diff options
Diffstat (limited to 'old/50236.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | old/50236.txt | 1958 |
1 files changed, 0 insertions, 1958 deletions
diff --git a/old/50236.txt b/old/50236.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 04eb949..0000000 --- a/old/50236.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1958 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The 'Look About You' Nature Study Books, -Book 2 (of 7), by Thomas W. Hoare - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The 'Look About You' Nature Study Books, Book 2 (of 7) - -Author: Thomas W. Hoare - -Release Date: October 16, 2015 [EBook #50236] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LOOK ABOUT YOU NATURE STUDY, VOL 2 *** - - - - -Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Stephen Hutcheson, and the -Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - [Illustration: The land is at rest] - - - - - The - "LOOK ABOUT YOU" - Nature Study Books - - - BOOK II. - - - BY - THOMAS W. HOARE - - TEACHER OF NATURE STUDY - to the Falkirk School Board and Stirlingshire County Council - - [Illustration: Publisher's Logo] - - LONDON: T. C. & E. C. JACK, Ltd. - 35 PATERNOSTER ROW, E.C. - AND EDINBURGH - - - - - PREFACE. - - -This little book should be used as a simple guide to the practical study -of Nature rather than as a mere reader. - -Every lesson herein set down has, during the author's many years' -experience in teaching Nature Study, been taught by observation and -practice again and again; and each time with satisfactory result. The -materials required for the lessons are within everybody's reach. - -There is nothing that appeals to the heart of the ordinary child like -_living things_, be they animal or vegetable, and there is no branch of -education at the present day that bears, in the young mind, such -excellent fruit as the study of the simple, living things around us. - -Your child is nothing if not curious. He wants to understand everything -that lives in his bright little world. - -Nature Study involves so many ingenious little deductions, that the -reasoning powers are almost constantly employed, and intelligence grows -proportionately. The child's powers of observation are stimulated, and -his memory is cultivated in the way most pleasing to his inquiring -nature. By drawing his specimens, no matter how roughly or rapidly, his -eye is trained more thoroughly than any amount of enforced copying of -stiff, uninteresting models of prisms, cones, etc., ever could train it. - -The love of flowers and animals is one of the most commendable traits in -the disposition of the wondering child, and ought to be encouraged above -all others. A few lessons on Nature Phenomena are added. - -It is the author's fondest and most sanguine hope that his little pupils -may study further the great book of Nature, whose broad pages are ever -open to us, and whose silent answers to our manifold questions are never -very difficult to read. - - T. W. H. - - - - - CONTENTS - - -LESSON PAGE - I. How Plants take Food from the Soil (1) 5 - II. How Plants take Food from the Soil (2) 13 - III. The Weasel and the Otter 20 - IV. Dwellers in the Corn Field 27 - V. Harvest Time 33 - VI. The Squirrel 40 - VII. How the Fire Burns 48 - VIII. The Fire-Balloon 55 - IX. The Gull 61 - X. Dew, Frost, Rain 68 - - - - - "LOOK ABOUT YOU." - BOOK II. - - - - - I.--HOW PLANTS TAKE FOOD FROM THE SOIL (1). - - -Uncle George had taught his little friends many things from what he -called the Book of Nature, and what they had learnt made them eager to -know more. - -One day as Dolly, the boys, and Uncle George were in the garden they saw -that a tulip, which the day before was in full bloom and strong, was now -lying dead on the ground. - -"Poor little tulip!" said Dolly. Both the boys were sorry too. They had -watched it come through the ground like a blade of grass, open out its -bud, and expand its bloom. Now all was over. The little flower would no -longer enjoy the bright sunshine or the rain. It would no longer send -forth its rootlets in search of the food it so much liked. - -"Have you ever thought, Dolly, how the tulip, and indeed all plants, -take their food from the soil?" asked Uncle George. - -"I know they _must_ feed in some way," said Dolly, "or they would not -grow. But I do not know how they do it." - -"Should you like to know, Dolly?" asked Uncle George. - -"Indeed I should," said the little girl. - -The boys were just as eager as Dolly to know about this, so Uncle George -and the children went indoors for a lesson. - -"I cannot tell you how plants take their food from the soil without -first of all showing you what happens when water and soil are mixed -together in a tumbler," said Uncle George. "Tom will fetch me a tumbler, -and you, Frank, bring me a little water." - -When these were brought, Uncle George put a spoonful of soil into the -tumbler, and then poured some water on it. - -"Stir it up, please, Dolly," said Uncle George, "and you may pretend you -are going to make a pudding." - -Dolly did so. - -"Now let us put it aside for a few minutes, while we place the flowers -we have gathered into the vases," said Uncle George. "Then we will look -at our tumbler of muddy water." - -How pretty the flowers were made to look! How fresh they were! and how -pleasant was their scent! The children hardly thought of the tumbler, -but Uncle George was ready now for the lesson. - - [Illustration: Glass of Mud and Water.] - -"Look! look, at the tumbler," said he. "Do you see a change?" - -"Indeed we do," said all the children in one voice. - -"The mud has sunk to the bottom of the glass," added Tom, "and the water -on the top is clear." - -Uncle George poured some of the clear water into a clean flat dish. Then -he took a spirit-lamp from a little cabinet, and heated the water in the -dish with it. - -The children watched to see what would happen. Soon a cloud was seen -over the dish, and by and by all the water had gone. - -"But what is that at the bottom of the dish?" asked Uncle George. - -"It looks like powder," said Frank. - -"And it must have been in the water all the time," added Tom. - - [Illustration: Evaporating Salt Water.] - -"And yet the water was clear," said Uncle George. "Look once more." - -As he spoke, Uncle George took a glass of clean water from the tap. He -put two large spoonfuls of salt in, and stirred it up. - -"You see," he said, "the salt has gone from sight. Still the water is -clear. Where has it gone?" - -"Into the water," said Tom. - -Uncle George put more salt in the water, and stirred it up. He kept on -doing this until the water would take up no more salt, no matter how -much it was stirred. This he called _brine_. - -"Now, Frank, please go and ask mother for a fresh egg," he said, "and -you, Tom, please bring me some fresh water in another glass." - - [Illustration: Egg floating in Salt Water.] - -Uncle George placed the egg in the glass in which the salt had been put, -and it floated in it. He then placed the egg in the glass of fresh -water, and it at once sank to the bottom. - -"Can you explain this!" he said. - -"The salt water is heavier and thicker than the fresh water. That is why -it bears up the egg," said Frank. - -"That is very good indeed, Frank. That is just the reason. The salt -water or brine is _denser_, or heavier, than the other." - -Uncle George next took a glass tube with a thistle-shaped bulb at the -end of it. Frank kept his finger on the small end, while his uncle -poured some of the brine into the bulb. He next tied a piece of bladder -skin over the bulb, and placed it in a glass of fresh water, so that the -salt water in the tube was at the same level as the fresh water in the -glass. - -Then he took two small glass bottles. He filled one with fresh water and -the other with brine, and tied a piece of bladder skin over the mouth of -each. The one which was filled with brine he placed in a larger dish of -fresh water. The other, that is the one filled with fresh water, he -placed in a dish of brine. - -"Now, children, we will go and have tea," he said, "and when we come -back we will see if any change has taken place." - -About an hour later Uncle George, Dolly, and the boys came back. - -"Oh," said Frank, "look, Uncle George! The water has risen up in the -thistle tube." - -"Yes, how do you account for that, Frank?" - -"Some of the fresh water has passed through the skin," Frank answered. - -"Now taste the water in the glass outside the skin," said Uncle George. -"It was fresh water when we put it in, wasn't it?" - -Frank did so. Tom tasted it too. Both boys declared that it was now -salt. - -"Where did the salt taste come from?" their uncle asked. - -"It must have come through the skin," said Tom. - -"Then some of the salt water in the thistle tube has passed through the -skin into the glass; and some of the fresh water in the glass has passed -through the skin into the thistle tube. Can you tell me any more?" - -Frank thought for a little while and then said, "Oh yes, more fresh -water than salt water has passed through