published.  The sin of usury, like the sin of commerce with
+the Mohammedans, seems to have been settled for by the Venetian
+merchants on their deathbeds; and greatly to the advantage of
+the magnificent churches and ecclesiastical adornments of the
+city.
+
+By the seventeenth century the clearest thinkers in the Roman
+Church saw that her theology must be readjusted to political
+economy:  so began a series of amazing attempts to reconcile a
+view permitting usury with the long series of decrees of popes
+and councils forbidding it.
+
+In Spain, the great Jesuit casuist Escobar led the way, and
+rarely had been seen such exquisite hair-splitting.  But his
+efforts were not received with the gratitude they perhaps
+deserved.  Pascal, revolting at their moral effect, attacked
+them unsparingly in his Provincial Letters, citing especially
+such passages as the following:  "It is usury to receive profit
+from those to whom one lends, if it be exacted as justly due;
+but, if it be exacted as a debt of gratitude, it is not usury."
+This and a multitude of similar passages Pascal covered with the
+keen ridicule and indignant denunciation of which he was so great
+a master.
+
+But even the genius of Pascal could not stop such efforts.  In
+the eighteenth century they were renewed by a far greater
+theologian than Escobar--by him who was afterward made a saint
+and proclaimed a doctor of the Church--Alphonso Liguori.
+
+Starting with bitter denunciations of usury, Liguori soon
+developed a multitude of subtle devices for escaping the guilt of
+it.  Presenting a long and elaborate theory of "mental, usury"
+he arrives at the conclusion that, if the borrower pay interest
+of his own free will, the lender may keep it.  In answer to the
+question whether the lender may keep what the borrower paid, not
+out of gratitude but out of fear--fear that otherwise loans might
+be refused him in future--Liguori says, "To be usury it must be
+paid by reason of a contract, or as justly due; payment by
+reason of such a fear does not cause interest to be paid as an
+actual price."  Again Liguori tells us, "It is not usury to exact
+something in return for the danger and expense of regaining the
+principal."  The old subterfuges of "Damnum emergens" and "Lucrum
+cessans" are made to do full duty.  A remarkable quibble is
+found in the answer to the question whether he sins who furnishes
+money to a man whom he knows to intend employing it in usury.
+After citing affirmative opinions from many writers, Liguori
+says, "Notwithstanding these opinions, the better opinion seems
+to me to be that the man thus putting out his money is not bound
+to make restitution, for his action is not injurious to the
+borrower, but rather favourable to him," and this reasoning the
+saint develops at great length.
+
+In the Latin countries this sort of casuistry eased the relations
+of the Church with the bankers, and it was full time; for now
+there came arguments of a different kind.  The eighteenth
+century philosophy had come upon the stage, and the first
+effective onset of political scientists against the theological
+opposition in southern Europe was made in Italy--the most noted
+leaders in the attack being Galiani and Maffei.  Here and there
+feeble efforts were made to meet them, but it was felt more and
+more by thinking churchmen that entirely different tactics must
+be adopted.
+
+About the same time came an attack in France, and though its
+results were less immediate at home, they were much more
+effective abroad.  In 1748 appeared Montesquieu's Spirit of the
+Laws.  In this famous book were concentrated twenty years of
+study and thought by a great thinker on the interests of the
+world about him.  In eighteen months it went through twenty-two
+editions; it was translated into every civilized language; and
+among the things on which Montesquieu brought his wit and wisdom
+to bear with especial force was the doctrine of the Church
+regarding interest on loans.  In doing this he was obliged to
+use a caution in forms which seems strangely at variance with the
+boldness of his ideas.  In view of the strictness of
+ecclesiastical control in France, he felt it safest to make his
+whole attack upon those theological and economic follies of
+Mohammedan countries which were similar to those which the
+theological spirit had fastened on France.[456]
+
+[456] For Vilagut, see his Tractatus de Usuris, Venice, 1589,
+especially pp. 21, 25, 399.  For Leotardi, see his De Usuris,
+Venice, 1655, especially preface, pp. 6, 7 et seq.  For Pascal
+and Escobar, see the Provincial Letters, edited by Sayres,
+Cambridge, 1880, Letter VIII, pp. 183-186; also a note to the
+same letter, p. 196.  For Liguori, see his Theologia Moralis,
+Paris, 1834, lib. iii, tract v, cap. iii: De Contractibus, dub,
+vii. For the eighteenth century attack in Italy, see Bohm-Bawerk,
+pp. 48 et seq.  For Montesquieu's view of interest on loans, see
+the Esprit des Lois, livre xxii.
+
+
+By the middle of the eighteenth century the Church authorities at
+Rome clearly saw the necessity of a concession:  the world would
+endure theological restriction no longer; a way of escape MUST
+be found.  It was seen, even by the most devoted theologians,
+that mere denunciations and use of theological arguments or
+scriptural texts against the scientific idea were futile.
+
+To this feeling it was due that, even in the first years of the
+century, the Jesuit casuists had come to the rescue.  With
+exquisite subtlety some of their acutest intellects devoted
+themselves to explaining away the utterances on this subject of
+saints, fathers, doctors, popes, and councils.  These
+explanations were wonderfully ingenious, but many of the older
+churchmen continued to insist upon the orthodox view, and at last
+the Pope himself intervened.  Fortunately for the world, the seat
+of St. Peter was then occupied by Benedict XIV, certainly one of
+the most gifted, morally and intellectually, in the whole line of
+Roman pontiffs.  Tolerant and sympathetic for the oppressed, he
+saw the necessity of taking up the question, and he grappled with
+it effectually:  he rendered to Catholicism a service like that
+which Calvin had rendered to Protestantism, by shrewdly cutting a
+way through the theological barrier.  In 1745 he issued his
+encyclical Vix pervenit, which declared that the doctrine of the
+Church remained consistent with itself; that usury is indeed a
+sin, and that it consists in demanding any amount beyond the
+exact amount lent, but that there are occasions when on special
+grounds the lender may obtain such additional sum.
+
+What these "occasions" and "special grounds" might be, was left
+very vague; but this action was sufficient.
+
+At the same time no new restrictions upon books advocating the
+taking of interest for money were imposed, and, in the year
+following his encyclical, Benedict openly accepted the dedication
+of one of them--the work of Maffei, and perhaps the most cogent
+of all.
+
+Like the casuistry of Boscovich in using the Copernican theory
+for "convenience in argument," while acquiescing in its
+condemnation by the Church authorities, this encyclical of Pope
+Benedict broke the spell.  Turgot, Quesnay, Adam Smith, Hume,
+Bentham, and their disciples pressed on, and science won for
+mankind another great victory.[457]
+
+[457] For Quesnay, see his Observations sur l'Interet de
+l'Argent, in his Oeuvres, Frankfort and Paris, 1888, pp. 399 et
+seq.  For Turgot, see the Collections des Economistes, Paris,
+1844, vols. iii and iv; also Blanqui, Histoire de l'Economie
+Politique, English translation, p. 373.  For an excellent though
+brief summary of the efforts of the Jesuits to explain away the
+old action of the Church, see Lecky, vol. ii, pp 256, 257.  For
+the action of Benedict XIV, see Reusch, Der Index der Vorbotenen
+Bucher, Bonn, 1885, vol. ii, pp 847, 848.  For a comical picture
+of the "quagmire' into which the hierarchy brought itself in the
+squaring of its practice with its theory, see Dollinger, as
+above, pp. 227, 228.  For cunningly vague statements of the
+action of Benedict XIV, see Mastrofini, Sur l'Usure, French
+translation, Lyons, 1834, pp. 125, 255.  The abbate, as will be
+seen, has not the slightest hesitaion in telling an untruth in
+order to preserve the consistency of papal action in the matter
+of usury-- e.g., pp. 93, 94 96, and elsewhere.
+
+
+Yet in this case, as in others, insurrections against the sway of
+scientific truth appeared among some overzealous religionists.
+When the Sorbonne, having retreated from its old position, armed
+itself with new casuistries against those who held to its earlier
+decisions, sundry provincial doctors in theology protested
+indignantly, making the old citations from the Scriptures,
+fathers, saints, doctors, popes, councils, and canonists.  Again
+the Roman court intervened.  In 1830 the Inquisition at Rome,
+with the approval of Pius VIII, though still declining to commit
+itself on the DOCTRINE involved, decreed that, as to PRACTICE,
+confessors should no longer disturb lenders of money at legal
+interest.
+
+But even this did not quiet the more conscientious theologians.
+The old weapons were again furbished and hurled by the Abbe
+Laborde, Vicar of the Metropolitan Archdiocese of Auch, and by
+the Abbe Dennavit, Professor of Theology at Lyons.  Good Abbe
+Dennavit declared that he refused absolution to those who took
+interest and to priests who pretend that the sanction of the
+civil law is sufficient.
+
+But the "wisdom of the serpent" was again brought into
+requisition, and early in the decade between 1830 and 1840 the
+Abbate Mastrofini issued a work on usury, which, he declared on
+its title-page, demonstrated that "moderate usury is not contrary
+to Holy Scripture, or natural law, or the decisions of the
+Church."  Nothing can be more comical than the suppressions of
+truth, evasions of facts, jugglery with phrases, and perversions
+of history, to which the abbate is forced to resort throughout
+his book in order to prove that the Church has made no mistake.
+In the face of scores of explicit deliverances and decrees of
+fathers, doctors, popes, and councils against the taking of any
+interest whatever for money, he coolly pretended that what they
+had declared against was EXORBITANT interest.  He made a merit
+of the action of the Church, and showed that its course had been
+a blessing to humanity.  But his masterpiece is in dealing with
+the edicts of Clement V and Benedict XIV.  As to the first, it
+will be remembered that Clement, in accord with the Council of
+Vienne, had declared that "any one who shall pertinaciously
+presume to affirm that the taking of interest for money is not a
+sin, we decree him to be a heiretic fit for punishment," and we
+have seen that Benedict XIV did not at all deviate from the
+doctrines of his predecessors.  Yet Mastrofini is equal to his
+task, and brings out, as the conclusion of his book, the
+statement put upon his title-page, that what the Church condemns
+is only EXORBITANT interest.
+
+This work was sanctioned by various high ecclesiastical
+dignitaries, and served its purpose; for it covered the retreat
+of the Church.
+
+In 1872 the Holy Office, answering a question solemnly put by the
+Bishop of Ariano, as solemnly declared that those who take eight
+per cent interest per annum are "not to be disquieted"; and in
+1873 appeared a book published under authority from the Holy See,
+allowing the faithful to take moderate interest under condition
+that any future decisions of the Pope should be implicitly
+obeyed.  Social science as applied to political economy had
+gained a victory final and complete.  The Torlonia family at Rome
+to-day, with its palaces, chapels, intermarriages, affiliations,
+and papal favour--all won by lending money at interest, and by
+liberal gifts, from the profits of usury, to the Holy See--is but
+one out of many growths of its kind on ramparts long since
+surrendered and deserted.[458]
+
+[458] For the decree forbidding confessors to trouble lenders of
+money at legal interest, see Addis and Arnold, Catholic
+Dictionary, as above; also Mastrofini, as above, in the appendix,
+where various other recent Roman decrees are given.  As to the
+controversy generally, see Mastrofini; also La Replique des douze
+Docteurs, cited by Guillaumin and Coquelin; also Reusch, vol. ii,
+p. 850.  As an example of Mastrofini's way of making black appear
+white, compare the Latin text of the decree on page 97 with his
+statements regarding it; see also his cunning substitution of the
+new significance of the word usury for the old in various parts
+of his book.  A good historical presentation of the general
+subject will be found in Roscher, Geschichte der National-
+Oeconomie in Deutschland, Munchen, 1874, under articles Wucher
+and Zinsnehmen.  For France, see especially Petit, Traite de
+l'Usure, Paris, 1840; and for Germany, see Neumann, Geschichte
+des Wuchers in Deutschland, Halle, 1865.  For the view of a
+modern leader of thought in this field, see Jeremy Bentham,
+Defence of Usury, Letter X.  For an admirable piece of research
+into the nicer points involved in the whole subject, see H. C.
+Lea, The Ecclesiatical Treatment of Usury, in the Yale Review for
+February, 1894.
+
+
+The dealings of theology with public economy were by no means
+confined to the taking of interest for money.  It would be
+interesting to note the restrictions placed upon commerce by the
+Church prohibition of commercial intercourse with infidels,
+against which the Republic of Venice fought a good fight; to
+note how, by a most curious perversion of Scripture in the Greek
+Church, many of the peasantry of Russia were prevented from
+raising and eating potatoes; how, in Scotland, at the beginning
+of this century, the use of fanning mills for winnowing grain was
+widely denounced as contrary to the text, "The wind bloweth where
+it listeth," etc., as leaguing with Satan, who is "Prince of the
+powers of the air," and therefore as sufficient cause for
+excommunication from the Scotch Church.  Instructive it would be
+also to note how the introduction of railways was declared by an
+archbishop of the French Church to be an evidence of the divine
+displeasure against country innkeepers who set meat before their
+guests on fast days, and who were now punished by seeing
+travellers carried by their doors; how railways and telegraphs
+were denounced from a few noted pulpits as heralds of Antichrist;
+and how in Protestant England the curate of Rotherhithe, at the
+breaking in of the Thames Tunnel, so destructive to life and
+property, declared it from his pulpit a just judgment upon the
+presumptuous aspirations of mortal man.
+
+The same tendency is seen in the opposition of conscientious men
+to the taking of the census in Sweden and the United States, on
+account of the terms in which the numbering of Israel is spoken
+of in the Old Testament.  Religious scruples on similar grounds
+have also been avowed against so beneficial a thing as life
+insurance.
+
+Apparently unimportant as these manifestations are, they indicate
+a widespread tendency; in the application of scriptural
+declarations to matters of social economy, which has not yet
+ceased, though it is fast fading away.[459]
+
+[459] For various interdicts laid upon commerce by the Church,
+see Heyd, Histoire du Commerce du Levant au Moyen-Age, Leipsic,
+1886, vol. ii, passim.  For the injury done to commerce by
+prohibition of intercourse with the infidel, see Lindsay, History
+of Merchant Shipping, London, 1874, vol. ii.  For superstitions
+regarding the introduction of the potato in Russia, and the name
+"devil's root" given it, see Hellwald, Culturgeschichte, vol. ii,
+p. 476; also Haxthausen, La Russie.  For opposition to winnowing
+machines, see Burton, History of Scotland, vol. viii, p. 511;
+also Lecky, Eighteenth Century, vol. ii, p. 83; also Mause
+Headrigg's views in Scott's Old Mortality, chap. vii.  For the
+case of a person debarred from the communion for "raising the
+devil's wind" with a winnowing machine, see Works of Sir J. Y.
+Simpson, vol. ii.  Those doubting the authority or motives of
+Simpson may be reminded that he was to the day of his death one
+of the strictest adherants to Scotch orthodoxy.  As to the curate
+of Rotherhithe, see Journal of Sir I. Brunel for May 20, 1827, in
+Life of I. K. Brunel, p. 30.  As to the conclusions drawn from
+the numbering of Israel, see Michaelis, Commentaries on the Laws
+of Moses, 1874, vol. ii, p. 3.  The author of this work himself
+witnessed the reluctance of a very conscientious man to answer
+the questions of a census marshal, Mr. Lewis Hawley, of Syracuse,
+New York; and this reluctance was based upon the reasons assigned
+in II Samuel xxiv, 1, and I Chronicles xxi,1, for the numbering
+of the children of Israel.
+
+
+Worthy of especial study, too, would be the evolution of the
+modern methods of raising and bettering the condition of the
+poor,--the evolution, especially, of the idea that men are to be
+helped to help themselves, in opposition to the old theories of
+indiscriminate giving, which, taking root in some of the most
+beautiful utterances of our sacred books, grew in the warm
+atmosphere of medieval devotion into great systems for the
+pauperizing of the labouring classes.  Here, too, scientific
+modes of thought in social science have given a new and nobler
+fruitage to the whole growth of Christian benevolence.[460]
+
+[460] Among the vast number of authorities regarding the
+evolution of better methods in dealing with pauperism, I would
+call attention to a work which is especially suggestive--
+Behrends, Christianity and Socialism, New York, 1886.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX.
+
+FROM THE DIVINE ORACLES TO THE HIGHER CRITICISM.
+
+I.  THE OLDER INTERPRETATION.
+
+
+The great sacred books of the world are the most precious of
+human possessions.  They embody the deepest searchings into the
+most vital problems of humanity in all its stages:  the naive
+guesses of the world's childhood, the opening conceptions of its
+youth, the more fully rounded beliefs of its maturity.
+
+These books, no matter how unhistorical in parts and at times,
+are profoundly true.  They mirror the evolution of man's
+loftiest aspirations, hopes, loves, consolations, and
+enthusiasms; his hates and fears; his views of his origin and
+destiny; his theories of his rights and duties; and these not
+merely in their lights but in their shadows.  Therefore it is
+that they contain the germs of truths most necessary in the
+evolution of humanity, and give to these germs the environment
+and sustenance which best insure their growth and strength.
+
+With wide differences in origin and character, this sacred
+literature has been developed and has exercised its influence in
+obedience to certain general laws.  First of these in time, if
+not in importance, is that which governs its origin:  in all
+civilizations we find that the Divine Spirit working in the mind
+of man shapes his sacred books first of all out of the chaos of
+myth and legend; and of these books, when life is thus breathed
+into them, the fittest survive.
+
+So broad and dense is this atmosphere of myth and legend
+enveloping them that it lingers about them after they have been
+brought forth full-orbed; and, sometimes, from it are even
+produced secondary mythical and legendary concretions--satellites
+about these greater orbs of early thought.  Of these secondary
+growths one may be mentioned as showing how rich in myth-making
+material was the atmosphere which enveloped our own earlier
+sacred literature.
+
+In the third century before Christ there began to be elaborated
+among the Jewish scholars of Alexandria, then the great centre of
+human thought, a Greek translation of the main books constituting
+the Old Testament.  Nothing could be more natural at that place
+and time than such a translation; yet the growth of explanatory
+myth and legend around it was none the less luxuriant.  There
+was indeed a twofold growth.  Among the Jews favourable to the
+new version a legend rose which justified it.  This legend in its
+first stage was to the effect that the Ptolemy then on the
+Egyptian throne had, at the request of his chief librarian, sent
+to Jerusalem for translators; that the Jewish high priest
+Eleazar had sent to the king a most precious copy of the
+Scriptures from the temple at Jerusalem, and six most venerable,
+devout, and learned scholars from each of the twelve tribes of
+Israel; that the number of translators thus corresponded with the
+mysterious seventy-two appellations of God; and that the combined
+efforts of these seventy-two men produced a marvellously perfect
+translation.
+
+But in that atmosphere of myth and marvel the legend continued to
+grow, and soon we have it blooming forth yet more gorgeously in
+the statement that King Ptolemy ordered each of the seventy-two
+to make by himself a full translation of the entire Old
+Testament, and shut up each translator in a separate cell on the
+island of Pharos, secluding him there until the work was done;
+that the work of each was completed in exactly seventy-two days;
+and that when, at the end of the seventy-two days, the
+seventy-two translations were compared, each was found exactly
+like all the others.  This showed clearly Jehovah's APPROVAL.
+
+But out of all this myth and legend there was also evolved an
+account of a very different sort.  The Jews who remained
+faithful to the traditions of their race regarded this Greek
+version as a profanation, and therefore there grew up the legend
+that on the completion of the work there was darkness over the
+whole earth during three days.  This showed clearly Jehovah's
+DISAPPROVAL.
+
+These well-known legends, which arose within what--as compared
+with any previous time--was an exceedingly enlightened period,
+and which were steadfastly believed by a vast multitude of Jews
+and Christians for ages, are but single examples among scores
+which show how inevitably such traditions regarding sacred books
+are developed in the earlier stages of civilization, when men
+explain everything by miracle and nothing by law.[461]
+
+[461] For the legend regarding the Septaguint, especially as
+developed by the letters of Pseudo-Aristeas, and for quaint
+citations from the fathers regarding it, see The History of the
+Seventy-two Interpretors, from the Greek of Aristeas, translated
+by Mr. Lewis, London, 1715; also Clement of Alexandria, in the
+Ante-Nicene Christian Library, Edinburgh, 1867, p. 448.  For
+interesting summaries showing the growth of the story, see
+Drummond, Philo Judaeus and the Growth of the Alexandrian
+Philosophy, London, 1888, vol. i, pp. 231 et seq.; also Renan,
+Histoire du Peuple Israel, vol. iv, chap. iv; also, for Philo
+Judaeus's part in developing the legend, see Rev. Dr. Sanday's
+Bampton Lectures for 1893, on Inspiration, pp. 86, 87.
+
+
+As the second of these laws governing the evolution of sacred
+literature may be mentioned that which we have constantly seen so
+effective in the growth of theological ideas--that to which Comte
+gave the name of the Law of Wills and Causes.  Obedient to
+this, man attributes to the Supreme Being a physical,
+intellectual, and moral structure like his own; hence it is that
+the votary of each of the great world religions ascribes to its
+sacred books what he considers absolute perfection:  he imagines
+them to be what he himself would give the world, were he himself
+infinitely good, wise, and powerful.
+
+A very simple analogy might indeed show him that even a
+literature emanating from an all-wise, beneficent, and powerful
+author might not seem perfect when judged by a human standard;
+for he has only to look about him in the world to find that the
+work which he attributes to an all-wise, all-beneficent, and
+all-powerful Creator is by no means free from evil and wrong.
+
+But this analogy long escapes him, and the exponent of each great
+religion proves to his own satisfaction, and to the edification
+of his fellows, that their own sacred literature is absolutely
+accurate in statement, infinitely profound in meaning, and
+miraculously perfect in form.  From these premises also he
+arrives at the conclusion that his own sacred literature is
+unique; that no other sacred book can have emanated from a divine
+source; and that all others claiming to be sacred are impostures.
+
+Still another law governing the evolution of sacred literature in
+every great world religion is, that when the books which compose
+it are once selected and grouped they come to be regarded as a
+final creation from which nothing can be taken away, and of which
+even error in form, if sanctioned by tradition, may not be
+changed.
+
+The working of this law has recently been seen on a large scale.
+
+A few years since, a body of chosen scholars, universally
+acknowledged to be the most fit for the work, undertook, at the
+call of English-speaking Christendom, to revise the authorized
+English version of the Bible.
+
+Beautiful as was that old version, there was abundant reason for
+a revision.  The progress of biblical scholarship had revealed
+multitudes of imperfections and not a few gross errors in the
+work of the early translators, and these, if uncorrected, were
+sure to bring the sacred volume into discredit.
+
+Nothing could be more reverent than the spirit of the revisers,
+and the nineteenth century has known few historical events of
+more significant and touching beauty than the participation in
+the holy communion by all these scholars--prelates, presbyters,
+ministers, and laymen of churches most widely differing in belief
+and observance--kneeling side by side at the little altar in
+Westminster Abbey.
+
+Nor could any work have been more conservative and cautious than
+theirs; as far as possible they preserved the old matter and
+form with scrupulous care.
+
+Yet their work was no sooner done than it was bitterly attacked
+and widely condemned; to this day it is largely regarded with
+dislike.  In Great Britain, in America, in Australia, the old
+version, with its glaring misconceptions, mistranslations, and
+interpolations, is still read in preference to the new; the
+great body of English-speaking Christians clearly preferring the
+accustomed form of words given by the seventeenth-century
+translators, rather than a nearer approach to the exact teaching
+of the Holy Ghost.
+
+Still another law is, that when once a group of sacred books has
+been evolved--even though the group really be a great library of
+most dissimilar works, ranging in matter from the hundredth Psalm
+to the Song of Songs, and in manner from the sublimity of Isaiah
+to the offhand story-telling of Jonah--all come to be thought one
+inseparable mass of interpenetrating parts; every statement in
+each fitting exactly and miraculously into each statement in
+every other; and each and every one, and all together, literally
+true to fact, and at the same time full of hidden meanings.
+
+The working of these and other laws governing the evolution of
+sacred literature is very clearly seen in the great rabbinical
+schools which flourished at Jerusalem, Tiberias, and elsewhere,
+after the return of the Jews from the Babylonian captivity, and
+especially as we approach the time of Christ.  These schools
+developed a subtlety in the study of the Old Testament which
+seems almost preternatural.  The resultant system was mainly a
+jugglery with words, phrases, and numbers, which finally became a
+"sacred science," with various recognised departments, in which
+interpretation was carried on sometimes by attaching a numerical
+value to letters; sometimes by interchange of letters from
+differently arranged alphabets; sometimes by the making of new
+texts out of the initial letters of the old; and with
+ever-increasing subtlety.
+
+Such efforts as these culminated fitly in the rabbinical
+declaration that each passage in the law has seventy distinct
+meanings, and that God himself gives three hours every day to
+their study.
+
+After this the Jewish world was prepared for anything, and it
+does not surprise us to find such discoveries in the domain of
+ethical culture as the doctrine that, for inflicting the forty
+stripes save one upon those who broke the law, the lash should be
+braided of ox-hide and ass-hide; and, as warrant for this
+construction of the lash, the text, "The ox knoweth his owner,
+and the ass his master's crib, but Israel doth not know"; and,
+as the logic connecting text and lash, the statement that Jehovah
+evidently intended to command that "the men who know not shall be
+beaten by those animals whose knowledge shames them."
+
+By such methods also were revealed such historical treasures as
+that Og, King of Bashan, escaped the deluge by wading after
+Noah's ark.
+
+There were, indeed, noble exceptions to this kind of teaching.
+It can not be forgotten that Rabbi Hillel formulated the golden
+rule, which had before him been given to the extreme Orient by
+Confucius, and which afterward received a yet more beautiful and
+positive emphasis from Jesus of Nazareth; but the seven rules of
+interpretation laid down by Hillel were multiplied and refined by
+men like Rabbi Ismael and Rabbi Eleazar until they justified
+every absurd subtlety.[462]
+
+[462] For a multitude of amusing examples of rabbinical
+interpretations, see an article in Blackwood's Magazine for
+November, 1882.  For a more general discussion, see Archdeacon
+Farrar's History of Interpretation, lect. i and ii, and Rev.
+Prof. H. P. Smith's Inspiration and Inerrancy, Cincinnati, 1893,
+especially chap. iv; also Reuss, History of the New Testament,
+English translation, pp. 527, 528.
+
+
+An eminent scholar has said that while the letter of Scripture
+became ossified in Palestine, it became volatilized at
+Alexandria; and the truth of this remark was proved by the
+Alexandrian Jewish theologians just before the beginning of our
+era.
+
+This, too, was in obedience to a law of development, which is,
+that when literal interpretation clashes with increasing
+knowledge or with progress in moral feeling, theologians take
+refuge in mystic meanings--a law which we see working in all
+great religions, from the Brahmans finding hidden senses in the
+Vedas, to Plato and the Stoics finding them in the Greek myths;
+and from the Sofi reading new meanings into the Koran, to eminent
+Christian divines of the nineteenth century giving a non-natural
+sense to some of the plainest statements in the Bible.
+
+Nothing is more natural than all this.  When naive statements of
+sacred writers, in accord with the ethics of early ages, make
+Brahma perform atrocities which would disgrace a pirate; and
+Jupiter take part in adventures worthy of Don Juan; and Jahveh
+practise trickery, cruelty, and high-handed injustice which would
+bring any civilized mortal into the criminal courts, the
+invention of allegory is the one means of saving the divine
+authority as soon as men reach higher planes of civilization.
+
+The great early master in this evolution of allegory, for the
+satisfaction of Jews and Christians, was Philo:  by him its use
+came in as never before.  The four streams of the garden of Eden
+thus become the four virtues; Abraham's country and kindred,
+from which he was commanded to depart, the human body and its
+members; the five cities of Sodom, the five senses; the
+Euphrates, correction of manners.  By Philo and his compeers even
+the most insignificant words and phrases, and those especially,
+were held to conceal the most precious meanings.
+
+A perfectly natural and logical result of this view was reached
+when Philo, saturated as he was with Greek culture and nourished
+on pious traditions of the utterances at Delphi and Dodona, spoke
+reverently of the Jewish Scriptures as "oracles".  Oracles they
+became:  as oracles they appeared in the early history of the
+Christian Church; and oracles they remained for centuries:
+eternal life or death, infinite happiness or agony, as well as
+ordinary justice in this world, being made to depend on shifting
+interpretations of a long series of dark and doubtful
+utterances--interpretations frequently given by men who might
+have been prophets and apostles, but who had become simply
+oracle-mongers.
+
+Pressing these oracles into the service of science, Philo became
+the forerunner of that long series of theologians who, from
+Augustine and Cosmas to Mr. Gladstone, have attempted to
+extract from scriptural myth and legend profound contributions to
+natural science.  Thus he taught that the golden candlesticks in
+the tabernacle symbolized the planets, the high priest's robe the
+universe, and the bells upon it the harmony of earth and
+water--whatever that may mean.  So Cosmas taught, a thousand
+years later, that the table of shewbread in the tabernacle showed
+forth the form and construction of the world; and Mr. Gladstone
+hinted, more than a thousand years later still, that Neptune's
+trident had a mysterious connection with the Christian doctrine
+of the Trinity.[463]
+
+[463] For Philo Judaeus, see Yonge's translation, Bohn's edition;
+see also Sanday, Inspiration, pp. 78-85.  For admirable general
+remarks on this period in history of exegesis, see Bartlett,
+Bampton Lectures, 1888, p. 29.  For efforts in general to save
+the credit of myths by allegorical interpretation, and for those
+of Philo in particular, see Drummond, Philo Judaeus, London,
+1888, vol. i, pp. 18, 19, and notes.  For interesting examples of
+Alexandrian exegesis and for Philo's application of the term
+"oracle" to the Jewish Scriptures, see Farrar, History of
+Interpretation, p. 147 and note.  For his discovery of symbols of
+the universe in the furniture of the tabernacle, see Drummond, as
+above, pp. 269 et seq.  For the general subject, admirably
+discussed from a historical point of view, see the Rev. Edwin
+Hatch, D. D., The Influence of Greek Ideas and Usages upon the
+Christian Church, Hibbert Lectures for 1888, chap. iii.  For
+Cosmas, see my chapters on Geography and Astronomy.  For Mr.
+Gladstone's view of the connection between Neptune's trident and
+the doctrine of the Trinity, see his Juventus Mundi.
+
+
+These methods, as applied to the Old Testament, had appeared at
+times in the New; in spite of the resistance of Tertullian and
+Irenaeus, they were transmitted to the Church; and in the works
+of the early fathers they bloomed forth luxuriantly.
+
+Justin Martyr and Clement of Alexandria vigorously extended them.
