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diff --git a/old/50249-0.txt b/old/50249-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 6874952..0000000 --- a/old/50249-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1531 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's Orkney and Shetland Folk 872-1350, by A. W. Johnston - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Orkney and Shetland Folk 872-1350 - -Author: A. W. Johnston - -Release Date: October 18, 2015 [EBook #50249] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ORKNEY AND SHETLAND FOLK 872-1350 *** - - - - -Produced by Henry Flower and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - - - - - - - - - Orkney and Shetland Folk - 872-1350 - - - BY - A. W. JOHNSTON - - - LONDON - Printed for the Viking Society for Northern Research - University of London - 1914 - - - - -ORKNEY AND SHETLAND FOLK, 872-1350. - - - NOTE.--Unless where otherwise stated this paper is founded on - _Orkneyinga Saga_ (Rolls Series, text and translation). Page - references are to _Orkney and Shetland Records_, Vol. I. Fb., - _Flateyjarbók_. Hkr., _Heimskringla_. J.J., Jacob Jakobsen’s works. - S.S., _Sturlunga Saga_. - -This paper is an attempt to describe the mixed races which inhabited -Orkney and Shetland from the foundation of the Norse earldom, in -872, until the end of the rule of the Gaelic earls, _circa_ 1350, -and it is a first instalment of the evidence on which a paragraph -on “person-names” was founded, in the _Introduction_ to _Orkney and -Shetland Records_, vol. I. - -The earliest inhabitants, of whom we have any record, were the Picts, -and the Irish papas and Columban missionaries, who must have brought -some Irish settlers with them. - -It has already been suggested that the Norse must have settled in -Orkney and Shetland, _circa_ 664, among the aboriginal race, the Picts, -who would have become their thralls, and with whom the settlers would -have intermarried. - -The first Norsemen who came to Orkney and Shetland would have been -adventurers, and not settlers with wives, families and thralls, such -as later went to Iceland and Orkney. Consequently such adventurers -who settled in the islands would naturally have intermarried with the -aborigines. This kind of male settlement may have gone on for some -time, before the actual _bona fide_ colonisation took place. - -It has already been pointed out that Shetland was not so fully -colonised as Orkney, at the commencement of the Norse migration, which -appears to account for the older Norse dialect forms in Orkney, and -for the survival of more Keltic island-names in Shetland. - -A stronger Pictish strain is thus, on that account, to be looked for in -Shetland. The Norse would select the easiest landing-places, while the -Kelts would occupy the inland and inaccessible places, as they did in -the Isle of Man. The two inland districts of Hara and Stennes in Orkney -are especially rich in the remains of the pre-Norse inhabitants--stone -circles, brochs, etc.; and Ireland, the only sea-board of Stennes, is -particularly inhospitable for shipping. - -Besides the archæological and topographical proof of the continued -residence of the Picts in Orkney and Shetland, there is the much more -reliable evidence of anthropology, in the existence of a large strain -of the small and dark race in both Orkney and Shetland, representing -the aboriginal race, the later prisoners of raids and the later -settlers from Scotland. Allowance must also be made for thralls brought -from Norway. - -Queen Auðr djúpauðga (deeply-wealthy) or djúpúðga (deeply-wise), -passed through Orkney, in the ninth century, on her way to Iceland, -with twenty freed Irish thralls. After this, Einarr, grandson of earl -Torf-Einarr, went to Iceland from Orkney with two Vestmenn (Irishmen). -_Írar_, Irish, occurs in place-names in Iceland, Orkney and Shetland, -in each of which latter there is an _Ireland_. - -It will now be proved that there were only three possible pure-bred -Norse earls of Orkney and Shetland, viz., the first three--Sigurðr hinn -ríki, his son, GuÞormr, and his nephew, Hallaðr. - -The first earl of the main line was Torf-Einarr, who was half Norse -and half thrall, his mother being probably of the pre-Norse dark -race. His son, the next earl, married a Gael, and after this, through -repeated Gaelic marriages, the succeeding earls in the Norse male -line were never more than a cross between Norse and Gael, sometimes -almost approaching pure-bred Gaels, if the rules of a modern breeding -society are to be observed. The same holds good of earl St. Rögnvaldr, -a Norwegian, who succeeded on the distaff side, his mother being of -Gaelic extraction. The Gaelic conversion of the earls was completed on -the succession of the Gaelic earls in 1139. - -The next step will be to show that the leading families, some of which -were related to the earls, were also mainly of Gaelic descent, and in -some cases probably in the male line. - -As the Gaels did not give up patronymics and begin to assume permanent -surnames (usually those of their chiefs), until after 1350, those -who settled in Orkney before that, and became Norse in language -and customs, of course adopted the Norse, in place of the Gaelic, -patronymic, _i.e._, _-son_ for _mac-_. This was done by the Gaelic -earls in Orkney, in precisely the same way as had been done by the -Irish settlers in Iceland. - -In reply to a query, Sir Herbert Maxwell writes: “You ask me to fix a -date ‘when patronymics flourished and ceased in the Highlands?’ I think -it would be impossible to do so. There were few, if any, fixed surnames -in England or Lowland Scotland before the middle of the thirteenth -century, other than territorial ones, derived from the feudal tenure -of land. In the Highlands, the adoption of fixed names appears to have -been indefinitely deferred. Such counties as Perth and Dumbarton, -being nearest the frontier of civilisation, their people would find it -convenient to conform to the habit of their neighbours. In more remote -districts the shifting patronymic prevailed much longer, and when it -was abandoned individuals frequently assumed the surname of their -chief or the name of his clan, which accounts for the old patronymic -‘Macdonald’ being the third commonest surname in Scotland; Smith and -Brown being first and second.” - -In the following description particular attention will be called -to personal appearance, character, habits, superstitions, etc., as -indications of descent. - - -THE NORSE EARLS. - -Earl Torf-Einarr, 875-910, was the illegitimate son of the Norwegian -earl Rögnvaldr, by a thrall mother who was thrall born on all sides, -_í allar ættir þrælborinn_. He was therefore half Norse and half -thrall. His mother was probably of the pre-Norse small dark race, the -Finnar or Lappir, which may account for her son being ugly, _ljótr_, -one-eyed, _einsýnn_, but keen-sighted, _skygnstr_, an expression which -latterly meant second-sighted, and capable of seeing elves, etc. He -saw, what others did not, Hálfdán há-leggr, the self-appointed “king of -Orkney,” bobbing up and down on another island, and had a _blóð-örn_, -blood-eagle, carved on him. - -His poetic genius may have been the result of the mixture of Norse and -Finn. He died of sickness, _sótt-dauðr_, equivalent to _strá-dauðr_, -straw-dead, died in bed, an ignominious death for a víkingr. - -Nothing is known of his wife, but, as he had children before he left -Norway, she was, probably, a Norwegian. - -His children were earls Þorfinnr, Arnkell and Erlendr, and two -daughters, Þórdís, born in his youth, in Norway (she was brought up -by her grandfather, earl Rögnvaldr, and married Þórgeirr klaufi, -whose son Einarr went to Orkney to his kinsmen, and as they would not -receive him, he bought a ship and went to Iceland), and Hlíf, who had -descendants in Iceland. - -Earl Þorfinnr hausakljúfr (skull-cleaver), 910-963, was the son of earl -Torf-Einarr and an unknown mother, probably Norwegian, so that he would -be three-fourths Norse and one-fourth thrall in descent. He married -Grelöð, a daughter of Dungað (Gaelic _Donnchadh_, Duncan), Gaelic earl -of Caithness, and Gróa, daughter of Þorsteinn rauðr.