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diff --git a/old/50100-0.txt b/old/50100-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 40e7567..0000000 --- a/old/50100-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3090 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of How to Do Chemical Tricks, by A. Anderson - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: How to Do Chemical Tricks - Containing Over One Hundred Highly Amusing and Instructive - Tricks With Chemicals - -Author: A. Anderson - -Release Date: September 30, 2015 [EBook #50100] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOW TO DO CHEMICAL TRICKS *** - - - - -Produced by Craig Kirkwood, Demian Katz and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (Images -courtesy of the Digital Library@Villanova University -(http://digital.library.villanova.edu/).) - - - - - - -Transcriber’s Notes: - -Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_), and text -enclosed by equal signs is in bold (=bold=). - -Additional Transcriber’s Notes are at the end, including some -corrections to the text. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration: HOW TO DO CHEMICAL TRICKS] - - - - -HOW TO DO CHEMICAL TRICKS. - - - Containing Over One Hundred Highly - Amusing and Instructive Tricks - With Chemicals. - - By A. ANDERSON. - - HANDSOMELY ILLUSTRATED. - - NEW YORK: - FRANK TOUSEY, Publisher, - 24 UNION SQUARE. - - * * * * * - -Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1898, by - -FRANK TOUSEY, - -in the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington, D.C. - - * * * * * - -HOW TO DO CHEMICAL TRICKS. - -From the remotest ages chemistry has exercised the strongest -fascination on the minds of the curious, nor is it a matter of surprise -that boys should feel themselves drawn strongly by its mystery and -seeming magic. This attraction is undoubtedly caused by what the -ancients called the elements, earth, air, fire and water. There is -something so weird about the manifestation of air and fire, that it -is not difficult to understand how the alchemists believed them to be -forces able to be used at the bidding of spirits, who might be conjured -up by incantations and spells. - -Now it is known that these uncanny beings existed only in the -imagination of the forerunners of modern chemists. Yet what boy can -look on the brilliantly colored fires of a Fourth of July display, or -the burnished gold of the setting sun, or the fantastic pictures in the -glowing coals in a grate, and not feel that there is still something -of magic and mystery in fire still? What the boy feels, the scientist -cannot explain. Nobody knows actually what fire is. All that can be -said is that fire is produced by certain substances, such as coals, -wood, or paper, that give out heat, while passing from one state to -another. - -Now the word “element” was and is used to mean that simplest form of -matter, which, with other simplest forms goes to make up the whole -world of everything in it. The earth, animals, plants, the sea, the -atmosphere, are all made up of one or more of some seventy substances -called elements. Hence it is clear that the earth, air and water are -not, as the ancients thought, elements at all. As will be seen in this -little book, both air and water consist of mixtures of elements. In -chemistry such mixtures are called compounds. This word occurs again -and again, so its explanation should be remembered. - -One great fact must be remembered, which is at the very root of -chemistry. Nothing is really lost, however much its form may be -changed, or however many changes it may pass through. For instance, it -may seem that when a block of wood be burned that a very large amount -of it is lost. If, however, the ashes, the smoke, and the carbon that -is burned by the air be all weighed, the result would be exactly the -same as the weight of the original block of wood. - -Again take an instance of a different nature. A lump of sugar is placed -in a small glass of water. Gradually the solid is dissolved, and in -time disappears. It is not lost, however. By boiling the mixture until -all the water has evaporated the sugar will be found adhering as -crystals on the sides of the glass. If these be carefully collected, -they will be found to weigh precisely as much as the original lump of -sugar. - -Once more, take a block of ice weighing an ounce. Having removed -it into a room, the solid will in an hour or two have disappeared -entirely, but the water that has replaced the block of ice will weigh -neither more nor less than an ounce. If again heat be applied to the -water it will all disappear, but if weighed in a jam jar, the steam, -although invisible to the eye, will still weigh one ounce exactly. - -From the above-given experiments it may be seen that, however matter -may change its form it cannot really be destroyed. This truth will -appear in every experiment that can be performed, whether those given -in this little book or in the most learned treatise on chemistry. - - - - -Chemical Affinity. - - -This high-sounding term means that substances have a power of uniting -together that can be better explained by an experiment. Allow a few -drops of water to fall on a perfectly clean piece of iron. In a short -time a reddish-brown substance will appear on the iron that in ordinary -language is called rust. What does this mean? Water is a compound -substance composed of oxygen and hydrogen, but when brought into -contact with iron the oxygen prefers to unite with the iron and sets -the hydrogen free. Hence, would the chemist say, oxygen has a “stronger -affinity” for iron than for hydrogen. In this case the rust is composed -of rust, a combination of iron and oxygen called oxide of iron. What -has taken place may be shown by the following, which will be easily -understood: - - Oxygen } Water + Iron = Oxide - Hydrogen } of Iron + Hydrogen. - -So all that the chemical combination in the above means is that the -iron has taken the place of the hydrogen in the water used for the -experiment. If weighed it would be found as always, that the water -and the iron weighed precisely the same as the oxide of iron and the -hydrogen. - -It is to this same principle of chemical affinity that the curious -experiments of magic writing with sympathetic inks are possible. - - - - -Sympathetic Inks. - - -By means of these may be carried on a correspondence which is beyond -the discovery of all not in the secret. With one class of these inks -the writing becomes visible only when moistened with a particular -solution. Thus, if we write to you with a solution of sulphate of iron -the letters are invisible. On the receipt of our letter, you rub over -the sheet a feather or sponge, wet with a solution of nut-galls, and -the letters burst forth into sensible being at once, and are permanent. - -2. If we write with a solution of sugar of lead and you moisten with -a sponge or pencil dipped in water impregnated with sulphuretted -hydrogen, the letters will appear with metallic brilliancy. - -3. If we write with a weak solution of sulphate of copper, and you -apply ammonia, the letters assume a beautiful blue. When the ammonia -evaporates as it does on exposure to the sun or fire, the writing -disappears, but may be revived again as before. - -4. If you write with oil of vitriol very much diluted, so as to prevent -its destroying the paper, the manuscript will be invisible except when -held to the fire, when the letters will appear black. - -5. Write with cobalt dissolved in diluted muriatic acid; the letters -will be invisible when cold, but when warmed they will appear a bluish -green. - -Secrets thus written will not be brought to the knowledge of a -stranger, because he does not know the solution which was used in -writing, and therefore knows not what to apply to bring out the letters. - -Other forms of elective affinity produce equally novel results. Thus, -two invisible gases, when combined, form sometimes a _visible solid_. -Muriatic acid and ammonia are examples, also ammonia and carbonic acid. - -On the other hand, if a solution of sulphate of soda be mixed with a -solution of muriate of lime the whole becomes solid. - - * * * * * - -Some gases when united form liquids, as oxygen and hydrogen, which -unite and form water. Some solids when combined form liquids. - -Chemical affinity is sometimes called _elective_, or the effect of -_choice_, as if one substance exerted a kind of _preference_ for -another, and chose to be united to it rather than to that with which -it was previously combined; thus, if you pour some vinegar, which is -a weak acetic acid, upon some pearlash (a combination of potash and -carbonic acid), or some carbonate of soda (a combination of the same -acid with soda), a violent effervescence will take place, occasioned by -the escape of the carbonic acid, displaced in consequence of the potash -or soda preferring the acetic acid, and forming a compound called an -acetate. - -Then, if some sulphuric acid be poured on this new compound, the acetic -acid will, in its turn, be displaced by the greater attachment of -either of the bases, as they are termed, for the sulphuric acid. Again, -if into a solution of blue vitriol (a combination of sulphuric acid -with copper), the bright blade of a knife be introduced, the knife will -speedily be covered with a coat of copper, deposited in consequence of -the acid _preferring_ the iron of which the knife is made, a quantity -of it being dissolved in exact proportion to the quantity of copper -deposited. - -It is on the same principle that a very beautiful preparation called a -silver-tree, or a lead-tree, may be formed, thus: Fill a wide bottle, -capable of holding from half a pint to a pint, with a tolerably strong -solution of nitrate of silver (lunar caustic), or acetate of lead, in -pure distilled water. Then attach a small piece of zinc by a string -to the cork or stopper of the bottle, so that the zinc shall hang -about the middle of the bottle, and set it by where it may be quite -undisturbed. In a short time brilliant plates of silver or lead, as the -case may be, will be seen to collect around the piece of zinc, assuming -more or less of the crystalline form. This is a case of elective -affinity; the acid with which the silver or lead was united _prefers_ -the zinc to either of those metals, and in consequence discards them -in order to attach the zinc to itself; and this process will continue -until the whole of the zinc is taken up, or the whole of the silver or -lead deposited. - - - - -Alum Baskets. - - -Form a small basket about the size of the hand, of iron wire or split -willow; then take some cotton, such as ladies use for running into -flounces; untwist it and wind it round every limb of the basket. Boil -eighteen ounces of alum in a quart of water, or quantities in that -proportion; stir the mixture while boiling until the alum is completely -dissolved. Pour the solution into a deep pan, or other convenient -vessel, and suspend the basket in the liquor, so that no part of the -basket shall touch the vessel, or be exposed to the air. Let the whole -remain perfectly at rest for twenty-four hours. When you then remove -the basket the alum will be found very prettily crystallized over all -the limbs of the cottoned frame. - - - - -Easy Crystallizations. - - -Saturate water _kept boiling_ with alum; then set the solution in a -cool place, suspending in it, by a hair, or fine silk thread, a cinder, -a sprig of a plant, or any other trifle. As the solution cools, a -beautiful crystallization of the salt takes place upon the cinders, -etc., which are made to resemble specimens of mineralogical spars. - - - - -To Make a Piece of Charcoal Appear as Though it were Coated with Gold. - - -Dilute a saturated solution of chloride of gold with five times its -bulk of water; place a thin strip of fresh burned charcoal into it, and -apply heat, gradually increasing it until the solution gently boils. -The heat will make the charcoal precipitate the metal on the charcoal, -in the form of brilliant spangles. - - - - -To Give a Piece of Charcoal a Rich Coat of Silver. - - -Lay a crystal of nitrate of silver upon a piece of burning charcoal; -the metallic salt will catch fire, and throw out the most beautiful -scintillations that can be imagined. The silver is reduced, and, in the -end, produces upon the charcoal a very brilliant appearance. - -Many animal and vegetable substances, consist, for the most part, of -carbon, or charcoal, united with oxygen and hydrogen, which remember, -together combined, form water. Now oil of vitriol or strong sulphuric -acid, has so powerful an affinity or so great a thirst for water, that -it will abstract it from almost any body in which it exists. If you -pour some of this acid on a lump of sugar, or place a chip of wood in a -small quantity of it, the sugar or wood will become speedily blackened, -that is charred, in consequence of the oxygen and hydrogen being -removed by the sulphuric acid, and only the carbon or charcoal left. - -When Cleopatra dissolved pearls of wondrous value in vinegar, she was -unwittingly giving an example of chemical affinity. The pearl is simply -carbonate of lime stored up by the oyster in layers. Consequently the -precious jewels were decomposed by the greater affinity or fondness -of lime for the acetic acid in the vinegar, than for the carbonic -acid with which it had been before united. This was an example of -inconstancy in strong contrast with the conduct