+Typical of Justin's method is his finding, in a very simple
+reference by Isaiah to Damascus, Samaria, and Assyria, a clear
+prophecy of the three wise men of the East who brought gifts to
+the infant Saviour; and in the bells on the priest's robe a
+prefiguration of the twelve apostles.  Any difficulty arising
+from the fact that the number of bells is not specified in
+Scripture, Justin overcame by insisting that David referred to
+this prefiguration in the nineteenth Psalm:  "Their sound is gone
+out through all the earth, and their words to the end of the
+world."
+
+Working in this vein, Clement of Alexandria found in the form,
+dimensions, and colour of the Jewish tabernacle a whole wealth of
+interpretation--the altar of incense representing the earth
+placed at the centre of the universe; the high priest's robe the
+visible world; the jewels on the priest's robe the zodiac; and
+Abraham's three days' journey to Mount Moriah the three stages of
+the soul in its progress toward the knowledge of God.
+Interpreting the New Testament, he lessened any difficulties
+involved in the miracle of the barley loaves and fishes by
+suggesting that what it really means is that Jesus gave mankind a
+preparatory training for the gospel by means of the law and
+philosophy; because, as he says, barley, like the law, ripens
+sooner than wheat, which represents the gospel; and because,
+just as fishes grow in the waves of the ocean, so philosophy grew
+in the waves of the Gentile world.
+
+Out of reasonings like these, those who followed, especially
+Cosmas, developed, as we have seen, a complete theological
+science of geography and astronomy.[464]
+
+[464] For Justin, see the Dialogue with Trypho, chaps. xlii,
+lxxvi, and lxxxiii.  For Clement of Alexandria, see his
+Miscellanies, book v, chaps. vi and xi, and book vii, chap. xvi,
+and especially Hatch, Hibbert Lectures, as above, pp. 76, 77.  As
+to the loose views of the canon held by these two fathers and
+others of their time, see Ladd, Doctrine of the Sacred
+Scriptures, vol. ii, pp. 86, 88; also Diestel, Geschichte des
+alten Testaments.
+
+
+But the instrument in exegesis which was used with most cogent
+force was the occult significance of certain numbers.  The
+Chaldean and Egyptian researches of our own time have revealed
+the main source of this line of thought; the speculations of
+Plato upon it are well known; but among the Jews and in the
+early Church it grew into something far beyond the wildest
+imaginings of the priests of Memphis and Babylon.
+
+Philo had found for the elucidation of Scripture especially deep
+meanings in the numbers four, six, and seven; but other
+interpreters soon surpassed him.  At the very outset this occult
+power was used in ascertaining the canonical books of Scripture.
+Josephus argued that, since there were twenty-two letters in the
+Hebrew alphabet, there must be twenty-two sacred books in the Old
+Testament; other Jewish authorities thought that there should be
+twenty-four books, on account of the twenty-four watches in the
+temple.  St. Jerome wavered between the argument based upon
+the twenty-two letters in the Hebrew alphabet and that suggested
+by the twenty-four elders in the Apocalypse.  Hilary of Poitiers
+argued that there must be twenty-four books, on account of the
+twenty-four letters in the Greek alphabet.  Origen found an
+argument for the existence of exactly four gospels in the
+existence of just four elements.  Irenaeus insisted that there
+could be neither more nor fewer than four gospels, since the
+earth has four quarters, the air four winds, and the cherubim
+four faces; and he denounced those who declined to accept this
+reasoning as "vain, ignorant, and audacious."[465]
+
+[465] For Jerome and Origen, see notes on pages following.  For
+Irenaeus, see Irenaeus, Adversus Hoeres., lib. iii, cap. xi, S 8.
+For the general subject, see Sanday, Inspiration, p. 115; also
+Farrar and H. P. Smith as above.  For a recent very full and very
+curious statement from a Roman Catholic authority regarding views
+cherished in the older Church as to the symbolism of numbers, see
+Detzel, Christliche Iconographie, Freiburg in Bresigau, Band i,
+Einleitung, p. 4.
+
+
+But during the first half of the third century came one who
+exercised a still stronger influence in this direction--a great
+man who, while rendering precious services, did more than any
+other to fasten upon the Church a system which has been one of
+its heaviest burdens for more than sixteen hundred years:  this
+was Origen.  Yet his purpose was noble and his work based on
+profound thought.  He had to meet the leading philosophers of
+the pagan world, to reply to their arguments against the Old
+Testament, and especially to break the force of their taunts
+against its imputation of human form, limitations, passions,
+weaknesses, and even immoralities to the Almighty.
+
+Starting with a mistaken translation of a verse in the book of
+Proverbs, Origen presented as a basis for his main structure the
+idea of a threefold sense of Scripture:  the literal, the moral,
+and the mystic--corresponding to the Platonic conception of the
+threefold nature of man.  As results of this we have such
+masterpieces as his proof, from the fifth verse of chapter xxv of
+Job, that the stars are living beings, and from the well-known
+passage in the nineteenth chapter of St. Matthew his warrant
+for self-mutilation.  But his great triumphs were in the
+allegorical method.  By its use the Bible was speedily made an
+oracle indeed, or, rather, a book of riddles.  A list of kings in
+the Old Testament thus becomes an enumeration of sins; the
+waterpots of stone, "containing two or three firkins apiece," at
+the marriage of Cana, signify the literal, moral, and spiritual
+sense of Scripture; the ass upon which the Saviour rode on his
+triumphal entry into Jerusalem becomes the Old Testament, the
+foal the New Testament, and the two apostles who went to loose
+them the moral and mystical senses; blind Bartimeus throwing off
+his coat while hastening to Jesus, opens a whole treasury of
+oracular meanings.
+
+The genius and power of Origen made a great impression on the
+strong thinkers who followed him.  St. Jerome called him "the
+greatest master in the Church since the apostles," and Athanasius
+was hardly less emphatic.
+
+The structure thus begun was continued by leading theologians
+during the centuries following:  St. Hilary of Poitiers--"the
+Athanasius of Gaul"--produced some wonderful results of this
+method; but St. Jerome, inspired by the example of the man whom
+he so greatly admired, went beyond him.  A triumph of his
+exegesis is seen in his statement that the Shunamite damsel who
+was selected to cherish David in his old age signified heavenly
+wisdom.
+
+The great mind of St. Augustine was drawn largely into this
+kind of creation, and nothing marks more clearly the vast change
+which had come over the world than the fact that this greatest of
+the early Christian thinkers turned from the broader paths opened
+by Plato and Aristotle into that opened by Clement of Alexandria.
+
+
+In the mystic power of numbers to reveal the sense of Scripture
+Augustine found especial delight.  He tells us that there is
+deep meaning in sundry scriptural uses of the number forty, and
+especially as the number of days required for fasting.  Forty,
+he reminds us, is four times ten.  Now, four, he says, is the
+number especially representing time, the day and the year being
+each divided into four parts; while ten, being made up of three
+and seven, represents knowledge of the Creator and creature,
+three referring to the three persons in the triune Creator, and
+seven referring to the three elements, heart, soul, and mind,
+taken in connection with the four elements, fire, air, earth, and
+water, which go to make up the creature.  Therefore this number
+ten, representing knowledge, being multiplied by four,
+representing time, admonishes us to live during time according to
+knowledge--that is, to fast for forty days.  Referring to such
+misty methods as these, which lead the reader to ask himself
+whether he is sleeping or waking, St. Augustine remarks that
+"ignorance of numbers prevents us from understanding such things
+in Scripture."  But perhaps the most amazing example is to be
+seen in his notes on the hundred and fifty and three fishes
+which, according to St. John's Gospel, were caught by St.
+Peter and the other apostles.  Some points in his long
+development of this subject may be selected to show what the
+older theological method could be made to do for a great mind.
+He tells us that the hundred and fifty and three fishes embody a
+mystery; that the number ten, evidently as the number of the
+commandments, indicates the law; but, as the law without the
+spirit only kills, we must add the seven gifts of the spirit, and
+we thus have the number seventeen, which signifies the old and
+new dispensations; then, if we add together every several number
+which seventeen contains from one to seventeen inclusive, the
+result is a hundred and fifty and three--the number of the
+fishes.  With this sort of reasoning he finds profound meanings
+in the number of furlongs mentioned in he sixth chapter of St.
+John.  Referring to the fact that the disciples had rowed about
+"twenty-five or thirty furlongs," he declares that "twenty-five
+typifies the law, because it is five times five, but the law was
+imperfect before the gospel came; now perfection is comprised in
+six, since God in six days perfected the world, hence five is
+multiplied by six that the law may be perfected by the gospel,
+and six times five is thirty."
+
+But Augustine's exploits in exegesis were not all based on
+numerals; he is sometimes equally profound in other modes.  Thus
+he tells us that the condemnation of the serpent to eat dust
+typifies the sin of curiosity, since in eating dust he
+"penetrates the obscure and shadowy"; and that Noah's ark was
+"pitched within and without with pitch" to show the safety of the
+Church from the leaking in of heresy.
+
+Still another exploit--one at which the Church might well have
+stood aghast--was his statement that the drunkenness of Noah
+prefigured the suffering and death of Christ.  It is but just to
+say that he was not the original author of this interpretation:
+it had been presented long before by St. Cyprian.  But this
+was far from Augustine's worst.  Perhaps no interpretation of
+Scripture has ever led to more cruel and persistent oppression,
+torture, and bloodshed than his reading into one of the most
+beautiful parables of Jesus of Nazareth--into the words "Compel
+them to come in"--a warrant for religious persecution:  of all
+unintended blasphemies since the world began, possibly the most
+appalling.  Another strong man follows to fasten these methods on
+the Church:  St. Gregory the Great.  In his renowned work on the
+book of Job, the Magna Moralia, given to the world at the end of
+the sixth century, he lays great stress on the deep mystical
+meanings of the statement that Job had seven sons.  He thinks the
+seven sons typify the twelve apostles, for "the apostles were
+selected through the sevenfold grace of the Spirit; moreover,
+twelve is produced from seven--that is, the two parts of seven,
+four and three, when multiplied together give twelve."  He also
+finds deep significance in the number of the apostles; this
+number being evidently determined by a multiplication of the
+number of persons in the Trinity by the number of quarters of the
+globe.  Still, to do him justice, it must be said that in some
+parts of his exegesis the strong sense which was one of his most
+striking characteristics crops out in a way very refreshing.
+Thus, referring to a passage in the first chapter of Job,
+regarding the oxen which were ploughing and the asses which were
+feeding beside them, he tells us pithily that these typify two
+classes of Christians:  the oxen, the energetic Christians who do
+the work of the Church; the asses, the lazy Christians who merely
+feed.[466]
+
+[466] For Origen, see the De Principiis, book iv, chaps. i-vii et
+seq., Crombie's translation; also the Contra Celsum, vol. vi, p.
+70; vol. vii, p. 20, etc.; also various citations in Farrar.  For
+Hilary, see his Tractatus super Psalmos, cap. ix, li, etc. in
+Migne, vol. ix, and De Trinitate, lib. ii, cap. ii.  For Jerome's
+interpretation of the text relating to the Shunamite woman, see
+Epist. lii, in Migne, vol. xxii, pp. 527, 528.  For Augustine's
+use of numbers, see the De Doctrina Christiana, lib. ii, cap.
+xvi; and for the explanation of the draught of fishes, see
+Augustine in, In Johan. Evangel., tractat. cxxii; and on the
+twenty-five to thirty furlongs, ibid., tract. xxv, cap. 6; and
+for the significance of the serpent eating dust, De Gen., lib.
+ii, c. 18.  or the view that the drunkenness of Noah prefigured
+the suffering of Christ, as held by SS. Cyprian and Augustine,
+see Farrar, as above, pp. 181, 238.  For St. Gregory, see the
+Magna Moralia, lib. i, cap. xiv.
+
+
+Thus began the vast theological structure of oracular
+interpretation applied to the Bible.  As we have seen, the men
+who prepared the ground for it were the rabbis of Palestine and
+the Hellenized Jews of Alexandria; and the four great men who
+laid its foundation courses were Origen, St. Augustine, St.
+Jerome, and St. Gregory.
+
+During the ten centuries following the last of these men this
+structure continued to rise steadily above the plain meanings of
+Scripture.  The Christian world rejoiced in it, and the few
+great thinkers who dared bring the truth to bear upon it were
+rejected.  It did indeed seem at one period in the early Church
+that a better system might be developed.  The School of Antioch,
+especially as represented by Chrysostom, appeared likely to lead
+in this better way, but the dominant forces were too strong; the
+passion for myth and marvel prevailed over the love of real
+knowledge, and the reasonings of Chrysostom and his compeers were
+neglected.[467]
+
+[467] For the work of the School of Antioch, and especially of
+Chrysostom, see the eloquent tribute to it by Farrar, as above.
+
+
+In the ninth century came another effort to present the claims of
+right reason.  The first man prominent in this was St. Agobard,
+Bishop of Lyons, whom an eminent historian has well called the
+clearest head of his time.  With the same insight which
+penetrated the fallacies and follies of image worship, belief in
+witchcraft persecution, the ordeal, and the judicial duel, he saw
+the futility of this vast fabric of interpretation, protested
+against the idea that the Divine Spirit extended its inspiration
+to the mere words of Scripture, and asked a question which has
+resounded through every generation since:  "If you once begin
+such a system, who can measure the absurdity which will follow?"
+
+During the same century another opponent of this dominant system
+appeared:  John Scotus Erigena.  He contended that "reason and
+authority come alike from the one source of Divine Wisdom"; that
+the fathers, great as their authority is, often contradict each
+other; and that, in last resort, reason must be called in to
+decide between them.
+
+But the evolution of unreason continued:  Agobard was unheeded,
+and Erigena placed under the ban by two councils--his work being
+condemned by a synod as a "Commentum Diaboli."  Four centuries
+later Honorius III ordered it to be burned, as "teeming with the
+venom of hereditary depravity"; and finally, after eight
+centuries, Pope Gregory XIII placed it on the Index, where, with
+so many other works which have done good service to humanity, it
+remains to this day.  Nor did Abelard, who, three centuries
+after Agobard and Erigena, made an attempt in some respects like
+theirs, have any better success:  his fate at the hands of St.
+Bernard and the Council of Sens the world knows by heart.  Far
+more consonant with the spirit of the universal Church was the
+teaching in the twelfth century of the great Hugo of St.
+Victor, conveyed in these ominous words, "Learn first what is to
+be believed" (Disce primo quod credendum est), meaning thereby
+that one should first accept doctrines, and then find texts to
+confirm them.
+
+These principles being dominant, the accretions to the enormous
+fabric of interpretation went steadily on.  Typical is the fact
+that the Venerable Bede contributed to it the doctrine that, in
+the text mentioning Elkanah and his two wives, Elkanah means
+Christ and the two wives the Synagogue and the Church.  Even
+such men as Alfred the Great and St. Thomas Aquinas were added to
+the forces at work in building above the sacred books this
+prodigious structure of sophistry.
+
+Perhaps nothing shows more clearly the tenacity of the old system
+of interpretation than the sermons of Savonarola.  During the
+last decade of the fifteenth century, just at the close of the
+medieval period, he was engaged in a life-and-death struggle at
+Florence.  No man ever preached more powerfully the gospel of
+righteousness; none ever laid more stress on conduct; even
+Luther was not more zealous for reform or more careless of
+tradition; and yet we find the great Florentine apostle and
+martyr absolutely tied fast to the old system of allegorical
+interpretation.  The autograph notes of his sermons, still
+preserved in his cell at San Marco, show this abundantly.  Thus
+we find him attaching to the creation of grasses and plants on
+the third day an allegorical connection with the "multitude of
+the elect" and with the "sound doctrines of the Church," and to
+the creation of land animals on the sixth day a similar relation
+to "the Jewish people" and to "Christians given up to things
+earthly."[468]
+
+[468] For Agobard, see the Liber adversus Fredigisum, cap. xii;
+also Reuter's Relig. Aufklarung im Mittelalter, vol. i, p. 24;
+also Poole, Illustrations of the History of Medieval Thought,
+London, 1884, pp. 38 et seq. For Erigena, see his De Divisione
+Naturae, lib. iv, cap. v; also i, cap. lxvi-lxxi; and for general
+account, see Ueberweg, History of Philosophy, New York, 1871,
+vol. i, pp. 358 et seq.; and for the treatment of his work by the
+Church, see the edition of the Index under Leo XIII, 1881.  For
+Abelard, see the Sic et Non, Prologue, Migne, vol. iii, pp. 371-
+377.  For Hugo of St. Victor, see Erudit. Didask., lib. vii, vi,
+4, in Migne, clxxvi.  For Savonarola's interpretations, see
+various references to his preaching in Villari's life of
+Savonarola, English translation, London, 1890, and especially the
+exceedingly interesting table in the appendix to vol. i, chap.
+vii.
+
+
+The revival of learning in the fifteenth century seemed likely to
+undermine this older structure.
+
+Then it was that Lorenzo Valla brought to bear on biblical
+research, for the first time, the spirit of modern criticism.
+By truly scientific methods he proved the famous "Letter of
+Christ to Abgarus" a forgery; the "Donation of Constantine," one
+of the great foundations of the ecclesiastical power in temporal
+things, a fraud; and the "Apostles' Creed" a creation which
+post-dated the apostles by several centuries.  Of even more
+permanent influence was his work upon the New Testament, in which
+he initiated the modern method of comparing manuscripts to find
+what the sacred text really is.  At an earlier or later period he
+would doubtless have paid for his temerity with his life;
+fortunately, just at that time the ruling pontiff and his
+Contemporaries cared much for literature and little for
+orthodoxy, and from their palaces he could bid defiance to the
+Inquisition.
+
+While Valla thus initiated biblical criticism south of the Alps,
+a much greater man began a more fruitful work in northern Europe.
+Erasmus, with his edition of the New Testament, stands at the
+source of that great stream of modern research and thought which
+is doing so much to undermine and dissolve away the vast fabric
+of patristic and scholastic interpretation.
+
+Yet his efforts to purify the scriptural text seemed at first to
+encounter insurmountable difficulties, and one of these may
+stimulate reflection.  He had found, what some others had found
+before him, that the famous verse in the fifth chapter of the
+First Epistle General of St. John, regarding the "three
+witnesses," was an interpolation.  Careful research through all
+the really important early manuscripts showed that it appeared in
+none of them.  Even after the Bible had been corrected, in the
+eleventh and twelfth centuries, by Lanfranc, Archbishop of
+Canterbury, and by Nicholas, cardinal and librarian of the Roman
+Church, "in accordance with the orthodox faith," the passage was
+still wanting in the more authoritative Latin manuscripts.
+There was not the slightest tenable ground for believing in the
+authenticity of the text; on the contrary, it has been
+demonstrated that, after a universal silence of the orthodox
+fathers of the Church, of the ancient versions of the Scriptures,
+and of all really important manuscripts, the verse first appeared
+in a Confession of Faith drawn up by an obscure zealot toward the
+end of the fifth century.  In a very mild exercise, then, of
+critical judgment, Erasmus omitted this text from the first two
+editions of his Greek Testament as evidently spurious.  A storm
+arose at once.  In England, Lee, afterward Archbishop of York;
+in Spain, Stunica, one of the editors of the Complutensian
+Polyglot; and in France, Bude, Syndic of the Sorbonne, together
+with a vast army of monks in England and on the Continent,
+attacked him ferociously.  He was condemned by the University of
+Paris, and various propositions of his were declared to be
+heretical and impious.  Fortunately, the worst persecutors could
+not reach him; otherwise they might have treated him as they
+treated his disciple, Berquin, whom in 1529 they burned at Paris.
+
+The fate of this spurious text throws light into the workings of
+human nature in its relations to sacred literature.  Although
+Luther omitted it from his translation of the New Testament, and
+kept it out of every copy published during his lifetime, and
+although at a later period the most eminent Christian scholars
+showed that it had no right to a place in the Bible, it was,
+after Luther's death, replaced in the German translation, and has
+been incorporated into all important editions of it, save one,
+since the beginning of the seventeenth century.  So essential
+was it found in maintaining the dominant theology that, despite
+the fact that Sir Isaac Newton, Richard Porson, the
+nineteenth-century revisers, and all other eminent authorities
+have rejected it, the Anglican Church still retains it in its
+Lectionary, and the Scotch Church continues to use it in the
+Westminster Catechism, as a main support of the doctrine of the
+Trinity.
+
+Nor were other new truths presented by Erasmus better received.
+His statement that "some of the epistles ascribed to St. Paul
+are certainly not his," which is to-day universally acknowledged
+as a truism, also aroused a storm.  For generations, then, his
+work seemed vain.
+
+On the coming in of the Reformation the great structure of belief
+in the literal and historical correctness of every statement in
+the Scriptures, in the profound allegorical meanings of the
+simplest texts, and even in the divine origin of the vowel
+punctuation, towered more loftily and grew more rapidly than ever
+before.  The Reformers, having cast off the authority of the
+Pope and of the universal Church, fell back all the more upon the
+infallibility of the sacred books.  The attitude of Luther
+toward this great subject was characteristic.  As a rule, he
+adhered tenaciously to the literal interpretation of the
+Scriptures; his argument against Copernicus is a fair example of
+his reasoning in this respect; but, with the strong good sense
+which characterized him, he from time to time broke away from the
+received belief. Thus, he took the liberty of understanding
+certain passages in the Old Testament in a different sense from
+that given them by the New Testament, and declared St. Paul's
+allegorical use of the story of Sarah and Hagar "too unsound to
+stand the test."  He also emphatically denied that the Epistle to
+the Hebrews was written by St. Paul, and he did this in the
+exercise of a critical judgment upon internal evidence.  His
+utterance as to the Epistle of St. James became famous.  He
+announced to the Church:  "I do not esteem this an apostolic,
+epistle; I will not have it in my Bible among the canonical
+books," and he summed up his opinion in his well-known allusion
+to it as "an epistle of straw."
+
+Emboldened by him, the gentle spirit of Melanchthon, while
+usually taking the Bible very literally, at times revolted; but
+this was not due to any want of loyalty to the old method of
+interpretation:  whenever the wildest and most absurd system of
+exegesis seemed necessary to support any part of the reformed
+doctrine, Luther and Melanchthon unflinchingly developed it.
+Both of them held firmly to the old dictum of Hugo of St. Victor,
+which, as we have seen, was virtually that one must first accept
+the doctrine, and then find scriptural warrant for it.  Very
+striking examples of this were afforded in the interpretation by
+Luther and Melanchthon of certain alleged marvels of their time,
+and one out of several of these may be taken as typical of their
+methods.
+
+In 1523 Luther and Melanchthon jointly published a work under the
+title Der Papstesel--interpreting the significance of a strange,
+ass-like monster which, according to a popular story, had been
+found floating in the Tiber some time before.  This book was
+illustrated by startling pictures, and both text and pictures
+were devoted to proving that this monster was "a sign from God,"
+indicating the doom of the papacy.  This treatise by the two
+great founders of German Protestantism pointed out that the ass's
+head signified the Pope himself; "for," said they, "as well as an
+ass's head is suited to a human body, so well is the Pope suited
+to be head over the Church."  This argument was clinched by a
+reference to Exodus.  The right hand of the monster, said to be
+like an elephant's foot, they made to signify the spiritual rule
+of the Pope, since "with it he tramples upon all the weak":  this
+they proved from the book of Daniel and the Second Epistle to
+Timothy.  The monster's left hand, which was like the hand of a
+man, they declared to mean the Pope's secular rule, and they
+found passages to support this view in Daniel and St. Luke.
+The right foot, which was like the foot of an ox, they declared
+to typify the servants of the spiritual power; and proved this by
+a citation from St. Matthew.  The left foot, like a griffin's
+claw, they made to typify the servants of the temporal power of
+the Pope, and the highly developed breasts and various other
+members, cardinals, bishops, priests, and monks, "whose life is
+eating, drinking, and unchastity":  to prove this they cited
+passages from Second Timothy and Philippians.  The alleged
+fish-scales on the arms, legs, and neck of the monster they made
+to typify secular princes and lords; "since," as they said, "in
+St. Matthew and Job the sea typifies the world, and fishes men."
+The old man's head at the base of the monster's spine they
+interpreted to mean "the abolition and end of the papacy," and
+proved this from Hebrews and Daniel.  The dragon which opens his
+mouth in the rear and vomits fire, "refers to the terrible,
+virulent bulls and books which the Pope and his minions are now
+vomiting forth into the world."  The two great Reformers then
+went on to insist that, since this monster was found at Rome, it
+could refer to no person but the Pope; "for," they said, "God
+always sends his signs in the places where their meaning
+applies."  Finally, they assured the world that the monster
+in general clearly signified that the papacy was then near its
+end.  To this development of interpretation Luther and
+Melanchthon especially devoted themselves; the latter by revising
+this exposition of the prodigy, and the former by making
+additions to a new edition.  Such was the success of this kind of
+interpretation that Luther, hearing that a monstrous calf had
+been found at Freiburg, published a treatise upon it--showing, by
+citations from the books of Exodus, Kings, the Psalms, Isaiah,
+Daniel, and the Gospel of St. John, that this new monster was the
+especial work of the devil, but full of meaning in regard to the
+questions at issue between the Reformers and the older Church.
+
+The other main branch of the Reformed Church appeared for a time
+to establish a better system.  Calvin's strong logic seemed at
+one period likely to tear his adherents away from the older
+method; but the evolution of scholasticism continued, and the
+influence of the German reformers prevailed.  At every
+theological centre came an amazing development of interpretation.
+
+Eminent Lutheran divines in the seventeenth century, like
+Gerhard, Calovius, Coccerus, and multitudes of others, wrote
+scores of quartos to further this system, and the other branch of
+the Protestant Church emulated their example.  The pregnant
+dictum of St. Augustine--"Greater is the authority of Scripture
+than all human capacity"--was steadily insisted upon, and, toward
+the close of the seventeenth century, Voetius, the renowned
+professor at Utrecht, declared, "Not a word is contained in the
+Holy Scriptures which is not in the strictest sense inspired, the
+very punctuation not excepted"; and this declaration was echoed
+back from multitudes of pulpits, theological chairs, synods, and
+councils.  Unfortunately, it was very difficult to find what the
+"authority of Scripture" really was.  To the greater number of
+Protestant ecclesiastics it meant the authority of any meaning in
+the text which they had the wit to invent and the power to
+enforce.
+
+To increase this vast confusion, came, in the older branch of the
+Church, the idea of the divine inspiration of the Latin
+translation of the Bible ascribed to St. Jerome--the Vulgate.
+It was insisted by leading Catholic authorities that this was as
+completely a product of divine inspiration as was the Hebrew
+original.  Strong men arose to insist even that, where the
+Hebrew and the Latin differed, the Hebrew should be altered to
+fit Jerome's mistranslation, as the latter, having been made
+under the new dispensation, must be better than that made under
+the old.  Even so great a man as Cardinal Bellarmine exerted
+himself in vain against this new tide of unreason.[469]
+
+[469] For Valla, see various sources already named; and for an
+especially interesting account, Symond's Renaissance in Italy,
+the Revival of Learning, pp. 260-269; and for the opinion of the
+best contemporary judge, see Erasmus, Opera, Leyden, 1703, tom.
+iii, p. 98.  For Erasmus and his opponents, see Life of Erasmus,
+by Butler, London, 1825, pp. 179-182; but especially, for the
+general subject, Bishop Creighton's History of the Papacy during
+the Reformation.  For the attack by Bude and the Sorbonne and the
+burning of Berquin, see Drummond, Life and character of Erasmus,
+vol. ii, pp. 220-223; also pp. 230-239.  As to the text of the
+Three Witnesses, see Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman
+Empire, chap. xxxvi, notes 116-118; also Dean Milman's note
+thereupon.  For a full and learned statement of the evidence
+against the verse, see Porson's Letters to Travis, London, 1790,
+in which an elaborate discussion of all the MSS. is given.  See
+also Jowett in Essays and Reviews, p. 307.  For a very full and
+impartial history of the long controversy over this passage, see
+Charles Butler's Horae Biblicae, reprinted in Jared Sparks's
+Theological Essays and Tracts, vol. ii.  For Luther's ideas of
+interpretation, see his Sammtliche Schriften, Walch edition, vol.
+i, p. 1199, vol. ii, p. 1758, vol. viii, p. 2140; for some of his
+more free views, vol. xiv, p. 472, vol. vi, p. 121, vol. xi, p.
+1448, vol. xii, p. 830; also Tholuck, Doctrine of Inspiration,
+Boston, 1867, citing the Colloquia, Frankfort, 1571, vol. ii, p.
+102; also the Vorreden zu der deutschen Bibelubersetzung, in
+Walch's edition, as above, vol. xiv, especially pp. 94, 98, and
+146-150.  As to Melanchthon, see especially his Loci Communes,
+1521; and as to the enormous growth of commentaries in the
+generations immediately following, see Charles Beard, Hibbert
+Lectures for 1883, on the Reformation, especially the admirable
+chapter on Protestant Scholasticism; also Archdeacon Farrar,
+history of Interpretation.  For the Papstesel, etc., see Luther's
+Sammtliche Schriften, edit. Walch, vol. xiv, pp. 2403 et seq.;
+also Melanchthon's Opera, edit. Bretschneider, vol. xx, pp. 665
+et seq.  In the White Library of Cornell University will be found
+an original edition of the book, with engravings of the monster.
+For the Monchkalb, see Luther's works as above, vol. xix, pp.
+2416 et seq.  For the spirit of Calvin in interpretation, see
+Farrar, ans especially H. P. Smith, D. D., Inspiration and
+Inerrancy, chap. iv, and the very brilliant essay forming chap.
+iii of the same work, by L. J. Evans, pp. 66 and 67, note.  For
+the attitude of the older Church toward the Vulgate, see
+Pallavicini, Histoire du Concile de Trente, Montrouge, 1844, tome
+i, pp 19,20; but especially Symonds, The Catholic Reaction, vol.
+i, pp. 226 et seq.  As to a demand for the revision of the Hebrew
+Bible to correct its differences from the Vulgate, see Emanuel
+Deutsch's Literary Remains, New York, 1874, p. 9.  For the work
+and spirit of Calovius and other commentators immediately
+folloeing the Reformation, see Farrar, as above; also Beard,
+Schaff, and Hertzog, Geschichte des alten Testaments in der
+christlichen Kirche, pp. 527 et seq.  As to extreme views of
+Voetius and others, see Tholuck, as above.  For the Formula
+Concensus Helvetica, which in 1675 affirmed the inspiration of
+the vowel points, see Schaff, Creeds.