[1] - -[1] Hkr. - -He is described as a great chief and warrior, _mikill höfðingi ok -herskár_, and died of sickness, _sótt-dauðr_, and was buried in a -mound, _heygðr_, in Rögnvaldsey _á Haugs-eiði_, at Hoxa. The Saga -reads _á Hauga-heiði_, wrongly; this isthmus would have been called -_Haugs-eið_, how’s isthmus, because the Norse found on it a large -mound, which covered the ruins of a pre-Norse round tower, in which the -earl may have been buried. - -His children were earls Arnfinnr, Hávarðr ár-sæli (of prosperous -years), Hlöðver, Ljótr or Arnljótr, and Skúli, and two daughters. Three -of his five sons married, in turn, the murdress Ragnhildr, daughter -of king Eiríkr blóðöx and the notorious Gunnhildr. She killed her -first husband herself. The second husband was killed by his nephew -Einarr klíningr (butter), at the instigation of his aunt, who promised -to marry him, and for which deed he was thought to be a _níðingr_, -dastard. Preparatory to marrying the third brother, she got rid of -Einarr at the hands of his cousin Einarr harðkjöptr (hard-jawed), who -was in turn slain by the third and last husband. - -One cannot wonder at the character of Ragnhildr, considering the -antecedents of her mother Gunnhildr, the reputed daughter of Özurr -toti, a lord in Hálogaland. She, probably a Finn, was found in a -Finmark cot, studying wizardry, and was brought to Eiríkr blóðöx, who, -struck with her great beauty, obtained her in marriage. She was held -guilty of having poisoned king Hálfdán svarti. Her life was spent in -plotting and mischief. She is described in _Heimskringla_: the fairest -of women, wise and cunning in witchcraft; glad of speech and guileful -of heart, and the grimmest of all folk. Fortunately, her daughter left -no descendants in Orkney. - -Earl Hlöðver (Ludovick or Lewis), 963-980, was the son of earl -Þorfinnr hausakljúfr, and Grelöð, who was half a Gael, and so he was -five-eighths Norse, one-eighth thrall and two-eighths Gael. He is -described as a mighty chief, _mikill höfðingi_, and died of sickness, -_sótt-dauðr_. He married Eðna (Eithne), daughter of the Irish king, -Kjarvalr (Cearbhall). She was learned in witchcraft, _margkunnig_, -and wove a magic banner, _merki_, in raven form, _hrafns-mynd_, for -her son; and predicted that those before whom it was borne should be -victorious, _sigrsæll_, but it would be deadly, _banvænt_, to the -bearer. - -Their children were earl Sigurðr hinn digri, and a daughter, Nereiðr or -Svanlaug, who married earl Gilli of Kola (Coll). - -Earl Sigurðr hinn digri, 980-1014, was the son of earl Hlöðver and -an Irish Gael, and was 5/16 Norse, 1/16 thrall, and 10/16 Gael. He -was a mighty chief, _höfðingi mikill_, and a great warrior.[2] He was -killed in the battle of Clontarf, _Brjáns-bardagi_, in Ireland in -1014, with the fatal _hrafns-merki_ wound around him, as no one else -would bear his _fjándi_, fiend. He was converted to Christianity by -the sword-baptism of king Ólafr Tryggvason, although he expressed his -preference for the religion and carved gods of his Norse forefathers, -notwithstanding any Christian teaching he may have received from his -Irish mother beyond witchcraft. He gave up the confiscated óðul to -the Orkney bœndr (for one generation) in return for military services -rendered against the Scots. The name of his first wife is unknown, -and his second one was a daughter of Malcolm, the Scot king. His -children by his first wife were Hundi or Hvelpr (Gaelic, _Cuilen_, who -was baptised with the name of his grandfather, earl Hlöðver), Einarr -rang-muðr, stern, grasping, unfriendly, and a great warrior, Brúsi, -meek, kept his feelings well in hand, humble and ready-tongued, and -Sumarliði. - -[2] Hkr. - -Earl Þorfinnr hinn ríki, 1014-1064, was the son of earl Sigurðr digri -and his second wife, a Gael, and was 5/32 Norse, 1/32 thrall, and 26/32 -Gael in descent. He was _bráðgjörr í vexti, manna mestr ok sterkastr_, -early in reaching full growth, tallest and strongest of men; _svartr -á hár_, black hair; _skarpleitr ok skolbrúnn_, sharp features and -swarthy complexion; _ljótr_, ugly; _nefmikill_, big nose; _kappsmaðr_, -an energetic man; _ágjarn bæði til fjár ok metnaðar_, greedy of wealth -and honour; _sigrsæll_, lucky in battle; _kænn í orrostum_, skilful in -war; _góðr áræðis_, of good courage. King Ólafr found that Þorfinnr -was _miklu skapstærri en Brúsi_, much more proud of spirit than his -brother, Brúsi. Þorfinnr gladly agreed with all the king’s proposals, -but the king doubted that he meant to go back on them, whereas he -thought that Brúsi, who drove a hard bargain, would keep his word, -and would be a _trúnaðar-maðr_, faithful liegeman. The earl married -Ingibjörg, jarla-móðir, daughter of Finnr Árnason. He made a pilgrimage -to Rome, got absolution from the Pope, and built the first cathedral in -Birsa, Orkney, where he died. - -He was liberal, in that he did that _frama-verk_, honourable deed, by -which he provided his _hirð_, bodyguard, and many other _ríkis-menn_, -mighty men, all winter through, with both _matr ok mun-gát_, food and -ale, so that no man required to put up at a _skytningr_, inn; whereas, -kings and earls in other lands, merely made a like provision only -during Yule. Arnórr jarlaskáld sang to his praise in his _Þorfinns -drápa_, and noted his liberal fare. - -His children were earls Páll and Erlendr, who were _miklir menn ok -fríðir_, mickle men and handsome, and so took after their Norwegian -_móðurætt_, mother’s kin, and were _vitrir ok hógværir_, wise and -modest; taking after their mother, a Norwegian, is in contrast to their -father, who was almost a pure-bred, black-haired, swarthy Gael. - -Earl Rögnvaldr Brúsason, 1036-1046, was the son of earl Brúsi -Sigurðarson and an unknown mother, and the nephew of earl Þorfinnr -hinn ríki. The _fríðastr_, most handsome of all men; _hárit mikit ok -gult sem silki_, much hair, yellow as silk; _snimma mikill ok sterkr, -manna var hann gjörfiligastr bæði fyrir vits saker ok svá kurteisi_, -tall and strong, the most perfect man was he both in wits and courtesy; -_fríðastr sjónum_, most handsome in face; _atgervi-maðr mikill svá at -eigi fanst hans jafningi_, an accomplished man without an equal. Arnórr -jarlaskáld said that he was the _bezt menntr af Orkneyja-jörlum_, the -most accomplished and best bred of the earls of Orkney. From this -description one would imagine that his unknown mother and grandmother -had both been Norwegians. It is not stated whether he was married or -had any children. - -Earl Páll Þorfinnsson, 1064-1098, was the son of earl Þorfinn hinn ríki -and Ingibjörg, a Norwegian, after whom he took--handsome and modest. He -was thus 19/32 Norse and 13/32 Gael in descent. - -He married a daughter of earl Hákon Ívarsson and Ragnhildr, daughter -of king Magnús hinn góði. Their children were earl Hákon, and four -daughters, Herbjörg (ancestress of bishop Biarni), Ingiriðr, Ragnhildr -(ancestress of Hákon kló), and Þóra. - -He was banished to Norway, in 1098, where he died. - -From 1098 to 1103, Sigurðr (afterwards king Sigurðr Jórsalafari), the -eighty-year-old son of king Magnús berfœttr, was earl of Orkney. - -Earl Erlendr Þorfinnsson, 1064-1098, was the son of earl Þorfinnr -hinn ríki and