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Bechtel</div> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and +most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions +whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms +of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online +at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you +are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the +country where you are located before using this eBook. +</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Slips of Speech</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: John H. Bechtel</div> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: April 7, 2002 [eBook #4983]<br /> +[Most recently updated: July 28, 2021]</div> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Character set encoding: UTF-8</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced by: Jim Weiler, xooqi.com.</div> +<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SLIPS OF SPEECH ***</div> + +<h1>Slips of Speech</h1> + +<p class="center"> +A helpful book for everyone who aspires to correct the everyday errors of +speaking and writing. +</p> + +<h2 class="no-break">by John H. Bechtel</h2> + +<h5>Author of “Practical Synonyms,” “Pronunciation,” +etc.</h5> + +<h4>Philadelphia</h4> + +<h4>The Penn Publishing Company</h4> + +<h4>1901</h4> + +<hr /> + +<h4>COPYRIGHT 1895 BY THE PENN PUBLISHING COMPANY</h4> + +<hr /> + +<h2>Contents</h2> + +<table summary="" style=""> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap00">INTRODUCTION</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap01">I. TASTE</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap02">II. CHOICE OF WORDS</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap03">III. CONTRACTIONS</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap04">IV. POSSESSIVE CASE</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap05">V. PRONOUNS</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap06">VI. NUMBER</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap07">VII. ADVERBS</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap08">VIII. CONJUNCTIONS</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap09">IX. CORRELATIVES</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap10">X. THE INFINITIVE</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap11">XI. PARTICIPLES</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap12">XII. PREPOSITIONS</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap13">XIII. THE ARTICLE</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap14">XIV. REDUNDANCY</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap15">XV. TWO NEGATIVES</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap16">XVI. ACCORDANCE OF VERB WITH SUBJECT</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap17">INDEX</a></td> +</tr> + +</table> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap00"></a>INTRODUCTION</h2> + +<p> +Homer, in all probability, knew no rules of rhetoric, and was not tortured with +the consideration of grammatical construction, and yet his verse will endure +through time. If everybody possessed the genius of Homer, rules and cautions in +writing would be unnecessary. +</p> + +<p> +To-day all men speak, and most men write, but it is observed that those who +most closely follow Homer’s method of writing without rules are most +unlike Homer in the results. The ancient bard was a law unto himself; we need +rules for our guidance. +</p> + +<p> +Rules of writing are the outgrowth of the study of the characteristics and +qualities of style which distinguish the best writers from those of inferior +skill and ability. Grammarians and rhetoricians, according to their several +lines of investigation, set forth the laws and principles governing speech, and +formulate rules whereby we may follow the true, and avoid the false. +</p> + +<p> +Grammar and rhetoric, as too often presented in the schools, are such +uninviting studies that when +<a name="Page04"></a> +school-days are ended, the books are laid aside, and are rarely consulted +afterward. The custom of formally burning the text-books after the final +examinations—a custom that prevails in some institutions—is but +an emphatic method of showing how the students regard the subjects treated in +the books. +</p> + +<p> +If all the rules and principles had been thoroughly mastered, the huge bonfire +of text-books in grammar and rhetoric might be regarded a fitting celebration +of the students’ victory over the difficulties of “English +undefiled.” But too often these rules are merely memorized by the student +for the purpose of recitation, and are not engrafted upon his everyday habit of +speech. They are, therefore, soon forgotten, and the principles involved are +subject to daily violation. +</p> + +<p> +Hence arises the need of books like SLIPS OF SPEECH, in which the common faults +of speakers and writers are pointed out, and the correct use of words shown. +Brief and informal in treatment, they will be read and consulted when the more +voluminous text-books will be left untouched. +</p> + +<p> +The copious index appended to this volume will afford a ready reference to the +many subjects discussed, and will contribute greatly to the convenience and +permanent value of the book. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2>SLIPS OF SPEECH</h2> + +<p class="letter"> +“We should be as careful of our words as of our +actions.”—CICERO. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap01"></a>CHAPTER I<br /> +Taste</h2> + +<p> +Taste is a universal gift. It has been found in some degree in all nations, +races, and ages. It is shown by the savage in his love of personal decoration; +by the civilized man in his love of art. +</p> + +<p> +But while it is thus universal, it is as different among men as their faces, +complexions, characters, or languages. Even among people of the same nation, it +is as different as the degrees of society. The same individual at different +periods of life, shows this variableness of taste. +</p> + +<p> +These diversities of taste imply a susceptibility to improvement. Good taste in +writing forms no exception to the rule. While it seems to require some basis in +nature, no degree of inborn aptitude will compensate for the lack of careful +training. +</p> + +<p> +To give his natural taste firmness and fineness a writer needs to read the best +literature, not merely so +<a name="Page08"></a> +as to know it, but so as to feel the beauty, the fitness, the charm, the +strength, the delicacy of a well-chosen word. +</p> + +<p> +The study of the proper arrangement and the most effective expression of our +thoughts prompts us to think more accurately. So close is the connection +between the thought and its expression that looseness of style in speaking and +writing may nearly always be traced to indistinctness and feebleness in the +grasp of the subject. No degree of polish in expression will compensate for +inadequacy of knowledge. But with the fullest information upon any subject, +there is still room for the highest exercise of judgment and good sense in the +proper choice and arrangement of the thoughts, and of the words with which to +express them. +</p> + +<p> +The concurrent testimony of those best qualified to render a decision, has +determined what authors reflect the finest literary taste, and these writers +should be carefully studied by all who aspire to elegance, accuracy, and +strength in literary expression. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Fine Writing</b> +</p> + +<p> +Never hesitate to call a spade a <i>spade</i>. One of the most frequent +violations of good taste consists in the effort to dress a common subject in +high-sounding language. The ass in the fable showed his stupidity +<a name="Page09"></a> +when he put on the lion’s skin and expected the other animals to declare +him to be the king of beasts. The distinction of a subject lies in its own +inherent character, and no pompous parade of words will serve to exalt a +commonplace theme. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Poetic Terms</b> +</p> + +<p> +In the expression of homely ideas and the discussion of affairs of every-day +life, avoid such poetic forms as <i>o’er</i> for over, <i>ne’er +</i>for never, <i>’mid</i> for amid, <i>e’en</i> for even, +<i>’gan</i> for began, <i>’twixt</i> for betwixt, +<i>’neath</i> for beneath, <i>list</i> for listen, <i>oft</i> for often, +<i>morn</i> for morning, <i>eve</i> for evening, <i>e’er</i> for ever, +<i>ere</i> for before, <i>’tis</i> for it is, <i>’twas </i>for it +was. +</p> + +<p> +In all prose composition, avoid such poetic forms as <i>swain, wight, mead, +brake, dingle, dell, zephyr.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Foreign Words</b> +</p> + +<p> +The unrestrained use of foreign words, whether from the ancient or from the +modern languages, savors of pedantry and affectation. The ripest scholars, in +speaking and writing English, make least use of foreign words or phrases. +Persons who indulge in their use incur the risk of being charged with a desire +to exhibit their linguistic attainments. +</p> + +<p> +On the other hand, occasions arise when the use of words from a foreign tongue +by one who is +<a name="Page10"></a> +thoroughly familiar with them, will add both grace and exactness to his style. +</p> + +<p> +Rarely use a foreign term when your meaning can be as well expressed in +English. Instead of <i>blasé,</i> use surfeited, or wearied; for <i>cortège +</i>use procession for <i>couleur de rose,</i> rose-color; for <i>déjeuner, +</i>breakfast; for <i>employe,</i> employee; for <i>en route,</i> on the way; +for <i>entre nous,</i> between ourselves; for <i>fait accompli,</i> an +accomplished fact; for <i>in toto,</i> wholly, entirely; for <i>penchant, +</i>inclination; for <i>raison d’être,</i> reason for existence; for +<i>recherché,</i> choice, refined; for <i>rôle,</i> part; for <i>soirée +dansante,</i> an evening dancing party; for <i>sub rosa,</i> secretly, etc. +</p> + +<p> +The following incident from the <i>Detroit Free Press</i> is in point: +</p> + +<p> +The gentleman from the West pulled his chair up to the hotel table, tucked his +napkin under his chin, picked up the bill-of-fare and began to study it +intently. Everything was in restaurant French, and he didn’t like it. +</p> + +<p> +“Here, waiter,” he said, sternly, “there’s nothing on +this I want.” +</p> + +<p> +“Ain’t there nothin’ else you would like for dinner, +sir?” inquired the waiter, politely. +</p> + +<p> +“Have you got any <i>sine qua non?”</i> +</p> + +<p> +The waiter gasped. +</p> + +<p> +“No, sir,” he replied. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page11"></a> +“Got any <i>bon mots?”</i> +</p> + +<p> +“N—no, sir.” +</p> + +<p> +“Got any <i>semper idem?”</i> +</p> + +<p> +“No, sir, we hain’t.” +</p> + +<p> +“Got any <i>jeu d’esprits?”</i> +</p> + +<p> +“No, sir; not a one.” +</p> + +<p> +“Got any <i>tempus fugit?”</i> +</p> + +<p> +“I reckon not, sir.” +</p> + +<p> +“Got any <i>soirée dansante?”</i> +</p> + +<p> +“No, sir.” +</p> + +<p> +The waiter was edging off. +</p> + +<p> +“Got any <i>sine die?”</i> +</p> + +<p> +“We hain’t, sir.” +</p> + +<p> +“Got any <i>e pluribus unum?”</i> +</p> + +<p> +The waiter’s face showed some sign of intelligence. +</p> + +<p> +“Seems like I heard ob dat, sir,” and he rushed out to the kitchen, +only to return empty-handed. +</p> + +<p> +“We ain’t got none, sir,” he said, in a tone of +disappointment. +</p> + +<p> +“Got any <i>mal de mer?”</i> +</p> + +<p> +“N—no, sir.” +</p> + +<p> +The waiter was going to pieces fast. +</p> + +<p> +The gentleman from the West, was as serene as a May morning. +</p> + +<p> +“Got any <i>vice versa?”</i> he inquired again. +</p> + +<p> +The waiter could only shake his head. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page12"></a> +“No? Well, maybe you’ve got some bacon and cabbage, and a corn +dodger?” +</p> + +<p> +“’Deed we have, sir,” exclaimed the waiter, in a tone of the +utmost relief, and he fairly flew out to the kitchen. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Trite Expressions</b> +</p> + +<p> +Words and phrases which may once have been striking and effective, or witty and +felicitous, but which have become worn out by oft-repeated use, should be +avoided. The following hackneyed phrases will serve to illustrate: “The +staff of life,” “gave up the ship,” “counterfeit +presentment,” “the hymeneal altar,” “bold as a +lion,” “throw cold water upon,” “the rose upon the +cheek,” “lords of creation,” “the weaker sex,” +“the better half,” “the rising generation,” +“tripping the light fantastic toe,” “the cup that cheers but +does not inebriate,” “in the arms of Morpheus,” “the +debt of nature,” “the bourne whence no traveler returns,” +“to shuffle off this mortal coil,” “the devouring +element,” “a brow of alabaster.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Pet Words</b> +</p> + +<p> +Avoid pet words, whether individual, provincial, or national in their use. Few +persons are entirely free from the overuse of certain words. Young people +largely employ such words as <i>delightful, delicious,</i> +<a name="Page13"></a> +<i>exquisite,</i> and other expressive adjectives, which constitute a kind of +society slang. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Overworked Expressions</b> +</p> + +<p> +Words and phrases are often taken up by writers and speakers, repeated, and +again taken up by others, and thus their use enlarges in ever-widening circles +until the expressions become threadbare. Drop them before they have reached +that state. <i>Function, environment, trend, the masses, to be in touch with, +to voice the sentiments of—</i>these are enough to illustrate the kind +of words referred to. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Very Vulgar Vulgarisms</b> +</p> + +<p> +No one who has any regard for purity of diction and the proprieties of +cultivated society will be guilty of the use of such expressions as +<i>yaller</i> for yellow, <i>feller</i> for fellow, <i>kittle</i> for kettle, +<i>kiver</i> for cover, <i>ingons</i> for onions, <i>cowcumbers</i> for +cucumbers, <i>sparrowgrass</i> for asparagus, <i>yarbs</i> for herbs, <i>taters +</i>for potatoes, <i>tomats</i> for tomatoes, <i>bile</i> for boil, +<i>hain’t </i>for ain’t or isn’t, <i>het</i> for heated, +<i>kned</i> for kneaded, <i>sot</i> for sat or set, <i>teeny</i> for tiny, +<i>fooling you</i> for deceiving you, <i>them</i> for those, <i>shut up</i> for +be quiet, or be still, or cease speaking, <i>went back on me</i> for deceived +me or took advantage of me, a <i>power of people</i> for a great many +<a name="Page14"></a> +people, a <i>power of money</i> for great wealth, a <i>heap of houses</i> for +many houses, <i>lots of books</i> for many books, <i>lots of corn</i> for much +corn or large quantities of corn, <i>gents</i> for gentlemen, and many others +of a similar character. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="Page15"></a><a name="chap02"></a>CHAPTER II<br /> +Choice of Words</h2> + +<p> +Our American writers evince much variety in their graces of diction, but in the +accurate choice of words James Russell Lowell and William Cullen Bryant stand +out conspicuous above the rest. So careful and persistent was the latter, that +during the time that he was editor of <i>The Evening Post,</i> of New York +City, he required the various writers upon that paper to avoid the use of a +long list of words and expressions which he had prepared for them, and which +were commonly employed by other papers. This list was not only used, but +enlarged by his successors. +</p> + +<p> +Strive to cultivate the habit of observing words; trace their delicate shades +of meaning as employed by the most polished writers; note their suggestiveness; +mark the accuracy with which they are chosen. In this way your mind will be +kept on the alert to discover the beauties as well as the blemishes of all the +thought pictures that are presented, and your vocabulary will be greatly +enlarged and enriched. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page16"></a> +BRYANT’S LIST OF OBJECTIONABLE EXPRESSIONS +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +<i>Above,</i> and <i>over,</i> use more than.<br/> <i>Artiste,</i> use +artist.<br/> <i>Aspirant.</i><br/> <i>Authoress</i><br/> <i>Beat,</i> use +defeat. <br/> <i>Bagging,</i> use capturing. <br/> <i>Balance,</i> use +remainder. <br/> <i>Banquet,</i> use dinner or supper. <br/> <i>Bogus.</i><br/> +<i>Casket,</i> use coffin. <br/> <i>Claimed,</i> use asserted. <br/> +<i>Collided.</i><br/> <i>Commence,</i> use begin. <br/> <i>Compete.</i><br/> +<i>Cortege,</i> use procession. <br/> <i>Cotemporary,</i> use contemporary. +<br/> <i>Couple,</i> use two. <br/> <i>Darkey,</i> use negro. <br/> <i>Day +before yesterday,</i> use the day before yesterday. <br/> <i>Débût.</i><br/> +<i>Decease,</i> as a verb. <br/> <i>Democracy,</i> applied to a political +party. <br/> <i>Develop,</i> use expose. <br/> <i>Devouring element,</i> use +fire. <br/> <i>Donate.</i><br/> <i>Employe.</i><br/> <i>Enacted,</i> use acted. +<br/> <i>Endorse,</i> use approve. <br/> <i>En route.</i><br/> <i>Esq.</i><br/> +<i>Graduate,</i> use is graduated. <br/> <i>Gents,</i> use gentlemen. <br/> +<i>Hon.</i><br/> <i>House,</i> use House of Representatives. <br/> +<i>Humbug.</i><br/> <i>Inaugurate,</i> use begin. <br/> <i>In our +midst.</i><br/> <i>Item,</i> use particle, extract, or paragraph. <br/> <i>Is +being done,</i> and all similar passive forms. <br/> <i>Jeopardize.</i><br/> +<i>Jubilant,</i> use rejoicing.<br/> +<a name="Page17"></a> +<i>Juvenile,</i> use boy. <br/> <i>Lady,</i> use wife. <br/> <i>Last,</i> use +latest. <br/> <i>Lengthy,</i> use long. <br/> <i>Leniency,</i> use lenity. +<br/> <i>Loafer.</i><br/> <i>Loan,</i> or <i>loaned,</i> use lend or lent. +<br/> <i>Located.</i><br/> <i>Majority,</i> use most. <br/> <i>Mrs. +President.</i><br/> <i>Mrs. Governor.</i><br/> <i>Mrs. General.</i><br/> +<i>Mutual,</i> use common. <br/> <i>Official,</i> use officer. <br/> +<i>Ovation.</i><br/> <i>On yesterday.</i><br/> <i>Over his signature.</i><br/> +<i>Pants,</i> use pantaloons. <br/> <i>Parties,</i> use persons. <br/> +<i>Partially,</i> use partly. <br/> <i>Past two weeks,</i> use last two weeks. +<br/> <i>Poetess.</i><br/> <i>Portion,</i> use part. <br/> <i>Posted,</i> use +informed. <br/> <i>Progress,</i> use advance. <br/> <i>Quite,</i> when prefixed +to good, large, etc. <br/> <i>Raid,</i> use attack. <br/> <i>Realized,</i> use +obtained. <br/> <i>Reliable,</i> use trustworthy. <br/> <i>Rendition,</i> use +performance. <br/> <i>Repudiate,</i> use reject or disown. <br/> <i>Retire,</i> +as an active verb.v <i>Rev.,</i> use the Rev. <br/> <i>Role,</i> use part. +<br/> <i>Roughs.</i><br/> <i>Rowdies.</i><br/> <i>Secesh.</i><br/> +<i>Sensation,</i> use noteworthy event. <br/> <i>Standpoint,</i> use point of +view. <br/> <i>Start,</i> in the sense of setting out. <br/> <i>State,</i> use +say. <br/> <i>Taboo.</i><br/> <i>Talent,</i> use talents or ability. <br/> +<i>Talented.</i><br/> <i>Tapis.</i><br/> <i>The deceased.</i><br/> <i>War,</i> +use dispute or disagreement. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page18"></a> +STILTS +</p> + +<p> +Avoid bombastic language. Work for plain expressions rather than for the +unusual. Use the simplest words that the subject will bear. +</p> + +<p> +The following clipping, giving an account of the commencement exercises of a +noted female college, strikingly illustrates what to avoid: +</p> + +<p> +“Like some beacon-light upon a rock-bound coast against which the surges +of the ocean unceasingly roll, and casting its beams far across the waters +warning the mariner from the danger near, the college, like a Gibraltar, stands +upon the high plains of learning, shedding its rays of knowledge, from the +murmurings of the Atlantic to the whirlwinds of the Pacific, guiding womankind +from the dark valley of ignorance, and wooing her with wisdom’s lore, +leads creation’s fairest, purest, best into flowery dells where she can +pluck the richest food of knowledge, and crowns her brow with a coronet of gems +whose brilliancy can never grow dim: for they glisten with the purest thought, +that seems as a spark struck from the mind of Deity. There is no need for the +daughters of this community to seek colleges of distant climes whereat to be +educated, for right here in their own city, God’s paradise on earth, is +situated a noble college, the bright diadem of that paradise, that has done +more for the higher education of woman than any institution in our land.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page19"></a> +PURITY +</p> + +<p> +An author’s diction is pure when he uses such words only as belong to the +idiom of the language. The only standard of purity is the practice of the best +writers and speakers. A violation of purity is called a barbarism. +</p> + +<p> +Unlike the Latin, Greek, or Hebrew, the English is a living language, and, like +all living organisms, manifests its life by taking in new material and casting +off old waste continually. Science, art, and philosophy give rise to new ideas +which, in turn, demand new words for their expression. Of these, some gain a +permanent foothold, while others float awhile upon the currents of conversation +and newspaper literature and then disappear. +</p> + +<p> +Good usage is the only real authority in the choice of reputable words; and to +determine, in every case, what good usage dictates, is not an easy matter. +Authors, like words, must be tested by time before their forms of expression +may become a law for others. Pope, in his <i>Essay on Criticism,</i> laid down +a rule which, for point and brevity, has never been excelled: +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +“In words, as fashions, the same rule will hold;<br/> +Alike fantastic, if too new or old;<br/> +Be not the first by whom the new are tried,<br/> +Nor yet the last to lay the old aside.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page20"></a> +BARBARISMS +</p> + +<p> +Campbell, in his <i>Philosophy of Rhetoric,</i> says that a word to be +legitimate must have these three signs of authority: +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +1. It must be <i>reputable,</i> or that of educated people, as opposed to that +of the ignorant or vulgar.