of their owner, who -chose death rather than become the wife of her lover’s conqueror. - - - - -Combustion. - - -It is necessary to distinguish between burning and the mere appearance -of it. A gas flame is gas in a state of combustion, whereas the -electric light is no example of it, although the wire within the -glassen cylinder is red hot, and to all appearance burning. Combustion -generally takes place through the strong affinity of some element, such -as carbon in a substance for the oxygen in the atmosphere. In coal gas, -for instance, the carbon contained in it unites with the oxygen in the -air to form a colorless substance called carbonic acid gas. The latter -is unable to support life, and may be called, therefore, poisonous. It -is the presence of this gas which makes it unhealthy to burn many jets -without proper ventilation. - -Also, carbonic acid gas is given off by the lungs. It may seem -curious, but it is none the less true, that breathing is a process of -combustion. The blood brings to the surface of the lungs the carbon, -which has resulted from the waste of the internal organs of the body. -When drawing in a breath the oxygen present in the atmosphere meets the -impure blood at the surface of the lungs, and purifies it by uniting -with the carbon in it. Then, though oxygen has been breathed in, -carbonic acid gas has been breathed out. - -To prove this will be interesting: Obtain from a chemist a little lime -water--two cents worth will do. It looks like ordinary water, being -perfectly transparent and colorless. Pour some into a clean glass, and -through a glass tube blow steadily into the water. In half a minute the -hitherto colorless liquid will become milky and opaque. If allowed to -stand there will fall down at the bottom of the glass a white powder. - -What has happened in this case? The carbonic acid gas from the lungs -has formed with the lime in the lime water a substance called carbonate -of lime, which, being insoluble in water, falls to the bottom of the -glass as a white powder. - -If carbonic acid gas were not present in the air blown from the lungs, -this milkiness would not appear, for no other gas, except this, would -alter the lime water’s clearness. - - - - -Chemistry of The Air. - - -Before proceeding further, it will be well to perform one or two -experiments, to prove that the air we breathe is by no means the simple -substance it is generally supposed to be. Although it is invisible, it -must be remembered that it presses with a force of over fifteen pounds -to the square inch, over the whole surface of the earth. It extends, -too, to a height of some forty miles above the earth, and though it -cannot be seen, it can be felt in the rush of the hurricane, and heard -in the roar of the tempest. It is chiefly composed of a mixture of two -gases, oxygen and nitrogen. - -Did the air consist entirely of the former, people would breathe too -quickly, and die in a very short time in a high fever, burned up, in -fact. If only consisting of nitrogen, the human race would also die, -because this element is incapable of supporting life; people would be -suffocated, in fact. - -Therefore, a judicious mixture of the two is essential to the life -of animals. Generally, in a hundred parts of air by weight there are -seventy-six parts of nitrogen to twenty-three of oxygen. - -Besides these two gases, there is also a quantity of carbonic acid gas -in the air, given off by all the fires and animals in the world. Of -course, its amount is much greater in the great towns and manufacturing -centers than in country districts. - -Now herein must be recorded one of these charming arrangements which -Nature has designed for the benefit of her children. Carbonic acid gas -is much heavier than the air, and, therefore, sinks towards the ground, -where, if allowed to accumulate, would cause the death of every animal. -Fortunately, however, plants breathe in through their leaves carbonic -acid gas during sunshine, and break it up into carbon and oxygen. The -former, they use for building up their trunks, leaves, and flowers, -while during the night they give off oxygen into the air. - -This is the reason why plants and trees planted in the streets so -largely help to sweeten and purify the foul air of a great city. - - * * * * * - -An experiment to prove that the atmosphere does consist of nitrogen -and oxygen, may be prettily proved in the following simple manner: A -glass marmalade jar, or a soup-plate filled with water, and a piece of -phosphorus as large as a pea, are the only things necessary. Take very -great care not to touch the phosphorus, for the heat of the hand is -sufficient to set it on fire, and a terrible wound would be caused. - -Place the phosphorus in a match-box on the surface of the water, touch -it with a lighted match, and put the jar-mouth downwards over it to the -bottom of the plate. The phosphorus burns with a dazzling brilliancy, -and gives off dense white fumes. At the same time the water rises a -third of the way up the jar, but not to the top, thus showing that all -the invisible matter has not been consumed. The white soon settles into -the water and is dissolved. The phosphorus has combined with the oxygen -in the jar and forms phosphoric oxide, which dissolves in water. There -is then only the nitrogen left. The disappearance of the oxygen allows -the water to fill up the space it formerly occupied. - -This may be followed by another experiment. - -To show that oxygen is necessary for the support of combustion, fix -two or three pieces of wax taper on flat pieces of cork, and set them -floating on water in a soup-plate, light them, and invert over them a -glass jar. - -As they burn, the heat produced may perhaps at first expand the air, so -as to force a small quantity out of the jar, but the water will soon -rise in the jar, and continue to do so until the tapers expire, when -you will find that a considerable portion of the air has disappeared, -and what remains will no longer support flame. - -The oxygen has been converted partly into water, and partly into -carbonic acid gas, by uniting with the carbon and hydrogen of which -the taper consists, and the remaining air is principally nitrogen, -with some carbonic acid. The presence of the latter may be proved by -decanting some of the remaining air into a bottle, and then shaking -some lime water with it, which will absorb the carbonic acid and form -chalk. - -Into an ale glass, two thirds full of water at about 140 degrees, -drop one or two pieces of phosphorus about the size of peas, and they -will remain unaltered. Then take a bladder containing oxygen gas, to -which is attached a stop cock and a long fine tube. Pass the end of -the tube to the bottom of the water, turn the stop cock, and press the -bladder gently. As the gas reaches the phosphorus it will take fire, -and burn under the water with a brilliant flame, filling the glass with -brilliant flashes of light dashing through the water. - -Into another glass put some cold water; introduce carefully some of the -salt called chlorate of potash; upon that drop a piece of phosphorus; -then let some strong sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol) trickle slowly -down the side of the glass, or introduce it by means of a dropping -bottle. - -As soon as the acid touches the salt the latter is decomposed, and -liberates a gas which ignites the phosphorus, producing much the same -appearance as in the last experiment. - -Into the half of a broken phial put some chlorate of potash, and pour -in some oil of vitriol. The phial will soon be filled with a heavy gas -of a deep yellow color. Tie a small test tube at right angles to the -end of a stick not less than a yard long, put a little ether into the -tube, and pour it gently into the phial of gas, when an instantaneous -explosion will take place, and the ether will be set on fire. This -experiment should be performed in a place where there are no articles -of furniture to be damaged, as the ingredients are often scattered by -the explosion, and the oil of vitriol destroys all animal and vegetable -substances. - -Into a jar containing oxygen gas introduce a coil of soft iron wire, -suspended to a cork that fits the neck of the jar and having attached -a small piece of charcoal to the lower part of the wire, ignite the -charcoal. The iron will take fire and burn with a brilliant light, -throwing out bright scintillations, which are oxide of iron, formed by -the union of the gas with the iron; and they are so intensely hot that -some of them will probably _melt_ their way into the sides of the jar, -if not through them. - -But by far the most intense heat, and most brilliant light, may be -produced by introducing a piece of phosphorus into a jar of oxygen. -The phosphorus may be placed in a small copper cup, with a long handle -of thick wire passing through a hole in a cork that fits the jar. The -phosphorus must first be ignited; and as soon as it is introduced into -the oxygen, it gives out a light so brilliant that no eye can bear it, -and the whole jar appears filled with an intensely luminous atmosphere. -It is well to dilute the oxygen with about one-fourth part of common -air, to moderate the intense heat, which is nearly certain to break the -jar if pure oxygen is used. - -The following experiment shows the production of heat by chemical -action alone: Bruise some fresh-prepared crystals of nitrate of copper, -spread them over a piece of tin foil, sprinkle them with a little -water; then fold up the foil tightly, as rapidly as possible, and in a -minute or two it will become red hot, the tin apparently burning away. -This heat is produced by the energetic action of the tin on the nitrate -of copper, taking away its oxygen in order to unite with the nitric -acid, for which, as well as for the oxygen the tin has a much greater -affinity than the copper has. - -[Illustration] - -Combustion without flame may be shown in a very elegant and agreeable -manner, by taking a coil of platinum wire and twisting it round the -stem of a tobacco pipe, or any cylindrical body for a dozen times or -so, leaving about an inch straight, which should be inserted into the -wick of a spirit lamp. Light the lamp, and after it has burned for a -minute or two, extinguish the flame quickly; the wire will soon become -red hot, and, if kept from draughts of air, will continue to burn -until all the spirit is consumed. - -Spongy platinum, as it is called, answers rather better than wire, and -has been employed in the formation of fumigators for the drawing-room, -in which, instead of pure spirit, some perfume, such as lavender water, -is used; by its combustion an agreeable odor is diffused through the -apartment. These little lamps were much in vogue a few years ago, but -are now nearly out of fashion. Finally, all the readers of this little -book should be very careful in performing all experiments. If possible, -he should use a room with a stone floor and no curtains, while an -outhouse with an earthen floor is still less dangerous. - - - - -Amateur Air Pump. - - -A most interesting class of experiments can be made with an air pump, a -piece of apparatus unfortunately beyond the pocket-money supply of the -average boy. Nevertheless, if the following instructions are exactly -followed and carefully carried out, a very excellent air pump can be -made at a comparatively small cost. Some pretty, as well as interesting -results will amply repay you for the trouble you take to make the pump. -Although the air seems so light in comparison with water or a heavy -metal like iron, you must remember that it really presses upon every -square inch of the earth’s surface, aye, on every square inch of your -own bodies, with a force of fourteen and a half pounds. In other words, -the weight of the air at the sea level resting on each square inch of -surface weighs fourteen and a half pounds. - -Don’t be frightened, boys, at the explanation of one word that must -be used in connection with air experiments. The word is vacuum. -Vacuum really means an empty space, devoid of all matter, even of -air. Although it seems easy to think of an empty space, it is quite -impossible to exhaust a space of all matter, even of air. For this -reason, the alchemists of the middle ages used to say: “Nature abhors -a vacuum.” This was only their way of saying how impossible it was to -make a space, such as the inside of a vessel, quite empty. Yet it is -possible to reduce the amount of air in a vessel almost to nothing. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.] - -Now for the pump. In the first place obtain three pieces of -gutta-percha tubing of the following lengths: - -No. 1.--A tube twelve and a half inches long, measuring outside two and -a half, inside one and a half inches in circumference. - -No. 2.--This must be seven and a half inches long, one and a half -inches outside, and an inch inside. - -No. 3.--This is a length of tubing about sixty inches long, two and a -half inches in outside circumference, and at least an inch thick. If an -inch and a half thick all the better, as it will be more air-tight. - -Divide tube No. 2 into two equal parts, cutting from right to left at -an angle of 45 degrees. Into one of the parts fit a plug of hard wood -pierced lengthwise by a red hot wire (fig. 1); the figure shows the -shape of it sufficiently. In the hollow side cut a small opening, and -over this tie very tightly a band of flexible india-rubber (fig. 3). -This band will serve as the valve of the piston of the pump. Figs. 3 -and 4 give a side and front view of this valve. Great care must be -taken neither to split the plug in boring the hole nor to cut the tube. - -[Illustration: FIG. 3.