+
+
+Nor was a fanatical adhesion to the mere letter of the sacred
+text confined to western Europe.  About the middle of the
+seventeenth century, in the reign of Alexis, father of Peter the
+Great, Nikon, Patriarch of the Russian Greek Church, attempted to
+correct the Slavonic Scriptures and service-books.  They were
+full of interpolations due to ignorance, carelessness, or zeal,
+and in order to remedy this state of the texts Nikon procured a
+number of the best Greek and Slavonic manuscripts, set the
+leading and most devout scholars he could find at work upon them,
+and caused Russian Church councils in 1655 and 1666 to promulgate
+the books thus corrected.
+
+But the same feelings which have wrought so strongly against our
+nineteenth-century revision of the Bible acted even more forcibly
+against that revision in the seventeenth century.  Straightway
+great masses of the people, led by monks and parish priests, rose
+in revolt.  The fact that the revisers had written in the New
+Testament the name of Jesus correctly, instead of following the
+old wrong orthography, aroused the wildest fanaticism.  The
+monks of the great convent of Solovetsk, when the new books were
+sent them, cried in terror:  "Woe, woe! what have you done with
+the Son of God?"  They then shut their gates, defying patriarch,
+council, and Czar, until, after a struggle lasting seven years,
+their monastery was besieged and taken by an imperial army.
+Hence arose the great sect of the "Old Believers," lasting to
+this day, and fanatically devoted to the corrupt readings of the
+old text.[470]
+
+[470] The present writer, visiting Moscow in the spring of 1894,
+was presented by Count Leo Tolstoi to one of the most eminent and
+influential members of the sect of "Old Believers," which dates
+from the reform of Nikon.  Nothing could exceed the fervor with
+which this venerable man, standing in the chapel of his superb
+villa, expatiated on the horrors of making the sign of the cross
+with three fingers instead of two.  His argument was that the TWO
+fingers, as used by the "Old Believers," typify the divine and
+human nature of our Lord, and hence that the use of them is
+strictly correct; whereas signing with THREE fingers,
+representing the blessed Trinity, is "virtually to crucify all
+three persons of the Godhead afresh."  Not less cogent were his
+arguments regarding the immense value of the old text of
+Scripture as compared with the new.  For the revolt against Nikon
+and his reforms, see Rambaud, History of Russia, vol. i, pp. 414-
+416; also Wallace, Russia, vol. ii, pp. 307-309; also Leroy-
+Beaulieu, L'Empire des Tsars, vol. iii, livre iii.
+
+
+Strange to say, on the development of Scripture interpretation,
+largely in accordance with the old methods, wrought, about the
+beginning of the eighteenth century, Sir Isaac Newton.
+
+It is hard to believe that from the mind which produced the
+Principia, and which broke through the many time-honoured
+beliefs regarding the dates and formation of scriptural books,
+could have come his discussions regarding the prophecies; still,
+at various points even in this work, his power appears.  From
+internal evidence he not only discarded the text of the Three
+Witnesses, but he decided that the Pentateuch must have been made
+up from several books; that Genesis was not written until the
+reign of Saul; that the books of Kings and Chronicles were
+probably collected by Ezra; and, in a curious anticipation of
+modern criticism, that the book of Psalms and the prophecies of
+Isaiah and Daniel were each written by various authors at various
+dates.  But the old belief in prophecy as prediction was too
+strong for him, and we find him applying his great powers to the
+relation of the details given by the prophets and in the
+Apocalypse to the history of mankind since unrolled, and tracing
+from every statement in prophetic literature its exact fulfilment
+even in the most minute particulars.
+
+By the beginning of the eighteenth century the structure of
+scriptural interpretation had become enormous.  It seemed
+destined to hide forever the real character of our sacred
+literature and to obscure the great light which Christianity had
+brought into the world.  The Church, Eastern and Western,
+Catholic and Protestant, was content to sit in its shadow, and
+the great divines of all branches of the Church reared every sort
+of fantastic buttress to strengthen or adorn it.  It seemed to be
+founded for eternity; and yet, at this very time when it appeared
+the strongest, a current of thought was rapidly dissolving away
+its foundations, and preparing that wreck and ruin of the whole
+fabric which is now, at the close of the nineteenth century,
+going on so rapidly.
+
+The account of the movement thus begun is next to be given.[471]
+
+[471] For Newton's boldness in textual criticism, compared with
+his credulity as to the literal fulfilment of prophecy, see his
+Observations upon the Prophesies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of
+St. John, in his works, edited by Horsley, London, 1785, vol. v,
+pp. 297-491.
+
+
+
+II.  BEGINNINGS OF SCIENTIFIC INTERPRETATION.
+
+At the base of the vast structure of the older scriptural
+interpretation were certain ideas regarding the first five books
+of the Old Testament.  It was taken for granted that they had
+been dictated by the Almighty to Moses about fifteen hundred
+years before our era; that some parts of them, indeed, had been
+written by the corporeal finger of Jehovah, and that all parts
+gave not merely his thoughts but his exact phraseology.  It was
+also held, virtually by the universal Church, that while every
+narrative or statement in these books is a precise statement of
+historical or scientific fact, yet that the entire text contains
+vast hidden meanings.  Such was the rule:  the exceptions made by
+a few interpreters here and there only confirmed it.  Even the
+indifference of St. Jerome to the doctrine of Mosaic authorship
+did not prevent its ripening into a dogma.
+
+The book of Genesis was universally held to be an account, not
+only divinely comprehensive but miraculously exact, of the
+creation and of the beginnings of life on the earth; an account
+to which all discoveries in every branch of science must, under
+pains and penalties, be made to conform.  In English-speaking
+lands this has lasted until our own time:  the most eminent of
+recent English biologists has told us how in every path of
+natural science he has, at some stage in his career, come across
+a barrier labelled "No thoroughfare Moses."
+
+A favourite subject of theological eloquence was the perfection
+of the Pentateuch, and especially of Genesis, not only as a
+record of the past, but as a revelation of the future.
+
+The culmination of this view in the Protestant Church was the
+Pansophia Mosaica of Pfeiffer, a Lutheran general
+superintendent, or bishop, in northern Germany, near the
+beginning of the seventeenth century.  He declared that the text
+of Genesis "must be received strictly"; that "it contains all
+knowledge, human and divine"; that "twenty-eight articles of the
+Augsburg Confession are to be found in it"; that "it is an
+arsenal of arguments against all sects and sorts of atheists,
+pagans, Jews, Turks, Tartars, papists, Calvinists, Socinians, and
+Baptists"; "the source of all sciences and arts, including law,
+medicine, philosophy, and rhetoric"; "the source and essence of
+all histories and of all professions, trades, and works"; "an
+exhibition of all virtues and vices"; "the origin of all
+consolation."
+
+This utterance resounded through Germany from pulpit to pulpit,
+growing in strength and volume, until a century later it was
+echoed back by Huet, the eminent bishop and commentator of
+France.  He cited a hundred authors, sacred and profane, to
+prove that Moses wrote the Pentateuch; and not only this, but
+that from the Jewish lawgiver came the heathen theology--that
+Moses was, in fact, nearly the whole pagan pantheon rolled into
+one, and really the being worshipped under such names as Bacchus,
+Adonis, and Apollo.[472]
+
+[472] For the passage from Huxley regarding Mosaic barriers to
+modern thought, see his Essays, recently published.  For
+Pfeiffer, see Zoeckler, Theologie und Naturwissenschaft, vol. i,
+pp. 688, 689.  For St. Jerome's indifference as to the Mosaic
+authorship, see the first of the excellent Sketches of the
+Pentateuch Criticism, by the Rev. S. J. Curtiss, in the
+Bibliotheca Sacra for January, 1884.  For Huet, see also Curtiss,
+ibid.
+
+
+About the middle of the twelfth century came, so far as the world
+now knows, the first gainsayer of this general theory.  Then it
+was that Aben Ezra, the greatest biblical scholar of the Middle
+Ages, ventured very discreetly to call attention to certain
+points in the Pentateuch incompatible with the belief that the
+whole of it had been written by Moses and handed down in its
+original form.  His opinion was based upon the well-known texts
+which have turned all really eminent biblical scholars in the
+nineteenth century from the old view by showing the Mosaic
+authorship of the five books in their present form to be clearly
+disproved by the books themselves; and, among these texts,
+accounts of Moses' own death and burial, as well as statements
+based on names, events, and conditions which only came into being
+ages after the time of Moses.
+
+But Aben Ezra had evidently no aspirations for martyrdom; he
+fathered the idea upon a rabbi of a previous generation, and,
+having veiled his statement in an enigma, added the caution, "Let
+him who understands hold his tongue."[473]
+
+[473] For the texts referred to by Aben Ezra as incompatible with
+the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch, see Meyer, Geschichte
+der Exegese, vol. i, pp. 85-88; and for a pithy short account,
+Moore's introduction to The Genesis of Genesis, by B. W. Bacon,
+Hartford, 1893, p. 23; also Curtiss, as above.  For a full
+exhibition of the absolute incompatibility of these texts with
+the Mosaic authorship, etc., see The Higher Criticism of the
+Pentateuch, by C. A. Briggs, D. D., New York, 1893, especially
+chap. iv; also Robertson Smith, art. Bible, in Encycl. Brit.
+
+
+For about four centuries the learned world followed the prudent
+rabbi's advice, and then two noted scholars, one of them a
+Protestant, the other a Catholic, revived his idea.  The first
+of these, Carlstadt, insisted that the authorship of the
+Pentateuch was unknown and unknowable; the other, Andreas Maes,
+expressed his opinion in terms which would not now offend the
+most orthodox, that the Pentateuch had been edited by Ezra, and
+had received in the process sundry divinely inspired words and
+phrases to clear the meaning.  Both these innovators were dealt
+with promptly:  Carlstadt was, for this and other troublesome
+ideas, suppressed with the applause of the Protestant Church;
+and the book of Maes was placed by the older Church on the Index.
+
+But as we now look back over the Revival of Learning, the Age of
+Discovery, and the Reformation, we can see clearly that powerful
+as the older Church then was, and powerful as the Reformed Church
+was to be, there was at work something far more mighty than
+either or than both; and this was a great law of nature--the law
+of evolution through differentiation.  Obedient to this law
+there now began to arise, both within the Church and without it,
+a new body of scholars--not so much theologians as searchers for
+truth by scientific methods.  Some, like Cusa, were
+ecclesiastics; some, like Valla, Erasmus, and the Scaligers, were
+not such in any real sense; but whether in holy orders, really,
+nominally, or not at all, they were, first of all, literary and
+scientific investigators.
+
+During the sixteenth century a strong impulse was given to more
+thorough research by several very remarkable triumphs of the
+critical method as developed by this new class of men, and two of
+these ought here to receive attention on account of their
+influence upon the whole after course of human thought.
+
+For many centuries the Decretals bearing the great name of
+Isidore had been cherished as among the most valued muniments of
+the Church.  They contained what claimed to be a mass of canons,
+letters of popes, decrees of councils, and the like, from the
+days of the apostles down to the eighth century--all supporting
+at important points the doctrine, the discipline, the ceremonial,
+and various high claims of the Church and its hierarchy.
+
+But in the fifteenth century that sturdy German thinker, Cardinal
+Nicholas of Cusa, insisted on examining these documents and on
+applying to them the same thorough research and patient thought
+which led him, even before Copernicus, to detect the error of the
+Ptolemaic astronomy.
+
+As a result, he avowed his scepticism regarding this pious
+literature; other close thinkers followed him in investigating
+it, and it was soon found a tissue of absurd anachronisms, with
+endless clashing and confusion of events and persons.
+
+For a time heroic attempts were made by Church authorities to
+cover up these facts.  Scholars revealing them were frowned
+upon, even persecuted, and their works placed upon the Index;
+scholars explaining them away--the "apologists" or "reconcilers"
+of that day--were rewarded with Church preferment, one of them
+securing for a very feeble treatise a cardinal's hat.  But all in
+vain; these writings were at length acknowledged by all scholars
+of note, Catholic and Protestant, to be mainly a mass of devoutly
+cunning forgeries.
+
+While the eyes of scholars were thus opened as never before to
+the skill of early Church zealots in forging documents useful to
+ecclesiasticism, another discovery revealed their equal skill in
+forging documents useful to theology.
+
+For more than a thousand years great stress had been laid by
+theologians upon the writings ascribed to Dionysius the
+Areopagite, the Athenian convert of St. Paul.  Claiming to
+come from one so near the great apostle, they were prized as a
+most precious supplement to Holy Writ.  A belief was developed
+that when St. Paul had returned to earth, after having been
+"caught up to the third heaven," he had revealed to Dionysius the
+things he had seen.  Hence it was that the varied pictures given
+in these writings of the heavenly hierarchy and the angelic
+ministers of the Almighty took strong hold upon the imagination
+of the universal Church:  their theological statements sank
+deeply into the hearts and minds of the Mystics of the twelfth
+century and the Platonists of the fifteenth; and the ten epistles
+they contained, addressed to St. John, to Titus, to Polycarp,
+and others of the earliest period, were considered treasures of
+sacred history.  An Emperor of the East had sent these writings
+to an Emperor of the West as the most precious of imperial gifts.
+Scotus Erigena had translated them; St. Thomas Aquinas had
+expounded them; Dante had glorified them; Albert the Great had
+claimed that they were virtually given by St. Paul and inspired
+by the Holy Ghost.  Their authenticity was taken for granted by
+fathers, doctors, popes, councils, and the universal Church.
+
+But now, in the glow of the Renascence, all this treasure was
+found to be but dross.  Investigators in the old Church and in
+the new joined in proving that the great mass of it was spurious.
+
+To say nothing of other evidences, it failed to stand the
+simplest of all tests, for these writings constantly presupposed
+institutions and referred to events of much later date than the
+time of Dionysius; they were at length acknowledged by all
+authorities worthy of the name, Catholic as well as Protestant,
+to be simply--like the Isidorian Decretals--pious frauds.
+
+Thus arose an atmosphere of criticism very different from the
+atmosphere of literary docility and acquiescence of the "Ages of
+Faith"; thus it came that great scholars in all parts of Europe
+began to realize, as never before, the part which theological
+skill and ecclesiastical zeal had taken in the development of
+spurious sacred literature; thus was stimulated a new energy in
+research into all ancient documents, no matter what their claims.
+To strengthen this feeling and to intensify the stimulating
+qualities of this new atmosphere came, as we have seen, the
+researches and revelations of Valla regarding the forged Letter
+of Christ to Abgarus, the fraudulent Donation of Constantine,
+and the late date of the Apostles' Creed; and, to give this
+feeling direction toward the Hebrew and Christian sacred books,
+came the example of Erasmus.[474]
+
+[474] For very fair statements regarding the great forged
+documents of the Middle Ages, see Addis and Arnold, Catholic
+Dictionary, articles Dionysius the Areopagite and False
+Decretals, and in the latter the curious acknowledgment that the
+mass of pseudo-Isidorian Decretals "is what we now call a
+forgery."
+
+For the derivation of Dionysius's ideas from St. Paul, and for
+the idea of inspiration attributed to him, see Albertus Magnus,
+Opera Omnia, vol. xiii, early chapters and chap. vi.  For very
+interesting details on this general subject, see Dollinger, Das
+Papstthum, chap. ii; also his Fables respecting the Popes of the
+Middle Ages, translated by Plummer and H. B. Smith, part i, chap.
+v.  Of the exposure of these works, see Farrar, as above, pp.
+254, 255; also Beard, Hibbert Lectures, pp. 4, 354.  For the
+False Decretals, see Milman, History of Latin Christianity, vol.
+ii, pp. 373 et seq.  For the great work of the pseudo-Dionysius,
+see ibid., vol. iii, p. 352, and vol. vi, pp. 402 et seq., and
+Canon Westcott's article on Dionysius the Areopagite in vol. v of
+the Contemporary Review; also the chapters on Astronomy in this
+work.
+
+
+Naturally, then, in this new atmosphere the bolder scholars of
+Europe soon began to push more vigorously the researches begun
+centuries before by Aben Ezra, and the next efforts of these men
+were seen about the middle of the seventeenth century, when
+Hobbes, in his Leviathan, and La Pevrere, in his Preadamites,
+took them up and developed them still further.  The result came
+speedily.  Hobbes, for this and other sins, was put under the
+ban, even by the political party which sorely needed him, and was
+regarded generally as an outcast; while La Peyrere, for this and
+other heresies, was thrown into prison by the Grand Vicar of
+Mechlin, and kept there until he fully retracted:  his book was
+refuted by seven theologians within a year after its appearance,
+and within a generation thirty-six elaborate answers to it had
+appeared:  the Parliament of Paris ordered it to be burned by the
+hangman.
+
+In 1670 came an utterance vastly more important, by a man far
+greater than any of these--the Tractatus Thrologico-Politicus of
+Spinoza.  Reverently but firmly he went much more deeply into
+the subject.  Suggesting new arguments and recasting the old, he
+summed up all with judicial fairness, and showed that Moses could
+not have been the author of the Pentateuch in the form then
+existing; that there had been glosses and revisions; that the
+biblical books had grown up as a literature; that, though great
+truths are to be found in them, and they are to be regarded as a
+divine revelation, the old claims of inerrancy for them can not
+be maintained; that in studying them men had been misled by
+mistaking human conceptions for divine meanings; that, while
+prophets have been inspired, the prophetic faculty has not been
+the dowry of the Jewish people alone; that to look for exact
+knowledge of natural and spiritual phenomena in the sacred books
+is an utter mistake; and that the narratives of the Old and New
+Testaments, while they surpass those of profane history, differ
+among themselves not only in literary merit, but in the value of
+the doctrines they inculcate.  As to the authorship of the
+Pentateuch, he arrived at the conclusion that it was written long
+after Moses, but that Moses may have written some books from
+which it was compiled--as, for example, those which are mentioned
+in the Scriptures, the Book of the Wars of God, the Book of the
+Covenant, and the like--and that the many repetitions and
+contradictions in the various books show a lack of careful
+editing as well as a variety of original sources.  Spinoza then
+went on to throw light into some other books of the Old and New
+Testaments, and added two general statements which have proved
+exceedingly serviceable, for they contain the germs of all modern
+broad churchmanship; and the first of them gave the formula
+which was destined in our own time to save to the Anglican Church
+a large number of her noblest sons:  this was, that "sacred
+Scripture CONTAINS the Word of God, and in so far as it contains
+it is incorruptible"; the second was, that "error in speculative
+doctrine is not impious."
+
+Though published in various editions, the book seemed to produce
+little effect upon the world at that time; but its result to
+Spinoza himself was none the less serious.  Though so deeply
+religious that Novalis spoke of him as "a God-intoxicated man,"
+and Schleiermacher called him a "saint," he had been, for the
+earlier expression of some of the opinions it contained, abhorred
+as a heretic both by Jews and Christians:  from the synagogue he
+was cut off by a public curse, and by the Church he was now
+regarded as in some sort a forerunner of Antichrist.  For all
+this, he showed no resentment, but devoted himself quietly to his
+studies, and to the simple manual labour by which he supported
+himself; declined all proffered honours, among them a
+professorship at Heidelberg; found pleasure only in the society
+of a few friends as gentle and affectionate as himself; and died
+contentedly, without seeing any widespread effect of his doctrine
+other than the prevailing abhorrence of himself.
+
+Perhaps in all the seventeenth century there was no man whom
+Jesus of Nazareth would have more deeply loved, and no life which
+he would have more warmly approved; yet down to a very recent
+period this hatred for Spinoza has continued.  When, about 1880,
+it was proposed to erect a monument to him at Amsterdam,
+discourses were given in churches and synagogues prophesying the
+wrath of Heaven upon the city for such a profanation; and when
+the monument was finished, the police were obliged to exert
+themselves to prevent injury to the statue and to the eminent
+scholars who unveiled it.
+
+But the ideas of Spinoza at last secured recognition.  They had
+sunk deeply into the hearts and minds of various leaders of
+thought, and, most important of all, into the heart and mind of
+Lessing; he brought them to bear in his treatise on the
+Education of the World, as well as in his drama, Nathan the Wise,
+and both these works have spoken with power to every generation
+since.
+
+In France, also, came the same healthful evolution of thought.
+For generations scholars had known that multitudes of errors had
+crept into the sacred text.  Robert Stephens had found over two
+thousand variations in the oldest manuscripts of the Old
+Testament, and in 1633 Jean Morin, a priest of the Oratory,
+pointed out clearly many of the most glaring of these.
+Seventeen years later, in spite of the most earnest Protestant
+efforts to suppress his work, Cappellus gave forth his Critica
+Sacra, demonstrating not only that the vowel pointing of
+Scripture was not divinely inspired, but that the Hebrew text
+itself, from which the modern translations were made, is full of
+errors due to the carelessness, ignorance, and doctrinal zeal of
+early scribes, and that there had clearly been no miraculous
+preservation of the "original autographs" of the sacred books.
+
+While orthodox France was under the uneasiness and alarm thus
+caused, appeared a Critical History of the Old Testament by
+Richard Simon, a priest of the Oratory.  He was a thoroughly
+religious man and an acute scholar, whose whole purpose was to
+develop truths which he believed healthful to the Church and to
+mankind.  But he denied that Moses was the author of the
+Pentateuch, and exhibited the internal evidence, now so well
+known, that the books were composed much later by various
+persons, and edited later still.  He also showed that other
+parts of the Old Testament had been compiled from older sources,
+and attacked the time-honoured theory that Hebrew was the
+primitive language of mankind.  The whole character of his book
+was such that in these days it would pass, on the whole, as
+conservative and orthodox; it had been approved by the censor in
+1678, and printed, when the table of contents and a page of the
+preface were shown to Bossuet.  The great bishop and theologian
+was instantly aroused; he pronounced the work "a mass of
+impieties and a bulwark of irreligion"; his biographer tells us
+that, although it was Holy Thursday, the bishop, in spite of the
+solemnity of the day, hastened at once to the Chancellor Le
+Tellier, and secured an order to stop the publication of the book
+and to burn the whole edition of it.  Fortunately, a few copies
+were rescued, and a few years later the work found a new
+publisher in Holland; yet not until there had been attached to
+it, evidently by some Protestant divine of authority, an essay
+warning the reader against its dangerous doctrines.  Two years
+later a translation was published in England.
+
+This first work of Simon was followed by others, in which he
+sought, in the interest of scriptural truth, to throw a new and
+purer light upon our sacred literature; but Bossuet proved
+implacable.  Although unable to suppress all of Simon's works,
+he was able to drive him from the Oratory, and to bring him into
+disrepute among the very men who ought to have been proud of him
+as Frenchmen and thankful to him as Christians.
+
+But other scholars of eminence were now working in this field,
+and chief among them Le Clerc.  Virtually driven out of Geneva,
+he took refuge at Amsterdam, and there published a series of
+works upon the Hebrew language, the interpretation of Scripture,
+and the like.  In these he combated the prevalent idea that
+Hebrew was the primitive tongue, expressed the opinion that in
+the plural form of the word used in Genesis for God, "Elohim,"
+there is a trace of Chaldean polytheism, and, in his discussion
+on the serpent who tempted Eve, curiously anticipated modern
+geological and zoological ideas by quietly confessing his
+inability to see how depriving the serpent of feet and compelling
+him to go on his belly could be punishment--since all this was
+natural to the animal.  He also ventured quasi-scientific
+explanations of the confusion of tongues at Babel, the
+destruction of Sodom, the conversion of Lot's wife into a pillar
+of salt, and the dividing of the Red Sea.  As to the Pentateuch
+in general, he completely rejected the idea that it was written
+by Moses.  But his most permanent gift to the thinking world was
+his answer to those who insisted upon the reference by Christ and
+his apostles to Moses as the author of the Pentateuch.  The
+answer became a formula which has proved effective from his day
+to ours:  "Our Lord and his apostles did not come into this world
+to teach criticism to the Jews, and hence spoke according to the
+common opinion."
+
+Against all these scholars came a theological storm, but it raged
+most pitilessly against Le Clerc.  Such renowned theologians as
+Carpzov in Germany, Witsius in Holland, and Huet in France
+berated him unmercifully and overwhelmed him with assertions
+which still fill us with wonder.  That of Huet, attributing the
+origin of pagan as well as Christian theology to Moses, we have
+already seen; but Carpzov showed that Protestantism could not be
+outdone by Catholicism when he declared, in the face of all
+modern knowledge, that not only the matter but the exact form and
+words of the Bible had been divinely transmitted to the modern
+world free from all error.
+
+At this Le Clerc stood aghast, and finally stammered out a sort
+of half recantation.[475]
+
+[475] For Carlstadt, and Luther's dealings with him on various
+accounts, see Meyer, Geschichte der exegese, vol. ii, pp. 373,
+397.  As to the value of Maes's work in general, see Meyer, vol.
+ii, p. 125; and as to the sort of work in question, ibid., vol.
+iii, p. 425, note.  For Carlstadt, see also Farrar, History of
+Interpretation, and Moore's introduction, as above.  For Hobbes's
+view that the Pentateuch was written long after Moses's day, see
+the Leviathan, vol. iii, p. 33.  For La Peyrere's view, see
+especially his Prae-Adamitae, lib. iv, chap. ii, also lib. ii,
+passim; also Lecky, Rationalism in Europe, vol. i, p. 294; also
+interesting points in Bayle's Dictionary.  For Spinoza's view,
+see the Tractatus Theologico-Politicus, chaps. ii and iii, and
+for the persecution, see the various biographies.  Details
+regarding the demonstration against the unveiling of his statue
+were given to the present writer at the time by Berthold
+Auerbach, who took part in the ceremony.  For Morinus and
+Cappellus, see Farrar, as above, p. 387 and note.  For Richard
+Simon, see his Histoire Critique de l'Ancien Testament, liv. i,
+chaps. ii, iii, iv, v, and xiii.  For his denial of the
+prevailing theory regarding Hebrew, see liv. i, chap. iv.  For
+Morinus (Morin) and his work, see the Biog. Univ. and Nouvelle
+Biog. Generale; also Curtiss.  For Bousset's opposition to Simon,
+see the Histoire de Bousser in the Oeuvres de Bousset, Paris,
+1846, tome xii, pp. 330, 331; also t. x, p. 378; also sundry
+attacks in various volumes.  It is interesting to note that among
+the chief instigators of the persecution were the Port-Royalists,
+upon whose persecution afterward by the Jesuits so much sympathy
+has been lavished by the Protestant world.  For Le Clerc, see
+especially his Pentateuchus, Prolegom, dissertat. i; also Com. in
+Genes., cap. vi-viii.  For a translation of selected passages on
+the points noted, see Twelve Dissertations out of Monsieur
+LeClerc's Genesis, done out of Latin by Mr. Brown, London, 1696;
+also Le Clerc's Sentiments de Quelques Theologiens de Hollande,
+passim; also his work on Inspiration, English translation,
+Boston, 1820, pp. 47-50, also 57-67.  For Witsius and Carpzov,
+see Curtiss, as above.  For some subordinate points in the
+earlier growth of the opinion at present dominant, see Briggs,
+The Higher Criticism of the Hexateuch, New York, 1893, chap. iv.
+
+
+During the eighteenth century constant additions were made to the
+enormous structure of orthodox scriptural interpretation, some of
+them gaining the applause of the Christian world then, though
+nearly all are utterly discredited now.  But in 1753 appeared
+two contributions of permanent influence, though differing vastly
+in value.  In the comparative estimate of these two works the
+world has seen a remarkable reversal of public opinion.
+
+The first of these was Bishop Lowth's Prelections upon the Sacred
+Poetry of the Hebrews.  In this was well brought out that
+characteristic of Hebrew poetry to which it owes so much of its
+peculiar charm--its parallelism.
+
+The second of these books was Astruc's Conjectures on the
+Original Memoirs which Moses used in composing the Book of
+Genesis.  In this was for the first time clearly revealed the
+fact that, amid various fragments of old writings, at least two
+main narratives enter into the composition of Genesis; that in
+the first of these is generally used as an appellation of the
+Almighty the word "Elohim," and in the second the word "Yahveh"
+(Jehovah); that each narrative has characteristics of its own,
+in thought and expression, which distinguish it from the other;
+that, by separating these, two clear and distinct narratives may
+be obtained, each consistent with itself, and that thus, and thus
+alone, can be explained the repetitions, discrepancies, and
+contradictions in Genesis which so long baffled the ingenuity of
+commentators, especially the two accounts of the creation, so
+utterly inconsistent with each other.
+
+Interesting as was Lowth's book, this work by Astruc was, as the
+thinking world now acknowledges, infinitely more important; it
+was, indeed, the most valuable single contribution ever made to
+biblical study.  But such was not the judgment of the world
+THEN. While Lowth's book was covered with honour and its author
+promoted from the bishopric of St. David's to that of London,
+and even offered the primacy, Astruc and his book were covered
+with reproach.  Though, as an orthodox Catholic, he had mainly
+desired to reassert the authorship of Moses against the argument
+of Spinoza, he received no thanks on that account.  Theologians
+of all creeds sneered at him as a doctor of medicine who had
+blundered beyond his province; his fellow-Catholics in France
+bitterly denounced him as a heretic; and in Germany the great
+Protestant theologian, Michaelis, who had edited and exalted
+Lowth's work, poured contempt over Astruc as an ignoramus.
+
+The case of Astruc is one of the many which show the wonderful
+power of the older theological reasoning to close the strongest
+minds against the clearest truths.  The fact which he discovered
+is now as definitely established as any in the whole range of
+literature or science.  It has become as clear as the day, and
+yet for two thousand years the minds of professional theologians,
+Jewish and Christian, were unable to detect it.  Not until this
+eminent physician applied to the subject a mind trained in making
+scientific distinctions was it given to the world.
+
+It was, of course, not possible even for so eminent a scholar as
+Michaelis to pooh-pooh down a discovery so pregnant; and,
+curiously enough, it was one of Michaelis's own scholars,
+Eichhorn, who did the main work in bringing the new truth to bear
+upon the world.  He, with others, developed out of it the theory
+that Genesis, and indeed the Pentateuch, is made up entirely of
+fragments of old writings, mainly disjointed.  But they did far
+more than this:  they impressed upon the thinking part of
+Christendom the fact that the Bible is not a BOOK, but a
+LITERATURE; that the style is not supernatural and unique, but
+simply the Oriental style of the lands and times in which its
+various parts were written; and that these must be studied in
+the light of the modes of thought and statement and the literary
+habits generally of Oriental peoples.  From Eichhorn's time the
+process which, by historical, philological, and textual research,
+brings out the truth regarding this literature has been known as
+"the higher criticism."