<br/> +2. It must be <i>national,</i> as opposed to what is either local or +technical.<br/> +3. It must be <i>present,</i> as opposed to what is obsolete. +</p> + +<p> +Any word that does not have these three qualities may, in general, be styled a +barbarism. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +ANGLICIZED WORDS +</p> + +<p> +Many foreign words, in process of time, become so thoroughly domesticated that +their translation, or the use of an awkward equivalent, would be a greater mark +of pedantry than the use of the foreign words. The proper use of such terms as +<i>fiat, palladium, cabal, quorum, omnibus, antique, artiste, coquette, ennui, +physique, régime, tableau, amateur,</i> cannot be censured on the ground of +their foreign character. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +OBSOLETE WORDS +</p> + +<p> +Some writers affect an antiquated style by the introduction of such words as +<i>peradventure, perchance,</i> +<a name="Page21"></a> +<i>anon, behest, quoth, erewhile.</i> The use of such words gives a strange +sound to the sentence, and generally indicates that the writer is not +thoroughly in earnest. The expression is lowered in tone and is made to sound +fantastic. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +NEW WORDS +</p> + +<p> +A word should not be condemned because it is new. If it is really needed it +will be welcomed, and soon find a permanent place. Shakespeare, Addison, and +Johnson introduced many new words, to which their names afterward gave a +sanction. Carlyle, Coleridge, Tennyson, and Browning have introduced or given +currency to new words, and made strange ones familiar. +</p> + +<p> +New words are objectionable when they are employed without proper authority. +The chief sources of supply of the objectionable kind are the current slang of +the street and the sensational newspaper. They are often the result of a desire +to say things in such a manner as to reflect smartness upon the speaker, or to +present things in a humorous or picturesque way. That they are frequently very +effective cannot be gainsaid. Sometimes they are coined in the heat of +political or social discussion, and, for a time, express what everybody is +talking about; but it is impossible to tell whether they will live beyond +<a name="Page22"></a> +the occasion that produced them. So long as their usage is doubtful it is safer +not to employ them. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +SLANG +</p> + +<p> +Slang is somewhat like chicken-pox or measles, very catching, and just as +inevitable in its run; and very few of us escape it. It is severest, too, where +the sanitary conditions are most favorable to its development. Where there is +least thought and culture to counteract its influence slang words crowd out +those of a more serious character, until, in time, the young and inexperienced +speaker or writer is unable to distinguish between the counterfeit and the +genuine. +</p> + +<p> +While most persons condemn slang, there are very few who are entirely free from +its use. It varies greatly in its degrees of coarseness or refinement, and +adapts itself to all classes and conditions. Many know no other language, and +we are unwillingly compelled to admit that while their speech is often +ungrammatical and unrhetorical, it is generally clear, concise, and forcible. +</p> + +<p> +Strive to acquire a vocabulary so large and to cultivate a taste so fine that +when a slang expression rises to your mind you can use it if you think it best +fits the occasion, or substitute something better in its place. Purity of +diction is a garden of slow growth even under the most favorable conditions, +and the +<a name="Page23"></a> +unrestrained indulgence in slang is like scattering seeds of the vilest plants +among the choicest flowers. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +SOCIETY SLANG +</p> + +<p> +“This is an <i>elegant</i> day,” “that is an <i>elegant</i> +view,” “Mary is <i>awfully nice,” “</i>Jennie is +<i>dreadfully sweet,”</i> “Gertrude is <i>delicious,”</i> and +“Tom is <i>perfectly splendid.”</i> The use of such extravagant +phrases tends to weaken the significance of the words when legitimately +employed. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +COMMERCIAL SLANG +</p> + +<p> +Commercial terms are employed in the common language of everyday life to such +an extent as to constitute a form of commercial slang. The following will serve +for illustration; “The <i>balance</i> of the journey” for +remainder, “he was <i>well posted.”</i> for well informed, “I +<i>calculate</i> he will come to-morrow” for believe or think, “I +<i>reckon</i> he is your friend” for I suppose. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +COMMON SLANG +</p> + +<p> +To materialize, to burglarize, to enthuse, to suicide, to wire, to jump upon, +to sit upon, to take in, are a few of the many examples of slang that should be +avoided. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page24"></a> +PROVINCIALISMS +</p> + +<p> +A word that is used only in a limited part of the country is called a +provincialism. It must be known and recognized for what it is worth, but not +obtruded where it does not belong. +</p> + +<p> +Whatever may be said of the faults of speech of the American people, it is +doubtful if any other nation, whether it covers a large territory or is limited +in area, speaks the language native to the country with the uniformity that we +do. Yet, there are peculiarities that mark the expression of most of our +people, even among the best informed. The words <i>calculate, reckon,</i> and +<i>guess</i> are not the only words that betray the locality of the speaker. +Any person who has been five hundred miles from home cannot fail to have +observed words that were used differently from the way in which he had been +accustomed to use them, and he probably heard terms of expression that seemed +strange to him. In like manner, his own expressions sounded strange to those +who heard him. That which distinguished his speech from theirs and theirs from +his would, in large part, be covered by the word “provincialism.” +</p> + +<p> +Not only do we have local and sectional peculiarities of speech, but we may be +said to have national mannerisms. Mr. Alexander Melville Bell, the +<a name="Page25"></a> +eminent elocutionist, relates that some years ago when residing in Edinburgh, a +stranger called to make some inquiries in regard to professional matters. +</p> + +<p> +“I have called on you, sir, for the purpose of,” etc. +</p> + +<p> +“When did you cross the Atlantic?” I asked. +</p> + +<p> +The stranger looked up with surprise amounting almost to consternation. +</p> + +<p> +“How do you know that I have crossed the Atlantic?” +</p> + +<p> +“Your manner of using the little word ‘sir’ is not heard in +England or Scotland.” +</p> + +<p> +This gentleman, Mr. Bell says, was one of the most eminent teachers of +elocution in America, and his speech was perfectly free from ordinary local +coloring, in all but the one little element which had escaped observation. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +WHICH? +</p> + +<p> +Much diversity of usage exists and some difference of opinion prevails +concerning the proper expression to use when you are addressed, and fail to +understand just what has been said. Such interrogative rejoinders as +<i>“What?” “How?” “Which?” +“Hey?”</i> are plainly objectionable. <i>“Sir?” </i>and +<i>“Madam!”</i> once common, are no longer tolerated in society. +The English expression <i>“Beg pardon”</i> has found favor, but it +is not wholly acceptable. <i>“Excuse me”</i> +<a name="Page26"></a> +is suggested by a writer on the subject. It has no more syllables than +<i>“Beg pardon,”</i> and is nearly equivalent in signification, but +it is also subject to the objection that it is often used to imply a difference +of opinion, as when a person makes a statement to which you take exception, you +begin your reply with the expression, <i>“Excuse me.”</i> +</p> + +<p> +Whatever is adopted will doubtless be a convenient contraction, like +<i>“Beg pardon,”</i> which is a short way of saying, “I beg +your pardon for failing to understand what you said;” or “<i>Excuse +me,”</i> which is a condensation of “Excuse me for not fully +grasping your meaning.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +WORDS IMPROPERLY USED<br/><br/> +<b>Commodious—Convenient</b> +</p> + +<p> +A word of caution in the use of the smaller dictionaries is necessary. The most +elaborate definition often fails to give an adequate idea of the signification +of a term unless it is accompanied with one or more quotations illustrating its +use. The small dictionaries give only the briefest definitions, without +illustration, and therefore should be interpreted with caution. +</p> + +<p> +Some years ago a young man of moderate attainments was very desirous of +enlarging his vocabulary +<a name="Page27"></a> +and of using words beyond the ordinary vernacular of his neighborhood. To this +end, he made a small vest-pocket lexicon his constant companion. +</p> + +<p> +Having consulted it in the course of a conversation with a friend, he remarked, +as he was about to return it to his pocket, “What a commodious book this +is.” His friend suggested that he again consult the +“commodious” volume. With a look of the utmost confidence he turned +to the word, and exclaimed: “There! I knew I was right. <i>Commodious</i> +means <i>convenient,</i> and that is just what this little book is.” +</p> + +<p> +It was useless to explain that smallness sometimes renders a thing +inconvenient, and this young man, doubtless, still felicitates himself upon his +intimate acquaintance with that <i>commodious</i> pocket dictionary. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Ability, Capacity</b> +</p> + +<p> +A fond mother was told by the principal of a boarding-school that her daughter +would not be graduated, as she lacked capacity. “Get her a capacity. Her +father don’t stand on the matter of expense. Get her anything she wants. +He’ll foot the bill.” But for once the indulgent mother was obliged +to learn that there are some things money will not purchase. The father had the +financial <i>ability,</i> but the daughter lacked the necessary intellectual +<i>capacity.</i> +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page28"></a> +But we may have literary as well as financial ability. <i>Ability </i>implies +the power of doing; <i>capacity</i> the faculty of receiving. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>About, Almost</b> +</p> + +<p> +“This work is <i>about</i> done.” Use “<i>almost</i> +done.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Acceptance, Acceptation</b> +</p> + +<p> +These words cannot be used interchangeably. “He wrote signifying his +<i>acceptance</i> of the office.” “According to the common +<i>acceptation</i> of this term, he is a knave.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Access, Accession</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He gained <i>access</i> to the fort.” “The only +<i>accession,</i> which the Roman empire received was the province of +Britain.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Accident, Injury</b> +</p> + +<p> +Accident is sometimes used incorrectly for <i>injury.</i> as “His +<i>accident</i> was very painful.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Mutual, Common</b> +</p> + +<p> +Some men seek to be great by copying great men’s faults. Dickens may say +“Our Mutual Friend,” but Dickens’s strong point was not +grammar. If you have a friend in common with Smith, in speaking of him to +Smith, say our <i>common </i>friend. The word <i>mutual</i> should always +convey a sense of reciprocity, as “Happy in our mutual help and mutual +love.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page29"></a> +<b>Myself</b> +</p> + +<p> +This word is generally used for emphasis, as “I <i>myself</i> will do +it,” “I wrote it <i>myself.”</i> It should not be used for +the unemphatic pronouns <i>I</i> and <i>me,</i> as in “James and +<i>myself</i> are going to town,” “He gave the books to James and +<i>myself.”</i> It is properly used with a reflexive verb without +emphasis, as “I will defend <i>myself.”</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Negligence, Neglect</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Negligence</i> is the habit, <i>neglect</i> the act, of leaving things +undone. The adjectives <i>negligent</i> and <i>neglectful</i> should, in like +manner, be discriminated. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Never, Not</b> +</p> + +<p> +The word <i>never</i> is sometimes colloquially used for <i>not, </i>as +“I <i>never</i> remember to have seen Lincoln.” Say “I <i>do +not </i>remember,” etc. <i>Never</i> should not be used in reference to +events that can take place but once, as “Warren <i>never</i> died at +Lexington.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Love, Like</b> +</p> + +<p> +We may <i>love</i> our parents, our children, our country, the truth; and we +may <i>like</i> roast turkey and cranberry sauce. “I <i>love +</i>cherries,” “I <i>adore</i> strawberries,” are school-girl +expressions that should be avoided. Love is an emotion of the heart, and not of +the palate. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page30"></a> +<b>Cheap, Low-priced</b> +</p> + +<p> +These words are often used synonymously. A picture purchased for ten thousand +dollars may be cheap; another, for which ten dollars was paid, although +low-priced, may be dear. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Mad, Angry</b> +</p> + +<p> +The frequent use of <i>mad</i> in the sense of angry should be avoided. A +person who is insane is <i>mad.</i> A dog that has hydrophobia is <i>mad.</i> +Figuratively we say <i>mad,</i> with rage, <i>mad</i> with terror, <i>mad</i> +with pain; but to be vexed, or angry, or out of patience, does not justify the +use of so strong a term as <i>mad.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Most, Almost, Very</b> +</p> + +<p> +Sometimes incorrectly used for <i>almost,</i> as “He writes to me +<i>most</i> every week.” +</p> + +<p> +It is often loosely used in the sense of <i>very,</i> as “This is a +<i>most </i>interesting book.” Aim to use <i>most</i> only as the +superlative of <i>much</i>, or <i>many.</i> Do not use the indefinite article +before it, as “This is <i>a most</i> beautiful picture.” We may say +“This is <i>the most </i>beautiful picture,” for here comparison is +implied. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Portion, Part</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Give me the <i>portion</i> of goods that falleth to me.” “We +traveled a <i>part</i> of the distance on foot.” <i>Portion</i> is +applied to that which is set aside for a special +<a name="Page31"></a> +purpose, often as the share or allotment of an individual, as the wife’s +<i>portion,</i> the <i>portion</i> of the oldest son, etc. <i>Part</i> is a +more general term. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Postal</b> +</p> + +<p> +Bryant would not have said, “I will send you a <i>postal</i> by +to-morrow’s mail.” <i>Postal card</i> or <i>post card</i> would be +better. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Practical, Practicable</b> +</p> + +<p> +These words are sometimes confounded. <i>Practicable</i> means “that may +be done or accomplished,” and implies that the means or resources are +available; as, a <i>practicable</i> road, a <i>practicable</i> aim. +<i>Practical</i> means “capable of being turned to use or account;” +as, “The <i>practical</i> man begins by doing; the theorist often ends by +thinking.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Predicate</b> +</p> + +<p> +This word is sometimes incorrectly used in the sense of <i>form </i>or +<i>base;</i> as, “He <i>predicated</i> his statement on the information +he had just received.” Neither should it be used in the sense of +<i>predict; </i>as, “The sky is overcast, and I <i>predicate</i> a storm +tomorrow.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Prefer—than</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I <i>prefer</i> to walk <i>than</i> to ride.” Say “I prefer +walking to riding;” or, “I would rather walk than +<a name="Page32"></a> +ride.” “To skate is <i>preferable than</i> to coast.” Say +“Skating is preferable to coasting.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Amount, Number</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Amount</i> applies to what is thought of in the mass or bulk, as money, +wheat, coal. <i>Number</i> is used when we think of the individuals composing +the mass, as men, books, horses, vessels. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Answer, Reply</b> +</p> + +<p> +An <i>answer</i> implies a question. We may <i>reply</i> to a remark or +assertion. A <i>reply</i> is more formal than an <i>answer.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Antagonize, Alienate, Oppose</b> +</p> + +<p> +The word <i>antagonize</i> should not be used in the sense of <i>alienate;</i> +as, “Your proposition will <i>antagonize</i> many supporters of the +measure.” “The Senate <i>opposed</i> the bill which passed the +House” is better than “<i>antagonized</i> the bill.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Anticipate, Expect</b> +</p> + +<p> +“The arrival of the President was hourly <i>anticipated”</i> is +pompous. Use <i>expected.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Any, At all</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He was so far from the speaker’s platform that he could not hear +<i>any.”</i> Better “that he could not hear,” or “hear +at all,” or “hear what was said.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page33"></a> +<b>Apparent, Evident</b> +</p> + +<p> +These words are often used interchangeably. That which is <i>apparent</i> may +be what it appears to be, or it may be very different; that which is <i>evident +</i>admits of no doubt. The same is true of <i>apparently</i> and +<i>evidently.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Prejudice</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He is not the best person for the position, but his many kindnesses to +me <i>prejudice</i> me in his favor.” We may be prejudiced against a +person or thing, but cannot be prejudiced in favor. Use <i>predispose.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Presume</b> +</p> + +<p> +This word is often employed when <i>think, believe,</i> or <i>daresay </i>would +be better. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Pretend, Profess</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I do not <i>pretend</i> to be an orator.” <i>Pretend</i> means +<i>to feign, to sham;</i> as, “He <i>pretends</i> to be asleep,” +and should not be used when <i>claim</i> or <i>profess</i> would better suit +the purpose. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Preventative</b> +</p> + +<p> +The correct form of the word is <i>preventive,</i> not <i>preventative.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Previous, Previously</b> +</p> + +<p> +The adjective <i>previous</i> is often incorrectly used for the adverb +<i>previously;</i> as, “Previous to his imprisonment he made a confession +of his crime.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page34"></a> +<b>Promise, Assure</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I <i>promise</i> you we had a good time yesterday.” <i>Promise</i> +relates to the future, hence “I <i>assure</i> you,” etc., would be +better. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Propose, Purpose</b> +</p> + +<p> +To <i>propose</i> is to set before the mind for consideration; to +<i>purpose</i> is to intend. “I <i>propose</i> sending my son to +college” should be “I <i>purpose,”</i> etc. “I +<i>propose</i> that you go to college, my son.” “Thank you, father, +I accept the proposal.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Sparrowgrass, Asparagus</b> +</p> + +<p> +The word <i>sparrowgrass,</i> which is a corruption of the word +<i>asparagus,</i> illustrates how readily the uneducated mind associates an +unusual term with another that is familiar, and as the mental impression is +received through the ear, and lacks that definiteness which the printed form +would give, the new idea, when repeated, often assumes a picturesque, if not a +ludicrous, form. Many of Mrs. Partington’s quaint sayings furnish further +illustration. +</p> + +<p> +The following incident, from a Western paper, shows the successive stages in +the farmer’s mental operations from the familiar terms <i>skin, hide, +oxhide, </i>up to the unfamiliar chemical term <i>oxide,</i> through which he +was obliged to pass before he succeeded in making known his wants: +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page35"></a> +The man was in a brown study when he went into the drug store. +</p> + +<p> +“What can we do for you?” inquired the clerk. +</p> + +<p> +“I want black—something of something,” he said; “have +you got any?” +</p> + +<p> +“Probably we have,” replied the clerk, “but you’ll have +to be more definite than that to get it.” +</p> + +<p> +The farmer thought for a moment. +</p> + +<p> +“Got any black sheepskin of something?” he asked. +</p> + +<p> +“No; we don’t keep sheepskins. We have chamois-skins, +though.” +</p> + +<p> +“That ain’t it, I know,” said the customer. “Got any +other kind of skins?” +</p> + +<p> +“No.” +</p> + +<p> +“Skins—skins—skins!” slowly repeated the man, +struggling with his slippery memory. “Calfskin seems to be something like +it. Got any black calfskins of anything?” +</p> + +<p> +“No, not one,” and the clerk laughed. +</p> + +<p> +The customer grew red in the face. +</p> + +<p> +“Confound it!” he said, “if it ain’t a skin, what in +thunder is it?” +</p> + +<p> +“Possibly it’s a hide?” suggested the clerk. +</p> + +<p> +“That’s it! That’s it!” exclaimed the man. +</p> + +<p> +“Have you got any black hides of something or anything?” +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page36"></a> +The clerk shook his head sadly as the man tramped up and down the store. +</p> + +<p> +“Got any black cowhide of anything?” he asked, after a +moment’s thought. +</p> + +<p> +The clerk’s face showed a gleam of intelligence, and then broke into a +smile. +</p> + +<p> +“Possibly it’s black oxide of manganese you want?” he said, +quietly. +</p> + +<p> +“Of course, that’s it!” he exclaimed, as he threw his arms +around the clerk’s neck. “I knowed blamed well there was a skin or +hide or something somewhere about the thing,” and he calmed down quietly +and waited for what he wanted. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Accord, Give</b> +</p> + +<p> +“They <i>accorded</i> him due praise.” “They <i>gave</i> him +the desired information.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Act, Action</b> +</p> + +<p> +“The best portion of a good man’s life is his little, nameless, +unremembered <i>acts</i> of kindness and of love.” “Suit the +<i>action</i> to the word.” <i>Action</i> suggests the operation; +<i>act</i>, the accomplished result. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Adherence, Adhesion</b> +</p> + +<p> +These words were once interchangeable, but are now distinct. <i>Adhesion +</i>relates to physical bodies; <i>adherence</i> to mental states. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page37"></a> +<b>Adopt, Take</b> +</p> + +<p> +“What course will you <i>take?”</i> is better than “What +course will you <i>adopt?”</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Affect, Effect</b> +</p> + +<p> +These words are sometimes confounded. “The climate <i>affected </i>their +health.” “They sailed away without <i>effecting</i> their +purpose.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Aggravate, Exasperate</b> +</p> + +<p> +To <i>aggravate</i> means to intensify, to make worse; to <i>exasperate +</i>means to provoke, to irritate. “To <i>aggravate</i> the horrors of +the scene.” “His remarks <i>exasperated</i> me.” “His +conduct <i>aggravates</i> me” should be “His conduct <i>annoys</i> +(or <i>displeases,</i> or <i>irritates, </i>or <i>exasperates)</i> me.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Alleviate, Relieve</b> +</p> + +<p> +These words differ chiefly in degree. The latter is the stronger word. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Proposal, Proposition</b> +</p> + +<p> +A <i>proposition</i> implies consideration or discussion; a <i>proposal +</i>contemplates acceptance or rejection. “Your <i>proposition</i> to +build our new warehouse has received favorable consideration, and we are ready +to receive your <i>proposals.”</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Providing, Provided</b> +</p> + +<p> +“You may go to skate, <i>providing</i> you first finish your task.” +Incorrect. You should say <i>provided.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page38"></a> +<b>Proved, Proven</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Proven</i> is sometimes incorrectly used for <i>proved.</i> “The +evidence was complete and his guilt was fully <i>proved.” Not proven</i> +is a legal term used in England to denote that the guilt of the accused is not +made out, though not disproved. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Quantity, Number</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Quantity</i> refers to the <i>how much; number</i> to the <i>how many. +</i>“He purchased a large <i>quantity</i> of <i>wheat, corn, apples, +lime, </i>and <i>sand,</i> and a <i>number</i> of <i>houses, stores</i>, +<i>chairs, </i>and <i>books.”</i> It is, therefore, incorrect to say, +“There was a large <i>quantity</i> of bicycles in the yard,” +“He sold a large <i>quantity</i> of books at auction.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Quite a few</b> +</p> + +<p> +In some parts of the country this expression is in common use in the sense of +<i>many, a large number,</i> etc. “How many people were at church +to-day?” <i>“Quite a few,”</i> meaning a considerable number. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Commence, Begin</b> +</p> + +<p> +Some persons always <i>commence,</i> but never <i>begin.</i> The tendency +toward pomp and parade in speech prompts many persons to avoid the use of our +strong, rugged Anglo-Saxon words, and to substitute their high-sounding Latin +equivalents, until, in time, the preferable native forms come to be regarded as +<a name="Page39"></a> +commonplace and objectionable. American usage is more faulty than English in +this regard. Use <i>begin</i> and <i>beginning</i> more, and <i>commence +</i>and, <i>commencement</i> less. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Complete, Finished</b> +</p> + +<p> +There is a distinction in the use of these words that is not always observed. +<i>Complete</i> signifies <i>nothing lacking,</i> every element and part being +supplied. That which is <i>finished</i> has had all done to it that was +intended. A vessel may be <i>finished</i> and yet be <i>incomplete.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Conclusion, End</b> +</p> + +<p> +The more pretentious word <i>conclusion</i> is often used where the simple +Anglo-Saxon word <i>end</i> would be preferable. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Conscious, Aware</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He was <i>aware</i> of the enemy’s designs.” +“<i>Conscious</i> of his fate, he boldly approached the furious +beast.” <i>Conscious</i> relates to what is within our own mind; +<i>aware</i> to what is without. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Continual, Continuous</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Continuous</i> implies <i>uninterrupted, unbroken. Continual </i>relates to +acts that are frequently repeated. “The <i>continuous</i> ride is often +finished in five hours, but owing to <i>continual</i> delays we were eight +hours on the way.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page40"></a> +<b>Convict, Convince</b> +</p> + +<p> +The Irishman who brandished his club and, exclaimed that he was open to +conviction, but he would like to see the man that could convince him, used a +form of argument that was most convincing, but failed in his discrimination of +language. <i>Convict</i> refers to the outer condition, and generally applies +to something wrong; <i>convince,</i> which may be used of either right or +wrong, refers to the judgment. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Custom, Habit</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Habit</i> is a tendency which leads us to do easily; <i>custom</i> grows out +of the habitual doing or frequent repetition of the same act. <i>Custom +</i>refers to the usages of society, or of the individual; <i>habit</i> refers +more frequently to the individual acts. “Ill <i>habits</i> gather by +unseen degrees.” +</p> + +<p> +“Man yields to custom as he bows to fate,<br/> In all things ruled— +mind, body, and estate.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Want, Need</b> +</p> + +<p> +These words are often used interchangeably, but should be discriminated. +<i>Need</i> implies the lack; <i>want</i> also implies the lack, but couples +with it the wish to supply the lack. “Some men <i>need</i> help, but will +not ask for it; others <i>want</i> help (that is, they need help, or think they +do, and ask for it) and get it, too.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page41"></a> +<b>Way, Away</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He is <i>way</i> down in Florida,” is incorrect. “He is +<i>away </i>down in Florida” is better grammar. “He is in +Florida” is still better. <i>Down</i> indicates the direction, and +<i>away</i> magnifies the distance. As most persons know the direction, and as +modern railway travel shortens long distances, the abbreviated sentence is +sufficiently full. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Ways, Way</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He is a long <i>ways</i> from home” is a very common, but faulty +expression. Say “Uncle Charles is now a long <i>way</i> on his +journey.” “The boat is a good <i>way</i> off the shore.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Whole, All</b> +</p> + +<p> +“The <i>whole</i> of the scholars went to the fair to-day.” +<i>“All</i> of the school went to the fair to-day.” The sentences +will be improved by transposing <i>whole</i> and <i>all. “All</i> of the +scholars went to the fair to-day,” not half of them. “The +<i>whole</i> school went to the fair to-day,” not a part of it. +<i>All</i> refers to the individual scholars; <i>whole</i> to the school as a +unit. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Without, Unless</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He cannot miss the way <i>without</i> he forgets my instructions.” +“I will not dig the potatoes <i>without</i> Tom comes to help.” Use +<i>unless </i>instead of <i>without.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page42"></a> +<b>Worse, More</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He dislikes arithmetic <i>worse</i> than grammar.” Use <i>more</i> +instead of <i>worse.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Rarely, Rare</b> +</p> + +<p> +“It is <i>rarely</i> that you hear of a prodigal youth growing into an +economical man.” <i>Rarely</i> should be <i>rare</i> to form the +adjective attribute of the verb. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Real, Really</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Real</i> is often incorrectly used as an adverb, especially by schoolgirls; +as, “I think he is <i>real</i> mean.” The grammar will be improved +by substituting <i>really</i> for <i>real,</i> but the expression, as a whole, +being applied to all kinds and degrees of offenses, has become meaningless. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Real</i> is often carelessly used in the sense of <i>very;</i> as <i>real +</i>pretty, <i>real</i> bright, <i>real</i> kind. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Recipe, Receipt</b> +</p> + +<p> +A <i>recipe</i> is a formula for making some mixture or preparation of +materials; a <i>receipt</i> is an acknowledgment of that which has been +received. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Region, Neighborhood</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Region</i> is a broader and more comprehensive term, and should not be +applied to the narrow limits of a <i>neighborhood.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page43"></a> +<b>Remit, Send</b> +</p> + +<p> +The word <i>remit</i> is often used when <i>send</i> would be better. +<i>Remit</i> means to send back, to forgive, to relax. In its commercial sense +it means to transmit or send money in payment of a demand; as, “He +<i>remitted </i>the amount by mail.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Residence, House</b> +</p> + +<p> +This pretentious word is often used when <i>house</i> or <i>home</i> would be +in better taste. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Deface, Disfigure</b> +</p> + +<p> +“The walls of many public buildings are <i>defaced</i> by persons who +desire that their names shall remain when they are gone.” “They +<i>disfigure</i> their faces that they may appear unto men to fast.” +<i>Disfigure</i> applies more generally to persons; <i>deface,</i> to things. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Demean, Degrade</b> +</p> + +<p> +The word <i>demean</i> is often incorrectly used in the sense of <i>degrade, +lower.</i> It should be used in the sense of <i>behave, conduct, deport,</i> +and not in the sense of <i>degrade.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Depot, Station</b> +</p> + +<p> +For many years the word <i>depôt</i> was largely employed in the sense of a +railway station. Its primary meaning is a <i>warehouse</i> or <i>storehouse</i> +or <i>military station.</i> As applied to a stopping place for railroad trains +the +<a name="Page44"></a> +English word <i>station</i> is greatly to be preferred to the French word +<i>depôt,</i> and is rapidly coming into general use in this country. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Description, Kind</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Flowers of every <i>description</i> were found in his garden.” In +the above sense the word <i>kind</i> or <i>variety</i> would be more +appropriate. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Bring, Fetch, Carry</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Bring</i> implies motion from the object toward the person who issues the +command or makes the request. <i>Fetch</i> implies two motions, first, toward +the object; second, toward the person who wishes it. The gardener, who is in +the garden, calls to his servant, who is at the barn, “John, <i>bring</i> +me the rake. You will find it in the barn.” And if John is with him in +the garden, he would say, “John, <i>fetch</i> me the rake from the +barn.” +</p> + +<p> +The use of <i>fetch</i> is more common among English writers than with us. In +fact, many speakers and writers in America rarely use the word. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Carry</i> is a more general term, and means <i>to convey,</i> without +thought of the direction. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Character, Reputation</b> +</p> + +<p> +These words are often confounded. “Character,” says Abbott, +“is what a person is; reputation is what he is supposed to be. Character +is in himself, +<a name="Page45"></a> +reputation is in the minds of others. Character is injured by temptations and +by wrong-doing; reputation by slanders and libels. Character endures throughout +defamation in every form, but perishes where there is a voluntary +transgression; reputation may last through numerous transgressions, but be +destroyed by a single, and even an unfounded, accusation or aspersion.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Farther, Further</b> +</p> + +<p> +Although these words are often used interchangeably even by good writers, yet a +finer taste and a keener power of discrimination is shown in the use of +<i>farther</i> when referring to literal distance, and of <i>further </i>in +reference to quantity or degree; as, “Each day’s journey removes +them <i>farther</i> from home,” “He concluded his speech by +remarking that he had nothing <i>further</i> to say.” <i>Farther</i> is +the comparative of <i>far; further</i> is the comparative of <i>forth.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Fault, Defect</b> +</p> + +<p> +Speakers and writers often fail to discriminate in the use of these words. A +<i>defect</i> implies a deficiency, a lack, a falling short, while a +<i>fault</i> signifies that there is something wrong. +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +“Men still had faults, and men will have them still,<br/> +He that hath none, and lives as angels do<br/> +Must be an angel.” +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page46"></a> +“It is in general more profitable to reckon up our defects than to boast +of our attainments.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Few, Little</b> +</p> + +<p> +These words and their comparatives, <i>fewer, less,</i> are often confounded. +<i>Few</i> relates to number, or to what may be counted; <i>little </i>refers +to quantity, or to what may be measured. A man may have <i>few </i>books and +<i>little</i> money; he may have <i>fewer</i> friends and <i>less </i>influence +than his neighbor. But do not say “The man has <i>less </i>friends than +his neighbor.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Each other, One another</b> +</p> + +<p> +While some excellent authorities use these expressions interchangeably, most +grammarians and authors employ <i>each other</i> in referring to two persons or +things, and <i>one another</i> when more than two are considered; as, +“Both contestants speak kindly of <i>each other.” +</i>“Gentlemen are always polite to <i>one another.”</i> +</p> + +<p> +Those who prefer to have wide latitude in speech will be glad to know that +Murray, in one of the rules in his grammar, says, “Two negatives in +English destroy <i>one another.”</i> +</p> + +<p> +Shakespeare says, “It is a good divine that follows his own instructions. +I can easier teach twenty what were good to be done, than be one of +<a name="Page47"></a> +the twenty to follow mine own teaching.” This is as true of expression as +of morals. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Either, Neither</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Palms and beautiful flowers lined the hall on <i>either</i> side,” +is a common but faulty form of expression. <i>Either</i> refers to one of two +things. In the foregoing sentence the thought is that <i>both</i> sides of the +hall were lined, hence the word <i>both</i> should have been used. If, however, +each side of the hall is thought of separately, then <i>each,</i> would be the +proper word to employ. +</p> + +<p> +<i>“Either</i> of the two books will please you.” <i>“Any</i> +of the three books will prove satisfactory.” <i>“Any one</i> of the +five men would make a good candidate.” <i>“Neither</i> of the two +men will serve.” <i>“None</i> of the ten men were present.” +“<i>Not one</i> of all the houses was left standing.” These +sentences represent the best usage with regard to <i>either, neither,</i> and +also of <i>any, none, any one, not one.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>These kind</b> +</p> + +<p> +Adjectives implying number must agree with the nouns which they qualify. +<i>This</i> and <i>that</i> qualify nouns in the singular; <i>these </i>and +<i>those</i> belong to nouns in the plural. +</p> + +<p> +<i>“These kind</i> of potatoes grow well in this soil.” Use +<i>this. “This </i>twenty <i>years</i> have I known him.” +<a name="Page48"></a> +Use <i>these.</i> “The beam was <i>two foot</i> above my head,” Use +<i>feet. </i>“For <i>this,</i> among other reasons, I abandoned the +profession.” Say “For <i>this</i> reason, among others, I abandoned +the profession.” “He rides the bicycle daily, and by <i>this +means</i> he preserves his health.” “The partners were all honest, +courteous, and industrious, and by <i>these means </i>acquired wealth.” +The word <i>means</i> being either singular or plural, the two preceding +sentences are both correct. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Some means or another</b> +</p> + +<p> +“By <i>some means or another</i> he always gets the better part of the +bargain.” This sentence may be corrected by saying <i>“one means or +another,”</i> or <i>“some means or other.”</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Than</b> +</p> + +<p> +After <i>other, otherwise, else,</i> or an adjective in the comparative degree, +<i>than</i> should be used, and not <i>but</i> or <i>except.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“No other way <i>but</i> this was open to him.” Use <i>than.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“History and philosophy cannot otherwise affect the mind <i>but</i> for +its enlargement and benefit.” Use <i>than.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“Flowers are often nothing else <i>but</i> cultivated weeds.” Use +<i>than.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“He no sooner entered the bridge <i>but</i> he met an infuriated bull +coming toward him.” Use <i>than.</i> +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page49"></a> +“He offered no other objection <i>except</i> the one already +mentioned.” Use <i>than.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“He read five other books on ‘Crime and Its Causes’ <i>in +addition to </i>those you named.” Use <i>than.</i> +</p> + +<p> +With equal propriety we may say, “He offered no objection except the one +already mentioned,” or “He read five books on ‘Crime and Its +Causes’ in addition to those you named.” It is the use of the word +<i>other,</i> or <i>otherwise,</i> or <i>else,</i> that makes necessary the +correlative term <i>than.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Besides</b> +</p> + +<p> +After <i>else</i> and <i>other</i> the preposition <i>besides</i> is sometimes +employed. +</p> + +<p> +“Other boys <i>besides</i> these are mischievous.” +</p> + +<p> +“Other arts <i>besides</i> music are elevating and inspiring.” +</p> + +<p> +“We must have recourse to something else <i>besides</i> +punishment.” +</p> + +<p> +It will be observed that the use of <i>besides</i> in this section differs from +the use of <i>than</i> in the preceding discussion. <i>“Other... +than” </i>is exclusive of those mentioned; whereas, “<i>other... +besides” </i>includes those mentioned. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Other</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Iron is more useful than all the metals.” The faultiness of this +sentence becomes apparent when +<a name="Page50"></a> +we remember that iron itself is a metal and is included in the word <i>metals, +</i>which forms one side of the comparison. In short, “Iron is more +useful than iron together with all the other metals.” This statement is +absurd. The sentence should, therefore, read, “Iron is more useful than +all the <i>other </i>metals.” +</p> + +<p> +“The Washington monument is higher than any monument in America.” +Since it is in America, and as it cannot be higher than itself, the sentence is +made correct by adding the word <i>other;</i> as, “The Washington +monument is higher than any <i>other</i> monument in America.” +</p> + +<p> +“This book, which I have just finished, is superior to any work on the +subject that I have yet seen.” Say “to any <i>other</i> +work.” +</p> + +<p> +“Of all other creatures, man is the most highly endowed.” Say +“of all creatures,” etc. +</p> + +<p> +“No general was ever so beloved by his soldiers.” Say “No +<i>other </i>general,” etc. +</p> + +<p> +“Nothing delights him so much as a storm at sea.” “Nothing +<i>else </i>delights him,” etc. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>One’s, His</b> +</p> + +<p> +Whether we should say “One ought to know <i>one’s</i> own +mind,” or “One ought to know <i>his</i> own mind,” is a +question that the critics have earnestly discussed, but have never settled, +except as each settles it for +<a name="Page51"></a> +himself. The masculine pronoun is often used with an antecedent whose gender is +not known. There can, therefore, be no objection to the use of <i>his</i> on +the question of gender. As a matter of euphony, <i>his</i> is preferable to +<i>one’s.