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 4.] - -This valve must now be inserted in the large tube No. 1, as seen in -fig. 2. - -At the other end of the large tube, which will serve as the body of -the pump, at B fig. 2, fix a similar valve to the above, but the -india-rubber band must be fixed on the other side of the valve as at B -fig. 2. The fitting A will serve for escape, the second for withdrawing -the air from the space to be exhausted. Finally fix tube No. 3 on -valves A or B, fig. 2, according to your wish to produce a vacuum or to -compress the air. - -[Illustration: FIG. 5.] - -By means of a pedal made simply with two boards put together on hinges -(fig. 5), one pressed with the foot, the air contained in the body of -the pump (fig. 2) tends to escape. It therefore lifts the valve of the -fitting fixed at A, and escapes through the flexible elastic band tied -over the hole in the hollow side of tube No. 2. If the pressure ceases -the big tube, on account of its own elasticity, takes its former form -and sucks in the air. This time it is the valve at B which is lifted -and lets pass the air which fills the body of the pump. If one has -fixed on to the fitting at B, the long india-rubber tube No. 3, which -is plunged in a receiver--a receiver is any vessel in which the air is -exhausted, or into which it is forced--it is easily understood that -after a few moves of the pedal, the air is drawn out, and a vacuum is -obtained. - -[Illustration: FIG. 6.] - -If one wishes to have a force-pump one has only to modify slightly the -construction of the valve. Instead of a band of india-rubber fixed as -shown in fig. 3, it is altered as in fig. 4, that is to say the valve -is formed by a band of supple india-rubber fastened by two tacks only -on one side of the opening in the side of the plug. For this object it -is also necessary to take stronger tubes. - -Let us now review the few experiments that can be made with this -machine. - -In order to conduct experiments a receiver must be obtained. The best -vessel for your purpose is a large bell-jar with a ground glass stopper -and neck to insure absolute tightness. Such a jar may be cheaply -obtained at a scientific instrument maker’s for about seventy-five -cents. If you cannot get a bell-jar procure a 4-lb. jam pot and a -tightly-fitting bung. In the middle of the latter bore a hole to admit -a glass tube, some six inches long and an inch in diameter, and then -sealing-wax the whole of the upper surface of the bung so that air -cannot enter. Over the projecting end of the glass tube, bind very -tightly the free end of the long tubing affixed to the pump. To ensure -tight binding, waxed thread should be used. - - - - -Asphyxia. - - -Put a mouse--it is necessary to catch him first--into the receiver, and -work the pump. Soon the animal will show all the signs of being choked, -and eventually will die. This is proof sufficient that animals cannot -live without air. - -[Illustration] - - - - -Balloon in Vacuum. - - -Place in the receiver a small bladder, such as are sold in the streets -for a few cents. Wet it a little to make it more supple. Now, in the -ordinary way the air inside the bladder exerts the same pressure on -the skin of the bladder as does the air on the outside. Now work the -pedal so that the air in the receiver is gradually exhausted. The -bladder will be seen to gradually swell and finally burst. It bursts -because as the air in the receiver is exhausted by the pump, the air -outside the bladder exerts a less force than the air inside. But the -air inside is confined by the bladder skin, a not very strong material, -as you know, so as soon as the difference between the inside and -outside pressures is greater than the strength of the bladder, the -latter bursts. This experiment also shows the expansible power of air. - -[Illustration] - - - - -Boiling Cold Water. - - -Place in the receiver a tumbler of cold water and work the pump as -before. In a few minutes, as soon as the air is sufficiently exhausted, -the water will apparently boil. Yet you know the water does not boil -in a kettle unless heated to 212 degrees. This phenomenon is thus -explained: The vacuum causes the air-bubbles contained in the water to -escape. They easily do so, because there is scarcely any reserve on the -surface of the liquid (see fig.). - -[Illustration] - - - - -A Sucking Tube. - - -This force, the pressure of the air which you have just ascertained, -supplies various experiments in its illustration. - -Take a tin tube, for example, the tin holder of a penny pen, which you -may procure at any stationer’s. Put a little water in it and make it -boil so that the steam takes the place of the air. - -When steaming furiously stop the mouth of the tube with a small cork, -sealing the opening hermetically. Oil it a little, so it may glide with -ease. If you cool the tube by plunging it in a basin of cold water, -for example, the steam is condensed, forming a vacuum in the interior, -and under the atmospheric pressure the cork will glide down. Fasten -a string to the cork and you can withdraw it and begin the operation -again. As the water gets hot, steam is reformed; you will see the cork -come up again. - -A capital way of making this cork is to stick the tube in a piece of -potato, cutting out of the latter a perfectly-fitting cork. - -[Illustration] - - - - -Cupping. - - -Instead of a jar-receiver, take a long-necked bottle open at both ends. -If you place the hand on one of the open ends and exhaust the air, by -attaching the long tube of the pump to the other you cannot remove the -hand easily. Do not try to pump the air out entirely, as the suction -may be too strong and draw blood. It is by the rarefaction of the air -that the cupping-glass is applied to people who require bleeding. In -the antiquated surgical operation of cupping, the doctor burned a few -pieces of paper in small glass cups, which are then applied to the -skin; the air, in getting cold, contracted and produced a partial -vacuum, thus acting as the bottle did in the above experiment. - -[Illustration] - - - - -The Barometer. - - -Now you shall learn something about the pressure exercised by the -atmospheric layer which surrounds the earth to the height of about -forty miles. This is done with the aid of a very well-known instrument -called the barometer. - -You may construct one yourselves. Procure a glass tube closed at one -end, about a yard long and one tenth of an inch in diameter. Fill it -with mercury, then turn it upside down into a bowl filled with the same -metal, taking care that the air does not enter the tube. The column -will stop at a height between 29 and 30 inches. - -This, therefore is the measure of the force of the air’s pressure, for -in the upper part of the tube there is an absolute vacuum and nothing -would prevent the mercury from going higher up. The weight of the -air layer corresponds, therefore, to a height of nearly 30 inches of -mercury. - -[Illustration] - -This weight has been before stated, viz., fourteen and a half pounds, -such a weight being supported by every single square inch of the -globe’s surface. A marvelous pressure is thus exerted on the whole -earth. In other words, the weight of the air that surrounds the -earth on all sides is no less than the following enormous number of -5,184,740,000,000,000 tons. - -A man of average height, himself supports the enormous pressure of -34,171 pounds, or over 15 tons, and yet does not feel the least -inconvenience in his movements. It is because this pressure is -exercised in all directions, and a human body carries within it elastic -fluids that counterbalance that tremendous weight. - -So accustomed do people become to this weight that when the weather is -stormy, a feeling of heaviness comes on. - -However, it is just the contrary which takes place when the barometer -is lower; that is to say, the atmospheric pressure has diminished. -Consequently there is less weight to be carried. - -You would experience the same sensation when going up in a balloon. As -you rise higher and higher the weight of the air is less felt, and this -makes people so uncomfortable that at a height of about 9,000 or 10,000 -yards the liquids in our body--the blood, the water, the bile--tend to -escape outwards. Why? Because they are no longer balanced by an outside -pressure equal in force to them. In fact, if you continued to ascend, -your fate would be that of the bladder in the first experiment--you -would burst. Thus are you and all creatures attached to the face of the -earth, and it seems as if great heights were forbidden to our curiosity. - - - - -A Novel Barometer. - - -Construct a toy house of cardboard, painted, and let there be two -open doorways in the front, and let it stand on a wooden platform to -represent the ground. The two sides and back may come right down to the -ground, but there must be a slight space between the front of the house -and the ground upon which it stands. - -Next make a flat wheel or disc of wood about the thickness of a penny, -its diameter or measurement across the center to measure the same as -the distance between the two doorways of the house. The wheel disc or -turn-table must have a shaft or spindle in the middle, so that it will -revolve easily in a hole made for it in the floor or ground which your -cardboard house stands on; this pivot-hole should be just within the -house and exactly half way between the two doors. - -In the next place get two small dolls of such size that they will pass -easily through the doorways, or you may cut them out of cork or some -light substance. Dress one to represent an old man and the other as his -wife, and fix them opposite each other at the edge of the disc or wheel -in such a manner, that when it turns on its axle, the figures move in -and out of the two doorways provided for their accommodation, for it -appears that, although residing in the same house, they are not on very -good terms. When the husband goes out the wife remains at home, and as -she only ventures abroad in fine weather, her spouse is obliged to look -out when rain may be expected. - -The motive power has now to be provided and this takes the form of -a piece of catgut, such as violin strings are made of; this is a -substance very susceptible of atmospheric influences, for dry weather -contracts or tightens it, while a damp atmosphere causes it to relax. -Double your catgut and twist it, fasten one end of the rope so formed -near the back of the house inside and fasten the other to the pivot -or axle, with two or three turns round it. As the weather changes the -tightening or relaxing of the rope will cause the figures to move in -and out of the house. Of course, the figures must be arranged so that -the lady comes out when the rope is tightened by the dryness of the -atmosphere. - - - - -Compressed Air. - - -To make experiments with compressed air, you must put your wits -together to make a reservoir. Air, you know, is a gas consisting of -particles called atoms. These atoms are at a certain distance from one -another. They can be pushed further from one another as when you heat -them, or closer together by cold and compression. So compressed air -only means air whose atoms are pressed more closely together than as -the case with the air around us. - -Now you have heard that a column of air on a square inch weighs -fourteen and a half pounds. Also, you know that air in a receiver or -any other vessel presses on the vessel inside and out with a force (or -weight) of fourteen and a half pounds. - -If now into the vessel you push another quantity of air, equal to the -vessel’s capacity, you simply push the atoms of air closer together. -In fact, they are now only half as far apart as the atoms of an open -vessel. But the pressure is doubled and the compressed air, therefore, -will press on the inside of the vessel with a force of twenty-nine -pounds. - -[Illustration] - -Now to make the reservoir. Get a tin tube about 40 inches long and -four in diameter, closed at both ends. Take care that the soldering -is well done. Two openings must be made, and a small tube inserted in -each. To each of these attach an indiarubber tube, one four feet long, -and the other six. (See fig.). - -To fill this reservoir with compressed air, apply the air-pump fitted -with the valve shown in fig. 4, in the description of an air-pump. -Squeeze tightly the upper tube of the reservoir before beginning to -pump, and then it will be easy to judge the amount of compression of -the air. For the first experiment place a light ball or sheet of paper -over the mouth of the tube, and loosen your hold on it. The object will -immediately be blown away with considerable force. - - - - -Noiseless Bell. - - -We know that sound is a succession of vibrations which must be -transmitted in a medium with weight, as air or water; in other words, -in a vacuum there can be no sound at all. To prove this, introduce -into the receiver a small bell, and as the air is extracted the sounds -become weaker and weaker, and cease altogether when the air is -completely rarified. - -[Illustration] - - - - -The Bursting Bladder. - - -Tie a thin piece of light indiarubber round the top of the bottle, and -you will notice that as the air is withdrawn, the indiarubber will -stretch, and at