+
+He was a deeply religious man, and the mainspring of his efforts
+was the desire to bring back to the Church the educated classes,
+who had been repelled by the stiff Lutheran orthodoxy; but this
+only increased hostility to him.  Opposition met him in Germany
+at every turn; and in England, Lloyd, Regius Professor of Hebrew
+at Cambridge, who sought patronage for a translation of
+Eichhorn's work, was met generally with contempt and frequently
+with insult.
+
+Throughout Catholic Germany it was even worse.  In 1774
+Isenbiehl, a priest at Mayence who had distinguished himself as a
+Greek and Hebrew scholar, happened to question the usual
+interpretation of the passage in Isaiah which refers to the
+virgin-born Immanuel, and showed then--what every competent
+critic knows now--that it had reference to events looked for in
+older Jewish history.  The censorship and faculty of theology
+attacked him at once and brought him before the elector.
+Luckily, this potentate was one of the old easy-going
+prince-bishops, and contented himself with telling the priest
+that, though his contention was perhaps true, he "must remain in
+the old paths, and avoid everything likely to make trouble."
+
+But at the elector's death, soon afterward, the theologians
+renewed the attack, threw Isenbiehl out of his professorship and
+degraded him.  One insult deserves mention for its ingenuity.
+It was declared that he--the successful and brilliant
+professor--showed by the obnoxious interpretation that he had not
+yet rightly learned the Scriptures; he was therefore sent back
+to the benches of the theological school, and made to take his
+seat among the ingenuous youth who were conning the rudiments of
+theology.  At this he made a new statement, so carefully guarded
+that it disarmed many of his enemies, and his high scholarship
+soon won for him a new professorship of Greek--the condition
+being that he should cease writing upon Scripture.  But a crafty
+bookseller having republished his former book, and having
+protected himself by keeping the place and date of publication
+secret, a new storm fell upon the author; he was again removed
+from his professorship and thrown into prison; his book was
+forbidden, and all copies of it in that part of Germany were
+confiscated.  In 1778, having escaped from prison, he sought
+refuge with another of the minor rulers who in blissful
+unconsciousness were doing their worst while awaiting the French
+Revolution, but was at once delivered up to the Mayence
+authorities and again thrown into prison.
+
+The Pope, Pius VI, now intervened with a brief on Isenbiehl's
+book, declaring it "horrible, false, perverse, destructive,
+tainted with heresy," and excommunicating all who should read it.
+At this, Isenbiehl, declaring that he had written it in the hope
+of doing a service to the Church, recanted, and vegetated in
+obscurity until his death in 1818.
+
+But, despite theological faculties, prince-bishops, and even
+popes, the new current of thought increased in strength and
+volume, and into it at the end of the eighteenth century came
+important contributions from two sources widely separated and
+most dissimilar.
+
+The first of these, which gave a stimulus not yet exhausted, was
+the work of Herder.  By a remarkable intuition he had
+anticipated some of those ideas of an evolutionary process in
+nature and in literature which first gained full recognition
+nearly three quarters of a century after him; but his greatest
+service in the field of biblical study was his work, at once
+profound and brilliant, The Spirit of Hebrew Poetry.  In this
+field he eclipsed Bishop Lowth.  Among other things of
+importance, he showed that the Psalms were by different authors
+and of different periods--the bloom of a great poetic literature.
+
+Until his time no one had so clearly done justice to their
+sublimity and beauty; but most striking of all was his discussion
+of Solomon's Song.  For over twenty centuries it had been
+customary to attribute to it mystical meanings.  If here and
+there some man saw the truth, he was careful, like Aben Ezra, to
+speak with bated breath.
+
+The penalty for any more honest interpretation was seen, among
+Protestants, when Calvin and Beza persecuted Castellio, covered
+him with obloquy, and finally drove him to starvation and death,
+for throwing light upon the real character of the Song of Songs;
+and among Catholics it was seen when Philip II allowed the pious
+and gifted Luis de Leon, for a similar offence, to be thrown into
+a dungeon of the Inquisition and kept there for five years, until
+his health was utterly shattered and his spirit so broken that he
+consented to publish a new commentary on the song, "as
+theological and obscure as the most orthodox could desire."
+
+Here, too, we have an example of the efficiency of the older
+biblical theology in fettering the stronger minds and in
+stupefying the weaker.  Just as the book of Genesis had to wait
+over two thousand years for a physician to reveal the simplest
+fact regarding its structure, so the Song of Songs had to wait
+even longer for a poet to reveal not only its beauty but its
+character.  Commentators innumerable had interpreted it; St.
+Bernard had preached over eighty sermons on its first two
+chapters; Palestrina had set its most erotic parts to sacred
+music; Jews and Gentiles, Catholics and Protestants, from Origen
+to Aben Ezra and from Luther to Bossuet, had uncovered its deep
+meanings and had demonstrated it to be anything and everything
+save that which it really is.  Among scores of these strange
+imaginations it was declared to represent the love of Jehovah for
+Israel; the love of Christ for the Church; the praises of the
+Blessed Virgin; the union of the soul with the body; sacred
+history from the Exodus to the Messiah; Church history from the
+Crucifixion to the Reformation; and some of the more acute
+Protestant divines found in it references even to the religious
+wars in Germany and to the Peace of Passau.  In these days it
+seems hard to imagine how really competent reasoners could thus
+argue without laughing in each other's faces, after the manner of
+Cicero's augurs.  Herder showed Solomon's Song to be what the
+whole thinking world now knows it to be--simply an Oriental
+love-poem.
+
+But his frankness brought him into trouble:  he was bitterly
+assailed.  Neither his noble character nor his genius availed
+him. Obliged to flee from one pastorate to another, he at last
+found a happy refuge at Weimar in the society of Goethe, Wieland,
+and Jean Paul, and thence he exercised a powerful influence in
+removing noxious and parasitic growths from religious thought.
+
+It would hardly be possible to imagine a man more different from
+Herder than was the other of the two who most influenced biblical
+interpretation at the end of the eighteenth century.  This was
+Alexander Geddes--a Roman Catholic priest and a Scotchman.
+Having at an early period attracted much attention by his
+scholarship, and having received the very rare distinction, for a
+Catholic, of a doctorate from the University of Aberdeen, he
+began publishing in 1792 a new translation of the Old Testament,
+and followed this in 1800 with a volume of critical remarks.  In
+these he supported mainly three views:  first, that the
+Pentateuch in its present form could not have been written by
+Moses; secondly, that it was the work of various hands; and,
+thirdly, that it could not have been written before the time of
+David.  Although there was a fringe of doubtful theories about
+them, these main conclusions, supported as they were by deep
+research and cogent reasoning, are now recognised as of great
+value.  But such was not the orthodox opinion then.  Though a man
+of sincere piety, who throughout his entire life remained firm in
+the faith of his fathers, he and his work were at once condemned:
+he was suspended by the Catholic authorities as a misbeliever,
+denounced by Protestants as an infidel, and taunted by both as "a
+would-be corrector of the Holy Ghost."  Of course, by this taunt
+was meant nothing more than that he dissented from sundry ideas
+inherited from less enlightened times by the men who just then
+happened to wield ecclesiastical power.
+
+But not all the opposition to him could check the evolution of
+his thought.  A line of great men followed in these paths opened
+by Astruc and Eichhorn, and broadened by Herder and Geddes.  Of
+these was De Wette, whose various works, especially his
+Introduction to the Old Testament, gave a new impulse early in
+the nineteenth century to fruitful thought throughout
+Christendom.  In these writings, while showing how largely myths
+and legends had entered into the Hebrew sacred books, he threw
+especial light into the books Deuteronomy and Chronicles.  The
+former he showed to be, in the main, a late priestly summary of
+law, and the latter a very late priestly recast of early history.
+He had, indeed, to pay a penalty for thus aiding the world in its
+march toward more truth, for he was driven out of Germany, and
+obliged to take refuge in a Swiss professorship; while Theodore
+Parker, who published an English translation of his work, was,
+for this and similar sins, virtually rejected by what claimed to
+be the most liberal of all Christian bodies in the United States.
+
+But contributions to the new thought continued from quarters
+whence least was expected.  Gesenius, by his Hebrew Grammar, and
+Ewald, by his historical studies, greatly advanced it.
+
+To them and to all like them during the middle years of the
+nineteenth century was sturdily opposed the colossus of
+orthodoxy--Hengstenberg.  In him was combined the haughtiness of
+a Prussian drill-sergeant, the zeal of a Spanish inquisitor, and
+the flippant brutality of a French orthodox journalist.  Behind
+him stood the gifted but erratic Frederick William IV--a man
+admirably fitted for a professorship of aesthetics, but whom an
+inscrutable fate had made King of Prussia.  Both these rulers in
+the German Israel arrayed all possible opposition against the
+great scholars labouring in the new paths; but this opposition
+was vain:  the succession of acute and honest scholars continued:
+Vatke, Bleek, Reuss, Graf, Kayser, Hupfeld, Delitzsch, Kuenen,
+and others wrought on in Germany and Holland, steadily developing
+the new truth.
+
+Especially to be mentioned among these is Hupfeld, who published
+in 1853 his treatise on The Sources of Genesis.  Accepting the
+Conjectures which Astruc had published just a hundred years
+before, he established what has ever since been recognised by the
+leading biblical commentators as the true basis of work upon the
+Pentateuch--the fact that THREE true documents are combined in
+Genesis, each with its own characteristics.  He, too, had to pay
+a price for letting more light upon the world.  A determined
+attempt was made to punish him.  Though deeply religious in his
+nature and aspirations, he was denounced in 1865 to the Prussian
+Government as guilty of irreverence; but, to the credit of his
+noble and true colleagues who trod in the more orthodox
+paths--men like Tholuck and Julius Muller--the theological
+faculty of the University of Halle protested against this
+persecuting effort, and it was brought to naught.
+
+The demonstrations of Hupfeld gave new life to biblical
+scholarship in all lands.  More and more clear became the
+evidence that throughout the Pentateuch, and indeed in other
+parts of our sacred books, there had been a fusion of various
+ideas, a confounding of various epochs, and a compilation of
+various documents.  Thus was opened a new field of thought and
+work:  in sifting out this literature; in rearranging it; and in
+bringing it into proper connection with the history of the Jewish
+race and of humanity.
+
+Astruc and Hupfeld having thus found a key to the true character
+of the "Mosaic" Scriptures, a second key was found which opened
+the way to the secret of order in all this chaos.  For many
+generations one thing had especially puzzled commentators and
+given rise to masses of futile "reconciliation":  this was the
+patent fact that such men as Samuel, David, Elijah, Isaiah, and
+indeed the whole Jewish people down to the Exile, showed in all
+their utterances and actions that they were utterly ignorant of
+that vast system of ceremonial law which, according to the
+accounts attributed to Moses and other parts of our sacred books,
+was in full force during their time and during nearly a thousand
+years before the Exile.  It was held "always, everywhere, and by
+all," that in the Old Testament the chronological order of
+revelation was:  first, the law; secondly, the Psalms; thirdly,
+the prophets.  This belief continued unchallenged during more
+than two thousand years, and until after the middle of the
+nineteenth century.
+
+Yet, as far back as 1835, Vatke at Berlin had, in his Religion of
+the Old Testament, expressed his conviction that this belief was
+unfounded.  Reasoning that Jewish thought must have been subject
+to the laws of development which govern other systems, he arrived
+at the conclusion that the legislation ascribed to Moses, and
+especially the elaborate paraphernalia and composite ceremonies
+of the ritual, could not have come into being at a period so rude
+as that depicted in the "Mosaic" accounts.
+
+Although Vatke wrapped this statement in a mist of Hegelian
+metaphysics, a sufficient number of watchmen on the walls of the
+Prussian Zion saw its meaning, and an alarm was given.  The
+chroniclers tell us that "fear of failing in the examinations,
+through knowing too much, kept students away from Vatke's
+lectures."  Naturally, while Hengstenberg and Frederick William
+IV were commanding the forces of orthodoxy, Vatke thought it wise
+to be silent.
+
+Still, the new idea was in the air; indeed, it had been divined
+about a year earlier, on the other side of the Rhine, by a
+scholar well known as acute and thoughtful--Reuss, of Strasburg.
+Unfortunately, he too was overawed, and he refrained from
+publishing his thought during more than forty years.  But his
+ideas were caught by some of his most gifted scholars; and, of
+these, Graf and Kayser developed them and had the courage to
+publish them.
+
+At the same period this new master key was found and applied by a
+greater man than any of these--by Kuenen, of Holland; and thus
+it was that three eminent scholars, working in different parts of
+Europe and on different lines, in spite of all obstacles, joined
+in enforcing upon the thinking world the conviction that the
+complete Levitical law had been established not at the beginning,
+but at the end, of the Jewish nation--mainly, indeed, after the
+Jewish nation as an independent political body had ceased to
+exist; that this code had not been revealed in the childhood of
+Israel, but that it had come into being in a perfectly natural
+way during Israel's final decay--during the period when heroes
+and prophets had been succeeded by priests.  Thus was the
+historical and psychological evolution of Jewish institutions
+brought into harmony with the natural development of human
+thought; elaborate ceremonial institutions being shown to have
+come after the ruder beginnings of religious development instead
+of before them.  Thus came a new impulse to research, and the
+fruitage was abundant; the older theological interpretation,
+with its insoluble puzzles, yielded on all sides.
+
+The lead in the new epoch thus opened was taken by Kuenen.
+Starting with strong prepossessions in favour of the older
+thought, and even with violent utterances against some of the
+supporters of the new view, he was borne on by his love of truth,
+until his great work, The Religion of Israel, published in 1869,
+attracted the attention of thinking scholars throughout the world
+by its arguments in favour of the upward movement.  From him now
+came a third master key to the mystery; for he showed that the
+true opening point for research into the history and literature
+of Israel is to be found in the utterances of the great prophets
+of the eighth century before our era.  Starting from these, he
+opened new paths into the periods preceding and following them.
+Recognising the fact that the religion of Israel was, like other
+great world religions, a development of higher ideas out of
+lower, he led men to bring deeper thinking and wider research
+into the great problem.  With ample learning and irresistible
+logic he proved that Old Testament history is largely mingled
+with myth and legend; that not only were the laws attributed to
+Moses in the main a far later development, but that much of their
+historical setting was an afterthought; also that Old Testament
+prophecy was never supernaturally predictive, and least of all
+predictive of events recorded in the New Testament.  Thus it was
+that his genius gave to the thinking world a new point of view,
+and a masterly exhibition of the true method of study.  Justly
+has one of the most eminent divines of the contemporary Anglican
+Church indorsed the statement of another eminent scholar, that
+"Kuenen stood upon his watch-tower, as it were the conscience of
+Old Testament science"; that his work is characterized "not
+merely by fine scholarship, critical insight, historical sense,
+and a religious nature, but also by an incorruptible
+conscientiousness, and a majestic devotion to the quest of
+truth."
+
+Thus was established the science of biblical criticism.  And now
+the question was, whether the Church of northern Germany would
+accept this great gift--the fruit of centuries of devoted toil
+and self-sacrifice--and take the lead of Christendom in and by
+it.
+
+The great curse of Theology and Ecclesiasticism has always been
+their tendency to sacrifice large interests to small--Charity to
+Creed, Unity to Uniformity, Fact to Tradition, Ethics to Dogma.
+And now there were symptoms throughout the governing bodies of
+the Reformed churches indicating a determination to sacrifice
+leadership in this new thought to ease in orthodoxy.  Every
+revelation of new knowledge encountered outcry, opposition, and
+repression; and, what was worse, the ill-judged declarations of
+some unwise workers in the critical field were seized upon and
+used to discredit all fruitful research.  Fortunately, a man now
+appeared who both met all this opposition successfully, and put
+aside all the half truths or specious untruths urged by minor
+critics whose zeal outran their discretion.  This was a great
+constructive scholar--not a destroyer, but a builder--Wellhausen.
+Reverently, but honestly and courageously, with clearness,
+fulness, and convicting force, he summed up the conquests of
+scientific criticism as bearing on Hebrew history and literature.
+These conquests had reduced the vast structures which theologians
+had during ages been erecting over the sacred text to shapeless
+ruin and rubbish: this rubbish he removed, and brought out from
+beneath it the reality.  He showed Jewish history as an
+evolution obedient to laws at work in all ages, and Jewish
+literature as a growth out of individual, tribal, and national
+life.  Thus was our sacred history and literature given a beauty
+and high use which had long been foreign to them.  Thereby was a
+vast service rendered immediately to Germany, and eventually to
+all mankind; and this service was greatest of all in the domain
+of religion.[476]
+
+[476] For Lowth, see the Rev. T. K. Cheyne, D. D., Professor of
+the Interpretation of the Holy Scripture in the University of
+Oxford, Founders of the Old Testament Criticism, London, 1893,
+pp. 3, 4.  For Astruc's very high character as a medical
+authority, see the Dictionnaire des Sciences Medicales, Paris,
+1820; it is significant that at first he concealed his authorship
+of the Conjectures.  For a brief statement, see Cheyne; also
+Moore's introduction to Bacon's Genesis of Genesis; but for a
+statement remarkably full and interesting, and based on knowlegde
+at first hand of Astruc's very rare book, see Curtiss, as above.
+For Michaelis and Eichorn, see Meyer, Geschichte der Exegese;
+also Cheyne and Moore. For Isenbiehl, see Reusch, in Allg.
+deutsche Biographie. The texts cited against him were Isaiah vii,
+14, and Matt. i, 22, 23.  For Herder, see various historians of
+literature and writers in exegesis, and especially Pfleiderer,
+Development of Theology in Germany, chap. ii.  For his influence,
+as well as that of Lessing, see Beard's Hibbert Lectures, chap.
+x.  For a brief comparison of Lowth's work with that of Herder,
+see Farrar, History of Interpretation, p. 377.  For examples of
+interpretations of the Song of Songs, see Farrar, as above, p.
+33.  For Castellio (Chatillon), his anticipation of Herder's view
+of Solomon's Song, and his persecution by Calvin and Beza, which
+drove him to starvation and death, see Lecky, Rationalism, etc.,
+vol. ii, pp. 46-48; also Bayle's Dictionary, article Castalio;
+also Montaigne's Essais, liv,. i, chap. xxxiv; and especially the
+new life of him by Buisson.  For the persecution of Luis de Leon
+for a similar offence, see Ticknor, History of Spanish
+Literature, vol. ii, pp. 41, 42, and note.  For a remarkably
+frank acceptance of the consequences flowing from Herder's view
+of it, see Sanday, Inspiration, pp. 211, 405. For Geddes, see
+Cheyne, as above.  For Theodore Parker, see his various
+biographies, passim.  For Reuss, Graf, and Kuenen, see Cheyne, as
+above; and for the citations referred to, see the Rev. Dr.
+Driver, Regius Professor of Hebrew at Oxford, in The Academy,
+October 27, 1894; also a note to Wellhausen's article Pentateuch
+in the Encyclopaedia Britannica.  For a generous yet weighty
+tribute to Kuenen's method, see Pfleiderer, as above, book iii,
+chap. ii.  For the view of leading Christian critics on the book
+of Chronicles, see especially Driver, Introduction to the
+Literature of the Old Testament, pp. 495 et seq.; also
+Wellhausen, as above; also Hooykaas, Oort, and Kuenen, Bible for
+Learners.  For many of the foregoing, see also the writings of
+Prof. W. Robertson Smith; also Beard's Hibbert Lectures, chap. x.
+For Hupfield and his discovery, see Cheyne, Founders, etc., as
+above, chap. vii; also Moore's Introduction.  For a justly
+indignant judgment of Hengstenberg and his school, see Canon
+Farrar, as above, p. 417, note; and for a few words throwing a
+bright light into his character and career, see C. A. Briggs, D.
+D., Authority of Holy Scripture, p. 93.  For Wellhausen, see
+Pfleiderer, as above, book iii, chap. ii.  For an excellent
+popular statement of the general results of German criticism, see
+J. T. Sunderland, The Bible, Its Origin, Growth, and Character,
+New York and London, 1893.
+
+
+
+III.  THE CONTINUED GROWTH OF SCIENTIFIC INTERPRETATION.
+
+
+The science of biblical criticism was, as we have seen, first
+developed mainly in Germany and Holland.  Many considerations
+there, as elsewhere, combined to deter men from opening new paths
+to truth: not even in those countries were these the paths to
+preferment; but there, at least, the sturdy Teutonic love of
+truth for truth's sake, strengthened by the Kantian ethics, found
+no such obstacles as in other parts of Europe.  Fair
+investigation of biblical subjects had not there been extirpated,
+as in Italy and Spain; nor had it been forced into channels which
+led nowhither, as in France and southern Germany; nor were men
+who might otherwise have pursued it dazzled and drawn away from
+it by the multitude of splendid prizes for plausibility, for
+sophistry, or for silence displayed before the ecclesiastical
+vision in England.  In the frugal homes of North German and Dutch
+professors and pastors high thinking on these great subjects went
+steadily on, and the "liberty of teaching," which is the glory of
+the northern Continental universities, while it did not secure
+honest thinkers against vexations, did at least protect them
+against the persecutions which in other countries would have
+thwarted their studies and starved their families.[477]
+
+[477] As to the influence of Kant on honest thought in
+Germany, see Pfleiderer, as above, chap. i.
+
+
+In England the admission of the new current of thought was
+apparently impossible.  The traditional system of biblical
+interpretation seemed established on British soil forever.  It
+was knit into the whole fabric of thought and observance; it was
+protected by the most justly esteemed hierarchy the world has
+ever seen; it was intrenched behind the bishops' palaces, the
+cathedral stalls, the professors' chairs, the country
+parsonages--all these, as a rule, the seats of high endeavour and
+beautiful culture.  The older thought held a controlling voice in
+the senate of the nation; it was dear to the hearts of all
+classes; it was superbly endowed; every strong thinker seemed to
+hold a brief, or to be in receipt of a retaining fee for it.  As
+to preferment in the Church, there was a cynical aphorism
+current, "He may hold anything who will hold his tongue."[478]
+
+[478] For an eloquent and at the same time profound statement
+of the evils flowing from the "moral terrorism" and "intellectual
+tyrrany" at Oxford at the period referred to, see quotation in
+Pfleiderer, Development of Theology, p. 371.
+
+For the alloy of interested motives among English Church
+dignitiaries, see the pungent criticism of Bishop Hampden by
+Canon Liddon, in his Life of Pusey, vol. i, p. 363.
+
+
+Yet, while there was inevitably much alloy of worldly wisdom in
+the opposition to the new thought, no just thinker can deny far
+higher motives to many, perhaps to most, of the ecclesiastics who
+were resolute against it.  The evangelical movement incarnate in
+the Wesleys had not spent its strength; the movement begun by
+Pusey, Newman, Keble, and their compeers was in full force.  The
+aesthetic reaction, represented on the Continent by
+Chateaubriand, Manzoni, and Victor Hugo, and in England by Walter
+Scott, Pugin, Ruskin, and above all by Wordsworth, came in to
+give strength to this barrier.   Under the magic of the men who
+led in this reaction, cathedrals and churches, which in the
+previous century had been regarded by men of culture as mere
+barbaric masses of stone and mortar, to be masked without by
+classic colonnades and within by rococo work in stucco and papier
+mache, became even more beloved than in the thirteenth century.
+Even men who were repelled by theological disputations were
+fascinated and made devoted reactionists by the newly revealed
+beauties of medieval architecture and ritual.[479]
+
+[479] A very curious example of this insensibility among
+persons of really high culture is to be found in American
+literature toward the end of the eighteenth century.  Mrs. Adams,
+wife of John Adams, afterward President of the United States, but
+at that time minister to England, one of the most gifted women of
+her time, speaking, in her very interesting letters from England,
+of her journey to the seashore, refers to Canterbury Cathedral,
+seen from her carriage windows, and which she evidently did not
+take the trouble to enter, as "looking like a vast prison."  So,
+too, about the same time, Thomas Jefferson, the American
+plenipotentiary in France, a devoted lover of classical and
+Renaissance architecture, giving an account of his journey to
+Paris, never refers to any of the beautiful cathedrals or
+churches upon his route.
+
+
+The centre and fortress of this vast system, and of the reaction
+against the philosophy of the eighteenth century, was the
+University of Oxford.  Orthodoxy was its vaunt, and a special
+exponent of its spirit and object of its admiration was its
+member of Parliament, Mr. William Ewart Gladstone, who, having
+begun his political career by a laboured plea for the union of
+church and state, ended it by giving that union what is likely to
+be a death-blow.  The mob at the circus of Constantinople in the
+days of the Byzantine emperors was hardly more wildly orthodox
+than the mob of students at this foremost seat of learning of the
+Anglo-Saxon race during the middle decades of the nineteenth
+century.  The Moslem students of El Azhar are hardly more
+intolerant now than these English students were then.  A curious
+proof of this had been displayed just before the end of that
+period.  The minister of the United States at the court of St.
+James was then Edward Everett.  He was undoubtedly the most
+accomplished scholar and one of the foremost statesmen that
+America had produced; his eloquence in early life had made him
+perhaps the most admired of American preachers; his classical
+learning had at a later period made him Professor of Greek at
+Harvard; he had successfully edited the leading American review,
+and had taken a high place in American literature; he had been
+ten years a member of Congress; he had been again and again
+elected Governor of Massachusetts; and in all these posts he had
+shown amply those qualities which afterward made him President of
+Harvard, Secretary of State of the United States, and a United
+States Senator.  His character and attainments were of the
+highest, and, as he was then occupying the foremost place in the
+diplomatic service of his country, he was invited to receive an
+appropriate honorary degree at Oxford.  But, on his presentation
+for it in the Sheldonian Theatre, there came a revelation to the
+people he represented, and indeed to all Christendom: a riot
+having been carefully prepared beforehand by sundry zealots, he
+was most grossly and ingeniously insulted by the mob of
+undergraduates and bachelors of art in the galleries and masters
+of arts on the floor; and the reason for this was that, though by
+no means radical in his religious opinions, he was thought to
+have been in his early life, and to be possibly at that time,
+below what was then the Oxford fashion in belief, or rather
+feeling, regarding the mystery of the Trinity.
+
+At the centre of biblical teaching at Oxford sat Pusey, Regius
+Professor of Hebrew, a scholar who had himself remained for a
+time at a German university, and who early in life had imbibed
+just enough of the German spirit to expose him to suspicion and
+even to attack.  One charge against him at that time shows
+curiously what was then expected of a man perfectly sound in the
+older Anglican theology.  He had ventured to defend holy writ
+with the argument that there were fishes actually existing which
+could have swallowed the prophet Jonah.  The argument proved
+unfortunate.  He was attacked on the scriptural ground that the
+fish which swallowed Jonah was created for that express purpose.
+He, like others, fell back under the charm of the old system: his
+ideas gave force to the reaction: in the quiet of his study,
+which, especially after the death of his son, became a hermitage,
+he relapsed into patristic and medieval conceptions of
+Christianity, enforcing them from the pulpit and in his published
+works.  He now virtually accepted the famous dictum of Hugo of
+St. Victor--that one is first to find what is to be believed, and
+then to search the Scriptures for proofs of it.  His devotion to
+the main features of the older interpretation was seen at its
+strongest in his utterances regarding the book of Daniel.   Just
+as Cardinal Bellarmine had insisted that the doctrine of the
+incarnation depends upon the retention of the Ptolemaic
+astronomy; just as Danzius had insisted that the very continuance
+of religion depends on the divine origin of the Hebrew
+punctuation; just as Peter Martyr had made everything sacred
+depend on the literal acceptance of Genesis; just as Bishop
+Warburton had insisted that Christianity absolutely depends upon
+a right interpretation of the prophecies regarding Antichrist;
+just as John Wesley had insisted that the truth of the Bible
+depends on the reality of witchcraft; just as, at a later period,
+Bishop Wilberforce insisted that the doctrine of the Incarnation
+depends on the "Mosaic" statements regarding the origin of man;
+and just as Canon Liddon insisted that Christianity itself
+depends on a literal belief in Noah's flood, in the
+transformation of Lot's wife, and in the sojourn of Jonah in the
+whale: so did Pusey then virtually insist that Christianity must
+stand or fall with the early date of the book of Daniel.
+Happily, though the Ptolemaic astronomy, and witchcraft, and the
+Genesis creation myths, and the Adam, Noah, Lot, and Jonah
+legends, and the divine origin of the Hebrew punctuation, and the
+prophecies regarding Antichrist, and the early date of the book
+of Daniel have now been relegated to the limbo of ontworn
+beliefs, Christianity has but come forth the stronger.
+
+Nothing seemed less likely than that such a vast intrenched camp
+as that of which Oxford was the centre could be carried by an
+effort proceeding from a few isolated German and Dutch scholars.
+Yet it was the unexpected which occurred; and it is instructive
+to note that, even at the period when the champions of the older
+thought were to all appearance impregnably intrenched in England,
+a way had been opened into their citadel, and that the most
+effective agents in preparing it were really the very men in the
+universities and cathedral chapters who had most distinguished
+themselves by uncompromising and intolerant orthodoxy.
+
+A rapid survey of the history of general literary criticism at
+that epoch will reveal this fact fully.  During the last decade
+of the seventeenth century there had taken place the famous
+controversy over the Letters of Phalaris, in which, against
+Charles Boyle and his supporters at Oxford, was pitted Richard
+Bentley at Cambridge, who insisted that the letters were
+spurious.  In the series of battles royal which followed,
+although Boyle, aided by Atterbury, afterward so noted for his
+mingled ecclesiastical and political intrigues, had gained a
+temporary triumph by wit and humour, Bentley's final attack had
+proved irresistible.  Drawing from the stores of his wonderfully
+wide and minute knowledge, he showed that the letters could not
+have been written in the time of Phalaris--proving this by an
+exhibition of their style, which could not then have been in use,
+of their reference to events which had not then taken place, and
+of a mass of considerations which no one but a scholar almost
+miraculously gifted could have marshalled so fully.  The
+controversy had attracted attention not only in England but
+throughout Europe.  With Bentley's reply it had ended.  In spite
+of public applause at Atterbury's wit, scholars throughout the
+world acknowledged Bentley's victory: he was recognised as the
+foremost classical scholar of his time; the mastership of
+Trinity, which he accepted, and the Bristol bishopric, which he
+rejected, were his formal reward.
+
+Although, in his new position as head of the greatest college in
+England, he went to extreme lengths on the orthodox side in
+biblical theology, consenting even to support the doctrine that
+the Hebrew punctuation was divinely inspired, this was as nothing
+compared with the influence of the system of criticism which he
+introduced into English studies of classical literature in
+preparing the way for the application of a similar system to ALL
+literature, whether called sacred or profane.
