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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..fb7be92 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #50236 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/50236) diff --git a/old/50236-0.txt b/old/50236-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index f634d87..0000000 --- a/old/50236-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1958 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The 'Look About You' Nature Study Books, -Book 2 (of 7), by Thomas W. Hoare - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The 'Look About You' Nature Study Books, Book 2 (of 7) - -Author: Thomas W. Hoare - -Release Date: October 16, 2015 [EBook #50236] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LOOK ABOUT YOU NATURE STUDY, VOL 2 *** - - - - -Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Stephen Hutcheson, and the -Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - [Illustration: The land is at rest] - - - - - The - “LOOK ABOUT YOU” - Nature Study Books - - - BOOK II. - - - BY - THOMAS W. HOARE - - TEACHER OF NATURE STUDY - to the Falkirk School Board and Stirlingshire County Council - - [Illustration: Publisher’s Logo] - - LONDON: T. C. & E. C. JACK, Ltd. - 35 PATERNOSTER ROW, E.C. - AND EDINBURGH - - - - - PREFACE. - - -This little book should be used as a simple guide to the practical study -of Nature rather than as a mere reader. - -Every lesson herein set down has, during the author’s many years’ -experience in teaching Nature Study, been taught by observation and -practice again and again; and each time with satisfactory result. The -materials required for the lessons are within everybody’s reach. - -There is nothing that appeals to the heart of the ordinary child like -_living things_, be they animal or vegetable, and there is no branch of -education at the present day that bears, in the young mind, such -excellent fruit as the study of the simple, living things around us. - -Your child is nothing if not curious. He wants to understand everything -that lives in his bright little world. - -Nature Study involves so many ingenious little deductions, that the -reasoning powers are almost constantly employed, and intelligence grows -proportionately. The child’s powers of observation are stimulated, and -his memory is cultivated in the way most pleasing to his inquiring -nature. By drawing his specimens, no matter how roughly or rapidly, his -eye is trained more thoroughly than any amount of enforced copying of -stiff, uninteresting models of prisms, cones, etc., ever could train it. - -The love of flowers and animals is one of the most commendable traits in -the disposition of the wondering child, and ought to be encouraged above -all others. A few lessons on Nature Phenomena are added. - -It is the author’s fondest and most sanguine hope that his little pupils -may study further the great book of Nature, whose broad pages are ever -open to us, and whose silent answers to our manifold questions are never -very difficult to read. - - T. W. H. - - - - - CONTENTS - - -LESSON PAGE - I. How Plants take Food from the Soil (1) 5 - II. How Plants take Food from the Soil (2) 13 - III. The Weasel and the Otter 20 - IV. Dwellers in the Corn Field 27 - V. Harvest Time 33 - VI. The Squirrel 40 - VII. How the Fire Burns 48 - VIII. The Fire-Balloon 55 - IX. The Gull 61 - X. Dew, Frost, Rain 68 - - - - - “LOOK ABOUT YOU.” - BOOK II. - - - - - I.—HOW PLANTS TAKE FOOD FROM THE SOIL (1). - - -Uncle George had taught his little friends many things from what he -called the Book of Nature, and what they had learnt made them eager to -know more. - -One day as Dolly, the boys, and Uncle George were in the garden they saw -that a tulip, which the day before was in full bloom and strong, was now -lying dead on the ground. - -“Poor little tulip!” said Dolly. Both the boys were sorry too. They had -watched it come through the ground like a blade of grass, open out its -bud, and expand its bloom. Now all was over. The little flower would no -longer enjoy the bright sunshine or the rain. It would no longer send -forth its rootlets in search of the food it so much liked. - -“Have you ever thought, Dolly, how the tulip, and indeed all plants, -take their food from the soil?” asked Uncle George. - -“I know they _must_ feed in some way,” said Dolly, “or they would not -grow. But I do not know how they do it.” - -“Should you like to know, Dolly?” asked Uncle George. - -“Indeed I should,” said the little girl. - -The boys were just as eager as Dolly to know about this, so Uncle George -and the children went indoors for a lesson. - -“I cannot tell you how plants take their food from the soil without -first of all showing you what happens when water and soil are mixed -together in a tumbler,” said Uncle George. “Tom will fetch me a tumbler, -and you, Frank, bring me a little water.” - -When these were brought, Uncle George put a spoonful of soil into the -tumbler, and then poured some water on it. - -“Stir it up, please, Dolly,” said Uncle George, “and you may pretend you -are going to make a pudding.” - -Dolly did so. - -“Now let us put it aside for a few minutes, while we place the flowers -we have gathered into the vases,” said Uncle George. “Then we will look -at our tumbler of muddy water.” - -How pretty the flowers were made to look! How fresh they were! and how -pleasant was their scent! The children hardly thought of the tumbler, -but Uncle George was ready now for the lesson. - - [Illustration: Glass of Mud and Water.] - -“Look! look, at the tumbler,” said he. “Do you see a change?” - -“Indeed we do,” said all the children in one voice. - -“The mud has sunk to the bottom of the glass,” added Tom, “and the water -on the top is clear.” - -Uncle George poured some of the clear water into a clean flat dish. Then -he took a spirit-lamp from a little cabinet, and heated the water in the -dish with it. - -The children watched to see what would happen. Soon a cloud was seen -over the dish, and by and by all the water had gone. - -“But what is that at the bottom of the dish?” asked Uncle George. - -“It looks like powder,” said Frank. - -“And it must have been in the water all the time,” added Tom. - - [Illustration: Evaporating Salt Water.] - -“And yet the water was clear,” said Uncle George. “Look once more.” - -As he spoke, Uncle George took a glass of clean water from the tap. He -put two large spoonfuls of salt in, and stirred it up. - -“You see,” he said, “the salt has gone from sight. Still the water is -clear. Where has it gone?” - -“Into the water,” said Tom. - -Uncle George put more salt in the water, and stirred it up. He kept on -doing this until the water would take up no more salt, no matter how -much it was stirred. This he called _brine_. - -“Now, Frank, please go and ask mother for a fresh egg,” he said, “and -you, Tom, please bring me some fresh water in another glass.” - - [Illustration: Egg floating in Salt Water.] - -Uncle George placed the egg in the glass in which the salt had been put, -and it floated in it. He then placed the egg in the glass of fresh -water, and it at once sank to the bottom. - -“Can you explain this!” he said. - -“The salt water is heavier and thicker than the fresh water. That is why -it bears up the egg,” said Frank. - -“That is very good indeed, Frank. That is just the reason. The salt -water or brine is _denser_, or heavier, than the other.” - -Uncle George next took a glass tube with a thistle-shaped bulb at the -end of it. Frank kept his finger on the small end, while his uncle -poured some of the brine into the bulb. He next tied a piece of bladder -skin over the bulb, and placed it in a glass of fresh water, so that the -salt water in the tube was at the same level as the fresh water in the -glass. - -Then he took two small glass bottles. He filled one with fresh water and -the other with brine, and tied a piece of bladder skin over the mouth of -each. The one which was filled with brine he placed in a larger dish of -fresh water. The other, that is the one filled with fresh water, he -placed in a dish of brine. - -“Now, children, we will go and have tea,” he said, “and when we come -back we will see if any change has taken place.” - -About an hour later Uncle George, Dolly, and the boys came back. - -“Oh,” said Frank, “look, Uncle George! The water has risen up in the -thistle tube.” - -“Yes, how do you account for that, Frank?” - -“Some of the fresh water has passed through the skin,” Frank answered. - -“Now taste the water in the glass outside the skin,” said Uncle George. -“It was fresh water when we put it in, wasn’t it?” - -Frank did so. Tom tasted it too. Both boys declared that it was now -salt. - -“Where did the salt taste come from?” their uncle asked. - -“It must have come through the skin,” said Tom. - -“Then some of the salt water in the thistle tube has passed through the -skin into the glass; and some of the fresh water in the glass has passed -through the skin into the thistle tube. Can you tell me any more?” - -Frank thought for a little while and then said, “Oh yes, more fresh -water than salt water has passed through the skin, because the salt -water is now far up the tube.” - -“Quite right, my boy. Now let us look at the small bottles. The skin on -the one filled with brine is swollen out like a ball, while the water in -the dish tastes salt. The skin of the other is drawn far in, showing us -that much of the fresh water which it contained has passed out. If you -taste the water in this bottle, you will find that a very little of the -brine in the dish has passed into it through the skin. - -“Now what we learn from these things is really this—that when two -liquids, a heavy and a light one, are separated by a thin skin, they -_both_ pass through the skin. The heavy liquid passes through slowly, -and the light liquid passes through quickly.” - -Uncle George then placed some small seeds on a piece of wet -blotting-paper. He turned a glass tumbler upside down, and placed it -over them. - -“We will leave these for a few days,” he said. - - - Questions and Exercises. - - 1. Boil some river-water in a flat dish until all the water is gone. - Do the same with some sea-water, or, if this is not at hand, - make some brine. Examine the two dishes, and tell what you - see. - 2. Take a glass gas chimney, and tie a piece of bladder, or parchment, - over one end of it. Half fill it with sugar and water. Now - place it with its tied-up end bottommost in a tumbler of clear - cold water. After an hour or so taste the water in the - tumbler. What have you to say about it? - 3. What takes place when brine and clear water are separated from one - another by a piece of skin (parchment)? - - [Illustration: A Box of Mustard Seeds.] - - - - - II.—HOW PLANTS TAKE FOOD FROM THE SOIL (2). - - -A whole week went by before Uncle George was ready for the next lesson. - -At last he called the children and said to them—“Tom, will you please -fetch me the seeds which we put on the wet blotting-paper under the -tumbler? Frank, bring me two leafy branches from a rose-bush in the -garden; and, Dolly, please fetch two glasses from the kitchen.” - -Now there was nothing the children liked better than to help their Uncle -George, and all three rushed off at once to do his bidding. - -While they were away Uncle George himself went into the garden, dug up -two young plants, and brought them to the children in the study. - - [Illustration: Sun-flower Plant in Water.] - -“Now, children,” said Uncle George, “we are ready to begin our lesson. -Fill one of the glasses with water, Frank, and put one of your leafy -rose branches in each glass—one branch in water and the other in a dry -glass. Can you tell me what will happen to the branches?” - -The children had many times seen what had happened to flowers when the -maid had forgotten to put water in the vases, so that Tom readily said, -“Yes, the one in the dry glass will wither, while the one in the water -will keep fresh for some time.” - -“How do you know that?” - -“Because it always happens, Uncle,” said Frank. “Why, sometimes the -flowers we gather in the wood are faded before we get home. They often -come back to life when put in water.” - -“You are quite right, Frank,” Uncle George replied. “See, here are two -young sun-flower plants, which I brought in from the garden. I placed -one in water. The other I left lying on the table. The one on the table -is dead. What does this show us?” - - [Illustration: The Sun-flower, faded.] - -“That plants require water,” said Tom. “That whenever you cut off their -water supply they die.” - -“Quite right, Tom. We shall see by and by that plants are always giving -off a great deal of water to the air from their leaves.[1] Where do they -get this water from?” - -“It must be from the soil,” said Frank. - -“It must be,” said Uncle George. “If we keep a plant in a pot without -watering it, it soon dies. All the water it contains will by and by -travel up to the leaves. It passes out through tiny pores in the leaves -into the air. If no more water comes up from the soil, the plant withers -and dies. The roots of plants search the soil in all directions for -water. And in this water there is but little plant-food. We saw this -when we boiled away the clear water which covered the soil in the glass. - -“If we boil away some water from the tap, we shall find some solid -matter left behind in the dish. Thus we see that in order to get a -_small_ quantity of food, plants take up a _great_ quantity of water -from the soil. Most of the water is sent into the air from the leaves. -But the food stuff remains in the plant, just as it did in the dish. - -“Now I am going to show you how this water gets into the plant. Look at -these little seeds on the damp blotting-paper! - -“Each seed has a small plant with a long root, and small, stout green -leaves. Look at the roots and tell me what you see?” - -“They are covered with silky stuff,” said Frank. - -“Yes. Now take this glass, which will make things look bigger than they -really are, and look at the roots once more.” - -“The silky stuff is a number of fine hairs,” said Frank. - - [Illustration: THE OTTER] - - [Illustration: FIELD-MICE] - -“That is quite right, Frank,” said Uncle George. “These are the -_root-hairs_. Each of these hairs is a long bag or sac, of very thin -skin. It is filled with a liquid called _sap_, which is slightly denser, -or heavier, than the water in the blotting-paper. Now, do you see how a -plant takes food from the soil, when it is growing in the garden or in a -field?” - -“Yes, I think I do,” said Frank. “The water in the soil contains very -little plant-food. The water inside the tiny sac contains very much.” - -“And what have you to say, Tom?” - -“One of these liquids is denser than the other,” said Tom. “Both are -separated by a thin skin. The lighter liquid outside the sac will pass -into it quickly, while the heavier liquid will pass out slowly.” - -“Bravo! Tom!” said Uncle George. “I couldn’t have given a better reply -myself. The water from the soil passes in quickly. The sap from the -inside of each root-hair passes out slowly. If they were both of the -same density, neither would pass through the skin. If the water in the -soil were the denser, then the sap would pass out so quickly that the -plant would soon be robbed of its water. - -“Here are two young plants, each growing in a small pot. I want you to -water them, Tom. Water one with salt and water (brine), the other with -tap-water.” - -Tom did as he was asked. - - [Illustration: Plants watered with Fresh and Salt Water.] - -“See,” said Uncle George, “the one which you watered with brine is -drooping. It is bending over the pot. That is because the water outside -its root-hairs is denser than that which is inside the plant.” - -“How does the water get up from the roots to the leaves?” Frank asked. - -“Just in the same way as the oil travels up the wick of the lamp. Water -will always travel up through small spaces.” - -Uncle George poured some red ink into a saucer, and dipped the corner of -a lump of sugar into it. The red ink ran up into the sugar until it was -red all over. Next he took a bundle of very small glass tubes, and -dipped the ends of them in the ink. The ink ran up the tubes, filling -them to the top. - -“Inside every plant,” Uncle George went on, “there are thousands of long -tiny tubes, up which the water travels. In fact the _veins_ of a leaf -are just bundles of tubes, something like the bundle I hold in my hand.” - - - Questions and Exercises. - - 1. Why do branches wither quickly when cut from the tree? How would - you keep them from withering quickly? - 2. Place two small panes of clean glass close together. Dip the corner - of them in coloured water, and watch what happens. - 3. Why do we never see the silky _root-hairs_ when we dig or pull a - plant out of the ground? - - - - - III.—THE WEASEL AND THE OTTER. - - -It was Frank who wanted to follow the stream far up towards the hills. -He wished to see where it began, for he had heard that its source was in -several small streams many miles away. - -Uncle George agreed to take the children as far up the stream as they -could walk, without being tired. Soon they were far up above the wood, -and the fields, and the pond. - -Frank was not in the least sorry when his uncle sat down on a large -stone by the side of the stream. - -“We shall not go much farther,” said Uncle George. “Some other day we -will. But tell me what you think of the country round about you.” - -“It is very wild and lonely,” said Tom. “There are no fields of corn; -nothing but green hills and moorland. Yet it is very grand.” - -“The flowers and plants are not like those of the valley,” said Tom. -“The stream, too, is different. Here it is a noisy, rushing course of -clear, lovely water. Down below it is a lazy-flowing stream.” - -“It is not always so clear,” said Uncle George. “After heavy rains this -stream is swollen and brown.” - -“Look! look!” cried Dolly. “What is that on the other side of the -stream?” - -Sure enough there was something moving about. Now it turned round and -opened its mouth, showing two rows of sharp, white teeth. Then, with a -harsh cry that could be heard above the noise of the water, it bolted -away. - -There was just time for all to see the creature, which Tom at once -called a weasel. - -“Yes, a weasel it is,” said Uncle George; “it is one of the animals -which prey on rabbits and young hares. Look! there it is again.” - -The children looked, and saw it quite clearly. There it was, a pretty -little animal of a black and brown colour, with just a little white on -its breast. It sat up, and was holding something in its fore paws. - -“Ah!” said Uncle George, “our little friend is a thief. He has found a -nest, and that is an egg he has stolen from it. Let us see what he will -do with it.” - - [Illustration: The Weasel at Home.] - -In a moment or two Master Weasel tucked the egg under his chin and was -off once more. - -“What a dear little thing, to be sure!” said Dolly. “How quaint to carry -an egg in that way!” - -“It looks pretty, that is certain,” said Uncle George, “but it is a -dreadful foe to the smaller animals of the field. There are other foes, -too, and I hope we may see some of them before we return.” - -The boys were glad to hear their uncle say this, and they asked him to -take them, now they were rested, a little farther up the stream. - -All of them made a start. - -By and by they came to a place where the stream made a kind of pool. The -pool was bounded on each side by high rocks. At the top end the water -came down with a rush from a great height. - -It was a very lonely spot indeed; and, except for the noise of the -water, nothing could be heard. - -On and on they went. - -Uncle George told them of the stoat, the polecat, and the marten, all of -which, he said, were foes of the smaller animals. - -Tom kept a sharp look out, and hoped he would see at least one of these. - -As luck would have it, a dull splash was heard in the water a little way -in front of them. All of them looked towards the spot. - -“Down, boys, down! and keep quite still,” said Uncle George. “Hide -behind these big stones. We shall have a treat.” - -Swimming on the surface of the water was an animal as large as a -good-sized dog. Now it dived to the bottom. The ripples on the water -showed that the animal was swimming underneath. The children held their -breaths and watched. Not in vain; for there, on the other side of the -stream, the animal came out of the water. It held a fish which it had -caught. - -“Now,” said Uncle George, “we have a fine chance to look at our new -friend. That animal is the otter. See! Its body is pretty flat; its legs -are short, and its toes are webbed like those of the duck. Look at its -round nose and its small ears. If we were closer to it we should see -that there is a fold of skin which can be turned over the ears while the -creature is in the water.” - -“How fierce it looks!” broke in Dolly, “and how its eyes gleam!” - -“It is glad to have caught the fish, I should think,” said Frank. - -Uncle George raised his hand to hold the children in silence. Then he -went on in a soft voice. “Look at its flat tail, which is pointed at the -tip. The otter uses his tail as a rudder to guide him in the water. See -how sleek his dark brown skin is. It is now nearly dry, though he has -only just come out of the stream.” - -“Let us drive him away,” said Dolly, who could not help but feel sorry -for the poor fish. - -There was no need for this, however, as, just at that moment, the otter -turned towards the party, showing, as he did so, a lovely white throat. -He had heard them speaking, and was off like a flash, leaving the fish -on the rock. - -The fish had an ugly bite in its back, and was quite dead. - -“Poor, dear little thing!” cried Dolly. “What a shame to kill you!” - -“It is the otter’s nature,” said Uncle George. “He does a great deal of -good, for he kills many water-voles, or rats, as they are sometimes -called, as well as frogs and water insects. Sometimes, however, he does -harm, for he catches salmon, trout, and wild-ducks. He seems to do this -more for sport than for food, for he only eats small portions of his -prey.” - - - Questions and Exercises. - - 1. Write down the names of some animals you would expect to find if - you walked along the bank of a stream. - 2. Describe the Otter and the Weasel. Tell in what way they are like - and unlike. - - [Illustration: Common and Ox-eye Daisy compared.] - - - - - IV.—DWELLERS IN THE CORN FIELD. - - -As Uncle George walked by the edge of the corn field, Dolly and her two -brothers ran up to him. Dolly carried a bunch of huge daisies in her -hand. - -“We want you to tell us about these, Uncle George,” she said. “Tom says -that these are the little field daisies grown up; and Frank says they -are not.” - -“Frank is right,” said Uncle George, laughing. “This is not the common -field daisy. It is the _ox-eye_ daisy. You might bring me a common -daisy, Frank. I am sure there are many growing near. Ah, here is one at -our feet! Now let us hold them side by side. - -“You can see that they are unlike one another in many ways. The _ox-eye_ -daisy has much larger leaves and flowers. It bears its leaves and -flowers on tall, strong stalks. The leaves of the common daisy lie -almost flat on the ground, and there is only one little flower-head on -each stalk. When we get home we shall look at them both more closely.” - -“Oh, look at those big yellow daisies growing among the corn,” said -Dolly. - -“And I see some blue flowers near them,” said Tom. - -“The yellow flower is the _moon-daisy_. It is also called the -_corn-marigold_. It is a great deal like the two daisies we have just -been talking about. The other is the blue _cornflower_. It belongs to -the same great family as the daisies. Frank will go and fetch us some.” - -Frank gathered a bunch of both flowers. He was just reaching over for -some large red poppies when he saw a pair of small black cunning eyes -peering at him. Then a brown creature ran past him and went out of sight -among the long grass at the edge of the field. - -“A rat! a rat! Uncle George!” he shouted. - -“Yes, it is a rat, I saw it,” said his uncle. - -“But what is he doing out in the fields?” said Frank. “I always thought -that rats lived in houses.” - -“The brown rat lives where he can,” said Uncle George. “Very likely this -one has come from the farm. Farm-yard rats often come out and live among -the long grass and reeds in summer-time. When the cold weather comes, -and the crops are gathered, they go back to the stables and barns. There -they rob the farmer. They are very cunning creatures. They steal eggs, -milk, grain, and even kill and carry away young chickens. The rat lives -by thieving. That is why he is killed whenever he shows his face. - -“Rats are sometimes useful, though. They swarm in ship docks and places -where stuff is left about. They eat up what would rot and poison the -air. They thus help to keep down disease. - -“Now, boys, before we go home I am going to show you something. I found -it the other day when taking a walk.” - -Uncle George led the children to the end of the field, and pointed to a -strange object among the corn. It was a nest of some sort. It was made -of dried grass, and hung from five or six wheat stalks. It was round -like a cricket-ball, and just about as big. - -“It is the nest of the harvest-mouse,” said Uncle George in a low voice. -“Keep still, and perhaps we shall see Mistress Mousie.” - -The children waited a long time looking at the curious little object. At -last a tiny brown creature ran up one of the wheat stalks and went into -the nest. It seemed to go right through the wall of its little house. -There was no hole to be seen where it went in. Then Uncle George clapped -his hands. At once two wee brown mice came out. - -They slid down the corn stalks and were out of sight in a moment. - -“Ha! Mr and Mrs Mousie, we have disturbed you,” said Uncle George. “We -will now go nearer and see your nest.” - -“I can’t see where they came out,” said Tom. “There is no hole to be -seen.” - -Uncle George pointed out to the children how the nest was woven together -and fixed to the wheat stalks. He then took a pencil from his pocket and -moved aside some of the dried grass. The children looked in and saw a -family of naked little mice cuddled up together. They could not tell how -many there were; but Uncle George said that there were eight or nine -young ones as a rule in a harvest-mouse’s nest. - -“What will become of these wee mice when the corn is ripe?” Tom asked. - -“They will perhaps be grown up and able to take care of themselves by -that time, Tom,” said Uncle George. - -“The harvest-mouse stores up corn in its nest. Before winter comes it -makes a hole in the ground. Here it sleeps through most of the winter -and spring. It wakes up from time to time and feeds upon its store of -grains.” - -“It is much smaller and browner than our house-mouse,” said Frank. - -“Yes, Frank, it is our smallest four-footed animal. We have many kinds -of mice in this country. The brown rat is the largest and the -harvest-mouse is the smallest of our mouse family.” - -“How does it manage to slide down the wheat stalk so quickly without -falling off?” Tom asked. - -“It can use its long tail as well as its feet for climbing,” his uncle -answered. - -“When it wishes to get to the ground it just coils its little tail round -the stalk and slides down.” - - - Questions and Exercises. - - 1. Name some flowers that grow among the corn in summer and in autumn. - 2. Describe the Rat. - 3. Do you know any other animals that have teeth like the rat? - 4. What other animals, besides the harvest-mouse, store up food for - the winter? - - [Illustration: HARVEST TIME] - - [Illustration: THE SQUIRREL] - - - - - V.