the skin, because the salt -water is now far up the tube." - -"Quite right, my boy. Now let us look at the small bottles. The skin on -the one filled with brine is swollen out like a ball, while the water in -the dish tastes salt. The skin of the other is drawn far in, showing us -that much of the fresh water which it contained has passed out. If you -taste the water in this bottle, you will find that a very little of the -brine in the dish has passed into it through the skin. - -"Now what we learn from these things is really this--that when two -liquids, a heavy and a light one, are separated by a thin skin, they -_both_ pass through the skin. The heavy liquid passes through slowly, -and the light liquid passes through quickly." - -Uncle George then placed some small seeds on a piece of wet -blotting-paper. He turned a glass tumbler upside down, and placed it -over them. - -"We will leave these for a few days," he said. - - - Questions and Exercises. - - 1. Boil some river-water in a flat dish until all the water is gone. - Do the same with some sea-water, or, if this is not at hand, - make some brine. Examine the two dishes, and tell what you - see. - 2. Take a glass gas chimney, and tie a piece of bladder, or parchment, - over one end of it. Half fill it with sugar and water. Now - place it with its tied-up end bottommost in a tumbler of clear - cold water. After an hour or so taste the water in the - tumbler. What have you to say about it? - 3. What takes place when brine and clear water are separated from one - another by a piece of skin (parchment)? - - [Illustration: A Box of Mustard Seeds.] - - - - - II.--HOW PLANTS TAKE FOOD FROM THE SOIL (2). - - -A whole week went by before Uncle George was ready for the next lesson. - -At last he called the children and said to them--"Tom, will you please -fetch me the seeds which we put on the wet blotting-paper under the -tumbler? Frank, bring me two leafy branches from a rose-bush in the -garden; and, Dolly, please fetch two glasses from the kitchen." - -Now there was nothing the children liked better than to help their Uncle -George, and all three rushed off at once to do his bidding. - -While they were away Uncle George himself went into the garden, dug up -two young plants, and brought them to the children in the study. - - [Illustration: Sun-flower Plant in Water.] - -"Now, children," said Uncle George, "we are ready to begin our lesson. -Fill one of the glasses with water, Frank, and put one of your leafy -rose branches in each glass--one branch in water and the other in a dry -glass. Can you tell me what will happen to the branches?" - -The children had many times seen what had happened to flowers when the -maid had forgotten to put water in the vases, so that Tom readily said, -"Yes, the one in the dry glass will wither, while the one in the water -will keep fresh for some time." - -"How do you know that?" - -"Because it always happens, Uncle," said Frank. "Why, sometimes the -flowers we gather in the wood are faded before we get home. They often -come back to life when put in water." - -"You are quite right, Frank," Uncle George replied. "See, here are two -young sun-flower plants, which I brought in from the garden. I placed -one in water. The other I left lying on the table. The one on the table -is dead. What does this show us?" - - [Illustration: The Sun-flower, faded.] - -"That plants require water," said Tom. "That whenever you cut off their -water supply they die." - -"Quite right, Tom. We shall see by and by that plants are always giving -off a great deal of water to the air from their leaves.[1] Where do they -get this water from?" - -"It must be from the soil," said Frank. - -"It must be," said Uncle George. "If we keep a plant in a pot without -watering it, it soon dies. All the water it contains will by and by -travel up to the leaves. It passes out through tiny pores in the leaves -into the air. If no more water comes up from the soil, the plant withers -and dies. The roots of plants search the soil in all directions for -water. And in this water there is but little plant-food. We saw this -when we boiled away the clear water which covered the soil in the glass. - -"If we boil away some water from the tap, we shall find some solid -matter left behind in the dish. Thus we see that in order to get a -_small_ quantity of food, plants take up a _great_ quantity of water -from the soil. Most of the water is sent into the air from the leaves. -But the food stuff remains in the plant, just as it did in the dish. - -"Now I am going to show you how this water gets into the plant. Look at -these little seeds on the damp blotting-paper! - -"Each seed has a small plant with a long root, and small, stout green -leaves. Look at the roots and tell me what you see?" - -"They are covered with silky stuff," said Frank. - -"Yes. Now take this glass, which will make things look bigger than they -really are, and look at the roots once more." - -"The silky stuff is a number of fine hairs," said Frank. - - [Illustration: THE OTTER] - - [Illustration: FIELD-MICE] - -"That is quite right, Frank," said Uncle George. "These are the -_root-hairs_. Each of these hairs is a long bag or sac, of very thin -skin. It is filled with a liquid called _sap_, which is slightly denser, -or heavier, than the water in the blotting-paper. Now, do you see how a -plant takes food from the soil, when it is growing in the garden or in a -field?" - -"Yes, I think I do," said Frank. "The water in the soil contains very -little plant-food. The water inside the tiny sac contains very much." - -"And what have you to say, Tom?" - -"One of these liquids is denser than the other," said Tom. "Both are -separated by a thin skin. The lighter liquid outside the sac will pass -into it quickly, while the heavier liquid will pass out slowly." - -"Bravo! Tom!" said Uncle George. "I couldn't have given a better reply -myself. The water from the soil passes in quickly. The sap from the -inside of each root-hair passes out slowly. If they were both of the -same density, neither would pass through the skin. If the water in the -soil were the denser, then the sap would pass out so quickly that the -plant would soon be robbed of its water. - -"Here are two young plants, each growing in a small pot. I want you to -water them, Tom. Water one with salt and water (brine), the other with -tap-water." - -Tom did as he was asked. - - [Illustration: Plants watered with Fresh and Salt Water.] - -"See," said Uncle George, "the one which you watered with brine is -drooping. It is bending over the pot. That is because the water outside -its root-hairs is denser than that which is inside the plant." - -"How does the water get up from the roots to the leaves?" Frank asked. - -"Just in the same way as the oil travels up the wick of the lamp. Water -will always travel up through small spaces." - -Uncle George poured some red ink into a saucer, and dipped the corner of -a lump of sugar into it. The red ink ran up into the sugar until it was -red all over. Next he took a bundle of very small glass tubes, and -dipped the ends of them in the ink. The ink ran up the tubes, filling -them to the top. - -"Inside every plant," Uncle George went on, "there are thousands of long -tiny tubes, up which the water travels. In fact the _veins_ of a leaf -are just bundles of tubes, something like the bundle I hold in my hand." - - - Questions and Exercises. - - 1. Why do branches wither quickly when cut from the tree? How would - you keep them from withering quickly? - 2. Place two small panes of clean glass close together. Dip the corner - of them in coloured water, and watch what happens. - 3. Why do we never see the silky _root-hairs_ when we dig or pull a - plant out of the ground? - - - - - III.