length form a round small balloon in the interior of -the bottle. (Fig. 1). - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.] - -If a piece of bladder is tightly stretched and tied round the vessel -(fig. 2.) it will burst under the force of the atmospheric pressure -which acts upon it, through a vacuum having been made underneath. This -is another case of the first experiment with the air pump described -above. - - - - -Weight of the Air. - - -Another experiment will still better make you appreciate the value of -this factor: the weight of the air. - -Put a piece of supple leather in which a ring is attached under the -bottle; pump the air out of the latter and you will be astonished at -the weight you may hang on this leather without dragging it off. - -[Illustration] - -Should you not have at hand a glass receiver, a wooden reel may serve -instead (see fig.). On one of its faces place a piece of strong -cardboard, in the middle of which a hook has been fastened; when the -rarefaction is made, rather heavy weights must be hooked on before the -cardboard is detached from the face of the rest. - - - - -Spoons which will Melt in Hot Water. - - -Fuse together in a crucible, eight parts of bismuth, five of lead and -three of tin; these metals will combine and form an alloy, of which -spoons may be made, possessed of the remarkable property of melting in -boiled water. - - - - -Effect of Compression. - - -Take a wooden reel and hollow out either the top or bottom, beginning -at the hole in the center and working towards the edge. In the hollow -place a ball. Apply to the other end the indiarubber tube which -conducts the forced air, and the ball will be lifted up (see fig.). - -[Illustration] - - - - -To Cover Iron with Copper. - - -If you are about to perform a conjuring trick, you will, of course take -great care that your apparatus is ready. Therefore, clean your piece -of iron or steel from dirt. Dip a piece of polished iron--the blade -of your knife, for instance--into a solution, either of nitrate or -sulphate of copper, when it will assume the appearance of a piece of -pure copper. - - - - -The Elements. - - -Before entering into the next series of experiments the young chemist -must know that all the substances of which the world and everything in -it are made up--_i.e._, the elements are arranged in two classes, the -metals and the non-metals. The former are by far the more numerous, -altogether numbering more than fifty. Among the better known are -such well known substances as iron, mercury, copper, tin, potassium, -antimony, strontium, and nickel. The non-metals are more widely -distributed and together made up of the bulk of the universe. - -They comprise the gases--oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and chlorine, -and such substances as sulphur, carbon, phosphorus and iodine. To the -latter class also belongs a peculiar element called fluorine, which, -when combined with hydrogen, destroys glass. It is the only liquid -known which cannot be contained in a glassen or earthenware vessel, and -when used for experimental purposes must be kept in a leaden bottle. - -Of course it will be understood that the above is not a complete -list by any means, but is sufficient to give a clear idea of the -difference between the two classes. The metals generally speaking are -of a more or less sparkling, lustrous appearance. The metals, too, are -good conductors of heat and electricity, and generally heavy. These -characteristics are almost entirely wanting in the non-metals. We shall -now give some tricks with the metals. - - - - -Potassium. - - -Potassium was discovered by Sir H. Davy, in the beginning of the -present century, while acting upon potash with the enormous galvanic -battery of the Royal Institution, consisting of two thousand pairs of -four inch plates. It is a brilliant metal, so soft as to be easily cut -with a penknife, and so light as to swim upon water, on which it acts -with great energy, uniting with the oxygen and liberating the hydrogen, -which takes fire as it escapes. - -Trace some continuous lines on paper with a camel’s-hair brush dipped -in water, and place a piece of potassium about the size of a pea on one -of the lines, and it will follow the course of the pencil, taking fire -as it runs, and burning with a purplish light. - -The paper will be found covered with a solution of ordinary potash. If -turmeric paper be used, the course of the potassium will be marked with -a deep brown color. Hence if you touch potassium with wet fingers you -will burn them. - -If a small piece of the metal be placed on a piece of ice, it will -instantly take fire, and form a deep hole which will be found to -contain a solution of potash. - -In consequence of its great affinity for oxygen, potassium must be kept -in some fluid destitute of it, such as naphtha acid, which has been -displaced by the great affinity or liking of the oxygen and acid for -the copper. - -2. When the copper is no longer coated, but remains clean and bright -when immersed in the fluid, all the silver has been deposited, and the -glass now contains a solution of copper. - -Nearly all the colors used in the arts are produced by metals and -their combinations; indeed, one is named chromium, from a Greek word -signifying color, on account of the beautiful tints obtained from its -various combinations with oxygen and the other metals. All the various -tints, of green, orange, yellow and red are obtained from this metal. - -Solutions of most of the metallic salts give precipitates with -solutions of alkalies and their salts, as well as with many other -substances, such as what are usually called prussiate of potash, -hydrosulphret of ammonia, etc. The colors differ according to the metal -employed; and so small a quantity is required to produce the color, -that the solutions before mixing may be nearly colorless. - - - - -Metallic Colors. - - -To a solution of sulphate of iron add a drop or two of a solution of -prussiate of potash, and a blue color will be produced. - -2. Substitute sulphate of copper for iron, and the color will be a rich -brown. - -3. Another blue, of quite a different tint, may be produced by letting -a few drops of a solution of ammonia fall into one of sulphate of -copper, when a precipitate of a light blue falls down, which is -dissolved by an additional quantity of the ammonia, and forms a -transparent solution of the most splendid rich blue color. - -4. Into a solution of sulphate of iron, drop a few drops of strong -infusion of galls, and the color will become a bluish black--in fact -ink. A little tea will answer as well as the infusion of galls. -This is the reason why certain stuffs formerly in general use for -dressing-gowns for gentlemen were so objectionable; for as they were -indebted to a salt of iron for their color, buff as it was called, a -drop of tea accidentally spilled produced all the effect of a drop of -ink. - -5. Put into a largish test tube two or three small pieces of granulated -zinc, fill it about one-third full of water, put in a few grains of -iodine, and boil the water, which will at first acquire a dark purple -color, gradually fading as the iodine combines with the zinc. Add a -little more iodine from time to time, until the zinc is nearly all -dissolved. If a few drops of this solution be added to an equally -colorless solution of corrosive sublimate (a salt of mercury), a -precipitate will take place of a splendid scarlet color, brighter, if -possible, than vermilion, which is also a preparation of mercury. - - - - -Crystallization of Metals. - - -Some of the metals assume certain definite forms in return from the -fluid to the solid state. Bismuth shows this property more readily than -most others. - - -EXPERIMENT. - -Melt a pound or two of bismuth in an iron ladle over the fire; remove -it as soon as the whole is fluid; and when the surface has become -solid break a hole in it and pour out the still fluid metal from the -interior; what remains will exhibit beautifully formed crystals of a -cubic shape. - -Sulphur may be crystallized in the same manner, but its fumes, when -heated, are so very unpleasant that few would wish to encounter them. - -One of the most remarkable facts in chemistry--a science abounding in -wonders--is the circumstance that the mere contact of hydrogen, the -lightest body known, with the metal platinum, the heaviest when in a -state of minute division called spongy platinum, produces an intense -heat sufficient to inflame the hydrogen; of course this experiment must -be made in the presence of atmospheric air or oxygen. If a small piece -of the metal in the state above named be introduced into a mixture -of oxygen and hydrogen, it will cause them to explode. A very small -quantity of gas should be employed and placed in a jar lightly covered -with a card, or the explosion would be dangerous. - - - - -Crystallization. - - -Nearly all the metals are characterized by the crystals, which -are formed as they pass from a state of intense heat to that of -comparative coldness. It is by this process they have been formed when -in the mine or vein in the rocks. The earth was once a fiery mass -of molten matter, as seen even now when a volcano is in a state of -eruption. And it was only by the cooling of the outside shell of the -earth, or crust, as it is called, that it became habitable. - -When the crust was cooling down the metals crystallized among the -cooling rocks and gradually formed the crude arts. You may represent by -a very pretty experiment the manner in which this cooling off of the -earth took place. Obtain a little flour of sulphur and put it in a red -earthenware unglazed jar. Thrust it well into the fire and watch the -rust. As soon as the heat has penetrated the vessel the yellow powdery -sulphur becomes first of all brown, and then assumes the consistency -of thick birdlime. Take out a little of this on the end of a stick and -plunge it into cold water. It can then be pulled backwards and forwards -like cobblers’ wax. This well represents the state of the half-cooled -crust of the earth. - -Meanwhile the sulphur on the fire begins to boil, and looks very much -like bubbling treacle. Remove it from the fire and allow it to cool. -When quite cool the surface will be a flat, yellow mass, like ordinary -roll sulphur, which, when ground, give the ordinary flour of sulphur. - -With a sharp knife separate the mass from the vessel and look at the -under-surface. There it will be found to have assumed a very different -form, owing to the exclusion of the air, and consequent slower cooling. -Large six-sided crystals, transparent, and of a most exquisitely -delicate yellow, will be seen, piled on one another as appear the -masses of ore in rocks. - -Nature always works in such cases on such a gigantic scale that it -seems at first difficult to believe that such huge piles as the Giant’s -Causeway in Ireland, or Fingals in Scotland, or the lodes of tin ore in -Cornwall, worked by the Phœnicians three thousand years ago, and still -being worked, were all formed by the same process. - -The time that the earth must have taken to cool fairly staggers the -imagination, yet it is only from guessing, by means of such a study as -this, that geologists are able to form any idea of how long ago it was -that the earth’s crust became cool enough to allow animal and plant -life to exist upon it. - -The most beautiful crystalline form is perhaps the diamond, and yet -this precious gem is but the same thing, chemically, as charcoal. -Charcoal is pure carbon in the uncrystallized state, which the magic -of crystallization has transformed into the symbol of all that is -brilliant and beautiful. - - - - -Beauties of Crystallization. - - -Dissolve alum in hot water until no more can be dissolved in it; place -in it a smooth glass rod and a stick of the same size. Next day the -stick will be found covered with crystals, but the glass rod will be -free from them. In this case the crystals cling to the rough surface of -the stick, but have no hold upon the smooth surface of the glass rod. - -But if the rod be roughened with a file at certain intervals, and then -placed in the alum and water, the crystals will adhere to the rough -surfaces, and leave the smooth bright and clear. - -Tie some threads of lamp-cotton irregularly around a copper wire or -glass rod. Place it in a hot solution of blue vitriol, strong as above, -and the threads will be covered with beautiful blue crystals, while the -glass rod will be bare. - -Bore a hole through a piece of coke, and suspend it by a string from a -stick placed across a hot solution of alum. It will float. But as it -becomes loaded with crystals it will sink in the solution according to -the length of the string. Gas-coke has mostly a smooth, shining, and -almost metallic surface, which the crystals will avoid, while they will -cling only to the most irregular and porous parts. - -If powdered turmeric be added to the hot solution of alum the crystals -will be of a bright yellow. Litmus will cause them to be of a bright -red. Logwood will yield purple; and common writing ink, black. And the -more muddy the solution the finer will be the crystals. - -To keep colored alum crystals from breaking or losing their color, -place them under a glass shade with a saucer of water. - -This will preserve the atmosphere moist, and prevent the crystals -getting too dry. - -If crystals be formed on wire they will be liable to break off, from -the expansion and contraction of the wire