—HARVEST TIME. - - -“They are very busy here,” said Uncle George, as he went into the field -with Frank, Tom, and Dolly. - -And well might he say so, for the _whirr_ of the reaping-machine could -be heard far away. Round the field it went, sweeping down the golden -wheat. Following behind it were several girls, who twisted bands of -straw and laid them on the ground. Behind these came women who quickly -gathered up the cut wheat and placed it in bundles upon the bands. Then -came men who bound these bundles into sheaves and tossed them aside. -After these, again, came men who caught up the sheaves and placed them -upright in bunches of six or eight. These bunches of sheaves they called -“_stooks_.” Last of all came a huge rake drawn by horses, gathering up -all the straws that were left. Every now and then the man that guided -the rake pressed an iron bar, and, whenever he did so, all the teeth of -the rake rose up at once, and left a row of gathered straw on the field. -Then a man came and bound them into rough sheaves as before. - -All was work and bustle and noise. What with the whirr of the -reaping-machine, the girls singing as they worked, the larks singing in -the sky, and the glorious autumn sun, the children thought the -harvest-field was the most cheerful place they had ever seen. - -“Why do you do that?” Frank asked a man who was fixing up the stooks. -“Would it not be just as well if you left the sheaves lying on the -ground until you cart them away?” - -“Ah, no, Master Frank,” said the man, who knew him well, “that would -never do. We must allow the corn time to get dry, so we place the -sheaves upright that the sun and wind may dry them; and so that any rain -that falls may run down the stalks to the ground. When the sheaves are -quite dry, we take them home to the stack-yard.” - -“How long does that take?” Frank asked. - -“It all depends on the weather,” the man replied. “If it keeps fine, -they will be dry within a week. In rainy weather, sometimes the sheaves -have to stand in the fields for some weeks. In the next field the crop -was cut a week ago. They are taking it home now.” - - [Illustration: The Stack-yard.] - -“And you build the sheaves into great stacks there?” said Tom. - -“Yes, it is kept in stacks until we are ready to thresh it. You must all -come over to the farm and see it being threshed into grain and straw -some day.” - -“But why do you build it into stacks?” asked Frank. - -“So that we may keep it through the winter, and thresh a stack at a time -as we need it,” the man replied. “It is threshed by passing it through a -mill. At our farm the mill is turned by horses. At some farms there are -mills turned by a great water-wheel. Sometimes a steam-engine comes and -threshes the whole crop in the fields.” - -“And what do you do with it when it is threshed?” Dolly asked. - -“When the corn is passed through the mill, it is so shaken up that all -the grain is removed from the stalks. The grain comes out at one side of -the mill and falls into sacks. The straw is tossed out at another part. -We use the straw for bedding for horses and cows, and some kinds of -straw we use for feeding them. The grain goes to the miller, who grinds -it into flour. The flour goes to the baker, who bakes it into bread.” - -“Come along, boys!” Uncle George shouted from the next field. “We are -going over to the farmyard to see the stacks made.” - -In the next field the farmer’s men were loading a waggon with sheaves of -corn. The sheaves were caught up by long pitch-forks and tossed on to -the waggon. Here a man put them into a great square load. When this was -done, the men lifted Dolly up, and she rode up to the farmyard on the -top of the great load of sheaves. - -In the stack-yard a large round stack was being built. A wooden frame -was in the middle, and round this a man put the sheaves in a circle as -they were thrown to him from the waggon. - -“Now, boys,” said Uncle George, “Dolly wants to know why sheaves are -made with all the ears of corn at one end. Can you tell us?” - -“Oh, that is easy,” said Tom. “The sheaves have to stand in the field -for a long time to dry. They could not stand up so well if they were -made any other way. Besides, the ears of corn must be up from the -ground, or they would be broken off.” - -“There is another reason,” said Uncle George. “Look how the stack is -being made. The top, or grain end of the sheaf is inside. The outside of -the stack is made up of the cut ends of the straws. Thus the grain is -kept secure from bad weather and thieving birds. Besides, the stack -could not be made round in shape if they were placed in any other way. -The bottom of the sheaf is much wider than the top.” - -In another part of the yard men were busy roofing the newly built stacks -with straw. The straw roof was tied down with many ropes, also made of -twisted straw, and then the stack was ready. - -“What a lot of work there is in getting corn,” said Frank. - -“Ah, yes,” said his uncle, “much more work than we have seen to-day. -Think of the work done in the fields in spring, getting the land ready -for seed—the work of ploughing, sowing, reaping, and threshing done by -the farmer’s men and horses—the work done by the rain and sun in growing -and ripening the wheat—the work done by the miller and baker; and all -this, Frank, that we may have a loaf of bread.” - - - Questions and Exercises. - - 1. Tell the story of a wheat plant from the time it begins to grow - from the seed until it is ready to be cut. - 2. Where does the making of a loaf of bread really begin? From what - you have learnt in the lesson, trace the history of a loaf of - bread. - 3. Make a list of crops grown on the farm, and tell the use of each. - - - - - VI.—THE SQUIRREL. - - -“Halloa! there he goes again,” said Frank, as he watched a nimble little -animal leaping from branch to branch, and from tree-top to tree-top. “He -will fall if he does not take care.” - -“No fear of that,” said Uncle George. “His home is among the tree-tops. -He never falls. That is a squirrel, and I should not be surprised if his -nest is somewhere near. Let us sit down on this bank and watch.” - -As he spoke, Uncle George took his pair of field-glasses out of the -leather case which he sometimes carried on a strap across his shoulder, -when he went out to watch the birds. - -“Now, Mr Squirrel,” he said, “we can watch your antics from a distance. -You are a very cunning and clever little chap, no doubt.” - -When Uncle George and Dolly and the two boys first saw the squirrel, the -little creature was on the ground, bobbing about among the ferns and the -grass. The moment it saw them, however, it bounded into a tree, going -swiftly up by jerk after jerk, and always keeping on the far side of the -trunk. - -They could just see its bushy tail, first at one side of the trunk and -then, much higher up, at the other side. When it reached the top part of -the tree, it leapt from branch to branch in the most daring manner. - -“We have alarmed the creature,” said Uncle George. “But if we sit here -quite still for a little while, Mr Squirrel will get over his fright. -Ah, there he is.” - -Uncle George handed the glasses to Frank. - -“Now, tell us what you see,” he said, “and then Tom and Dolly shall each -take a look.” - -“He is sitting up on his hind legs,” said Frank. “His great, bushy tail -is bent right over his head. He is holding a little green thing in his -fore-paws. Ah, he is eating it. Look Dolly!” and Frank handed the -glasses to his little sister. - -“Oh, what a lovely little animal,” said Dolly; “and what pretty eyes he -has. They are just like a pair of bright, black beads.” - -“I think Tom ought to have the glasses now,” said Uncle George. “He has -been very patient indeed. Come Tom, tell us what the squirrel is like.” - -Tom took the glasses and looked through them for a long time. Then he -said, “He is a very pretty creature, as Dolly has said. His colour is -rich brown all over, except the front part of his body, which is a very -light brown, changing almost to white. His tail is very large and bushy, -and his ears are upright and tufted with brown hair. His fore-paws are -just like little hands. He holds the nut in them and nibbles it just -like a little monkey. His head is not unlike the rabbit’s head. His -teeth are almost exactly like rabbit’s teeth. They are chisel-shaped, -and seem to be very sharp.” - -“Splendid, Tom,” said his uncle, patting him on the back, “I don’t think -you have left anything out. Now, let me look.” - -“Oh, there is another one. There are now two of them,” said Frank. - -“Where did that one come from?” asked his uncle, looking through the -glasses. “It seemed to come out of the tree, did it not?” - -“I thought you children would leave me nothing to find out; but I see -something which you have missed. Here, Frank, take the glasses and see -if you can find it. Look at the fork of the tree just below where the -squirrels are.” - -“I see something like a nest,” said Frank. “I noticed that before, but I -thought it was a rook’s nest.” - -“Nay,” said his uncle, “it is a squirrel’s nest. Rooks build on the very -top branches of trees, and you never see one rook’s nest without a lot -of others near it. Besides, the rook’s nest is a rough flat nest, while -this is a round one with a roof on it, and a hole in the side to let the -squirrels out and in.” - -“Then that other squirrel must have come out of the nest,” said Frank. - -“Just so,” said Uncle George. “That is Mrs Squirrel. She has come out to -get some food, and her little husband will look after the family while -she is away hunting for nuts and buds and soft green bark. - -“If we could get up to that nest, we should find it to be built of twigs -and moss cleverly woven together. - -“The inside is lined with soft warm moss and dry leaves. We should, most -likely, find four or more tiny squirrels cuddled up together inside. -Blind, naked, helpless things they are at first. But they soon grow up, -and their long bare tails become bushy. Then the little mother teaches -them to climb and find food for themselves. Should one of them fall, she -springs down and carries it up to the nest in her mouth, just as a cat -carries her kittens. - -“By autumn these young squirrels will be quite as clever as their -parents. Autumn is the squirrel’s busy time. He has to prepare for the -long winter, for no nuts are to be found then. So the squirrel gathers -in his harvest of nuts. These he hides in secret places buried in the -ground. He usually has more than one storing-place. In fact, he -sometimes has so many that he forgets about some of them.” - -“We never see squirrels in winter,” said Tom. - -“No, because the squirrel sleeps the whole winter through. After he has -gathered his harvest, he looks for a snug hole deep under an old -tree-stump. This he lines with dry leaves and pieces of bark. When the -weather becomes very cold he seeks his winter nest, coils his body up so -that his great tail is folded almost right round him, and falls fast -asleep. Cold makes him drowsy, but warmth wakes him up. On a mild -winter’s day he wakes up, crawls out of his hole, and visits his store -of nuts. After he has made a good meal of them, he goes back to his bed -again, and sleeps on until hunger and mild weather wake him up. - -“During autumn the squirrel’s coat is very pretty. It is of a deep, rich -brown colour, and very thick. His tail is then very large and bushy, and -he is quite fat and sleek. - -“When he comes out of his sleeping quarters in spring he is thin and -hungry. His coat is then a very pale brown.” - -“What does he do for food in spring?” asked Tom. “There are no nuts to -be found then.” - -“Alas, no, Tom. In spring he robs birds’ nests of their eggs, and that -is why the pretty little squirrel is hunted and shot by the game-keeper. -In spring, too, he feeds on the tender buds, and so does much damage to -trees and shrubs; that is, if his winter stores are used up.” - -“I should think,” said Frank, “that such a large tail would be very much -in the squirrel’s way when climbing and leaping from branch to branch.” - -“Not at all,” said his uncle, “his huge tail is of the greatest use to -him in guiding his body. Without it he could not take such flying leaps -among the tree-tops. - -“Besides this, it often enables him to escape from his enemies. Many a -time the game-keeper’s bullets pass harmlessly through his fluffy tail, -while Mr Squirrel scampers safely up the tree; and many a time he -escapes from the cat by leaving the tip of his brush in pussy’s claws. - -“A great many of our trees have been planted by squirrels. Many a -stately oak and beech tree has sprung from the squirrel’s buried store -of acorns and beech nuts. For, as I have already told you, sometimes he -forgets where he has buried them, or perhaps fails to find them when the -forest is white with snow. So, you see, the little animal is of some use -after all.” - - - Questions and Exercises. - - 1. The squirrel has chisel-shaped teeth suited for gnawing. Name other - animals of the same kind. - 2. The squirrel’s bushy tail is of great use to him. Why? - 3. Make a list of our wild animals (1) which sleep through the winter, - and (2) which store up food for winter. - - - - - VII.—HOW THE FIRE BURNS. - - -It was a cold wet day—so cold and wet that neither Dolly nor her -brothers could venture out. They had grown tired of reading books and -drawing pictures, and were indeed feeling very dull. They sat looking at -the bright fire. Uncle George laid down his paper and said: - -“Come, let us have a lesson. What shall it be? The rain? The cat? Or -shall it be the cosy fireside?” - -“The fire,” said Frank. “Tell us why the fire burns, Uncle George!” - -“I will,” said cheery Uncle George. “Just wait until I get some things -from the kitchen. Come along, boys.” - -When Uncle George and the boys came back to the room, they brought a lot -of curious articles with them. These were an empty pickle-bottle, a -small saucer, a glass bell-jar, a large dish, a piece of candle, some -tacks, and a taper. - - [Illustration: A Baby Cloud] - - [Illustration: THE BALLOON] - -“Now,” said Uncle George, “we are ready to begin.” - -He first lighted the piece of candle and lowered it into the bottle. It -burned for a short time, then it went out. - -“Can you tell me why it goes out?” he asked. - -“Want of air,” said Tom and Frank at the same time. - -“But there is air in the bottle,” said Uncle George. - -“Yes, but not the kind of air the candle wants,” said Frank. - - [Illustration: Candle burning in Open Jar.] - -“That is a queer answer, Frank. The candle burned for a time in the -bottle before it went out.” - -“Because it used up that part of the air which makes things burn,” said -Frank. - -“That is _very_ good,” said Uncle George. - -Uncle George then poured some water into the large dish. He fixed the -candle on a big cork, lighted it and set it floating on the water. Then -he placed the glass bell-jar over it. But first of all he marked the -level of the water on the outside of the bell-jar. - -Very soon the flame of the candle became small, and at last went out. -Just then the water inside the bell-jar rose far up above Uncle George’s -mark. He marked this new level, and asked the boys if they could tell -him why the water rose in the jar. - -Both Frank and Tom shook their heads sadly. - - [Illustration: Candle in Stoppered Jar—burning.] - -“Then I must explain,” said Uncle George. - -“Some of the air has gone,” said Tom. - -“Yes,” said Uncle George. “How much of the air has gone?” - -Frank pointed to the space between the two marks. - -“That is right,” said Uncle George. “The water has risen up in the -bell-jar to take the place of the air that has been used up by the -burning of the candle. Where has this used-up air gone?” - -“It must have gone into the water,” said Tom. - -“Why did it not go into the water before the candle burned?” - -“Perhaps the burning of the candle has _changed_ this part of the air,” -said Frank. - -“Very good, Frank. You are right again. The burning of the candle has -changed a certain part of the air. It has, indeed, so changed it that it -can dissolve in water just as if it were sugar or salt.” - -Uncle George now poured water into the outer dish until it was level -with the water inside the bell-jar. Then he took out the stopper and -pushed a lighted taper into the bell-jar. The taper at once went out. - - [Illustration: Candle in Stoppered Jar—gone out.] - -“This shows us,” he said, “that a part of the air causes things to burn. -The other part of the air does not. It puts burning things out. If we -blow the fire with a bellows or fan, it burns more brightly and quickly. -Why? Just because we are forcing a stream of air upon it, and a part of -that stream of air is changed by the burning.” - -Uncle George next put some bright iron tacks in a small dish. He poured -some water out of the large dish, and placed the bell-jar in the dish. -After that he added water until it was just up to his first mark on the -bell-jar. - -Then he floated the dish with the tacks on the water. Next he wetted the -tacks with water, and then placed the bell-jar over them and put in the -stopper. - -“Now,” he said, “we will leave this just as it is for a few days.” - -The boys watched the bell-jar every day, and this is what they saw. The -water rose slowly in the bell-jar. As it rose the bright tacks turned -red with rust. The water rose higher and the tacks turned redder every -day. - -At length it rose to Uncle George’s second mark. It rose no farther, -although left for a whole week. - -Then Uncle George called the boys and asked them what had taken place in -the bell-jar. - -“The tacks have rusted, and some of the air in the jar has been used -up,” said Frank. - -“How much air has been used up?” Uncle George asked. - -“Just exactly the same as was used up when we burned the candle,” said -Tom, pointing to the top mark. - -“Let us see, then,” said Uncle George, “what part of the air has gone.” - -He poured water into the large dish until it was level with the water -inside the bell-jar. Then he put a lighted taper into the bell-jar as -before. It went out at once. - -“It is the same part of the air as the burning candle used up,” said -Frank. - -“Then we have found out,” said Uncle George, “that when a thing burns it -uses up a certain part of the air; and that when iron rusts, exactly the -same part of the air is used up. - -“In the first case, the burning of the candle changed part of the air -into a gas which dissolved in the water. In this case, that same part of -the air has joined up to part of the iron tacks to form that red powder -which we call _rust_.” - - - Questions and Exercises. - - 1. How is rust formed? - 2. Explain why things which are made of iron should be painted. - 3. A grate full of coals burns away and only a small quantity of ash - is left in the grate. What has become of the coals? - - - - - VIII.—THE FIRE-BALLOON. - - -One day Uncle George made the children a fire-balloon. He took twelve -strips of tissue-paper shaped as you see in the picture. These he pasted -neatly together at the edges so as to form a kind of bag with a round -opening at the bottom. A ring of wire was then fixed at the bottom to -keep it firm, and across the ring was stretched another piece of wire. -This was to hold a dry sponge by and by. - -Uncle George swung the balloon till it was filled with air. He told -Frank to hold it by the ring while he heated the air inside the balloon. - -This was done by holding the mouth of the balloon over a piece of rag -which had been dipped in spirits and set on fire. - - [Illustration: Strip for Balloon.] - -Soon Frank felt the balloon rising. He lifted it up away from the flame, -while Uncle George moved the little sponge along the wire to the middle -of the ring. Then he soaked the sponge with spirits and set fire to it. - -“Let go!” said Uncle George; and away went the balloon, soaring up -towards the sky. Higher and higher it rose, moving with the wind. The -children watched it until at last it seemed a mere dot in the sky, and -then it went quite out of sight. - -“What makes the balloon rise up?” Dolly asked, as they returned to the -house. - -For answer Uncle George took a cork and held it under a trough of water. -When he let it go, the cork at once rose to the top of the water. - -“What makes the cork rise up?” he asked. - -“Because it is lighter than the water,” said Tom. - -“For just the same reason the balloon rises in the air,” said Uncle -George. “Our balloon is only a bag filled with air.” - -“Then the air inside the balloon is lighter than that outside,” said -Frank. - -“Yes,” said his uncle. “What did we do to it to make it lighter?” - -“We heated it,” said Tom. - -“And what has this taught you?” asked Uncle George. - -“It has taught us,” said Frank, “that if we heat air we make it -lighter.” - -“What takes place is this,” said Uncle George. “When a small quantity of -air is heated it swells out and fills a much larger space than before. -It therefore becomes much lighter than the air round about it, and rises -up through it. Come into the house and let us take another lesson from -the fire. - - [Illustration: Strips pasted together.] - -“We have already learned that the fire in burning uses up part of the -air. After using up this part of the air, how is it that the fire does -not go out?” - -“Because there is always a fresh supply of air coming into the grate!” -said Frank. - -“Quite right. If we stand between the door and the fire we can feel this -stream of air. Something else is taking place in the grate besides the -burning of coal. What is it, Tom?” - -“Air is being heated!” - -“Very good, Tom, and what becomes of the heated air?” - -“It rises up the chimney, carrying the smoke with it; just as the heated -air in our balloon rose up, carrying the paper bag with it,” said Frank. - -“That is really a clever answer, Frank. Now, can you tell me what makes -this constant stream of cold air from the door to the fireplace?” - -“It is the cold air rushing in to take the place of the heated air that -has gone up the chimney,” said Frank. - -“Very good indeed, Frank,” said Uncle George. “And now I am going to -show you something which will prove all this very nicely.” - -He then took a saucer and poured some water into it. He placed a piece -of lighted candle in the middle of the dish and put a lamp chimney over -it. The candle burned for a few seconds and then went out. - -“Why does the candle go out?” he asked. - -“Because it has used up that part of the air which makes things burn,” -said Tom. - -“That is right,” said Uncle George, and he began to cut a piece of stout -card, shaped like the letter T, but broader every way. The upright part -fitted into the top of the lamp chimney. - -“We are now going to give the candle flame a stream of fresh air,” he -said, as he fitted the piece of card into the chimney. - -The candle was again lit and the chimney placed over it. This time it -did not go out. It burned brightly, and the flame seemed to be blown -from side to side. - -“That is very strange,” said Frank. - - [Illustration: Draught in Chimney Glass.] - -Uncle George lit a piece of brown paper. “You will understand it now,” -he said, as he held smoking paper near the top of the chimney. - -Then the boys saw a stream of smoke go down one side of the card and -come up the other side. - -“Oh, I see it now,” said Tom. “The card divides the chimney into two. -The air, heated by the candle flame, rises up one side of the card, and -the cold air goes down the other side to supply its place, drawing the -smoke with it. The candle does not go out now, because it gets a -constant stream of fresh air.” - -“Are the balloons, which are large enough to carry people, -fire-balloons?” asked Dolly. - -“No, my dear,” replied Uncle George. “They are filled with a gas that is -lighter—very much lighter—than the air. They rise up easily, and can -carry quite a heavy load.” - - - Questions and Exercises. - - 1. Take an empty bottle and heat it gently. Now turn it upside down, - and place the neck of it in cold water. Why does the water - rise in the bottle? - 2. How is a _draught_ caused? - 3. Why does a fire burn more brightly on a cold, frosty day, than on a - warm summer’s day? - - - - - IX.