</i> Both have the sanction of good usage. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>None</b> +</p> + +<p> +Although literally signifying <i>no one,</i> the word <i>none</i> may be used +with a plural verb, having the force of a collective noun. +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +<i>“None</i> but the brave deserves the fair.”— +<i>Dryden.</i><br/> +<br/> +<i>“None</i> knew thee but to love thee,<br/> +<i>None</i> named thee but to praise.”—<i>Halleck.</i><br/> +<br/> +“I look for ghosts; but <i>none</i> will force<br/> +Their way to +me.”—<i>Wordsworth.</i><br/> +<br/> +“Of all the girls that +e’er were seen,<br/> +There’s <i>none</i> so fine as +Nelly.”—<i>Swift.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>All, Whole</b> +</p> + +<p> +The word <i>all</i> is often incorrectly used for <i>the whole.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“The river rose and spread over all the valley.” This should be +“over the <i>whole</i> valley.” +</p> + +<p> +“The day being stormy, the members of Class A were <i>all</i> the +children at school to-day.” Correct by saying “were the only +children at school to-day.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page52"></a> +<b>Perpetually, Continually</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Perpetually</i> is not synonymous with <i>continually. Perpetually </i>means +never-ceasing. That which is done <i>continually</i> may be subject to +interruptions. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Persuade, Advise</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Almost thou <i>persuadest</i> me to be a Christian.” Paul had +<i>advised </i>many persons to become Christians, some of whom, like Agrippa, +were <i>almost persuaded.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Wharf, Dock</b> +</p> + +<p> +These words are sometimes confounded. The <i>wharf</i> is the pier, or landing, +upon which the vessel unloads her cargo. The <i>dock</i> is the artificial +waterway, or basin, formed by the wharves. “The vessel came into the +<i>dock</i> and was made fast to the <i>wharf.”</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Contemptible, Contemptuous</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Contemptible</i> is sometimes incorrectly used for <i>contemptuous.</i> A +story is told of Richard Parson, an English scholar and critic. A gentleman +being in dispute with him, angrily exclaimed, “My opinion of you is most +<i>contemptible,</i> sir,” upon which Parson quickly retorted, “I +never knew an opinion of yours that was not <i>contemptible.”</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Healthy, Wholesome</b> +</p> + +<p> +These terms are not synonymous. Toadstools may be <i>healthy,</i> but they +would not be regarded as +<a name="Page53"></a> +<i>wholesome.</i> Plants and animals are <i>healthy</i> when the conditions of +their growth are favorable. They are <i>wholesome</i> when, as food, they +promote the health of those persons who eat them. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>In a fix</b> +</p> + +<p> +Many persons instead of saying “He is in trouble,” or “He is +in an awkward position,” or “He is perplexed,” or +<i>embarrassed,</i> employ the vulgarism, “He is <i>in a fix.”</i> +Although Shakespeare may say, “This was the <i>most unkindest</i> cut of +all,” and De Quincey may write, “Poor Aroar cannot live and cannot +die—so that he is in an <i>almighty fix,”</i> we lesser mortals +are forbidden such expressions. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Fly, Flee</b> +</p> + +<p> +In a general sense <i>fly</i> is applied to winged creatures and <i>flee</i> to +persons. “What exile from himself can <i>flee?”</i> “When the +swallows homeward <i>fly.”</i> The past tense forms are sometimes +confused, as, “The inhabitants <i>flew</i> to the fort for safety,” +“The wild geese have all <i>fled</i> to the South.” The principal +parts of the verbs are: +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +Present. Past. Perf. part.<br /> +fly, flew, flown.<br /> +flee, fled, fled. +</p> + +<p> +The verbs <i>flew</i> and <i>fled</i> in the foregoing sentences should be +transposed. <i>Fly</i> implies motion either +<a name="Page54"></a> +from or toward. <i>Flee</i> implies motion from. <i>Fly</i> may be used, in a +figurative sense, of persons, to indicate great speed as of wings. “I +<i>flew </i>to his rescue.” “He <i>flew</i> to my rescue.” +“Resist the devil and he will <i>flee</i> from you.” +</p> + +<p> +The word <i>flown</i> is sometimes used erroneously as the past tense or +perfect participle of the verb <i>flow.</i> The parts of this verb are <i>flow, +flowed, flowed. “</i>The river has <i>overflowed</i> (not +<i>overflown)</i> its banks.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Get, Got</b> +</p> + +<p> +Because a horse is willing is no reason why he should be ridden to death. The +verb <i>get</i> and its past-tense form <i>got</i> admit of many meanings, as +the following, from an old English publication, fully proves: “I +<i>got</i> on horseback within ten minutes after I <i>got</i> your letter. When +I <i>got </i>to Canterbury I <i>got</i> a chaise for town; but I <i>got</i> wet +through before I <i>got</i> to Canterbury, and I have <i>got</i> such a cold as +I shall not be able to <i>get</i> rid of in a hurry. I <i>got</i> to the +Treasury about noon, but, first of all, I <i>got</i> shaved and dressed. I soon +<i>got </i>into the secret of <i>getting</i> a memorial before the Board, but I +could not <i>get</i> an answer then. However, I <i>got</i> intelligence from +the messenger that I should most likely <i>get</i> an answer the next morning. +As soon as I <i>got</i> back to my inn I <i>got</i> my supper and <i>got</i> to +bed. It was not long before I <i>got</i> to sleep. +<a name="Page55"></a> +When I <i>got</i> up in the morning I <i>got</i> myself dressed, and then +<i>got</i> my breakfast, that I might <i>get</i> out in time to <i>get</i> an +answer to my memorial. As soon as I <i>got</i> it I <i>got</i> into the chaise +and <i>got</i> to Canterbury by three, and about teatime I <i>got</i> home. I +have <i>got</i> nothing more to say.” +</p> + +<p> +Those who are disposed to overwork the words <i>get</i> and <i>got</i> will +find it interesting and profitable to read the foregoing exercise, substituting +other words for those in italics. +</p> + +<p> +With <i>have</i> the word <i>got</i> is generally superfluous; as, “I +have <i>got</i> a cold,” “I have <i>got</i> to go to Boston this +evening,” “Have you <i>got</i> Hires’s root-beer on +draught?” For “I <i>did not get</i> to meet your cousin,” say +“I <i>had no opportunity,”</i> or “I <i>was prevented,” +</i>etc. +</p> + +<p> +Another very faulty use of <i>got</i> is heard in such expressions as “He +<i>got</i> killed,” “They <i>got</i> beaten,” “She +<i>got</i> cured,” etc. <i>Was</i> or <i>were</i> would be more +appropriate. +</p> + +<p> +Since <i>to get</i> means <i>to obtain, to procure, to gain,</i> the use of the +word is justified in such expressions as “I have <i>got</i> a larger farm +than you have, because I have worked harder for it.” “I have +<i>got</i> a better knowledge of the Pacific coast than he has, because I +traveled extensively through that region.” And yet, when we have been +overworked, the physician usually prescribes a period of absolute rest; so, in +<a name="Page56"></a> +view of the multifarious uses to which <i>get</i> has been applied, would it +not be well to permit it to retire for a time, in order that it may the more +quickly be rejuvenated. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Guess, Reckon, Calculate, Allow</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I <i>guess</i> he is not going to vote to-day.” “I +<i>reckon</i> we are going to have fair weather now.” “I +<i>calculate</i> this ground would grow good potatoes.” “I +<i>allow</i> she’s the prettiest girl that ever visited these +parts.” The foregoing sentences may be improved by recasting them. +“I think he is not going to (or will not) vote to-day.” “I +believe we shall now have fair weather.” “I suppose this ground +would yield fine potatoes.” “I regard her as the handsomest lady +that has ever visited this place (or <i>neighborhood,</i> or <i>locality).</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Gums, Overshoes</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Tom is outside, cleaning his <i>gums</i> on the mat.” While a mat +will do very well for <i>overshoes,</i> a tooth-brush and sozodont would be +better for the <i>gums.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Funny</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Isn’t it <i>funny</i> that Smith, who resided in Chicago, should +have died the same day that his father died in Boston?” +“Isn’t it <i>funny </i>that the murderer who escaped hanging on a +mere technicality of the law +<a name="Page57"></a> +should have been killed the next day in a railroad accident?” “How +<i>funny </i>that these maples should grow so tall on this mountain top!” +“It is <i>funny</i> to think that James, who now pays his addresses to +me, should once have been in love with my youngest sister.” The foregoing +illustrations are not more incongruous than those we daily hear. <i>Odd, +strange, peculiar, unusual, </i>represent some of the ideas intended to be +conveyed by that much-abused word. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Good deal, Great deal</b> +</p> + +<p> +This idiom is defended by some authorities as being in perfectly good use, and +by others it is denounced as being incorrect. Both <i>good deal </i>and +<i>greet deal</i> are somewhat colloquial, and should be used sparingly in +writing. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Had better, Would better</b> +</p> + +<p> +Like <i>a good deal</i> and some other idioms, this expression is denounced by +some writers and defended by others. Grammatical construction supports more +strongly the forms <i>would better, would rather,</i> etc. “I had rather +be a doorkeeper in the house of my God, than to dwell in the tents of +wickedness.” “I would rather read than drive to-day.” +“I would rather not go.” Omit <i>rather</i> and the superiority of +<i>would</i> over <i>had</i> becomes apparent. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page58"></a> +<b>If, Whether</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I do not know <i>if</i> he sold his farm or exchanged it for city +property.” Use <i>whether.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Illy, Ill</b> +</p> + +<p> +Do not use <i>illy</i> for <i>ill.</i> The former is becoming obsolete, and the +latter, as an adverb, is taking its place. Say “An ill-ventilated +room,” not “an illy-ventilated room.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Implicit</b> +</p> + +<p> +This word means <i>tacitly understood, resting on the word or authority of +another.</i> It should not be used in the sense of <i>unbounded, unlimited.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Individual</b> +</p> + +<p> +This word should not be used broadly in the sense of <i>a</i> <i>person,</i> +but should always convey some thought of <i>a</i> <i>single </i>thing or +person, as opposed to many. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Journal</b> +</p> + +<p> +As this word is from the French, <i>jour,</i> day, it should not be applied to +a monthly or quarterly magazine. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Know as</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I do not <i>know as</i> I can see you to-day.” Say <i>know +that.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page59"></a> +<b>Last, Latest</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Did you receive my <i>last</i> letter?” +</p> + +<p> +“I hope not. I enjoy your letters very much, and I trust you may live to +write many more.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Cunning</b> +</p> + +<p> +This word is much used by young ladies in speaking of what is small, or dainty, +or pleasing, as “A <i>cunning</i> little bonnet,” <i>“A +cunning </i>little watch,” etc. While the word properly embodies the idea +of skill or dexterity on the part of the workman, and while the appreciation of +such skill, in speaking of the artist or artisan, might be expressed by +<i>cunning,</i> it is better not to use the word in referring to the product of +the workmanship. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Curious</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Curious</i> means <i>inquisitive, rare.</i> In the sense of <i>strange +</i>or <i>remarkable,</i> its use should be guarded. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Cute</b> +</p> + +<p> +This word is often used colloquially in the sense of <i>clever, sharp, shrewd, +ingenious, cunning.</i> It is doubtless an abbreviation of <i>acute.</i> It is +not found in good literary usage. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Favor, Resemble</b> +</p> + +<p> +The use of the word <i>favor</i> in the sense of <i>resemble</i> is a +provincialism that should be avoided. “The +<a name="Page60"></a> +son <i>favors</i> the father” is correct if the meaning be that the son +shows favor or kindness to the father; but if reference to their similarity of +appearance is intended, the verb <i>resemble</i> should be employed. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Balance, Remainder</b> +</p> + +<p> +This word, like numerous others, has been borrowed from the commercial world, +and has had such a wide use that its faultiness is not noticed even by many who +regard themselves as careful speakers and writers. “I cut down part of +the timber this year, and expect to cut the <i>balance</i> next spring.” +“My cousin will remain with us the <i>balance</i> of this week.” +“James ate half of the melon to-day, and will eat the <i>balance</i> +to-morrow.” In these and all similar cases the word <i>remainder</i> +should be used. <i>Balance</i> is a term that applies to accounts, and +signifies the amount necessary to be added to one side of the account in order +to make it equal the other. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Behave</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Now, my children, you must <i>behave</i> while I am gone.” The +mother intended to ask her children to <i>behave well,</i> but as <i>behave</i> +is a neutral word, and may be followed by <i>well</i> or <i>ill,</i> her form +of expression permits the children to supply whichever adverb suits them the +better. <i>Behave</i> requires a qualifying word to make the meaning clear. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page61"></a> +<b>Bound</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He was <i>determined</i> to study medicine,” not “He was +<i>bound,” </i>etc. <i>Bound</i> implies that he was under a bond or +obligation to another, rather than impelled by the action of his own mind. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Better, Best</b> +</p> + +<p> +While some good writers violate the rule, yet the best authorities restrict the +use of the comparative degree to two objects. +</p> + +<p> +“Mary is the <i>better</i> scholar of the two.” +</p> + +<p> +“Although both are young, Susan is the <i>younger.”</i> +</p> + +<p> +“Of two evils, choose the <i>lesser,”</i> not the <i>least.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Former, First</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Former</i> and <i>latter</i> being adjectives of the comparative degree, +should be used in speaking of two objects. When more than two objects are +named, use <i>first</i> and <i>last.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“My sons, John and Luther, are both at college. The <i>first </i>expects +to study law, and the <i>last</i> to study medicine.” Use <i>former +</i>and <i>latter.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“New York, Philadelphia, and Chicago are the most populous cities in the +United States. The <i>former</i> has long been at the front; the <i>latter +</i>has only recently entered the race.” Use <i>first</i> and <i>last +</i>instead of <i>former</i> and <i>latter.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page62"></a> +<b>These, Those</b> +</p> + +<p> +When objects near and remote are referred to, <i>this</i> and its plural +<i>these</i> are applied to the objects near at hand, <i>that</i> and its +plural <i>those</i> to objects at a distance. +</p> + +<p> +When reference is made to contrasted antecedent terms, <i>this</i> and +<i>these</i> are applied to the latter; <i>that</i> and <i>those</i> to the +former, as +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +“Farewell my friends! farewell my foes!<br/> + My peace with <i>these,</i> my love with <i>those!”</i><br/> +</p> + +<p class="left"> +<i>—Burns.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Fictitious Writer</b> +</p> + +<p> +Do not say a <i>fictitious writer</i> when you mean a <i>writer of fiction.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Firstly</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>First</i> is an adverb as well as an adjective. We should, therefore, say +first, secondly, thirdly, and not <i>firstly, secondly, </i>etc. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>First-rate</b> +</p> + +<p> +An article may be rated in quality as first, or second, or third. If it rates +<i>first,</i> it may be called a <i>first-rate</i> article. The word is +properly used as an adjective, but should not be employed as an adverb, as in +the sentence, “He sings first-rate.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Fix, Mend, Repair</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Fix</i> means <i>to make fast,</i> but its incorrect use in the sense of +<i>mend, repair, arrange,</i> is so common that the +<a name="Page63"></a> +word when properly used sounds strange, if not strained. “To <i>fix +up</i> the room,” “to <i>fix up</i> the accounts,” “to +<i>fix up</i> matters with my creditors,” “to <i>fix</i> the +rascals who betrayed me,” are examples illustrating the looseness with +which the word is used. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Round, Square</b> +</p> + +<p> +When a thing is <i>round</i> or <i>square</i> it cannot be <i>rounder </i>or +<i>squarer.</i> These adjectives do not admit of comparative and superlative +forms. But we may say <i>more nearly round</i> or <i>less nearly square.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>States, Says</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He <i>states</i> he is going fishing to-morrow.” <i>States</i> is +too formal a word, and should be used only of some important assertion. +“He <i>says</i> he is going,” etc. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Stop, Stay</b> +</p> + +<p> +To <i>stop</i> is to cease moving. “At what hotel do you <i>stop” +</i>should be “At what hotel do you <i>stay.”</i> “When you +come to the city <i>stay</i> with me,” not <i>stop</i> with me. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Subtile, Subtle</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Subtile</i> means thin, fine, rare, delicate; <i>subtle</i> means sly, +artful, cunning, elusive. “More <i>subtile</i> web Arachne cannot +spin.” “He had to contend with a <i>subtle</i> foe.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page64"></a> +<b>Summons</b> +</p> + +<p> +He was <i>summonsed</i> to appear before the judge” should be “He +was <i>summoned</i> to appear,” etc. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Tasty</b> +</p> + +<p> +Often used in colloquial speech when <i>tasteful</i> would be better. +<i>Tastily</i> for <i>tastefully</i> is still worse. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Team</b> +</p> + +<p> +Properly this word relates only to the horses, and does not include the +carriage. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Those kind, These sort</b> +</p> + +<p> +“It is unpleasant to have to associate with <i>those kind</i> of +people.” “<i>These sort</i> of sheep are the most +profitable.” <i>Kind</i> and <i>sort</i> are nouns of the singular +number; <i>these</i> and <i>those</i> are plural, and, according to the laws of +grammar, the adjective and noun must agree in number. The corrected sentences +will read: “It is unpleasant to have to associate with <i>this kind</i> +of people.” <i>“This sort</i> of sheep is the most +profitable.” The fault arises by associating in the mind the adjectives +<i>these</i> and <i>those</i> with the nouns <i>sheep</i> and <i>people,</i> +which nouns are more prominent in the mind than the nouns <i>kind</i> and +<i>sort.</i> If the ear is not satisfied, the sentences may readily be recast; +as, “It is unpleasant to have to associate with people of <i>that +kind.”</i> “Sheep of <i>this sort</i> are the most +profitable.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page65"></a> +<b>Transpire, Happen</b> +</p> + +<p> +This word, from <i>trans,</i> across, through, and <i>spirare,</i> to breathe, +means, physiologically, to pass off in the form of vapor or insensible +perspiration, or, botanically, to evaporate from living cells. Its general +meaning is to become known, to escape from secrecy. +</p> + +<p> +It is frequently employed in the sense of to occur, to come to pass, but this +use is condemned by the best critics in England and America. “The +proceedings of the secret session of the council soon <i>transpired.”</i> +This sentence illustrates the true meaning of the word. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Make, Manufacture</b> +</p> + +<p> +These words may, in some cases, be used interchangeably, but <i>make</i> has +much the wider range of meanings. The following story, related by Eli Perkins, +will illustrate this fact: +</p> + +<p> +I was talking one day with Mr. Depew, President of the New York Central +Railroad, about demand and supply. I said the price of any commodity is always +controlled by the demand and supply. +</p> + +<p> +“Not always, Eli,” said Depew; “demand and supply don’t +always govern prices. Business tact sometimes governs them.” +</p> + +<p> +“When,” I asked, “did an instance ever occur when the price +did not depend on demand and supply?” +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page66"></a> +“Well,” said Mr. Depew, “the other day I stepped up to a +German butcher, and, out of curiosity, asked: +</p> + +<p> +“‘What’s the price of sausages?’ +</p> + +<p> +“‘Dwenty cends a bound,’ he said. +</p> + +<p> +“‘You asked twenty-five this morning,’ I replied. +</p> + +<p> +“‘Yah; dot vas ven I had some. Now I ain’t got none, I sell +him for dwenty cents. Dot makes a repudation for selling cheab, und I +don’t lose noddings.’ +</p> + +<p> +“You see,” said Mr. Depew, laughing, “I didn’t want any +sausage and the man didn’t have any; no demand and no supply, and still +the price of sausage went down five cents.” +</p> + +<p> +“Well, there are strange things in this world,” I said. “Now, +take the words <i>manufacture</i> and <i>make.</i> I always thought that both +words meant the same thing.” +</p> + +<p> +“Why, they do, Eli,” said Mr. Depew. +</p> + +<p> +“Not always,” I said. +</p> + +<p> +“Now, when could they have a different meaning?” +</p> + +<p> +“Why, this morning I came down from Albany on a Central car +<i>manufactured </i>to carry fifty passengers, but it was <i>made</i> to carry +seventy-two people.” +</p> + +<p> +“Yes, I dare say; but we’ll now talk about the Behring Sea +question.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page67"></a> +<b>Truth, Veracity</b> +</p> + +<p> +“The <i>veracity</i> of his statement is doubted.” The sentence +should be, “The truth of his statement is doubted,” or “In +making that statement his <i>veracity</i> is doubted.” <i>Veracity</i> is +applied to the person; <i>truth </i>to the thing. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Try the experiment</b> +</p> + +<p> +“They are <i>trying the experiment</i> of running railroad trains by +electricity.” This should be, “They are <i>making the +experiment,”</i> etc. The word <i>experiment</i> contains the idea of +<i>trial,</i> hence, <i>to try the experiment</i> is to <i>try the trial.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Little piece</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I will go with you <i>a</i> <i>little piece.” A short distance</i> +or <i>a</i> <i>part of the way</i> would be more appropriate. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Every confidence</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I have <i>every confidence</i> in his ability to succeed.” +<i>Confidence </i>is a unit; <i>every</i> implies several units considered +separately. “I have <i>the greatest</i> confidence in his ability to +succeed” is correct. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Ugly</b> +</p> + +<p> +This word properly applies to the appearance of a person or thing, hence such +expressions as “He has an <i>ugly</i> temper,” “This is an +<i>ugly </i>customer,” “That was an <i>ugly</i> rumor,” etc., +although common in colloquial discourse, should be avoided in dignified +address. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page68"></a> +<b>Unbeknown</b> +</p> + +<p> +This is a provincialism that should be avoided. Use <i>unknown.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Underhanded</b> +</p> + +<p> +Often incorrectly used for <i>underhand;</i> as “That was a contemptible +and <i>underhanded</i> trick.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Calligraphy</b> +</p> + +<p> +This word means not writing, simply, but beautiful writing; hence, to say, +“His <i>calligraphy</i> is wretched” is equivalent to saying, +“His excellent writing is poor,” which is a contradiction of terms. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Can but, Cannot but</b> +</p> + +<p> +These expressions are sometimes confounded. “If I perish, I <i>can but +perish,”</i> means “I can <i>only</i> perish,” or “I +can do <i>no more than </i>perish.” “I <i>cannot but</i> speak of +the things I have heard” means that I am under a moral necessity to speak +of these things. The past tense forms <i>could but</i> and <i>could not but</i> +should be, in like manner, discriminated. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Casualty, Casuality</b> +</p> + +<p> +The latter word is sometimes used in place of the former. The first is +legitimate; the second is without authority. The words <i>specialty</i> and +<i>speciality</i> have a termination similar to the above. They may generally +be used interchangeably and are both legitimate. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page69"></a> +<b>Complected.</b> +</p> + +<p> +“The lady is light <i>complected,</i> has blue eyes, and auburn +hair.” <i>Complected</i> is a provincialism without sanction. “The +lady is of light complexion, has blue eyes,” etc. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Disremember</b> +</p> + +<p> +This word is obsolete. Use <i>forget,</i> or “I do not remember.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Lie, Lay</b> +</p> + +<p> +The verbs <i>lie</i> and <i>lay</i> are often confounded, even by intelligent +persons. <i>Lie</i> does not take an object. We cannot <i>lie</i> a thing. It +is therefore intransitive. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Lay,</i> which means to place in position, requires an object. We <i>lay +</i>a book on a table, or bricks on the wall. It is therefore transitive. +</p> + +<p> +The principal parts of the first verb are <i>lie, lay, lain;</i> and of the +second, <i>lay, laid, laid.</i> The word <i>lay</i> is found in both, and this +is, in part, accountable for the confusion. The most frequent errors result +from using <i>laid,</i> the past tense form of the transitive verb, when the +word <i>lay,</i> the past tense form of the intransitive verb, should be used. +The ear naturally expects the usual past tense ending of the <i>d</i> or <i>t +</i>sound, and as that is absent in the past tense of <i>lie,</i> the past +tense form of the other verb is substituted. For the same reason the participle +form <i>laid</i> is often incorrectly used for <i>lain.</i> +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page70"></a> +“He told me to <i>lie</i> down, and I <i>lay</i> down,” not <i>laid +down. “</i>I told him to <i>lay</i> the book down, and he <i>laid</i> it +down.” “The ship <i>lay</i> at anchor.” “They +<i>lay</i> by during the storm.” “The book is <i>lying</i> on the +shelf.” “He <i>lay</i> on the ground and took cold.” +“They <i>lay</i> in ambush.” <i>“Lie</i> low or he will +discover you.” “The goods are still <i>lying</i> on his +hands.” “Time <i>lay</i> heavily on their hands.” “We +must <i>lie</i> over at the next station.” “A motion was made that +the resolution <i>lie</i> on the table.” “Now I <i>lie</i> down to +sleep.” “Now I <i>lay</i> me down to sleep.” +</p> + +<p> +The foregoing sentences illustrate the correct usage of these confusing verbs. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>As, That</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Did your cousin go to town yesterday?” “Not <i>as</i> I +know.” Better, “Not <i>that</i> I know.” Better still, +“I do not know.” “I do not know <i>as</i> I shall go.” +Use <i>that</i> for <i>as</i>. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Bad toothache</b> +</p> + +<p> +As it is a rare thing to have a good toothache, we scarcely need the adjective +<i>bad</i> to distinguish between the two kinds of toothache. Say +<i>severe.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Beautifully, Beautiful</b> +</p> + +<p> +After verbs of seeing, feeling, tasting, and smelling, the adverb is often +incorrectly used for the adjective. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page71"></a> +“The colonel looked <i>handsomely</i> in his military dress,” +“I feel <i>splendidly</i> to-day,” “This peach tastes +<i>badly,” “</i>The rose smells <i>sweetly,”</i> are +incorrect. Use <i>handsome</i> for <i>handsomely, very well</i> or <i>in good +spirits</i> for <i>splendidly, tastes bad</i> or <i>has a disagreeable +taste</i> for <i>badly,</i> and <i>sweet</i> for <i>sweetly.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Beg, Beg leave</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I <i>beg</i> to announce the sale of a collection of rare and costly +rugs.” “I <i>beg</i> to acknowledge your kindness in sending me +this handsome present.” In each case say “I <i>beg leave +to,”</i> etc. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Due, Owing</b> +</p> + +<p> +His success was <i>due</i> to his honesty and energy.” That is <i>due +</i>which should be paid as a debt; that is <i>owing</i> which is referred to +as a cause or source. +</p> + +<p> +“The bill is now <i>due</i> and payable at the gas office.” +“His success was <i>owing</i> to his honesty and energy.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Each, Every</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I see him at his office <i>each</i> day of the week.” In this +sentence the word <i>every</i> would be better. <i>Each</i> refers to single +days particularized. Here reference is made to what occurs on all days without +exception. +</p> + +<p> +Both words refer to nouns in the singular, hence such expressions as the +following are incorrect: +<a name="Page72"></a> +“Every soldier and sailor stood at <i>their</i> post.” “The +prisoners were discharged and went each <i>their</i> several ways.” +Correct by saying, “The prisoners were discharged and went each +<i>his</i> several way,” “Every soldier and sailor stood at +<i>his</i> post.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Each, Both</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>“Both</i> parties maintained their original positions.” As the +parties are thought of separately, the sentence should be: “Each party +maintained its original position.” “Both parties strove to place +their best candidates upon the ticket” is correct, because the parties +are thought of collectively. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Both, Both of</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Both</i> is used alone before nouns and <i>both of</i> before pronouns. +<i>“Both</i> men have studied the currency question.” +<i>“Both of </i>them are well informed in matters relating to the +currency.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Ever, Never</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Let him be <i>ever</i> so rich,” says Emerson. “You spend +<i>ever </i>so much money in entertaining your equals and betters,” says +Thackeray. “Though he run <i>ever</i> so fast, he cannot win the +race.” Writers and grammarians differ, some preferring <i>ever</i>, +others <i>never.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page73"></a> +<b>Every once in a while</b> +</p> + +<p> +This is a cumbersome, awkward expression that should be avoided. +<i>Occasionally, frequently, at intervals,</i> are among the expressions that +may be used in its place. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Exceptionable, Exceptional</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He enjoyed <i>exceptionable</i> opportunities for acquiring the Greek +language.” Say <i>exceptional opportunities.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Female, Woman</b> +</p> + +<p> +The word <i>female</i> is often employed when <i>woman</i> would be better. +<i>Female</i> applies to all of the feminine gender, including the brute +creation. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Poet, Poetess</b> +</p> + +<p> +The tendency to increase the number of nouns with the feminine ending +<i>ess</i> should be checked. Avoid <i>poetess, authoress, doctress,</i> and +other newly-invented words of this kind. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Fewer, Less</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Fewer</i> refers to number, <i>less</i> to quantity. “He had +<i>less</i> friends than I, and yet he was elected.” Say “He had +<i>fewer </i>friends.” “There were no <i>less</i> than fifty cows +in the field.” Use <i>fewer.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Right smart</b> +</p> + +<p> +In some portions of the South the expression <i>right smart</i> is employed in +colloquial discourse to convey +<a name="Page74"></a> +the idea of a large quantity or in large measure; as, “We have <i>right +smart </i>of peaches this summer,” meaning “We have a large crop of +peaches;” “He knows <i>right smart</i> of Latin” for +“He knows considerable Latin” or “He is well versed in +Latin.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Little bit</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Will you have some of this pudding?” +</p> + +<p> +“If you please. Give me <i>a little bit.”</i> +</p> + +<p> +“Did you injure yourself when you fell?” +</p> + +<p> +“No; but I soiled my clothing <i>a little bit.”</i> +</p> + +<p> +<i>A small portion</i> or <i>piece,</i> in the first sentence, and +<i>slightly,</i> in the second, would serve as good equivalents for <i>a</i> +<i>little bit.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Sight</b> +</p> + +<p> +“There was a <i>sight</i> of people at the fair to-day.” In the +sense of <i>a large number,</i> this word, like the word <i>lot,</i> should be +avoided. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Crowd</b> +</p> + +<p> +A dozen persons may constitute a <i>crowd</i> if they push and jostle one +another by reason of insufficient space. A thousand men will not form a crowd +if all have ample room to sit or stand or move about. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Chuck-full</b> +</p> + +<p> +This word is not authorized. <i>Chock-full</i> and <i>choke-full</i> may be +used, but are not elegant. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page75"></a> +<b>Contemplate, Propose</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Contemplate</i> is often incorrectly used for <i>propose;</i> as, “I +<i>contemplate</i> going to the country.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Dispense, Dispense with</b> +</p> + +<p> +These expressions are not synonymous. <i>To dispense</i> is <i>to give; to +dispense with</i> is <i>to do without.</i> The pharmacist <i>dispenses +</i>medicines; we should be pleased if we could <i>dispense with</i> them. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Dry, Thirsty</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Dry</i> is often incorrectly used in the sense of <i>thirsty; </i>as, +“I am <i>dry;</i> let me have a glass of water.” To say, “I +am <i>dry; </i>my waterproof and umbrella kept out the rain,” is correct. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Dutch, German</b> +</p> + +<p> +Do not call a <i>German</i> a Dutchman. A Dutchman comes from Holland, a German +from Germany. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Evacuate, Vacate</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Evacuate</i> means <i>to make empty,</i> and should not be used in the sense +of <i>to go</i> <i>away, to vacate.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Different than, Different to</b> +</p> + +<p> +“The school is conducted in a very <i>different</i> manner <i>than</i> it +used to be.” “This basket of roses is <i>different to</i> +yours.” The above and similar expressions are decided vulgarisms, and +should be avoided. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page76"></a> +“The school is conducted in a very different manner <i>from</i> what it +used to be.” “This basket of roses is different <i>from</i> +yours.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Drive, Ride</b> +</p> + +<p> +Some confusion exists in the use of the words <i>drive</i> and <i>ride.</i> In +England the distinction is made of applying <i>ride</i> to going on horseback +and <i>drive</i> to going in a carriage, whether you ride or drive. That usage +is not closely followed in this country. He who guides the horse <i>drives;</i> +the rest of the company <i>ride.</i> The noun and participial forms are more +excusable than the verb. “Jones asked me to <i>drive </i>with him this +afternoon.” But as Jones expects to do the driving himself, the speaker +should have said, “Jones asked me to <i>take a ride,”</i> or +<i>“go driving,”</i> or <i>“take a drive,”</i> etc. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Couple, Several</b> +</p> + +<p> +The word <i>couple</i> is often incorrectly used in the sense of +<i>several;</i> as, a <i>couple</i> of horses, mules, birds, trees, houses, +etc. The use of the word <i>couple</i> is not only limited to two, but to two +that may be coupled or yoked together. A man and wife are spoken of as a +<i>couple.</i> We speak of a <i>span</i> of horses, a <i>yoke</i> of oxen, a +<i>brace</i> of ducks, a <i>pair</i> of gloves. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page77"></a> +<b>Directly, Immediately, As soon as</b> +</p> + +<p> +A faulty English use of the above words has found some favor in the United +States. <i>“Directly</i> the whistle blew the workmen left the +shop.” Say <i>“As soon as</i> the whistle blew,” etc. +<i>“Immediately</i> he closed his speech his opponent rose to +reply.” Say “<i>When”</i> or <i>“As soon as </i>he +closed his speech,” etc. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Directly</i> denotes without any delay; <i>immediately</i> implies without +any interposition of other occupation. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Agreeably disappointed</b> +</p> + +<p> +When our hopes are blasted, our plans balked, our expectations defeated, our +intentions thwarted, we are <i>disappointed.</i> We prefer the agreeable to the +disagreeable, and plan and labor to secure it. When our plans fail we are +disappointed, but not <i>agreeably disappointed.</i> If the new conditions, +which are not of our seeking, prove agreeable, it is only after the sense of +disappointment has vanished. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Allude to, Refer to, Mention</b> +</p> + +<p> +The word <i>allude</i> is often incorrectly used. Allusion is the by-play of +language. It means to hint at by remote suggestions, to speak of figuratively +or sportively. +</p> + +<p> +Whatever is directly mentioned, or spoken of, or described, cannot be said to +be <i>alluded to.</i> The terms +<a name="Page78"></a> +differ in degree, the first being the weakest. An <i>allusion</i> is an +indirect reference. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Among the rest</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Mary sat on the beach <i>among the rest.”</i> Say <i>“with +the rest.”</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Peruse</b> +</p> + +<p> +This is one of those high-sounding terms too often employed when <i>read +</i>would be much better. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Emigrants, Immigrants</b> +</p> + +<p> +These words are sometimes confounded. “Did you see the <i>emigrants</i> +on the ‘Indiana,’ which arrived this morning?” “Did the +<i>immigrants</i> go directly to Italy?” Exchange the italicized words in +the two sentences and they will be correctly used. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Somewheres</b> +</p> + +<p> +The terminal <i>s</i> should be omitted in such words as <i>anywheres, +somewheres, nowheres, anyways, hereabouts, thereabouts, whereabouts.</i> In +such cases as “Whereabouts did you find him?” and “We knew +his whereabouts,” the <i>s</i> is properly retained. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Apart, Aside</b> +</p> + +<p> +“May I see you <i>apart</i> from the others?” It should be, +“May I see you <i>privately”</i> or “<i>aside”?</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Fire, Throw</b> +</p> + +<p> +We <i>fire</i> a gun, but <i>throw</i> a stone. To <i>fire a stone, fire him +out of the house, fire him out of our employ,</i> may +<a name="Page79"></a> +be graphic ways of presenting the thought, but good writers never use them and +good speakers should avoid them. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>The First, Single</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I have not found <i>the first</i> objection to his candidacy.” Say +<i>“a single objection,”</i> or <i>“no objection.”</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>First two</b> +</p> + +<p> +Such has been the strong desire to continue to use forms of expression that we +have long used that not a little time and effort have been expended in the +endeavor to make the wrong appear right. It is an accepted fact, however, that +a large majority of the best speakers and writers now say <i>the first two, the +last five,</i> etc., rather than <i>the two first, the five last.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Future, Subsequent</b> +</p> + +<p> +The word <i>future</i> is sometimes used instead of <i>subsequent; </i>as, +“Until he was eighteen years old his conduct was marked by cruelty and +malice, but his <i>future</i> life was characterized by kindness and +generosity.” <i>Future</i> looks forward from the present, and not from +some point of time in the past. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Gent’s pants</b> +</p> + +<p> +“<i>Gent’s pants</i> scoured and pressed.” Business signs and +business advertisements are responsible for many vulgarisms. Never say +<i>gent’s</i> nor <i>pants.</i> Even <i>pantaloons</i> is not so good a +word as <i>trousers.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page80"></a> +<b>Sit, Set</b> +</p> + +<p> +Few words afford a more fertile field for grammatical blundering than the verbs +<i>sit</i> and <i>set.</i> The important fact to remember in the use of the +words is that <i>sit,</i> in modern usage, is an intransitive verb, and does +not take an object, while <i>set,</i> which means <i>to place in position, +</i>is transitive, and requires an object to complete its meaning. You cannot +<i>sit</i> a thing, but you do <i>set</i> or place a thing. +</p> + +<p> +The verb <i>sit</i> undergoes a slight change with the change of tense or time. +“I <i>sit</i> at the window today.” “I <i>sat</i> at the +window yesterday.” “I have <i>sat</i> at the window daily for many +years.” <i>“Sitting </i>at the window, I saw the storm +arise.” “Having <i>sat</i> at his table, I can testify to his +hospitality.” +</p> + +<p> +The transitive verb <i>set</i> undergoes no tense changes. “See me +<i>set</i> this vase on the table.” “He <i>set</i> his seal to the +paper yesterday.” “Jones will not <i>set</i> the world on fire with +his writings.” “Having <i>set </i>my affairs in order, I returned +home.” “I <i>sit</i> down.” “I <i>sat </i>down.” +“I <i>set</i> him down.” +</p> + +<p> +There are many intransitive uses of the verb <i>set;</i> as, “The sun +<i>sets,”</i> “The tide <i>sets</i> toward the south,” +“The fruit has <i>set,” “</i>He <i>set</i> out for +Boston.” +</p> + +<p> +There is a difference of opinion as to whether we should say “The coat +<i>sets </i>well” or “The coat <i>sits</i> well,” with the +greater weight in favor of <i>sits.