by changes of temperature. - - - - -To Crystallize Camphor. - - -Dissolve camphor in spirit of wine, moderately heated, until the -spirit will not dissolve any more; pour some of the solution into a -cold glass, and the camphor will instantly crystallize in beautiful -tree-like forms, such as we see in the show-glasses of camphor in -druggists’ windows. - - -ANOTHER EXPERIMENT. - -Heat some blue vitriol (sulphate of copper) in an iron ladle till -all the water contained in the crystals is driven off, and the color -changes to a gray. Take the lumps out without breaking them, and -lay the dried blue vitriol on a plate. If this be moistened with -water steam is produced; and if a slice of phosphorus is then laid -on the sulphate of copper it ignites, demonstrating again that the -condensation of a liquid produces heat. The addition of the water -restores the blue color, thus proving that water was necessary to the -composition of blue vitriol. - - - - -A Solid Changed to a Liquid. - - -Mix five parts by weight of powdered sal ammoniac, five parts of nitre -in powder, and sixteen parts of water. A temperature of twenty-two -degrees below the freezing point of water is produced; and if a phial -of water, or any convenient metallic cylinder containing water, be -surrounded with a sufficient quantity of the freezing mixture, ice is -formed. The ice clings to the interior of the tube, but may easily be -removed by dipping it in tepid water. - -This experiment is the reverse of the last and proves that the sudden -reduction of a solid to the liquid condition always affords cold. - -An amusing combination of two experiments may be made by putting some -fresh-burned lime into one tea pot and this freezing mixture into -another. When water is poured on the one containing lime, it gives -out steam from the spout, while the addition of water to the other -produces so much cold that it can hardly be kept in the hand. Thus heat -and cold are afforded through the same medium, water. - - - - -Magic of Heat. - - -Melt a small quantity of the sulphate of potash and copper in a spoon -over a spirit lamp. It will be fused at a heat just below redness, -and produce a liquid of a dark-green color. Remove the spoon from the -flame, when the liquid will become a solid of a brilliant emerald green -color, and so remain until its heat sinks nearly to that of boiling -water, when suddenly a commotion will take place throughout the mass, -beginning from the surface, and each atom, as if animated, will start -up and separate itself from the rest, till in a few moments the whole -will become a heap of powder. - - - - -Sublimation by Heat. - - -Provide two small pieces of glass; sprinkle a minute portion of -sulphur upon one piece, lay thin slips of wood around it, and place -upon it the other piece of glass. Move them slowly over the flame of a -lamp or candle, and the sulphur will become sublimed, and form gray, -nebulous patches, which are very curious microscopic objects. Each -cluster consists of thousands of transparent globules, imitating in -miniature the nebulæ which we see figured in treatises on astronomy. -By observing the largest particles we shall find them to be flattened -on one side. Being very transparent, each of them acts the part of -a little lens, and forms in its focus the image of a distant light, -which can be perceived even in the smaller globules, until it vanishes -from minuteness. If they are examined again after a certain number of -hours, the smaller globules will generally be found to have retained -their transparency, while the larger ones will have become opaque, in -consequence of the sulphur having undergone some internal spontaneous -change. But the most remarkable circumstance attending this experiment -is that the globules are found adhering to the upper glass only; -the reason of which is that the upper glass is somewhat cooler than -the lower one, by which means we see that the vapor of sulphur is -very powerfully repelled by heated glass. The flattened form of the -particles is owing to the force with which they endeavor to recede from -the lower glass, and their consequent pressure against the surface of -the upper one. This experiment is considered by its originator, Mr. -H. F. Talbot, to be a satisfactory argument in favor of the repulsive -power of heat. - - - - -Heat Passing Through Glass. - - -Although glass is a bad conductor it yet allows heat to pass through -it, and the purer the glass the more easy is this done. Heat a poker -red hot, and having opened a window, apply the poker very near to -the outside of the pane, and the hand to the inside. A strong heat -will be felt at the instant, which will cease as soon as the poker is -withdrawn, and may be again renewed and made to cease as quickly as -before. It is well known that if a piece of glass be so much warmed as -to convey the impression of heat to the hand, it will retain some part -of that heat for a minute or more; but in this experiment the heat will -vanish in a moment. It will not, therefore, be the heated pane of glass -that we shall feel, but heat which has come through the glass in a free -or radiant state. - - - - -Metals Unequally Influenced by Heat. - - -All metals do not conduct heat at the same rate as may be proved by -holding in the flame of a candle at the same time a piece of silver -wire and a piece of platina wire, when the silver wire will become too -hot to hold, much sooner than the platina. Or cut a cone of each wire, -tip it with wax, and place it upon a heated plate (as a fire-shovel), -when the wax will melt at different periods. - - - - -Spontaneous Combustion. - - -Mix a small quantity of chlorate of potash with spirit of wine in a -strong saucer; add a little sulphuric acid, and an orange vapor will -arise and burst into flame with a loud crackling sound. - - - - -Inequality of Heat in Fire-Irons. - - -Place before a fire a set of polished fire-irons, and beside them a -rough, unpolished poker, such as is used in the kitchen, instead -of a bright poker. The polished irons will remain for a long time -without becoming warmer than the temperature of the room, because -the heat radiated from the fire is all reflected, or thrown off, by -the polished surface of the irons, and none of it is absorbed. The -rough poker will, however, become speedily hot, so as not to be used -without inconvenience. Hence, the polish of fire-irons is not merely -ornamental, but useful. - - - - -Expansion of Metal by Heat. - - -Provide an iron rod, and fit it exactly into a metal ring; heat the rod -red hot, and it will no longer enter the ring. - -Observe an iron gate on a warm day, when it will shut with difficulty; -whereas it will shut loosely and easily on a cold day. - - - - -The Alchemist’s Ink. - - -Dissolve in water a small quantity, about as much as will lay on a -ten-cent piece, of chloride of cobalt, which is of a bluish-green -color, and the solution will be pink; write with it and the characters -will scarcely be visible; but if gently heated they will appear in -brilliant green, which will disappear as the paper cools. - -Dissolve in water a few grains of prussiate of potash; write with this -liquid, which is invisible when dry; wash over with a dilute solution -of iron, made by dissolving a nail in a little aqua fortis; a blue and -legible writing is immediately apparent. - - - - -Chameleon Liquids. - - -Put a small portion of the compound called mineral chameleon into -several glasses. Pour upon each water at different temperatures and -the contents of each glass will exhibit a different shade of color. A -very hot solution will be of a beautiful green color; a cold one a deep -purple. - -Make a colorless solution of sulphate of copper; add to it a little -ammonia equally colorless, and the mixture will be of an intense blue -color; add to it a little sulphuric acid, and the blue color will -disappear; pour in a little solution of caustic ammonia, and the blue -color will be restored. Thus may the liquor be changed at pleasure. - - - - -Magic Dyes. - - -Dissolve indigo in diluted sulphuric acid, and add to it an equal -quantity of solution of carbonate of potash. If a piece of white cloth -be dipped in the mixture it will be changed to blue; yellow cloth, in -the same mixture, may be changed to green; red to purple; and blue -litmus paper to red. - -Nearly fill a wine glass with the juice of beet-root, which is of -a deep red color; add a little lime water and the mixture will be -colorless; dip into it a piece of white cloth, dry it rapidly, and in a -few hours the cloth will become red. - - - - -Wine Changed into Water. - - -Mix a little solution of subacetate of lead with port wine; filter -the mixture through blotting-paper, and a colorless liquid will pass -through; to this add a small quantity of dry salt of tartar; distill in -a retort, when a spirit will arise, which may be inflamed. - - - - -The Chemistry of Water. - - -More than two-thirds of the earth’s surface is water, so that in mere -quantity alone it is the most important substance with which we are -acquainted. Without it life would be impossible, for, owing to its -quality of dissolving other bodies, it may be regarded as the great -purifier, as well as the vehicle which brings nourishment to plants and -animals alike. - -Not only is water useful, but is among the most beautiful of Nature’s -products. It has carved the valleys between mountain ranges by its slow -dropping for ages, and has made the fairy glens by rushing down their -sides in torrents. The stately rivers and the roaring oceans are but -forms of its might. - -In another state it works out those fantastic grottoes, mountains and -fields of glittering white, that make the Polar seas the very head -center of dreamland. - -In still another form it paints the rainbow in the sky, and hangs like -a veil over the landscape, passing from the most delicate blue over the -plain to the deep purple clinging to distant hills. - -To it the golden and red hues of sunrise and sunset are due. The light -fleecy clouds that speak the beauty of spring, and the great thunder -stocks that gleam, with lightning flashes are all composed of water, -and water alone. - -It drives our engines and machinery, and speeds our ships across the -sea. Neither is it confined to this earth alone, for astronomers tell -us that vast seas and even clouds can be seen on the next great planet -to the earth, Mars. - -Surely, then, as this wondrous substance is examined, the ancients can -be excused for worshiping the ocean as a god, and the old alchemists -for believing it to be an element. - -Nevertheless, water is not a simple substance. It is composed of two -gases, which must be combined before water is produced. These gases are -oxygen and hydrogen. Every atom of water consists of one part of the -former gas and two parts by volume of the latter. This you may prove in -the following way: - -Buy a piece of sodium, a metal that must not be touched with the -fingers, and thrust it into a small one-ounce jar half full of water; -cork the jar tightly. - -Through a hole in the cork pass a glass tube, the outer end being drawn -in a flame to a fine point. Apply a light at the end of the tube. The -escaping gas will catch fire and burn with a light blue flame. This gas -is hydrogen. - -Next empty the jar and fill with warm water, and place by means of -another cork a small glass jar on to the tube. Into the lower jar drop -a piece of blazing hot platinum. Repeat this again and again with the -same piece of platinum, being careful not to uncork the upper jar, so -that every time the metal is dropped into the lower jar, you remove -the upper jar with the tube and two corks. After doing this a dozen -times or more take a match that is still glowing after having been -extinguished, and plunge it into the upper jar. It will burst into -flame immediately, and the gas in the upper jar is oxygen. - - - - -Two Bitters Make a Sweet. - - -It has been discovered that a mixture of nitrate of silver with -hyposulphite of soda, both of which are remarkably bitter, will produce -the sweetest known substance. - - - - -Visible and Invisible. - - -Write with French chalk on a looking-glass; wipe it with a handkerchief -and the lines will disappear; breathe on it and they will reappear. -This alteration will take place for a great number of times, and after -the lapse of a considerable period. - - - - -To Form a Liquid from Two Solids. - - -Rub together in a mortar a small quantity of sulphate of soda and -acetate of lead, and as they mix they will become liquid. - -Carbonate of ammonia and sulphate of copper, previously reduced to -powder separately, will also, when mixed, become liquid, and acquire a -most splendid blue color. - -The greater number of salts have a tendency to assume regular forms, or -become _crystallized_, when passing from the fluid to the solid state; -and the size and regularity of the crystals depends in a great measure -on the slow or rapid escape of the fluid in which they were dissolved. - -Sugar is a capital example of this property; the ordinary loaf-sugar -being rapidly boiled down, as it is called; while to make rock-candy, -which is nothing but sugar in a crystallized form, the solution is -allowed to evaporate slowly, and as it cools it forms into those -beautiful crystals termed rock-candy. The threads found in the center -of some of the crystals are merely placed for the purpose of hastening -the formation of the crystals. - - - - -Restoration of Color by Water. - - -Water