--THE WEASEL AND THE OTTER. - - -It was Frank who wanted to follow the stream far up towards the hills. -He wished to see where it began, for he had heard that its source was in -several small streams many miles away. - -Uncle George agreed to take the children as far up the stream as they -could walk, without being tired. Soon they were far up above the wood, -and the fields, and the pond. - -Frank was not in the least sorry when his uncle sat down on a large -stone by the side of the stream. - -"We shall not go much farther," said Uncle George. "Some other day we -will. But tell me what you think of the country round about you." - -"It is very wild and lonely," said Tom. "There are no fields of corn; -nothing but green hills and moorland. Yet it is very grand." - -"The flowers and plants are not like those of the valley," said Tom. -"The stream, too, is different. Here it is a noisy, rushing course of -clear, lovely water. Down below it is a lazy-flowing stream." - -"It is not always so clear," said Uncle George. "After heavy rains this -stream is swollen and brown." - -"Look! look!" cried Dolly. "What is that on the other side of the -stream?" - -Sure enough there was something moving about. Now it turned round and -opened its mouth, showing two rows of sharp, white teeth. Then, with a -harsh cry that could be heard above the noise of the water, it bolted -away. - -There was just time for all to see the creature, which Tom at once -called a weasel. - -"Yes, a weasel it is," said Uncle George; "it is one of the animals -which prey on rabbits and young hares. Look! there it is again." - -The children looked, and saw it quite clearly. There it was, a pretty -little animal of a black and brown colour, with just a little white on -its breast. It sat up, and was holding something in its fore paws. - -"Ah!" said Uncle George, "our little friend is a thief. He has found a -nest, and that is an egg he has stolen from it. Let us see what he will -do with it." - - [Illustration: The Weasel at Home.] - -In a moment or two Master Weasel tucked the egg under his chin and was -off once more. - -"What a dear little thing, to be sure!" said Dolly. "How quaint to carry -an egg in that way!" - -"It looks pretty, that is certain," said Uncle George, "but it is a -dreadful foe to the smaller animals of the field. There are other foes, -too, and I hope we may see some of them before we return." - -The boys were glad to hear their uncle say this, and they asked him to -take them, now they were rested, a little farther up the stream. - -All of them made a start. - -By and by they came to a place where the stream made a kind of pool. The -pool was bounded on each side by high rocks. At the top end the water -came down with a rush from a great height. - -It was a very lonely spot indeed; and, except for the noise of the -water, nothing could be heard. - -On and on they went. - -Uncle George told them of the stoat, the polecat, and the marten, all of -which, he said, were foes of the smaller animals. - -Tom kept a sharp look out, and hoped he would see at least one of these. - -As luck would have it, a dull splash was heard in the water a little way -in front of them. All of them looked towards the spot. - -"Down, boys, down! and keep quite still," said Uncle George. "Hide -behind these big stones. We shall have a treat." - -Swimming on the surface of the water was an animal as large as a -good-sized dog. Now it dived to the bottom. The ripples on the water -showed that the animal was swimming underneath. The children held their -breaths and watched. Not in vain; for there, on the other side of the -stream, the animal came out of the water. It held a fish which it had -caught. - -"Now," said Uncle George, "we have a fine chance to look at our new -friend. That animal is the otter. See! Its body is pretty flat; its legs -are short, and its toes are webbed like those of the duck. Look at its -round nose and its small ears. If we were closer to it we should see -that there is a fold of skin which can be turned over the ears while the -creature is in the water." - -"How fierce it looks!" broke in Dolly, "and how its eyes gleam!" - -"It is glad to have caught the fish, I should think," said Frank. - -Uncle George raised his hand to hold the children in silence. Then he -went on in a soft voice. "Look at its flat tail, which is pointed at the -tip. The otter uses his tail as a rudder to guide him in the water. See -how sleek his dark brown skin is. It is now nearly dry, though he has -only just come out of the stream." - -"Let us drive him away," said Dolly, who could not help but feel sorry -for the poor fish. - -There was no need for this, however, as, just at that moment, the otter -turned towards the party, showing, as he did so, a lovely white throat. -He had heard them speaking, and was off like a flash, leaving the fish -on the rock. - -The fish had an ugly bite in its back, and was quite dead. - -"Poor, dear little thing!" cried Dolly. "What a shame to kill you!" - -"It is the otter's nature," said Uncle George. "He does a great deal of -good, for he kills many water-voles, or rats, as they are sometimes -called, as well as frogs and water insects. Sometimes, however, he does -harm, for he catches salmon, trout, and wild-ducks. He seems to do this -more for sport than for food, for he only eats small portions of his -prey." - - - Questions and Exercises. - - 1. Write down the names of some animals you would expect to find if - you walked along the bank of a stream. - 2. Describe the Otter and the Weasel. Tell in what way they are like - and unlike. - - [Illustration: Common and Ox-eye Daisy compared.] - - - - - IV.--DWELLERS IN THE CORN FIELD. - - -As Uncle George walked by the edge of the corn field, Dolly and her two -brothers ran up to him. Dolly carried a bunch of huge daisies in her -hand. - -"We want you to tell us about these, Uncle George," she said. "Tom says -that these are the little field daisies grown up; and Frank says they -are not." - -"Frank is right," said Uncle George, laughing. "This is not the common -field daisy. It is the _ox-eye_ daisy. You might bring me a common -daisy, Frank. I am sure there are many growing near. Ah, here is one at -our feet! Now let us hold them side by side. - -"You can see that they are unlike one another in many ways. The _ox-eye_ -daisy has much larger leaves and flowers. It bears its leaves and -flowers on tall, strong stalks. The leaves of the common daisy lie -almost flat on the ground, and there is only one little flower-head on -each stalk. When we get home we shall look at them both more closely." - -"Oh, look at those big yellow daisies growing among the corn," said -Dolly. - -"And I see some blue flowers near them," said Tom. - -"The yellow flower is the _moon-daisy_. It is also called the -_corn-marigold_. It is a great deal like the two daisies we have just -been talking about. The other is the blue _cornflower_. It belongs to -the same great family as the daisies. Frank will go and fetch us some." - -Frank gathered a bunch of both flowers. He was just reaching over for -some large red poppies when he saw a pair of small black cunning eyes -peering at him. Then a brown creature ran past him and went out of sight -among the long grass at the edge of the field. - -"A rat! a rat! Uncle George!" he shouted. - -"Yes, it is a rat, I saw it," said his uncle. - -"But what is he doing out in the fields?" said Frank. "I always thought -that rats lived in houses." - -"The brown rat lives where he can," said Uncle George. "Very likely this -one has come from the farm. Farm-yard rats often come out and live among -the long grass and reeds in summer-time. When the cold weather comes, -and the crops are gathered, they go back to the stables and barns. There -they rob the farmer. They are very cunning creatures. They steal eggs, -milk, grain, and even kill and carry away young chickens. The rat lives -by thieving. That is why he is killed whenever he shows his face. - -"Rats are sometimes useful, though. They swarm in ship docks and places -where stuff is left about. They eat up what would rot and poison the -air. They thus help to keep down disease. - -"Now, boys, before we go home I am going to show you something. I found -it the other day when taking a walk." - -Uncle George led the children to the end of the field, and pointed to a -strange object among the corn. It was a nest of some sort. It was made -of dried grass, and hung from five or six wheat stalks. It was round -like a cricket-ball, and just about as big. - -"It is the nest of the harvest-mouse," said Uncle George in a low voice. -"Keep still, and perhaps we shall see Mistress Mousie." - -The children waited a long time looking at the curious little object. At -last a tiny brown creature ran up one of the wheat stalks and went into -the nest. It seemed to go right through the wall of its little house. -There was no hole to be seen where it went in. Then Uncle George clapped -his hands. At once two wee brown mice came out. - -They slid down the corn stalks and were out of sight in a moment. - -"Ha! Mr and Mrs Mousie, we have disturbed you," said Uncle George. "We -will now go nearer and see your nest." - -"I can't see where they came out," said Tom. "There is no hole to be -seen." - -Uncle George pointed out to the children how the nest was woven together -and fixed to the wheat stalks. He then took a pencil from his pocket and -moved aside some of the dried grass. The children looked in and saw a -family of naked little mice cuddled up together. They could not tell how -many there were; but Uncle George said that there were eight or nine -young ones as a rule in a harvest-mouse's nest. - -"What will become of these wee mice when the corn is ripe?" Tom asked. - -"They will perhaps be grown up and able to take care of themselves by -that time, Tom," said Uncle George. - -"The harvest-mouse stores up corn in its nest. Before winter comes it -makes a hole in the ground. Here it sleeps through most of the winter -and spring. It wakes up from time to time and feeds upon its store of -grains." - -"It is much smaller and browner than our house-mouse," said Frank. - -"Yes, Frank, it is our smallest four-footed animal. We have many kinds -of mice in this country. The brown rat is the largest and the -harvest-mouse is the smallest of our mouse family." - -"How does it manage to slide down the wheat stalk so quickly without -falling off?" Tom asked. - -"It can use its long tail as well as its feet for climbing," his uncle -answered. - -"When it wishes to get to the ground it just coils its little tail round -the stalk and slides down." - - - Questions and Exercises. - - 1. Name some flowers that grow among the corn in summer and in autumn. - 2. Describe the Rat. - 3. Do you know any other animals that have teeth like the rat? - 4. What other animals, besides the harvest-mouse, store up food for - the winter? - - [Illustration: HARVEST TIME] - - [Illustration: THE SQUIRREL] - - - - - V.