Ingibiörg, a Norwegian, and so was 19/32 Norse and -13/32 Gael in descent. He married Þóra Sumarliðadóttir, whose mother -and grandmother are not mentioned, but her father was the son of an -Icelander. The earl was banished to Norway, in 1098, where he died. - -His children were, earl St. Magnús, Gunnhildr, who married Kolr -Kalason, whose son Kali became earl Rögnvaldr, and Cecilia who -married Ísak, a Norwegian, whose sons were Kolr and Eindriði. He had -a thrall-born illegitimate daughter called Játvör (fem. of Játvarðr, -the Norse form of Edward), who had a son called Borgar,--the earliest -record of this name, which, however, occurs in Norwegian place-names; -they were both, mother and son, rather disliked, _úvinsæl_. - -Earl Hákon Pálsson, 1103-1122, was the son of earl Páll Þorfinnsson and -a Norwegian mother, and was 51/64 Norse and 13/64 Gael in descent. - -He was _ofstopamaðr mikill_, a very overbearing man, _mikill ok -sterkr_, great and strong; and _vel menntr um alla hluti_, well-bred, -accomplished in every way. He would be the _fyrirmaðr_, leader, over -his cousins, and thought himself better born, being the great grandson -of king Magnús hinn góði. He always wanted the largest share for -himself and his friends, and was _öfund_, jealous, of his cousins. When -abroad he suffered from _landmunr_, home-sickness, and wanted _at sækja -vestr til Eyja_, to seek west to the _Isles_ (Orkney). He consulted a -wizard as to his future. He murdered his cousin, St. Magnús, in order -to get the whole earldom, and then made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. -He ended by being a good ruler, and died in the Isles. - -It is not known whom he married, if he was wedded at all; but his son, -earl Páll, appears to have had a mother other than his father’s known -_frilla_ or concubine. She was a Gael, Helga, daughter of Moddan, a -nobleman rolling in wealth, _göfugr maðr ok vell-auðigr_, who lived in -Dalir, or Dalr, in Katanes. The Gaelic name _Moddan_ may be connected -with the Irish _O’Madadhain_. This man’s family of daughters was a -disgrace even to the morals of the twelfth century. After earl Hákon’s -death, Helga, aided by her sister Frakök, attempted to murder her -step-son, earl Páll, by means of a bewitched garment, white as snow, -_línklœði hvitt sem fönn_, which they had sewn and embroidered with -gold, but which her own jealous son donned and paid the penalty. Earl -Páll, who naturally deemed that this precious article, _gersemi_, had -been intended for him, promptly cleared them, and their family and -dependents, _skulda-lið_, out of the islands. - -It was the opinion of earl Rögnvaldr that Frakök was an old hag who -would not do anybody good, _kerling er til einkis er fær_. She was -burnt alive in her house by Sveinn Ásleifarson, for having instigated -her grandson Ölver rósta to burn Svein’s father in his house. -Moddan’s carlines and their offspring wormed themselves into Orkney -society. Frakök (a Gaelic name?) married Ljótr níðingr (the dastard) -of Sutherland, and their daughter married Þorljótr of Rekavík (in -Orkney). Another daughter married Þorsteinn fjaranz-muðr (dreadful -mouth). Þorleif Moddansdöttir was the mother of Auðhildr, the frilla -of Sigurðr slembi-djákn (the slim or tricky deacon), by whom he had an -illegitimate daughter, who married Hákon kló. Sigurðr himself, was the -illegitimate son of a priest, Aðalbrigð. When he and Frakök came to -Orkney a great faction, _sveitar-dráttr mikill_, took place. He took -part in the slaughter of Þorkell fóstri, a man much beloved in Orkney, -for which the deacon was promptly deported as an undesirable alien. As -the pretended son of king Magnús berfœttr, he, however, met a terrible -death with remarkable fortitude. Earl Hákon’s children were: earls -Haraldr slétt-máli (smooth-speaking) and Páll úmálgi (the silent), -Margrét, who married Maddadh, the Gaelic earl of Atholl, and Ingibjörg, -who married Ólafr bitlingr (the morsel), king of Suðreyjar. - -Earl St. Magnús Erlendsson, 1108-1116, was the son of earl Erlendr -Þorfinnsson and Þóra Sumarliðadóttir. In descent, 51/64 Norse 13/64 -Gael. In personal appearance he was, great of growth, _mikill at -vexti_; manly, _drengiligr_; intellectual in appearance, _skýligr -at yfirlitum_. The saga is voluminous in a description of his -good qualities, etc., _e.g._, he was a most noble man, _ágætastr_; -of good morals in life, _siðgóðr í háttum_; fortunate in battle, -_sigrsæll í orrostum_; a sage in wit, _spekingr at viti_; eloquent -and high-spirited and generous, _málsnjallr ok ríklundaðr_; liberal -of wealth and magnanimous, _örr af fé ok stórlyndr_; wise in counsel -and more beloved than any other man, _ráðsvinnr ok hverjum manni -vinsælli_; gentle and of good speech, with kind and good men, _blíðr -ok góðr viðmælis við spaka menn ok góða_; hard and unforbearing with -robbers and víkingar, _harðr, ok úeirinn við ránsmenn ok víkinga_; -he let murderers and thieves be taken and punished, high and low, -for robbery and theft and all bad deeds, _lét hann taka morðingja ok -þjófa, ok refsaði svá ríkum sem úríkum rán ok þyfsku ok öll úknytti_; -impartial in judgment, _eigi vinhallr í dómum_; he valued godly -justice, _guðligan rétt_, more than rank, _mann-virðingar_; munificent, -_stórgjöfull_, with _höfðingjar ok ríkis-menn_; but ever showed great -solicitude and comfort, _huggan_, for poor men, _fátækir menn_. -Along with his cousin, earl Hákon, he burnt a Shetlander, Þorbjörn í -Borgarfirði, in his house, and they slew their cousin Dufnjáll, without -any reason being assigned in either case. - -St. Magnús, as a youth, accompanied king Magnús on his expedition in -1098, but refused to fight, because he said he had no quarrel against -any man there, and he took a psalter, _saltari_, and sung during the -battle. He married an unknown Scotswoman of noble family, he had no -children, and was murdered by his cousin, earl Hákon, on April 16th, -798 years ago. - -Earl Rögnvaldr Kali hinn helgi, 1136-1158, was the son of Gunnhildr, -earl Erlends dóttir and Kolr Kalason, a Norwegian, and thus 115/128 -Norse and 13/128 Gael in descent. He is described as a most promising -man, _efniligasti maðr_; of average growth, _meðal-maðr á vöxt_; -well set, _kominn vel á sik_; best limbed man, _limaðr manna bezt_; -light chestnut hair, _ljósjarpr á hár_; a most accomplished man, -_atgervi-maðr_. He numbered nine accomplishments, _iþróttir_, viz., -_tafl_, chess, _rúnar_, runes, _bók_, book (reading and writing), -_smíð_, smith work, _skríða_, _á skíðum_, sliding on snow-shoes, -_róðr_, rowing, _hörpu-sláttr_, harp-playing, _brag-þáttr_, -versification, to which may be added a tenth, _sund_, swimming, as he -frequently _lagðist yfir vatnit_, in dangerous places. The king gave -him the name of earl Rögnvaldr Brúsason, because his mother said that -he had been the most accomplished, _görviligasti_, of all the earls of -Orkney, and that was thought to bring good luck, _heilla-vænligr_. - -In 1134, he plotted with his disreputable Gaelic relative, Ölver rósta, -to oust earl Páll, but was not successful. Like a good víkingr he was -slain in 1158, and was briefly described as _íþrótta-maðr mikill ok -skáld gott_, a very accomplished man and a good skáld. - -The name and race of his wife are unknown. He had a daughter, Ingigerð, -who married Eiríkr stagbrellr, in Sutherland (a grandson of one of -Moddan’s carlines, and whose mother had been the frilla of the slim -deacon), and their children were, earl Haraldr ungi, who was slain -in 1198, Magnús mangi (nobody; _Mangi_ is also a contracted form of -_Magnús_, which is sometimes spelt _Mangus_ in Orkney documents), -Rögnvaldr, Ingibiörg, Elin, and Ragnhildr. - -Margrét, daughter of earl Hákon Pálsson and Helga Moddansdóttir, was -51/128 Norse, 77/128 Gael, and is described as _fríð kona ok svarri -mikill_, a beautiful woman and very proud. She married Maddadh, the -Gaelic earl of Atholl, as his second wife, and was the mother of -Haraldr Maddaðarson, who became earl of Orkney. After her husband’s -death she returned to Orkney and had an illegitimate son by Gunni, -Svein’s brother, for which he was outlawed. After that she eloped with -Erlendr ungi, of whom nothing is known.