being a colorous fluid ought, one would imagine when mixed with -other substances of no decided color, to produce a colorless compound. -Nevertheless, it is to water only that blue vitriol or sulphate of -copper owes its vivid blueness, as will be plainly evinced by the -following simple experiment. Heat a few crystals of the vitriol in -a fire-shovel, pulverize them, and the powder will be of a dull and -dirty white appearance. Pour a little water upon this when a slight -hissing noise will be heard, and at the same moment the blue color will -instantly reappear. - -Under the microscope the beauty of this experiment will be increased, -for the instant that a drop of water is placed in contact with the -vitriol, the powder may be seen to shoot into blue prisms. If a crystal -of prussiate of potash be similarly heated its yellow color will -vanish, but reappear on being dropped into water. - - - - -Two Liquids Make a Solid. - - -Dissolve chloride of lime in water until it will dissolve no more; -measure out an equal quantity of oil of vitriol; both will be -transparent fluids; but if equal quantities of each be slowly mixed and -stirred together, they will become a solid mass, with the evolution of -smoke or fumes. - - - - -Two Solids Make a Liquid. - - -Rub together in a mortar equal quantities of the crystals of Glauber -salts and nitrate of ammonia, and the two salts will slowly become a -liquid. - - - - -A Solid Opaque Mass Makes a Transparent Liquid. - - -Take the solid mixture of the solutions of muriate of lime and -carbonate of potash, pour upon it a very little nitric acid, and the -solid opaque mass will be changed to a transparent liquid. - - - - -Two Cold Liquids Make a Hot One. - - -Mix four drams of sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol) with one dram of cold -water, suddenly, in a cup, and the mixture will be nearly half as hot -again as boiling water. - - - - -To Make Ice. - - -Although this trick is performed by means of chemicals, yet its product -is obtained really by the use of mechanical laws. We must remember that -ice is exactly the same thing as water so far as its composition is -concerned, differing only in its state of density. - -Ice, water, and steam differ in density through the possession of a -greater or less quantity of heat. Hence, the turning of water into ice -really is a case of the operation of mechanical laws. - -Now for the experiment. Put into a wide-mouthed jam-jar a smaller -glass vessel containing the water to be frozen. Around the latter put -a mixture of sulphate of soda (Glauber’s salt) and hydrochloric acid -(spirits of salts). The proportions must be eight parts of the former -to five of the latter. - -The action of these two chemicals on one another is to cause a cold of -fifteen to seventeen degrees below zero, or forty-seven degrees below -freezing point. - -The same result may be obtained by mixing equal parts of nitrate of -ammonia and water. In winter-time when the snow is on the ground, with -a mixture of one part snow and one part common table salt an intense -cold of twenty degrees below zero is obtained. - -From this last fact we see how stupid are those people who sprinkle the -salt on the pavements to get rid of the snow. True, the latter melts, -but only after the production of intense cold, which is the cause of -many diseases, not only slight ones like colds and chilblains, but too -often the forerunners of consumption and other lung troubles. - - - - -Curious Change of Colors. - - -Let there be no other light than a taper in the room; then put on a -pair of dark-green spectacles, and having closed one eye view the taper -with the other. Suddenly remove the spectacles and the taper will -assume a bright red appearance; but if the spectacles be instantly -replaced, the eye will be unable to distinguish anything for a second -or two. The order of colors will therefore be as follows: green, red, -green, black. - - - - -The Protean Light. - - -Soak a cotton wick in a strong solution of salt and water, dry it, -place it in a spirit lamp, and when lit it will give a bright yellow -light for a long time. If you look through a piece of blue glass at the -flame, it will lose all its yellow light and you will only perceive -feeble violet rays. If before the blue glass you place a pale yellow -glass, the lamp will be absolutely invisible, though a candle may be -distinctly seen through the same glasses. - - - - -To Change the Colors of Flowers. - - -Hold over a lighted match a purple columbine or a blue larkspur, and -it will change first to pink and then to black. The yellow of other -flowers held as above will continue unchanged. - -Thus, the purple tint will instantly disappear from a heart’s-ease, but -the yellow will remain; and the yellow of a wall-flower will continue -the same, though the brown streak will be discharged. If a scarlet, -crimson, or maroon dahlia be tried, the color will change to yellow, -a fact known to gardeners, who by this mode variegate their growing -dahlias. - - - - -Changes of the Poppy. - - -Some flowers which are red, become blue by merely bruising them. Thus, -if the petals of the common corn-poppy be rubbed upon white paper, they -will stain it purple, which may be made green by washing it over with a -strong solution of potash in water. Put poppy petals into very dilute -muriatic acid, and the infusion will be of a florid red color; by -adding a little chalk, it will become the color of port wine; and this -tint, by the addition of potash may be changed to green or yellow. - - - - -Changes of the Rose. - - -Hold a red rose over the blue flame of a common match and the color -will be discharged wherever the fume touches the leaves of the flower, -so as to render it beautifully variegated, or entirely white. If it be -then dipped into water, the redness, after a time, will be restored. - - - - -Marking Indelibly. - - -Write upon linen with permanent ink (which is a strong solution of -nitrate of silver), and the characters will be scarcely visible; remove -the linen to a dark room, and they will not change; but expose them to -a strong light, and they will be of an indelible black. - - - - -Visible Growth. - - -Cut a circular piece of card to fit the top of a hyacinth glass, so as -to rest upon the ledge, and exclude the air. Pierce a hole through the -center of the card, and pass through it a strong thread, having a small -piece of wood tied to one end, which, resting transversely on the card, -prevents it being drawn through. To the other end of the thread attach -an acorn; and having half filled the glass with water, suspend the -acorn at a short distance from the surface. - -The glass must be kept in a warm room, and in a few days the steam will -hang from the acorn in a drop, the skin will burst, and the root will -protrude and thrust itself in the water, and in a few days more a stem -will shoot out at the other end, and rising upwards, will press against -the card, in which an orifice must be made to allow it to pass through. -From this stem small leaves will soon be observed to sprout; and in -the course of a few weeks you will have a handsome oak plant, several -inches in height. - - - - -Colored Flames. - - -A variety of rays of light are exhibited by colored flames, which are -not to be seen in white light. Thus pure hydrogen gas will burn with a -blue flame, in which many of the rays of light are wanting. - -The flame of an oil lamp contains most of the rays which are wanting in -the sunlight. Alcohol mixed with water, when heated or burned, affords -a flame with no other rays but yellow. The following salts, if finely -powdered, and introduced into the exterior flame of a candle, or into -the wick of a spirit lamp, will communicate to the flame their peculiar -colors: - - Chloride of Soda (common salt) Yellow. - “ of Potash Pale violet. - “ of Lime Brick red. - “ of Strontia Bright crimson. - “ of Lithia Red. - “ of Baryta Apple green. - “ of Copper Bluish green. - Borax Yellow. - -Or either of the above salts may be mixed with spirit of wine, as -directed, for Red Fire. - - -ORANGE COLORED FLAME. - -Burn spirit of wine on chloride of calcium, a substance obtained by -evaporating muriate of lime to dryness. - - -EMERALD GREEN FLAME. - -Burn spirit of wine on a little powdered nitrate of silver. - - -INSTANTANEOUS FLAME. - -Heat together potassium and sulphur, and they will instantly burn very -vividly. - -Heat a little nitre on a fire-shovel, sprinkle on it flour of sulphur, -and it will instantly burn. If iron filings be thrown upon red hot -nitre, they will detonate and burn. - - - - -Water of Different Temperatures in the Same Vessel. - - -Of heat and cold, as of wit and madness, it may be said that “thin -partitions do their bounds divide.” Thus, paint one half of the surface -of a tin pot with a mixture of lamp black and size, and leave the other -half or side bright; fill the vessel with boiling water, and by dipping -a thermometer, or even the finger, into it shortly after, it will be -found to cool much more rapidly upon the blackened than the bright side -of the pot. - - - - -Warmth of Different Colors. - - -Place upon the surface of snow, as upon the window-sill, in bright -daylight or sunshine, pieces of cloth of the same size and quality, but -of different colors, black, blue, green, yellow and white; the black -cloth will soon melt the snow beneath it, and sink downwards; next the -blue, and then the green; the yellow but slightly; but the snow beneath -the white cloth will be as firm as at first. - - - - -Laughing Gas. - - -The above fanciful appellation has been given to nitrous oxide, from -the very agreeable sensations excited by inhaling it. In its pure state -it destroys animal life, but loses this noxious quality when inhaled, -because it becomes blended with the atmospheric air which it meets in -the lungs. This gas is made by putting three or four drams of nitrate -of ammonia in crystals into a small glass retort, which being held -over a spirit lamp, the crystals will melt, and the gas be evolved. - -Having thus produced the gas, it is to be passed into a large bladder -having a stop-cock; and when you are desirous of exhibiting its effects -you cause the person who wishes to experience them to first exhale -the atmospheric air from the lungs, and then quickly placing the cock -in his mouth you turn it, and bid him inhale the gas. Immediately a -sense of extraordinary cheerfulness, fanciful flights of imagination, -an uncontrollable propensity to laughter, and a consciousness of being -capable of great muscular exertion, supervene. It does not operate -in exactly the same manner on all persons; but in most cases the -sensations are agreeable, and have this important difference from those -produced by wine or spirituous liquors, that they are not succeeded by -any depression of mind. - - - - -Magic Vapor. - - -Provide a glass tube about three feet long and half an inch in -diameter; nearly fill it with water, upon the surface of which pour a -little colored ether; then close the open end of the tube carefully -with the palm of the hand, invert it in a basin of water, and rest the -tube against the wall. The ether will rise through the water to the -upper end of the tube; pour a little hot water over the tube, and it -will soon cause the ether to boil within, and its vapor may thus be -made to drive nearly all of the water out of the tube into the basin. -If, however, you then cool the tube by pouring cold water over it, the -vaporized ether will again become a liquid, and float upon the water as -before. - - - - -Gas from the Union of Metals. - - -Nearly fill a wine glass with diluted sulphuric acid, and place in it a -wire of silver and another of zinc, taking care that they do not touch -each other, when the zinc will be changed by the acid, but the silver -will remain inert. But cause the upper ends of the wires to touch each -other, and a stream of gas will issue from them. - - - - -Green Fire. - - -A beautiful green fire may be thus made: Take of flour of sulphur -thirteen parts, nitrate of baryta seventy-seven, chlorate of potash -five, metallic arsenic two, and charcoal three. Let the nitrate -of baryta be well dried and powdered; then add to it the other -ingredients, all finely pulverized, and exceedingly well mixed and -rubbed together. Place a portion of the composition in a small tin -pan, having a polished reflector fitted to one side, and set light to -it, when a splendid green illumination will be the result. By adding a -little calamine it will burn more slowly. - - - - -Combustion of Three Metals. - - -Mix a grain or two of potassium with an equal quantity of sodium; add -a globule of quicksilver, and the three metals, when shaken, will take -fire and burn vividly. - - - - -To Make Paper Apparently Incombustible. - - -Take a smooth cylindrical piece of metal, about one inch and a half in -diameter, and eight inches long. Wrap very closely round it a piece of -clean writing paper, then hold the paper in the flame of a spirit lamp, -and it will not take fire. But it may be held there for a considerable -time without being in the least affected by the flame. If the paper be -strained over a cylinder of wood it is quickly scorched. - - - - -Heat Not to be Estimated by Touch. - - -Hold both hands in water which causes the thermometer to rise to ninety -degrees, and when the liquid has become still, you will be insensible -to the heat, and that the hand is touching anybody. Then remove one -hand to water that