</i> “The +<a name="Page81"></a> +hen <i>sits</i> on her eggs.” “She is a <i>sitting</i> hen.” +When the verb is used reflexively use <i>set</i> and not <i>sat;</i> as, +“I <i>set</i> me down beside her,” not “I <i>sat</i> me down +beside her.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Anyhow</b> +</p> + +<p> +This word can scarcely be regarded as elegant, and should not be used except in +colloquial style. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Awful</b> +</p> + +<p> +Few words among the many that go to make up the vocabulary of American slang +have been in longer use and have a wider range than the word <i>awful.</i> From +the loftiest and most awe-inspiring themes to the commonest trifle, this +much-abused word has been employed. A correct speaker or writer almost fears to +use the word lest he should suggest the idea of slang, and thus detract from +the subject to which the word might most fitly be applied. +</p> + +<p> +Even the grammatical form of the word is often violated in such expressions as +“Isn’t he <i>awful</i> nice?” “That hat of hers is +<i>awful</i> pretty.” To say <i>awfully nice</i> and <i>awfully +pretty</i> would improve the grammar, but the gross vulgarism remains. +</p> + +<p> +The word, when properly used, means “inspiring with awe or dread” +often accompanied with reverence, as when Milton says: +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +<a name="Page82"></a> +“The trumpet spake not to the armed throng;<br/> +And kings sat still with awful eye,<br/> +As if they surely knew their sovran Lord was by.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Back up</b> +</p> + +<p> +In the sense of <i>support,</i> this, and the shorter expression <i>back</i>, +are doubtless borrowed from the commercial world. While they may be tolerated +in conversation, they must be regarded as slang. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Bulk</b> +</p> + +<p> +This word is often incorrectly used for <i>most</i> or <i>the greater part; +</i>as, “The <i>bulk</i> of the people opposed the measure.” +<i>Bulk</i> refers to size, not to numbers. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Burglarize</b> +</p> + +<p> +This word is often used by the more sensational reporters in their reports of +crime. It should be avoided. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>But what, But that</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I don’t know <i>but what</i> I shall have to punish him.” +The sentence should read, “I don’t know <i>but that</i> I shall +have to punish him.” It is equivalent to, “I think that I shall +have to punish him.” The omission of <i>but</i> will convey the opposite +meaning. “I don’t know that I shall have to punish him” is +equivalent to “I think that I shall not have to punish him.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page83"></a> +<b>Calculate</b> +</p> + +<p> +A provincialism often used in the sense of <i>think, deem, suppose, believe; +</i>as, “I calculate the train will be here in ten minutes.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Calculated, Liable</b> +</p> + +<p> +This word is often incorrectly used in the sense of <i>likely, liable, apt;</i> +as, “His utterances are <i>calculated</i> to injure his cause.” In +the proper use of the word there is present the idea of purpose or intent. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Leave, Quit</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Leave</i> is often incorrectly used for <i>quit;</i> as, “That eminent +actor expects soon to <i>leave</i> the stage.” It would be a misfortune +if he should take the stage with him. Say <i>“quit</i> the stage.” +</p> + +<p> +“Henry has <i>quit</i> smoking.” Here <i>left off</i> or +<i>stopped</i> would be better. +</p> + +<p> +“The President gave me <i>lief</i> to speak with him.” Say +“gave me <i>leave.”</i> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Let it alone</i> and <i>let me be</i> are preferable to <i>leave it alone +</i>and <i>leave me be.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>A 1</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I have just read an A 1 article on the currency, question in the last +issue of the <i>North American Review!”</i> This is an expression from +the vocabulary of business converted into the slang of the street. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page84"></a> +<b>Luck</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Luck,</i> like <i>behavior,</i> may be either good or bad. “The +carpenter has met with luck; he fell and broke his leg.” “The +manager has met with luck; his salary has been doubled.” The adjective +<i>lucky</i> and the adverb <i>luckily</i> are used only in a favorable sense. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Make way with</b> +</p> + +<p> +This expression is often incorrectly used for <i>make away with;</i> as, +“The Judge gave the boot-blacks a Christmas dinner, and the begrimed +urchins quickly <i>made way</i> with the turkey and cranberry sauce.” Say +<i>“made away with,” </i>etc. +</p> + +<p> +To <i>make way</i> is <i>to make room, to provide a way, to dispatch.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>In our midst</b> +</p> + +<p> +“The doctor settled <i>in our midst.”</i> Say “<i>among +us,”</i> or “<i>in our neighborhood.”</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Indorse, Endorse</b> +</p> + +<p> +From the Latin <i>dorsum,</i> the back, these words have come to mean the +writing of one’s name across the back of a check or draft or other +commercial paper to signify its transfer to another or to secure its payment. +To <i>indorse</i> a man’s arguments or opinions is an incorrect use of +the word. +</p> + +<p> +While both forms of spelling the word are in good usage, <i>indorse</i> seems +to be coming into more general favor. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page85"></a> +<b>In, Into</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>In</i> is often incorrectly used for <i>into;</i> as, “He hurried up +the street and rushed <i>in</i> the store.” We walk <i>in</i> a room when +the walking is wholly within the apartment; we walk <i>into</i> a room when we +enter it from some other room or from the outside. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Just going to</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I was <i>just going to</i> write you a letter.” Say “I was +<i>just about to</i> write you a letter.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Kind of</b> +</p> + +<p> +“James swallowed the dose, and now feels <i>kind of</i> sick.” Use +<i>slightly</i> or <i>somewhat,</i> or some other modifier, instead of <i>kind +of.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Knowing</b> +</p> + +<p> +Do not use <i>knowing</i> for <i>skilful</i> or <i>intelligent.</i> “He +is a <i>knowing</i> artist.” “See him prick up his ears; he is a +<i>knowing </i>cur.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Clever, Smart</b> +</p> + +<p> +In England the word <i>clever</i> is applied to one who is bright, intelligent, +ready, apt; in the United States it is often misapplied to one who is +good-natured, kind, or accommodating. +</p> + +<p> +“Do you believe in corporal punishment for stupid school-children?” +</p> + +<p> +“Yes; a spanking always makes them <i>smart.”</i> +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page86"></a> +To express cleverness, brightness, intelligence, aptness, the adjectives +<i>clever, bright, intelligent, apt,</i> are better than the word <i>smart.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Posted, Informed</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He is well <i>posted</i> on all matters relating to +cattle-breeding.” Say <i>informed.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Perspire, Sweat</b> +</p> + +<p> +While all mankind belongs to the animal kingdom, and no person can feel +offended at being called an animal, yet society observes certain distinctions +in speaking of men and of beasts. <i>To sweat</i> and <i>to feed </i>are +expressions that apply to the latter; <i>to perspire</i> and <i>to eat </i>to +the former. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Empty</b> +</p> + +<p> +The Mississippi river <i>flows,</i> or <i>discharges its water</i> into the +Gulf of Mexico, but it can not <i>empty</i> so long as any water remains in the +river. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Enjoyed poor health</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Gold that buys health can never be ill spent,<br/> Nor hours laid out in +harmless merriment.” +</p> + +<p> +The negative form of expression, “I have not <i>enjoyed</i> good +health,” is not only correct, but is, at the same time, a polite way of +modestly stating a fact. To say “I have <i>enjoyed</i> poor health for +the past year” is to express a kind of enjoyment not generally +appreciated. It is like being <i>agreeably disappointed.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page87"></a> +<b>Aberration of intellect</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He is afflicted with a slight aberration of intellect.” Simplicity +would suggest, “He is slightly insane.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Above, Foregoing</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Let me call your attention to the <i>above</i> passage.” The +highest authority does not sanction the use of <i>above</i> as an adjective. +Say “the <i>foregoing</i> passage.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Allowed, Said</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He <i>allowed</i> this was the best speech he had heard.” This is +a provincialism that should be avoided. Use <i>said,</i> or <i>declared,</i> or +<i>admitted,</i> according to the meaning. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Alternation</b> +</p> + +<p> +This word is sometimes used in the sense of an unbroken series. It properly +signifies a reciprocal succession, as “The alternation of summer and +winter produces an ever-changing scene.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Alternative</b> +</p> + +<p> +Etymologically and by general use, this word refers to a choice between two; +as, “If this demand is refused the <i>alternative</i> is war.” But +Gladstone is quoted as saying, “My decided preference is for the fourth +and last of these <i>alternatives.”</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Anniversary</b> +</p> + +<p> +From <i>annus,</i> a year, means recurring every year. <i>Centennial</i> means +once in a hundred years. What then does <i>centennial anniversary</i> mean? Use +<i>centenary.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page88"></a> +<b>Learn, Teach</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I taught him grammar,” not “I learned him grammar.” +“He taught us history.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Lease, Let, Rent, Hire</b> +</p> + +<p> +We may <i>lease</i> to or from. “I <i>leased</i> the farm to my +neighbor.” “I <i>leased</i> this house from Brown.” We +<i>let</i> to another; as, “I <i>let </i>my house to my cousin.” We +may <i>rent</i> to or from another. We may <i>hire</i> from another,” as, +“I hired a servant;” “he hired a boat.” With <i>out</i> +and reflexively we may hire to another; as,” I hired out my +horses;” “he hired himself to the miller.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Like, As</b> +</p> + +<p> +Avoid the use of <i>like</i> in the sense of <i>as</i>. “He thinks just +<i>as </i>(not <i>like)</i> his father does.” That Anthony Trollope, Hugh +Conway and other writers are chargeable with this offence does not justify the +use of <i>like</i> for <i>as</i>, but rather proves the need of constant +vigilance in order to avoid such errors. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Lit, Lighted, Alighted</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He <i>lighted</i> the candle.” “The crow <i>alighted</i> on +the top of the tree.” Avoid the use of <i>lit</i> in such cases, and also +that slang form, as, “I <i>lit on</i> a beautiful passage in +Browning,” in the sense of <i>met with.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Lend, Loan</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Will you <i>lend</i> me your book,” is better than “Will you +<i>loan</i> me your book.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page89"></a> +<b>Near, Nearly</b> +</p> + +<p> +“James is not <i>near</i> so good a scholar as his brother is.” Use +<i>nearly.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Nasty, Nice</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Nasty</i> is a strong adjective, and should be used only in reference to +what is offensively filthy, foul, or defiled. Such expressions as a <i>nasty +</i>day, a <i>nasty</i> rain, mark a loose and careless use of the word. +</p> + +<p> +The word <i>nice</i> once meant <i>foolish, ignorant, weak, effeminate.</i> It +has now come to mean <i>exact, fine, finished, exciting admiration on account +of skill or exactness;</i> as <i>nice</i> proportions, <i>nice</i> workmanship, +a <i>nice</i> distinction in philosophy. It is loosely and colloquially used in +application to what is pleasing, agreeable, delightful, good. +</p> + +<p> +A bright young lady was once asked, “Don’t you think <i>nice</i> is +a <i>nasty </i>word?” She replied, “And do you think <i>nasty</i> +is <i>a nice</i> word.” The subject was abruptly changed. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Nicely</b> +</p> + +<p> +“How do you feel this morning?” <i>“Nicely,</i> thank +you.” The foregoing use of the word is as incorrect as it is common. Use +<i>very well</i> instead. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>No good, No use</b> +</p> + +<p> +“How does that new machine work?” “It’s <i>no +good.” “</i>Shall I try again?” “No; it’s +<i>no</i> <i>use.”</i> The answers should have been, <i>“It is of +no good, it is of no use.”</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page90"></a> +<b>O, Oh</b> +</p> + +<p> +While good usage is far from uniform, many excellent authors employ <i>O</i> +only in cases of direct address and <i>oh</i> when strong and sudden emotion is +to be expressed. <i>O</i> is always written with a capital letter, and should +be followed by the name of the person or thing addressed, and the exclamation +or interrogation point placed at the end of the sentence; as, “O Death, +where is thy sting? O Grave, where is thy victory?” “O the cold and +cruel winter!” +</p> + +<p> +<i>Oh</i> in the body of a sentence may begin with a small letter, and is +immediately followed by the exclamation point; as, “Oh! how terrible was +his fate!” “The sad intelligence was gently given, but oh! the +shock was almost unbearable.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Observe, Say</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He <i>observed</i> that the orphan pines while the oppressor +feeds.” To <i>observe</i> is to notice carefully, to attend closely to +what one sees. In the above sentence <i>said</i> or <i>remarked</i> should be +used instead of <i>observed.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Of any, Of all</b> +</p> + +<p> +“This is the largest tree <i>of any</i> I have seen.” The meaning +clearly is, that of all the trees I have seen this is the largest. Hence, <i>of +any</i> should be changed to <i>of all.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page91"></a> +<b>Older, Elder</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Elder</i> and <i>eldest</i> are terms applied chiefly to persons, generally +in speaking of members of the same family, while <i>older</i> and <i>oldest +</i>are applied to persons of different families, and also to things. +</p> + +<p> +“His <i>elder</i> brother died yesterday.” “His <i>eldest</i> +sister has gone to Italy on her wedding trip.” “Our <i>oldest</i> +neighbor was born in 1825.” “This oak is <i>older</i> than that +pine.” The foregoing sentences illustrate the best usage as applied to +the comparatives <i>older</i> and <i>elder</i> and the superlatives +<i>oldest</i> and <i>eldest.</i> +</p> + +<p> +When the direct comparison is made the word <i>older</i> is used, followed by +the conjunction <i>than;</i> as, “My father is <i>older than</i> my +mother.” But when the comparison is assumed the word <i>elder</i> should +be employed; as, “My father is the <i>elder</i> of my parents.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Only</b> +</p> + +<p> +Perhaps no other word in the language is so often misplaced as the word +<i>only.</i> The only general rule is to place it as near as possible to the +word which it modifies. “He <i>only</i> lent me a dollar” means +that he did not make me a present of the dollar, but expects me to return it. +“He lent me <i>only</i> a dollar” means that the sum lent was +neither greater nor less than one dollar. The former expression is often used +when the latter should be. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page92"></a> +<i>“Only</i> the man walked to the post-office to-day.” The woman +did not walk with him. +</p> + +<p> +“The man <i>only</i> walked to the post-office to-day.” He did not +ride or drive. +</p> + +<p> +“The man walked <i>only</i> to the post-office to-day.” He did not +go so far as the store. +</p> + +<p> +“The man walked to the post-once <i>only</i> to-day.” Yesterday he +rode and the day before he drove. Today is the only day that he walked. +</p> + +<p> +George Eliot, in <i>Middlemarch,</i> says: “I <i>only</i> know two +gentlemen who sing at all well,” and in another place, “I have +<i>only</i> seen her once before.” The word <i>only</i> should be placed +before two in the first sentence, and before <i>once</i> in the second. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Onto</b> +</p> + +<p> +There is a growing tendency to write the words <i>on</i> and <i>to</i> as one +word. “Although nearly drowned he yet had strength enough to climb +<i>onto </i>the rock.” The use of <i>upon</i> or <i>on</i> is generally +better. When neither of these can be used write <i>on</i> and <i>to</i> as +separate words. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Outstart</b> +</p> + +<p> +This word is sometimes used when <i>outset</i> should be employed. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Over and Above</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He earned twenty dollars <i>over and above</i> his expenses.” Use +<i>more than</i> or <i>above.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page93"></a> +<b>Party, Person</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Is she the <i>party</i> of whom you spoke?” “No; she is the +<i>person.”</i> +</p> + +<p> +One man may be a party to a contract or agreement. Several men may form a +party. When no contract is implied, one man or woman must be spoken of as a +<i>person,</i> not as a <i>party.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Patron, Customer</b> +</p> + +<p> +Unless there is a sense of obligation or condescension, use the term +<i>customer</i> and not <i>patron.</i> In like manner, use <i>custom +</i>instead of <i>patronage.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Per</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Per</i> is a Latin preposition and should be used only with Latin nouns. We +should say <i>per annum,</i> but not <i>per year; per diem,</i> and not <i>per +day; per capita,</i> and not <i>per head.</i> “He received a thousand +dollars <i>a</i> <i>year</i> is shorter and better than “he received a +thousand dollars <i>per year.”</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Perchance, Peradventure</b> +</p> + +<p> +These are poetic and archaic forms that should be avoided in ordinary prose. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Performers</b> +</p> + +<p> +“The entertainment consisted of reading, recitations, and singing, and +the <i>performers</i> acquitted themselves well.” Readers, reciters, and +singers are not +<a name="Page94"></a> +<i>performers.</i> The term is applied to the stage, and to those who play on +musical instruments. Even in the latter application, “he <i>plays</i> +well on the piano,” is better than “he <i>performs</i> well on the +piano.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Period, Point</b> +</p> + +<p> +Do not use <i>period</i> for <i>a point</i> of time. <i>Period </i>implies +extended time. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Nothing like</b> +</p> + +<p> +“James is <i>nothing like</i> so successful as his brother” +illustrates a colloquialism that should be avoided. Use <i>not nearly so,</i> +etc. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Notorious, Noted</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He was elected to Congress, then Governor, and we now think of sending +him to the United States Senate. He is becoming quite <i>notorious.” +</i>The word <i>notorious</i> implies some bad or doubtful quality or +characteristic, and must not be used in the sense of <i>noted</i> or +<i>famous.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Nowhere near so</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He trapped <i>nowhere near</i> so many rabbits as his cousin.” +This vulgarism should be avoided. Use <i>not nearly.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Plead</b> +</p> + +<p> +The past tense of <i>read</i> is <i>read,</i> but the past tense of +<i>plead</i> is <i>pleaded,</i> not <i>plead. “</i>The prisoner +<i>pleaded </i>for mercy.