[3] - -[3] He has been unaccountably confused with earl Erlendr, who would -thus have run off with his own aunt. - - -THE GAELIC EARLS. - -Earl Haraldr Maddaðarson, 1139-1206, was the son of Margrét -Hákons-dóttir and Maddadh, Gaelic earl of Athole (Gaelic, _maddadh_, -a dog), and was 51/256 Norse, 205/256 Gael. When about twenty years -of age, he was _mikill maðr vexti ok sterkr, ljótr maðr ok vel vitr_, -a big man in growth and strong, an ugly man and well-witted. He was a -_mikill höfðingi_, great chief; _manna mestr ok sterkastr_, the tallest -and strongest of men; _ódæll ok skap-harðr_, overbearing and harsh. - -He was twice married, viz., (1) Afreka, daughter of Duncan, Gaelic earl -of Fife, whom he repudiated, and (2) Hvarflöð (Gaelic, _Gormflaith_), -daughter of Malcolm, earl of Morhæfi (Moray). The names of the children -of the first were, Heinrekr (Henry), Hákon, Helena, Margrét, and by -the second, Þorfinnr, Davið, Jón, Gunnhildr, Herborg, and Langlíf. He -allowed a rebellion, against king Sverrir, to be hatched in Orkney, for -which he had Shetland taken from him in 1194, when it was placed under -the government of Norway,[4] and was not restored to the earls till -1379. - -[4] Fb. - -Here the _Orkneyinga Saga_ ends, and information about the succeeding -earls is derived from documents few and far between. - -Earl Haraldr Maddaðarson was succeeded by his sons, earls Davið -Haraldsson, d.s.p. 1214, and Jón Haraldsson, slain, 1231, the latter -having been predeceased by his son, Haraldr Jónsson, who was drowned in -1226.[5] Earl Jón Haraldsson was succeeded by Malcolm, the Gaelic earl -of Angus, from whom the title was transferred to his kinsman (uncle or -cousin), earl Magnús, who was succeeded by his son or brother, earl -Gilbert (Gaelic, _Gilleabart_), who was succeeded by his son, earl -Magnús Gilbertsson, who was succeeded by his sons, earls Magnús and -John and another earl Magnús, after which the earldom passed to Malise, -(Gaelic, _Maoliosa_), Gaelic earl of Strathearn, through his great -grandmother, a daughter of earl Gilbert. After Malise, the earldom, -after an interregnum, passed to his daughter’s son, Henry St. Clair, -in whom the earldom was vested in 1379. His grandson, earl William, -after the wadset of Orkney and Shetland to Scotland in 1468-9, resigned -his right to the earldom to the crown of Scotland in 1472, when it was -annexed to the crown as a royal title.[6] - -[5] Isl. Annals. - -[6] _Scots Peerage._ - - -THE GŒÐINGAR: EARL’S MEN. - -The suggestion of Vigfússon in the Oxford _Dictionary_ that -the _gœðingar_ of the earls of Orkney were synonymous with the -_lendir-menn_ of the kings of Norway can be amply proved by the Saga. -One explicit instance gives a clue to the whole mystery, viz., that of -Kúgi, a gœðingr (of earl Páll), whom we find living in Hreppisnes, now -Rapnes, in Westrey. The bú of Rapnes, Swartmeill, and Wasbuster, were, -in 1503, described as _boardlands_ or _borlands_ of the old earldom, -paying no skattr. _Bordland_ or _borland_ is a Scottish loanword, -meaning, “land kept for the board of the laird’s house.”[7] The Oxford -_New English Dictionary_ states that the form _bordland_ is first found -in Bracton, c. 1250, by whom it is wrongly derived from _bord_, a -table, whereas it is from M. Lat. _borda_, a hut, cot, and was applied -to land held in _bordage_ tenure by a _bordar_, a villein of the lowest -rank, a cottier. The Gaelic _bòrlum_, royal castle lands, _borlanachd_, -compulsory labour for a landlord, must also come from the same source. - -[7] _Scottish Land-Names_, by sir Herbert Maxwell, bt., 123, Macbain’s -_G. Dict._, s.v. _bòrlum_. - -_Boardland_ in Orkney is, therefore, a translation of Old Norse -_veizlu-jörð_, land granted in fief for military service and for the -entertainment of the superior when on circuit. In accordance with the -_Hirðskrá_ of king Magnús Hákonsson, the earl, while prohibited from -disposing of the earldom lands, was permitted to grant earldom lands -_at veita_ or _at veizlu_, _i.e._, in return for military service and -entertainment. It seems certain that the same privilege was allowed by -the older _Hirðskrá_, which is now lost. - -To return to Kúgi, he had the _upp-kvöð or útboð_, the calling out -of the levy, of ships and men, _leiðangr_, in Westrey. As he was the -instigator, _upphafsmaðr_, of a secret þing, _laun-þing_, in Westrey, -he probably acted as the representative of the earl in the district -assembly, _héraðs þing_. The localities of the other gœðingar support -the above conclusion. - -Þorkell flatr was also in Westrey; Þorsteinn Hávarðarson Gunnason had -the calling out of the levy in Rinansey, and his brother Magnús that -of the adjoining island, Sandey, where there were the boardlands of -Brugh, Halkisnes, Tofts, Lopnes and Tresnes; Valþjófr Ólafsson was -in Stronsey, where there were skatt-fré lands; Sigurðr á Vestnesi in -Rousey, where part of Westnes was old earldom land; and this leads -to the conclusion that the gœðingar also held skatt-land as well as -skatt-fré land of the earldom _at veita_; Jón vængr abode in Háey, -where there is boardland. The earls also gave gifts, _veita gjafir_, to -their friends, the gœðingar. - -_Gœði_ means, among other things, profits, emoluments, etc. It seems -certain that the _gœði_ in Caithness, which the king of Scotland -restored to Sveinn Ásleifarson, in 1152, were the _gœði_ of the -earldom, which he had formerly held as gœðingr. - -The gœðingar of Orkney (and Shetland?) were thus the feoffees of -the earl of Orkney, from whom they received grants of earldom land, -_veizlu-jörð_, _at veita_ or _at veizlu_, in consideration of military -service and the entertainment of the earl, when on circuit. As the -feoffees of the earl’s _gœði_, or emoluments, they received the name of -_gœðingar_, corresponding to the _lendir-menn_, landed men, of Norway, -who were so-called because they held land or emoluments from the king -for similar duties. A distinction in nomenclature had to be drawn -between the king’s and the earl’s feoffees. - -As was to be expected, some of the gœðingar were related to the -earls--remunerative government offices were then, as now, conferred -on the relatives and favourites of the rulers. Their military service -included the _upp-kvöð or útboð_, calling out of the _leiðangr_, levy, -the superintendence of the _vitar_, beacons, etc. - -Their civil functions probably included attendance at the local -assembly, _héraðs Þing_, the nomination of delegates, _lögréttumenn_, -to the jury, _lögrétta_, of the law-thing, and generally the -representation of the executive in their respective districts. - -As the callers out of the levy of ships and men, the gœðingar were -necessarily located at strategical points, with easy access to the sea -and in close touch with the beacons. - -Mr. J. Storer Clouston has suggested with regard to the Orkney -place-name, _Clouston_, older forms, _Cloustath_ and _Clouchstath_, -which probably represent an original *_kló-staðr_, claw-stead, that -_kló_ is “the original proprietor’s name--possibly Hákon kló of the -Saga.”