causes the thermometer to rise to two hundred -degrees, and the other in water at thirty-two degrees. - -After holding the hands thus for some time remove them, and again -immerse them in the water at ninety degrees. Then you will find warmth -in one hand and cold in the other. To the hand which had been immersed -in the water at thirty-two degrees, the water at ninety degrees will -feel hot; and to the hand which had been immersed in the water at two -hundred degrees, the water at ninety degrees will feel cool. If, -therefore, the touch in this case be trusted, the same water will be -judged to be hot and cold at the same time. - - - - -Flame Upon Water. - - -Fill a wine glass with cold water, pour lightly upon its surface a -little ether; light it by a slip of paper, and it will burn for some -time. - - - - -Rose-colored Flame Upon Water. - - -Drop a globule of potassium, about the size of a large pea, into a -small cup nearly full of water containing a drop or two of strong -nitric acid; the moment that the metal touches the liquid it will float -upon its surface, enveloped with a beautiful rose-colored flame, and -entirely dissolve. - - - - -Currents in Boiling Water. - - -Fill a large glass tube with water, and throw into it a few particles -of bruised amber or shreds of litmus; then hold the tube by a handle -for the purpose, upright in the flame of a lamp, and as the water -becomes warm it will be seen that currents, carrying with them the -pieces of amber will begin to ascend in the center, and to descend -towards the circumference of the tube. These currents will soon become -rapid in their motions, and continue till the water boils. - - - - -Hot Water Lighter than Cold. - - -Pour into a glass tube, about ten inches long and one inch in diameter, -a little water colored with pink or other dye; then fill it up -gradually and carefully with colorless water, so as not to mix them; -apply heat at the bottom of the tube, and the colored water will ascend -and be diffused throughout the whole. - - - - -Expansion of Water by Cold. - - -All fluids except water diminish in bulk till they freeze. Thus, fill -a large thermometer tube with water, say of the temperature of eighty -degrees, and then plunge the bulb into pounded ice and salt, or any -other freezing mixture; the water will go on shrinking in the tube -till it has attained the temperature of about forty degrees, and -then, instead of continuing to contract till it freezes, it will be -seen slowly to expand, and consequently to rise in the tube until it -congeals. - -In this case the expansion below forty degrees and above forty degrees -seem to be equal, so that the water will be of the same bulk at -thirty-two degrees as at forty-eight degrees, that is, at eight degrees -above or below forty degrees. - - - - -The Cup of Tantalus. - - -This pretty toy may be purchased at any optician’s for seventy-five -cents. It consists of a cup in which is placed a human standing figure -concealing a syphon or bent tube, with one end longer than the other. -This rises in one leg of the figure to reach the chin, and descends -through the other leg, through the bottom of the cup to a reservoir -beneath. If you pour water in the cup it will rise in the shorter leg -by its upward pressure, driving out the air before it through the -longer leg; and when the cup is filled above the bend of the syphon, -that is, level with the chin of the figure, the pressure of the water -will force it over into the longer leg of the syphon, and the cup -will be emptied, the toy thus imitating Tantalus, of mythology, who -is represented by the poets as punished in Erebus with an insatiable -thirst, and placed up to the chin in a pool of water, which, however, -flowed away as soon as he attempted to taste it. - - - - -The Magic Whirlpool. - - -Fill a glass tumbler with water, throw upon its surface a few fragments -or thin shavings of camphor, and they will instantly begin to move, and -acquire a motion both progressive and rotary, which will continue for -a considerable time. During these rotations if the water be touched -by any substance which is at all greasy, the floating particles will -quickly dart back, and, as if by a stroke of magic, be instantly -deprived of their motion and vivacity. - -In like manner, if thin slices of cork be steeped in sulphuric ether in -a closed bottle for two or three days, and then placed upon the water, -they will rotate for several minutes, like the camphor, until the -slices of cork, having discharged all their ether, and become soaked -with water, they will keep at rest. - -If the water be made hot the motion of the camphor will be more -rapid than in cold water, but it will cease in proportionately less -time. Thus, provide two glasses, one containing water at fifty-eight -degrees, and the other at two hundred and ten degrees; place raspings -of camphor upon each at the same time; the camphor in the first glass -will rotate for about five hours, until all but a very minute portion -has evaporated, while the rotation of the camphor in the hot water -will last only nineteen minutes. About half the camphor will pass off -and the remaining pieces, instead of being dull, white and opaque, -will be vitreous and transparent, and evidently soaked with water. -The gyrations, too, which at first will be very rapid, will gradually -decline in velocity until they become quite sluggish. - -The stilling influence of oil upon waves has become proverbial. The -extraordinary manner in which a small quantity of oil instantly spreads -over a very large surface of troubled water, and the stealthy manner in -which even a rough wind glides over it must have excited the admiration -of all who have witnessed it. - -By the same principle a drop of oil may be made to stop the motion of -the camphor, as follows: Throw some camphor, both in slices and in -small particles, upon the surface of water, and while they are rotating -dip a glass rod into oil of turpentine. Then allow a single drop -thereof to trickle down the inner side of the glass to the surface of -the water. The camphor will instantly dart to the opposite point of the -liquid surface, and cease to rotate. - -If a few drops of sulphuric or muriatic acid be let fall into the -water, they will gradually stop the motion of the camphor, but if -camphor be dropped into nitric acid, diluted with its own bulk of -water, it will rotate rapidly for a few seconds and then stop. - -If a piece of the rotating camphor be attentively examined with a lens, -the currents of the water can be well distinguished, jetting out, -chiefly from the corners of the camphor, and bearing it round with -irregular force. - -The currents, as given out by the camphor, may also be seen by means of -the microscope; a drop or two of pure water being placed upon a slip -of glass, with a particle of camphor floating upon it. By this means -the current may be detected, and it will be seen that they cause the -rotations. - -A flat watch-glass may be employed, raised a few inches and supported -on a wire ring, kept steady by thrusting one end into an upright piece -of wood like a retort stand. Then put the camphor and water in the -watch-glass, and place under the frame a sheet of white paper, so that -it may receive the shadow of the glass, camphor, etc., to be cast by a -steady light, placed above, and somewhat on one side of the watch-glass. - -On observing the shadow, which may be considered a magnified -representation of the object itself, the rotations and currents can be -distinguished. - - - - -Fire Under Water. - - -Put thirty grains of phosphorus into a bottle which contains three -or four ounces of water. Place the vessel over a lamp and give it a -boiling heat. Balls of fire will soon be seen to issue from the water -after the manner of an artificial firework, attended with the most -beautiful coruscations. - - - - -To Light Steel. - - -Make a piece of steel red in the fire, then hold it with a pair of -pincers or tongs; take in the other hand a stick of brimstone and touch -the piece of steel with it. Immediately after their contact you will -see the steel melt and drop like a liquid. - - - - -A Test of Love. - - -Put into a phial some sulphuric ether, color it red with alkanet, then -saturate the tincture with spermaceti. This preparation is solid ten -degrees above freezing point, and melts and boils at twenty degrees. -Place the phial which contains it in a lady’s hand and tell her that if -in love, the solid mass will dissolve. In a few minutes the substance -will become fluid. - - - - -An Egg Pushed Into a Wine Bottle. - - -To accomplish this seemingly incredible act requires the following -preparation: You must take an egg and soak it in strong vinegar, and -in process of time its shell will become quite soft so that it may -be extended lengthways without breaking; then insert it into the -neck of a small bottle, and by pouring cold water upon it, it will -reassume its former figure and hardness. This is really a complete -curiosity, and baffles those who are not in the secret to find out -how it is accomplished. If the vinegar used to saturate the egg is -not sufficiently strong to produce the required softness of shell, -add one teaspoonful of strong acetic acid to every two tablespoonfuls -of vinegar. This will render the egg perfectly flexible, and of easy -insertion into the bottle, which must then be filled with cold water. - - - - -A Chemical Fountain. - - -Take two small glass jars and close them with corks. In each of these -pierce two holes and introduce a glass tube curved in the form of a -lengthened V. The two extremities of this tube must not reach further -than just a little below the inner surface of the corks. In one jar -pour water until it is three-quarters full, and pass through the second -hole of the cork a straight glass tube, open at both ends and reaching -nearly the bottom. This jar must be hermetically corked. (If necessary, -seal the top.) In the other jar put some chalk, and in the second hole -of the cork, left free, pass the extremity of a paper funnel in which -you place a pellet of wax or putty. - -Your apparatus thus being ready, through the funnel pour some vinegar, -or better still, some sulphuric acid. The latter ingredient coming in -contact with the chalk, forms carbonic acid, which, not being able to -escape through the funnel closed by the pellet, passes through the -curved tube into the other jar and is dissolved in the water. - -[Illustration] - -After some time a strong pressure will be exercised on the liquid, and -the water rising rapidly up through the vertical tube, will spout out -as from a fountain. - -This experiment may be varied and reduced to a simpler one. Take one -jar, fill it up two-thirds with water, and fit it with a cork with two -holes, through which pass two tubes; the one going to the bottom, the -other resting just over the surface of the liquid. The latter should be -fitted with a receiver. - -Seal the cork so as to render it air-tight. In the top receiver pour -water, which will go down into the jar and raise the level of the water -already contained in it. - -The air, being compressed, will act upon the liquid mass in the lower -jar, and the water will escape through the free tube in a jet with more -or less force according to the pressure exercised. - - - - -Weighing Gases. - - -Do not be cast down because you see another term to be explained. A -gas is, you may have already guessed, simply a fluid. Matter exists in -three states, solid, liquid and gaseous. Everything can exist in these -three states under different conditions of heat and pressure. - -For instance, ice, water, and steam are precisely the same thing, a -mixture of oxygen and hydrogen, though in different states. Hence steam -is simply the gaseous form of ice or water. Now some gases are heavier -than air, and among them is carbonic acid, a gas given off from the -lungs in breathing. - -By means of a very simply-constructed balance, you can prove this gas -to be heavier than air. Sounds queer, doesn’t it? to talk of weighing -something that you cannot handle or see. - -It is not difficult to do. Bend some wire, minding that the beams of -the balance are curved as in the figure. - -For one side of the scales a strong cardboard box will answer -admirably; for the other the lid of a round box will serve. Hang the -whole on a string and adjust it by putting some grains of sand in the -round scale on which the weights are placed, to make each side balance -one another and the scales are ready for use. - -[Illustration] - -The production of carbonic acid is easy. Pour a little sulphuric acid -and water over some chalk. Collect the gas given off in a bottle or -jar. In doing so you need not be afraid that it will escape, since it -is heavier than the air. - -In pouring it in the box of the scale, you will see the box sink down, -which is clearly an indication that the gas, which has just been poured -into the scale is heavier than the air, whose place it has taken. This -experiment may be tried in other curious ways. - - - - -In Water but not Wet. - - -With some lycopodium, powder the surface of a large or small vessel of -water; you may then challenge any one to drop a piece of money into -the water, and that you will get it with the hand without wetting your -skin. The lycopodium adheres to the hand, and prevents its contact -with the water. A little shake of the hand after the feat is over will -dislodge the powder. - - - - -Image of a Volcano. - - -This