--HARVEST TIME. - - -"They are very busy here," said Uncle George, as he went into the field -with Frank, Tom, and Dolly. - -And well might he say so, for the _whirr_ of the reaping-machine could -be heard far away. Round the field it went, sweeping down the golden -wheat. Following behind it were several girls, who twisted bands of -straw and laid them on the ground. Behind these came women who quickly -gathered up the cut wheat and placed it in bundles upon the bands. Then -came men who bound these bundles into sheaves and tossed them aside. -After these, again, came men who caught up the sheaves and placed them -upright in bunches of six or eight. These bunches of sheaves they called -"_stooks_." Last of all came a huge rake drawn by horses, gathering up -all the straws that were left. Every now and then the man that guided -the rake pressed an iron bar, and, whenever he did so, all the teeth of -the rake rose up at once, and left a row of gathered straw on the field. -Then a man came and bound them into rough sheaves as before. - -All was work and bustle and noise. What with the whirr of the -reaping-machine, the girls singing as they worked, the larks singing in -the sky, and the glorious autumn sun, the children thought the -harvest-field was the most cheerful place they had ever seen. - -"Why do you do that?" Frank asked a man who was fixing up the stooks. -"Would it not be just as well if you left the sheaves lying on the -ground until you cart them away?" - -"Ah, no, Master Frank," said the man, who knew him well, "that would -never do. We must allow the corn time to get dry, so we place the -sheaves upright that the sun and wind may dry them; and so that any rain -that falls may run down the stalks to the ground. When the sheaves are -quite dry, we take them home to the stack-yard." - -"How long does that take?" Frank asked. - -"It all depends on the weather," the man replied. "If it keeps fine, -they will be dry within a week. In rainy weather, sometimes the sheaves -have to stand in the fields for some weeks. In the next field the crop -was cut a week ago. They are taking it home now." - - [Illustration: The Stack-yard.] - -"And you build the sheaves into great stacks there?" said Tom. - -"Yes, it is kept in stacks until we are ready to thresh it. You must all -come over to the farm and see it being threshed into grain and straw -some day." - -"But why do you build it into stacks?" asked Frank. - -"So that we may keep it through the winter, and thresh a stack at a time -as we need it," the man replied. "It is threshed by passing it through a -mill. At our farm the mill is turned by horses. At some farms there are -mills turned by a great water-wheel. Sometimes a steam-engine comes and -threshes the whole crop in the fields." - -"And what do you do with it when it is threshed?" Dolly asked. - -"When the corn is passed through the mill, it is so shaken up that all -the grain is removed from the stalks. The grain comes out at one side of -the mill and falls into sacks. The straw is tossed out at another part. -We use the straw for bedding for horses and cows, and some kinds of -straw we use for feeding them. The grain goes to the miller, who grinds -it into flour. The flour goes to the baker, who bakes it into bread." - -"Come along, boys!" Uncle George shouted from the next field. "We are -going over to the farmyard to see the stacks made." - -In the next field the farmer's men were loading a waggon with sheaves of -corn. The sheaves were caught up by long pitch-forks and tossed on to -the waggon. Here a man put them into a great square load. When this was -done, the men lifted Dolly up, and she rode up to the farmyard on the -top of the great load of sheaves. - -In the stack-yard a large round stack was being built. A wooden frame -was in the middle, and round this a man put the sheaves in a circle as -they were thrown to him from the waggon. - -"Now, boys," said Uncle George, "Dolly wants to know why sheaves are -made with all the ears of corn at one end. Can you tell us?" - -"Oh, that is easy," said Tom. "The sheaves have to stand in the field -for a long time to dry. They could not stand up so well if they were -made any other way. Besides, the ears of corn must be up from the -ground, or they would be broken off." - -"There is another reason," said Uncle George. "Look how the stack is -being made. The top, or grain end of the sheaf is inside. The outside of -the stack is made up of the cut ends of the straws. Thus the grain is -kept secure from bad weather and thieving birds. Besides, the stack -could not be made round in shape if they were placed in any other way. -The bottom of the sheaf is much wider than the top." - -In another part of the yard men were busy roofing the newly built stacks -with straw. The straw roof was tied down with many ropes, also made of -twisted straw, and then the stack was ready. - -"What a lot of work there is in getting corn," said Frank. - -"Ah, yes," said his uncle, "much more work than we have seen to-day. -Think of the work done in the fields in spring, getting the land ready -for seed--the work of ploughing, sowing, reaping, and threshing done by -the farmer's men and horses--the work done by the rain and sun in -growing and ripening the wheat--the work done by the miller and baker; -and all this, Frank, that we may have a loaf of bread." - - - Questions and Exercises. - - 1. Tell the story of a wheat plant from the time it begins to grow - from the seed until it is ready to be cut. - 2. Where does the making of a loaf of bread really begin? From what - you have learnt in the lesson, trace the history of a loaf of - bread. - 3. Make a list of crops grown on the farm, and tell the use of each. - - - - - VI.--THE SQUIRREL. - - -"Halloa! there he goes again," said Frank, as he watched a nimble little -animal leaping from branch to branch, and from tree-top to tree-top. "He -will fall if he does not take care." - -"No fear of that," said Uncle George. "His home is among the tree-tops. -He never falls. That is a squirrel, and I should not be surprised if his -nest is somewhere near. Let us sit down on this bank and watch." - -As he spoke, Uncle George took his pair of field-glasses out of the -leather case which he sometimes carried on a strap across his shoulder, -when he went out to watch the birds. - -"Now, Mr Squirrel," he said, "we can watch your antics from a distance. -You are a very cunning and clever little chap, no doubt." - -When Uncle George and Dolly and the two boys first saw the squirrel, the -little creature was on the ground, bobbing about among the ferns and the -grass. The moment it saw them, however, it bounded into a tree, going -swiftly up by jerk after jerk, and always keeping on the far side of the -trunk. - -They could just see its bushy tail, first at one side of the trunk and -then, much higher up, at the other side. When it reached the top part of -the tree, it leapt from branch to branch in the most daring manner. - -"We have alarmed the creature," said Uncle George. "But if we sit here -quite still for a little while, Mr Squirrel will get over his fright. -Ah, there he is." - -Uncle George handed the glasses to Frank. - -"Now, tell us what you see," he said, "and then Tom and Dolly shall each -take a look." - -"He is sitting up on his hind legs," said Frank. "His great, bushy tail -is bent right over his head. He is holding a little green thing in his -fore-paws. Ah, he is eating it. Look Dolly!" and Frank handed the -glasses to his little sister. - -"Oh, what a lovely little animal," said Dolly; "and what pretty eyes he -has. They are just like a pair of bright, black beads." - -"I think Tom ought to have the glasses now," said Uncle George. "He has -been very patient indeed. Come Tom, tell us what the squirrel is like." - -Tom took the glasses and looked through them for a long time. Then he -said, "He is a very pretty creature, as Dolly has said. His colour is -rich brown all over, except the front part of his body, which is a very -light brown, changing almost to white. His tail is very large and bushy, -and his ears are upright and tufted with brown hair. His fore-paws are -just like little hands. He holds the nut in them and nibbles it just -like a little monkey. His head is not unlike the rabbit's head. His -teeth are almost exactly like rabbit's teeth. They are chisel-shaped, -and seem to be very sharp." - -"Splendid, Tom," said his uncle, patting him on the back, "I don't think -you have left anything out. Now, let