[8] - -[8] _Sandey Church History_, by Rev. Alex. Goodfellow, Kirkwall, 1912, -p. 78. - -Now Hákon kló, who flourished _circa_ 1150, was a gœðingr, and was -presumably connected with the islands of Sandey and Rinansey, over -which his brothers were gœðingar, and there is no historical or -traditional evidence associating him or his family with Clouston, in -any way. - -Dr. Jakob Jakobsen has pointed out that _kló_, f., a claw, denotes, in -Norse place-names, something projecting, curved or pointed. It occurs -in a large number of place-names in Shetland, including an identical -name to that in Orkney, viz., Klusta, *_Kló-staðr_, _-staðir_, a -district situated on a headland between two bights. Now the bú, or -principal farm, of Clouston, from which the whole township takes its -name, is also situated on a ness; and directly opposite to the house is -a claw-formed or curved tongue of land which projects into the Loch of -Stennes, which leaves no possibility of a doubt as to the true origin -of the name. - -With regard to nicknames, those which are person forenames in -themselves, such as _brúsi_, buck, and personifications such as -_hlaupandi_, landlouper, etc., are used in place-name formation; while -nicknames which merely point to an eccentricity in personal detail and -are attached to forenames, such as _kló_, finger-nail, _flat-nefr_, -flat nose, _rang-beinn_, _-eygr_, _-muðr_, wry-legged, squint-eyed, -wry-mouth, etc., do not lend themselves for place-names, _quasi_, -“flat-nose’s farm.” But even if such nicknames were detached from -their forenames and applied to places, they would be in the genitive -case, _e.g._, if Hákon kló had been known as kló (of which there is -no evidence) then his farm would have been called *_Klóar-staðr_, -Claw’s farm, not *_kló-staðr_, claw-farm, which could only point to -a claw-formation in the place, such as we actually find in Clouston -itself, and hence the name. - -Circumstantial evidence is against Hákon kló, a gœðingr, with the -_uppkvöð_ of the _leiðangr_, levy of ships and men, being landlocked -in one of the very few inland townships in Orkney, situated from two -to three miles from the nearest easy landing place. Earl Haraldr -Maddaðarson in going from Grímsey to Fjörðr (Firth) by way of (Clouston -and) Orkahaugr (Maes-howe), chose Hafnarvágr (Stromness harbour) as his -landing place, and the same choice would be made now. - -The nearest coast to Clouston is that of Ireland, which is quite -unsuited for shipping, owing to its exposed position, shallow water, -extensive beach at low water--a place to be avoided by sea-going craft. -Moreover, it has been shown that the gœðingar were in the occupation -of earldom lands, of which there were absolutely not a penn’orth in -Stennes, and next to none in the adjoining inland parish of Hara. -This lack of earldom land in these inland districts, corroborates -the supposition (p. xx), viz., that the earldom estate was formed of -the confiscated estates of the leading víkingar of 872, which would -naturally be situated on the seaboard with easy landing places, which -is a characteristic of the earldom estate; while the two inland and -inaccessible districts of Stennes and Hara are remarkable for their -wealth of Pictish remains and dearth of earldom lands. - -The last notice we have of the gœðingar is in 1232, when a shipload -of them, _gœðinga-skip_, were drowned. Possibly the eighteen men of -Haraldr Jónsson, son of earl Jón Haraldsson, who were drowned, along -with him, on June 15th, 1226, were also gœðingar.[9] - -[9] Isl. Annals. - - -INDIVIDUALS AND FAMILIES. - -In 1106, Dufnjáll (Gaelic, _Domhnall_, Donald), son of earl Dungaðr -(Gaelic, _Donnchadh_, Duncan) was a first cousin once removed on the -father’s side, _firnari en bræðrungr_, of earls Hákon and Magnús, -by whom he was slain. Dufnjáll’s grandfather must have been an -illegitimate son of earl Þorfinnr hinn ríki, who lived mostly in -Caithness, and was almost a pure Gael. - -In 1159, Jómarr, a kinsman of earl Rögnvaldr, is mentioned in -Caithness, and his name may be the Norse form of some Gaelic name. - -In 1116, Gilli (Gaelic, _gille_, servant) was a _dugandi-maðr_, a -doughty or good man, with St. Magnús, and probably a relative of the -earl’s Gaelic wife. - -Kúgi (G., Cogadh), 1128-1137, was a wealthy bóndi and a gœðingr of earl -Páll, and lived in Hreppisnes, now Rapnes, in Westrey, which he would -have held as _veizlu-jörð_. Nothing is told of his family or relations. -He is described as a _vitr_, wise man, and had the _uppkvöð_, calling -out of the levy, in Westrey. As a schemer himself, he smelt a rat -when the invading earl Rögnvaldr played a clever trick in getting the -Fair Isle beacon lit; and his pawky _eyrendi_, speech, thwarted the -internecine complications which that deed was designed to arouse. Earl -Rögnvaldr, however, unexpectedly, landed in Westrey, whereupon the -_eyjarskeggjar_, the “island beards,” _hljópu saman_, louped together, -to get Kúgi’s _ráð_, advice, which was that they should at once get -_grið_, peace, from the earl; and he and the Vestreyingar submitted to -the earl and swore oaths to him. One night, however, the earl’s men -caught Kúgi napping at a secret meeting for _svíkræði_, treachery, -against the earl. He was promptly put _í fjötra_, in fetters. When -the earl arrived on the scene, Kúgi fell at his feet and _bauð_, -offered or left, all his case in God’s hands and the earl’s. He then -tried to shift the blame on to others, and asserted that he had been -brought to the þing, _nauðigr_, unwilling, and that all the bœndr had -wanted him to be the _upphafsmaðr_, instigator, of the _ráð_, plot. -The Saga states that Kúgi pleaded his own cause _orðfærliga_, with -great elocution or glibly. Fortunately for Kúgi’s life, the humour of -the situation tickled the earl’s poetic fancy to such a degree that -he could not resist the temptation of letting off steam in one of his -habitual improvisations, stuffed with scathing ridicule; a lasting -punishment, more severe than the decapitation, or sound drubbing, -which the object of his poetic flight so richly deserved. - -The earl referred to the fettered man before him as a _kveld-förlestr -karl_, a night-journey-hampered carl or old duffer, and advised him, -in future, never to hold _nátt-þing_, night meetings--which Vigfússon -says were not considered proper. The earl, further, admonished him that -it was needful to keep one’s oath and covenant. _Grið_, peace, was -given to all, and they bound their fellowship anew. Exit Kúgi, of whom -nothing further is related, beyond the one line which is preserved of -_Kúga drápa_, in praise of Kúgi, and which runs: - - _Megin-hræddir ro menn við Kúga, meiri ertu hverjom þeira._[10] - All are afraid of Kúgi, thou outdoest them all. - -[10] _Skálda._ - -This can only have been intended as biting sarcasm. His name and -character indicate that he was a typical bad Gael of his class. - - -SVEINN GROUP. - -The next persons to be described are the family, relatives and -companions of Sveinn Ásleifarson. - -Ólafr Hrólfsson was a gœðingr of earl Páll, and owned Gareksey -(Gairsey) in Orkney, and another bú in Dungalsbœr á Katanesi. He was -a most masterful man, _mesta afarmenni_, and his wife, Ásleif, was -wise and of great family, _vitr ok ættstór_, and most imperious, _ok -hin mesta fyrir sér_. In 1135, Ólafr had a great suite, _sveit mikla_, -á Katanesi, which included his sons Sveinn and Gunni, and Ásbjörn -and Murgaðr, sons of his friend Grímr of Svíney. His wife also lived -in Caithness at this time. Their children were Valþjófr (an English -name), Sveinn, Gunni, all well-bred men, _vel-menntir_, and a daughter, -Ingigerðr. Ólafr had a brother Helgi, who lived Þingvöllr in Hrossey, -now Tingwall in Mainland of Orkney, where the þing was held. - -Sveinn Ólafsson, after his father’s burning, was called