is another experiment on the density of liquids. In a small jar -put some wine or colored alcohol, and close it with a cork, through -which you have passed a small tube, a quill or a hollow straw. In -lowering this jar gently in a pail full of water, you will soon see the -liquid escape and rise to the surface of the water, describing spirals -which resemble smoke, and give a pretty good image, considerably -diminished, of a volcano. - - - - -Reciprocal Images. - - -Make two holes in the wainscot of a room, each a foot high and ten -inches wide, and about a foot distant from each other. Let these -apertures be about the height of a man’s head, and in each of them -place a transparent glass in a frame like a common mirror. - -Behind the partition, and directly facing each aperture, place two -mirrors inclosed in the wainscot, in an angle of forty-five degrees. -These mirrors are each to be eighteen inches square, and all the space -between must be inclosed with pasteboard painted black, and well closed -that no light can enter; let there be also two curtains to cover them, -which you may draw aside at pleasure. - -When a person looks into one of these fictitious mirrors, instead -of seeing his own face, he will see the object that is in front of -the other; thus, if two persons stand at the same time before these -mirrors, instead of each seeing himself, they will reciprocally see -each other. - -There should be a sconce with a lighted candle placed on each side of -the two glasses in the wainscot, to enlighten the faces of the persons -who look in them, or the experiment will not have so remarkable an -effect. - - - - -Imitation of Animal Tints. - - -To accomplish this metamorphosis, it is necessary to have earthen -vases which have little edges or rims near their mouths, and should -be of a size sufficiently large to hold suspended the bird or flower -which you intend placing in them. You should likewise be provided -with stoppers of cork, of a diameter equal to that of their mouths. -To make an experiment upon some bird, it is necessary to commence by -making a hole in the stopper, sufficiently large to contain the neck -of the bird without strangling it. This done, you divide the diameter -of the stopper into two equal parts so as to facilitate the placing -of it around the neck without doing injury to the bird. The two parts -being brought together, you place at the bottom of the vase an ounce -of quicklime, and beneath that a quarter of an ounce of sal ammoniac. -When you perceive the effervescence commence to take place, you -promptly insert the stopper, to which the bird is attached, leaving the -neck outside. The plumage of the body, exposed to this effervescent -vapor, will become impregnated with the various colors produced by this -chemical combination. - - - - -Melting a Coin. - - -Fix three pins in the table and lay the piece of money upon them; then -place a heap of the flour of sulphur below the piece of money, and -another above it, and set fire to them. When the flame is extinct, you -will find on the upper part of the piece a thin plate of metal, which -has been detached from it. - - - - -Explosive Gas. - - -Mix two drachms of the filings of iron with one ounce of concentrated -spirit of vitriol in a strong bottle that holds about a quarter of a -pint; stop it close, and in a few moments shake the bottle; then taking -out the cork, put a lighted candle near its mouth which should be a -little inclined, and you will soon observe an inflammation arise from -the bottle, attended with a loud explosion. - -To guard against the danger of the bottle bursting, the best way would -be to bury it in the ground and apply the light to the mouth by means -of a taper fastened to the end of a long stick. - - - - -Cold from Evaporation. - - -Ether poured upon a glass tube in a thin stream will evaporate and cool -it to such a degree that water contained in it may be frozen. - - - - -Self-Dancing Egg. - - -Fill a quill with quicksilver; seal it at both ends with good hard wax; -then have an egg boiled; take a small piece of the shell off the small -end and thrust in the quill with the quicksilver; lay it on the ground -and it will not cease tumbling about as long as any heat remains in it; -or if you put quicksilver into a small bladder and blow it up, then -warm the bladder, it will skip about as long as heat remains in it. - - - - -Flash of Fire in a Room. - - -Dissolve camphor in spirits of wine and deposit the vessel containing -the solution in a very close room, where the spirits of wine must -be made to evaporate by strong and speedy boiling. If any one then -enters the room with a lighted candle the air will inflame, while the -combustion will be so sudden and of so short a duration as to occasion -no danger. - - - - -Cast Iron Drops. - - -Bring a bar of iron to a white heat and then apply to it a roll of -sulphur. The iron will immediately melt and run into drops. - -The experiment should be performed over a basin of water, in which -the drops that fall down will be quenched. These drops will be found -reduced into a sort of cast iron. - - - - -Explosion without Heat. - - -Take a crystal or two of the nitrate of copper and bruise them; then -moisten them with water and roll them up quickly in a piece of tinfoil, -and in half a minute or little more, the tinfoil will begin to smoke -and soon after take fire and explode with a slight noise. Unless the -crystals of the nitrate of copper are moistened, no heat will be -produced. - - - - -Fiery Powder. - - -Put three ounces of rock alum and one ounce of honey or sugar into a -new earthen dish, glazed, and which is capable of standing a strong -heat; keep the mixture over the fire, stirring it continually until it -becomes very dry and hard; then remove it from the fire and pound it -to a coarse powder. Put this powder into a long-necked bottle, leaving -a part of the vessel empty; and having placed it in the crucible, fill -up the crucible with fine sand and surround it with burning coals. -When the bottle has been kept at a red heat for about seven or eight -minutes, and no more vapor issues from it, remove it from the fire, -then stop it with a piece of cork; and, having suffered it to cool, -preserve the mixture in small bottles, well closed. - -If you unclose one of these bottles and let fall a few grains of this -powder on a bit of paper, or any other very dry substance it will first -become blue, then brown, and will at last burn the paper or other -substance on which it has fallen. - - - - -Illumination. - - -A very pleasing exhibition may be made, with very little trouble or -expense, in the following manner: Provide a box, which you can fit up -with architectural designs cut on pasteboard; prick small holes into -those parts of the building where you wish the illuminations to appear, -observing that, in proportion to the perspective, the holes are to be -made smaller, and on the near objects the holes are to be made larger. -Behind these designs thus perforated you fix a lamp or candle, but in -such a manner that the reflection of the light shall only shine through -the hole: then placing a light of just sufficient brilliancy to show -the design of the buildings before it, and making a hole for the sight -at the front end of the box, you will have a tolerable representation -of illuminated buildings. - -The best way of throwing the light in front is to place an oiled -paper before it, which will cast a mellow gleam over the scenery, and -not diminish the effect of the illumination. This can be very easily -planned, both not to obstruct the sight, nor be seen to disadvantage. -The lights behind the picture should be very strong, and if a -magnifying glass were placed in the sight hole it would tend greatly to -increase the effect. The box must be covered in, leaving an aperture -for the smoke of the lights to pass through. - -The above exhibition can only be shown at candle light; but there is -another way, by fixing small pieces of gold on the building, instead -of drilling the holes, which gives something like the appearance of -illumination, but by no means equal to the foregoing experiment. - -N. B.--It would be an improvement if paper of various colors, rendered -transparent by oil, were placed between the lights behind the aperture -in the buildings, as they would then resemble lamps of different -colors. - - - - -Sun and Spirit. - - -Put a small quantity of spirits of wine into a glass, and put a cent or -coin in with it; then direct the rays of the sun by means of a burning -glass upon the coin, and in a short time it will become so hot as to -inflame the spirits. - - - - -Stars in Water. - - -Put half a drachm of solid phosphorus into a large pint flask--holding -it slanting that the phosphorus may not break the glass. Pour upon -it a gill and a half of water and place the whole over a tea-kettle -lamp, or any common tin lamp filled with spirits of wine. Light the -wick which should be almost half an inch from the flask; and as soon -as the water is heated, streams of fire will issue from the water by -starts, resembling sky-rockets; some particles will adhere to the -sides of the glass, representing stars, and will frequently display -brilliant rays. These appearances will continue at times till the water -begins to simmer, when immediately a curious aurora borealis begins, -and gradually ascends till it collects to a pointed flame; when it has -continued half a minute, blow out the flame of the lamp and the point -that was formed will rush down, forming beautiful illuminated clouds -of fire, rolling over each other for some time, which, disappearing, a -splendid hemisphere of stars presents itself; after waiting a minute -or two, light the lamp again, and nearly the same phenomenon will be -displayed as from the beginning. Let the repetition of lighting and -blowing out the lamp be made for three or four times at least, that -the stars may be increased. After the third or fourth time of blowing -out the lamp, in a few minutes after the internal surface of the flask -is dry, many of the stars will shoot with great splendor from side -to side, and some of them will fire off with brilliant rays; these -appearances will continue several minutes. What remains in the flask -will serve for the same experiment several times, and without adding -any more water. Care should be taken after the operation is over, to -lay the flask and water in a cool, secure place. - - - - -Parlor Ballooning. - - -It is an interesting and amusing experiment to inflate a balloon made -of gold-beater’s skin (using a little gum arabic to close any holes or -fissures), filling it from a bladder or jar, and tying a thread around -the mouth of it, to prevent the escape of the gas. When fully blown, -attach a fanciful car of colored paper, or very thin pasteboard, to it, -and let it float in a large room; it will soon gain the ceiling, where -it will remain for any length of time; if it be let off in the open -air it will soon ascend out of sight. This experiment may be varied by -putting small grains of shot into the car, in order to ascertain the -difference between the weight of hydrogen gas and atmospheric air. - - - - -Marvelous. - - -Wrap up a very smooth ball of lead in a piece of paper, taking care -that there be no wrinkles in it, and that it be everywhere in contact -with the ball; if it be held in this state over the flame of a taper, -the lead will be melted without the paper being burnt. The lead, -indeed, when once fused will not fail in a short time to pierce the -paper, and run through. - - - - -Mutability. - - -Infuse a few shavings of logwood in common water, and when the liquid -is sufficiently red pour it into a bottle. Then take three drinking -glasses and rinse one of them with strong vinegar; throw into the -second a small quantity of pounded alum, which will not be observed if -the glass has been washed, and leave the third without any preparation. -If the red liquor in the bottle be poured into the first glass, it will -appear of a straw color; if the second it will pass gradually from a -bluish gray to black, when stirred with a key or any piece of iron -which has been previously dipped in strong vinegar. In the third glass -the red liquor will assume a violet tint. - -[Illustration: THE END.] - - * * * * * - -OUR TEN CENT HAND BOOKS. - -USEFUL, INSTRUCTIVE AND AMUSING. - -Containing valuable information on almost every subject, such as -=Writing=, =Speaking=, =Dancing=, =Cooking=; also =Rules of Etiquette=, -=The Art of Ventriloquism=, =Gymnastic Exercises=, and =The Science of -Self-Defense=, =etc.=, =etc.= - - 1 Napoleon’s Oraculum and Dream Book. - 2 How to Do Tricks. - 3 How to Flirt. - 4 How to Dance. - 5 How to Make Love. - 6 How to Become an Athlete. - 7 How to Keep Birds. - 8 How to Become a Scientist. - 9 How to Become a Ventriloquist. - 10 How to Box. - 11 How to Write Love Letters. - 12 How to Write Letters to Ladies. - 13 How to Do It; or, Book of Etiquette. - 14 How to Make Candy. - 15 How to Become Rich. - 16 How to Keep a Window Garden. - 17 How to Dress. - 18 How to Become Beautiful. - 19 Frank Tousey’s U. S. 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Such) - -p. 22: “entirely. As” changed to “entirely, as” (out entirely, as) - -p. 28: “valve shown in fig. 4” should be “valve shown in fig. 6” - -p. 45: “with” inserted (ground, with a) - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's How to Do Chemical Tricks, by A. 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