+
+Up to that period there had really been no adequate criticism of
+ancient literature.  Whatever name had been attached to any
+ancient writing was usually accepted as the name of the author:
+what texts should be imputed to an author was settled generally
+on authority.   But with Bentley began a new epoch.  His acute
+intellect and exquisite touch revealed clearly to English
+scholars the new science of criticism, and familiarized the minds
+of thinking men with the idea that the texts of ancient
+literature must be submitted to this science.  Henceforward a new
+spirit reigned among the best classical scholars, prophetic of
+more and more light in the greater field of sacred literature.
+Scholars, of whom Porson was chief, followed out this method, and
+though at times, as in Porson's own case, they were warned off,
+with much loss and damage, from the application of it to the
+sacred text, they kept alive the better tradition.
+
+A hundred years after Bentley's main efforts appeared in Germany
+another epoch-making book--Wolf's Introduction to Homer.  In this
+was broached the theory that the Iliad and Odyssey are not the
+works of a single great poet, but are made up of ballad
+literature wrought into unity by more or less skilful editing.
+In spite of various changes and phases of opinion on this subject
+since Wolf's day, he dealt a killing blow at the idea that
+classical works are necessarily to be taken at what may be termed
+their face value.
+
+More and more clearly it was seen that the ideas of early
+copyists, and even of early possessors of masterpieces in ancient
+literature, were entirely different from those to which the
+modern world is accustomed.  It was seen that manipulations and
+interpolations in the text by copyists and possessors had long
+been considered not merely venial sins, but matters of right, and
+that even the issuing of whole books under assumed names had been
+practised freely.
+
+In 1811 a light akin to that thrown by Bentley and Wolf upon
+ancient literature was thrown by Niebuhr upon ancient history.
+In his History of Rome the application of scientific principles
+to the examination of historical sources was for the first time
+exhibited largely and brilliantly.  Up to that period the
+time-honoured utterances of ancient authorities had been, as a
+rule, accepted as final: no breaking away, even from the most
+absurd of them, was looked upon with favour, and any one
+presuming to go behind them was regarded as troublesome and even
+as dangerous.
+
+Through this sacred conventionalism Niebuhr broke fearlessly,
+and, though at times overcritical, he struck from the early
+history of Rome a vast mass of accretions, and gave to the world
+a residue infinitely more valuable than the original amalgam of
+myth, legend, and chronicle.
+
+His methods were especially brought to bear on students' history
+by one of the truest men and noblest scholars that the English
+race has produced--Arnold of Rugby--and, in spite of the
+inevitable heavy conservatism, were allowed to do their work in
+the field of ancient history as well as in that of ancient
+classical literature.
+
+The place of myth in history thus became more and more
+understood, and historical foundations, at least so far as
+SECULAR history was concerned, were henceforth dealt with in a
+scientific spirit.  The extension of this new treatment to ALL
+ancient literature and history was now simply a matter of time.
+
+Such an extension had already begun; for in 1829 had appeared
+Milman's History of the Jews.  In this work came a further
+evolution of the truths and methods suggested by Bentley, Wolf,
+and Niebuhr, and their application to sacred history was made
+strikingly evident.  Milman, though a clergyman, treated the
+history of the chosen people in the light of modern knowledge of
+Oriental and especially of Semitic peoples.  He exhibited sundry
+great biblical personages of the wandering days of Israel as
+sheiks or emirs or Bedouin chieftains; and the tribes of Israel
+as obedient then to the same general laws, customs, and ideas
+governing wandering tribes in the same region now.  He dealt with
+conflicting sources somewhat in the spirit of Bentley, and with
+the mythical, legendary, and miraculous somewhat in the spirit of
+Niebuhr.  This treatment of the history of the Jews, simply as
+the development of an Oriental tribe, raised great opposition.
+Such champions of orthodoxy as Bishop Mant and Dr. Faussett
+straightway took the field, and with such effect that the Family
+Library, a very valuable series in which Milman's history
+appeared, was put under the ban, and its further publication
+stopped.  For years Milman, though a man of exquisite literary
+and lofty historical gifts, as well as of most honourable
+character, was debarred from preferment and outstripped by
+ecclesiastics vastly inferior to him in everything save worldly
+wisdom; for years he was passed in the race for honours by
+divines who were content either to hold briefs for all the
+contemporary unreason which happened to be popular, or to keep
+their mouths shut altogether.  This opposition to him extended to
+his works.  For many years they were sneered at, decried, and
+kept from the public as far as possible.
+
+Fortunately, the progress of events lifted him, before the
+closing years of his life, above all this opposition.  As Dean of
+St. Paul's he really outranked the contemporary archbishops: he
+lived to see his main ideas accepted, and his History of Latin
+Christianity received as certainly one of the most valuable, and
+no less certainly the most attractive, of all Church histories
+ever written.
+
+The two great English histories of Greece--that by Thirlwall,
+which was finished, and that by Grote, which was begun, in the
+middle years of the nineteenth century--came in to strengthen
+this new development.  By application of the critical method to
+historical sources, by pointing out more and more fully the
+inevitable part played by myth and legend in early chronicles, by
+displaying more and more clearly the ease with which
+interpolations of texts, falsifications of statements, and
+attributions to pretended authors were made, they paved the way
+still further toward a just and fruitful study of sacred
+literature.[480]
+
+[480] For Mr. Gladstone's earlier opinion, see his Church and
+State, and Macaulay's review of it.  For Pusey, see Mozley, Ward,
+Newman's Apologia, Dean Church, etc., and especially his Life, by
+Liddon. Very characteristic touches are given in vol. i, showing
+the origin of many of his opinions (see letter on p. 184). For
+the scandalous treatment of Mr. Everett by the clerical mob at
+Oxford, see a rather jaunty account of the preparations and of
+the whole performance in a letter written at the time from Oxford
+by the late Dean Church, in The Life and Letters of Dean Church,
+London, 1894, pp. 40, 41.  For a brief but excellent summary of
+the character and services of Everett, see J. F. Rhodes's History
+of the United States from the Compromise of 1850, New York, 1893,
+vol. i, pp. 291 et seq.  For a succinct and brilliant history of
+the Bentley-Boyle controversy, see Macauley's article on Bentley
+in the Encyclopaedia Britannica; also Beard's Hibbert Lectures
+for 1893, pp. 344, 345; also Dissertation in Bentley's work,
+edited by Dyce, London, 1836, vol. i, especially the preface.
+For Wolf, see his Prolegomena ad Homerum, Halle, 1795; for its
+effects, see the admirable brief statement in Beard, as above, p.
+345.  For Niebuhr, see his Roman History, translated by Hare and
+Thirlwall, London, 1828; also Beard, as above. For Milman's view,
+see, as a specimen, his History of the Jews, last edition,
+especially pp. 15-27.  For a noble tribute to his character, see
+the preface to Lecky's History of European Morals. For
+Thirlwall, see his History of Greece, passim; also his letters;
+also his Charge of the Bishop of St. David's, 1863.
+
+
+Down to the middle of the nineteenth century the traditionally
+orthodox side of English scholarship, while it had not been able
+to maintain any effective quarantine against Continental
+criticism of classical literature, had been able to keep up
+barriers fairly strong against Continental discussions of sacred
+literature.  But in the second half of the nineteenth century
+these barriers were broken at many points, and, the stream of
+German thought being united with the current of devotion to truth
+in England, there appeared early in 1860 a modest volume entitled
+Essays and Reviews.   This work discussed sundry of the older
+theological positions which had been rendered untenable by modern
+research, and brought to bear upon them the views of the newer
+school of biblical interpretation.   The authors were, as a rule,
+scholars in the prime of life, holding influential positions in
+the universities and public schools.  They were seven--the first
+being Dr. Temple, a successor of Arnold at Rugby; and the others,
+the Rev. Dr. Rowland Williams, Prof. Baden Powell, the Rev. H.
+B. Wilson, Mr. C. W. Goodwin, the Rev. Mark Pattison, and the
+Rev. Prof. Jowett--the only one of the seven not in holy orders
+being Goodwin.  All the articles were important, though the
+first, by Temple, on The Education of the World, and the last, by
+Jowett, on The Interpretation of Scripture, being the most
+moderate, served most effectually as entering wedges into the old
+tradition.
+
+At first no great attention was paid to the book, the only notice
+being the usual attempts in sundry clerical newspapers to
+pooh-pooh it.  But in October, 1860, appeared in the Westminster
+Review an article exulting in the work as an evidence that the
+new critical method had at last penetrated the Church of England.
+
+The opportunity for defending the Church was at once seized by no
+less a personage than Bishop Wilberforce, of Oxford, the same who
+a few months before had secured a fame more lasting than enviable
+by his attacks on Darwin and the evolutionary theory.  His first
+onslaught was made in a charge to his clergy.  This he followed
+up with an article in the Quarterly Review, very explosive in its
+rhetoric, much like that which he had devoted in the same
+periodical to Darwin.  The bishop declared that the work tended
+"toward infidelity, if not to atheism"; that the writers had been
+"guilty of criminal levity"; that, with the exception of the
+essay by Dr. Temple, their writings were "full of sophistries and
+scepticisms." He was especially bitter against Prof. Jowett's
+dictum, "Interpret the Scripture like any other book"; he
+insisted that Mr. Goodwin's treatment of the Mosaic account of
+the origin of man "sweeps away the whole basis of inspiration and
+leaves no place for the Incarnation"; and through the article
+were scattered such rhetorical adornments as the words "infidel,"
+"atheistic," "false," and "wanton." It at once attracted wide
+attention, but its most immediate effect was to make the fortune
+of Essays and Reviews, which was straightway demanded on every
+hand, went through edition after edition, and became a power in
+the land.  At this a panic began, and with the usual results of
+panic--much folly and some cruelty.  Addresses from clergy and
+laity, many of them frantic with rage and fear, poured in upon
+the bishops, begging them to save Christianity and the Church: a
+storm of abuse arose: the seven essayists were stigmatized as
+"the seven extinguishers of the seven lamps of the Apocalypse,"
+"the seven champions NOT of Christendom." As a result of all this
+pressure, Sumner, Archbishop of Canterbury, one of the last of
+the old, kindly, bewigged pluralists of the Georgian period,
+headed a declaration, which was signed by the Archbishop of York
+and a long list of bishops, expressing pain at the appearance of
+the book, but doubts as to the possibility of any effective
+dealing with it.  This letter only made matters worse.  The
+orthodox decried it as timid, and the liberals denounced it as
+irregular.  The same influences were exerted in the sister
+island, and the Protestant archbishops in Ireland issued a joint
+letter warning the faithful against the "disingenuousness" of the
+book.  Everything seemed to increase the ferment.  A meeting of
+clergy and laity having been held at Oxford in the matter of
+electing a Professor of Sanscrit, the older orthodox party,
+having made every effort to defeat the eminent scholar Max
+Miller, and all in vain, found relief after their defeat in new
+denunciations of Essays and Reviews.
+
+Of the two prelates who might have been expected to breast the
+storm, Tait, Bishop of London, afterward Archbishop of
+Canterbury, bent to it for a period, though he soon recovered
+himself and did good service; the other, Thirlwall, Bishop of St.
+David's, bided his time, and, when the proper moment came, struck
+most effective blows for truth and justice.
+
+Tait, large-minded and shrewd, one of the most statesmanlike of
+prelates, at first endeavoured to detach Temple and Jowett from
+their associates; but, though Temple was broken down with a load
+of care, and especially by the fact that he had upon his
+shoulders the school at Rugby, whose patrons had become alarmed
+at his connection with the book, he showed a most refreshing
+courage and manliness.  A passage from his letters to the Bishop
+of London runs as follows: "With regard to my own conduct I can
+only say that nothing on earth will induce me to do what you
+propose.  I do not judge for others, but in me it would be base
+and untrue."  On another occasion Dr. Temple, when pressed in the
+interest of the institution of learning under his care to detach
+himself from his associates in writing the book, declared to a
+meeting of the masters of the school that, if any statements were
+made to the effect that he disapproved of the other writers in
+the volume, he should probably find it his duty to contradict
+them. Another of these letters to the Bishop of London contains
+sundry passages of great force. One is as follows: "Many years
+ago you urged us from the university pulpit to undertake the
+critical study of the Bible. You said that it was a dangerous
+study, but indispensable.  You described its difficulties, and
+those who listened must have felt a confidence (as I assuredly
+did, for I was there) that if they took your advice and entered
+on the task, you, at any rate, would never join in treating them
+unjustly if their study had brought with it the difficulties you
+described.  Such a study, so full of difficulties, imperatively
+demands freedom for its condition.  To tell a man to study, and
+yet bid him, under heavy penalties, come to the same conclusions
+with those who have not studied, is to mock him.  If the
+conclusions are prescribed, the study is precluded." And again,
+what, as coming from a man who has since held two of the most
+important bishoprics in the English Church, is of great
+importance: "What can be a grosser superstition than the theory
+of literal inspiration? But because that has a regular footing it
+is to be treated as a good man's mistake, while the courage to
+speak the truth about the first chapter of Genesis is a wanton
+piece of wickedness."
+
+The storm howled on.  In the Convocation of Canterbury it was
+especially violent. In the Lower House Archdeacon Denison
+insisted on the greatest severity, as he said, "for the sake of
+the young who are tainted, and corrupted, and thrust almost to
+hell by the action of this book."  At another time the same
+eminent churchman declared: "Of all books in any language which I
+ever laid my hands on, this is incomparably the worst; it
+contains all the poison which is to be found in Tom Paine's Age
+of Reason, while it has the additional disadvantage of having
+been written by clergymen."
+
+Hysterical as all this was, the Upper House was little more
+self-contained.  Both Tait and Thirlwall, trying to make some
+headway against the swelling tide, were for a time beaten back by
+Wilberforce, who insisted on the duty of the Church to clear
+itself publicly from complicity with men who, as he said, "gave
+up God's Word, Creation, redemption, and the work of the Holy
+Ghost."
+
+The matter was brought to a curious issue by two
+prosecutions--one against the Rev. Dr. Williams by the Bishop of
+Salisbury, the other against the Rev. Mr. Wilson by one of his
+clerical brethren.  The first result was that both these authors
+were sentenced to suspension from their offices for a year.  At
+this the two condemned clergymen appealed to the Queen in
+Council.  Upon the judicial committee to try the case in last
+resort sat the lord chancellor, the two archbishops, and the
+Bishop of London; and one occurrence now brought into especial
+relief the power of the older theological reasoning and
+ecclesiastical zeal to close the minds of the best of men to the
+simplest principles of right and justice.  Among the men of his
+time most deservedly honoured for lofty character, thorough
+scholarship, and keen perception of right and justice was Dr.
+Pusey.  No one doubted then, and no one doubts now, that he would
+have gone to the stake sooner than knowingly countenance wrong or
+injustice; and yet we find him at this time writing a series of
+long and earnest letters to the Bishop of London, who, as a
+judge, was hearing this case, which involved the livelihood and
+even the good name of the men on trial, pointing out to the
+bishop the evil consequences which must follow should the authors
+of Essays and Reviews be acquitted, and virtually beseeching the
+judges, on grounds of expediency, to convict them.  Happily,
+Bishop Tait was too just a man to be thrown off his bearings by
+appeals such as this.
+
+The decision of the court, as finally rendered by the lord
+chancellor, virtually declared it to be no part of the duty of
+the tribunal to pronounce any opinion upon the book; that the
+court only had to do with certain extracts which had been
+presented.  Among these was one adduced in support of a charge
+against Mr. Wilson--that he denied the doctrine of eternal
+punishment.  On this the court decided that it did "not find in
+the formularies of the English Church any such distinct
+declaration upon the subject as to require it to punish the
+expression of a hope by a clergyman that even the ultimate pardon
+of the wicked who are condemned in the day of judgment may be
+consistent with the will of Almighty God."  While the archbishops
+dissented from this judgment, Bishop Tait united in it with the
+lord chancellor and the lay judges.
+
+And now the panic broke out more severely than ever.  Confusion
+became worse confounded.  The earnest-minded insisted that the
+tribunal had virtually approved Essays and Reviews; the cynical
+remarked that it had "dismissed hell with costs." An alliance was
+made at once between the more zealous High and Low Church men,
+and Oxford became its headquarters: Dr. Pusey and Archdeacon
+Denison were among the leaders, and an impassioned declaration
+was posted to every clergyman in England and Ireland, with a
+letter begging him, "for the love of God," to sign it.  Thus it
+was that in a very short time eleven thousand signatures were
+obtained.  Besides this, deputations claiming to represent one
+hundred and thirty-seven thousand laymen waited on the
+archbishops to thank them for dissenting from the judgment.  The
+Convocation of Canterbury also plunged into the fray, Bishop
+Wilberforce being the champion of the older orthodoxy, and Bishop
+Tait of the new.  Caustic was the speech made by Bishop
+Thirlwall, in which he declared that he considered the eleven
+thousand names, headed by that of Pusey, attached to the Oxford
+declaration "in the light of a row of figures preceded by a
+decimal point, so that, however far the series may be advanced,
+it never can rise to the value of a single unit."
+
+In spite of all that could be done, the act of condemnation was
+carried in Convocation.
+
+The last main echo of this whole struggle against the newer mode
+of interpretation was heard when the chancellor, referring to the
+matter in the House of Lords, characterized the ecclesiastical
+act as "simply a series of well-lubricated terms--a sentence so
+oily and saponaceous that no one can grasp it; like an eel, it
+slips through your fingers, and is simply nothing."
+
+The word "saponaceous" necessarily elicited a bitter retort from
+Bishop Wilberforce; but perhaps the most valuable judgment on the
+whole matter was rendered by Bishop Tait, who declared, "These
+things have so effectually frightened the clergy that I think
+there is scarcely a bishop on the bench, unless it be the Bishop
+of St. David's [Thirlwall], that is not useless for the purpose
+of preventing the widespread alienation of intelligent men."
+
+During the whole controversy, and for some time afterward, the
+press was burdened with replies, ponderous and pithy, lurid and
+vapid, vitriolic and unctuous, but in the main bearing the
+inevitable characteristics of pleas for inherited opinions
+stimulated by ample endowments.
+
+The authors of the book seemed for a time likely to be swept out
+of the Church.  One of the least daring but most eminent, finding
+himself apparently forsaken, seemed, though a man of very tough
+fibre, about to die of a broken heart; but sturdy English sense
+at last prevailed.  The storm passed, and afterward came the
+still, small voice.  Really sound thinkers throughout England,
+especially those who held no briefs for conventional orthodoxy,
+recognised the service rendered by the book.  It was found that,
+after all, there existed even among churchmen a great mass of
+public opinion in favour of giving a full hearing to the reverent
+expression of honest thought, and inclined to distrust any cause
+which subjected fair play to zeal.
+
+The authors of the work not only remained in the Church of
+England, but some of them have since represented the broader
+views, though not always with their early courage, in the highest
+and most influential positions in the Anglican Church.[481]
+
+[481] For the origin of Essays and Reviews, see Edinburgh
+Review, April, 1861, p. 463.  For the reception of the book, see
+the Westminster Review, October, 1860.  For the attack on it by
+Bishop Wilberforce, see his article in the Quarterly Review,
+January, 1861; for additional facts, Edinburgh Review, April,
+1861, pp. 461 et seq.  For action on the book by Convocation, see
+Dublin Review, May, 1861, citing Jelf et al.; also Davidson's
+Life of Archbishop Tate, vol. i, chap. xii.  For the
+Archepiscopal Letter, see Dublin Review, as above; also Life of
+Bishop Wilberforce, by his son, London, 1882, vol. iii, pp. 4,5;
+it is there stated that Wilberforce drew upon the letter.  For
+curious inside views of the Essays and Reviews controversy,
+including the course of Bishop Hampden, Tait, et al., see Life of
+Bishop Wilberforce, by his son, as above, pp. 3-11; also pp.
+141-149.  For the denunciation of the present Bishop of London
+(Temple) as a "leper," etc., see ibid., pp. 319, 320. For general
+treatment of Temple, see Fraser's Magazine, December, 1869.  For
+very interesting correspondence, see Davidson's Life of
+Archbishop Tait, as above.  For Archdeacon Denison's speeches,
+see ibid, vol. i, p. 302.  For Dr. Pusey's letter to Bishop Tait,
+urging conviction of the Essayists and Reviewers, ibid, p. 314.
+For the striking letters of Dr. Temple, ibid., pp. 290 et seq.;
+also The Life and Letters of Dean Stanley.  For replies, see
+Charge of the Bishop of Oxford, 1863; also Replies to Essays and
+Reviews, Parker, London, with preface by Wilberforce; also Aids
+to Faith, edited by the Bishop of Gloucester, London, 1861; also
+those by Jelf, Burgon, et al.  For the legal proceedings, see
+Quarterly Review, April, 1864; also Davidson, as above.  For
+Bishop Thirlwall's speech, see Chronicle of Convocation, quoted
+in Life of Tait, vol. i, p. 320.  For Tait's tribute to
+Thirlwall, see  Life of Tait, vol. i, p. 325.  For a remarkable
+able review, and in most charming form, of the ideas of Bishop
+Wilberforce and Lord Chancellor Westbury, see H. D. Traill, The
+New Lucian, first dialogue.  For the cynical phrase referred to,
+see Nash, Life of Lord Westbury, vol. ii, p. 78, where the noted
+epitaph is given, as follows:
+
+            "RICHARD BARON WESTBURY
+        Lord High Chancellor of England,
+          He was an eminent Christian,
+      An energetic and merciful Statesman,
+   And a still more eminent and merciful Judge.
+    During his three years' tenure of office
+  He abolished the ancient method of conveying land,
+The time-honoured institution of the Insolvent's Court,
+                   And
+        The Eternity of Punishment.
+    Toward the close of his early career,
+In the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council,
+         He dismissed Hell with costs,
+And took away from the Orthodox members of the
+            Church of England
+   Their last hope of everlasting damnation."
+
+
+
+IV.   THE CLOSING STRUGGLE.
+
+The storm aroused by Essays and Reviews had not yet subsided when
+a far more serious tempest burst upon the English theological
+world.
+
+In 1862 appeared a work entitled The Pentateuch and the Book of
+Joshua Critically Examined its author being Colenso, Anglican
+Bishop of Natal, in South Africa.  He had formerly been highly
+esteemed as fellow and tutor at Cambridge, master at Harrow,
+author of various valuable text-books in mathematics; and as long
+as he exercised his powers within the limits of popular orthodoxy
+he was evidently in the way to the highest positions in the
+Church: but he chose another path.  His treatment of his subject
+was reverent, but he had gradually come to those conclusions,
+then so daring, now so widespread among Christian scholars, that
+the Pentateuch, with much valuable historical matter, contains
+much that is unhistorical; that a large portion of it was the
+work of a comparatively late period in Jewish history; that many
+passages in Deuteronomy could only have been written after the
+Jews settled in Canaan; that the Mosaic law was not in force
+before the captivity; that the books of Chronicles were clearly
+written as an afterthought, to enforce the views of the priestly
+caste; and that in all the books there is much that is mythical
+and legendary.
+
+Very justly has a great German scholar recently adduced this work
+of a churchman relegated to the most petty of bishoprics in one
+of the most remote corners of the world, as a proof "that the
+problems of biblical criticism can no longer be suppressed; that
+they are in the air of our time, so that theology could not
+escape them even if it took the wings of the morning and dwelt in
+the uttermost parts of the sea."
+
+The bishop's statements, which now seem so moderate, then aroused
+horror.  Especial wrath was caused by some of his arithmetical
+arguments, and among them those which showed that an army of six
+hundred thousand men could not have been mobilized in a single
+night; that three millions of people, with their flocks and
+herds, could neither have obtained food on so small and arid a
+desert as that over which they were said to have wandered during
+forty years, nor water from a single well; and that the butchery
+of two hundred thousand Midianites by twelve thousand Israelites,
+"exceeding infinitely in atrocity the tragedy at Cawnpore, had
+happily only been carried out on paper." There was nothing of the
+scoffer in him.  While preserving his own independence, he had
+kept in touch with the most earnest thought both among European
+scholars and in the little flock intrusted to his care.  He
+evidently remembered what had resulted from the attempt to hold
+the working classes in the towns of France, Germany, and Italy to
+outworn beliefs; he had found even the Zulus, whom he thought to
+convert, suspicious of the legendary features of the Old
+Testament, and with his clear practical mind he realized the
+danger which threatened the English Church and Christianity--the
+danger of tying its religion and morality to interpretations and
+conceptions of Scripture more and more widely seen and felt to be
+contrary to facts.  He saw the especial peril of sham
+explanations, of covering up facts which must soon be known, and
+which, when revealed, must inevitably bring the plain people of
+England to regard their teachers, even the most deserving, as
+"solemnly constituted impostors"--ecclesiastics whose tenure
+depends on assertions which they know to be untrue.  Therefore it
+was that, when his catechumens questioned him regarding some of
+the Old Testament legends, the bishop determined to tell the
+truth.  He says: "My heart answered in the words of the prophet,
+`Shall a man speak lies in the name of the Lord?' I determined
+not to do so."
+
+But none of these considerations availed in his behalf at first.
+
+The outcry against the work was deafening: churchmen and
+dissenters rushed forward to attack it.  Archdeacon Denison,
+chairman of the committee of Convocation appointed to examine it,
+uttered a noisy anathema. Convocation solemnly condemned it; and
+a zealous colonial bishop, relying upon a nominal supremacy,
+deposed and excommunicated its author, declaring him "given over
+to Satan."  On both sides of the Atlantic the press groaned with
+"answers," some of these being especially injurious to the cause
+they were intended to serve, and none more so than sundry efforts
+by the bishops themselves. One of the points upon which they
+attacked him was his assertion that the reference in Leviticus to
+the hare chewing its cud contains an error.  Upon this Prof.
+Hitzig, of Leipsic, one of the best Hebrew scholars of his time,
+remarked: "Your bishops are making themselves the laughing-stock
+of Europe. Every Hebraist knows that the animal mentioned in
+Leviticus is really the hare;. . . every zoologist knows that it
+does not chew the cud."[482]
+
+[482] For the citation referred to, see Pfleiderer, as above,
+book iv, chap. ii.  For the passages referred to as provoking
+especial wrath, see Colenso, Lectures on the Pentateuch and the
+Moabite Stone, 1876, p. 217.  For the episode regarding the hare
+chewing the cud, see Cox, Life of Colenso, vol. i, p. 240.  The
+following epigram went the rounds:
+
+"The bishops all have sworn to shed their blood
+To prove 'tis true that the hare doth chew the cud.
+O bishops, doctors, and divines, beware--
+Weak is the faith that hangs upon a HAIR!"
+
+
+On Colenso's return to Natal, where many of the clergy and laity
+who felt grateful for his years of devotion to them received him
+with signs of affection, an attempt was made to ruin these
+clergymen by depriving them of their little stipends, and to
+terrify the simple-minded laity by threatening them with the same
+"greater excommunication" which had been inflicted upon their
+bishop.   To make the meaning of this more evident, the
+vicar-general of the Bishop of Cape Town met Colenso at the door
+of his own cathedral, and solemnly bade him "depart from the
+house of God as one who has been handed over to the Evil One."
+The sentence of excommunication was read before the assembled
+faithful, and they were enjoined to treat their bishop as "a
+heathen man and a publican." But these and a long series of other
+persecutions created a reaction in his favour.
+
+There remained to Colenso one bulwark which his enemies found
+stronger than they had imagined--the British courts of justice.
+The greatest efforts were now made to gain the day before these
+courts, to humiliate Colenso, and to reduce to beggary the clergy
+who remained faithful to him; and it is worthy of note that one
+of the leaders in preparing the legal plea of the com mittee
+against him was Mr. Gladstone.
+
+But this bulwark proved impregnable: both the Judicial Committee
+of the Privy Council and the Rolls Court decided in Colenso's
+favour.  Not only were his enemies thus forbidden to deprive him
+of his salary, but their excommunication of him was made null and
+void; it became, indeed, a subject of ridicule, and even a man so
+nurtured in religious sentiment as John Keble confessed and
+lamented that the English people no longer believed in
+excommunication.  The bitterness of the defeated found vent in
+the utterances of the colonial metropolitan who had
+excommunicated Colenso--Bishop Gray, "the Lion of Cape Town"--who
+denounced the judgment as "awful and profane," and the Privy
+Council as "a masterpiece of Satan" and "the great dragon of the
+English Church."  Even Wilberforce, careful as he was to avoid
+attacking anything established, alluded with deep regret to "the
+devotion of the English people to the law in matters of this
+sort."
+
+Their failure in the courts only seemed to increase the violence
+of the attacking party.  The Anglican communion, both in England
+and America, was stirred to its depths against the heretic, and
+various dissenting bodies strove to show equal zeal.  Great pains
+were taken to root out his reputation: it was declared that he
+had merely stolen the ideas of rationalists on the Continent by
+wholesale, and peddled them out in England at retail; the fact
+being that, while he used all the sources of information at his
+command, and was large-minded enough to put himself into
+relations with the best biblical scholarship of the Continent, he
+was singularly independent in his judgment, and that his
+investigations were of lasting value in modifying Continental
+thought. Kuenen, the most distinguished of all his contemporaries
+in this field, modified, as he himself declared, one of his own
+leading theories after reading Colenso's argument; and other
+Continental scholars scarcely less eminent acknowledged their
+great indebtedness to the English scholar for original
+suggestions.[483]
+
+[483] For interesting details of the Colenso persecution, see
+Davidson's Life of Tait, chaps. xii and xiv; also the Lives of
+Bishops Wilberforce and Gray.  For full accounts of the struggle,
+see Cox, Life of Bishop Colenso, London, 1888, especially vol. i,
+chap. v.  For the dramatic performance at Colenso's cathedral,
+see vol. ii, pp. 14-25.  For a very impartial and appreciative
+statement regarding Colenso's work, see Cheyne, Founders of Old
+Testament Criticism, London, 1893, chap. ix.  For testimony to
+the originality and value of Colenso's contributions, see Kuenen,
+Origin and Composition of the Hexateuch, Introduction, pp. xx, as
+follows: "Colenso directed my attention to difficulties which I
+had hitherto failed to observe or adequately to reckon with; and
+as to the opinion of his labours current in Germany, I need only
+say that, inasmuch as Ewald, Bunsen, Bleek, and Knabel were every
+one of them logically forced to revise their theories in the
+light of the English bishop's research, there was small reason in
+the cry that his methods were antiquated and his objections
+stale."  For a very brief but effective tribute to Colenso as an
+independent thinker whose merits are now acknowledged by
+Continental scholars, see Pfleiderer, Development of Theory, as
+above.
+
+
+But the zeal of the bishop's enemies did not end with calumny.