me look." - -"Oh, there is another one. There are now two of them," said Frank. - -"Where did that one come from?" asked his uncle, looking through the -glasses. "It seemed to come out of the tree, did it not?" - -"I thought you children would leave me nothing to find out; but I see -something which you have missed. Here, Frank, take the glasses and see -if you can find it. Look at the fork of the tree just below where the -squirrels are." - -"I see something like a nest," said Frank. "I noticed that before, but I -thought it was a rook's nest." - -"Nay," said his uncle, "it is a squirrel's nest. Rooks build on the very -top branches of trees, and you never see one rook's nest without a lot -of others near it. Besides, the rook's nest is a rough flat nest, while -this is a round one with a roof on it, and a hole in the side to let the -squirrels out and in." - -"Then that other squirrel must have come out of the nest," said Frank. - -"Just so," said Uncle George. "That is Mrs Squirrel. She has come out to -get some food, and her little husband will look after the family while -she is away hunting for nuts and buds and soft green bark. - -"If we could get up to that nest, we should find it to be built of twigs -and moss cleverly woven together. - -"The inside is lined with soft warm moss and dry leaves. We should, most -likely, find four or more tiny squirrels cuddled up together inside. -Blind, naked, helpless things they are at first. But they soon grow up, -and their long bare tails become bushy. Then the little mother teaches -them to climb and find food for themselves. Should one of them fall, she -springs down and carries it up to the nest in her mouth, just as a cat -carries her kittens. - -"By autumn these young squirrels will be quite as clever as their -parents. Autumn is the squirrel's busy time. He has to prepare for the -long winter, for no nuts are to be found then. So the squirrel gathers -in his harvest of nuts. These he hides in secret places buried in the -ground. He usually has more than one storing-place. In fact, he -sometimes has so many that he forgets about some of them." - -"We never see squirrels in winter," said Tom. - -"No, because the squirrel sleeps the whole winter through. After he has -gathered his harvest, he looks for a snug hole deep under an old -tree-stump. This he lines with dry leaves and pieces of bark. When the -weather becomes very cold he seeks his winter nest, coils his body up so -that his great tail is folded almost right round him, and falls fast -asleep. Cold makes him drowsy, but warmth wakes him up. On a mild -winter's day he wakes up, crawls out of his hole, and visits his store -of nuts. After he has made a good meal of them, he goes back to his bed -again, and sleeps on until hunger and mild weather wake him up. - -"During autumn the squirrel's coat is very pretty. It is of a deep, rich -brown colour, and very thick. His tail is then very large and bushy, and -he is quite fat and sleek. - -"When he comes out of his sleeping quarters in spring he is thin and -hungry. His coat is then a very pale brown." - -"What does he do for food in spring?" asked Tom. "There are no nuts to -be found then." - -"Alas, no, Tom. In spring he robs birds' nests of their eggs, and that -is why the pretty little squirrel is hunted and shot by the game-keeper. -In spring, too, he feeds on the tender buds, and so does much damage to -trees and shrubs; that is, if his winter stores are used up." - -"I should think," said Frank, "that such a large tail would be very much -in the squirrel's way when climbing and leaping from branch to branch." - -"Not at all," said his uncle, "his huge tail is of the greatest use to -him in guiding his body. Without it he could not take such flying leaps -among the tree-tops. - -"Besides this, it often enables him to escape from his enemies. Many a -time the game-keeper's bullets pass harmlessly through his fluffy tail, -while Mr Squirrel scampers safely up the tree; and many a time he -escapes from the cat by leaving the tip of his brush in pussy's claws. - -"A great many of our trees have been planted by squirrels. Many a -stately oak and beech tree has sprung from the squirrel's buried store -of acorns and beech nuts. For, as I have already told you, sometimes he -forgets where he has buried them, or perhaps fails to find them when the -forest is white with snow. So, you see, the little animal is of some use -after all." - - - Questions and Exercises. - - 1. The squirrel has chisel-shaped teeth suited for gnawing. Name other - animals of the same kind. - 2. The squirrel's bushy tail is of great use to him. Why? - 3. Make a list of our wild animals (1) which sleep through the winter, - and (2) which store up food for winter. - - - - - VII.--HOW THE FIRE BURNS. - - -It was a cold wet day--so cold and wet that neither Dolly nor her -brothers could venture out. They had grown tired of reading books and -drawing pictures, and were indeed feeling very dull. They sat looking at -the bright fire. Uncle George laid down his paper and said: - -"Come, let us have a lesson. What shall it be? The rain? The cat? Or -shall it be the cosy fireside?" - -"The fire," said Frank. "Tell us why the fire burns, Uncle George!" - -"I will," said cheery Uncle George. "Just wait until I get some things -from the kitchen. Come along, boys." - -When Uncle George and the boys came back to the room, they brought a lot -of curious articles with them. These were an empty pickle-bottle, a -small saucer, a glass bell-jar, a large dish, a piece of candle, some -tacks, and a taper. - - [Illustration: A Baby Cloud] - - [Illustration: THE BALLOON] - -"Now," said Uncle George, "we are ready to begin." - -He first lighted the piece of candle and lowered it into the bottle. It -burned for a short time, then it went out. - -"Can you tell me why it goes out?" he asked. - -"Want of air," said Tom and Frank at the same time. - -"But there is air in the bottle," said Uncle George. - -"Yes, but not the kind of air the candle wants," said Frank. - - [Illustration: Candle burning in Open Jar.] - -"That is a queer answer, Frank. The candle burned for a time in the -bottle before it went out." - -"Because it used up that part of the air which makes things burn," said -Frank. - -"That is _very_ good," said Uncle George. - -Uncle George then poured some water into the large dish. He fixed the -candle on a big cork, lighted it and set it floating on the water. Then -he placed the glass bell-jar over it. But first of all he marked the -level of the water on the outside of the bell-jar. - -Very soon the flame of the candle became small, and at last went out. -Just then the water inside the bell-jar rose far up above Uncle George's -mark. He marked this new level, and asked the boys if they could tell -him why the water rose in the jar. - -Both Frank and Tom shook their heads sadly. - - [Illustration: Candle in Stoppered Jar--burning.] - -"Then I must explain," said Uncle George. - -"Some of the air has gone," said Tom. - -"Yes," said Uncle George. "How much of the air has gone?" - -Frank pointed to the space between the two marks. - -"That is right," said Uncle George. "The water has risen up in the -bell-jar to take the place of the air that has been used up by the -burning of the candle. Where has this used-up air gone?" - -"It must have gone into the water," said Tom. - -"Why did it not go into the water before the candle burned?" - -"Perhaps the burning of the candle has _changed_ this part of the air," -said Frank. - -"Very good, Frank. You are right again. The burning of the candle has -changed a certain part of the air. It has, indeed, so changed it that it -can dissolve in water just as if it were sugar or salt." - -Uncle George now poured water into the outer dish until it was level -with the water inside the bell-jar. Then he took out the stopper and -pushed a lighted taper into the bell-jar. The taper at once went out. - - [Illustration: Candle in Stoppered Jar--gone out.] - -"This shows us," he said, "that a part of the air causes things to burn. -The other part of the air does not. It puts burning things out. If we -blow the fire with a bellows or fan, it burns more brightly and quickly. -Why? Just because we are forcing a stream of air upon it, and a part of -that stream of air is changed by the burning." - -Uncle George next put some bright iron tacks in a small dish. He poured -some water out of the large dish, and placed the bell-jar in the dish. -After that he added water until it was just up to his first mark on the -bell-jar. - -Then he floated the dish with the tacks on the water. Next he wetted the -tacks with water, and then placed the bell-jar over them and put in the -stopper. - -"Now," he said, "we will leave this just as it is for a few days." - -The boys watched the bell-jar every day, and this is what they saw. The -water rose slowly in the bell-jar. As it rose the bright tacks turned -red with rust. The water rose higher and the tacks turned redder every -day. - -At length it rose to Uncle George's second mark. It rose no farther, -although