Ásleifarson, -after his mother. He married Ingirið Þorkelsdóttir, a kinswoman of earl -Haraldr Maddaðarson, and the widow of Andrés of Suðreyjar or Man. Their -children were, Ólafr, and Andrés, who married bishop Biarni’s sister, -Fríða, and was the father of Gunni, whose son, Andreas, was in Iceland -in 1235 (SS). Sveinn was a wise man and prophetic, _forspár_, about -many things, unfair and reckless, _újafnaðarmaðr ok úfyrirleitinn_. -When drinking with his karlar he took to speaking, _hann tók til orða_, -and rubbed his nose, _ok gneri nefit_, and remarked, “it is my thought” -about so and so, and then mentioned his foreboding, _hugboð_. - -As an illustration of Svein’s masterful unfairness may be mentioned his -expedition against Holdboði. He asked the earl for _lið_, assistance, -and got five ships, of which the captains were Þorbjörn klerkr (a -grandson of Frakök and a brother-in-law of Sveinn), Hafliði son -Þorkels flettis, Dufnjáll son Hávarðs Gunnasonar, Ríkgarðr (Richard) -Þorleifsson and Sveinn himself. However, Holdboði judiciously fled, -but they slew many men in Suðreyjar and plundered wide and burnt and -got much booty, _fé_. On their return, when they were to share their -_herfang_, war spoil, Sveinn said that they should all share equally -except himself, who should have a chief’s share, _höfðingja-hlutr_, -because, he said, he alone had led them, and the earl had given them -to him for help, _til liðs_, and he alone had a quarrel with the -Suðreyingar, and they none. Þorbjörn thought that he had worked as much -and had been as much a leader, _fyrirmaðr_, as Sveinn. They also wished -all the ship-captains, _skipstjórnar-menn_, to have equal shares, -_jafnir hlutir_. But Sveinn would have his own way, _vildi þó ráða_, -and he had more men in the Nes than they had. Þorbjörn complained to -earl Rögnvaldr about Sveinn robbing them of their shares, _göra hlut -ræningja_. The earl said it was not the only time that Sveinn was an -unfair man, _engi jafnaðarmaðr_, and the day of retribution would -come for his wrong-doing, _ranglæti_. Although the earl made good -what Sveinn had cheated him of, Þorbjörn declared himself divorced -from Svein’s sister. The declaration made by him, _segir skilit við_, -corresponds with old Gulathinglaw, “ef maðr vill skiliast við kono sína -þa scal hann sva skilit segia at hvartveggia þeirra mege heyra mal -annars oc have við þat vatta.” The consequence of this was hostility, -_fjándskapr_, between them, which had its advantage, as it was now a -case of “Foruðin sjást bezt við”--the wrongdoer can best detect his -fellow. In contrast with the above is Svein’s sportsmanlike treatment -of earl Rögnvaldr. When earl Erlendr and Sveinn were at feud with earl -Rögnvaldr, on the latter’s return from his crusade, they captured his -ships and treasures. Sveinn claimed earl Rögnvald’s treasures as his -share of the spoil, which he promptly sent back to the earl. Being -a keen-sighted man, he probably anticipated that his drunken ally, -earl Erlendr, would ultimately be defeated by earl Rögnvaldr, whose -treasures from the Holy Land may have been curios and relics of no -great market value in the eyes of a víkingr. - -Sveinn is further described as of all men the sharpest-sighted, -_skygnastr_, and saw things which others could not see. It was the -opinion of Jón vængr, junior, that Sveinn was a truce breaker, -_grið-níðingr_, and was true to no man. When earl Haraldr advised -him to give up roving and twitted him with being an unfair man, -_újafnaðarmaðr_, Svein’s answer was _tu quoque_, and there the -discussion ended. The Saga sums him up as “mestr maðr fyrir sér í -Vestrlöndum,” the most masterful man in the West, both of old and now, -of those men who had no higher _tignar-nafn_, rank, than he. - -Of Svein’s relatives may be mentioned Eyvind Melbrigðason (Gael., -_Maelbrighde_, servant of St. Bride or Bridgit). He was one of the -_göfugir-menn_, great men, with earl Páll, and superintended the earl’s -famous _Jóla-boð mikit_, great Yule feast, at which Sveinn killed -Sveinn. - -Eyvind schemed to make his kinsman Sveinn Ásleifarson quarrel with his -namesake, Sveinn brjóstreip, and having succeeded in this, he then -plotted with Sveinn to kill Sveinn, and arranged an artful manœuvre, by -which the second Sveinn, before he died, killed his own relative, Jón, -the only other witness of the murder. Magnús Eyvindsson, by Eyvind’s -arrangement, took Sveinn by horse and boat to Damsey, where Blánn -sheltered him, and took him afterwards secretly to the bishop. Blánn -(Gael., _flann_, red), took charge of the castle in Damsey. His father, -Þorsteinn of Flyðrunes, his brother Ásbjörn krók-auga (squint-eye), and -himself were all _údœlir_, overbearing, men. - -Jón vængr, senior, a relative of Sveinn, abode in Háey á upplandi. -He was a gœðingr. His brother Ríkarðr (Richard), abode in Brekka í -Strjonsey; they were notable men, _gildir-menn_. They burned Þorkell -flatr, a gœðingr, in the house which their kinsman, Valþjófr, had -owned. The earl had given Þorkell the house for finding out where -Sveinn (the brother of Valþjófr) had fled to, after the murder for -which he had been outlawed. - -Jón vængr, junior, was a systur-son of Jón vængr, senior, and became -earl Harald’s _ármaðr_, or steward. He had two brothers, Blánn (Gaelic, -_Flann_) and Bunu-, or Hvínu-Pétr; (_buna_, a purling stream, and -_hvína_, to whistle or whine). These two were ignominiously disgraced -by Sveinn in a mock execution, to shame their brother Jón, who had -given Sveinn a bad character. - -Of Svein’s companions may be mentioned Grímr, in Svíney, a _félitill_, -poor, man, and his Sons Asbjörn and Murgaðr (Gael., _Murchadh_, -Murdock). Sveinn, who was sýslumaðr for the earl in Caithness, on one -occasion, in his absence, deputed his office to Murgaðr, who turned -out _sakgæfinn_, quarrelsome, and _áleitinn_, provocative, and was -_úvinsæll_, unpopular, for his _újafnaðr_, tyranny. Along with Sveinn, -he did much _úspektir_, uproars, _í ránum_, in plunder, in Katanes. - -As has already been mentioned, Ólafr Svein’s father was burnt in his -house in Caithness at the instigation of the hag, Frakök, whom Sveinn, -in turn, burnt in her house. - -Svein’s father had estates both in Orkney and Caithness, and as he -resided in Caithness, where he had the _yfirsókn_, the stewardship, -of the earldom, and where Sveinn was afterwards sýslumaðr, the family -appears to have been a Caithness one, and the Caithness Clan Gunn claim -to be descended from Gunni Sveinsson. This, taken in conjunction with -the personal characteristics and the numerous Gaelic names of members -of the family, relations and friends, makes it probable that these -families were all of Gaelic descent in the male line. - -Sveinn brjóstreip, _circa_ 1136, had a kinsman Jón, of whose family -nothing more is known. He was a hirðmaðr of earl Páll, by whom he was -well esteemed, _metinn vel af honum_. He spent the summer in víking -and the winter with the earl. He was a _mikill_ man and _sterkr_, -strong, _svartr_, of dark complexion, and rather evil-looking, -_úhamingju-samligr_, he was a great wizard, _forn mjök_, and had -always sat out at night (as a wizard), _úti setið_, in order to raise -_troll_, ghosts, which, in accordance with Old Gulathinglaw, was -_úbótaverk_, an unfinable crime punished by outlawry. He was one of -the earl’s forecastle men, _stafnbúi_, and was the foremost of all the -earl’s men in battle, and fought bravely, _barðist all-hraustliga_. -Sveinn preferred “sitting out” to attending midnight mass on Yule. -The bishop hailed his slaughter as a cleansing of the land of -miscreants, _land-hreinsan_. It was the opinion of Ragna of Rinansey, -that the earl had little scathe in