—THE GULL. - - -Frank, Tom, and Dolly had never seen the sea. Long ago Uncle George had -told them that he would take them, and at last the time came for them to -go. - -It was afternoon when they reached the little sea-side village where -they were to spend a few days. The children were filled with wonder when -they saw the great, restless ocean. They watched the waves breaking into -white surf, and gathered sea-weeds and shells on the sandy beach. - -By and by they all sat down to rest and to watch the gulls, for there -were many here-about. - -“We have seen birds like these before, have we not?” said Uncle George. - -“Yes,” said Tom, “we see them at home in the fields at spring-time. But -are these the same kind of gulls?” - -“Yes, Tom, they are. There are several kinds of gulls. Here we have just -two kinds. The _common gull_ and the _tern_. You can tell the one from -the other even in the distance by their mode of flying. - -“Do you see that one flying rapidly over the sea? Every now and then he -swoops down to the water and skims along, almost touching it with the -tips of his long, pointed wings. Do you know any other bird that flies -like that?” - - [Illustration: Gull flying.] - -“The swallow flies over the lake at home something like that,” said -Frank. - -“That is so,” said Uncle George. “The tern is very like the swallow both -in shape and in his manner of flight. He differs, however, in size and -colour. He is often called the ‘sea-swallow,’ and is the smallest of the -gull family. - -“Your swallows at home catch flies and other insects as they skim -through the air. The ‘sea-swallows’ live on fish. Every time they dart -down they seize and swallow a little fish. But it is done so quickly -that you cannot see it. - -“The gull’s flight is quite different. Sometimes he flies so lazily that -he does not seem to move onwards at all. Then all of a sudden he darts -down into the water to seize his prey. Sometimes he flaps his great -white wings and wheels swiftly away, flying in great circles until he is -a mere speck in the distance. The gull has a very sharp eye. Watch!” - -Uncle George threw a piece of bread into the sea. At once about a score -of gulls pounced upon it, screaming loudly. Uncle George waited until -they flew away. Then he threw them a piece of wood. None of the gulls -came near it. - -“You see,” he went on, “they can tell a piece of bread from a piece of -wood at a great distance.” - -“Then they do not live entirely on fish,” said Frank, as his uncle threw -them another piece of bread. - - [Illustration: Gull feeding.] - -“Oh, no, Frank, the gull is by no means dainty about his food. Nor does -he live all the year round at the sea. Great flocks of gulls fly inland -in spring and autumn. Then they live on worms, grubs, and whatever else -can be picked up in the fields. - - [Illustration: SEA-GULLS AND TERN] - -“We have a fine chance now, boys, of watching the gull. See, there are -some walking on the sand quite close to us, some are floating idly on -the sea, some are flying all round us. They think, no doubt, we have -lots of bread for them. Now then, boys, tell me about the common gull.” - - [Illustration: Gull at rest on the water.] - -“He is a large bird,” said Tom. “His body is white in colour, all but -his wings and back. These are of a pale bluish-grey.” - -“Very good, Tom,” said Uncle George. “Come on, Frank.” - -“He has a large, greyish-green bill. The tip of it is hooked in shape, -and yellow. His legs are greenish-grey. The three front toes of his feet -are webbed.” - -“But,” said Tom, “I can see other gulls darker in colour. Their bodies -are dark brown and grey above and light brown below. What are they?” - -“They are the young gulls, Tom. They have not got rid of their nest -feathers yet.” - -“Where do they build their nests?” Dolly asked. - -“High up on the cliffs, and on lonely rocky islands. Like the rooks, -they all nest together. The gull’s nest is a very simple thing. It is -just a hole scraped in the ground and covered with dried grass. Here -two, or perhaps three, spotted eggs are laid. The gull is very fond of -her young. She will not allow them to try to fly from the high cliff. -She carries them one by one on her back down to the sea, and there -teaches them to swim. - -“Some gulls—the _black-headed gull_, for example—go far inland to nest. -These build their nests on the shores of small hill lakes. They return -to the sea with their young ones in autumn. - -“Gulls are clever birds. They are bold and active. The wild ocean is -their home. Storms bring no fears for them.” - - - Exercises and Questions. - - 1. Tell the life-story of the common gull. - 2. Make a list of all the sea birds you know. - 3. The common gull has very large wings, curious beak and feet. Can - you explain what these are for? - - [Illustration: Engine puffing on a cold day.] - - - - - X.—DEW, FROST, RAIN. - - -“How is it, Uncle George, that there is always a clear space between the -spout of the kettle and the puff of steam?” - -It was Frank that asked the question. He had been watching the kettle -boiling for a long time. - -“It is the same with the railway engine,” said Tom. “There is always a -big space between the funnel and the puff.” - -“That is so,” said Uncle George. “But if you watch carefully, you will -notice that the space between the funnel of the engine and the puff of -steam is not always of the same size.” - - [Illustration: Engine puffing on a hot day.] - -“No,” said Frank, “I have noticed that the white puff is farther away -from the funnel on a hot day than on a cold day.” - -“That is true,” said his uncle. “Perhaps you have also noticed that, as -the engine rushes along, it leaves a long white cloud trailing in the -air behind it. Sooner or later this long white cloud melts away from -sight. It melts away sooner on a hot day than on a cold day. Where does -it go?” - -“It goes into the air,” said Frank; “just as the cloud from this kettle -goes into the air of the room.” - -“Very good,” said Uncle George. “Tom, will you please fetch me a tumbler -full of cold water, and see that the outside of the glass is quite dry?” - -When Tom came back with the glass of cold water, Uncle George wiped it -outside with a clean dry cloth. When he was sure that the outside of it -was dry, he placed the tumbler of water on the table in the middle of -the warm room. - -“Now,” he said, “let us try to answer Frank’s question about the clear -space between the spout of the kettle and the puff of steam. - -“The fact is,” Uncle George went on, “the white puff which we call -_steam_ is not steam at all. We might just as well call it -‘_water-dust_.’ For it is made up of tiny droplets of water—so tiny that -they float in air. Steam is water in the form of gas. Like the air we -breathe, it cannot be seen. In fact, this water-gas forms part of the -air around us. The clear space between the spout of the kettle and the -puff is made up of hot steam. We cannot see it. As it comes out into the -colder air, it is cooled into the tiny droplets which form the puff. It -is only when cooled into tiny droplets that we can see it. - -“If you hold any cold object, such as a knife, in the puff, these water -particles run together and form large drops upon it. The cloud of -water-dust melts away in the room, as Frank told us. What takes place is -this. The tiny droplets, when spread out into the warm air, become real -steam, or ‘water-gas,’ again. - -“The outside of this tumbler of cold water was quite dry when I placed -it on the table. Run your finger along it and tell me what you find.” - -Frank did so, and said, “Why, it is quite wet now.” - -“Yes,” said Uncle George, “it is covered all over with very small drops -of water. Where did this water come from. It could not come _through_ -the glass.” - -“It is like dew,” said Tom. - -“It is dew—_real dew_,” said Uncle George. “The water in the glass is -much colder than the air around it. The film of air next the glass is -cooled, and the ‘water-gas’ which this film of air contains is changed -into water drops. - -“The earth is heated during the day by the sun, and the layer of air -next to it becomes filled with water-gas. At night the earth gets cold. -The water-gas, if the night is calm, comes out of the film of air next -to the earth. It settles in the form of tiny drops on everything around. - -“When the earth gets very cold, the water freezes as it changes from gas -to water, and instead of dew we have _frost_.” - -“Oh, that is why we have frost on the _inside_ of the window panes in -winter,” said Frank. - -“That is so,” said his uncle. “The frost on your window pane is the -water-gas of the warm room changed into particles of ice. But let us -come back to our steam puff. We spoke about the long white streak of -water-dust which the engine leaves behind it. Do you know of anything -else like that outside?” - -“Oh yes,” said Tom, “the clouds far up in the sky are very like it.” - -“They are,” said Uncle George. “In fact, the clouds in the sky and the -cloud behind the engine are just the same kind of thing. They are both -made up of tiny particles of water. - -“We have learnt that the streak of cloud left by the steam-engine melts -away quickly on a hot day, also that the puff is farther from the funnel -on a hot day. This shows us that the warmer the air is, the more water -can it take up and hold. We have also learnt that warm air is light and -rises up.[2] - -“What happens when warm air, which holds much water-gas, rises up to the -higher and colder parts of the sky?” - -“It gets cooled,” answered Frank. - -“Yes, and its water-gas gets cooled too. Then we can see it as great -masses of water-dust. These masses we call _clouds_. If these masses of -cloud get further cooled, the tiny water particles run together to form -great drops—as they did on the cold knife. They are now too large and -heavy to float in the air, so they fall to the earth as _rain_.” - - [Illustration: A Showery Day.] - - - Questions and Exercises. - - 1. If you place a saucer full of water outside on a hot day in the - morning, and go back to it in the evening, you will find the - saucer dry. Where has the water gone? - 2. Fill a tin can with a mixture of salt and snow (or chopped ice). - Place it in a warm room. _Frost_ comes on the outside of the - tin. Place a glass jug of water in the same room. _Dew_ is - formed on the outside of the jug. Can you explain this? - 3. Let the steam puff of the kettle strike against a cold sheet of - glass or metal, or a slab of stone. What is formed? - - - - - Footnotes - - -[1]See Lesson I., Book IV. - -[2]See lesson “The Fire-Balloon.” - - - PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN AT THE PRESS OF THE PUBLISHERS. - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - ---Retained publication information from the printed exemplar (this eBook - is in the public domain in the country of publication.) - ---Only in the text versions, delimited italicized text with - _underscores_. - ---Silently corrected several typos. - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The 'Look About You' Nature Study -Books, Book 2 (of 7), by Thomas W. 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clear:both; margin-left:2em; } - .toc dd.t { text-align:right; clear:both; margin-left:4em; text-indent:0em; } - .toc dt a, .toc dd a { text-align:left; clear:right; float:left; } - .toc dt.sc { text-align:right; clear:both; font-variant:small-caps; } - .toc dt.scl { text-align:left; clear:both; font-variant:small-caps; } - .toc dt.sct { text-align:right; clear:both; font-variant:small-caps; margin-left:1em; } - .toc dt.jl { text-align:left; clear:both; font-variant:normal; } - .toc dt.scc { text-align:center; clear:both; font-variant:small-caps; } - .toc dt span.jl { text-align:left; display:block; float:left; } - .toc dt.jr { font-style:normal; } - .toc dt a span.cn, .toc dt span.cn, dt span.cn { width:3.5em; text-align:right; margin-right:.7em; float:left; } - - /* FOOTNOTES */ - sup, a.fn { font-size:75%; vertical-align:100%; line-height:50%; font-weight:normal; } -</style> -</head> -<body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The 'Look About You' Nature Study Books, -Book 2 (of 7), by Thomas W. Hoare - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The 'Look About You' Nature Study Books, Book 2 (of 7) - -Author: Thomas W. Hoare - -Release Date: October 16, 2015 [EBook #50236] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LOOK ABOUT YOU NATURE STUDY, VOL 2 *** - - - - -Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Stephen Hutcheson, and the -Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - -</pre> - -<div id="cover" class="img"> -<img id="coverpage" src="images/cover.jpg" alt="The Look About You Nature Book, No. 2" width="500" height="689" /> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig1"> -<img src="images/illus001.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="578" /> -<p class="caption">The land is at rest</p> -</div> -<div class="box"> -<h1><span class="small">The -<br />“LOOK ABOUT YOU”</span> -<br />Nature Study Books</h1> -<p class="center"><span class="large"><b>BOOK II.</b></span></p> -<p class="tbcenter"><span class="smaller">BY</span> -<br />THOMAS W. HOARE</p> -<p class="center"><span class="smaller">TEACHER OF NATURE STUDY -<br />to the Falkirk School Board and Stirlingshire County Council</span></p> -<div class="img" id="fig2"> -<img src="images/illus002a.jpg" alt="Publisher’s Logo" width="200" height="202" /> -</div> -<p class="center">LONDON: T. C. & E. C. JACK, Ltd. -<br /><span class="small">35 PATERNOSTER ROW, E.C. -<br />AND EDINBURGH</span></p> -</div> -<h2>PREFACE.</h2> -<p>This little book should be used as a simple guide to -the practical study of Nature rather than as a mere reader.</p> -<p>Every lesson herein set down has, during the author’s -many years’ experience in teaching Nature Study, been -taught by observation and practice again and again; -and each time with satisfactory result. The materials -required for the lessons are within everybody’s reach.</p> -<p>There is nothing that appeals to the heart of the -ordinary child like <i>living things</i>, be they animal or -vegetable, and there is no branch of education at the -present day that bears, in the young mind, such excellent -fruit as the study of the simple, living things around us.</p> -<p>Your child is nothing if not curious. He wants to -understand everything that lives in his bright little world.</p> -<p>Nature Study involves so many ingenious little deductions, -that the reasoning powers are almost constantly -employed, and intelligence grows proportionately. The -child’s powers of observation are stimulated, and his -memory is cultivated in the way most pleasing to his -inquiring nature. By drawing his specimens, no matter -how roughly or rapidly, his eye is trained more thoroughly -than any amount of enforced copying of stiff, uninteresting -models of prisms, cones, etc., ever could train it.</p> -<p>The love of flowers and animals is one of the most -commendable traits in the disposition of the wondering -child, and ought to be encouraged above all others. A -few lessons on Nature Phenomena are added.</p> -<p>It is the author’s fondest and most sanguine hope -that his little pupils may study further the great book -of Nature, whose broad pages are ever open to us, and -whose silent answers to our manifold questions are -never very difficult to read.</p> -<p><span class="lr">T. W. H.</span></p> -<h2>CONTENTS</h2> -<dl class="toc"> -<dt class="jr small"><span class="jl"><span class="small">LESSON</span></span> <span class="small">PAGE</span></dt> -<dt><span class="cn">I. </span><a href="#c1">How Plants take Food from the Soil (1)</a> 5</dt> -<dt><span class="cn">II. </span><a href="#c2">How Plants take Food from the Soil (2)</a> 13</dt> -<dt><span class="cn">III. </span><a href="#c3">The Weasel and the Otter</a> 20</dt> -<dt><span class="cn">IV. </span><a href="#c4">Dwellers in the Corn Field</a> 27</dt> -<dt><span class="cn">V. </span><a href="#c5">Harvest Time</a> 33</dt> -<dt><span class="cn">VI. </span><a href="#c6">The Squirrel</a> 40</dt> -<dt><span class="cn">VII. </span><a href="#c7">How the Fire Burns</a> 48</dt> -<dt><span class="cn">VIII. </span><a href="#c8">The Fire-Balloon</a> 55</dt> -<dt><span class="cn">IX. </span><a href="#c9">The Gull</a> 61</dt> -<dt><span class="cn">X. </span><a href="#c10">Dew, Frost, Rain</a> 68</dt> -</dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_5">5</div> -<h1 title="">“LOOK ABOUT YOU.” -<br /><span class="small">BOOK II.</span></h1> -<h2 id="c1">I.—HOW PLANTS TAKE FOOD FROM THE SOIL (1).</h2> -<p>Uncle George had taught his little friends -many things from what he called the Book of -Nature, and what they had learnt made them -eager to know more.</p> -<p>One day as Dolly, the boys, and Uncle -George were in the garden they saw that a -tulip, which the day before was in full bloom -and strong, was now lying dead on the -ground.</p> -<p>“Poor little tulip!” said Dolly. Both the -boys were sorry too. They had watched it -come through the ground like a blade of -grass, open out its bud, and expand its -<span class="pb" id="Page_6">6</span> -bloom. Now all was over. The little flower -would no longer enjoy the bright sunshine or -the rain. It would no longer send forth its -rootlets in search of the food it so much -liked.</p> -<p>“Have you ever thought, Dolly, how the -tulip, and indeed all plants, take their food -from the soil?” asked Uncle George.</p> -<p>“I know they <i>must</i> feed in some way,” -said Dolly, “or they would not grow. But I -do not know how they do it.”</p> -<p>“Should you like to know, Dolly?” asked -Uncle George.</p> -<p>“Indeed I should,” said the little girl.</p> -<p>The boys were just as eager as Dolly to -know about this, so Uncle George and the -children went indoors for a lesson.</p> -<p>“I cannot tell you how plants take their -food from the soil without first of all showing -you what happens when water and soil -are mixed together in a tumbler,” said Uncle -George. “Tom will fetch me a tumbler, and -you, Frank, bring me a little water.”</p> -<p>When these were brought, Uncle George -put a spoonful of soil into the tumbler, and -then poured some water on it.</p> -<p>“Stir it up, please, Dolly,” said Uncle -<span class="pb" id="Page_7">7</span> -George, “and you may pretend you are going -to make a pudding.”</p> -<p>Dolly did so.</p> -<p>“Now let us put it aside for a few minutes, -while we place the flowers we have gathered -into the vases,” said Uncle George. “Then -we will look at our tumbler of muddy water.”</p> -<p>How pretty the flowers were made to -look! How fresh they were! and how pleasant -was their scent! The children hardly thought -of the tumbler, but Uncle George was ready -now for the lesson.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig3"> -<img src="images/illus008.jpg" alt="" width="348" height="501" /> -<p class="caption">Glass of Mud and Water.</p> -</div> -<p>“Look! look, at the tumbler,” -said he. “Do you see -a change?”</p> -<p>“Indeed we do,” said all -the children in one voice.</p> -<p>“The mud has sunk to -the bottom of the glass,” -added Tom, “and the water -on the top is clear.”</p> -<p>Uncle George poured some -of the clear water into a -clean flat dish. Then he took a spirit-lamp -from a little cabinet, and heated the water -in the dish with it.</p> -<p>The children watched to see what would -<span class="pb" id="Page_8">8</span> -happen. Soon a cloud was seen over the -dish, and by and by all the water had gone.</p> -<p>“But what is that at the bottom of the -dish?” asked Uncle George.</p> -<p>“It looks like powder,” said Frank.</p> -<p>“And it must have been in the water all -the time,” added Tom.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig4"> -<img src="images/illus009.jpg" alt="" width="270" height="499" /> -<p class="caption">Evaporating Salt Water.</p> -</div> -<p>“And yet the water was -clear,” said Uncle George. -“Look once more.”</p> -<p>As he spoke, Uncle George -took a glass of clean water -from the tap. He put two -large spoonfuls of salt in, and -stirred it up.</p> -<p>“You see,” he said, “the -salt has gone from sight. -Still the water is clear. -Where has it gone?”</p> -<p>“Into the water,” said -Tom.</p> -<p>Uncle George put more salt in the water, -and stirred it up. He kept on doing this -until the water would take up no more salt, -no matter how much it was stirred. This he -called <i>brine</i>.</p> -<p>“Now, Frank, please go and ask mother -<span class="pb" id="Page_9">9</span> -for a fresh egg,” he said, “and you, Tom, -please bring me some fresh water in another -glass.”</p> -<div class="img" id="fig5"> -<img src="images/illus010.jpg" alt="" width="319" height="500" /> -<p class="caption">Egg floating in Salt Water.</p> -</div> -<p>Uncle George placed -the egg in the glass in -which the salt had been -put, and it floated in it. -He then placed the egg in -the glass of fresh water, -and it at once sank to the -bottom.</p> -<p>“Can you explain this!” -he said.</p> -<p>“The salt water is -heavier and thicker than the fresh water. -That is why it bears up the egg,” said -Frank.</p> -<p>“That is very good indeed, Frank. That -is just the reason. The salt water or brine -is <i>denser</i>, or heavier, than the other.”</p> -<p>Uncle George next took a glass tube -with a thistle-shaped bulb at the end of -it. Frank kept his finger on the small -end, while his uncle poured some of the -brine into the bulb. He next tied a piece of -bladder skin over the bulb, and placed it in -a glass of fresh water, so that the salt water -<span class="pb" id="Page_10">10</span> -in the tube was at the same level as the -fresh water in the glass.</p> -<p>Then he took two small glass bottles. He -filled one with fresh water and the other with -brine, and tied a piece of bladder skin over -the mouth of each. The one which was filled -with brine he placed in a larger dish of fresh -water. The other, that is the one filled with -fresh water, he placed in a dish of brine.</p> -<p>“Now, children, we will go and have tea,” -he said, “and when we come back we will -see if any change has taken place.”</p> -<p>About an hour later Uncle George, Dolly, -and the boys came back.</p> -<p>“Oh,” said Frank, “look, Uncle George! -The water has risen up in the thistle tube.”</p> -<p>“Yes, how do you account for that, -Frank?”</p> -<p>“Some of the fresh water has passed -through the skin,” Frank answered.</p> -<p>“Now taste the water in the glass outside -the skin,” said Uncle George. “It was fresh -water when we put it in, wasn’t it?”</p> -<p>Frank did so. Tom tasted it too. Both -boys declared that it was now salt.</p> -<p>“Where did the salt taste come from?” -their uncle asked.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_11">11</div> -<p>“It must have come through the skin,” -said Tom.</p> -<p>“Then some of the salt water in the -thistle tube has passed through the skin into -the glass; and some of the fresh water in the -glass has passed through the skin into the -thistle tube. Can you tell me any more?”</p> -<p>Frank thought for a little while and then -said, “Oh yes, more fresh water than salt -water has passed through the skin, because -the salt water is now far up the tube.”</p> -<p>“Quite right, my boy. Now let us look -at the small bottles. The skin on the one -filled with brine is swollen out like a ball, -while the water in the dish tastes salt. The -skin of the other is drawn far in, showing us -that much of the fresh water which it contained -has passed out. If you taste the -water in this bottle, you will find that a very -little of the brine in the dish has passed into -it through the skin.