+He was socially ostracized--more completely even than Lyell had
+been after the publication of his Principles of Geology thirty
+years before. Even old friends left him, among them Frederick
+Denison Maurice, who, when himself under the ban of heresy, had
+been defended by Colenso. Nor was Maurice the only heretic who
+turned against him; Matthew Arnold attacked him, and set up, as a
+true ideal of the work needed to improve the English Church and
+people, of all books in the world, Spinoza's Tractatus. A large
+part of the English populace was led to regard him as an
+"infidel," a "traitor," an "apostate," and even as "an unclean
+being"; servants left his house in horror; "Tray, Blanche, and
+Sweetheart were let loose upon him"; and one of the favourite
+amusements of the period among men of petty wit and no
+convictions was the devising of light ribaldry against him.[484]
+
+[484] One of the nonsense verses in vogue at the time summed up
+the contoversy as follows:
+
+"A bishop there was of Natal,
+Who had a Zulu for his pal;
+  Said the Zulu, 'My dear,
+  Don't you think Genesis queer?'
+Which coverted my lord of Natal."
+
+But verses quite as good appeared on the other side, one of them
+being as follows:
+
+"Is this, then, the great Colenso,
+Who all the bishops offends so?
+  Said Sam of the Soap,
+  Bring fagots and rope,
+For oh! he's got no friends, oh!"
+
+For Matthew Arnold's attack on Colenso, see Macmillan's Magazine,
+January, 1863.  For Maurice, see the references already given.
+
+
+In the midst of all this controversy stood three men, each of
+whom has connected his name with it permanently.
+
+First of these was Samuel Wilberforce, at that time Bishop of
+Oxford.  The gifted son of William Wilberforce, who had been
+honoured throughout the world for his efforts in the suppression
+of the slave trade, he had been rapidly advanced in the English
+Church, and was at this time a prelate of wide influence.  He was
+eloquent and diplomatic, witty and amiable, always sure to be
+with his fellow-churchmen and polite society against
+uncomfortable changes.  Whether the struggle was against the
+slave power in the United States, or the squirearchy in Great
+Britain, or the evolution theory of Darwin, or the new views
+promulgated by the Essayists and Reviewers, he was always the
+suave spokesman of those who opposed every innovator and
+"besought him to depart out of their coasts."  Mingling in
+curious proportions a truly religious feeling with care for his
+own advancement, his remarkable power in the pulpit gave him
+great strength to carry out his purposes, and his charming
+facility in being all things to all men, as well as his skill in
+evading the consequences of his many mistakes, gained him the
+sobriquet of "Soapy Sam."  If such brethren of his in the
+episcopate as Thirlwall and Selwyn and Tait might claim to be in
+the apostolic succession, Wilberforce was no less surely in the
+succession from the most gifted and eminently respectable
+Sadducees who held high preferment under Pontius Pilate.
+
+By a curious coincidence he had only a few years before preached
+the sermon when Colenso was consecrated in Westminster Abbey, and
+one passage in it may be cited as showing the preacher's gift of
+prophecy both hortatory and predictive.  Wilberforce then said to
+Colenso: "You need boldness to risk all for God--to stand by the
+truth and its supporters against men's threatenings and the
+devil's wrath;. . . you need a patient meekness to bear the
+galling calumnies and false surmises with which, if you are
+faithful, that same Satanic working, which, if it could, would
+burn your body, will assuredly assail you daily through the pens
+and tongues of deceivers and deceived, who, under a semblance of
+a zeal for Christ, will evermore distort your words, misrepresent
+your motives, rejoice in your failings, exaggerate your errors,
+and seek by every poisoned breath of slander to destroy your
+powers of service."[485]
+
+[485] For the social ostracism of Colenso, see works already
+cited; also Cox's Life of Colenso.  For the passage from
+Wilberforce's sermon at the consecration of Colenso, see Rev. Sir
+G. W. Cox, The Church of England and the Teaching of Bishop
+Colenso.  For Wilberforce's relations to the Colenso case in
+general, see his Life, by his son, vol. iii, especially pp. 113-
+126, 229-231.  For Keble's avowal that no Englishman believes in
+excommunication, ibid., p. 128.  For a guarded statement of Dean
+Stanley's opinion regarding Wilberforce and Newman, see a letter
+from Dean Church to the Warden of Keble, in Life and Letters of
+Dean Church, p. 293.
+
+
+Unfortunately, when Colenso followed this advice his adviser
+became the most untiring of his persecutors.  While leaving to
+men like the Metropolitan of Cape Town and Archdeacon Denison the
+noisy part of the onslaught, Wilberforce was among those who were
+most zealous in devising more effective measures.
+
+But time, and even short time, has redressed the balance between
+the two prelates.  Colenso is seen more and more of all men as a
+righteous leader in a noble effort to cut the Church loose from
+fatal entanglements with an outworn system of interpretation;
+Wilberforce, as the remembrance of his eloquence and of his
+personal charm dies away, and as the revelations of his
+indiscreet biographers lay bare his modes of procedure, is seen
+to have left, on the whole, the most disappointing record made by
+any Anglican prelate during the nineteenth century.
+
+But there was a far brighter page in the history of the Church of
+England; for the second of the three who linked their names with
+that of Colenso in the struggle was Arthur Penrhyn Stanley, Dean
+of Westminster.  His action during this whole persecution was an
+honour not only to the Anglican Church but to humanity.  For his
+own manhood and the exercise of his own intellectual freedom he
+had cheerfully given up the high preferment in the Church which
+had been easily within his grasp.  To him truth and justice were
+more than the decrees of a Convocation of Canterbury or of a
+Pan-Anglican Synod; in this as in other matters he braved the
+storm, never yielded to theological prejudice, from first to last
+held out a brotherly hand to the persecuted bishop, and at the
+most critical moment opened to him the pulpit of Westminster
+Abbey.[486]
+
+[486] For interesting testimony to Stanley's character, from a
+quarter from whence it would have been least expected, see a
+reminiscence of Lord Shaftesbury in the Life of Frances Power
+Cobbe, London and New York, 1894.  The late Bishop of
+Massachusetts, Phillips Brooks, whose death was a bereavement to
+his country and to the Church universal, once gave the present
+writer a vivid description of a scene witnessed by him in the
+Convocation of Canterbury, when Stanley virtually withstood alone
+the obstinate traditionalism of the whole body in the matter of
+the Athanasian Creed.  It is to be hoped that this account may be
+brought to light among the letters written by Brooks at that
+time.  See also Dean Church's Life and Letters, p. 294, for a
+very important testimony.
+
+
+The third of the high ecclesiastics of the Church of England
+whose names were linked in this contest was Thirlwall.  He was
+undoubtedly the foremost man in the Church of his time--the
+greatest ecclesiastical statesman, the profoundest historical
+scholar, the theologian of clearest vision in regard to the
+relations between the Church and his epoch.  Alone among his
+brother bishops at this period, he stood "four square to all the
+winds that blew," as during all his life he stood against all
+storms of clerical or popular unreason.  He had his reward.  He
+was never advanced beyond a poor Welsh bishopric; but, though he
+saw men wretchedly inferior constantly promoted beyond him, he
+never flinched, never lost heart or hope, but bore steadily on,
+refusing to hold a brief for lucrative injustice, and resisting
+to the last all reaction and fanaticism, thus preserving not only
+his own self-respect but the future respect of the English nation
+for the Church.
+
+A few other leading churchmen were discreetly kind to Colenso,
+among them Tait, who had now been made Archbishop of Canterbury;
+but, manly as he was, he was somewhat more cautious in this
+matter than those who most revere his memory could now wish.
+
+In spite of these friends the clerical onslaught was for a time
+effective; Colenso, so far as England was concerned, was
+discredited and virtually driven from his functions.  But this
+enforced leisure simply gave him more time to struggle for the
+protection of his native flock against colonial rapacity and to
+continue his great work on the Bible.
+
+His work produced its effect.  It had much to do with arousing a
+new generation of English, Scotch, and American scholars.  While
+very many of his minor statements have since been modified or
+rejected, his main conclusion was seen more and more clearly to
+be true.  Reverently and in the deepest love for Christianity he
+had made the unhistorical character of the Pentateuch clear as
+noonday.  Henceforth the crushing weight of the old
+interpretation upon science and morality and religion steadily
+and rapidly grew less and less.  That a new epoch had come was
+evident, and out of many proofs of this we may note two of the
+most striking.
+
+For many years the Bampton Lectures at Oxford had been considered
+as adding steadily and strongly to the bulwarks of the old
+orthodoxy.  If now and then orthodoxy had appeared in danger from
+such additions to the series as those made by Dr. Hampden, these
+lectures had been, as a rule, saturated with the older traditions
+of the Anglican Church.  But now there was an evident change.
+The departures from the old paths were many and striking, until
+at last, in 1893, came the lectures on Inspiration by the Rev.
+Dr. Sanday, Ireland Professor of Exegesis in the University of
+Oxford.  In these, concessions were made to the newer criticism,
+which at an earlier time would have driven the lecturer not only
+out of the Church but out of any decent position in society; for
+Prof. Sanday not only gave up a vast mass of other ideas which
+the great body of churchmen had regarded as fundamental, but
+accepted a number of conclusions established by the newer
+criticism.  He declared that Kuenen and Wellhausen had mapped
+out, on the whole rightly, the main stages of development in the
+history of Hebrew literature; he incorporated with approval the
+work of other eminent heretics; he acknowledged that very many
+statements in the Pentateuch show "the naive ideas and usages of
+a primitive age."  But, most important of all, he gave up the
+whole question in regard to the book of Daniel.  Up to a time
+then very recent, the early authorship and predictive character
+of the book of Daniel were things which no one was allowed for a
+moment to dispute.  Pusey, as we have seen, had proved to the
+controlling parties in the English Church that Christianity must
+stand or fall with the traditional view of this book; and now,
+within a few years of Pusey's death, there came, in his own
+university, speaking from the pulpit of St. Mary's whence he had
+so often insisted upon the absolute necessity of maintaining the
+older view, this professor of biblical criticism, a doctor of
+divinity, showing conclusively as regards the book of Daniel that
+the critical view had won the day; that the name of Daniel is
+only assumed; that the book is in no sense predictive, but was
+written, mainly at least, after the events it describes; that
+"its author lived at the time of the Maccabean struggle"; that it
+is very inaccurate even in the simple facts which it cites; and
+hence that all the vast fabric erected upon its predictive
+character is baseless.
+
+But another evidence of the coming in of a new epoch was even
+more striking.
+
+To uproot every growth of the newer thought, to destroy even
+every germ that had been planted by Colenso and men like him, a
+special movement was begun, of which the most important part was
+the establishment, at the University of Oxford, of a college
+which should bring the old opinion with crushing force against
+the new thought, and should train up a body of young men by
+feeding them upon the utterances of the fathers, of the medieval
+doctors, and of the apologists of the seventeenth and eighteenth
+centuries; and should keep them in happy ignorance of the
+reforming spirit of the sixteenth and the scientific spirit of
+the nineteenth century.
+
+The new college thus founded bore the name of the poet most
+widely beloved among high churchmen; large endowments flowed in
+upon it; a showy chapel was erected in accordance throughout with
+the strictest rules of medieval ecclesiology.  As if to strike
+the keynote of the thought to be fostered in the new institution,
+one of the most beautiful of pseudo-medieval pictures was given
+the place of honour in its hall; and the college, lofty and
+gaudy, loomed high above the neighbouring modest abode of Oxford
+science.  Kuenen might be victorious in Holland, and Wellhausen
+in Germany, and Robertson Smith in Scotland--even Professors
+Driver, Sanday, and Cheyne might succeed Dr. Pusey as expounders
+of the Old Testament at Oxford--but Keble College, rejoicing in
+the favour of a multitude of leaders in the Church, including Mr.
+Gladstone, seemed an inexpugnable fortress of the older thought.
+
+But in 1889 appeared the book of essays entitled Lux Mundi, among
+whose leading authors were men closely connected with Keble
+College and with the movement which had created it.  This work
+gave up entirely the tradition that the narrative in Genesis is a
+historical record, and admitted that all accounts in the Hebrew
+Scriptures of events before the time of Abraham are mythical and
+legendary; it conceded that the books ascribed to Moses and
+Joshua were made up mainly of three documents representing
+different periods, and one of them the late period of the exile;
+that "there is a considerable idealizing element in Old Testament
+history"; that "the books of Chronicles show an idealizing of
+history" and "a reading back into past records of a ritual
+development which is really later," and that prophecy is not
+necessarily predictive-- "prophetic inspiration being consistent
+with erroneous anticipations."  Again a shudder went through the
+upholders of tradition in the Church, and here and there threats
+were heard; but the Essays and Reviews fiasco and the Colenso
+catastrophe were still in vivid remembrance.  Good sense
+prevailed: Benson, Archbishop of Canterbury, instead of
+prosecuting the authors, himself asked the famous question, "May
+not the Holy Spirit make use of myth and legend?" and the
+Government, not long afterward, promoted one of these authors to
+a bishopric.[487]
+
+[487] Of Pusey's extreme devotion to his view of the book of
+Daniel, there is a curious evidence in a letter to Stanley in the
+second volume of the latter's Life and Letters.  For the views
+referred to in Lux Mundi, see pp. 345-357; also, on the general
+subject, Bishop Ellicott's Christus Comprobator.
+
+
+In the sister university the same tendency was seen.  Robertson
+Smith, who had been driven out of his high position in the Free
+Church of Scotland on account of his work in scriptural research,
+was welcomed into a professorship at Cambridge, and other men, no
+less loyal to the new truths, were given places of controlling
+influence in shaping the thought of the new generation.
+
+Nor did the warfare against biblical science produce any
+different results among the dissenters of England.  In 1862
+Samuel Davidson, a professor in the Congregational College at
+Manchester, published his Introduction to the Old Testament.
+Independently of the contemporary writers of Essays and Reviews,
+he had arrived in a general way at conclusions much like theirs,
+and he presented the newer view with fearless honesty, admitting
+that the same research must be applied to these as to other
+Oriental sacred books, and that such research establishes the
+fact that all alike contain legendary and mythical elements.   A
+storm was at once aroused; certain denominational papers took up
+the matter, and Davidson was driven from his professorial chair;
+but he laboured bravely on, and others followed to take up his
+work, until the ideas which he had advocated were fully
+considered.
+
+So, too, in Scotland the work of Robertson Smith was continued
+even after he had been driven into England; and, as votaries of
+the older thought passed away, men of ideas akin to his were
+gradually elected into chairs of biblical criticism and
+interpretation.  Wellhausen's great work, which Smith had
+introduced in English form, proved a power both in England and
+Scotland, and the articles upon various books of Scripture and
+scriptural subjects generally, in the ninth edition of the
+Encyclopaedia Britannica, having been prepared mainly by himself
+as editor or put into the hands of others representing the recent
+critical research, this very important work of reference, which
+had been in previous editions so timid, was now arrayed on the
+side of the newer thought, insuring its due consideration
+wherever the English language is spoken.
+
+In France the same tendency was seen, though with striking
+variations from the course of events in other
+countries--variations due to the very different conditions under
+which biblical students in France were obliged to work.   Down to
+the middle of the nineteenth century the orthodoxy of Bossuet,
+stiffly opposing the letter of Scripture to every step in the
+advance of science, had only yielded in a very slight degree.
+But then came an event ushering in a new epoch.  At that time
+Jules Simon, afterward so eminent as an author, academician, and
+statesman, was quietly discharging the duties of a professorship,
+when there was brought him the visiting card of a stranger
+bearing the name of "Ernest Renan, Student at St. Sulpice."
+Admitted to M. Simon's library, Renan told his story.   As a
+theological student he had devoted himself most earnestly, even
+before he entered the seminary, to the study of Hebrew and the
+Semitic languages, and he was now obliged, during the lectures on
+biblical literature at St. Sulpice, to hear the reverend
+professor make frequent comments, based on the Vulgate, but
+absolutely disproved by Renan's own knowledge of Hebrew.  On
+Renan's questioning any interpretation of the lecturer, the
+latter was wont to rejoin: "Monsieur, do you presume to deny the
+authority of the Vulgate--the translation by St. Jerome,
+sanctioned by the Holy Ghost and the Church? You will at once go
+into the chapel and say `Hail Mary' for an hour before the image
+of the Blessed Virgin."
+
+"But," said Renan to Jules Simon, "this has now become very
+serious; it happens nearly every day, and, MON DIEU! Monsieur, I
+can not spend ALL my time in saying, Hail Mary, before the statue
+of the Virgin." The result was a warm personal attachment between
+Simon and Renan; both were Bretons, educated in the midst of the
+most orthodox influences, and both had unwillingly broken away
+from them.
+
+Renan was now emancipated, and pursued his studies with such
+effect that he was made professor at the College de France.  His
+Life of Jesus, and other books showing the same spirit, brought a
+tempest upon him which drove him from his professorship and
+brought great hardships upon him for many years.  But his genius
+carried the day, and, to the honour of the French Republic, he
+was restored to the position from which the Empire had driven
+him.  From his pen finally appeared the Histoire du Peuple
+Israel, in which scholarship broad, though at times inaccurate in
+minor details, was supplemented by an exquisite acuteness and a
+poetic insight which far more than made good any of those lesser
+errors which a German student would have avoided.  At his death,
+in October, 1892, this monumental work had been finished.  In
+clearness and beauty of style it has never been approached by any
+other treatise on this or any kindred subject: it is a work of
+genius; and its profound insight into all that is of importance
+in the great subjects which he treated will doubtless cause it to
+hold a permanent place in the literature not only of the Latin
+nations but of the world.
+
+An interesting light is thrown over the history of advancing
+thought at the end of the nineteenth century by the fact that
+this most detested of heresiarchs was summoned to receive the
+highest of academic honours at the university which for ages had
+been regarded as a stronghold of Presbyterian orthodoxy in Great
+Britain.
+
+In France the anathemas lavished upon him by Church authorities
+during his life, their denial to him of Christian burial, and
+their refusal to allow him a grave in the place he most loved,
+only increased popular affection for him during his last years
+and deepened the general mourning at his death.[488]
+
+[488] For a remarkably just summary of Renan's work, eminently
+judicial and at the same time deeply appreciative, see the Rev.
+Dr. Pfleiderer, professor at the University of Berlin,
+Development of Theology in Germany, pp. 241, 242, note.  The
+facts as to the early relations between Renan and Jules Simon
+were told in 1878 by the latter to the present writer at
+considerable length and with many interesting details not here
+given.  The writer was also present at the public funeral of the
+great scholar, and can testify of his own knowledge to the deep
+and hearty evidences of gratitude and respect then paid to Renan,
+not merely by eminent orators and scholars, but by the people at
+large.  As to the refusal of the place of burial that Renan
+especially chose, see his own Souvenirs, in which he laments the
+enevitable exclusion of his grave from the site which he most
+loved.  As to calumnies, one masterpiece, very widely spread,
+through the zeal of clerical journals, was that Renan received
+enormous sums from the Rothschilds for attacking Christianity.
+
+
+In spite of all resistance, the desire for more light upon the
+sacred books penetrated the older Church from every side.
+
+In Germany, toward the close of the eighteenth century, Jahn,
+Catholic professor at Vienna, had ventured, in an Introduction to
+Old Testament Study, to class Job, Jonah, and Tobit below other
+canonical books, and had only escaped serious difficulties by
+ample amends in a second edition.
+
+Early in the nineteenth century, Herbst, Catholic professor at
+Tubingen, had endeavoured in a similar Introduction to bring
+modern research to bear on the older view; but the Church
+authorities took care to have all passages really giving any new
+light skilfully and speedily edited out of the book.
+
+Later still, Movers, professor at Breslau, showed remarkable
+gifts for Old Testament research, and much was expected of him;
+but his ecclesiastical superiors quietly prevented his publishing
+any extended work.
+
+During the latter half of the nineteenth century much the same
+pressure has continued in Catholic Germany.  Strong scholars have
+very generally been drawn into the position of "apologists" or
+"reconcilers," and, when found intractable, they have been driven
+out of the Church.
+
+The same general policy had been evident in France and Italy, but
+toward the last decade of the century it was seen by the more
+clear-sighted supporters of the older Church in those countries
+that the multifarious "refutations" and explosive attacks upon
+Renan and his teachings had accomplished nothing; that even
+special services of atonement for his sin, like the famous
+"Triduo" at Florence, only drew a few women, and provoked
+ridicule among the public at large; that throwing him out of his
+professorship and calumniating him had but increased his
+influence; and that his brilliant intuitions, added to the
+careful researches of German and English scholars, had brought
+the thinking world beyond the reach of the old methods of hiding
+troublesome truths and crushing persistent truth-tellers.
+
+Therefore it was that about 1890 a body of earnest Roman Catholic
+scholars began very cautiously to examine and explain the
+biblical text in the light of those results of the newer research
+which could no longer be gainsaid.
+
+Among these men were, in Italy, Canon Bartolo, Canon Berta, and
+Father Savi, and in France Monseigneur d'Hulst, the Abbe Loisy,
+professor at the Roman Catholic University at Paris, and, most
+eminent of all, Professor Lenormant, of the French Institute,
+whose researches into biblical and other ancient history and
+literature had won him distinction throughout the world.  These
+men, while standing up manfully for the Church, were obliged to
+allow that some of the conclusions of modern biblical criticism
+were well founded.  The result came rapidly.  The treatise of
+Bartolo and the great work of Lenormant were placed on the Index;
+Canon Berta was overwhelmed with reproaches and virtually
+silenced; the Abbe Loisy was first deprived of his professorship,
+and then ignominiously expelled from the university; Monseigneur
+d'Hulst was summoned to Rome, and has since kept silence.[489]
+
+[489] For the frustration of attempts to admit light into
+scriptural studies in Roman Catholic Germany, see Bleek, Old
+Testament, London, 1882, vol. i, pp. 19, 20.  For the general
+statement regarding recent suppression of modern biblical study
+in France and Italy, see an article by a Roman Catholic author in
+the Contemporary Review, September, 1894, p. 365.  For the papal
+condemnations of Lenormant and Bartolo, see the Index Librorum
+Prohibitorum Sanctissimi Domini Nostri, Leonis XIII, P.M., etc.,
+Rome, 1891; Appendices, July, 1890, and May, 1891.  The ghastly
+part of the record, as stated in this edition of the Index, is
+that both these great scholars were forced to abjure their
+"errors" and to acquiesce in the condemnation--Lenorment doing
+this on his deathbed.
+
+
+The matter was evidently thought serious in the higher regions of
+the Church, for in November, 1893, appeared an encyclical letter
+by the reigning Pope, Leo XIII, on The Study of Sacred Scripture.
+
+Much was expected from it, for, since Benedict XIV in the last
+century, there had sat on the papal throne no Pope intellectually
+so competent to discuss the whole subject.  While, then, those
+devoted to the older beliefs trusted that the papal thunderbolts
+would crush the whole brood of biblical critics, votaries of the
+newer thought ventured to hope that the encyclical might, in the
+language of one of them, prove "a stupendous bridge spanning the
+broad abyss that now divides alleged orthodoxy from established
+science."[490]
+
+[490] For this statement, see an article in the Contemporary
+Review, April, 1894, p. 576.
+
+
+Both these expectations were disappointed; and yet, on the whole,
+it is a question whether the world at large may not congratulate
+itself upon this papal utterance.  The document, if not
+apostolic, won credit as "statesmanlike." It took pains, of
+course, to insist that there can be no error of any sort in the
+sacred books; it even defended those parts which Protestants
+count apocryphal as thoroughly as the remainder of Scripture, and
+declared that the book of Tobit was not compiled of man, but
+written by God.  His Holiness naturally condemned the higher
+criticism, but he dwelt at the same time on the necessity of the
+most thorough study of the sacred Scriptures, and especially on
+the importance of adjusting scriptural statements to scientific
+facts.  This utterance was admirably oracular, being susceptible
+of cogent quotation by both sides: nothing could be in better
+form from an orthodox point of view; but, with that statesmanlike
+forecast which the present Pope has shown more than once in
+steering the bark of St. Peter over the troubled waves of the
+nineteenth century, he so far abstained from condemning any of
+the greater results of modern critical study that the main
+English defender of the encyclical, the Jesuit Father Clarke, did
+not hesitate publicly to admit a multitude of such
+results--results, indeed, which would shock not only Italian and
+Spanish Catholics, but many English and American Protestants.
+According to this interpreter, the Pope had no thought of denying
+the variety of documents in the Pentateuch, or the plurality of
+sources of the books of Samuel, or the twofold authorship of
+Isaiah, or that all after the ninth verse of the last chapter of
+St. Mark's Gospel is spurious; and, as regards the whole
+encyclical, the distinguished Jesuit dwelt significantly on the
+power of the papacy at any time to define out of existence any
+previous decisions which may be found inconvenient.  More than
+that, Father Clarke himself, while standing as the champion of
+the most thorough orthodoxy, acknowledged that, in the Old
+Testament, "numbers must be expected to be used Orientally," and
+that "all these seventies and forties, as, for example, when
+Absalom is said to have rebelled against David for forty years,
+can not possibly be meant numerically"; and, what must have given
+a fearful shock to some Protestant believers in plenary
+inspiration, he, while advocating it as a dutiful Son of the
+Church, wove over it an exquisite web with the declaration that
+"there is a human element in the Bible pre-calculated for by the
+Divine."[491]
+
+[491] For these admissions of Father Clarke, see his article The
+Papal Encyclical on the Bible, in the Contemporary Review for
+July, 1894.
+
+
+Considering the difficulties in the case, the world has reason to
+be grateful to Pope Leo and Father Clarke for these utterances,
+which perhaps, after all, may prove a better bridge between the
+old and the new than could have been framed by engineers more
+learned but less astute. Evidently Pope Leo XIII is neither a
+Paul V nor an Urban VIII, and is too wise to bring the Church
+into a position from which it can only be extricated by such
+ludicrous subterfuges as those by which it was dragged out of the
+Galileo scandal, or by such a tortuous policy as that by which it
+writhed out of the old doctrine regarding the taking of interest
+for money.
+
+In spite, then, of the attempted crushing out of Bartolo and
+Berta and Savi and Lenormant and Loisy, during this very epoch in
+which the Pope issued this encyclical, there is every reason to
+hope that the path has been paved over which the Church may
+gracefully recede from the old system of interpretation and
+quietly accept and appropriate the main results of the higher
+criticism.  Certainly she has never had a better opportunity to
+play at the game of "beggar my neighbour" and to drive the older
+Protestant orthodoxy into bankruptcy.
+
+In America the same struggle between the old ideas and the new
+went on.  In the middle years of the century the first adequate
+effort in behalf of the newer conception of the sacred books was
+made by Theodore Parker at Boston.  A thinker brave and of the
+widest range,--a scholar indefatigable and of the deepest
+sympathies with humanity,--a man called by one of the most
+eminent scholars in the English Church "a religious Titan," and
+by a distinguished French theologian "a prophet," he had
+struggled on from the divinity school until at that time he was
+one of the foremost biblical scholars, and preacher to the
+largest regular congregation on the American continent.  The
+great hall in Boston could seat four thousand people, and at his
+regular discourses every part of it was filled.  In addition to
+his pastoral work he wielded a vast influence as a platform
+speaker, especially in opposition to the extension of slavery
+into the Territories of the United States, and as a lecturer on a
+wide range of vital topics; and among those whom he most
+profoundly influenced, both politically and religiously, was
+Abraham Lincoln.  During each year at that period he was heard
+discussing the most important religious and political questions
+in all the greater Northern cities; but his most lasting work was
+in throwing light upon our sacred Scriptures, and in this he was
+one of the forerunners of the movement now going on not only in
+the United States but throughout Christendom.  Even before he was
+fairly out of college his translation of De Wette's Introduction
+to the Old Testament made an impression on many thoughtful men;
+his sermon in 1841 on The Transient and Permanent in Christianity
+marked the beginning of his great individual career; his
+speeches, his lectures, and especially his Discourse on Matters
+pertaining to Religion, greatly extended his influence.  His was
+a deeply devotional nature, and his public prayers exercised by
+their touching beauty a very strong religious influence upon his
+audiences.  He had his reward.  Beautiful and noble as were his
+life and his life-work, he was widely abhorred.  On one occasion
+of public worship in one of the more orthodox churches, news
+having been received that he was dangerously ill, a prayer was
+openly made by one of the zealous brethren present that this
+arch-enemy might be removed from earth.  He was even driven out
+from the Unitarian body.  But he was none the less steadfast and
+bold, and the great mass of men and women who thronged his
+audience room at Boston and his lecture rooms in other cities
+spread his ideas.  His fate was pathetic.  Full of faith and
+hope, but broken prematurely by his labours, he retired to Italy,
+and died there at the darkest period in the history of the United
+States--when slavery in the state and the older orthodoxy in the
+Church seemed absolutely and forever triumphant. The death of
+Moses within sight of the promised land seems the only parallel
+to the death of Parker less than six months before the
+publication of Essays and Reviews and the election of Abraham
+Lincoln to the presidency, of the United States.[492]
+
+[492] For the appellation "religious Titan" applied to Theodore
+Parker, see a letter of Jowett, Master of Balliol, to Frances
+Power Cobbe, in her Autobiography, vol. 1, p. 357, and for
+Reville's statement, ibid., p. 9.  For a pathetic account of
+Parker's last hours at Florence, ibid., vol. i, pp. 10, 11.  As
+to the influence of Theodore Parker on Lincoln, see Rhodes's
+History of the United States, as above, vol. ii, p. 312.  For the
+statement regarding Parker's audiences and his power over them,
+the present writer trusts to his own memory.
+
+
+But here it must be noted that Parker's effort was powerfully
+aided by the conscientious utterances of some of his foremost
+opponents.  Nothing during the American struggle against the
+slave system did more to wean religious and God-fearing men and
+women from the old interpretation of Scripture than the use of it
+to justify slavery.  Typical among examples of this use were the
+arguments of Hopkins, Bishop of Vermont, a man whose noble
+character and beautiful culture gave him very wide influence in
+all branches of the American Protestant Church.  While avowing
+his personal dislike to slavery, he demonstrated that the Bible
+sanctioned it.  Other theologians, Catholic and Protestant, took
+the same ground; and then came that tremendous rejoinder which
+echoed from heart to heart throughout the Northern States: "The
+Bible sanctions slavery?  So much the worse for the Bible."  Then
+was fulfilled that old saying of Bishop Ulrich of Augsburg:
+"Press not the breasts of Holy Writ too hard, lest they yield
+blood rather than milk."[493]
+
+[493] There is a curious reference to Bishop Hopkins's ideas on
+slavery in Archbishop Tait's Life and Letters.  For a succinct
+statement of the biblical proslavery argument referred to, see
+Rhodes, as above, vol. i, pp. 370 et seq.