Sveinn, even though he were a great -warrior or bravo, _garpr mikill_, and that the earl had suffered much -unpopularity, _úvinsældir miklar_, through him. - -There can be little doubt as to the race of the swarthy wizard Sveinn, -notwithstanding his Norse name. With him compare the Icelandic-named -Gaelic witch, Þórgunna, in _Eyrbyggja Saga_. - -Hávarðr Gunnason, _circa_ 1090, was a gœðingr, who married Bergljót, -daughter of Ragnhildr, daughter of earl Páll. Their children were -Magnús, Hákon kló, Dufnjáll (Gael., _Domhnall_, Donald) and Þorsteinn. -Hávarðr was on board earl Hákon’s ship, on the way to the last meeting -with earl St. Magnús; and when he was informed that Magnús was to be -killed, he jumped overboard and swam to a desert isle, rather than be -party to the martyrdom. - -Dufnjáll Hávarðsson and one Ríkarðr (Richard), were worst in their -counsel against Sveinn, when he was in trouble with the earl about -Murgað’s goings on. His brother, Hákon kló, married the illegitimate -daughter of Sigurðr slembidjákn, by a daughter of one of Moddan’s -carlines. The names Gunni and Dufnjáll appear to point to the Caithness -origin of this family, as well as does the Caithness marriage of Hákon -kló. - -Þorljótr í Rekavík, 1116-26, married Steinvör digra, (the stout), -daughter of Frakök Moddansdóttir and Ljótr níðingr (the dastard), in -Suðrland. Their son was Ölvir rósta (the unruly); a great and powerful -man, _manna mestr ok ramr at afli_, turbulent, _uppivöðslumaðr mikill_, -and a great manslayer, _vígamaðr mikill_. He, at the instigation of -his grandmother, Frakök, burnt Ólafr, Svein’s father, in his house. -Their other children were Magnús, Ormr, Moddan (Gaelic), Eindriði, and -a daughter, Auðhildr. The whole of this nest left Orkney with Frakök, -in her repatriation, under whose evil influence they were reared. - -Notices of Shetland, in the Saga, are to all intents and purposes -nil. We find among the Shetlanders who were taken to be healed at St. -Magnús’ shrine two bœndr, viz., Þorbjörn, son of Gyrð (O.E. Gurth), -and Sigurðr Tandarson, who abode in Dalr, in north Shetland, and who -was _djöful-óðr_ or _ærr_, possessed or mad. Tandr, or Taðkr, is -E.Ir. _Tadg_, and the Shetland Tandarson = Gaelic _M’Caog_, Ir., _Mac -Taidhg_, MacCaig, son of Teague. - -The Irish Gaels, who settled in Iceland in the ninth century, proved to -be desirable and enterprising colonists, the admixture of whose blood -helped to form the Icelandic genius in saga and song. They readily -adopted Icelandic patronymics and names, and gave up their Christianity -for the Norse religion. Their presence is commemorated there to this -day in Irish place-names and in the continued use of Irish person-names. - -The Scottish Gaels who settled in Orkney were, in accordance with the -Saga, in some cases undesirable adventurers, of evil reputation, loose -habits, glib, mischief-makers, oath-breakers, witches and wizards. -They do not appear to have endowed their offspring with traits other -than their own, combined with a personal appearance which is usually -described as unattractive. - -Gaelic names of residents in Orkney first make their appearance in -the late eleventh century in the family of Hávarðr Gunnason, who was -probably a Caithness Gael. - -The differentiation between the Norwegians and the mixed Gaelic-Norse -race in Orkney, is unmistakably brought into prominence in the middle -of the twelfth century, when the Norwegian contingent of the famous -crusade, which wintered in Orkney, got on so ill with the islanders -that it resulted in murder and bloodshed about love and mercantile -affairs. - -The earls who were of Gaelic descent in the female line, while -exhibiting Gaelic features, were also good rulers and great warriors, -whose exploits provided good copy for the _Orkneyinga-Saga_, which was -probably written down by Icelanders. The Gaelic admixture of blood in -Orkney does not appear to have produced any literary or poetic talent -such as it did in Iceland. - -As mentioned in a previous paper,[11] the _Orkneyinga saga_ consists -of only two complete sagas, viz. (1) _Jarlasögur_, earls’ sagas, the -history of earl Þorfinnr hinn ríki and his joint earls--his brothers, -and his nephew, Rögnvaldr Brúsason, 1014-1064, and (2) _Rögnvalds saga -hins helga_, the story of earl St. Rögnvaldr, 1136-1158, brought down -to the death of Sveinn Ásleifarson, 1171. The first of these sagas is -prefaced with a summary of the sagas of the preceding earls, 872-1014, -of which none have been preserved, while the second is prefaced with a -summary of the sagas of the earls, 1064-1136, the period between the -first and the second sagas, of which we have preserved St. Magnús’s -saga, 1108-1116. The saga of earl Haraldr Maddaðarson, 1139-1206, is -partly preserved in the second saga, and in _Flateyjarbók_. - -[11] _Saga-Book_, 1914. - -As regards Orkney poets, earl Torf-Einarr, the skáld, was a Norwegian -by birth and family, with a thrall mother, probably Finnish, from -which admixture of Norse and dark races he probably derived his ugly -appearance and poetic genius. - -Earl St. Rögnvaldr, the skáld, was also a Norwegian by birth, and -the son of a Norwegian father, while his mother was an Orkney woman -of Gaelic extraction. Bishop Biarni, the skáld, was the only Orkney -born poet, but his father was also a Norwegian, and his mother an -Orkney woman of Gaelic extraction. It is just possible that these two -last-named skálds derived their poetic inspiration from just the right -dash of Gaelic descent. - -All the other poets, whose compositions are recorded in the saga, were -Icelanders: Arnórr Jarlaskáld, Hallr, etc. It goes without saying that -Orcadians and Shetlanders must have been, like their fellow Norsemen of -the period, improvisers, whose verses, although referred to, have not -been preserved. - -There were only two Orkney saints, viz., earls Magnús and Rögnvaldr, -the one was martyred and the other assassinated, and both of them had -very little Gaelic blood. - -It is a question whether Orkney and Shetland, with their Christian -Picts and heathen Norse, in the seventh, eighth and ninth centuries, -were the birth-place of some of the Edda lays; and whether any of these -lays were current there, as oral tradition, and taken down in writing -in the twelfth century by earl St. Rögnvaldr and his Icelandic skálds. -The solitary preservation and use of many Edda poetic words in Shetland -is significant. The first notices we have of writing in the saga are in -1116, when Kali Kolsson, afterwards (1136), earl Rögnvaldr Kali, in a -verse, numbered among his accomplishments, _bók_, reading and writing, -and, in 1152, when earl Erlendr produced king Eysteinn’s _bréf_, -letter, at the þing in Kirkjuvágr. - -With regard to person-names, it will have been noted that the Norse -earls in the male line, although half Gaels, always gave their children -Norse names, while the Gaelic earls, who were only of slight Norse -descent, gave their children Norse, Gaelic and English names. So that -the gœðingar and other leading families of the late eleventh and early -twelfth centuries, who also gave their children Norse, Gaelic and -English names, were therefore probably, like the Gaelic earls, also of -Gaelic descent in the male line. This is also in accordance with the -known practice of other Gaelic settlers in Iceland, etc. - -The non-Norse characteristics of persons of Gaelic descent are most -pronounced--black hair, swarthy complexion, quarrelsome, given to -witchcraft, pawky and glib, oath-breakers, etc., which perhaps point -to the Iberian element rather than to the true Gael; and that in -comparison with the Norse--fair-haired, accomplished and well-bred, -generous, makers