</p> -<p>“Now what we learn from these things is -really this—that when two liquids, a heavy -and a light one, are separated by a thin skin, -they <i>both</i> pass through the skin. The heavy -liquid passes through slowly, and the light -liquid passes through quickly.”</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_12">12</div> -<p>Uncle George then placed some small -seeds on a piece of wet blotting-paper. He -turned a glass tumbler upside down, and -placed it over them.</p> -<p>“We will leave these for a few days,” he -said.</p> -<h3>Questions and Exercises.</h3> -<dl class="ex"><dt>1. Boil some river-water in a flat dish until all the water is gone. Do the same with some sea-water, or, if this is not at hand, make some brine. Examine the two dishes, and tell what you see.</dt> -<dt>2. Take a glass gas chimney, and tie a piece of bladder, or parchment, over one end of it. Half fill it with sugar and water. Now place it with its tied-up end bottommost in a tumbler of clear cold water. After an hour or so taste the water in the tumbler. What have you to say about it?</dt> -<dt>3. What takes place when brine and clear water are separated from one another by a piece of skin (parchment)?</dt></dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_13">13</div> -<div class="img" id="fig6"> -<img src="images/illus014.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="230" /> -<p class="caption">A Box of Mustard Seeds.</p> -</div> -<h2 id="c2">II.—HOW PLANTS TAKE FOOD FROM THE SOIL (2).</h2> -<p>A whole week went by before Uncle -George was ready for the next lesson.</p> -<p>At last he called the children and said to -them—“Tom, will you please fetch me the -seeds which we put on the wet blotting-paper -under the tumbler? Frank, bring me -two leafy branches from a rose-bush in the -garden; and, Dolly, please fetch two glasses -from the kitchen.”</p> -<p>Now there was nothing the children liked -better than to help their Uncle George, and -all three rushed off at once to do his -bidding.</p> -<p>While they were away Uncle George himself -<span class="pb" id="Page_14">14</span> -went into the garden, dug up two young -plants, and brought them to the children in -the study.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig7"> -<img src="images/illus015.jpg" alt="" width="309" height="499" /> -<p class="caption">Sun-flower Plant in Water.</p> -</div> -<p>“Now, children,” said Uncle George, “we -are ready to begin our lesson. Fill one of -the glasses with water, Frank, and put one -of your leafy rose branches in each glass—one -branch in water and -the other in a dry glass. -Can you tell me what will -happen to the branches?”</p> -<p>The children had many -times seen what had happened -to flowers when the -maid had forgotten to put -water in the vases, so that -Tom readily said, “Yes, the -one in the dry glass will -wither, while the one in the -water will keep fresh for some time.”</p> -<p>“How do you know that?”</p> -<p>“Because it always happens, Uncle,” said -Frank. “Why, sometimes the flowers we -gather in the wood are faded before we get -home. They often come back to life when -put in water.”</p> -<p>“You are quite right, Frank,” Uncle -<span class="pb" id="Page_15">15</span> -George replied. “See, here are two young -sun-flower plants, which I brought in from -the garden. I -placed one in -water. The other -I left lying on -the table. The -one on the table -is dead. What -does this show us?”</p> -<div class="img" id="fig8"> -<img src="images/illus016.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="258" /> -<p class="caption">The Sun-flower, faded.</p> -</div> -<p>“That plants require water,” said Tom. -“That whenever you cut off their water -supply they die.”</p> -<p>“Quite right, Tom. We shall see by and -by that plants are always giving off a great -deal of water to the air from their leaves.<a class="fn" id="fr_1" href="#fn_1">[1]</a> -Where do they get this water from?”</p> -<p>“It must be from the soil,” said Frank.</p> -<p>“It must be,” said Uncle George. “If we -keep a plant in a pot without watering it, it -soon dies. All the water it contains will by -and by travel up to the leaves. It passes -out through tiny pores in the leaves into the -air. If no more water comes up from the -soil, the plant withers and dies. The roots of -plants search the soil in all directions for -<span class="pb" id="Page_16">16</span> -water. And in this water there is but little -plant-food. We saw this when we boiled -away the clear water which covered the soil -in the glass.</p> -<p>“If we boil away some water from the tap, -we shall find some solid matter left behind in -the dish. Thus we see that in order to get -a <i>small</i> quantity of food, plants take up a -<i>great</i> quantity of water from the soil. Most -of the water is sent into the air from the -leaves. But the food stuff remains in the -plant, just as it did in the dish.</p> -<p>“Now I am going to show you how this -water gets into the plant. Look at these -little seeds on the damp blotting-paper!</p> -<p>“Each seed has a small plant with a long -root, and small, stout green leaves. Look at -the roots and tell me what you see?”</p> -<p>“They are covered with silky stuff,” said -Frank.</p> -<p>“Yes. Now take this glass, which will -make things look bigger than they really are, -and look at the roots once more.”</p> -<p>“The silky stuff is a number of fine hairs,” -said Frank.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig9"> -<img src="images/illus018.jpg" alt="" width="574" height="801" /> -<p class="caption">THE OTTER</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig10"> -<img src="images/illus021.jpg" alt="" width="584" height="800" /> -<p class="caption">FIELD-MICE</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_17">17</div> -<p>“That is quite right, Frank,” said Uncle -George. “These are the <i>root-hairs</i>. Each of -these hairs is a long bag or sac, of very thin -skin. It is filled with a liquid called <i>sap</i>, -which is slightly denser, or heavier, than the -water in the blotting-paper. Now, do you see -how a plant takes food from the soil, when it -is growing in the garden or in a field?”</p> -<p>“Yes, I think I do,” said Frank. “The -water in the soil contains very little plant-food. -The water inside the tiny sac contains -very much.”</p> -<p>“And what have you to say, Tom?”</p> -<p>“One of these liquids is denser than the -other,” said Tom. “Both are separated by a -thin skin. The lighter liquid outside the sac -will pass into it quickly, while the heavier -liquid will pass out slowly.”</p> -<p>“Bravo! Tom!” said Uncle George. “I -couldn’t have given a better reply myself. -The water from the soil passes in quickly. -The sap from the inside of each root-hair -passes out slowly. If they were both of the -same density, neither would pass through the -skin. If the water in the soil were the -denser, then the sap would pass out so -quickly that the plant would soon be robbed -of its water.</p> -<p>“Here are two young plants, each growing -<span class="pb" id="Page_18">18</span> -in a small pot. I want you to water -them, Tom. Water one with salt and water -(brine), the other with tap-water.”</p> -<p>Tom did as he was asked.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig11"> -<img src="images/illus023.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="459" /> -<p class="caption">Plants watered with Fresh and Salt Water.</p> -</div> -<p>“See,” said Uncle George, “the one which -you watered with brine is drooping. It is -bending over the pot. That is because the -water outside its root-hairs is denser than -that which is inside the plant.”</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_19">19</div> -<p>“How does the water get up from the -roots to the leaves?” Frank asked.</p> -<p>“Just in the same way as the oil travels -up the wick of the lamp. Water will always -travel up through small spaces.”</p> -<p>Uncle George poured some red ink into a -saucer, and dipped the corner of a lump of -sugar into it. The red ink ran up into the -sugar until it was red all over. Next he -took a bundle of very small glass tubes, and -dipped the ends of them in the ink. The -ink ran up the tubes, filling them to the top.</p> -<p>“Inside every plant,” Uncle George went -on, “there are thousands of long tiny tubes, -up which the water travels. In fact the <i>veins</i> -of a leaf are just bundles of tubes, something -like the bundle I hold in my hand.”</p> -<h3>Questions and Exercises.</h3> -<dl class="ex"><dt>1. Why do branches wither quickly when cut from the tree? How would you keep them from withering quickly?</dt> -<dt>2. Place two small panes of clean glass close together. Dip the corner of them in coloured water, and watch what happens.</dt> -<dt>3. Why do we never see the silky <i>root-hairs</i> when we dig or pull a plant out of the ground?</dt></dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_20">20</div> -<h2 id="c3">III.—THE WEASEL AND THE OTTER.</h2> -<p>It was Frank who wanted to follow the -stream far up towards the hills. He wished -to see where it began, for he had heard that -its source was in several small streams many -miles away.</p> -<p>Uncle George agreed to take the children -as far up the stream as they could walk, -without being tired. Soon they were far up -above the wood, and the fields, and the -pond.</p> -<p>Frank was not in the least sorry when -his uncle sat down on a large stone by the -side of the stream.</p> -<p>“We shall not go much farther,” said -Uncle George. “Some other day we will. -But tell me what you think of the country -round about you.”</p> -<p>“It is very wild and lonely,” said Tom. -“There are no fields of corn; nothing but -green hills and moorland. Yet it is very -grand.”</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_21">21</div> -<p>“The flowers and plants are not like those -of the valley,” said Tom. “The stream, too, -is different. Here it is a noisy, rushing -course of clear, lovely water. Down below -it is a lazy-flowing stream.”</p> -<p>“It is not always so clear,” said Uncle -George. “After heavy rains this stream is -swollen and brown.”</p> -<p>“Look! look!” cried Dolly. “What is -that on the other side of the stream?”</p> -<p>Sure enough there was something moving -about. Now it turned round and opened its -mouth, showing two rows of sharp, white -teeth. Then, with a harsh cry that could -be heard above the noise of the water, it -bolted away.</p> -<p>There was just time for all to see the -creature, which Tom at once called a weasel.</p> -<p>“Yes, a weasel it is,” said Uncle George; -“it is one of the animals which prey on -rabbits and young hares. Look! there it -is again.”</p> -<p>The children looked, and saw it quite -clearly. There it was, a pretty little animal -of a black and brown colour, with just a -little white on its breast. It sat up, and was -holding something in its fore paws.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_22">22</div> -<p>“Ah!” said Uncle George, “our little -friend is a thief. He has found a nest, and -that is an egg he has stolen from it. Let us -see what he will do with it.”</p> -<div class="img" id="fig12"> -<img src="images/illus027.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="417" /> -<p class="caption">The Weasel at Home.</p> -</div> -<p>In a moment or two Master Weasel -tucked the egg under his chin and was off -once more.</p> -<p>“What a dear little thing, to be sure!” -<span class="pb" id="Page_23">23</span> -said Dolly. “How quaint to carry an egg -in that way!”</p> -<p>“It looks pretty, that is certain,” said -Uncle George, “but it is a dreadful foe to -the smaller animals of the field. There are -other foes, too, and I hope we may see some -of them before we return.”</p> -<p>The boys were glad to hear their uncle -say this, and they asked him to take them, -now they were rested, a little farther up the -stream.</p> -<p>All of them made a start.</p> -<p>By and by they came to a place where -the stream made a kind of pool. The pool -was bounded on each side by high rocks. At -the top end the water came down with a -rush from a great height.</p> -<p>It was a very lonely spot indeed; and, -except for the noise of the water, nothing -could be heard.</p> -<p>On and on they went.</p> -<p>Uncle George told them of the stoat, the -polecat, and the marten, all of which, he -said, were foes of the smaller animals.</p> -<p>Tom kept a sharp look out, and hoped he -would see at least one of these.</p> -<p>As luck would have it, a dull splash was -<span class="pb" id="Page_24">24</span> -heard in the water a little way in front of -them. All of them looked towards the spot.</p> -<p>“Down, boys, down! and keep quite still,” -said Uncle George. “Hide behind these big -stones. We shall have a treat.”</p> -<p>Swimming on the surface of the water -was an animal as large as a good-sized dog. -Now it dived to the bottom. The ripples on -the water showed that the animal was -swimming underneath. The children held -their breaths and watched. Not in vain; for -there, on the other side of the stream, the -animal came out of the water. It held a fish -which it had caught.</p> -<p>“Now,” said Uncle George, “we have a -fine chance to look at our new friend. That -animal is the otter. See! Its body is pretty -flat; its legs are short, and its toes are -webbed like those of the duck. Look at its -round nose and its small ears. If we were -closer to it we should see that there is a -fold of skin which can be turned over the -ears while the creature is in the water.”</p> -<p>“How fierce it looks!” broke in Dolly, -“and how its eyes gleam!”</p> -<p>“It is glad to have caught the fish, I -should think,” said Frank.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_25">25</div> -<p>Uncle George raised his hand to hold the -children in silence. Then he went on in a -soft voice. “Look at its flat tail, which is -pointed at the tip. The otter uses his tail -as a rudder to guide him in the water. See -how sleek his dark brown skin is. It is now -nearly dry, though he has only just come out -of the stream.”</p> -<p>“Let us drive him away,” said Dolly, who -could not help but feel sorry for the poor -fish.</p> -<p>There was no need for this, however, as, -just at that moment, the otter turned towards -the party, showing, as he did so, a lovely -white throat. He had heard them speaking, -and was off like a flash, leaving the fish on -the rock.</p> -<p>The fish had an ugly bite in its back, and -was quite dead.</p> -<p>“Poor, dear little thing!” cried Dolly. -“What a shame to kill you!”</p> -<p>“It is the otter’s nature,” said Uncle -George. “He does a great deal of good, -for he kills many water-voles, or rats, as they -are sometimes called, as well as frogs and -water insects. Sometimes, however, he does -harm, for he catches salmon, trout, and wild-ducks. -<span class="pb" id="Page_26">26</span> -He seems to do this more for sport -than for food, for he only eats small portions -of his prey.”</p> -<h3>Questions and Exercises.</h3> -<dl class="ex"><dt>1. Write down the names of some animals you would expect to find if you walked along the bank of a stream.</dt> -<dt>2. Describe the Otter and the Weasel. Tell in what way they are like and unlike.</dt></dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_27">27</div> -<div class="img" id="fig13"> -<img src="images/illus032.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="379" /> -<p class="caption">Common and Ox-eye Daisy compared.</p> -</div> -<h2 id="c4">IV.—DWELLERS IN THE CORN FIELD.</h2> -<p>As Uncle George walked by the edge of -the corn field, Dolly and her two brothers ran -up to him. Dolly carried a bunch of huge -daisies in her hand.</p> -<p>“We want you to tell us about these, -Uncle George,” she said. “Tom says that -these are the little field daisies grown up; -and Frank says they are not.”</p> -<p>“Frank is right,” said Uncle George, -laughing. “This is not the common field -daisy. It is the <i>ox-eye</i> daisy. You might -<span class="pb" id="Page_28">28</span> -bring me a common daisy, Frank. I am -sure there are many growing near. Ah, here -is one at our feet! Now let us hold them -side by side.</p> -<p>“You can see that they are unlike one -another in many ways. The <i>ox-eye</i> daisy has -much larger leaves and flowers. It bears its -leaves and flowers on tall, strong stalks. The -leaves of the common daisy lie almost flat on -the ground, and there is only one little flower-head -on each stalk. When we get home we -shall look at them both more closely.”</p> -<p>“Oh, look at those big yellow daisies -growing among the corn,” said Dolly.</p> -<p>“And I see some blue flowers near them,” -said Tom.</p> -<p>“The yellow flower is the <i>moon-daisy</i>. It -is also called the <i>corn-marigold</i>. It is a great -deal like the two daisies we have just been -talking about. The other is the blue <i>cornflower</i>. -It belongs to the same great family -as the daisies. Frank will go and fetch us -some.”</p> -<p>Frank gathered a bunch of both flowers. -He was just reaching over for some large red -poppies when he saw a pair of small black -cunning eyes peering at him. Then a brown -<span class="pb" id="Page_29">29</span> -creature ran past him and went out of sight -among the long grass at the edge of the -field.</p> -<p>“A rat! a rat! Uncle George!” he -shouted.</p> -<p>“Yes, it is a rat, I saw it,” said his uncle.</p> -<p>“But what is he doing out in the fields?” -said Frank. “I always thought that rats -lived in houses.”</p> -<p>“The brown rat lives where he can,” said -Uncle George. “Very likely this one has -come from the farm. Farm-yard rats often -come out and live among the long grass and -reeds in summer-time. When the cold -weather comes, and the crops are gathered, -they go back to the stables and barns. -There they rob the farmer. They are very -cunning creatures. They steal eggs, milk, -grain, and even kill and carry away young -chickens. The rat lives by thieving. That is -why he is killed whenever he shows his -face.</p> -<p>“Rats are sometimes useful, though. They -swarm in ship docks and places where stuff -is left about. They eat up what would rot -and poison the air. They thus help to keep -down disease.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_30">30</div> -<p>“Now, boys, before we go home I am -going to show you something. I found it the -other day when taking a walk.”</p> -<p>Uncle George led the children to the end -of the field, and pointed to a strange object -among the corn. It was a nest of some -sort. It was made of dried grass, and hung -from five or six wheat stalks. It was -round like a cricket-ball, and just about -as big.</p> -<p>“It is the nest of the harvest-mouse,” -said Uncle George in a low voice. “Keep -still, and perhaps we shall see Mistress -Mousie.”</p> -<p>The children waited a long time looking -at the curious little object. At last a tiny -brown creature ran up one of the wheat -stalks and went into the nest. It seemed to -go right through the wall of its little house. -There was no hole to be seen where it went -in. Then Uncle George clapped his hands. -At once two wee brown mice came out.</p> -<p>They slid down the corn stalks and were -out of sight in a moment.</p> -<p>“Ha! Mr and Mrs Mousie, we have -disturbed you,” said Uncle George. “We will -now go nearer and see your nest.”</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_31">31</div> -<p>“I can’t see where they came out,” said -Tom. “There is no hole to be seen.”</p> -<p>Uncle George pointed out to the children -how the nest was woven together and fixed -to the wheat stalks. He then took a pencil -from his pocket and moved aside some of the -dried grass. The children looked in and saw -a family of naked little mice cuddled up -together. They could not tell how many -there were; but Uncle George said that there -were eight or nine young ones as a rule in a -harvest-mouse’s nest.</p> -<p>“What will become of these wee mice -when the corn is ripe?” Tom asked.</p> -<p>“They will perhaps be grown up and able -to take care of themselves by that time, -Tom,” said Uncle George.</p> -<p>“The harvest-mouse stores up corn in its -nest. Before winter comes it makes a hole -in the ground. Here it sleeps through most -of the winter and spring. It wakes up from -time to time and feeds upon its store of -grains.”</p> -<p>“It is much smaller and browner than our -house-mouse,” said Frank.</p> -<p>“Yes, Frank, it is our smallest four-footed -animal. We have many kinds of mice in this -<span class="pb" id="Page_32">32</span> -country. The brown rat is the largest and -the harvest-mouse is the smallest of our -mouse family.”</p> -<p>“How does it manage to slide down the -wheat stalk so quickly without falling off?” -Tom asked.</p> -<p>“It can use its long tail as well as its -feet for climbing,” his uncle answered.</p> -<p>“When it wishes to get to the ground it -just coils its little tail round the stalk and -slides down.”</p> -<h3>Questions and Exercises.</h3> -<dl class="ex"><dt>1. Name some flowers that grow among the corn in summer and in autumn.</dt> -<dt>2. Describe the Rat.</dt> -<dt>3. Do you know any other animals that have teeth like the rat?</dt> -<dt>4. What other animals, besides the harvest-mouse, store up food for the winter?</dt></dl> -<div class="img" id="fig14"> -<img src="images/illus038.jpg" alt="" width="580" height="800" /> -<p class="caption">HARVEST TIME</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig15"> -<img src="images/illus041.jpg" alt="" width="574" height="800" /> -<p class="caption">THE SQUIRREL</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_33">33</div> -<h2 id="c5">V.—HARVEST TIME.</h2> -<p>“They are very busy here,” said Uncle -George, as he went into the field with Frank, -Tom, and Dolly.</p> -<p>And well might he say so, for the <i>whirr</i> of -the reaping-machine could be heard far away. -Round the field it went, sweeping down the -golden wheat. Following behind it were -several girls, who twisted bands of straw -and laid them on the ground. Behind these -came women who quickly gathered up the -cut wheat and placed it in bundles upon the -bands. Then came men who bound these -bundles into sheaves and tossed them aside. -After these, again, came men who caught -up the sheaves and placed them upright in -bunches of six or eight. These bunches of -sheaves they called “<i>stooks</i>.” Last of all came -a huge rake drawn by horses, gathering up -all the straws that were left. Every now -<span class="pb" id="Page_34">34</span> -and then the man that guided the rake -pressed an iron bar, and, whenever he did -so, all the teeth of the rake rose up at once, -and left a row of gathered straw on the field. -Then a man came and bound them into rough -sheaves as before.</p> -<p>All was work and bustle and noise. What -with the whirr of the reaping-machine, the -girls singing as they worked, the larks singing -in the sky, and the glorious autumn -sun, the children thought the harvest-field -was the most cheerful place they had ever -seen.</p> -<p>“Why do you do that?” Frank asked a -man who was fixing up the stooks. “Would -it not be just as well if you left the sheaves -lying on the ground until you cart them -away?”</p> -<p>“Ah, no, Master Frank,” said the man, -who knew him well, “that would never do. -We must allow the corn time to get dry, so -we place the sheaves upright that the sun -and wind may dry them; and so that any -rain that falls may run down the stalks -to the ground. When the sheaves are -quite dry, we take them home to the stack-yard.”</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_35">35</div> -<p>“How long does that take?” Frank -asked.</p> -<p>“It all depends on the weather,” the man -replied. “If it keeps fine, they will be dry -within a week. In rainy weather, sometimes -the sheaves have to stand in the fields for -some weeks. In the next field the crop was -cut a week ago. They are taking it home -now.”</p> -<div class="img" id="fig16"> -<img src="images/illus044.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="354" /> -<p class="caption">The Stack-yard.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_36">36</div> -<p>“And you build the sheaves into great -stacks there?” said Tom.</p> -<p>“Yes, it is kept in stacks until we are -ready to thresh it. You must all come over -to the farm and see it being threshed into -grain and straw some day.”</p> -<p>“But why do you build it into stacks?” -asked Frank.</p> -<p>“So that we may keep it through the -winter, and thresh a stack at a time as we -need it,” the man replied. “It is threshed -by passing it through a mill. At our farm -the mill is turned by horses. At some farms -there are mills turned by a great water-wheel. -Sometimes a steam-engine comes and threshes -the whole crop in the fields.”</p> -<p>“And what do you do with it when it is -threshed?” Dolly asked.</p> -<p>“When the corn is passed through the -mill, it is so shaken up that all the grain is -removed from the stalks. The grain comes -out at one side of the mill and falls into -sacks. The straw is tossed out at another -part. We use the straw for bedding for -horses and cows, and some kinds of straw -we use for feeding them. The grain goes to -the miller, who grinds it into flour. The -<span class="pb" id="Page_37">37</span> -flour goes to the baker, who bakes it into -bread.”