left for a whole week. - -Then Uncle George called the boys and asked them what had taken place in -the bell-jar. - -"The tacks have rusted, and some of the air in the jar has been used -up," said Frank. - -"How much air has been used up?" Uncle George asked. - -"Just exactly the same as was used up when we burned the candle," said -Tom, pointing to the top mark. - -"Let us see, then," said Uncle George, "what part of the air has gone." - -He poured water into the large dish until it was level with the water -inside the bell-jar. Then he put a lighted taper into the bell-jar as -before. It went out at once. - -"It is the same part of the air as the burning candle used up," said -Frank. - -"Then we have found out," said Uncle George, "that when a thing burns it -uses up a certain part of the air; and that when iron rusts, exactly the -same part of the air is used up. - -"In the first case, the burning of the candle changed part of the air -into a gas which dissolved in the water. In this case, that same part of -the air has joined up to part of the iron tacks to form that red powder -which we call _rust_." - - - Questions and Exercises. - - 1. How is rust formed? - 2. Explain why things which are made of iron should be painted. - 3. A grate full of coals burns away and only a small quantity of ash - is left in the grate. What has become of the coals? - - - - - VIII.--THE FIRE-BALLOON. - - -One day Uncle George made the children a fire-balloon. He took twelve -strips of tissue-paper shaped as you see in the picture. These he pasted -neatly together at the edges so as to form a kind of bag with a round -opening at the bottom. A ring of wire was then fixed at the bottom to -keep it firm, and across the ring was stretched another piece of wire. -This was to hold a dry sponge by and by. - -Uncle George swung the balloon till it was filled with air. He told -Frank to hold it by the ring while he heated the air inside the balloon. - -This was done by holding the mouth of the balloon over a piece of rag -which had been dipped in spirits and set on fire. - - [Illustration: Strip for Balloon.] - -Soon Frank felt the balloon rising. He lifted it up away from the flame, -while Uncle George moved the little sponge along the wire to the middle -of the ring. Then he soaked the sponge with spirits and set fire to it. - -"Let go!" said Uncle George; and away went the balloon, soaring up -towards the sky. Higher and higher it rose, moving with the wind. The -children watched it until at last it seemed a mere dot in the sky, and -then it went quite out of sight. - -"What makes the balloon rise up?" Dolly asked, as they returned to the -house. - -For answer Uncle George took a cork and held it under a trough of water. -When he let it go, the cork at once rose to the top of the water. - -"What makes the cork rise up?" he asked. - -"Because it is lighter than the water," said Tom. - -"For just the same reason the balloon rises in the air," said Uncle -George. "Our balloon is only a bag filled with air." - -"Then the air inside the balloon is lighter than that outside," said -Frank. - -"Yes," said his uncle. "What did we do to it to make it lighter?" - -"We heated it," said Tom. - -"And what has this taught you?" asked Uncle George. - -"It has taught us," said Frank, "that if we heat air we make it -lighter." - -"What takes place is this," said Uncle George. "When a small quantity of -air is heated it swells out and fills a much larger space than before. -It therefore becomes much lighter than the air round about it, and rises -up through it. Come into the house and let us take another lesson from -the fire. - - [Illustration: Strips pasted together.] - -"We have already learned that the fire in burning uses up part of the -air. After using up this part of the air, how is it that the fire does -not go out?" - -"Because there is always a fresh supply of air coming into the grate!" -said Frank. - -"Quite right. If we stand between the door and the fire we can feel this -stream of air. Something else is taking place in the grate besides the -burning of coal. What is it, Tom?" - -"Air is being heated!" - -"Very good, Tom, and what becomes of the heated air?" - -"It rises up the chimney, carrying the smoke with it; just as the heated -air in our balloon rose up, carrying the paper bag with it," said Frank. - -"That is really a clever answer, Frank. Now, can you tell me what makes -this constant stream of cold air from the door to the fireplace?" - -"It is the cold air rushing in to take the place of the heated air that -has gone up the chimney," said Frank. - -"Very good indeed, Frank," said Uncle George. "And now I am going to -show you something which will prove all this very nicely." - -He then took a saucer and poured some water into it. He placed a piece -of lighted candle in the middle of the dish and put a lamp chimney over -it. The candle burned for a few seconds and then went out. - -"Why does the candle go out?" he asked. - -"Because it has used up that part of the air which makes things burn," -said Tom. - -"That is right," said Uncle George, and he began to cut a piece of stout -card, shaped like the letter T, but broader every way. The upright part -fitted into the top of the lamp chimney. - -"We are now going to give the candle flame a stream of fresh air," he -said, as he fitted the piece of card into the chimney. - -The candle was again lit and the chimney placed over it. This time it -did not go out. It burned brightly, and the flame seemed to be blown -from side to side. - -"That is very strange," said Frank. - - [Illustration: Draught in Chimney Glass.] - -Uncle George lit a piece of brown paper. "You will understand it now," -he said, as he held smoking paper near the top of the chimney. - -Then the boys saw a stream of smoke go down one side of the card and -come up the other side. - -"Oh, I see it now," said Tom. "The card divides the chimney into two. -The air, heated by the candle flame, rises up one side of the card, and -the cold air goes down the other side to supply its place, drawing the -smoke with it. The candle does not go out now, because it gets a -constant stream of fresh air." - -"Are the balloons, which are large enough to carry people, -fire-balloons?" asked Dolly. - -"No, my dear," replied Uncle George. "They are filled with a gas that is -lighter--very much lighter--than the air. They rise up easily, and can -carry quite a heavy load." - - - Questions and Exercises. - - 1. Take an empty bottle and heat it gently. Now turn it upside down, - and place the neck of it in cold water. Why does the water - rise in the bottle? - 2. How is a _draught_ caused? - 3. Why does a fire burn more brightly on a cold, frosty day, than on a - warm summer's day? - - - - - IX.--THE GULL. - - -Frank, Tom, and Dolly had never seen the sea. Long ago Uncle George had -told them that he would take them, and at last the time came for them to -go. - -It was afternoon when they reached the little sea-side village where -they were to spend a few days. The children were filled with wonder when -they saw the great, restless ocean. They watched the waves breaking into -white surf, and gathered sea-weeds and shells on the sandy beach. - -By and by they all sat down to rest and to watch the gulls, for there -were many here-about. - -"We have seen birds like these before, have we not?" said Uncle George. - -"Yes," said Tom, "we see them at home in the fields at spring-time. But -are these the same kind of gulls?" - -"Yes, Tom, they are. There are several kinds of gulls. Here we have just -two kinds. The _common gull_ and the _tern_. You can tell the one from -the other even in the distance by their mode of flying. - -"Do you see that one flying rapidly over the sea? Every now and then he -swoops down to the water and skims along, almost touching it with the -tips of his long, pointed wings. Do you know any other bird that flies -like that?" - - [Illustration: Gull flying.] - -"The swallow flies over the lake at home something like that," said -Frank. - -"That is so," said Uncle George. "The tern is very like the swallow both -in shape and in his manner of flight. He differs, however, in size and -colour. He is often called the 'sea-swallow,' and is the smallest of the -gull family. - -"Your swallows at home catch flies and other insects as they skim -through the air. The 'sea-swallows' live on fish. Every time they dart -down they seize and swallow a little fish. But it is done so quickly -that you cannot see it. - -"The gull's flight is quite different. Sometimes he flies so lazily that -he does not seem to move onwards at all. Then all of a sudden he darts -down into the water to seize his prey. Sometimes he flaps his great -white wings and wheels swiftly away, flying in great circles until he is -a mere speck in the distance. The gull has a very sharp eye. Watch!" - -Uncle George threw a piece of bread into the sea. At once about a score -of gulls pounced upon it, screaming loudly. Uncle George waited until -they flew away. Then he threw them a piece of wood. None of the gulls -came near it. - -"You