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page95"></a> +<b>Plenty, Plentiful</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Money is <i>plenty</i> this summer.” <i>Plenty</i> is a noun and +should not be used as an adjective. Therefore “money is <i>plentiful</i> +this summer.” Shakespeare says, “If reasons were as <i>plenty</i> +as blackberries,” etc., but words have settled into more definite grooves +since Shakespeare’s time. “This house is <i>plenty</i> large +enough.” Neither is <i>plenty</i> an adverb. Say, “This house is +quite large enough,” or, simply, <i>large enough.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>About, around</b> +</p> + +<p> +“She was pleased with the conversation <i>about</i> her.” Use +“<i>around</i> her.” +</p> + +<p> +“She was pained by the conversation <i>about</i> her.” Use +“<i>concerning </i>her.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Overlook, Oversee</b> +</p> + +<p> +This word means to look down upon from a place that is over or above; as, +“From the top of the Washington monument you can readily <i>overlook</i> +the city.” But it also means to look over and beyond an object in order +to see a second object, thus missing the view of the first object; hence, to +refrain from bestowing notice upon, to neglect. The confounding of these two +ideas begets ambiguity, as “Brown’s business was <i>to overlook</i> +the workmen in the shop.” His business was <i>to oversee</i> or +<i>superintend</i> them, and not to <i>neglect</i> or <i>overlook</i> them. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page96"></a> +<b>Revolting</b> +</p> + +<p> +To <i>revolt</i> is to <i>rebel,</i> to <i>renounce allegiance,</i> but the +participial form <i>revolting</i> also means <i>repugnant, loathsome.</i> In +the sentence, “A band of <i>revolting</i> Huns has just passed down the +street,” we should be in doubt whether the speaker referred to their acts +against the government or to their appearance. The use of the word +<i>rebellious</i> in the former sense, and of <i>disagreeable</i> or +<i>disgusting,</i> or the stronger adjectives given above, for the latter +meaning, would make the sentence clear. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Unexampled</b> +</p> + +<p> +Such adjectives as <i>unexampled, unparalleled, unprecedented,</i> do not admit +of comparison, hence such expressions as <i>the most unexampled </i>bravery, +<i>the most unparalleled heroism,</i> etc., should be avoided. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Utter</b> +</p> + +<p> +This verb should be distinguished from <i>express</i> or <i>say. Utter +</i>carries with it the idea of articulate expression, except in the sense of +<i>uttering</i> false coins or forged notes. +</p> + +<p> +As an adjective it is defined by <i>complete, perfect, absolute,</i> etc., but +it can be applied only to what is unpleasant or unfavorable. “I enjoyed +<i>utter</i> happiness” would be an absurd expression, but “I was +doomed to <i>utter</i> misery” illustrates a proper use of the word. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page97"></a> +<b>Valuable, Valued</b> +</p> + +<p> +These words are not synonymous; <i>valuable</i> means precious, costly, having +value; <i>valued</i> refers to our estimation of the worth. “He is one of +our most <i>valued</i> contributors,” not <i>valuable,</i> unless you are +thinking of the value of his contributions and the smallness of the +compensation. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Very pleased</b> +</p> + +<p> +A few participles used as adjectives may be directly modified by <i>too</i> or +<i>very;</i> as, “I was <i>very tired,” “</i>He was <i>too +fatigued</i> to go farther.” +</p> + +<p> +We sometimes hear the expression, “I was <i>very pleased,”</i> but +the critics insist upon “I was <i>very much</i> pleased,” or +“greatly pleased,” or “very greatly pleased.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Vicinity</b> +</p> + +<p> +Often too high-sounding a word for the thought; <i>neighborhood</i> is less +pretentious. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>The old man</b> +</p> + +<p> +The use of such words as <i>dad, daddy, mam, mammy, the old man, the old +woman,</i> when applied to parents, not only indicates a lack of refinement, +but shows positive disrespect. The words <i>pap, pappy, governor, </i>etc., are +also objectionable. After the first lispings of childhood the words <i>papa</i> +and <i>mamma</i>, properly accented, should be insisted upon by parents, and at +<a name="Page98"></a> +the age of twelve or fifteen the words <i>father</i> and <i>mother</i> should +be substituted and ever after used, as showing a proper respect on the part of +children. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Great big</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He gave me a <i>great big</i> apple.” This is a colloquialism that +should be avoided. Use <i>large.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Argue, Augur</b> +</p> + +<p> +“The hollow whistling of the wind among the trees <i>argues</i> an +approaching storm.” Use <i>augurs.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Barbaric, Barbarous</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Barbaric</i> refers to a people; <i>barbarous</i> to their low state of life +and their habits of cruelty. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Cut in half</b> +</p> + +<p> +A colloquialism in very frequent use. “I will <i>cut</i> this melon <i>in +half</i> and share it with you.” Say, <i>cut in two,</i> or <i>cut in +halves,</i> or <i>cut in two parts.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Hearty meal</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He ate a hearty meal before starting on his journey.” +<i>Hearty</i> applies to the eater rather than to the meal. “He ate +heartily,” etc. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Some better</b> +</p> + +<p> +“John has been <i>right sick,</i> but is now <i>some</i> better.” +<i>Somewhat, rather,</i> or <i>slightly</i> may take the place of <i>some.</i> +The sentence may be otherwise improved. “John has been <i>quite ill,</i> +but is now <i>somewhat</i> better.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page99"></a> +<b>Through, Finished</b> +</p> + +<p> +Unless you have fallen through a trap door and finished your career, do not +say, “I am through,” when you mean “I have finished.” +The school-boy says, “I <i>am through with,</i> that lesson,” when +he should say, “I <i>have finished</i> that lesson.” The farmer +asks the man in his employ, <i>“Are </i>you <i>through with</i> that +field?” when he should have asked, <i>“Have </i>you <i>finished</i> +ploughing that field?” You ask your friend, <i>“Are </i>you +<i>through, with Trilby?”</i> when you should ask, <i>“Have</i> you +<i>finished</i> reading <i>Trilby.”</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Winterish</b> +</p> + +<p> +Do not say <i>summerish</i> and <i>winterish,</i> but <i>summery,</i> or +<i>summerlike,</i> and <i>wintry.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Wish</b> +</p> + +<p> +The word <i>hope</i> should be employed instead of <i>wish</i> in such cases +as, “I <i>wish</i> you may succeed in your undertaking.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Right</b> +</p> + +<p> +This little word has many meanings and is put to many uses. In the following +senses it should be avoided: +</p> + +<p> +“Stand <i>right</i> here.” In most instances the briefer +expression, “Stand here,” is sufficient. If it is necessary to +locate the place more definitely or to emphasize the position, “Stand +just here,” or “Stand on this very spot,” may be better. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page100"></a> +“The train came to a standstill <i>right</i> here.” Better, +“The train stopped <i>just</i> here.” +</p> + +<p> +“Do it <i>right away.”</i> This is a colloquialism that should be +avoided. <i>Immediately, instantly, at once, without delay,</i> are expressions +that may safely be substituted for <i>right away.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“I heard of your misfortune, and came to you <i>right away.”</i> +“John, post this letter for me <i>right off.” Directly</i> or +<i>immediately,</i> in the place of <i>right away</i> and <i>right off,</i> is +better English. +</p> + +<p> +“James is <i>right</i> sick, and the doctor comes to see him <i>right +</i>often.” The use of <i>right</i> as an intensive with adjectives and +adverbs is very common in many quarters. <i>Quite ill</i> or <i>very ill</i> is +better than <i>right sick,</i> and <i>often</i> or <i>frequently</i> is better +than <i>right often.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“We have a <i>right</i> good crop of wheat this year.” Use <i>very +</i>instead of <i>right.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“You have as good a <i>right</i> to be punished as I have.” The +person addressed would gladly relinquish his <i>right.</i> “You <i>merit +</i>punishment as well as I,” or “You <i>deserve</i> to be +punished,” etc. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Shall, Will, Should, Would</b> +</p> + +<p> +Few persons can claim to be entirely free from slips of speech in the use of +these auxiliaries. Simply to express a future action or event, <i>shall </i>is +used with the first person and <i>will</i> with the second and third; as, +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +<a name="Page101"></a> +I shall read, We shall read,<br /> +You will read, You will read,<br /> +He will read, They will read. +</p> + +<p> +But when I desire to show determination on my part to do a certain thing, or +when I exercise my authority over another, or express promise, command, or +threat, <i>will</i> is used in the first person and <i>shall</i> in the second +and third; as, +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +I will read, We will read,<br /> +You shall read, You shall read,<br /> +He shall read, They shall read. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Shall</i> primarily implies obligation; <i>will</i> implies intention or +purpose. <i>Will</i> and <i>would</i> should be used whenever the subject names +the one whose will controls the action; <i>shall</i> and <i>should</i> must be +employed whenever the one named by the subject is under the control of another. +</p> + +<p> +The difference between <i>should</i> and <i>would</i> is, in general, about the +same as that between <i>shall</i> and <i>will.</i> +</p> + +<p> +The foregoing suggestions cover the ordinary uses of these auxiliaries, but +there are some special cases deserving attention. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Will,</i> in the first person, expresses assent or promise, as well as +determination; as, +</p> + +<p> +“I will read this poem for you since you have requested it.” +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page102"></a> +“I will meet you to-morrow at the time appointed.” +</p> + +<p> +<i>Will,</i> in the second person, may express a command; as, +</p> + +<p> +“You will take the places assigned you.” +</p> + +<p> +“You will report immediately at my office.” +</p> + +<p> +<i>Will</i> is sometimes employed to express a general fact, without conveying +the idea of futurity; as, “Accidents will happen.” +“Differences will arise.” +</p> + +<p> +<i>Will</i> is sometimes incorrectly used instead of <i>shall;</i> as, +<i>“Will</i> I go?” for <i>“Shall</i> I go?” This fault +is common in Scotland, and prevails to some extent in this country. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Will</i> is also used where <i>may</i> would be more appropriate; as, +“Be that as it <i>will.”</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Shall you? Will you?</b> +</p> + +<p> +The distinction between <i>shall</i> and <i>will</i> in the interrogative forms +of the second person are not very clearly defined. Many writers and speakers +use them interchangeably. The answer should have the same auxiliary as the +question. +</p> + +<p> +“Shall you go to town to-morrow?” “I <i>shall.”</i> +</p> + +<p> +“Will you attend to this matter promptly?” “I +<i>will.”</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Should, Would, Ought</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Should</i> is often used in the sense of <i>ought;</i> as, “Mary +should remain at home to-day and wait upon her sick mother.” +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page103"></a> +<i>Should</i> and <i>would</i> are employed to express a conditional assertion; +as, “I <i>should</i> go to college, if I could secure the necessary +means.” “He <i>would</i> have gone fishing, if his father had been +willing.” +</p> + +<p> +<i>Would</i> is often used to express a custom, a determination, or a wish; as, +“He <i>would</i> sit all day and moan.” <i>“Would</i> to God +we had died in the land of Egypt.” “He <i>would</i> go, and his +parents could not prevent him.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Talented</b> +</p> + +<p> +Certain authors and critics, including Coleridge, have objected strongly to the +use of <i>talented.</i> One writer argues that since there is no such verb as +<i>to talent,</i> the formation of such a participle as <i>talented</i> cannot +be defended, and he further declares that no good writer is known to use it, +Webster <i>(The International Dictionary)</i> states that, as a formative, +<i>talented</i> is just as analogical and legitimate as <i>gifted, bigoted, +moneyed, lauded, lilied, honeyed,</i> and numerous other adjectives having a +participial form, but derived directly from nouns and not from verbs. +</p> + +<p> +We must therefore conclude that the use of <i>talented</i> as an adjective is +entirely legitimate. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Climb down</b> +</p> + +<p> +The critics generally oppose the use of the expression <i>climb down. </i>When +the verb is employed +<a name="Page104"></a> +without its adverbial modifier, the upward direction is always understood. In +figurative language, as “Black vapors climb aloft, and cloud the +day,” “The general climbed the heights of fame,” the upward +direction is also understood. +</p> + +<p> +But in a specific sense <i>climb</i> is defined “to mount laboriously, +especially by the use of hands and feet.” Here the manner seems to be as +important as the direction. When the same manner must be employed in +descending, as a tree, a mast, or a steep, rocky cliff, the general term +<i>descend</i> fails to convey the meaning, and to use <i>slip, slide, drop, +tumble, fall,</i> would be incorrect. We are then left to choose between the +short and clear, but objectionable, expression <i>climb down</i> and some long +and cumbersome equivalent. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Mighty</b> +</p> + +<p> +Never use <i>mighty</i> in the sense of <i>very,</i> or <i>exceedingly.</i> It +is not only inappropriate but inelegant. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Of, From</b> +</p> + +<p> +“She had consumption and died <i>from</i> the disease.” Say, +“died <i>of </i>the disease.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>On, Over, Upon</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Mary called <i>upon</i> her friend.” Say, “called <i>on</i> +her friend.” “The Senator prevailed <i>over</i> his friends to +support his bill.” Say, “prevailed <i>upon</i> his +<a name="Page105"></a> +friends.” “The candidate prevailed <i>over</i> his enemies.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Partake</b> +</p> + +<p> +This word means <i>to take a part of, to share with</i> another. It is often +incorrectly used for <i>ate,</i> as “He <i>partook</i> sparingly of the +food.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Powerful sight</b> +</p> + +<p> +This is a Westernism to be avoided. It is used indiscriminately for a <i>large +number,</i> a <i>great quantity,</i> a <i>vast amount,</i> etc. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Apprehend, Comprehend</b> +</p> + +<p> +To <i>apprehend</i> is to take into the mind; to <i>comprehend</i> is to +understand fully what is already there. We may <i>apprehend</i> many truths +which we do not <i>comprehend.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Introduce, Present</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Present</i> implies more formality than <i>introduce.</i> We introduce one +friend to another. An envoy is <i>presented</i> to the King. Foreign ministers +are <i>presented</i> to the President of the United States. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Same as</b> +</p> + +<p> +“This is the <i>same</i> story <i>as</i> I read last week.” Use +<i>same that.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page106"></a> +<b>Section</b> +</p> + +<p> +“We raise finer horses in our <i>section.”</i> This is an +Americanism that should be avoided. Neighborhood, vicinity, region, part of the +country or State, may be substituted for <i>section.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Seldom or ever</b> +</p> + +<p> +This incorrect expression is sometimes used instead of <i>seldom or never +</i>or <i>seldom if ever.</i> “I have <i>seldom if ever</i> heard so +eloquent an oration.” “I have <i>seldom or never</i> seen the +man.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Sewage, Sewerage</b> +</p> + +<p> +These words have distinct meanings. <i>Sewage</i> refers to the contents of the +sewer; <i>sewerage</i> to the system of sewers. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Sociable, Social</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He is one of the most <i>sociable</i> men I have met. He is fond of +society, and is very ready in conversation.” <i>Sociable</i> means +companionable; <i>social</i> applies to the relations of men in society; as +<i>social </i>duties, <i>social</i> pleasures, <i>social</i> interests. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Specialty, Speciality</b> +</p> + +<p> +These words are interchangeable, but the former is the better word. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Requirement, Requisition, Requisite</b> +</p> + +<p> +While these words have something in common, each has a meaning peculiar to +itself. <i>Requirement</i> +<a name="Page107"></a> +means that which is required as an essential condition, or as something +necessary; <i>requisition,</i> that which is required as of right, a demand or +application made as by authority; <i>requisite,</i> that which is required by +the nature of things, or by circumstances, that which cannot be dispensed with. +“She understood the nature of the child and of its +<i>requirements.”</i> “The officer made a <i>requisition</i> for +more troops.” “This is as much a <i>requisite</i> as food and +clothing.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Sick, Ill</b> +</p> + +<p> +There is a growing tendency to discriminate between <i>sickness </i>and +<i>illness,</i> limiting the words <i>sick</i> and <i>sickness</i> to some +slight disturbance of the physical system, as nausea, and applying the words +<i>ill</i> and <i>illness</i> to protracted disease and disordered health. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Scholar, Pupil</b> +</p> + +<p> +Although these words are often used synonymously and with good authority, it +would be better to limit the former to learned persons and to apply the latter +to persons under instruction. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Commenced to write</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I <i>commenced to write</i> at a very early age.” After the verb +<i>commence</i> the best writers use the verbal +<a name="Page108"></a> +noun instead of the infinitive with <i>to;</i> as, “I <i>commenced +writing </i>at a very early age.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Beside, Besides</b> +</p> + +<p> +These words were formerly used interchangeably, but the best writers of to-day +make a distinction. <i>Beside</i> means by <i>the side of. Besides </i>means +<i>in addition to. Besides</i> is sometimes incorrectly used for <i>except;</i> +as, “No trees will grow here <i>besides</i> the pine.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Bountiful, Plentiful</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Bountiful</i> applies to the giver; <i>plentiful</i> to the things +furnished. “The <i>bountiful</i> Giver of all good furnishes a +<i>plentiful </i>supply of all things needful for our comfort and +happiness.” Do not say a <i>bountiful</i> repast, a <i>bountiful</i> +harvest. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Attacked, Burst, Drowned</b> +</p> + +<p> +The incorrect past tense forms <i>attackted, bursted, drownded,</i> are +sometimes heard; as, “The cashier was <i>attackted</i> by three of the +ruffians,” “The cannon <i>bursted</i> and killed the +gunners,” “The fishermen were <i>drownded</i> off the bar.” +Use <i>attacked, burst, drowned.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>All</b> +</p> + +<p> +This little word is used in a great many ways, some of which are quite +colloquial, and in some cases provincial. When the grocer’s clerk has +taken your order he is prompted to say, “Is that <i>all?”</i> Or if +<a name="Page109"></a> +he should say, “Is there anything else that you wish?” you are +likely to reply, “No; that is <i>all.”</i> Whether used in the +question or in the reply, the word <i>all</i> should be avoided, or else the +expression should be expanded so as to make a clear sentence. +</p> + +<p> +A friend calls to see you, and, finding you alone when he expected to meet +others with you, he says, “Good morning; I see you are <i>all</i> +alone.” <i>All</i> is not a good equivalent for <i>quite</i> or +<i>entirely,</i> either of which words would be better than <i>all.</i> In +truth, the sentence is as clear and as strong and more concise without the use +of a modifier. “I see you are <i>alone.”</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Inaugurate</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>To inaugurate</i> means <i>to induct</i> into office or <i>to set in +motion</i> with formality and serious ceremony. Pompous writers too often +employ the word in referring to commonplace events. A new business is +<i>established.</i> A new hall or library is <i>opened.</i> A new pastor is +<i>installed.</i> A new order of procedure is <i>adopted.