</p> -<p>“Come along, boys!” Uncle George -shouted from the next field. “We are going -over to the farmyard to see the stacks -made.”</p> -<p>In the next field the farmer’s men were -loading a waggon with sheaves of corn. The -sheaves were caught up by long pitch-forks -and tossed on to the waggon. Here a man -put them into a great square load. When -this was done, the men lifted Dolly up, and -she rode up to the farmyard on the top of -the great load of sheaves.</p> -<p>In the stack-yard a large round stack was -being built. A wooden frame was in the -middle, and round this a man put the sheaves -in a circle as they were thrown to him from -the waggon.</p> -<p>“Now, boys,” said Uncle George, “Dolly -wants to know why sheaves are made with -all the ears of corn at one end. Can you -tell us?”</p> -<p>“Oh, that is easy,” said Tom. “The -sheaves have to stand in the field for a long -time to dry. They could not stand up so -well if they were made any other way. Besides, -<span class="pb" id="Page_38">38</span> -the ears of corn must be up from the -ground, or they would be broken off.”</p> -<p>“There is another reason,” said Uncle -George. “Look how the stack is being -made. The top, or grain end of the sheaf is -inside. The outside of the stack is made up -of the cut ends of the straws. Thus the -grain is kept secure from bad weather and -thieving birds. Besides, the stack could not -be made round in shape if they were placed -in any other way. The bottom of the sheaf -is much wider than the top.”</p> -<p>In another part of the yard men were busy -roofing the newly built stacks with straw. -The straw roof was tied down with many -ropes, also made of twisted straw, and then -the stack was ready.</p> -<p>“What a lot of work there is in getting -corn,” said Frank.</p> -<p>“Ah, yes,” said his uncle, “much more -work than we have seen to-day. Think of -the work done in the fields in spring, getting -the land ready for seed—the work of ploughing, -sowing, reaping, and threshing done by -the farmer’s men and horses—the work done -by the rain and sun in growing and ripening -the wheat—the work done by the miller and -<span class="pb" id="Page_39">39</span> -baker; and all this, Frank, that we may have -a loaf of bread.”</p> -<h3>Questions and Exercises.</h3> -<dl class="ex"><dt>1. Tell the story of a wheat plant from the time it begins to grow from the seed until it is ready to be cut.</dt> -<dt>2. Where does the making of a loaf of bread really begin? From what you have learnt in the lesson, trace the history of a loaf of bread.</dt> -<dt>3. Make a list of crops grown on the farm, and tell the use of each.</dt></dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_40">40</div> -<h2 id="c6">VI.—THE SQUIRREL.</h2> -<p>“Halloa! there he goes again,” said Frank, -as he watched a nimble little animal leaping -from branch to branch, and from tree-top to -tree-top. “He will fall if he does not take -care.”</p> -<p>“No fear of that,” said Uncle George. -“His home is among the tree-tops. He -never falls. That is a squirrel, and I should -not be surprised if his nest is somewhere -near. Let us sit down on this bank and -watch.”</p> -<p>As he spoke, Uncle George took his pair -of field-glasses out of the leather case which -he sometimes carried on a strap across his -shoulder, when he went out to watch the -birds.</p> -<p>“Now, Mr Squirrel,” he said, “we can -watch your antics from a distance. You are -a very cunning and clever little chap, no -doubt.”</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_41">41</div> -<p>When Uncle George and Dolly and the -two boys first saw the squirrel, the little -creature was on the ground, bobbing about -among the ferns and the grass. The moment -it saw them, however, it bounded into a -tree, going swiftly up by jerk after jerk, and -always keeping on the far side of the trunk.</p> -<p>They could just see its bushy tail, first -at one side of the trunk and then, much -higher up, at the other side. When it -reached the top part of the tree, it leapt from -branch to branch in the most daring manner.</p> -<p>“We have alarmed the creature,” said -Uncle George. “But if we sit here quite -still for a little while, Mr Squirrel will get -over his fright. Ah, there he is.”</p> -<p>Uncle George handed the glasses to -Frank.</p> -<p>“Now, tell us what you see,” he said, -“and then Tom and Dolly shall each take -a look.”</p> -<p>“He is sitting up on his hind legs,” said -Frank. “His great, bushy tail is bent right -over his head. He is holding a little green -thing in his fore-paws. Ah, he is eating it. -Look Dolly!” and Frank handed the glasses -to his little sister.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_42">42</div> -<p>“Oh, what a lovely little animal,” said -Dolly; “and what pretty eyes he has. They -are just like a pair of bright, black beads.”</p> -<p>“I think Tom ought to have the glasses -now,” said Uncle George. “He has been -very patient indeed. Come Tom, tell us what -the squirrel is like.”</p> -<p>Tom took the glasses and looked through -them for a long time. Then he said, “He is -a very pretty creature, as Dolly has said. -His colour is rich brown all over, except the -front part of his body, which is a very light -brown, changing almost to white. His tail is -very large and bushy, and his ears are upright -and tufted with brown hair. His fore-paws -are just like little hands. He holds the nut -in them and nibbles it just like a little -monkey. His head is not unlike the rabbit’s -head. His teeth are almost exactly like -rabbit’s teeth. They are chisel-shaped, and -seem to be very sharp.”</p> -<p>“Splendid, Tom,” said his uncle, patting -him on the back, “I don’t think you have -left anything out. Now, let me look.”</p> -<p>“Oh, there is another one. There are -now two of them,” said Frank.</p> -<p>“Where did that one come from?” asked -<span class="pb" id="Page_43">43</span> -his uncle, looking through the glasses. “It -seemed to come out of the tree, did it -not?”</p> -<p>“I thought you children would leave me -nothing to find out; but I see something -which you have missed. Here, Frank, take -the glasses and see if you can find it. Look -at the fork of the tree just below where the -squirrels are.”</p> -<p>“I see something like a nest,” said Frank. -“I noticed that before, but I thought it was -a rook’s nest.”</p> -<p>“Nay,” said his uncle, “it is a squirrel’s -nest. Rooks build on the very top branches -of trees, and you never see one rook’s nest -without a lot of others near it. Besides, -the rook’s nest is a rough flat nest, while -this is a round one with a roof on it, and -a hole in the side to let the squirrels out -and in.”</p> -<p>“Then that other squirrel must have come -out of the nest,” said Frank.</p> -<p>“Just so,” said Uncle George. “That is -Mrs Squirrel. She has come out to get some -food, and her little husband will look after -the family while she is away hunting for nuts -and buds and soft green bark.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_44">44</div> -<p>“If we could get up to that nest, we -should find it to be built of twigs and moss -cleverly woven together.</p> -<p>“The inside is lined with soft warm moss -and dry leaves. We should, most likely, find -four or more tiny squirrels cuddled up together -inside. Blind, naked, helpless things they -are at first. But they soon grow up, and -their long bare tails become bushy. Then -the little mother teaches them to climb and -find food for themselves. Should one of them -fall, she springs down and carries it up to -the nest in her mouth, just as a cat carries -her kittens.</p> -<p>“By autumn these young squirrels will be -quite as clever as their parents. Autumn is -the squirrel’s busy time. He has to prepare -for the long winter, for no nuts are to be -found then. So the squirrel gathers in his -harvest of nuts. These he hides in secret -places buried in the ground. He usually has -more than one storing-place. In fact, he -sometimes has so many that he forgets about -some of them.”</p> -<p>“We never see squirrels in winter,” said -Tom.</p> -<p>“No, because the squirrel sleeps the whole -<span class="pb" id="Page_45">45</span> -winter through. After he has gathered his -harvest, he looks for a snug hole deep under -an old tree-stump. This he lines with -dry leaves and pieces of bark. When the -weather becomes very cold he seeks his -winter nest, coils his body up so that his -great tail is folded almost right round him, -and falls fast asleep. Cold makes him drowsy, -but warmth wakes him up. On a mild -winter’s day he wakes up, crawls out of his -hole, and visits his store of nuts. After he -has made a good meal of them, he goes back -to his bed again, and sleeps on until hunger -and mild weather wake him up.</p> -<p>“During autumn the squirrel’s coat is -very pretty. It is of a deep, rich brown -colour, and very thick. His tail is then -very large and bushy, and he is quite fat -and sleek.</p> -<p>“When he comes out of his sleeping -quarters in spring he is thin and hungry. -His coat is then a very pale brown.”</p> -<p>“What does he do for food in spring?” -asked Tom. “There are no nuts to be found -then.”</p> -<p>“Alas, no, Tom. In spring he robs birds’ -nests of their eggs, and that is why the -<span class="pb" id="Page_46">46</span> -pretty little squirrel is hunted and shot by -the game-keeper. In spring, too, he feeds on -the tender buds, and so does much damage -to trees and shrubs; that is, if his winter -stores are used up.”</p> -<p>“I should think,” said Frank, “that such -a large tail would be very much in the squirrel’s -way when climbing and leaping from branch -to branch.”</p> -<p>“Not at all,” said his uncle, “his huge tail -is of the greatest use to him in guiding his -body. Without it he could not take such -flying leaps among the tree-tops.</p> -<p>“Besides this, it often enables him to -escape from his enemies. Many a time the -game-keeper’s bullets pass harmlessly through -his fluffy tail, while Mr Squirrel scampers -safely up the tree; and many a time he -escapes from the cat by leaving the tip of his -brush in pussy’s claws.</p> -<p>“A great many of our trees have been -planted by squirrels. Many a stately oak and -beech tree has sprung from the squirrel’s -buried store of acorns and beech nuts. For, -as I have already told you, sometimes he -forgets where he has buried them, or perhaps -fails to find them when the forest is white -<span class="pb" id="Page_47">47</span> -with snow. So, you see, the little animal is -of some use after all.”</p> -<h3>Questions and Exercises.</h3> -<dl class="ex"><dt>1. The squirrel has chisel-shaped teeth suited for gnawing. Name other animals of the same kind.</dt> -<dt>2. The squirrel’s bushy tail is of great use to him. Why?</dt> -<dt>3. Make a list of our wild animals (1) which sleep through the winter, and (2) which store up food for winter.</dt></dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_48">48</div> -<h2 id="c7">VII.—HOW THE FIRE BURNS.</h2> -<p>It was a cold wet day—so cold and wet that -neither Dolly nor her brothers could venture -out. They had grown tired of reading books -and drawing pictures, and were indeed feeling -very dull. They sat looking at the bright -fire. Uncle George laid down his paper and -said:</p> -<p>“Come, let us have a lesson. What shall -it be? The rain? The cat? Or shall it be -the cosy fireside?”</p> -<p>“The fire,” said Frank. “Tell us why the -fire burns, Uncle George!”</p> -<p>“I will,” said cheery Uncle George. “Just -wait until I get some things from the kitchen. -Come along, boys.”</p> -<p>When Uncle George and the boys came -back to the room, they brought a lot of -curious articles with them. These were an -empty pickle-bottle, a small saucer, a glass -bell-jar, a large dish, a piece of candle, some -tacks, and a taper.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig17"> -<img src="images/illus058.jpg" alt="" width="575" height="800" /> -<p class="caption">A Baby Cloud</p> -</div> -<div class="img" id="fig18"> -<img src="images/illus061.jpg" alt="" width="578" height="801" /> -<p class="caption">THE BALLOON</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_49">49</div> -<p>“Now,” said Uncle George, -“we are ready to begin.”</p> -<p>He first lighted the piece of -candle and lowered it into the -bottle. It burned for a short -time, then it went out.</p> -<p>“Can you tell me why it goes -out?” he asked.</p> -<p>“Want of air,” said Tom and Frank at -the same time.</p> -<p>“But there is air in the bottle,” said -Uncle George.</p> -<p>“Yes, but not the kind of air the candle -wants,” said Frank.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig19"> -<img src="images/illus062.jpg" alt="" width="331" height="496" /> -<p class="caption">Candle burning in Open Jar.</p> -</div> -<p>“That is a queer answer, Frank. The -candle burned for a time in the bottle before -it went out.”</p> -<p>“Because it used up that part of the air -which makes things burn,” said Frank.</p> -<p>“That is <i>very</i> good,” said Uncle George.</p> -<p>Uncle George then poured some water -into the large dish. He fixed the candle on -a big cork, lighted it and set it floating -on the water. Then he placed the glass -<span class="pb" id="Page_50">50</span> -bell-jar over it. But first of all he marked -the level of the water on the outside of the -bell-jar.</p> -<p>Very soon the flame of the candle became -small, and at last went -out. Just then the water -inside the bell-jar rose far -up above Uncle George’s -mark. He marked this -new level, and asked the -boys if they could tell him -why the water rose in the -jar.</p> -<p>Both Frank and Tom -shook their heads sadly.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig20"> -<img src="images/illus063.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="594" /> -<p class="caption">Candle in Stoppered Jar—burning.</p> -</div> -<p>“Then I must explain,” said Uncle -George.</p> -<p>“Some of the air has gone,” said Tom.</p> -<p>“Yes,” said Uncle George. “How much -of the air has gone?”</p> -<p>Frank pointed to the space between the -two marks.</p> -<p>“That is right,” said Uncle George. -“The water has risen up in the bell-jar to -take the place of the air that has been used -up by the burning of the candle. Where has -this used-up air gone?”</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_51">51</div> -<p>“It must have gone into the water,” said -Tom.</p> -<p>“Why did it not go into the water before -the candle burned?”</p> -<p>“Perhaps the burning of the candle -has <i>changed</i> this part of the air,” said -Frank.</p> -<p>“Very good, Frank. You are right -again. The burning of the candle has -changed a certain part of the air. It -has, indeed, so changed it that it can -dissolve in water just as if it were sugar or -salt.”</p> -<p>Uncle George now poured water into the -outer dish until it was level -with the water inside the -bell-jar. Then he took out -the stopper and pushed a -lighted taper into the bell-jar. -The taper at once -went out.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig21"> -<img src="images/illus064.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="599" /> -<p class="caption">Candle in Stoppered Jar—gone out.</p> -</div> -<p>“This shows us,” he -said, “that a part of the -air causes things to burn. -The other part of the -air does not. It puts burning things out. -If we blow the fire with a bellows or -<span class="pb" id="Page_52">52</span> -fan, it burns more brightly and quickly. -Why? Just because we are forcing a -stream of air upon it, and a part of -that stream of air is changed by the -burning.”</p> -<p>Uncle George next put some bright iron -tacks in a small dish. He poured some -water out of the large dish, and placed the -bell-jar in the dish. After that he added -water until it was just up to his first mark -on the bell-jar.</p> -<p>Then he floated the dish with the tacks -on the water. Next he wetted the tacks with -water, and then placed the bell-jar over them -and put in the stopper.</p> -<p>“Now,” he said, “we will leave this just -as it is for a few days.”</p> -<p>The boys watched the bell-jar every day, -and this is what they saw. The water rose -slowly in the bell-jar. As it rose the bright -tacks turned red with rust. The water rose -higher and the tacks turned redder every -day.</p> -<p>At length it rose to Uncle George’s -second mark. It rose no farther, although -left for a whole week.</p> -<p>Then Uncle George called the boys and -<span class="pb" id="Page_53">53</span> -asked them what had taken place in the -bell-jar.</p> -<p>“The tacks have rusted, and some of the -air in the jar has been used up,” said Frank.</p> -<p>“How much air has been used up?” -Uncle George asked.</p> -<p>“Just exactly the same as was used up -when we burned the candle,” said Tom, -pointing to the top mark.</p> -<p>“Let us see, then,” said Uncle George, -“what part of the air has gone.”</p> -<p>He poured water into the large dish -until it was level with the water inside -the bell-jar. Then he put a lighted taper -into the bell-jar as before. It went out at -once.</p> -<p>“It is the same part of the air as the -burning candle used up,” said Frank.</p> -<p>“Then we have found out,” said Uncle -George, “that when a thing burns it uses up -a certain part of the air; and that when iron -rusts, exactly the same part of the air is used -up.</p> -<p>“In the first case, the burning of the candle -changed part of the air into a gas which -dissolved in the water. In this case, that -same part of the air has joined up to part of -<span class="pb" id="Page_54">54</span> -the iron tacks to form that red powder which -we call <i>rust</i>.”</p> -<h3>Questions and Exercises.</h3> -<dl class="ex"><dt>1. How is rust formed?</dt> -<dt>2. Explain why things which are made of iron should be painted.</dt> -<dt>3. A grate full of coals burns away and only a small quantity of ash is left in the grate. What has become of the coals?</dt></dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_55">55</div> -<h2 id="c8">VIII.—THE FIRE-BALLOON.</h2> -<p>One day Uncle George made the children -a fire-balloon. He took twelve strips of -tissue-paper shaped as you see in -the picture. These he pasted neatly -together at the edges so as to -form a kind of bag with a round -opening at the bottom. A ring of -wire was then fixed at the bottom -to keep it firm, and across the -ring was stretched another piece -of wire. This was to hold a dry -sponge by and by.</p> -<p>Uncle George swung the balloon -till it was filled with air. He told -Frank to hold it by the ring while -he heated the air inside the balloon.</p> -<p>This was done by holding the mouth of -the balloon over a piece of rag which had -been dipped in spirits and set on fire.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig22"> -<img src="images/illus068.jpg" alt="" width="109" height="400" /> -<p class="caption">Strip for Balloon.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_56">56</div> -<p>Soon Frank felt the balloon rising. He -lifted it up away from the flame, while Uncle -George moved the little sponge along the -wire to the middle of the ring. Then he -soaked the sponge with spirits and set fire -to it.</p> -<p>“Let go!” said Uncle George; and away -went the balloon, soaring up towards the -sky. Higher and higher it rose, moving with -the wind. The children watched it until at -last it seemed a mere dot in the sky, and -then it went quite out of sight.</p> -<p>“What makes the balloon rise up?” Dolly -asked, as they returned to the house.</p> -<p>For answer Uncle George took a cork and -held it under a trough of water. When he -let it go, the cork at once rose to the top of -the water.</p> -<p>“What makes the cork rise up?” he -asked.</p> -<p>“Because it is lighter than the water,” -said Tom.</p> -<p>“For just the same reason the balloon -rises in the air,” said Uncle George. “Our -balloon is only a bag filled with air.”</p> -<p>“Then the air inside the balloon is lighter -than that outside,” said Frank.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_57">57</div> -<p>“Yes,” said his uncle. “What did we do -to it to make it lighter?”</p> -<p>“We heated it,” said Tom.</p> -<p>“And what has this taught you?” asked -Uncle George.</p> -<p>“It has taught us,” said Frank, “that if -we heat air we make it lighter.”</p> -<p>“What takes place is this,” said Uncle -George. “When a small -quantity of air is heated -it swells out and fills a -much larger space than -before. It therefore becomes -much lighter than -the air round about it, -and rises up through it. -Come into the house and -let us take another lesson -from the fire.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig23"> -<img src="images/illus070.jpg" alt="" width="355" height="500" /> -<p class="caption">Strips pasted together.</p> -</div> -<p>“We have already -learned that the fire in -burning uses up part of the air. After using -up this part of the air, how is it that the fire -does not go out?”</p> -<p>“Because there is always a fresh supply -of air coming into the grate!” said Frank.</p> -<p>“Quite right. If we stand between the -<span class="pb" id="Page_58">58</span> -door and the fire we can feel this stream of -air. Something else is taking place in the -grate besides the burning of coal. What is -it, Tom?”</p> -<p>“Air is being heated!”</p> -<p>“Very good, Tom, and what becomes of -the heated air?”</p> -<p>“It rises up the chimney, carrying the -smoke with it; just as the heated air in our -balloon rose up, carrying the paper bag with -it,” said Frank.</p> -<p>“That is really a clever answer, Frank. -Now, can you tell me what makes this -constant stream of cold air from the door to -the fireplace?”</p> -<p>“It is the cold air rushing in to take the -place of the heated air that has gone up the -chimney,” said Frank.</p> -<p>“Very good indeed, Frank,” said Uncle -George. “And now I am going to show you -something which will prove all this very -nicely.”</p> -<p>He then took a saucer and poured some -water into it. He placed a piece of lighted -candle in the middle of the dish and put a -lamp chimney over it. The candle burned for -a few seconds and then went out.</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_59">59</div> -<p>“Why does the candle go out?” he asked.</p> -<p>“Because it has used up that part of the -air which makes things burn,” said Tom.</p> -<p>“That is right,” said Uncle George, and -he began to cut a piece of stout card, shaped -like the letter <b class="large">T</b>, but broader every way. -The upright part fitted into the top of the -lamp chimney.</p> -<p>“We are now going to give the candle -flame a stream of fresh -air,” he said, as he fitted -the piece of card into the -chimney.</p> -<p>The candle was again -lit and the chimney placed -over it. This time it did -not go out. It burned -brightly, and the flame -seemed to be blown from -side to side.</p> -<p>“That is very strange,” -said Frank.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig24"> -<img src="images/illus072.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="693" /> -<p class="caption">Draught in Chimney Glass.</p> -</div> -<p>Uncle George lit a piece of brown paper. -“You will understand it now,” he said, as he -held smoking paper near the top of the -chimney.</p> -<p>Then the boys saw a stream of smoke go -<span class="pb" id="Page_60">60</span> -down one side of the card and come up the -other side.</p> -<p>“Oh, I see it now,” said Tom. “The card -divides the chimney into two. The air, -heated by the candle flame, rises up one side -of the card, and the cold air goes down the -other side to supply its place, drawing the -smoke with it. The candle does not go out -now, because it gets a constant stream of -fresh air.”</p> -<p>“Are the balloons, which are large enough -to carry people, fire-balloons?” asked Dolly.</p> -<p>“No, my dear,” replied Uncle George. -“They are filled with a gas that is lighter—very -much lighter—than the air. They rise -up easily, and can carry quite a heavy load.”</p> -<h3>Questions and Exercises.</h3> -<dl class="ex"><dt>1. Take an empty bottle and heat it gently. Now turn it upside down, and place the neck of it in cold water. Why does the water rise in the bottle?</dt> -<dt>2. How is a <i>draught</i> caused?</dt> -<dt>3. Why does a fire burn more brightly on a cold, frosty day, than on a warm summer’s day?</dt></dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_61">61</div> -<h2 id="c9">IX.—THE GULL.</h2> -<p>Frank, Tom, and Dolly had never seen -the sea. Long ago Uncle George had told -them that he would take them, and at last -the time came for them to go.</p> -<p>It was afternoon when they reached the -little sea-side village where they were to -spend a few days. The children were filled -with wonder when they saw the great, -restless ocean. They watched the waves -breaking into white surf, and gathered sea-weeds -and shells on the sandy beach.</p> -<p>By and by they all sat down to rest and -to watch the gulls, for there were many here-about.</p> -<p>“We have seen birds like these before, -have we not?” said Uncle George.