see," he went on, "they can tell a piece of bread from a piece of -wood at a great distance." - -"Then they do not live entirely on fish," said Frank, as his uncle threw -them another piece of bread. - - [Illustration: Gull feeding.] - -"Oh, no, Frank, the gull is by no means dainty about his food. Nor does -he live all the year round at the sea. Great flocks of gulls fly inland -in spring and autumn. Then they live on worms, grubs, and whatever else -can be picked up in the fields. - - [Illustration: SEA-GULLS AND TERN] - -"We have a fine chance now, boys, of watching the gull. See, there are -some walking on the sand quite close to us, some are floating idly on -the sea, some are flying all round us. They think, no doubt, we have -lots of bread for them. Now then, boys, tell me about the common gull." - - [Illustration: Gull at rest on the water.] - -"He is a large bird," said Tom. "His body is white in colour, all but -his wings and back. These are of a pale bluish-grey." - -"Very good, Tom," said Uncle George. "Come on, Frank." - -"He has a large, greyish-green bill. The tip of it is hooked in shape, -and yellow. His legs are greenish-grey. The three front toes of his feet -are webbed." - -"But," said Tom, "I can see other gulls darker in colour. Their bodies -are dark brown and grey above and light brown below. What are they?" - -"They are the young gulls, Tom. They have not got rid of their nest -feathers yet." - -"Where do they build their nests?" Dolly asked. - -"High up on the cliffs, and on lonely rocky islands. Like the rooks, -they all nest together. The gull's nest is a very simple thing. It is -just a hole scraped in the ground and covered with dried grass. Here -two, or perhaps three, spotted eggs are laid. The gull is very fond of -her young. She will not allow them to try to fly from the high cliff. -She carries them one by one on her back down to the sea, and there -teaches them to swim. - -"Some gulls--the _black-headed gull_, for example--go far inland to -nest. These build their nests on the shores of small hill lakes. They -return to the sea with their young ones in autumn. - -"Gulls are clever birds. They are bold and active. The wild ocean is -their home. Storms bring no fears for them." - - - Exercises and Questions. - - 1. Tell the life-story of the common gull. - 2. Make a list of all the sea birds you know. - 3. The common gull has very large wings, curious beak and feet. Can - you explain what these are for? - - [Illustration: Engine puffing on a cold day.] - - - - - X.--DEW, FROST, RAIN. - - -"How is it, Uncle George, that there is always a clear space between the -spout of the kettle and the puff of steam?" - -It was Frank that asked the question. He had been watching the kettle -boiling for a long time. - -"It is the same with the railway engine," said Tom. "There is always a -big space between the funnel and the puff." - -"That is so," said Uncle George. "But if you watch carefully, you will -notice that the space between the funnel of the engine and the puff of -steam is not always of the same size." - - [Illustration: Engine puffing on a hot day.] - -"No," said Frank, "I have noticed that the white puff is farther away -from the funnel on a hot day than on a cold day." - -"That is true," said his uncle. "Perhaps you have also noticed that, as -the engine rushes along, it leaves a long white cloud trailing in the -air behind it. Sooner or later this long white cloud melts away from -sight. It melts away sooner on a hot day than on a cold day. Where does -it go?" - -"It goes into the air," said Frank; "just as the cloud from this kettle -goes into the air of the room." - -"Very good," said Uncle George. "Tom, will you please fetch me a tumbler -full of cold water, and see that the outside of the glass is quite dry?" - -When Tom came back with the glass of cold water, Uncle George wiped it -outside with a clean dry cloth. When he was sure that the outside of it -was dry, he placed the tumbler of water on the table in the middle of -the warm room. - -"Now," he said, "let us try to answer Frank's question about the clear -space between the spout of the kettle and the puff of steam. - -"The fact is," Uncle George went on, "the white puff which we call -_steam_ is not steam at all. We might just as well call it -'_water-dust_.' For it is made up of tiny droplets of water--so tiny -that they float in air. Steam is water in the form of gas. Like the air -we breathe, it cannot be seen. In fact, this water-gas forms part of the -air around us. The clear space between the spout of the kettle and the -puff is made up of hot steam. We cannot see it. As it comes out into the -colder air, it is cooled into the tiny droplets which form the puff. It -is only when cooled into tiny droplets that we can see it. - -"If you hold any cold object, such as a knife, in the puff, these water -particles run together and form large drops upon it. The cloud of -water-dust melts away in the room, as Frank told us. What takes place is -this. The tiny droplets, when spread out into the warm air, become real -steam, or 'water-gas,' again. - -"The outside of this tumbler of cold water was quite dry when I placed -it on the table. Run your finger along it and tell me what you find." - -Frank did so, and said, "Why, it is quite wet now." - -"Yes," said Uncle George, "it is covered all over with very small drops -of water. Where did this water come from. It could not come _through_ -the glass." - -"It is like dew," said Tom. - -"It is dew--_real dew_," said Uncle George. "The water in the glass is -much colder than the air around it. The film of air next the glass is -cooled, and the 'water-gas' which this film of air contains is changed -into water drops. - -"The earth is heated during the day by the sun, and the layer of air -next to it becomes filled with water-gas. At night the earth gets cold. -The water-gas, if the night is calm, comes out of the film of air next -to the earth. It settles in the form of tiny drops on everything around. - -"When the earth gets very cold, the water freezes as it changes from gas -to water, and instead of dew we have _frost_." - -"Oh, that is why we have frost on the _inside_ of the window panes in -winter," said Frank. - -"That is so," said his uncle. "The frost on your window pane is the -water-gas of the warm room changed into particles of ice. But let us -come back to our steam puff. We spoke about the long white streak of -water-dust which the engine leaves behind it. Do you know of anything -else like that outside?" - -"Oh yes," said Tom, "the clouds far up in the sky are very like it." - -"They are," said Uncle George. "In fact, the clouds in the sky and the -cloud behind the engine are just the same kind of thing. They are both -made up of tiny particles of water. - -"We have learnt that the streak of cloud left by the steam-engine melts -away quickly on a hot day, also that the puff is farther from the funnel -on a hot day. This shows us that the warmer the air is, the more water -can it take up and hold. We have also learnt that warm air is light and -rises up.[2] - -"What happens when warm air, which holds much water-gas, rises up to the -higher and colder parts of the sky?" - -"It gets cooled," answered Frank. - -"Yes, and its water-gas gets cooled too. Then we can see it as great -masses of water-dust. These masses we call _clouds_. If these masses of -cloud get further cooled, the tiny water particles run together to form -great drops--as they did on the cold knife. They are now too large and -heavy to float in the air, so they fall to the earth as _rain_." - - [Illustration: A Showery Day.] - - - Questions and Exercises. - - 1. If you place a saucer full of water outside on a hot day in the - morning, and go back to it in the evening, you will find the - saucer dry. Where has the water gone? - 2. Fill a tin can with a mixture of salt and snow (or chopped ice). - Place it in a warm room. _Frost_ comes on the outside of the - tin. Place a glass jug of water in the same room. _Dew_ is - formed on the outside of the jug. Can you explain this? - 3. Let the steam puff of the kettle strike against a cold sheet of - glass or metal, or a slab of stone. What is formed? - - - - - Footnotes - - -[1]See Lesson I., Book IV. - -[2]See lesson "The Fire-Balloon." - - - PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN AT THE PRESS OF THE PUBLISHERS. - - - - - Transcriber's Notes - - ---Retained publication information from the printed exemplar (this eBook - is in the public domain in the country of publication.) - ---Only in the text versions, delimited italicized text with - _underscores_. - ---Silently corrected several typos. - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The 'Look About You' Nature Study -Books, Book 2 (of 7), by Thomas W. Hoare - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LOOK ABOUT YOU NATURE STUDY, VOL 2 *** - -***** This file should be named 50236.txt or 50236.