+
+
+Yet throughout Christendom a change in the mode of interpreting
+Scripture, though absolutely necessary if its proper authority
+was to be maintained, still seemed almost hopeless.  Even after
+the foremost scholars had taken ground in favour of it, and the
+most conservative of those whose opinions were entitled to weight
+had made concessions showing the old ground to be untenable,
+there was fanatical opposition to any change.  The Syllabus of
+Errors put forth by Pius IX in 1864, as well as certain other
+documents issued from the Vatican, had increased the difficulties
+of this needed transition; and, while the more able-minded Roman
+Catholic scholars skilfully explained away the obstacles thus
+created, others published works insisting upon the most extreme
+views as to the verbal inspiration of the sacred books.  In the
+Church of England various influential men took the same view.
+Dr. Baylee, Principal of St. Aidan's College, declared that in
+Scripture "every scientific statement is infallibly accurate; all
+its histories and narrations of every kind are without any
+inaccuracy.  Its words and phrases have a grammatical and
+philological accuracy, such as is possessed by no human
+composition."  In 1861 Dean Burgon preached in Christ Church
+Cathedral, Oxford, as follows: "No, sirs, the Bible is the very
+utterance of the Eternal: as much God's own word as if high
+heaven were open and we heard God speaking to us with human
+voice.  Every book is inspired alike, and is inspired entirely.
+Inspiration is not a difference of degree, but of kind.  The
+Bible is filled to overflowing with the Holy Spirit of God; the
+books of it and the words of it and the very letters of it."
+
+In 1865 Canon MacNeile declared in Exeter Hall that "we must
+either receive the verbal inspiration of the Old Testament or
+deny the veracity, the insight, the integrity of our Lord Jesus
+Christ as a teacher of divine truth."
+
+As late as 1889 one of the two most eloquent pulpit orators in
+the Church of England, Canon Liddon, preaching at St. Paul's
+Cathedral, used in his fervour the same dangerous argument: that
+the authority of Christ himself, and therefore of Christianity,
+must rest on the old view of the Old Testament; that, since the
+founder of Christianity, in divinely recorded utterances, alluded
+to the transformation of Lot's wife into a pillar of salt, to
+Noah's ark and the Flood, and to the sojourn of Jonah in the
+whale, the biblical account of these must be accepted as
+historical, or that Christianity must be given up altogether.
+
+In the light of what was rapidly becoming known regarding the
+Chaldean and other sources of the accounts given in Genesis, no
+argument could be more fraught with peril to the interest which
+the gifted preacher sought to serve.
+
+In France and Germany many similar utterances in opposition to
+the newer biblical studies were heard; and from America,
+especially from the college at Princeton, came resounding echoes.
+As an example of many may be quoted the statement by the eminent
+Dr. Hodge that the books of Scripture "are, one and all, in
+thought and verbal expression, in substance, and in form, wholly
+the work of God, conveying with absolute accuracy and divine
+authority all that God meant to convey without human additions
+and admixtures"; and that "infallibility and authority attach as
+much to the verbal expression in which the revelation is made as
+to the matter of the revelation itself."
+
+But the newer thought moved steadily on.  As already in
+Protestant Europe, so now in the Protestant churches of America,
+it took strong hold on the foremost minds in many of the churches
+known as orthodox: Toy, Briggs, Francis Brown, Evans, Preserved
+Smith, Moore, Haupt, Harper, Peters, and Bacon developed it, and,
+though most of them were opposed bitterly by synods, councils,
+and other authorities of their respective churches, they were
+manfully supported by the more intellectual clergy and laity.
+The greater universities of the country ranged themselves on the
+side of these men; persecution but intrenched them more firmly in
+the hearts of all intelligent well-wishers of Christianity.  The
+triumphs won by their opponents in assemblies, synods,
+conventions, and conferences were really victories for the
+nominally defeated, since they revealed to the world the fact
+that in each of these bodies the strong and fruitful thought of
+the Church, the thought which alone can have any hold on the
+future, was with the new race of thinkers; no theological
+triumphs more surely fatal to the victors have been won since the
+Vatican defeated Copernicus and Galileo.
+
+And here reference must be made to a series of events which, in
+the second half of the nineteenth century, have contributed most
+powerful aid to the new school of biblical research.
+
+
+
+
+V.   VICTORY OF THE SCIENTIFIC AND LITERARY METHODS.
+
+
+While this struggle for the new truth was going on in various
+fields, aid appeared from a quarter whence it was least expected.
+
+The great discoveries by Botta and Layard in Assyria were
+supplemented by the researches of Rawlinson, George Smith,
+Oppert, Sayce, Sarzec, Pinches, and others, and thus it was
+revealed more clearly than ever before that as far back as the
+time assigned in Genesis to the creation a great civilization was
+flourishing in Mesopotamia; that long ages, probably two thousand
+years, before the scriptural date assigned to the migration of
+Abraham from Ur of the Chaldees, this Chaldean civilization had
+bloomed forth in art, science, and literature; that the ancient
+inscriptions recovered from the sites of this and kindred
+civilizations presented the Hebrew sacred myths and legends in
+earlier forms--forms long antedating those given in the Hebrew
+Scriptures; and that the accounts of the Creation, the Tree of
+Life in Eden, the institution and even the name of the Sabbath,
+the Deluge, the Tower of Babel, and much else in the Pentateuch,
+were simply an evolution out of earlier Chaldean myths and
+legends.   So perfect was the proof of this that the most eminent
+scholars in the foremost seats of Christian learning were obliged
+to acknowledge it.[494]
+
+[494] As to the revelations of the vast antiquity of Chaldean
+civilization, and especially regarding the Nabonidos inscription,
+see Records of the Past, vol. i, new series, first article, and
+especially pp. 5, 6, where a translation of that inscription is
+given; also Hommel, Geschichte Babyloniens und Assyriens,
+introduction, in which, on page 12, an engraving of the Sargon
+cylinder is given; also, on the general subject, especially pp.
+116 et seq., 309 et seq.; also Meyer, Geschichte des Alterthums,
+pp. 161-163; also Maspero and Sayce, Dawn of Civilization, p. 555
+and note.
+
+For the earlier Chaldean forms of the Hebrew Creation accounts,
+Tree of Life in Eden, Hebrew Sabbath, both the institution and
+the name, and various other points of similar interest, see
+George Smith, Chaldean Account of Genesis, throughout the work,
+especially p. 308 and chaps. xvi, xvii; also Jensen, Die
+Kosmologie der Babylonier; also Schrader, The Cuneiform
+Inscriptions and the Old Testament; also Lenormant, Origines de
+l'Histoire; also Sayce, The Assyrian Story of Creation, in
+Records of the Past, new series, vol. i.  For a general statement
+as to earlier sources of much in the Hebrew sacred origins, see
+Huxley, Essays on Controverted Questions, English edition, p.
+525.
+
+
+The more general conclusions which were thus given to biblical
+criticism were all the more impressive from the fact that they
+had been revealed by various groups of earnest Christian scholars
+working on different lines, by different methods, and in various
+parts of the world.  Very honourable was the full and frank
+testimony to these results given in 1885 by the Rev. Francis
+Brown, a professor in the Presbyterian Theological Seminary at
+New York.  In his admirable though brief book on Assyriology,
+starting with the declaration that "it is a great pity to be
+afraid of facts," he showed how Assyrian research testifies in
+many ways to the historical value of the Bible record; but at the
+same time he freely allowed to Chaldean history an antiquity
+fatal to the sacred chronology of the Hebrews.  He also cast
+aside a mass of doubtful apologetics, and dealt frankly with the
+fact that very many of the early narratives in Genesis belong to
+the common stock of ancient tradition, and, mentioning as an
+example the cuneiform inscriptions which record a story of the
+Accadian king Sargon--how "he was born in retirement, placed by
+his mother in a basket of rushes, launched on a river, rescued
+and brought up by a stranger, after which he became king"--he did
+not hesitate to remind his readers that Sargon lived a thousand
+years and more before Moses; that this story was told of him
+several hundred years before Moses was born; and that it was told
+of various other important personages of antiquity.  The
+professor dealt just as honestly with the inscriptions which show
+sundry statements in the book of Daniel to be unhistorical;
+candidly making admissions which but a short time before would
+have filled orthodoxy with horror.
+
+A few years later came another testimony even more striking.
+Early in the last decade of the nineteenth century it was noised
+abroad that the Rev. Professor Sayce, of Oxford, the most eminent
+Assyriologist and Egyptologist of Great Britain, was about to
+publish a work in which what is known as the "higher criticism"
+was to be vigorously and probably destructively dealt with in the
+light afforded by recent research among the monuments of Assyria
+and Egypt.  The book was looked for with eager expectation by the
+supporters of the traditional view of Scripture; but, when it
+appeared, the exultation of the traditionalists was speedily
+changed to dismay.  For Prof. Sayce, while showing some severity
+toward sundry minor assumptions and assertions of biblical
+critics, confirmed all their more important conclusions which
+properly fell within his province.  While his readers soon
+realized that these assumptions and assertions of overzealous
+critics no more disproved the main results of biblical criticism
+than the wild guesses of Kepler disproved the theory of
+Copernicus, or the discoveries of Galileo, or even the great laws
+which bear Kepler's own name, they found new mines sprung under
+some of the most lofty fortresses of the old dogmatic theology.
+A few of the statements of this champion of orthodoxy may be
+noted.  He allowed that the week of seven days and the Sabbath
+rest are of Babylonian origin; indeed, that the very word
+"Sabbath" is Babylonian; that there are two narratives of
+Creation on the Babylonian tablets, wonderfully like the two
+leading Hebrew narratives in Genesis, and that the latter were
+undoubtedly drawn from the former; that the "garden of Eden" and
+its mystical tree were known to the inhabitants of Chaldea in
+pre-Semitic days; that the beliefs that woman was created out of
+man, and that man by sin fell from a state of innocence, are
+drawn from very ancient Chaldean-Babylonian texts; that
+Assyriology confirms the belief that the book Genesis is a
+compilation; that portions of it are by no means so old as the
+time of Moses; that the expression in our sacred book, "The Lord
+smelled a sweet savour" at the sacrifice made by Noah, is
+"identical with that of the Babylonian poet"; that "it is
+impossible to believe that the language of the latter was not
+known to the biblical writer" and that the story of Joseph and
+Potiphar's wife was drawn in part from the old Egyptian tale of
+The Two Brothers.  Finally, after a multitude of other
+concessions, Prof. Sayce allowed that the book of Jonah, so far
+from being the work of the prophet himself, can not have been
+written until the Assyrian Empire was a thing of the past; that
+the book of Daniel contains serious mistakes; that the so-called
+historical chapters of that book so conflict with the monuments
+that the author can not have been a contemporary of
+Nebuchadnezzar and Cyrus; that "the story of Belshazzar's fall is
+not historical"; that the Belshazzar referred to in it as king,
+and as the son of Nehuchadnezzar, was not the son of
+Nebuchadnezzar, and was never king; that "King Darius the Mede,"
+who plays so great a part in the story, never existed; that the
+book associates persons and events really many years apart, and
+that it must have been written at a period far later than the
+time assigned in it for its own origin.
+
+As to the book of Ezra, he tells us that we are confronted by a
+chronological inconsistency which no amount of ingenuity can
+explain away.  He also acknowledges that the book of Esther
+"contains many exaggerations and improbabilities, and is simply
+founded upon one of those same historical tales of which the
+Persian chronicles seem to have been full."  Great was the
+dissatisfaction of the traditionalists with their expected
+champion; well might they repeat the words of Balak to Balaam, "I
+called thee to curse mine enemies, and, behold, thou hast
+altogether blessed them."[495]
+
+[495] For Prof. Brown's discussion, see his Assyriology, its Use
+and Abuse in Old Testament Study, New York, 1885, passim.  For
+Prof. Sayce's views, see The Higher Criticism and the Monuments,
+third edition, London, 1894, and especially his own curious
+anticipation, in the first lines of the preface, that he must
+fail to satisfy either side.  For the declaration that the
+"higher critic" with all his offences is no worse than the
+orthodox "apologist," see p. 21.  For the important admission
+that the same criterion must be applied in researches into our
+own sacred books as into others, and even into the mediaeval
+chronicles, see p. 26.  For justification of critical scepticism
+regarding the history given in the book of Daniel, see pp. 27,
+28, also chap. ix.  For very full and explicit statements, with
+proofs, that the "Sabbath," both in name and nature, was derived
+by the Hebrews from the Chaldeans, see pp. 74 et seq.  For a very
+full and fair acknowledgment of the "Babylonian element in
+Genesis," see chap. iii, including the statement regarding the
+statement in our sacred book, "The Lord smelled a sweet savour,"
+at the sacrifice made by Noah, etc., on p. 119.  For an excellent
+summary of the work, see Dr. Driver's article in the Contemporary
+Review for March, 1894.  For a pungent but well-deserved rebuke
+of Prof. Sayce's recent attempts to propitiate pious subscribers
+to his archaeological fund, see Prof. A. A. Bevan, in the
+Contemporary Review for December, 1895.  For the inscription on
+the Assyrian tablets relating in detail the exposure of King
+Sargon in a basket of rushes, his rescue and rule, see George
+Smith, Chaldean account of Genesis, Sayce's edition, London,
+1880, pp. 319, 320.  For the frequent recurrence of the Sargon
+and Moses legend in ancient folklore, see Maspero and Sayce, Dawn
+of History, p. 598 and note.  For various other points of similar
+interest, see ibid., passim, especially chaps. xvi and xvii; also
+Jensen, Die Kosmologie der Babylonier, and Schrader, The
+Cuneiform Inscriptions and the Old Testament; also Lenormant,
+Origines de l'Histoire.
+
+
+No less fruitful have been modern researches in Egypt.  While, on
+one hand, they have revealed a very considerable number of
+geographical and archaeological facts proving the good faith of
+the narratives entering into the books attributed to Moses, and
+have thus made our early sacred literature all the more valuable,
+they have at the same time revealed the limitations of the sacred
+authors and compilers.  They have brought to light facts utterly
+disproving the sacred Hebrew date of creation and the main
+framework of the early biblical chronology; they have shown the
+suggestive correspondence between the ten antediluvian patriarchs
+in Genesis and the ten early dynasties of the Egyptian gods, and
+have placed by the side of these the ten antediluvian kings of
+Chaldean tradition, the ten heroes of Armenia, the ten primeval
+kings of Persian sacred tradition, the ten "fathers" of Hindu
+sacred tradition, and multitudes of other tens, throwing much
+light on the manner in which the sacred chronicles of ancient
+nations were generally developed.
+
+These scholars have also found that the legends of the plagues of
+Egypt are in the main but natural exaggerations of what occurs
+every year; as, for example, the changing of the water of the
+Nile into blood--evidently suggested by the phenomena exhibited
+every summer, when, as various eminent scholars, and, most recent
+of all, Maspero and Sayce, tell us, "about the middle of July, in
+eight or ten days the river turns from grayish blue to dark red,
+occasionally of so intense a colour as to look like newly shed
+blood."  These modern researches have also shown that some of the
+most important features in the legends can not possibly be
+reconciled with the records of the monuments; for example, that
+the Pharaoh of the Exodus was certainly not overwhelmed in the
+Red Sea.  As to the supernatural features of the Hebrew relations
+with Egypt, even the most devoted apologists have become
+discreetly silent.
+
+Egyptologists have also translated for us the old Nile story of
+The Two Brothers, and have shown, as we have already seen, that
+one of the most striking parts of our sacred Joseph legend was
+drawn from it; they have been obliged to admit that the story of
+the exposure of Moses in the basket of rushes, his rescue, and
+his subsequent greatness, had been previously told, long before
+Moses's time, not only of King Sargon, but of various other great
+personages of the ancient world; they have published plans of
+Egyptian temples and copies of the sculptures upon their walls,
+revealing the earlier origin of some of the most striking
+features of the worship and ceremonial claimed to have been
+revealed especially to the Hebrews; they have found in the
+Egyptian Book of the Dead, and in various inscriptions of the
+Nile temples and tombs, earlier sources of much in the ethics so
+long claimed to have been revealed only to the chosen people in
+the Book of the Covenant, in the ten commandments, and elsewhere;
+they have given to the world copies of the Egyptian texts showing
+that the theology of the Nile was one of various fruitful sources
+of later ideas, statements, and practices regarding the brazen
+serpent, the golden calf, trinities, miraculous conceptions,
+incarnations, resurrections, ascensions, and the like, and that
+Egyptian sacro-scientific ideas contributed to early Jewish and
+Christian sacred literature statements, beliefs, and even phrases
+regarding the Creation, astronomy, geography, magic, medicine,
+diabolical influences, with a multitude of other ideas, which we
+also find coming into early Judaism in greater or less degree
+from Chaldean and Persian sources.
+
+But Egyptology, while thus aiding to sweep away the former
+conception of our sacred books, has aided biblical criticism in
+making them far more precious; for it has shown them to be a part
+of that living growth of sacred literature whose roots are in all
+the great civilizations of the past, and through whose trunk and
+branches are flowing the currents which are to infuse a higher
+religious and ethical life into the civilizations of the
+future.[496]
+
+[496] For general statements of agreements and disagreements
+between biblical accounts and the revelations of the Egyptian
+monuments, see Sayce, The Higher Criticism and the Monuments,
+especially chap. iv.  For discrepancies between the Hebrew sacred
+accounts of Jewish relations with Egypt and the revelations of
+modern Egyptian research, see Sharpe, History of Egypt; Flinders,
+Patrie, History of Egypt; and especially Maspero and Sayce, The
+Dawn of Civilization in Egypt and Chaldea, London, published by
+the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1894.  For the
+statement regarding the Nile, that about the middle of July "in
+eight or ten days it turns from grayish blue to dark red,
+occasionally of so intense a colour as to look like newly shed
+blood," see Maspero and Sayce, as above, p. 23.  For the relation
+of the Joseph legend to the Tale of Two Brothers, see Sharpe and
+others cited. For examples of exposure of various great
+personages of antiquity in their childhood, see G. Smith,
+Chaldean Accounts of Genesis, Sayce's edition, p. 320.  For the
+relation of the Book of the Dead, etc., to Hebrew ethics, see a
+striking passage in Huxley's essay on The Evolution of Theology,
+also others cited in this chapter.  As to trinities in Egypt and
+Chaldea, see Maspero and Sayce, especially pp. 104-106, 175, and
+659-663.  For miraculous conception and birth of sons of Ra,
+ibid., pp. 388, 389.  For ascension of Ra into heaven, ibid., pp.
+167, 168; for resurrections, see ibid., p. 695, also
+representations in Lepsius, Prisse d'Avennes, et al.; and for
+striking resemblance between Egyptian and Hebrew ritual and
+worship, and especially the ark, cherubim, ephod, Urim and
+Thummim, and wave offerings, see the same, passim.  For a very
+full exhibition of the whole subject, see Renan, Histoire du
+Peuple Israel, vol. i, chap. xi.  For Egyptian and Chaldean ideas
+in astronomy, out of which Hebrew ideas of "the firmament,"
+"pillars of heaven," etc., were developed, see text and
+engravings in Maspero and Sayce, pp. 17 and 543.  For creation of
+man out of clay by a divine being in Egypt, see Maspero and
+Sayce, p. 154; for a similar idea in Chaldea, see ibid., p. 545;
+and for the creation of the universe by a word, ibid., pp. 146,
+147.  For Egyptian and Chaldean ideas on magic and medicine,
+dread of evil spirits, etc., anticipating those of the Hebrew
+Scriptures, see Maspero and Sayce, as above, pp. 212-214, 217,
+636; and for extension of these to neighboring nations, pp. 782,
+783.  For visions and use of dreams as oracles, ibid., p. 641 and
+elsewhere.  See also, on these and other resemblances, Lenormant,
+Origines de l'Histoire, vol. i, passim; see also George Smith and
+Sayce, as above, chaps. xvi and xvii, for resemblances especially
+striking, combining to show how simple was the evolution of many
+Hebrew sacred legends and ideas out of those earlier
+civilizations.  For an especially interesting presentation of the
+reasons why Egyptian ideas of immortality were not seized upon by
+the Jews, see the Rev. Barham Zincke's work upon Egypt.  For the
+sacrificial vessels, temple rites, etc., see the bas-reliefs,
+figured by Lepsius, Prisse d'Avennes, Mariette, Maspero, et. al.
+For a striking summary by a brilliant scholar and divine of the
+Anglican Church, see Mahaffy, Prolegomena to Anc. Hist., cited in
+Sunderland, The Bible, New York, 1893, p. 21, note.
+
+
+But while archaeologists thus influenced enlightened opinion,
+another body of scholars rendered services of a different
+sort--the centre of their enterprise being the University of
+Oxford.  By their efforts was presented to the English-speaking
+world a series of translations of the sacred books of the East,
+which showed the relations of the more Eastern sacred literature
+to our own, and proved that in the religions of the world the
+ideas which have come as the greatest blessings to mankind are
+not of sudden revelation or creation, but of slow evolution out
+of a remote past.
+
+The facts thus shown did not at first elicit much gratitude from
+supporters of traditional theology, and perhaps few things
+brought more obloquy on Renan, for a time, than his statement
+that "the influence of Persia is the most powerful to which
+Israel was submitted."  Whether this was an overstatement or not,
+it was soon seen to contain much truth.  Not only was it made
+clear by study of the Zend Avesta that the Old and New Testament
+ideas regarding Satanic and demoniacal modes of action were
+largely due to Persian sources, but it was also shown that the
+idea of immortality was mainly developed in the Hebrew mind
+during the close relations of the Jews with the Persians.  Nor
+was this all.  In the Zend Avesta were found in earlier form
+sundry myths and legends which, judging from their frequent
+appearance in early religions, grow naturally about the history
+of the adored teachers of our race.  Typical among these was the
+Temptation of Zoroaster.
+
+It is a fact very significant and full of promise that the first
+large, frank, and explicit revelation regarding this whole
+subject in form available for the general thinking public was
+given to the English-speaking world by an eminent Christian
+divine and scholar, the Rev. Dr. Mills.  Having already shown
+himself by his translations a most competent authority on the
+subject, he in 1894 called attention, in a review widely read, to
+"the now undoubted and long since suspected fact that it pleased
+the Divine Power to reveal some of the important articles of our
+Catholic creed first to the Zoroastrians, and through their
+literature to the Jews and ourselves."  Among these beliefs Dr.
+Mills traced out very conclusively many Jewish doctrines
+regarding the attributes of God, and all, virtually, regarding
+the attributes of Satan.
+
+There, too, he found accounts of the Miraculous Conception,
+Virgin Birth, and Temptation of Zoroaster, As to the last, Dr.
+Mills presented a series of striking coincidences with our own
+later account.  As to its main features, he showed that there had
+been developed among the Persians, many centuries before the
+Christian era, the legend of a vain effort of the arch-demon, one
+seat of whose power was the summit of Mount Arezura, to tempt
+Zoroaster to worship him,--of an argument between tempter and
+tempted,--and of Zoroaster's refusal; and the doctor continued:
+"No Persian subject in the streets of Jerusalem, soon after or
+long after the Return, could have failed to know this striking
+myth."  Dr. Mills then went on to show that, among the Jews, "the
+doctrine of immortality was scarcely mooted before the later
+Isaiah--that is, before the captivity--while the Zoroastrian
+scriptures are one mass of spiritualism, referring all results to
+the heavenly or to the infernal worlds."  He concludes by saying
+that, as regards the Old and New Testaments, "the humble, and to
+a certain extent prior, religion of the Mazda worshippers was
+useful in giving point and beauty to many loose conceptions among
+the Jewish religious teachers, and in introducing many ideas
+which were entirely new, while as to the doctrines of immortality
+and resurrection--the most important of all--it positively
+determined belief."[498]
+
+[498] For the passages in the Vendidad of special importance as
+regards the Temptation myth, see Fargard, xix, 18, 20, 26, also
+140, 147. Very striking is the account of the Temptation in the
+Pelhavi version of the Vendidad.  The devil is represented as
+saying to Zaratusht (Zoroaster): "I had the worship of thy
+ancestors; do thou also worship me."  I am indebted to Prof. E.
+P. Evans, formerly of the University of Michigan, but now of
+Munich, for a translation of the original text from Spiegel's
+edition.  For a good account, see also Haug, Essays on the Sacred
+Language, etc., of the Parsees, edited by West, London, 1884, pp.
+252 et seq.; see also Mills's and Darmesteter's work in Sacred
+Books of the East.  For Dr. Mills's article referred to, see his
+Zoroaster and the Bible, in The Nineteenth Century, January,
+1894.  For the citation from Renan, see his Histoire du Peuple
+Israel, tome xiv, chap. iv; see also, for Persian ideans of
+heaven, hell and resurrection, Haug, as above, p. 310 et seq.
+For an interesting resume of Zoroastrianism, see Laing, A Modern
+Zoroastrian, chap. xii, London, eighth edition, 1893.  For the
+Buddhist version of the judgment of Solomon, etc., see Fausboll,
+Buddhist Birth Stories, translated by Rhys Davids, London, 1880,
+vol. 1, p. 14 and following.  For very full statements regarding
+the influence of Persian ideas upon the Jews during the
+captivity, see Kahut, Ueber die judische Angelologie und
+Daemonologie in ihren Abhangigkeit vom Parsismus, Leipzig, 1866.
+
+
+Even more extensive were the revelations made by scientific
+criticism applied to the sacred literature of southern and
+eastern Asia.  The resemblances of sundry fundamental narratives
+and ideas in our own sacred books with those of Buddhism were
+especially suggestive.
+
+Here, too, had been a long preparatory history.  The discoveries
+in Sanscrit philology made in the latter half of the eighteenth
+century and the first half of the nineteenth, by Sir William
+Jones, Carey, Wilkins, Foster, Colebrooke, and others, had met at
+first with some opposition from theologians.  The declaration by
+Dugald Stewart that the discovery of Sanscrit was fraudulent, and
+its vocabulary and grammar patched together out of Greek and
+Latin, showed the feeling of the older race of biblical students.
+
+But researches went on.  Bopp, Burnouf, Lassen, Weber, Whitney,
+Max Muller, and others continued the work during the nineteenth
+century.  More and more evident became the sources from which
+many ideas and narratives in our own sacred books had been
+developed.  Studies in the sacred books of Brahmanism, and in the
+institutions of Buddhism, the most widespread of all religions,
+its devotees outnumbering those of all branches of the Christian
+Church together, proved especially fruitful in facts relating to
+general sacred literature and early European religious ideas.
+
+Noteworthy in the progress of this knowledge was the work of
+Fathers Huc and Gabet.  In 1839 the former of these, a French
+Lazarist priest, set out on a mission to China.  Having prepared
+himself at Macao by eighteen months of hard study, and having
+arrayed himself like a native, even to the wearing of the queue
+and the staining of his skin, he visited Peking and penetrated
+Mongolia.  Five years later, taking Gabet with him, both
+disguised as Lamas, he began his long and toilsome journey to the
+chief seats of Buddhism in Thibet, and, after two years of
+fearful dangers and sufferings, accomplished it.  Driven out
+finally by the Chinese, Huc returned to Europe in 1852, having
+made one of the most heroic, self-denying, and, as it turned out,
+one of the most valuable efforts in all the noble annals of
+Christian missions.  His accounts of these journevs, written in a
+style simple, clear, and interesting, at once attracted attention
+throughout the world.  But far more important than any services
+he had rendered to the Church he served was the influence of his
+book upon the general opinions of thinking men; for he completed
+a series of revelations made by earlier, less gifted, and less
+devoted travellers, and brought to the notice of the world the
+amazing similarity of the ideas, institutions, observances,
+ceremonies, and ritual, and even the ecclesiastical costumes of
+the Buddhists to those of his own Church.
+
+Buddhism was thus shown with its hierarchy, in which the Grand
+Lama, an infallible representative of the Most High, is
+surrounded by its minor Lamas, much like cardinals; with its
+bishops wearing mitres, its celibate priests with shaven crown,
+cope, dalmatic, and censer; its cathedrals with clergy gathered
+in the choir; its vast monasteries filled with monks and nuns
+vowed to poverty, chastity, and obedience; its church
+arrangements, with shrines of saints and angels; its use of
+images, pictures, and illuminated missals; its service, with a
+striking general resemblance to the Mass; antiphonal choirs;
+intoning of prayers; recital of creeds; repetition of litanies;
+processions; mystic rites and incense; the offering and adoration
+of bread upon an altar lighted by candles; the drinking from a
+chalice by the priest; prayers and offerings for the dead;
+benediction with outstretched hands; fasts, confessions, and
+doctrine of purgatory--all this and more was now clearly
+revealed.  The good father was evidently staggered by these
+amazing facts; but his robust faith soon gave him an explanation:
+he suggested that Satan, in anticipation of Christianity, had
+revealed to Buddhism this divinely constituted order of things.
+This naive explanation did not commend itself to his superiors in
+the Roman Church.  In the days of St. Augustine or of St. Thomas
+Aquinas it would doubtless have been received much more kindly;
+but in the days of Cardinal Antonelli this was hardly to be
+expected: the Roman authorities, seeing the danger of such plain
+revelations in the nineteenth century, even when coupled with
+such devout explanations, put the book under the ban, though not
+before it had been spread throughout the world in various
+translations.  Father Huc was sent on no more missions.
+
+Yet there came even more significant discoveries, especially
+bearing upon the claims of that great branch of the Church which
+supposes itself to possess a divine safeguard against error in
+belief.  For now was brought to light by literary research the
+irrefragable evidence that the great Buddha--Sakya Muni
+himself--had been canonized and enrolled among the Christian
+saints whose intercession may be invoked, and in whose honour
+images, altars, and chapels may be erected; and this, not only by
+the usage of the medieval Church, Greek and Roman, but by the
+special and infallible sanction of a long series of popes, from
+the end of the sixteenth century to the end of the nineteenth--a
+sanction granted under one of the most curious errors in human
+history.   The story enables us to understand the way in which
+many of the beliefs of Christendom have been developed,
+especially how they have been influenced from the seats of older
+religions; and it throws much light into the character and
+exercise of papal infallibility.
+
+Early in the seventh century there was composed, as is now
+believed, at the Convent of St. Saba near Jerusalem, a pious
+romance entitled Barlaam and Josaphat--the latter personage, the
+hero of the story, being represented as a Hindu prince converted
+to Christianity by the former.