</p> -<p>“Yes,” said Tom, “we see them at home -in the fields at spring-time. But are these -the same kind of gulls?”</p> -<p>“Yes, Tom, they are. There are several -<span class="pb" id="Page_62">62</span> -kinds of gulls. Here we have just two kinds. -The <i>common gull</i> and the <i>tern</i>. You can tell -the one from the other even in the distance -by their mode of flying.</p> -<p>“Do you see that one flying -rapidly over the sea? Every now -and then he swoops down to the -water and skims along, almost touching it -with the tips of his long, pointed wings. Do -you know any other bird that flies like -that?”</p> -<div class="img" id="fig25"> -<img src="images/illus075.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="401" /> -<p class="caption">Gull flying.</p> -</div> -<p>“The swallow flies over the lake at home -something like that,” said Frank.</p> -<p>“That is so,” said Uncle George. “The -<span class="pb" id="Page_63">63</span> -tern is very like the swallow both in shape -and in his manner of flight. He differs, however, -in size and colour. He is often called -the ‘sea-swallow,’ and is the smallest of the -gull family.</p> -<p>“Your swallows at home catch flies and -other insects as they skim through the air. -The ‘sea-swallows’ live on fish. Every time -they dart down they seize and swallow a -little fish. But it is done so quickly that you -cannot see it.</p> -<p>“The gull’s flight is quite different. Sometimes -he flies so lazily that he does not seem -to move onwards at all. Then all of a -sudden he darts down into the water to seize -his prey. Sometimes he flaps his great white -wings and wheels swiftly away, flying in -great circles until he is a mere speck in the -distance. The gull has a very sharp eye. -Watch!”</p> -<p>Uncle George threw a piece of bread into -the sea. At once about a score of gulls -pounced upon it, screaming loudly. Uncle -George waited until they flew away. Then he -threw them a piece of wood. None of the -gulls came near it.</p> -<p>“You see,” he went on, “they can tell a -<span class="pb" id="Page_64">64</span> -piece of bread from a piece of wood at a -great distance.”</p> -<p>“Then they do not live entirely on fish,” -said Frank, as his uncle threw them another -piece of bread.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig26"> -<img src="images/illus077.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="634" /> -<p class="caption">Gull feeding.</p> -</div> -<p>“Oh, no, Frank, the gull is by no means -dainty about his food. Nor does he live all -the year round at the sea. Great flocks of -gulls fly inland in spring and autumn. Then -they live on worms, grubs, and whatever else -can be picked up in the fields.</p> -<div class="img" id="fig27"> -<img src="images/illus078.jpg" alt="" width="578" height="800" /> -<p class="caption">SEA-GULLS AND TERN</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_65">65</div> -<p>“We have a fine chance now, boys, of -watching the gull. See, there are some -walking on the sand quite close to us, some -are floating idly on the sea, some are flying -all round us. They think, no doubt, we have -lots of bread for them. Now then, boys, tell -me about the common gull.”</p> -<div class="img" id="fig28"> -<img src="images/illus080.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="251" /> -<p class="caption">Gull at rest on the water.</p> -</div> -<p>“He is a large bird,” said Tom. “His -body is white in colour, all but his wings -and back. These are of a pale bluish-grey.”</p> -<p>“Very good, Tom,” said Uncle George. -“Come on, Frank.”</p> -<p>“He has a large, greyish-green bill. The -tip of it is hooked in shape, and yellow. His -<span class="pb" id="Page_66">66</span> -legs are greenish-grey. The three front toes -of his feet are webbed.”</p> -<p>“But,” said Tom, “I can see other gulls -darker in colour. Their bodies are dark -brown and grey above and light brown below. -What are they?”</p> -<p>“They are the young gulls, Tom. They -have not got rid of their nest feathers yet.”</p> -<p>“Where do they build their nests?” Dolly -asked.</p> -<p>“High up on the cliffs, and on lonely -rocky islands. Like the rooks, they all nest -together. The gull’s nest is a very simple -thing. It is just a hole scraped in the -ground and covered with dried grass. Here -two, or perhaps three, spotted eggs are laid. -The gull is very fond of her young. She will -not allow them to try to fly from the high -cliff. She carries them one by one on her -back down to the sea, and there teaches -them to swim.</p> -<p>“Some gulls—the <i>black-headed gull</i>, for -example—go far inland to nest. These build -their nests on the shores of small hill lakes. -They return to the sea with their young ones -in autumn.</p> -<p>“Gulls are clever birds. They are bold -<span class="pb" id="Page_67">67</span> -and active. The wild ocean is their home. -Storms bring no fears for them.”</p> -<h3>Exercises and Questions.</h3> -<dl class="ex"><dt>1. Tell the life-story of the common gull.</dt> -<dt>2. Make a list of all the sea birds you know.</dt> -<dt>3. The common gull has very large wings, curious beak and feet. Can you explain what these are for?</dt></dl> -<div class="pb" id="Page_68">68</div> -<div class="img" id="fig29"> -<img src="images/illus083.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="281" /> -<p class="caption">Engine puffing on a cold day.</p> -</div> -<h2 id="c10">X.—DEW, FROST, RAIN.</h2> -<p>“How is it, Uncle George, that there is -always a clear space between the spout of -the kettle and the puff of steam?”</p> -<p>It was Frank that asked the question. -He had been watching the kettle boiling for -a long time.</p> -<p>“It is the same with the railway engine,” -said Tom. “There is always a big space -between the funnel and the puff.”</p> -<p>“That is so,” said Uncle George. “But if -you watch carefully, you will notice that the -space between the funnel of the engine and -<span class="pb" id="Page_69">69</span> -the puff of steam is not always of the same -size.”</p> -<div class="img" id="fig30"> -<img src="images/illus084.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="291" /> -<p class="caption">Engine puffing on a hot day.</p> -</div> -<p>“No,” said Frank, “I have noticed -that the white puff is farther away from -the funnel on a hot day than on a cold -day.”</p> -<p>“That is true,” said his uncle. “Perhaps -you have also noticed that, as the engine -rushes along, it leaves a long white cloud -trailing in the air behind it. Sooner or later -this long white cloud melts away from -sight. It melts away sooner on a hot -day than on a cold day. Where does it -go?”</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_70">70</div> -<p>“It goes into the air,” said Frank; “just -as the cloud from this kettle goes into the -air of the room.”</p> -<p>“Very good,” said Uncle George. “Tom, -will you please fetch me a tumbler full of cold -water, and see that the outside of the glass -is quite dry?”</p> -<p>When Tom came back with the glass of -cold water, Uncle George wiped it outside -with a clean dry cloth. When he was sure -that the outside of it was dry, he placed the -tumbler of water on the table in the middle -of the warm room.</p> -<p>“Now,” he said, “let us try to answer -Frank’s question about the clear space -between the spout of the kettle and the -puff of steam.</p> -<p>“The fact is,” Uncle George went on, -“the white puff which we call <i>steam</i> is -not steam at all. We might just as well -call it ‘<i>water-dust</i>.’ For it is made up of -tiny droplets of water—so tiny that they -float in air. Steam is water in the form of -gas. Like the air we breathe, it cannot be -seen. In fact, this water-gas forms part of -the air around us. The clear space between -the spout of the kettle and the puff is made -<span class="pb" id="Page_71">71</span> -up of hot steam. We cannot see it. As it -comes out into the colder air, it is cooled -into the tiny droplets which form the puff. It -is only when cooled into tiny droplets that -we can see it.</p> -<p>“If you hold any cold object, such as a -knife, in the puff, these water particles run -together and form large drops upon it. The -cloud of water-dust melts away in the room, -as Frank told us. What takes place is this. -The tiny droplets, when spread out into the -warm air, become real steam, or ‘water-gas,’ -again.</p> -<p>“The outside of this tumbler of cold water -was quite dry when I placed it on the table. -Run your finger along it and tell me what -you find.”</p> -<p>Frank did so, and said, “Why, it is quite -wet now.”</p> -<p>“Yes,” said Uncle George, “it is covered -all over with very small drops of water. -Where did this water come from. It could -not come <i>through</i> the glass.”</p> -<p>“It is like dew,” said Tom.</p> -<p>“It is dew—<i>real dew</i>,” said Uncle George. -“The water in the glass is much colder than -the air around it. The film of air next the -<span class="pb" id="Page_72">72</span> -glass is cooled, and the ‘water-gas’ which -this film of air contains is changed into -water drops.</p> -<p>“The earth is heated during the day by -the sun, and the layer of air next to it -becomes filled with water-gas. At night the -earth gets cold. The water-gas, if the night -is calm, comes out of the film of air next to -the earth. It settles in the form of tiny drops -on everything around.</p> -<p>“When the earth gets very cold, -the water freezes as it changes from -gas to water, and instead of dew we have -<i>frost</i>.”</p> -<p>“Oh, that is why we have frost on the -<i>inside</i> of the window panes in winter,” said -Frank.</p> -<p>“That is so,” said his uncle. “The frost -on your window pane is the water-gas of the -warm room changed into particles of ice. -But let us come back to our steam puff. We -spoke about the long white streak of water-dust -which the engine leaves behind it. Do -you know of anything else like that -outside?”</p> -<p>“Oh yes,” said Tom, “the clouds far up -in the sky are very like it.”</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_73">73</div> -<p>“They are,” said Uncle George. “In fact, -the clouds in the sky and the cloud behind -the engine are just the same kind of thing. -They are both made up of tiny particles of -water.</p> -<p>“We have learnt that the streak of cloud -left by the steam-engine melts away quickly -on a hot day, also that the puff is farther -from the funnel on a hot day. This shows us -that the warmer the air is, the more water -can it take up and hold. We have also -learnt that warm air is light and rises -up.<a class="fn" id="fr_2" href="#fn_2">[2]</a></p> -<p>“What happens when warm air, -which holds much water-gas, rises up to -the higher and colder parts of the -sky?”</p> -<p>“It gets cooled,” answered Frank.</p> -<p>“Yes, and its water-gas gets cooled too. -Then we can see it as great masses of -water-dust. These masses we call <i>clouds</i>. -If these masses of cloud get further cooled, -the tiny water particles run together to -form great drops—as they did on the cold -knife. They are now too large and heavy -to float in the air, so they fall to the earth -as <i>rain</i>.”</p> -<div class="pb" id="Page_74">74</div> -<div class="img" id="fig31"> -<img src="images/illus089.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="428" /> -<p class="caption">A Showery Day.</p> -</div> -<div class="pb" id="Page_75">75</div> -<h3>Questions and Exercises.</h3> -<dl class="ex"><dt>1. If you place a saucer full of water outside on a hot day in the morning, and go back to it in the evening, you will find the saucer dry. Where has the water gone?</dt> -<dt>2. Fill a tin can with a mixture of salt and snow (or chopped ice). Place it in a warm room. <i>Frost</i> comes on the outside of the tin. Place a glass jug of water in the same room. <i>Dew</i> is formed on the outside of the jug. Can you explain this?</dt> -<dt>3. Let the steam puff of the kettle strike against a cold sheet of glass or metal, or a slab of stone. What is formed?</dt></dl> -<h2>Footnotes</h2> -<div class="fnblock"><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_1" href="#fr_1">[1]</a>See Lesson I., Book IV. -</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn" id="fn_2" href="#fr_2">[2]</a>See lesson “<a href="#c8">The Fire-Balloon</a>.” -</div> -</div> -<p class="tbcenter"><span class="smaller">PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN AT THE PRESS OF THE PUBLISHERS.</span></p> -<h2>Transcriber’s Notes</h2> -<ul><li>Retained publication information from the printed exemplar (this eBook is in the public domain in the country of publication.)</li> -<li>Only in the text versions, delimited italicized text with _underscores_.</li> -<li>Silently corrected several typos.</li></ul> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The 'Look About You' Nature Study -Books, Book 2 (of 7), by Thomas W. 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+0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The 'Look About You' Nature Study Books, -Book 2 (of 7), by Thomas W. Hoare - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The 'Look About You' Nature Study Books, Book 2 (of 7) - -Author: Thomas W. Hoare - -Release Date: October 16, 2015 [EBook #50236] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LOOK ABOUT YOU NATURE STUDY, VOL 2 *** - - - - -Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Stephen Hutcheson, and the -Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - [Illustration: The land is at rest] - - - - - The - "LOOK ABOUT YOU" - Nature Study Books - - - BOOK II. - - - BY - THOMAS W. HOARE - - TEACHER OF NATURE STUDY - to the Falkirk School Board and Stirlingshire County Council - - [Illustration: Publisher's Logo] - - LONDON: T. C. & E. C. JACK, Ltd. - 35 PATERNOSTER ROW, E.C. - AND EDINBURGH - - - - - PREFACE. - - -This little book should be used as a simple guide to the practical study -of Nature rather than as a mere reader. - -Every lesson herein set down has, during the author's many years' -experience in teaching Nature Study, been taught by observation and -practice again and again; and each time with satisfactory result. The -materials required for the lessons are within everybody's reach. - -There is nothing that appeals to the heart of the ordinary child like -_living things_, be they animal or vegetable, and there is no branch of -education at the present day that bears, in the young mind, such -excellent fruit as the study of the simple, living things around us. - -Your child is nothing if not curious. He wants to understand everything -that lives in his bright little world. - -Nature Study involves so many ingenious little deductions, that the -reasoning powers are almost constantly employed, and intelligence grows -proportionately. The child's powers of observation are stimulated, and -his memory is cultivated in the way most pleasing to his inquiring -nature. By drawing his specimens, no matter how roughly or rapidly, his -eye is trained more thoroughly than any amount of enforced copying of -stiff, uninteresting models of prisms, cones, etc., ever could train it. - -The love of flowers and animals is one of the most commendable traits in -the disposition of the wondering child, and ought to be encouraged above -all others. A few lessons on Nature Phenomena are added. - -It is the author's fondest and most sanguine hope that his little pupils -may study further the great book of Nature, whose broad pages are ever -open to us, and whose silent answers to our manifold questions are never -very difficult to read. - - T. W. H. - - - - - CONTENTS - - -LESSON PAGE - I. How Plants take Food from the Soil (1) 5 - II. How Plants take Food from the Soil (2) 13 - III. The Weasel and the Otter 20 - IV. Dwellers in the Corn Field 27 - V. Harvest Time 33 - VI. The Squirrel 40 - VII. How the Fire Burns 48 - VIII. The Fire-Balloon 55 - IX. The Gull 61 - X. Dew, Frost, Rain 68 - - - - - "LOOK ABOUT YOU." - BOOK II. - - - - - I.--HOW PLANTS TAKE FOOD FROM THE SOIL (1). - - -Uncle George had taught his little friends many things from what he -called the Book of Nature, and what they had learnt made them eager to -know more. - -One day as Dolly, the boys, and Uncle George were in the garden they saw -that a tulip, which the day before was in full bloom and strong, was now -lying dead on the ground. - -"Poor little tulip!" said Dolly. Both the boys were sorry too. They had -watched it come through the ground like a blade of grass, open out its -bud, and expand its bloom. Now all was over. The little flower would no -longer enjoy the bright sunshine or the rain. It would no longer send -forth its rootlets in search of the food it so much liked. - -"Have you ever thought, Dolly, how the tulip, and indeed all plants, -take their food from the soil?" asked Uncle George. - -"I know they _must_ feed in some way," said Dolly, "or they would not -grow. But I do not know how they do it." - -"Should you like to know, Dolly?" asked Uncle George. - -"Indeed I should," said the little girl. - -The boys were just as eager as Dolly to know about this, so Uncle George -and the children went indoors for a lesson. - -"I cannot tell you how plants take their food from the soil without -first of all showing you what happens when water and soil are mixed -together in a tumbler," said Uncle George. "Tom will fetch me a tumbler, -and you, Frank, bring me a little water." - -When these were brought, Uncle George put a spoonful of soil into the -tumbler, and then poured some water on it. - -"Stir it up, please, Dolly," said Uncle George, "and you may pretend you -are going to make a pudding." - -Dolly did so. - -"Now let us put it aside for a few minutes, while we place the flowers -we have gathered into the vases," said Uncle George. "Then we will look -at our tumbler of muddy water." - -How pretty the flowers were made to look! How fresh they were! and how -pleasant was their scent! The children hardly thought of the tumbler, -but Uncle George was ready now for the lesson. - - [Illustration: Glass of Mud and Water.] - -"Look! look, at the tumbler," said he. "Do you see a change?" - -"Indeed we do," said all the children in one voice. - -"The mud has sunk to the bottom of the glass," added Tom, "and the water -on the top is clear." - -Uncle George poured some of the clear water into a clean flat dish. Then -he took a spirit-lamp from a little cabinet, and heated the water in the -dish with it. - -The children watched to see what would happen. Soon a cloud was seen -over the dish, and by and by all the water had gone. - -"But what is that at the bottom of the dish?" asked Uncle George. - -"It looks like powder," said Frank. - -"And it must have been in the water all the time," added Tom. - - [Illustration: Evaporating Salt Water.] - -"And yet the water was clear," said Uncle George. "Look once more." - -As he spoke, Uncle George took a glass of clean water from the tap. He -put two large spoonfuls of salt in, and stirred it up. - -"You see," he said, "the salt has gone from sight. Still the water is -clear. Where has it gone?" - -"Into the water," said Tom. - -Uncle George put more salt in the water, and stirred it up. He kept on -doing this until the water would take up no more salt, no matter how -much it was stirred. This he called _brine_. - -"Now, Frank, please go and ask mother for a fresh egg," he said, "and -you, Tom, please bring me some fresh water in another glass." - - [Illustration: Egg floating in Salt Water.] - -Uncle George placed the egg in the glass in which the salt had been put, -and it floated in it. He then placed the egg in the glass of fresh -water, and it at once sank to the bottom. - -"Can you explain this!" he said. - -"The salt water is heavier and thicker than the fresh water. That is why -it bears up the egg," said Frank. - -"That is very good indeed, Frank. That is just the reason. The salt -water or brine is _denser_, or heavier, than the other." - -Uncle George next took a glass tube with a thistle-shaped bulb at the -end of it. Frank kept his finger on the small end, while his uncle -poured some of the brine into the bulb. He next tied a piece of bladder -skin over the bulb, and placed it in a glass of fresh water, so that the -salt water in the tube was at the same level as the fresh water in the -glass. - -Then he took two small glass bottles. He filled one with fresh water and -the other with brine, and tied a piece of bladder skin over the mouth of -each. The one which was filled with brine he placed in a larger dish of -fresh water. The other, that is the one filled with fresh water, he -placed in a dish of brine. - -"Now, children, we will go and have tea," he said, "and when we come -back we will see if any change has taken place." - -About an hour later Uncle George, Dolly, and the boys came back. - -"Oh," said Frank, "look, Uncle George! The water has risen up in the -thistle tube." - -"Yes, how do you account for that, Frank?" - -"Some of the fresh water has passed through the skin," Frank answered. - -"Now taste the water in the glass outside the skin," said Uncle George. -"It was fresh water when we put it in, wasn't it?" - -Frank did so. Tom tasted it too. Both boys declared that it was now -salt. - -"Where did the salt taste come from?" their uncle asked. - -"It must have come through the skin," said Tom. - -"Then some of the salt water in the thistle tube has passed through the -skin into the glass; and some of the fresh water in the glass has passed -through the skin into the thistle tube. Can you tell me any more?" - -Frank thought for a little while and then said, "Oh yes, more fresh -water than salt water has passed through the skin, because the salt -water is now far up the tube." - -"Quite right, my boy. Now let us look at the small bottles. The skin on -the one filled with brine is swollen out like a ball, while the water in -the dish tastes salt. The skin of the other is drawn far in, showing us -that much of the fresh water which it contained has passed out. If you -taste the water in this bottle, you will find that a very little of the -brine in the dish has passed into it through the skin. - -"Now what we learn from these things is really this--that when two -liquids, a heavy and a light one, are separated by a thin skin, they -_both_ pass through the skin. The heavy liquid passes through slowly, -and the light liquid passes through quickly." - -Uncle George then placed some small seeds on a piece of wet -blotting-paper. He turned a glass tumbler upside down, and placed it -over them. - -"We will leave these for a few days," he said. - - - Questions and Exercises. - - 1. Boil some river-water in a flat dish until all the water is gone. - Do the same with some sea-water, or, if this is not at hand, - make some brine. Examine the two dishes, and tell what you - see. - 2. Take a glass gas chimney, and tie a piece of bladder, or parchment, - over one end of it. Half fill it with sugar and water. Now - place it with its tied-up end bottommost in a tumbler of clear - cold water. After an hour or so taste the water in the - tumbler. What have you to say about it? - 3. What takes place when brine and clear water are separated from one - another by a piece of skin (parchment)? - - [Illustration: A Box of Mustard Seeds.] - - - - - II.--HOW PLANTS TAKE FOOD FROM THE SOIL (2). - - -A whole week went by before Uncle George was ready for the next lesson. - -At last he called the children and said to them--"Tom, will you please -fetch me the seeds which we put on the wet blotting-paper under the -tumbler? Frank, bring me two leafy branches from a rose-bush in the -garden; and, Dolly, please fetch two glasses from the kitchen." - -Now there was nothing the children liked better than to help their Uncle -George, and all three rushed off at once to do his bidding. - -While they were away Uncle George himself went into the garden, dug up -two young plants, and brought them to the children in the study. - - [Illustration: Sun-flower Plant in Water.] - -"Now, children," said Uncle George, "we are ready to begin our lesson. -Fill one of the glasses with water, Frank, and put one of your leafy -rose branches in each glass--one branch in water and the other in a dry -glass. Can you tell me what will happen to the branches?" - -The children had many times seen what had happened to flowers when the -maid had forgotten to put water in the vases, so that Tom readily said, -"Yes, the one in the dry glass will wither, while the one in the water -will keep fresh for some time." - -"How do you know that?" - -"Because it always happens, Uncle," said Frank. "Why, sometimes the -flowers we gather in the wood are faded before we get home. They often -come back to life when put in water." - -"You are quite right, Frank," Uncle George replied. "See, here are two -young sun-flower plants, which I brought in from the garden. I placed -one in water. The other I left lying on the table. The one on the table -is dead. What does this show us?" - - [Illustration: The Sun-flower, faded.] - -"That plants require water," said Tom. "That whenever you cut off their -water supply they die." - -"Quite right, Tom. We shall see by and by that plants are always giving -off a great deal of water to the air from their leaves.