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/0/2/3/50236/ - -Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Stephen Hutcheson, and the -Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for the eBooks, unless you receive -specific permission. If you do not charge anything for copies of this -eBook, complying with the rules is very easy. You may use this eBook -for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports, -performances and research. They may be modified and printed and given -away--you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks -not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the -trademark license, especially commercial redistribution. - -START: FULL LICENSE - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full -Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at -www.gutenberg.org/license. - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or -destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your -possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a -Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound -by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the -person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph -1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this -agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the -Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection -of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual -works in the collection are in the public domain in the United -States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the -United States and you are located in the United States, we do not -claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, -displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as -all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope -that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting -free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm -works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the -Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily -comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the -same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when -you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are -in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, -check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this -agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, -distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any -other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no -representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any -country outside the United States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other -immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear -prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work -on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, -performed, viewed, copied or distributed: - - This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and - most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no - restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it - under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this - eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the - United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you - are located before using this ebook. - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is -derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not -contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the -copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in -the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are -redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply -either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or -obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any -additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms -will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works -posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the -beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including -any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access -to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format -other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official -version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site -(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense -to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means -of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain -Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the -full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -provided that - -* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed - to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has - agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid - within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are - legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty - payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in - Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg - Literary Archive Foundation." - -* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all - copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue - all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm - works. - -* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of - any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of - receipt of the work. - -* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than -are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing -from both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and The -Project Gutenberg Trademark LLC, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project -Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may -contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate -or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other -intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or -other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or -cannot be read by your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium -with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you -with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in -lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person -or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second -opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If -the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing -without further opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO -OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT -LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of -damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement -violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the -agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or -limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or -unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the -remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in -accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the -production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, -including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of -the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this -or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or -additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any -Defect you cause. - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of -computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It -exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations -from people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future -generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see -Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at -www.gutenberg.org - - - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by -U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's principal office is in Fairbanks, Alaska, with the -mailing address: PO Box 750175, Fairbanks, AK 99775, but its -volunteers and employees are scattered throughout numerous -locations. Its business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt -Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to -date contact information can be found at the Foundation's web site and -official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact - -For additional contact information: - - Dr. Gregory B. Newby - Chief Executive and Director - gbnewby@pglaf.org - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide -spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND -DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular -state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To -donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. - -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project -Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be -freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and -distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of -volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in -the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search -facility: www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. - |