+
+This story, having been attributed to St. John of Damascus in the
+following century became amazingly popular, and was soon accepted
+as true: it was translated from the Greek original not only into
+Latin, Hebrew, Arabic, and Ethiopic, but into every important
+European language, including even Polish, Bohemian, and
+Icelandic.   Thence it came into the pious historical
+encyclopaedia of Vincent of Beauvais, and, most important of all,
+into the Lives of the Saints.
+
+Hence the name of its pious hero found its way into the list of
+saints whose intercession is to be prayed for, and it passed
+without challenge until about 1590, when, the general subject of
+canonization having been brought up at Rome, Pope Sixtus V, by
+virtue of his infallibility and immunity against error in
+everything relating to faith and morals, sanctioned a revised
+list of saints, authorizing and directing it to be accepted by
+the Church; and among those on whom he thus forever infallibly
+set the seal of Heaven was included "The Holy Saint Josaphat of
+India, whose wonderful acts St. John of Damascus has related."
+The 27th of November was appointed as the day set apart in honour
+of this saint, and the decree, having been enforced by successive
+popes for over two hundred and fifty years, was again officially
+approved by Pius IX in 1873.  This decree was duly accepted as
+infallible, and in one of the largest cities of Italy may to-day
+be seen a Christian church dedicated to this saint.  On its front
+are the initials of his Italianized name; over its main entrance
+is the inscription "Divo Josafat"; and within it is an altar
+dedicated to the saint--above this being a pedestal bearing his
+name and supporting a large statue which represents him as a
+youthful prince wearing a crown and contemplating a crucifix.
+
+Moreover, relics of this saint were found; bones alleged to be
+parts of his skeleton, having been presented by a Doge of Venice
+to a King of Portugal, are now treasured at Antwerp.
+
+But even as early as the sixteenth century a pregnant fact
+regarding this whole legend was noted: for the Portuguese
+historian Diego Conto showed that it was identical with the
+legend of Buddha.   Fortunately for the historian, his faith was
+so robust that he saw in this resemblance only a trick of Satan;
+the life of Buddha being, in his opinion, merely a diabolic
+counterfeit of the life of Josaphat centuries before the latter
+was lived or written--just as good Abbe Huc saw in the ceremonies
+of Buddhism a similar anticipatory counterfeit of Christian
+ritual.
+
+There the whole matter virtually rested for about three hundred
+years--various scholars calling attention to the legend as a
+curiosity, but none really showing its true bearings--until, in
+1859, Laboulaye in France, Liebrecht in Germany, and others
+following them, demonstrated that this Christian work was drawn
+almost literally from an early biography of Buddha, being
+conformed to it in the most minute details, not only of events
+but of phraseology; the only important changes being that, at the
+end of the various experiences showing the wretchedness of the
+world, identical with those ascribed in the original to the young
+Prince Buddha, the hero, instead of becoming a hermit, becomes a
+Christian, and that for the appellation of Buddha-- "Bodisat"--is
+substituted the more scriptural name Josaphat.
+
+Thus it was that, by virtue of the infallibility vouchsafed to
+the papacy in matters of faith and morals, Buddha became a
+Christian saint.
+
+Yet these were by no means the most pregnant revelations.   As
+the Buddhist scriptures were more fully examined, there were
+disclosed interesting anticipations of statements in later sacred
+books.   The miraculous conception of Buddha and his virgin
+birth, like that of Horus in Egypt and of Krishna in India; the
+previous annunciation to his mother Maja; his birth during a
+journey by her; the star appearing in the east, and the angels
+chanting in the heavens at his birth; his temptation--all these
+and a multitude of other statements were full of suggestions to
+larger thought regarding the development of sacred literature in
+general.   Even the eminent Roman Catholic missionary Bishop
+Bigandet was obliged to confess, in his scholarly life of Buddha,
+these striking similarities between the Buddhist scriptures and
+those which it was his mission to expound, though by this honest
+statement his own further promotion was rendered impossible.
+Fausboll also found the story of the judgment of Solomon imbedded
+in Buddhist folklore; and Sir Edwin Arnold, by his poem, The
+Light of Asia, spread far and wide a knowledge of the
+anticipation in Buddhism of some ideas which down to a recent
+period were considered distinctively Christian.   Imperfect as
+the revelations thus made of an evolution of religious beliefs,
+institutions, and literature still are, they have not been
+without an important bearing upon the newer conception of our own
+sacred books: more and more manifest has become the
+interdependence of all human development; more and more clear the
+truth that Christianity, as a great fact in man's history, is not
+dependent for its life upon any parasitic growths of myth and
+legend, no matter how beautiful they may be.[498]
+
+[498] For Huc and Gabet, see Souvenirs d'un Voyage dans la
+Tartarie, le Thibet, et la Chine, English translation by Hazlitt,
+London, 1851; also supplementary work by Huc.  For Bishop
+Bigandet, see his Life of Buddha, passim.  As for authority for
+the fact that his book was condemned at Rome and his own
+promotion prevented, the present writer has the bishop's own
+statement.  For notices of similarities between Buddhist and
+Christian institutions, rituals, etc., see Rhys David's Buddhism,
+London, 1894, passim; also Lillie, Buddhism and Christianity,
+especially chaps. ii and xi.  It is somewhat difficult to
+understand how a scholar so eminent as Mr. Rhys Davids should
+have allowed the Society for the Promotion of Christian
+Knowledge, which published his book, to eliminate all the
+interesting details regarding the birth of Buddha, and to give so
+fully everything that seemed to tell against the Roman Catholic
+Church; cf. p. 27 with p. 246 et seq.  For more thorough
+presentation of the development of features in Buddhism and
+Brahmanism which anticipate those of Chrisitianity, see
+Schroeder, Indiens Literatur und Cultur, Leipsic, 1887,
+especially Vorlesung XXVIII and following.  For full details of
+the canonization of Buddha under the name of St. Josaphat, see
+Fausboll, Buddhist Birth Stories, translated by Rhys Davids,
+London, 1880, pp. xxxvi and following; also Prof. Max Muller in
+the Contemporary Review for July, 1890; also the article Barlaam
+and Josaphat, in the ninth edition of the Encyclopaedia
+Britannica.  For the more recent and full accounts, correcting
+some minor details in the foregoing authorities, see Kuhn,
+Barlaam und Joasaph, Munich, 1893, especially pages 82, 83.  For
+a very thorough discussion of the whole subject, see Zotenberg,
+Notice sur le livre de Barlaam et Joasaph, Paris, 1886;
+especially for arguments fixing date of the work, see parts i to
+iii; also Gaston Paris in the Revue de Paris for June, 1895.  For
+the transliteration between the appelation of Buddha and the name
+of the saint, see Fausboll and Sayce, as above, p. xxxvii, note;
+and for the multitude of translations of the work ascribed to St.
+John of Damascus, see Table III, on p. xcv.  The reader who is
+curious to trace up a multitude of the myths and legends of early
+Hebrew and Christian mythology to their more eastern and southern
+sources can do so in Bible Myths, New York, 1883.  The present
+writer gladly avails himself of the opportunity to thank the
+learned Director of the National Library at Palermo, Monsignor
+Marzo, for his kindness in showing him the very interesting
+church of San Giosafat in that city; and to the custodians of the
+church for their readiness to allow photographs of the saint to
+be taken.  The writer's visit was made in April, 1895, and copies
+of the photographs may be seen in the library of Cornell
+University.  As to the more rare editions of Barlaam and
+Josaphat, a copy of the Icelandic translation is to be seen in
+the remrkable collection of Prof. Willard Fiske, at Florence.  As
+to the influence of these translations, it may be noted that when
+young John Kuncewicz, afterward a Polish archbishop, became a
+monk, he took the name of the sainted Prince Josafat; and, having
+fallen a victim to one of the innumerable murderous affrays of
+the seventeenth century between different sorts of fanatics--
+Greek, Catholic, and Protestant--in Poland, he also was finally
+canonized under that name, evidently as a means of annoying the
+Russian Government. (See Contieri, Vita di S. Giosafat, Arcivesco
+e Martira Rutena, Roma, 1867.)
+
+
+No less important was the closer research into the New Testament
+during the latter part of the nineteenth century.  To go into the
+subject in detail would be beyond the scope of this work, but a
+few of the main truths which it brought before the world may be
+here summarized.[499]
+
+[499] For a brief but thorough statement of the work of Strauss,
+Baur, and the earlier cruder efforts in New Testament exegesis,
+see Pfleiderer, as already cited, book ii, chap. i; and for the
+later work on Supernatural Religion and Lightfoot's answer,
+ibid., book iv. chap. ii.
+
+
+By the new race of Christian scholars it has been clearly shown
+that the first three Gospels, which, down to the close of the
+last century, were so constantly declared to be three independent
+testimonies agreeing as to the events recorded, are neither
+independent of each other nor in that sort of agreement which was
+formerly asserted.   All biblical scholars of any standing, even
+the most conservative, have come to admit that all three took
+their rise in the same original sources, growing by the
+accretions sure to come as time went on--accretions sometimes
+useful and often beautiful, but in no inconsiderable degree ideas
+and even narratives inherited from older religions: it is also
+fully acknowledged that to this growth process are due certain
+contradictions which can not otherwise be explained.  As to the
+fourth Gospel, exquisitely beautiful as large portions of it are,
+there has been growing steadily and irresistibly the conviction,
+even among the most devout scholars, that it has no right to the
+name, and does not really give the ideas of St. John, but that it
+represents a mixture of Greek philosophy with Jewish theology,
+and that its final form, which one of the most eminent among
+recent Christian scholars has characterized as "an unhistorical
+product of abstract reflection," is mainly due to some gifted
+representative or representatives of the Alexandrian school.
+Bitter as the resistance to this view has been, it has during the
+last years of the nineteenth century won its way more and more to
+acknowledgment.  A careful examination made in 1893 by a
+competent Christian scholar showed facts which are best given in
+his own words, as follows: "In the period of thirty years ending
+in 1860, of the fifty great authorities in this line, FOUR TO ONE
+were in favour of the Johannine authorship.  Of those who in
+that period had advocated this traditional position, one
+quarter--and certainly the very greatest--finally changed their
+position to the side of a late date and non-Johannine authorship.
+
+Of those who have come into this field of scholarship since
+about 1860, some forty men of the first class, two thirds reject
+the traditional theory wholly or very largely.  Of those who have
+contributed important articles to the discussion from about 1880
+to 1890, about TWO TO ONE reject the Johannine authorship of the
+Gospel in its present shape--that is to say, while forty years
+ago great scholars were FOUR TO ONE IN FAVOUR OF, they are now
+TWO TO ONE AGAINST, the claim that the apostle John wrote this
+Gospel as we have it.  Again, one half of those on the
+conservative side to-day--scholars like Weiss, Beyschlag, Sanday,
+and Reynolds--admit the existence of a dogmatic intent and an
+ideal element in this Gospel, so that we do not have Jesus's
+thought in his exact words, but only in substance."[500]
+
+[500] For the citations given regarding the development of
+thought in relation to the fourth gospel, see Crooker, The New
+Bible and its Uses, Boston, 1893, pp. 29, 30.  For the
+characterization of St. John's Gospel above referred to, see
+Robertson Smith in the Encyc. Brit., 9th edit., art. Bible, p.
+642.  For a very careful and candid summary of the reasons which
+are gradually leading the more eminent among the newer scholars
+to give up the Johannine authorship ot the fourth Gospel, see
+Schurer, in the Contemporary Review for September, 1891.
+American  readers, regarding this and the whole series of
+subjects of which this forms a part, may most profitably study
+the Rev. Dr. Cone's Gospel Criticism and Historic Christianity,
+one of the most lucid and judicial of recent works in this field.
+
+
+In 1881 came an event of great importance as regards the
+development of a more frank and open dealing with scriptural
+criticism.  In that year appeared the Revised Version of the New
+Testament.  It was exceedingly cautious and conservative; but it
+had the vast merit of being absolutely conscientious.  One thing
+showed, in a striking way, ethical progress in theological
+methods.  Although all but one of the English revisers
+represented Trinitarian bodies, they rejected the two great proof
+texts which had so long been accounted essential bulwarks of
+Trinitarian doctrine.  Thus disappeared at last from the Epistle
+of St. John the text of the Three Witnesses, which had for
+centuries held its place in spite of its absence from all the
+earlier important manuscripts, and of its rejection in later
+times by Erasmus, Luther, Isaac Newton, Porson, and a long line
+of the greatest biblical scholars.  And with this was thrown out
+the other like unto it in spurious origin and zealous intent,
+that interpolation of the word "God" in the sixteenth verse of
+the third chapter of the First Epistle to Timothy, which had for
+ages served as a warrant for condemning some of the noblest of
+Christians, even such men as Newton and Milton and Locke and
+Priestley and Channing.
+
+Indeed, so honest were the revisers that they substituted the
+correct reading of Luke ii, 33, in place of the time-honoured
+corruption in the King James version which had been thought
+necessary to safeguard the dogma of the virgin birth of Jesus of
+Nazareth.   Thus came the true reading, "His FATHER and his
+mother" instead of the old piously fraudulent words "JOSEPH and
+his mother."
+
+An even more important service to the new and better growth of
+Christianity was the virtual setting aside of the last twelve
+verses of the Gospel according to St. Mark; for among these
+stood that sentence which has cost the world more innocent blood
+than any other--the words "He that believeth not shall be
+damned."  From this source had logically grown the idea that the
+intellectual rejection of this or that dogma which dominant
+theology had happened at any given time to pronounce essential,
+since such rejection must bring punishment infinite in agony and
+duration, is a crime to be prevented at any cost of finite
+cruelty.  Still another service rendered to humanity by the
+revisers was in substituting a new and correct rendering for the
+old reading of the famous text regarding the inspiration of
+Scripture, which had for ages done so much to make our sacred
+books a fetich.  By this more correct reading the revisers gave a
+new charter to liberty in biblical research.[501]
+
+[501] The texts referred to as most beneficially changed by the
+revisers are I John v, 7 and I Timothy iii, 16.  Mention may also
+be made of the fact that the American revision gave up the
+Trinitarian version of Romans ix, 5, and that even their more
+conservative British brethren, while leaving it in the text,
+discredited it in the margin.
+
+Though revisers thought it better not to suppress altogether the
+last twelve verses of St. Mark's Gospel, they softened the word
+"damned' to "condemned," and separated them from the main Gospel,
+adding a note stating that "the two oldest Greek manuscripts, and
+some other authorities, omit from verse nine to the end"; and
+that "some other authorities have a different ending to this
+Gospel."
+
+The resistance of staunch high churchmen of the older type even
+to so mild a reform as the first change above noted may be
+exemplified by a story told of Philpotts, Bishop of Exeter, about
+the middle of the nineteenth century.  A kindly clergyman reading
+an invitation to the holy communion, and thinking that so an
+affectionate a call was difigured by the harsh phrase "eateth and
+drinketh to his own damnation," ventured timidly to substitute
+the word "condemnation."  Thereupon the bishop, who was kneeling
+with the rest of the congregation, threw up his head and roared
+"DAMNATION!"  The story is given in T. A. Trollope's What I
+Remember, vol. i, p. 444.  American churchmen may well rejoice
+that the fathers of the American branch of the Anglican Church
+were wise enough and Christian enough to omit from their Prayer
+Book this damnatory clause, as well as the Commination Service
+and the Athanasian Creed.
+
+
+Most valuable, too, have been studies during the latter part of
+the nineteenth century upon the formation of the canon of
+Scripture.  The result of these has been to substitute something
+far better for that conception of our biblical literature, as
+forming one book handed out of the clouds by the Almighty, which
+had been so long practically the accepted view among probably the
+majority of Christians.  Reverent scholars have demonstrated our
+sacred literature to be a growth in obedience to simple laws
+natural and historical; they have shown how some books of the Old
+Testament were accepted as sacred, centuries before our era, and
+how others gradually gained sanctity, in some cases only fully
+acquiring it long after the establishment of the Christian
+Church.  The same slow growth has also been shown in the New
+Testament canon.  It has been demonstrated that the selection of
+the books composing it, and their separation from the vast mass
+of spurious gospels, epistles, and apocalytic literature was a
+gradual process, and, indeed, that the rejection of some books
+and the acceptance of others was accidental, if anything is
+accidental.
+
+So, too, scientific biblical research has, as we have seen, been
+obliged to admit the existence of much mythical and legendary
+matter, as a setting for the great truths not only of the Old
+Testament but of the New.  It has also shown, by the comparative
+study of literatures, the process by which some books were
+compiled and recompiled, adorned with beautiful utterances,
+strengthened or weakened by alterations and interpolations
+expressing the views of the possessors or transcribers, and
+attributed to personages who could not possibly have written
+them.  The presentation of these things has greatly weakened that
+sway of mere dogma which has so obscured the simple teachings of
+Christ himself; for it has shown that the more we know of our
+sacred books, the less certain we become as to the authenticity
+of "proof texts," and it has disengaged more and more, as the
+only valuable residuum, like the mass of gold at the bottom of
+the crucible, the personality, spirit, teaching, and ideals of
+the blessed Founder of Christianity.  More and more, too, the
+new scholarship has developed the conception of the New Testament
+as, like the Old, the growth of literature in obedience to law--a
+conception which in al probability will give it its strongest
+hold on the coming  centuries.  In making this revelation
+Christian scholarship has by no means done work mainly
+destructive.   It has, indeed, swept away a mass of noxious
+growths, but it has at the same time cleared the ground for a
+better growth of Christianity--a growth through which already
+pulsates the current of a nobler life.  It has forever destroyed
+the contention of scholars like those of the eighteenth century
+who saw, in the multitude of irreconcilable discrepancies between
+various biblical statements, merely evidences of priestcraft and
+intentional fraud.  The new scholarship has shown that even such
+absolute contradictions as those between the accounts of the
+early life of Jesus by Matthew and Luke, and between the date of
+the crucifixion and details of the resurrection in the first
+three Gospels and in the fourth, and other discrepancies hardly
+less serious, do not destroy the historical character of the
+narrative.  Even the hopelessly conflicting genealogies of the
+Saviour and the evidently mythical accretions about the simple
+facts of his birth and life are thus full of interest when taken
+as a natural literary development in obedience to the deepest
+religious feeling.[502]
+
+[502] Among the newer English works of the canon of Scripture,
+especially as regards the Old Testament, see Ryle in work cited.
+As to the evidences of frequent mutilations of the New Testament
+text, as well as of frequent charge of changing texts made
+against each other by early Christian writers, see Reuss, History
+of the New Testament, vol. ii, S 362.  For a reverant and honest
+treatment of some of the discrepancies and contradictions which
+are absolutely irreconcilable, see Crooker, as above, appendix;
+also Cone, Gospel Criticism and Historic Christianity, especially
+chap. ii; also Matthew Arnold, Literature and Dogma, and God and
+the Bible, especially chap. vi; and for a brief but full showing
+of them in a judicial and kindly spirit, see Laing, Problems of
+the Future, chap. ix, on The Historical Element in the Gospels.
+
+
+Among those who have wrought most effectively to bring the
+leaders of thought in the English-speaking nations to this higher
+conception, Matthew Arnold should not be forgotten.  By poetic
+insight, broad scholarship, pungent statement, pithy argument,
+and an exquisitely lucid style, he aided effectually during the
+latter half of the nineteenth century in bringing the work of
+specialists to bear upon the development of a broader and deeper
+view.  In the light of his genius a conception of our sacred
+books at the same time more literary as well as more scientific
+has grown widely and vigorously, while the older view which made
+of them a fetich and a support for unchristian dogmas has been
+more and more thrown into the background.  The contributions to
+these results by the most eminent professors at the great
+Christian universities of the English-speaking world, Oxford and
+Cambridge taking the lead, are most hopeful signs of a new epoch.
+
+Very significant also is a change in the style of argument
+against the scientific view.  Leading supporters of the older
+opinions see more and more clearly the worthlessness of rhetoric
+against ascertained fact: mere dogged resistance to cogent
+argument evidently avails less and less; and the readiness of the
+more prominent representatives of the older thought to consider
+opposing arguments, and to acknowledge any force they may have,
+is certainly of good omen.  The concessions made in Lux Mundi
+regarding scriptural myths and legends have been already
+mentioned.
+
+Significant also has been the increasing reprobation in the
+Church itself of the profound though doubtless unwitting
+immoralities of RECONCILERS.  The castigation which followed the
+exploits of the greatest of these in our own time--Mr. Gladstone,
+at the hands of Prof. Huxley--did much to complete a work in
+which such eminent churchmen as Stanley, Farrar, Sanday, Cheyne,
+Driver, and Sayce had rendered good service.
+
+Typical among these evidences of a better spirit in controversy
+has been the treatment of the question regarding mistaken
+quotations from the Old Testament in the New, and especially
+regarding quotations by Christ himself.  For a time this was
+apparently the most difficult of all matters dividing the two
+forces; but though here and there appear champions of tradition,
+like the Bishop of Gloucester, effectual resistance to the new
+view has virtually ceased; in one way or another the most
+conservative authorities have accepted the undoubted truth
+revealed by a simple scientific method.  Their arguments have
+indeed been varied.  While some have fallen back upon Le Clerc's
+contention that "Christ did not come to teach criticism to the
+Jews," and others upon Paley's argument that the Master shaped
+his statements in accordance with the ideas of his time, others
+have taken refuge in scholastic statements--among them that of
+Irenaeus regarding "a quiescence of the divine word," or the
+somewhat startling explanation by sundry recent theologians that
+"our Lord emptied himself of his Godhead."[504]
+
+[504] For Matthew Arnold, see, besides his Literature and Dogma,
+his St. Paul and Protestantism.  As to the quotations in the New
+Testament from the Old, see Toy, Quotations in the New Testament,
+1889, p. 72; also Kuenen, The Prophets and Prophecy in Israel.
+For Le Clerc's method of dealing with the argument regarding
+quotations from the Old Testament in the New, see earlier parts
+of the present chapter.  For Paley's mode, see his Evidences,
+part iii, chapter iii.  For the more scholastic expresssions from
+Irenaeus and others, see Gore, Bampton Lectures, 1891, especially
+note on p. 267.  For a striking passage on the general subject
+see B. W. Bacon, Genesis of Genesis, p. 33, ending with the
+words, "We must decline to stake the authority of Jesus Christ on
+a question of literary criticism."
+
+
+Nor should there be omitted a tribute to the increasing courtesy
+shown in late years by leading supporters of the older view.
+During the last two decades of the present century there has been
+a most happy departure from the older method of resistance, first
+by plausibilities, next by epithets, and finally by persecution.
+To the bitterness of the attacks upon Darwin, the Essayists and
+Reviewers, and Bishop Colenso, have succeeded, among really
+eminent leaders, a far better method and tone.  While Matthew
+Arnold no doubt did much in commending "sweet reasonableness" to
+theological controversialists, Mr. Gladstone, by his perfect
+courtesy to his opponents, even when smarting under their
+heaviest blows, has set a most valuable example.  Nor should the
+spirit shown by Bishop Ellicott, leading a forlorn hope for the
+traditional view, pass without a tribute of respect.  Truly
+pathetic is it to see this venerable and learned prelate, one of
+the most eminent representatives of the older biblical research,
+even when giving solemn warnings against the newer criticisms,
+and under all the temptations of ex cathedra utterance, remaining
+mild and gentle and just in the treatment of adversaries whose
+ideas he evidently abhors.  Happily, he is comforted by the faith
+that Christianitv will survive; and this faith his opponents
+fully share.[505]
+
+[505] As an example of courtesy between theologic opponents may
+be cited the controversy between Mr. Gladstone and Prof. Huxley,
+Principal Gore's Bampton Lectures for 1891, and Bishop Ellicott's
+Charges, published in 1893.
+
+To the fact that the suppression of personal convictions among
+"the enlightened" did not cease with the Medicean popes there are
+many testimonies.  One especially curious was mentioned to the
+present writer by a most honoured diplomatist and scholar at
+Rome.  While this gentleman was looking over the books of an
+eminent cardinal, recently deceased, he noticed a series of
+octavos bearing on their backs the title "Acta Apostolorum."
+Surprised at such an extension of the Acts of Apostles, he opened
+a volume and found the series to be the works of Voltaire.  As to
+a similar condition of things in the Church of England may be
+cited the following from Froude's Erasmus: "I knew various
+persons of high reputation a few years ago who thought at the
+bottom very much as Bishop Colenso thought, who nevertheless
+turned and rent himto clear their own reputations--which they did
+not succeed in doing."  See work cited, close of Lecture XI.
+
+
+
+VI.   RECONSTRUCTIVE FORCE OF SCIENTIFIC CRITICISM.
+
+
+For all this dissolving away of traditional opinions regarding
+our sacred literature, there has been a cause far more general
+and powerful than any which has been given, for it is a cause
+surrounding and permeating all.  This is simply the atmosphere of
+thought engendered by the development of all sciences during the
+last three centuries.
+
+Vast masses of myth, legend, marvel, and dogmatic assertion,
+coming into this atmosphere, have been dissolved and are now
+dissolving quietly away like icebergs drifted into the Gulf
+Stream.  In earlier days, when some critic in advance of his
+time insisted that Moses could not have written an account
+embracing the circumstances of his own death, it was sufficient
+to answer that Moses was a prophet; if attention was called to
+the fact that the great early prophets, by all which they did and
+did not do, showed that there could not have existed in their
+time any "Levitical code," a sufficient answer was "mystery"; and
+if the discrepancy was noted between the two accounts of creation
+in Genesis, or between the genealogies or the dates of the
+crucifixion in the Gospels, the cogent reply was "infidelity."
+But the thinking world has at last been borne by the general
+development of a scientific atmosphere beyond that kind of
+refutation.
+
+If, in the atmosphere generated by the earlier developed
+sciences, the older growths of biblical interpretation have
+drooped and withered and are evidently perishing, new and better
+growths have arisen with roots running down into the newer
+sciences.  Comparative Anthropology in general, by showing that
+various early stages of belief and observance, once supposed to
+be derived from direct revelation from heaven to the Hebrews, are
+still found as arrested developments among various savage and
+barbarous tribes; Comparative Mythology and Folklore, by showing
+that ideas and beliefs regarding the Supreme Power in the
+universe are progressive, and not less in Judea than in other
+parts of the world; Comparative Religion and Literature, by
+searching out and laying side by side those main facts in the
+upward struggle of humanity which show that the Israelites, like
+other gifted peoples, rose gradually, through ghost worship,
+fetichism, and polytheism, to higher theological levels; and
+that, as they thus rose, their conceptions and statements
+regarding the God they worshipped became nobler and better--all
+these sciences are giving a new solution to those problems which
+dogmatic theology has so long laboured in vain to solve.  While
+researches in these sciences have established the fact that
+accounts formerly supposed to be special revelations to Jews and
+Christians are but repetitions of widespread legends dating from
+far earlier civilizations, and that beliefs formerly thought
+fundamental to Judaism and Christianity are simply based on
+ancient myths, they have also begun to impress upon the intellect
+and conscience of the thinking world the fact that the religious
+and moral truths thus disengaged from the old masses of myth and
+legend are all the more venerable and authoritative, and that all
+individual or national life of any value must be vitalized by
+them.[506]
+
+[506] For plaintive lamentations over the influence of this
+atmosphere of scientific thought upon the most eminent
+contemporary Christian scholars, see the Christus Comprobator, by
+the Bishop of Gloucester and Bristol, London, 1893, and the
+article in the Contemporary Review for May, 1892, by the Bishop
+of Colchester, passim.  For some less known examples of sacred
+myths and legends inherited from ancient civilizations, see
+Lenormant, Les Origines de l'Histoire, passim, but especially
+chaps. ii, iv, v, vi; see also Goldziher.
+
+
+If, then, modern science in general has acted powerfully to
+dissolve away the theories and dogmas of the older theologic
+interpretation, it has also been active in a reconstruction and
+recrystallization of truth; and very powerful in this
+reconstruction have been the evolution doctrines which have grown
+out of the thought and work of men like Darwin and Spencer.
+
+In the light thus obtained the sacred text has been transformed:
+out of the old chaos has come order; out of the old welter of
+hopelessly conflicting statements in religion and morals has
+come, in obedience to this new conception of development, the
+idea of a sacred literature which mirrors the most striking
+evolution of morals and religion in the history of our race.  Of
+all the sacred writings of the world, it shows us our own as the
+most beautiful and the most precious; exhibiting to us the most
+complete religious development to which humanity has attained,
+and holding before us the loftiest ideals which our race has
+known.  Thus it is that, with the keys furnished by this new
+race of biblical scholars, the way has been opened to treasures
+of thought which have been inaccessible to theologians for two
+thousand years.
+
+As to the Divine Power in the universe: these interpreters have
+shown how, beginning with the tribal god of the Hebrews--one
+among many jealous, fitful, unseen, local sovereigns of Asia
+Minor--the higher races have been borne on to the idea of the
+just Ruler of the whole earth, as revealed by the later and
+greater prophets of Israel, and finally to the belief in the
+Universal Father, as best revealed in the New Testament.  As to
+man: beginning with men after Jehovah's own heart--cruel,
+treacherous, revengeful--we are borne on to an ideal of men who
+do right for right's sake; who search and speak the truth for
+truth's sake; who love others as themselves.  As to the world at
+large: the races dominant in religion and morals have been lifted
+from the idea of a "chosen people" stimulated and abetted by
+their tribal god in every sort of cruelty and injustice, to the
+conception of a vast community in which the fatherhood of God
+overarches all, and the brotherhood of man permeates all.
+
+Thus, at last, out of the old conception of our Bible as a
+collection of oracles--a mass of entangling utterances, fruitful
+in wrangling interpretations, which have given to the world long
+and weary ages of "hatred, malice, and all uncharitableness"; of
+fetichism, subtlety, and pomp; of tyranny bloodshed, and solemnly
+constituted imposture; of everything which the Lord Jesus Christ
+most abhorred--has been gradually developed through the
+centuries, by the labours, sacrifices, and even the martyrdom of
+a long succession of men of God, the conception of it as a sacred
+literature--a growth only possible under that divine light which
+the various orbs of science have done so much to bring into the
+mind and heart and soul of man--a revelation, not of the Fall of
+Man, but of the Ascent of Man--an exposition, not of temporary
+dogmas and observances, but of the Eternal Law of
+Righteousness--the one upward path for individuals and for
+nations.  No longer an oracle, good for the "lower orders" to
+accept, but to be quietly sneered at by "the enlightened"--no
+longer a fetich, whose defenders must be persecuters, or
+reconcilers, or "apologists"; but a most fruitful fact, which
+religion and science may accept as a source of strength to both.
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg etext of:
+
+"A HISTORY OF THE WARFARE OF SCIENCE WITH THEOLOGY IN CHRISTENDOM"
+
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