of hard bargains, which they, however, kept, true to -their word, etc. - -It must be remembered that these comparative characteristics are the -observations of the Norsemen themselves, who wrote the saga, probably -Icelanders, and therefore, presumably, exaggerated in their own favour. -They are valuable, however, in placing beyond doubt the large strain of -non-Norse people who lived in Orkney. - -It has been shown that the Gaelic earls, 1139-1350, adopted Norse -patronymics, and that all persons in Orkney and Shetland before 1350 -used Norse patronymics, including the numerous Gaelic families, which -must have settled in the islands. There was no other alternative, -just as it was, conversely, the case in the Hebrides, where the Gaels -predominated, and where their language prevailed, and was adopted by -the Norsemen. Here the Norse _Goðormsson_ became Gaelic _M’Codrum_, -_Þorketilsson_: _M’Corcodail_, _Ivarsson_: _M’Iamhair_, etc., etc. -Compare also the case in Ireland. - -Gaelic names in Orkney and Shetland in their Norse form have already -been dealt with. - -The blending of Norse and Gael in the Hebrides does not appear to have -been more successful than in Orkney, since we find, in 1139, that earl -Rögnvaldr said that most Suðreyingar were untrue, and even Sveinn -Ásleifarson put little faith in them. - -The use of Norse names and patronymics by the leading Gaels in -Caithness, who are alone mentioned in the Saga, is accounted for by the -fashion set by their Norse earls, as well as through the influence of -Norse marriages. While the leading people must have been bilingual, -speaking Norse (the court language), and Gaelic, the _almúgi_, or -common people, appear to have maintained their native Gaelic. This is -indicated in two striking instances in the Saga. In 1158, earls Haraldr -and Rögnvaldr went from Þórs-á up Þórs-dalr and took _gisting_, night -quarters, at some _erg_, which “we call _setr_.” The local Gaelic name -of such a shieling was _àiridh_, E. Ir. _airge_, _áirge_. In 1152, earl -Haraldr, who was living at Víkr, dispersed his men _á veizlur_, _i.e._, -quartered them on various houses, in accordance with the obligations -of the householders, during Páskar, Easter; then the Katnesingar said -that the earl was on _kunn-mið_. Vigfússon suggested that this word was -some corrupt form of a local name; Dasent translated it “visitations,” -and Goudie “guest-quarters,” which is correct, as _kunn-mið_ must be -Gaelic, _comaidh_, a messing, eating together, E. Ir. _commaid_; _cf._ -Gaelic _coinne_, _coinneamh_, a supper, a party, to which everyone -brings his own provisions, E. Ir. _coindem_, _cionmed_, quartering. In -both these cases the E. Ir. spelling comes nearer to the Norse than the -Scottish Gaelic does, and corresponds to the Scottish Gaelic of the -twelfth century. - -The fact that the earl had the right to quarter his men in Orkney and -Shetland, is preserved in the tax, _wattle_ < _veizla_, which was paid -in lieu of actual entertainment. This tax continues to be paid to this -day. - -“The Inhabitants of Orkney and Shetland after 1350,” will be the -subject of a future paper; meanwhile it may be emphasised that the -Gaelic earls of Orkney failed in the male line before the Scots began -to assume permanent surnames. The Gaelic earls were succeeded, in -the female line, by the Lowland-Norman family of St. Clair, bearing -a hereditary surname, about the time of whose arrival began the -Lowland-Scottish settlement of Orkney, to the influence of which must -be attributed the assumption of the Lowland Scottish language and the -adoption of place-surnames, and not fixed patronymics, in Orkney, by -the Norse-Gaelic inhabitants. Shetland, being far removed from the seat -of government and fashion, continued the use of patronymics until the -nineteenth century, when they became fixed. - -The great number of persons in Orkney and Shetland bearing the names -of Tulloch and Sinclair appears to indicate that the ancestors of some -of them may have been tenants of the bishopric and earldom who, in -accordance with Gaelic custom, assumed the names of their lords of that -ilk. The Tulloch bishops ruled, 1418-1477, and the Sinclair earls and -lessees, 1379-1542, the period during which patronymics were giving -place to hereditary surnames in Orkney. Tulloch and Sinclair may also -have been Christian names which became stereotyped as patronymics and -the “son” termination afterwards dropped, as in the case of Omondson, -> Omond. - -Shetlanders pride themselves in their geographic detachment from Orkney -with its Scottish people and customs, and claim to be regarded as purer -Norsemen as compared with the Scots of Orkney. Perhaps it is owing to -this qualified humdrum purity that the Shetlanders did not achieve any -deeds of sufficient interest to be recorded in the Saga. However, from -an anthropological point of view, the Pictish and small dark strain is -as much in evidence in Shetland as in Orkney, and perhaps more so. - -In the twelfth century even an ordinary Shetland _bóndi_, farmer, had -his thrall, and _manfrelsi_, giving a thrall his freedom, is mentioned -as an ordinary transaction. The thrall element must therefore have -formed a large proportion of the population, and intermarriage must -have taken place between the Norse and the thralls. We find the earls -had children by thralls, and intermarriage between the bœndr and -thralls, especially the freed thralls, must also have taken place. - -Persons of mixed racial descent are usually very loud in an exaggerated -appreciation of the heroic line of their ancestry, especially when it -is on the distaff side, usually coupled with an inverse depreciation -of the other ascent which is represented by an inappropriate and -inconvenient surname. - -There would be no necessity for a genuine Norse islander to crow -himself hoarse on his native rock; and, to do so, would indicate that -there were grave doubts as to the purity of his strain. - -Hitherto the Norse traditions of Orkney and Shetland have been solely -espoused by outlanders and by natives bearing surnames which leave no -doubt as to their foreign origin. - -The most voluminous history of Shetland was written by an English -tourist, Dr. Hibbert, afterwards Dr. Hibbert Ware. But then, the -English are noted for their greater interest in the history and -antiquities of countries other than their own, which may be accounted -for by the exceptional variety of races which they represent. - -But after all the land makes the man. If it had not been for these -northern islands there would have been no _Orkneyinga Saga_ with its -verses and narratives of stirring events. - -Dr. John Rae, first honorary president of this Society, was a Scottish -Gael born in Orkney (where his father had settled), an Orkneyman of -Orkneymen; and to his youthful training, experience in boating, and -his environment in these islands, he attributed his success in Arctic -exploration. - -And, moreover, it is well known that Orkney and Shetland supply the -British Navy and mercantile marine with a deal more than their due -share of personnel, and have given the British colonies a good supply -of useful pioneers and settlers. - - - - -Transcriber's Note - - -The following apparent errors have been corrected: - -p. 3 "_circa_," changed to "_circa_" - -p. 12 "slaugher" changed to "slaughter" - - -The following are inconsistently used in the text: - -Atholl and Athole - -Ingibiörg and Ingibjörg - -seaboard and sea-board - -sir and Sir - -slembidjákn and slembi-djákn - -Svein and Sveinn - -uppkvöð and upp-kvöð - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Orkney and Shetland Folk 872-1350, by -A. 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