[1] Where do they -get this water from?" - -"It must be from the soil," said Frank. - -"It must be," said Uncle George. "If we keep a plant in a pot without -watering it, it soon dies. All the water it contains will by and by -travel up to the leaves. It passes out through tiny pores in the leaves -into the air. If no more water comes up from the soil, the plant withers -and dies. The roots of plants search the soil in all directions for -water. And in this water there is but little plant-food. We saw this -when we boiled away the clear water which covered the soil in the glass. - -"If we boil away some water from the tap, we shall find some solid -matter left behind in the dish. Thus we see that in order to get a -_small_ quantity of food, plants take up a _great_ quantity of water -from the soil. Most of the water is sent into the air from the leaves. -But the food stuff remains in the plant, just as it did in the dish. - -"Now I am going to show you how this water gets into the plant. Look at -these little seeds on the damp blotting-paper! - -"Each seed has a small plant with a long root, and small, stout green -leaves. Look at the roots and tell me what you see?" - -"They are covered with silky stuff," said Frank. - -"Yes. Now take this glass, which will make things look bigger than they -really are, and look at the roots once more." - -"The silky stuff is a number of fine hairs," said Frank. - - [Illustration: THE OTTER] - - [Illustration: FIELD-MICE] - -"That is quite right, Frank," said Uncle George. "These are the -_root-hairs_. Each of these hairs is a long bag or sac, of very thin -skin. It is filled with a liquid called _sap_, which is slightly denser, -or heavier, than the water in the blotting-paper. Now, do you see how a -plant takes food from the soil, when it is growing in the garden or in a -field?" - -"Yes, I think I do," said Frank. "The water in the soil contains very -little plant-food. The water inside the tiny sac contains very much." - -"And what have you to say, Tom?" - -"One of these liquids is denser than the other," said Tom. "Both are -separated by a thin skin. The lighter liquid outside the sac will pass -into it quickly, while the heavier liquid will pass out slowly." - -"Bravo! Tom!" said Uncle George. "I couldn't have given a better reply -myself. The water from the soil passes in quickly. The sap from the -inside of each root-hair passes out slowly. If they were both of the -same density, neither would pass through the skin. If the water in the -soil were the denser, then the sap would pass out so quickly that the -plant would soon be robbed of its water. - -"Here are two young plants, each growing in a small pot. I want you to -water them, Tom. Water one with salt and water (brine), the other with -tap-water." - -Tom did as he was asked. - - [Illustration: Plants watered with Fresh and Salt Water.] - -"See," said Uncle George, "the one which you watered with brine is -drooping. It is bending over the pot. That is because the water outside -its root-hairs is denser than that which is inside the plant." - -"How does the water get up from the roots to the leaves?" Frank asked. - -"Just in the same way as the oil travels up the wick of the lamp. Water -will always travel up through small spaces." - -Uncle George poured some red ink into a saucer, and dipped the corner of -a lump of sugar into it. The red ink ran up into the sugar until it was -red all over. Next he took a bundle of very small glass tubes, and -dipped the ends of them in the ink. The ink ran up the tubes, filling -them to the top. - -"Inside every plant," Uncle George went on, "there are thousands of long -tiny tubes, up which the water travels. In fact the _veins_ of a leaf -are just bundles of tubes, something like the bundle I hold in my hand." - - - Questions and Exercises. - - 1. Why do branches wither quickly when cut from the tree? How would - you keep them from withering quickly? - 2. Place two small panes of clean glass close together. Dip the corner - of them in coloured water, and watch what happens. - 3. Why do we never see the silky _root-hairs_ when we dig or pull a - plant out of the ground? - - - - - III.--THE WEASEL AND THE OTTER. - - -It was Frank who wanted to follow the stream far up towards the hills. -He wished to see where it began, for he had heard that its source was in -several small streams many miles away. - -Uncle George agreed to take the children as far up the stream as they -could walk, without being tired. Soon they were far up above the wood, -and the fields, and the pond. - -Frank was not in the least sorry when his uncle sat down on a large -stone by the side of the stream. - -"We shall not go much farther," said Uncle George. "Some other day we -will. But tell me what you think of the country round about you." - -"It is very wild and lonely," said Tom. "There are no fields of corn; -nothing but green hills and moorland. Yet it is very grand." - -"The flowers and plants are not like those of the valley," said Tom. -"The stream, too, is different. Here it is a noisy, rushing course of -clear, lovely water. Down below it is a lazy-flowing stream." - -"It is not always so clear," said Uncle George. "After heavy rains this -stream is swollen and brown." - -"Look! look!" cried Dolly. "What is that on the other side of the -stream?" - -Sure enough there was something moving about. Now it turned round and -opened its mouth, showing two rows of sharp, white teeth. Then, with a -harsh cry that could be heard above the noise of the water, it bolted -away. - -There was just time for all to see the creature, which Tom at once -called a weasel. - -"Yes, a weasel it is," said Uncle George; "it is one of the animals -which prey on rabbits and young hares. Look! there it is again." - -The children looked, and saw it quite clearly. There it was, a pretty -little animal of a black and brown colour, with just a little white on -its breast. It sat up, and was holding something in its fore paws. - -"Ah!" said Uncle George, "our little friend is a thief. He has found a -nest, and that is an egg he has stolen from it. Let us see what he will -do with it." - - [Illustration: The Weasel at Home.] - -In a moment or two Master Weasel tucked the egg under his chin and was -off once more. - -"What a dear little thing, to be sure!" said Dolly. "How quaint to carry -an egg in that way!" - -"It looks pretty, that is certain," said Uncle George, "but it is a -dreadful foe to the smaller animals of the field. There are other foes, -too, and I hope we may see some of them before we return." - -The boys were glad to hear their uncle say this, and they asked him to -take them, now they were rested, a little farther up the stream. - -All of them made a start. - -By and by they came to a place where the stream made a kind of pool. The -pool was bounded on each side by high rocks. At the top end the water -came down with a rush from a great height. - -It was a very lonely spot indeed; and, except for the noise of the -water, nothing could be heard. - -On and on they went. - -Uncle George told them of the stoat, the polecat, and the marten, all of -which, he said, were foes of the smaller animals. - -Tom kept a sharp look out, and hoped he would see at least one of these. - -As luck would have it, a dull splash was heard in the water a little way -in front of them. All of them looked towards the spot. - -"Down, boys, down! and keep quite still," said Uncle George. "Hide -behind these big stones. We shall have a treat." - -Swimming on the surface of the water was an animal as large as a -good-sized dog. Now it dived to the bottom. The ripples on the water -showed that the animal was swimming underneath. The children held their -breaths and watched. Not in vain; for there, on the other side of the -stream, the animal came out of the water. It held a fish which it had -caught. - -"Now," said Uncle George, "we have a fine chance to look at our new -friend. That animal is the otter. See! Its body is pretty flat; its legs -are short, and its toes are webbed like those of the duck. Look at its -round nose and its small ears. If we were closer to it we should see -that there is a fold of skin which can be turned over the ears while the -creature is in the water." - -"How fierce it looks!" broke in Dolly, "and how its eyes gleam!" - -"It is glad to have caught the fish, I should think," said Frank. - -Uncle George raised his hand to hold the children in silence. Then he -went on in a soft voice. "Look at its flat tail, which is pointed at the -tip. The otter uses his tail as a rudder to guide him in the water. See -how sleek his dark brown skin is. It is now nearly dry, though he has -only just come out of the stream." - -"Let us drive him away," said Dolly, who could not help but feel sorry -for the poor fish. - -There was no need for this, however, as, just at that moment, the otter -turned towards the party, showing, as he did so, a lovely white throat. -He had heard them speaking, and was off like a flash, leaving the fish -on the rock. - -The fish had an ugly bite in its back, and was quite dead. - -"Poor, dear little thing!" cried Dolly. "What a shame to kill you!" - -"It is the otter's nature," said Uncle George. "He does a great deal of -good, for he kills many water-voles, or rats, as they are sometimes -called, as well as frogs and water insects. Sometimes, however, he does -harm, for he catches salmon, trout, and wild-ducks. He seems to do this -more for sport than for food, for he only eats small portions of his -prey." - - - Questions and Exercises. - - 1. Write down the names of some animals you would expect to find if - you walked along the bank of a stream. - 2. Describe the Otter and the Weasel. Tell in what way they are like - and unlike. - - [Illustration: Common and Ox-eye Daisy compared.] - - - - - IV.--DWELLERS IN THE CORN FIELD. - - -As Uncle George walked by the edge of the corn field, Dolly and her two -brothers ran up to him. Dolly carried a bunch of huge daisies in her -hand. - -"We want you to tell us about these, Uncle George," she said. "Tom says -that these are the little field daisies grown up; and Frank says they -are not." - -"Frank is right," said Uncle George, laughing. "This is not the common -field daisy. It is the _ox-eye_ daisy. You might bring me a common -daisy, Frank. I am sure there are many growing near. Ah, here is one at -our feet! Now let us hold them side by side. - -"You can see that they are unlike one another in many ways. The _ox-eye_ -daisy has much larger leaves and flowers. It bears its leaves and -flowers on tall, strong stalks. The leaves of the common daisy lie -almost flat on the ground, and there is only one little flower-head on -each stalk. When we get home we shall look at them both more closely." - -"Oh, look at those big yellow daisies growing among the corn," said -Dolly. - -"And I see some blue flowers near them," said Tom. - -"The yellow flower is the _moon-daisy_. It is also called the -_corn-marigold_. It is a great deal like the two daisies we have just -been talking about. The other is the blue _cornflower_. It belongs to -the same great family as the daisies. Frank will go and fetch us some." - -Frank gathered a bunch of both flowers. He was just reaching over for -some large red poppies when he saw a pair of small black cunning eyes -peering at him. Then a brown creature ran past him and went out of sight -among the long grass at the edge of the field. - -"A rat! a rat! Uncle George!" he shouted. - -"Yes, it is a rat, I saw it," said his uncle. - -"But what is he doing out in the fields?" said Frank. "I always thought -that rats lived in houses." - -"The brown rat lives where he can," said Uncle George. "Very likely this -one has come from the farm. Farm-yard rats often come out and live among -the long grass and reeds in summer-time. When the cold weather comes, -and the crops are gathered, they go back to the stables and barns. There -they rob the farmer. They are very cunning creatures. They steal eggs, -milk, grain, and even kill and carry away young chickens. The rat lives -by thieving. That is why he is killed whenever he shows his face. - -"Rats are sometimes useful, though. They swarm in ship docks and places -where stuff is left about. They eat up what would rot and poison the -air. They thus help to keep down disease. - -"Now, boys, before we go home I am going to show you something. I found -it the other day when taking a walk." - -Uncle George led the children to the end of the field, and pointed to a -strange object among the corn. It was a nest of some sort. It was made -of dried grass, and hung from five or six wheat stalks. It was round -like a cricket-ball, and just about as big. - -"It is the nest of the harvest-mouse," said Uncle George in a low voice. -"Keep still, and perhaps we shall see Mistress Mousie." - -The children waited a long time looking at the curious little object. At -last a tiny brown creature ran up one of the wheat stalks and went into -the nest. It seemed to go right through the wall of its little house. -There was no hole to be seen where it went in. Then Uncle George clapped -his hands. At once two wee brown mice came out. - -They slid down the corn stalks and were out of sight in a moment. - -"Ha! Mr and Mrs Mousie, we have disturbed you," said Uncle George. "We -will now go nearer and see your nest." - -"I can't see where they came out," said Tom. "There is no hole to be -seen." - -Uncle George pointed out to the children how the nest was woven together -and fixed to the wheat stalks. He then took a pencil from his pocket and -moved aside some of the dried grass. The children looked in and saw a -family of naked little mice cuddled up together. They could not tell how -many there were; but Uncle George said that there were eight or nine -young ones as a rule in a harvest-mouse's nest. - -"What will become of these wee mice when the corn is ripe?" Tom asked. - -"They will perhaps be grown up and able to take care of themselves by -that time, Tom," said Uncle George. - -"The harvest-mouse stores up corn in its nest. Before winter comes it -makes a hole in the ground. Here it sleeps through most of the winter -and spring. It wakes up from time to time and feeds upon its store of -grains." - -"It is much smaller and browner than our house-mouse," said Frank. - -"Yes, Frank, it is our smallest four-footed animal. We have many kinds -of mice in this country. The brown rat is the largest and the -harvest-mouse is the smallest of our mouse family." - -"How does it manage to slide down the wheat stalk so quickly without -falling off?" Tom asked. - -"It can use its long tail as well as its feet for climbing," his uncle -answered. - -"When it wishes to get to the ground it just coils its little tail round -the stalk and slides down." - - - Questions and Exercises. - - 1. Name some flowers that grow among the corn in summer and in autumn. - 2. Describe the Rat. - 3. Do you know any other animals that have teeth like the rat? - 4. What other animals, besides the harvest-mouse, store up food for - the winter? - - [Illustration: HARVEST TIME] - - [Illustration: THE SQUIRREL] - - - - - V.--HARVEST TIME. - - -"They are very busy here," said Uncle George, as he went into the field -with Frank, Tom, and Dolly. - -And well might he say so, for the _whirr_ of the reaping-machine could -be heard far away. Round the field it went, sweeping down the golden -wheat. Following behind it were several girls, who twisted bands of -straw and laid them on the ground. Behind these came women who quickly -gathered up the cut wheat and placed it in bundles upon the bands. Then -came men who bound these bundles into sheaves and tossed them aside. -After these, again, came men who caught up the sheaves and placed them -upright in bunches of six or eight. These bunches of sheaves they called -"_stooks_." Last of all came a huge rake drawn by horses, gathering up -all the straws that were left. Every now and then the man that guided -the rake pressed an iron bar, and, whenever he did so, all the teeth of -the rake rose up at once, and left a row of gathered straw on the field. -Then a man came and bound them into rough sheaves as before. - -All was work and bustle and noise. What with the whirr of the -reaping-machine, the girls singing as they worked, the larks singing in -the sky, and the glorious autumn sun, the children thought the -harvest-field was the most cheerful place they had ever seen. - -"Why do you do that?" Frank asked a man who was fixing up the stooks. -"Would it not be just as well if you left the sheaves lying on the -ground until you cart them away?" - -"Ah, no, Master Frank," said the man, who knew him well, "that would -never do. We must allow the corn time to get dry, so we place the -sheaves upright that the sun and wind may dry them; and so that any rain -that falls may run down the stalks to the ground. When the sheaves are -quite dry, we take them home to the stack-yard." - -"How long does that take?" Frank asked. - -"It all depends on the weather," the man replied. "If it keeps fine, -they will be dry within a week. In rainy weather, sometimes the sheaves -have to stand in the fields for some weeks. In the next field the crop -was cut a week ago. They are taking it home now." - - [Illustration: The Stack-yard.] - -"And you build the sheaves into great stacks there?" said Tom. - -"Yes, it is kept in stacks until we are ready to thresh it. You must all -come over to the farm and see it being threshed into grain and straw -some day." - -"But why do you build it into stacks?" asked Frank. - -"So that we may keep it through the winter, and thresh a stack at a time -as we need it," the man replied. "It is threshed by passing it through a -mill. At our farm the mill is turned by horses. At some farms there are -mills turned by a great water-wheel. Sometimes a steam-engine comes and -threshes the whole crop in the fields." - -"And what do you do with it when it is threshed?" Dolly asked. - -"When the corn is passed through the mill, it is so shaken up that all -the grain is removed from the stalks. The grain comes out at one side of -the mill and falls into sacks. The straw is tossed out at another part. -We use the straw for bedding for horses and cows, and some kinds of -straw we use for feeding them. The grain goes to the miller, who grinds -it into flour. The flour goes to the baker, who bakes it into bread." - -"Come along, boys!" Uncle George shouted from the next field. "We are -going over to the farmyard to see the stacks made." - -In the next field the farmer's men were loading a waggon with sheaves of -corn. The sheaves were caught up by long pitch-forks and tossed on to -the waggon. Here a man put them into a great square load. When this was -done, the men lifted Dolly up, and she rode up to the farmyard on the -top of the great load of sheaves. - -In the stack-yard a large round stack was being built. A wooden frame -was in the middle, and round this a man put the sheaves in a circle as -they were thrown to him from the waggon. - -"Now, boys," said Uncle George, "Dolly wants to know why sheaves are -made with all the ears of corn at one end. Can you tell us?" - -"Oh, that is easy," said Tom. "The sheaves have to stand in the field -for a long time to dry. They could not stand up so well if they were -made any other way. Besides, the ears of corn must be up from the -ground, or they would be broken off." - -"There is another reason," said Uncle George. "Look how the stack is -being made. The top, or grain end of the sheaf is inside. The outside of -the stack is made up of the cut ends of the straws. Thus the grain is -kept secure from bad weather and thieving birds. Besides, the stack -could not be made round in shape if they were placed in any other way. -The bottom of the sheaf is much wider than the top." - -In another part of the yard men were busy roofing the newly built stacks -with straw. The straw roof was tied down with many ropes, also made of -twisted straw, and then the stack was ready. - -"What a lot of work there is in getting corn," said Frank. - -"Ah, yes," said his uncle, "much more work than we have seen to-day. -Think of the work done in the fields in spring, getting the land ready -for seed--the work of ploughing, sowing, reaping, and threshing done by -the farmer's men and horses--the work done by the rain and sun in -growing and ripening the wheat--the work done by the miller and baker; -and all this, Frank, that we may have a loaf of bread." - - - Questions and Exercises. - - 1. Tell the story of a wheat plant from the time it begins to grow - from the seed until it is ready to be cut. - 2. Where does the making of a loaf of bread really begin? From what - you have learnt in the lesson, trace the history of a loaf of - bread. - 3. Make a list of crops grown on the farm, and tell the use of each. - - - - - VI.--THE SQUIRREL. - - -"Halloa! there he goes again," said Frank, as he watched a nimble little -animal leaping from branch to branch, and from tree-top to tree-top. "He -will fall if he does not take care." - -"No fear of that," said Uncle George. "His home is among the tree-tops. -He never falls. That is a squirrel, and I should not be surprised if his -nest is somewhere near. Let us sit down on this bank and watch." - -As he spoke, Uncle George took his pair of field-glasses out of the -leather case which he sometimes carried on a strap across his shoulder, -when he went out to watch the birds. - -"Now, Mr Squirrel," he said, "we can watch your antics from a distance. -You are a very cunning and clever little chap, no doubt." - -When Uncle George and Dolly and the two boys first saw the squirrel, the -little creature was on the ground, bobbing about among the ferns and the -grass. The moment it saw them, however, it bounded into a tree, going -swiftly up by jerk after jerk, and always keeping on the far side of the -trunk. - -They could just see its bushy tail, first at one side of the trunk and -then, much higher up, at the other side. When it reached the top part of -the tree, it leapt from branch to branch in the most daring manner. - -"We have alarmed the creature," said Uncle George. "But if we sit here -quite still for a little while, Mr Squirrel will get over his fright. -Ah, there he is." - -Uncle George handed the glasses to Frank. - -"Now, tell us what you see," he said, "and then Tom and Dolly shall each -take a look." - -"He is sitting up on his hind legs," said Frank. "His great, bushy tail -is bent right over his head. He is holding a little green thing in his -fore-paws. Ah, he is eating it. Look Dolly!" and Frank handed the -glasses to his little sister. - -"Oh, what a lovely little animal," said Dolly; "and what pretty eyes he -has. They are just like a pair of bright, black beads." - -"I think Tom ought to have the glasses now," said Uncle George. "He has -been very patient indeed. Come Tom, tell us what the squirrel is like." - -Tom took the glasses and looked through them for a long time. Then he -said, "He is a very pretty creature, as Dolly has said. His colour is -rich brown all over, except the front part of his body, which is a very -light brown, changing almost to white. His tail is very large and bushy, -and his ears are upright and tufted with brown hair. His fore-paws are -just like little hands. He holds the nut in them and nibbles it just -like a little monkey. His head is not unlike the rabbit's head. His -teeth are almost exactly like rabbit's teeth. They are chisel-shaped, -and seem to be very sharp." - -"Splendid, Tom," said his uncle, patting him on the back, "I don't think -you have left anything out. Now, let me look." - -"Oh, there is another one. There are now two of them," said Frank. - -"Where did that one come from?" asked his uncle, looking through the -glasses. "It seemed to come out of the tree, did it not?" - -"I thought you children would leave me nothing to find out; but I see -something which you have missed. Here, Frank, take the glasses and see -if you can find it. Look at the fork of the tree just below where the -squirrels are." - -"I see something like a nest," said Frank. "I noticed that before, but I -thought it was a rook's nest." - -"Nay," said his uncle, "it is a squirrel's nest. Rooks build on the very -top branches of trees, and you never see one rook's nest without a lot -of others near it. Besides, the rook's nest is a rough flat nest, while -this is a round one with a roof on it, and a hole in the side to let the -squirrels out and in." - -"Then that other squirrel must have come out of the nest," said Frank. - -"Just so," said Uncle George. "That is Mrs Squirrel. She has come out to -get some food, and her little husband will look after the family while -she is away hunting for nuts and buds and soft green bark. - -"If we could get up to that nest, we should find it to be built of twigs -and moss cleverly woven together. - -"The inside is lined with soft warm moss and dry leaves. We should, most -likely, find four or more tiny squirrels cuddled up together inside. -Blind, naked, helpless things they are at first. But they soon grow up, -and their long bare tails become bushy. Then the little mother teaches -them to climb and find food for themselves. Should one of them fall, she -springs down and carries it up to the nest in her mouth, just as a cat -carries her kittens. - -"By autumn these young squirrels will be quite as clever as their -parents. Autumn is the squirrel's busy time. He has to prepare for the -long winter, for no nuts are to be found then. So the squirrel gathers -in his harvest of nuts. These he hides in secret places buried in the -ground. He usually has more than one storing-place. In fact, he -sometimes has so many that he forgets about some of them." - -"We never see squirrels in winter," said Tom. - -"No, because the squirrel sleeps the whole winter through. After he has -gathered his harvest, he looks for a snug hole deep under an old -tree-stump. This he lines with dry leaves and pieces of bark. When the -weather becomes very cold he seeks his winter nest, coils his body up so -that his great tail is folded almost right round him, and falls fast -asleep. Cold makes him drowsy, but warmth wakes him up. On a mild -winter's day he wakes up, crawls out of his hole, and visits his store -of nuts. After he has made a good meal of them, he goes back to his bed -again, and sleeps on until hunger and mild weather wake him up. - -"During autumn the squirrel's coat is very pretty. It is of a deep, rich -brown colour, and very thick. His tail is then very large and bushy, and -he is quite fat and sleek. - -"When he comes out of his sleeping quarters in spring he is thin and -hungry. His coat is then a very pale brown." - -"What does he do for food in spring?" asked Tom. "There are no nuts to -be found then." - -"Alas, no, Tom. In spring he robs birds' nests of their eggs, and that -is why the pretty little squirrel is hunted and shot by the game-keeper. -In spring, too, he feeds on the tender buds, and so does much damage to -trees and shrubs; that is, if his winter stores are used up." - -"I should think," said Frank, "that such a large tail would be very much -in the squirrel's way when climbing and leaping from branch to branch." - -"Not at all," said his uncle, "his huge tail is of the greatest use to -him in guiding his body. Without it he could not take such flying leaps -among the tree-tops. - -"Besides this, it often enables him to escape from his enemies. Many a -time the game-keeper's bullets pass harmlessly through his fluffy tail, -while Mr Squirrel scampers safely up the tree; and many a time he -escapes from the cat by leaving the tip of his brush in pussy's claws. - -"A great many of our trees have been planted by squirrels. Many a -stately oak and beech tree has sprung from the squirrel's buried store -of acorns and beech nuts. For, as I have already told you, sometimes he -forgets where he has buried them, or perhaps fails to find them when the -forest is white with snow. So, you see, the little animal is of some use -after all." - - - Questions and Exercises. - - 1. The squirrel has chisel-shaped teeth suited for gnawing. Name other - animals of the same kind. - 2. The squirrel's bushy tail is of great use to him. Why? - 3. Make a list of our wild animals (1) which sleep through the winter, - and (2) which store up food for winter. - - - - - VII.--HOW THE FIRE BURNS. - - -It was a cold wet day--so cold and wet that neither Dolly nor her -brothers could venture out. They had grown tired of reading books and -drawing pictures, and were indeed feeling very dull. They sat looking at -the bright fire. Uncle George laid down his paper and said: - -"Come, let us have a lesson. What shall it be? The rain? The cat? Or -shall it be the cosy fireside?" - -"The fire," said Frank. "Tell us why the fire burns, Uncle George!" - -"I will," said cheery Uncle George. "Just wait until I get some things -from the kitchen. Come along, boys." - -When Uncle George and the boys came back to the room, they brought a lot -of curious articles with them. These were an empty pickle-bottle, a -small saucer, a glass bell-jar, a large dish, a piece of candle, some -tacks, and a taper. - - [Illustration: A Baby Cloud] - - [Illustration: THE BALLOON] - -"Now," said Uncle George, "we are ready to begin." - -He first lighted the piece of candle and lowered it into the bottle. It -burned for a short time, then it went out. - -"Can you tell me why it goes out?" he asked. - -"Want of air," said Tom and Frank at the same time. - -"But there is air in the bottle," said Uncle George. - -"Yes, but not the kind of air the candle wants," said Frank. - - [Illustration: Candle burning in Open Jar.] - -"That is a queer answer, Frank. The candle burned for a time in the -bottle before it went out." - -"Because it used up that part of the air which makes things burn," said -Frank. - -"That is _very_ good," said Uncle George. - -Uncle George then poured some water into the large dish. He fixed the -candle on a big cork, lighted it and set it floating on the water. Then -he placed the glass bell-jar over it. But first of all he marked the -level of the water on the outside of the bell-jar. - -Very soon the flame of the candle became small, and at last went out. -Just then the water inside the bell-jar rose far up above Uncle George's -mark. He marked this new level, and asked the boys if they could tell -him why the water rose in the jar. - -Both Frank and Tom shook their heads sadly. - - [Illustration: Candle in Stoppered Jar--burning.] - -"Then I must explain," said Uncle George. - -"Some of the air has gone," said Tom. - -"Yes," said Uncle George. "How much of the air has gone?" - -Frank pointed to the space between the two marks. - -"That is right," said Uncle George. "The water has risen up in the -bell-jar to take the place of the air that has been used up by the -burning of the candle. Where has this used-up air gone?" - -"It must have gone into the water," said Tom. - -"Why did it not go into the water before the candle burned?" - -"Perhaps the burning of the candle has _changed_ this part of the air," -said Frank. - -"Very good, Frank. You are right again. The burning of the candle has -changed a certain part of the air. It has, indeed, so changed it that it -can dissolve in water just as if it were sugar or salt." - -Uncle George now poured water into the outer dish until it was level -with the water inside the bell-jar. Then he took out the stopper and -pushed a lighted taper into the bell-jar. The taper at once went out. - - [Illustration: Candle in Stoppered Jar--gone out.] - -"This shows us," he said, "that a part of the air causes things to burn. -The other part of the air does not. It puts burning things out. If we -blow the fire with a bellows or fan, it burns more brightly and quickly. -Why? Just because we are forcing a stream of air upon it, and a part of -that stream of air is changed by the burning." - -Uncle George next put some bright iron tacks in a small dish. He poured -some water out of the large dish, and placed the bell-jar in the dish. -After that he added water until it was just up to his first mark on the -bell-jar. - -Then he floated the dish with the tacks on the water. Next he wetted the -tacks with water, and then placed the bell-jar over them and put in the -stopper. - -"Now," he said, "we will leave this just as it is for a few days." - -The boys watched the bell-jar every day, and this is what they saw. The -water rose slowly in the bell-jar. As it rose the bright tacks turned -red with rust. The water rose higher and the tacks turned redder every -day. - -At length it rose to Uncle George's second mark. It rose no farther, -although left for a whole week. - -Then Uncle George called the boys and asked them what had taken place in -the bell-jar. - -"The tacks have rusted, and some of the air in the jar has been used -up," said Frank. - -"How much air has been used up?" Uncle George asked. - -"Just exactly the same as was used up when we burned the candle," said -Tom, pointing to the top mark. - -"Let us see, then," said Uncle George, "what part of the air has gone." - -He poured water into the large dish until it was level with the water -inside the bell-jar. Then he put a lighted taper into the bell-jar as -before. It went out at once. - -"It is the same part of the air as the burning candle used up," said -Frank. - -"Then we have found out," said Uncle George, "that when a thing burns it -uses up a certain part of the air; and that when iron rusts, exactly the -same part of the air is used up. - -"In the first case, the burning of the candle changed part of the air -into a gas which dissolved in the water. In this case, that same part of -the air has joined up to part of the iron tacks to form that red powder -which we call _rust_." - - - Questions and Exercises. - - 1. How is rust formed? - 2. Explain why things which are made of iron should be painted. - 3. A grate full of coals burns away and only a small quantity of ash - is left in the grate. What has become of the coals? - - - - - VIII.--THE FIRE-BALLOON. - - -One day Uncle George made the children a fire-balloon. He took twelve -strips of tissue-paper shaped as you see in the picture. These he pasted -neatly together at the edges so as to form a kind of bag with a round -opening at the bottom. A ring of wire was then fixed at the bottom to -keep it firm, and across the ring was stretched another piece of wire. -This was to hold a dry sponge by and by. - -Uncle George swung the balloon till it was filled with air. He told -Frank to hold it by the ring while he heated the air inside the balloon. - -This was done by holding the mouth of the balloon over a piece of rag -which had been dipped in spirits and set on fire. - - [Illustration: Strip for Balloon.] - -Soon Frank felt the balloon rising. He lifted it up away from the flame, -while Uncle George moved the little sponge along the wire to the middle -of the ring. Then he soaked the sponge with spirits and set fire to it. - -"Let go!" said Uncle George; and away went the balloon, soaring up -towards the sky. Higher and higher it rose, moving with the wind. The -children watched it until at last it seemed a mere dot in the sky, and -then it went quite out of sight. - -"What makes the balloon rise up?" Dolly asked, as they returned to the -house. - -For answer Uncle George took a cork and held it under a trough of water. -When he let it go, the cork at once rose to the top of the water. - -"What makes the cork rise up?" he asked. - -"Because it is lighter than the water," said Tom. - -"For just the same reason the balloon rises in the air," said Uncle -George. "Our balloon is only a bag filled with air." - -"Then the air inside the balloon is lighter than that outside," said -Frank. - -"Yes," said his uncle. "What did we do to it to make it lighter?" - -"We heated it," said Tom. - -"And what has this taught you?" asked Uncle George. - -"It has taught us," said Frank, "that if we heat air we make it -lighter." - -"What takes place is this," said Uncle George. "When a small quantity of -air is heated it swells out and fills a much larger space than before. -It therefore becomes much lighter than the air round about it, and rises -up through it. Come into the house and let us take another lesson from -the fire. - - [Illustration: Strips pasted together.] - -"We have already learned that the fire in burning uses up part of the -air. After using up this part of the air, how is it that the fire does -not go out?" - -"Because there is always a fresh supply of air coming into the grate!" -said Frank. - -"Quite right. If we stand between the door and the fire we can feel this -stream of air. Something else is taking place in the grate besides the -burning of coal. What is it, Tom?" - -"Air is being heated!" - -"Very good, Tom, and what becomes of the heated air?" - -"It rises up the chimney, carrying the smoke with it; just as the heated -air in our balloon rose up, carrying the paper bag with it," said Frank. - -"That is really a clever answer, Frank. Now, can you tell me what makes -this constant stream of cold air from the door to the fireplace?" - -"It is the cold air rushing in to take the place of the heated air that -has gone up the chimney," said Frank. - -"Very good indeed, Frank," said Uncle George. "And now I am going to -show you something which will prove all this very nicely." - -He then took a saucer and poured some water into it. He placed a piece -of lighted candle in the middle of the dish and put a lamp chimney over -it. The candle burned for a few seconds and then went out. - -"Why does the candle go out?" he asked. - -"Because it has used up that part of the air which makes things burn," -said Tom. - -"That is right," said Uncle George, and he began to cut a piece of stout -card, shaped like the letter T, but broader every way. The upright part -fitted into the top of the lamp chimney. - -"We are now going to give the candle flame a stream of fresh air," he -said, as he fitted the piece of card into the chimney. - -The candle was again lit and the chimney placed over it. This time it -did not go out. It burned brightly, and the flame seemed to be blown -from side to side. - -"That is very strange," said Frank. - - [Illustration: Draught in Chimney Glass.] - -Uncle George lit a piece of brown paper. "You will understand it now," -he said, as he held smoking paper near the top of the chimney. - -Then the boys saw a stream of smoke go down one side of the card and -come up the other side. - -"Oh, I see it now," said Tom. "The card divides the chimney into two. -The air, heated by the candle flame, rises up one side of the card, and -the cold air goes down the other side to supply its place, drawing the -smoke with it. The candle does not go out now, because it gets a -constant stream of fresh air." - -"Are the balloons, which are large enough to carry people, -fire-balloons?" asked Dolly. - -"No, my dear," replied Uncle George. "They are filled with a gas that is -lighter--very much lighter--than the air. They rise up easily, and can -carry quite a heavy load." - - - Questions and Exercises. - - 1. Take an empty bottle and heat it gently. Now turn it upside down, - and place the neck of it in cold water. Why does the water - rise in the bottle? - 2. How is a _draught_ caused? - 3. Why does a fire burn more brightly on a cold, frosty day, than on a - warm summer's day? - - - - - IX.--THE GULL. - - -Frank, Tom, and Dolly had never seen the sea. Long ago Uncle George had -told them that he would take them, and at last the time came for them to -go. - -It was afternoon when they reached the little sea-side village where -they were to spend a few days. The children were filled with wonder when -they saw the great, restless ocean. They watched the waves breaking into -white surf, and gathered sea-weeds and shells on the sandy beach. - -By and by they all sat down to rest and to watch the gulls, for there -were many here-about. - -"We have seen birds like these before, have we not?" said Uncle George. - -"Yes," said Tom, "we see them at home in the fields at spring-time. But -are these the same kind of gulls?" - -"Yes, Tom, they are. There are several kinds of gulls. Here we have just -two kinds. The _common gull_ and the _tern_. You can tell the one from -the other even in the distance by their mode of flying. - -"Do you see that one flying rapidly over the sea? Every now and then he -swoops down to the water and skims along, almost touching it with the -tips of his long, pointed wings. Do you know any other bird that flies -like that?" - - [Illustration: Gull flying.] - -"The swallow flies over the lake at home something like that," said -Frank. - -"That is so," said Uncle George. "The tern is very like the swallow both -in shape and in his manner of flight. He differs, however, in size and -colour. He is often called the 'sea-swallow,' and is the smallest of the -gull family. - -"Your swallows at home catch flies and other insects as they skim -through the air. The 'sea-swallows' live on fish. Every time they dart -down they seize and swallow a little fish. But it is done so quickly -that you cannot see it. - -"The gull's flight is quite different. Sometimes he flies so lazily that -he does not seem to move onwards at all. Then all of a sudden he darts -down into the water to seize his prey. Sometimes he flaps his great -white wings and wheels swiftly away, flying in great circles until he is -a mere speck in the distance. The gull has a very sharp eye. Watch!" - -Uncle George threw a piece of bread into the sea. At once about a score -of gulls pounced upon it, screaming loudly. Uncle George waited until -they flew away. Then he threw them a piece of wood. None of the gulls -came near it. - -"You see," he went on, "they can tell a piece of bread from a piece of -wood at a great distance." - -"Then they do not live entirely on fish," said Frank, as his uncle threw -them another piece of bread. - - [Illustration: Gull feeding.] - -"Oh, no, Frank, the gull is by no means dainty about his food. Nor does -he live all the year round at the sea. Great flocks of gulls fly inland -in spring and autumn. Then they live on worms, grubs, and whatever else -can be picked up in the fields. - - [Illustration: SEA-GULLS AND TERN] - -"We have a fine chance now, boys, of watching the gull. See, there are -some walking on the sand quite close to us, some are floating idly on -the sea, some are flying all round us. They think, no doubt, we have -lots of bread for them. Now then, boys, tell me about the common gull." - - [Illustration: Gull at rest on the water.] - -"He is a large bird," said Tom. "His body is white in colour, all but -his wings and back. These are of a pale bluish-grey." - -"Very good, Tom," said Uncle George. "Come on, Frank." - -"He has a large, greyish-green bill. The tip of it is hooked in shape, -and yellow. His legs are greenish-grey. The three front toes of his feet -are webbed." - -"But," said Tom, "I can see other gulls darker in colour. Their bodies -are dark brown and grey above and light brown below. What are they?" - -"They are the young gulls, Tom. They have not got rid of their nest -feathers yet." - -"Where do they build their nests?" Dolly asked. - -"High up on the cliffs, and on lonely rocky islands. Like the rooks, -they all nest together. The gull's nest is a very simple thing. It is -just a hole scraped in the ground and covered with dried grass. Here -two, or perhaps three, spotted eggs are laid. The gull is very fond of -her young. She will not allow them to try to fly from the high cliff. -She carries them one by one on her back down to the sea, and there -teaches them to swim. - -"Some gulls--the _black-headed gull_, for example--go far inland to -nest. These build their nests on the shores of small hill lakes. They -return to the sea with their young ones in autumn. - -"Gulls are clever birds. They are bold and active. The wild ocean is -their home. Storms bring no fears for them." - - - Exercises and Questions. - - 1. Tell the life-story of the common gull. - 2. Make a list of all the sea birds you know. - 3. The common gull has very large wings, curious beak and feet. Can - you explain what these are for? - - [Illustration: Engine puffing on a cold day.] - - - - - X.--DEW, FROST, RAIN. - - -"How is it, Uncle George, that there is always a clear space between the -spout of the kettle and the puff of steam?" - -It was Frank that asked the question. He had been watching the kettle -boiling for a long time. - -"It is the same with the railway engine," said Tom. "There is always a -big space between the funnel and the puff." - -"That is so," said Uncle George. "But if you watch carefully, you will -notice that the space between the funnel of the engine and the puff of -steam is not always of the same size." - - [Illustration: Engine puffing on a hot day.] - -"No," said Frank, "I have noticed that the white puff is farther away -from the funnel on a hot day than on a cold day." - -"That is true," said his uncle. "Perhaps you have also noticed that, as -the engine rushes along, it leaves a long white cloud trailing in the -air behind it. Sooner or later this long white cloud melts away from -sight. It melts away sooner on a hot day than on a cold day. Where does -it go?" - -"It goes into the air," said Frank; "just as the cloud from this kettle -goes into the air of the room." - -"Very good," said Uncle George. "Tom, will you please fetch me a tumbler -full of cold water, and see that the outside of the glass is quite dry?" - -When Tom came back with the glass of cold water, Uncle George wiped it -outside with a clean dry cloth. When he was sure that the outside of it -was dry, he placed the tumbler of water on the table in the middle of -the warm room. - -"Now," he said, "let us try to answer Frank's question about the clear -space between the spout of the kettle and the puff of steam. - -"The fact is," Uncle George went on, "the white puff which we call -_steam_ is not steam at all. We might just as well call it -'_water-dust_.' For it is made up of tiny droplets of water--so tiny -that they float in air. Steam is water in the form of gas. Like the air -we breathe, it cannot be seen. In fact, this water-gas forms part of the -air around us. The clear space between the spout of the kettle and the -puff is made up of hot steam. We cannot see it. As it comes out into the -colder air, it is cooled into the tiny droplets which form the puff. It -is only when cooled into tiny droplets that we can see it. - -"If you hold any cold object, such as a knife, in the puff, these water -particles run together and form large drops upon it. The cloud of -water-dust melts away in the room, as Frank told us. What takes place is -this. The tiny droplets, when spread out into the warm air, become real -steam, or 'water-gas,' again. - -"The outside of this tumbler of cold water was quite dry when I placed -it on the table. Run your finger along it and tell me what you find." - -Frank did so, and said, "Why, it is quite wet now." - -"Yes," said Uncle George, "it is covered all over with very small drops -of water. Where did this water come from. It could not come _through_ -the glass." - -"It is like dew," said Tom. - -"It is dew--_real dew_," said Uncle George. "The water in the glass is -much colder than the air around it. The film of air next the glass is -cooled, and the 'water-gas' which this film of air contains is changed -into water drops. - -"The earth is heated during the day by the sun, and the layer of air -next to it becomes filled with water-gas. At night the earth gets cold. -The water-gas, if the night is calm, comes out of the film of air next -to the earth. It settles in the form of tiny drops on everything around. - -"When the earth gets very cold, the water freezes as it changes from gas -to water, and instead of dew we have _frost_." - -"Oh, that is why we have frost on the _inside_ of the window panes in -winter," said Frank. - -"That is so," said his uncle. "The frost on your window pane is the -water-gas of the warm room changed into particles of ice. But let us -come back to our steam puff. We spoke about the long white streak of -water-dust which the engine leaves behind it. Do you know of anything -else like that outside?" - -"Oh yes," said Tom, "the clouds far up in the sky are very like it." - -"They are," said Uncle George. "In fact, the clouds in the sky and the -cloud behind the engine are just the same kind of thing. They are both -made up of tiny particles of water. - -"We have learnt that the streak of cloud left by the steam-engine melts -away quickly on a hot day, also that the puff is farther from the funnel -on a hot day. This shows us that the warmer the air is, the more water -can it take up and hold. We have also learnt that warm air is light and -rises up.[2] - -"What happens when warm air, which holds much water-gas, rises up to the -higher and colder parts of the sky?" - -"It gets cooled," answered Frank. - -"Yes, and its water-gas gets cooled too. Then we can see it as great -masses of water-dust. These masses we call _clouds_. If these masses of -cloud get further cooled, the tiny water particles run together to form -great drops--as they did on the cold knife. They are now too large and -heavy to float in the air, so they fall to the earth as _rain_." - - [Illustration: A Showery Day.] - - - Questions and Exercises. - - 1. If you place a saucer full of water outside on a hot day in the - morning, and go back to it in the evening, you will find the - saucer dry. Where has the water gone? - 2. Fill a tin can with a mixture of salt and snow (or chopped ice). - Place it in a warm room. _Frost_ comes on the outside of the - tin. Place a glass jug of water in the same room. _Dew_ is - formed on the outside of the jug. Can you explain this? - 3. Let the steam puff of the kettle strike against a cold sheet of - glass or metal, or a slab of stone. What is formed? - - - - - Footnotes - - -[1]See Lesson I., Book IV. - -[2]See lesson "The Fire-Balloon." - - - PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN AT THE PRESS OF THE PUBLISHERS. - - - - - Transcriber's Notes - - ---Retained publication information from the printed exemplar (this eBook - is in the public domain in the country of publication.) - ---Only in the text versions, delimited italicized text with - _underscores_. - ---Silently corrected several typos. - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The 'Look About You' Nature Study -Books, Book 2 (of 7), by Thomas W. 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