</i> In general, the +word <i>begin</i> or <i>commence</i> would be more appropriate than +<i>inaugurate.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Came across, Met with</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I <i>came across</i> the passage quite unexpectedly.” Better, +“I <i>chanced upon,”</i> or “<i>happened upon,,”</i> or +“<i>met with</i> the passage quite unexpectedly.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page110"></a> +<b>Expect</b> +</p> + +<p> +Few words are more frequently incorrectly used than <i>expect. “</i>I +<i>expect</i> you went to town yesterday,” “I <i>expect</i> you +will hear from me to-morrow,” “I <i>expect</i> the train has +arrived,” represent some of the uses to which this word is often put. +<i>Expect</i> refers wholly to the future, and should not refer to present or +past events; as, “I <i>expect </i>you to write me from Liverpool.” +“John <i>expects</i> to see his father to-morrow.” Among the +expressions that can most readily and appropriately be substituted for +<i>expect</i> are <i>suspect, suppose, think, believe, presume, daresay.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Over with</b> +</p> + +<p> +“After the supper was <i>over with</i> the guests departed.” Omit +<i>with.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Overflown</b> +</p> + +<p> +“The lowlands along the river are <i>overflown.”</i> Use +<i>overflowed. </i>The perfect participle of <i>overflow</i> is +<i>overflowed,</i> not <i>overflown.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Good piece</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I have come a <i>good piece</i> to see you.” Say “I have +come a <i>long distance</i> to see you.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Stand a chance</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He does not stand any chance of an election.” Say, “It is +not probable that he will be elected.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page111"></a> +<b>No more than I could help</b> +</p> + +<p> +“As I was not in sympathy with the cause, I gave <i>no more than I could +help.”</i> So accustomed are we to hearing this awkward, blundering +expression that we readily understand the meaning it is intended to convey, and +should be sorely puzzled to interpret the correct form. Let us analyze it. I +gave five dollars. That much I could not help (giving). I gave no more. Hence, +“I gave no more than I could not help.” This last form appears to +be correct. By changing the phraseology the sentence can be greatly improved. +“I gave no more than I felt compelled to give.” “I made my +contribution as small as possible.” “My gift was limited to the +measure of my sense of obligation.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Above, More than, Preceding</b> +</p> + +<p> +“It is <i>above</i> a week since I heard from my brother.” We may +say <i>“above</i> the earth,” <i>“above</i> the +housetops,” but in the preceding sentence it is better to say, “It +is <i>more than</i> a week since I heard from my brother.” +</p> + +<p> +“In the <i>above</i> paragraph he quotes from Horace.” Say, +“In the <i>preceding</i> or <i>foregoing</i> paragraph,” etc. The +awkwardness of the use of the word <i>above</i> becomes very apparent when the +line in which it occurs is found at the top of a page, and the passage +<a name="Page112"></a> +to which reference is made appears at the bottom of the previous page. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Climax</b> +</p> + +<p> +The Greek word <i>climax</i> means literally <i>a</i> <i>ladder, </i>and +implies <i>ascent, upward movement.</i> The best authors use it only in this +sense, and not to denote the highest point. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Factor</b> +</p> + +<p> +This word, from the Latin <i>factor,</i> a doer, an agent, signifies +<i>working, doing, effecting.</i> Its frequent use in the sense of <i>source +</i>or <i>part</i> should be avoided. +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +“All are but <i>factors</i> of one stupendous whole,<br/> +Whose body Nature is, and God the soul.” +</p> + +<p> +Pope employs the better word <i>parts.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Hung, Hanged</b> +</p> + +<p> +Pictures, signs, bells, and other inanimate objects are <i>hung; </i>men are +<i>hanged.</i> While some writers ignore this distinction, the best authorities +observe it. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Healthy, Healthful</b> +</p> + +<p> +A lady wrote to a paper asking, “Are plants in a sleeping-room +<i>unhealthy?”</i> The answer came, “Not necessarily; we have seen +some very <i>healthy</i> plants growing in sleeping-rooms.” +</p> + +<p> +Persons are <i>healthy</i> or <i>unhealthy.</i> A plant or tree is +<a name="Page113"></a> +<i>healthy</i> or <i>unhealthy</i> according as it possesses vigor. Food, +surroundings and conditions are <i>healthful</i> or <i>unhealthful +</i>according as they promote or destroy health. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Idea, Opinion</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Many persons think that the interior of the earth is a mass of fire; +what is your <i>idea?”</i> Say, “What is your +<i>opinion?”</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Alone, Only</b> +</p> + +<p> +“An <i>only</i> child” is one that has neither brother nor sister. +“A child <i>alone”</i> is one that is left to itself. “Virtue +<i>alone</i> makes us happy” means that virtue unaccompanied by any other +advantages is sufficient to make us happy. “Virtue <i>only</i> makes us +happy” means that nothing else can do it. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Grow, Raise, Rear</b> +</p> + +<p> +“We <i>grow</i> wheat, corn, oats, and potatoes on our farm.” +“We <i>raise</i> wheat,” etc., would be better. With the same +propriety we might use <i>sleep</i> for <i>lodge,</i> and <i>eat</i> for +<i>feed,</i> or supply with food; as, “We can <i>eat</i> and <i>sleep</i> +fifty persons at one time.” +</p> + +<p> +The word <i>raise</i> is often incorrectly used in the sense of <i>rear; +</i>as, “She <i>raised</i> a family of nine children.” It is +sometimes employed in the sense of <i>increase,</i> as, “The landlord +<i>raised</i> my<i> </i>rent.” <i>Increased</i> would be better. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page114"></a> +<b>Has went</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He goes to school,” “He went to school yesterday,” +“He has gone to the West.” Avoid such ungrammatical forms as +“He <i>has</i> <i>went,” “</i>I <i>have</i> saw.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Badly, Greatly</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Badly</i> is often incorrectly used for <i>greatly</i> or <i>very much,</i> +as, “I need it <i>badly,”</i> “He was <i>badly</i> +hurt.” +</p> + +<p> +“That fence wants painting <i>badly,</i> I think I’ll do it +myself,” said the economical husband. +</p> + +<p> +“Yes,” said his wife, “you had better do it yourself if you +think it wants to be done <i>badly.”</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>At you</b> +</p> + +<p> +“If you don’t stop teasing me I will do something <i>at</i> +you,” meaning “I will punish you.” That form of expression is +very common in some localities, and it is even more inelegant than common. The +use of the preposition <i>to</i> instead of <i>at</i> would be a slight +improvement, but the sentence should be entirely recast. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Haply, Happily</b> +</p> + +<p> +In the reading of the Scriptures the word <i>happily</i> is sometimes used +where the archaic word <i>haply</i> should be employed. In like manner the word +<i>thoroughly</i> is substituted for the old form <i>throughly.</i> Both words +should be pronounced as they are spelled. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page115"></a> +<b>Thanks</b> +</p> + +<p> +To say “I thank you” requires but little more effort than to say +<i>“Thanks,”</i> and it will be received as a more sincere token of +thankfulness. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Got to</b> +</p> + +<p> +This inelegant expression is often employed where <i>must</i> would serve the +purpose better. “This work <i>has got to be</i> done.” Say, +“Must be done.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Hangs on</b> +</p> + +<p> +“The cold weather <i>hangs on.”</i> Better, “The cold weather +continues.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Under the Weather</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Are you well?” “No; I have been quite <i>under the +weather.” </i>Substitute <i>sick</i> or <i>ill,</i> for the colloquial +expression <i>under the weather.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Again, Against</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Again</i> is often erroneously used for <i>against;</i> as, “He leaned +<i>again</i> the tree for support.” Say, “He leaned <i>against</i> +the tree for support.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Could, Can, Will</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Could</i> is often incorrectly employed where <i>can</i> or <i>will</i> +would be more appropriate. +</p> + +<p> +<i>“Could</i> you lend me a dollar this morning?” If the thought of +the inquirer is, “Are you willing to lend,” etc., he should have +used <i>will </i>instead of <i>could;</i> +<a name="Page116"></a> +but if his thought was, “Are you able to lend,” or “Do you +have a dollar to spare this morning,” he should have used <i>can.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Bravery, Courage</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Bravery</i> is inborn; <i>courage</i> is the result of reason and +determination. The <i>brave</i> are often reckless; the <i>courageous</i> are +always cautious. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Hate</b> +</p> + +<p> +Avoid the use of <i>hate</i> for <i>dislike,</i> and all other intensive words +when the thought is more correctly expressed by a milder word. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Pretty, Very</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Pretty</i> is often incorrectly used in the sense of <i>very </i>or +<i>moderately,</i> as “He was <i>pretty</i> badly hurt,” “He +is a <i>pretty</i> good scholar,” “She is <i>pretty</i> +wealthy,” “Thomas is <i>pretty</i> ugly.” So common is this +provincialism in some localities that the incongruity of such an expression as +the last would pass undiscovered. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Lot, Number</b> +</p> + +<p> +The use of <i>lot</i> for <i>number</i> or <i>many</i> is a colloquialism that +should be avoided. “He collected a <i>lot (large number) </i>of books on +the subject.” “A <i>lot</i> of policemen were gathered there” +“I ate <i>lots of</i> oranges while I was in Florida.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page117"></a> +<b>Lead a dance</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He <i>led</i> his companion <i>a fine dance.”</i> This expression, +as generally used, is ironical, and implies that the leader conducts those who +are led through experiences unfamiliar to them and usually to their +disadvantage. To lead astray, to deceive, to corrupt the morals of, may be +substituted for the foregoing inelegant expression. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Try and</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Have you been to the country this summer?” “No; but I will +<i>try and go </i>next week.”. The second speaker intends to convey the +idea that it is his purpose to go if nothing occurs to prevent, but his going +is still a matter of uncertainty. His statement, however, when properly +interpreted means that he not only will try, but that he positively will go. +</p> + +<p> +“Try <i>and</i> finish that work to-day.” Here the purpose is not +to command that the work shall be finished, but that the trial shall be made. +As the sentence stands two distinct commands are given, first, that the trial +shall be made, and, second, that the work must be completed. The sentence +should read, “Try to finish that work to-day.” +</p> + +<p> +Use <i>to</i> instead of <i>and</i> in such expressions as “Try <i>and +</i>make it convenient to come,” “Try <i>and</i> do your work +properly,” “Try <i>and</i> think of your lessons,” “Try +<i>and</i> go <i>and</i> see our sick neighbor.” +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="Page118"></a><a name="chap03"></a>CHAPTER III<br /> +Contractions</h2> + +<p> +Whatever may be said against employing contractions in dignified discourse, +their use in colloquial speech is too firmly established to justify our +censure. But, in their use, as, indeed, in the use of all words, proper +discrimination must be shown. +</p> + +<p> +Just why <i>haven’t, hasn’t, doesn’t, isn’t, +wasn’t,</i> are regarded as being in good repute, and <i>ain’t, +weren’t, mightn’t, oughtn’t,</i> are regarded with less +favor, and why <i>shalln’t, willn’t</i> are absolutely excluded, it +would be difficult to explain. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Use determines the law of language,</i> whether for single words, +grammatical forms, or grammatical constructions. Wherever a people, by common +consent, employ a particular word to mean a certain thing, that word becomes an +inherent part of the language of that people, whether it has any basis in +etymology or not. We must not wrest this law to our own convenience, however, +by assuming that such words and phrases as are introduced and employed by the +illiterate, or even by the educated, within a circumscribed territory, are, +therefore, to be regarded as +<a name="Page119"></a> +reputable words. The sanction of all classes, the educated as well as the +uneducated, throughout the entire country in which the language is spoken, is +necessary and preliminary to the proper introduction of a new word into the +language. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Ain’t</b> +</p> + +<p> +This word is a contraction of <i>am</i> <i>not</i> or <i>are not, </i>and can, +therefore, be used only with the singular pronouns <i>I</i> and <i>you</i>, and +with the plural pronouns <i>we, you,</i> and <i>they,</i> and with nouns in the +plural. +</p> + +<p> +I <i>am not</i> pleased. I <i>ain’t</i> pleased. +</p> + +<p> +You <i>are not</i> kind. You <i>ain’t</i> kind. +</p> + +<p> +They <i>are not</i> gentlemen. They <i>ain’t</i> gentlemen. +</p> + +<p> +These sentences will serve to illustrate the proper use of <i>ain’t,</i> +if it is ever proper to use such an inelegant word as that. “James +<i>ain’t</i> a good student,” “Mary <i>ain’t</i> a +skillful musician,” or “This orange <i>ain’t</i> +sweet,” are expressions frequently heard, yet those who use them would be +shocked to hear the same expressions with the proper equivalent <i>am not</i> +or <i>are not</i> substituted for the misleading <i>ain’t.</i> +</p> + +<p> +The expression <i>ain’t</i> is compounded of the verb <i>am</i> or +<i>are</i> and the adverb <i>not,</i> and by the contraction the three vocal +impulses <i>I-am-not,</i> or <i>you-are-not,</i> or <i>they-are-not,</i> are +reduced to two. By compounding the pronoun with the verb and preserving the +full adverb, +<a name="Page120"></a> +as in “<i>I’m not,” “You’re not,”</i> +“<i>They’re not,”</i> we also reduce the three vocal impulses +to two, thus securing as short a contraction in sound and one that is as fully +adapted to colloquial speech, and that is, at the same time, in much better +taste. +</p> + +<p> +The old form for <i>ain’t</i> was <i>an’t,</i> but this has now +become obsolete. It will be a blessing to the English-speaking people when the +descendant shall sleep with his father. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Are not</i> is sometimes contracted into <i>aren’t,</i> but this form +has not found much favor. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Can’t and Couldn’t</b> +</p> + +<p> +As <i>cannot</i> and <i>could not</i> may be used with pronouns of the first, +second, or third person, in either number, and with nouns in both numbers, no +error is likely to follow the use of their contracted forms. +</p> + +<p> +Why <i>cannot</i> is properly written as one word, and <i>could not +</i>requires two, is not founded upon any principle of philosophy. The +concurrent sanction of all classes in all parts of the English-speaking world +establishes it as law. +</p> + +<p> +Observe that the <i>a</i> in the verb <i>can’t</i> is broader in sound +than the <i>short a</i> in the noun <i>cant.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Don’t and Didn’t</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Don’t</i> is a contraction of <i>do not.</i> It is in very general use +and in good repute. It may be employed +<a name="Page121"></a> +wherever the expanded expression <i>do not</i> could be applied, and only +there. +</p> + +<p> +“One swallow <i>don’t</i> make a spring” is equivalent to +saying, “One swallow <i>do not</i> make a spring.” We may say +“<i>I don’t,” “You don’t,” “We +don’t,” “They don’t,” “The men</i> (or +<i>birds,</i> or <i>trees) don’t,”</i> but we must use +<i>doesn’t</i> with <i>he,</i> or <i>she,</i> or <i>it,</i> or <i>the +man, the grove, the cloud,</i> etc. +</p> + +<p> +Unlike the verb <i>do</i>, its past tense form <i>did</i> undergoes no change +in conjugation, hence the contraction <i>didn’t</i> is also uniform. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Haven’t, Hasn’t, and Hadn’t</b> +</p> + +<p> +The verb <i>have,</i> like the verb <i>do,</i> has a distinct form for the +third person singular. The same change affects the contraction. I +<i>haven’t,</i> you <i>haven’t,</i> he <i>hasn’t.</i> The +construction <i>hadn’t</i> undergoes no change. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Haint, Taint</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Haint</i> is used indiscriminately for <i>haven’t</i> and +<i>hasn’t. Taint</i> is used for <i>tisn’t.</i> Their use is +indicative of an entire lack of culture. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Isn’t</b> +</p> + +<p> +No one need hesitate to use this word. It is smooth in utterance and +contributes much to the freedom and ease of social intercourse. Its equivalent +is too stately for colloquial forms of speech, and is often +<a name="Page122"></a> +suggestive of pedantry. Compare <i>“Isn’t</i> he an eloquent +speaker?” “<i>Isn’t</i> this a beautiful flower?” with +<i>“Is not</i> he an eloquent speaker?” “<i>Is</i> this +<i>not</i> a beautiful flower?” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Wasn’t</b> +</p> + +<p> +Although not so elegant as the present tense form <i>isn’t,</i> yet the +contraction <i>wasn’t</i> is in excellent repute. It is properly used +only in the first and third persons singular. No one who makes any pretension +to culture would be guilty of saying” You <i>was</i> my neighbor, but you +<i>wasn’t</i> my friend,” “We <i>was</i> engaged in trade, +and they <i>wasn’t </i>of any use to us.” Say we <i>were</i> or +<i>were not,</i> but never <i>wasn’t</i> or <i>wa’nt.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Weren’t</b> +</p> + +<p> +The forms <i>aren’t,</i> and <i>weren’t</i> do not have the +sanction of the best speakers and writers, and should be used sparingly, if at +all. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Shouldn’t and Wouldn’t</b> +</p> + +<p> +These are frequently used in speech, but are not so common in writing. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Mustn’t, Mayn’t, Mightn’t, and Oughtn’t</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Mustn’t</i> may be used in light conversation, but not in writing. The +others should be avoided in speech and writing. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page123"></a> +<b>I’m, You’re, He’s, She’s, It’s, We’re, +They’re</b> +</p> + +<p> +The contractions formed by compounding the pronoun with the verb are very +common, and tend to preserve conversation from becoming stiff and formal. Nouns +in the singular are sometimes compounded in like manner; as, +“John’s going by the early train,” “Mary’s caught +a bird.” Not many verbs beside <i>is</i> and <i>has</i> are thus +compounded, and the practice should be discouraged. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Mayst, Mightst</b> +</p> + +<p> +Although <i>mayst, canst, mightst, couldst, wouldst,</i> and <i>shouldst</i> +are contracted forms, the apostrophe is not employed to indicate the +contraction. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Daren’t, Dursent</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Dare not</i> is sometimes contracted to <i>daren’t</i> and <i>durst +not</i> to<i> dursent,</i> but the practice should not be encouraged. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Let’s</b> +</p> + +<p> +While verbs are often contracted when compounded with pronouns, as +<i>it’s, he’s, I’m, you’re,</i> etc., the pronoun must +not be contracted to form a combination with the verb. It may be a poor rule, +but it will not work both ways. <i>Let’s</i> should therefore be <i>let +us.</i> +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="Page124"></a><a name="chap04"></a>CHAPTER IV<br/> +Possessive Case</h2> + +<p> +Some time ago a shoe merchant called upon the writer to know how to arrange the +points in the wording of a new sign that he was preparing to place over his +door. He made a specialty of shoes for men and boys. He presented a paper +containing the lines: +</p> + +<p class="center"> +Men’s and Boy’s Shoes.<br/> Mens’ and Boys’ Shoes. +</p> + +<p> +He was politely informed that both were incorrect; that the two words form +their plurals differently, and that the possessive case is, therefore, formed +in a different manner. The plural of <i>man</i> is <i>men,;</i> the plural of +<i>boy</i> is <i>boys</i>. The possessive of <i>man</i> is <i>man’s;</i> +of <i>men</i> is <i>men’s.</i> The possessive of <i>boy</i> is +<i>boy’s;</i> of <i>boys</i> is <i>boys’.</i> In the latter case we +are obliged to place the apostrophe after the <i>s</i> in order to distinguish +the possessive plural from the possessive singular. All nouns that form their +plurals by adding <i>s</i> to the singular, form their possessive case as the +word <i>boy </i>does. The sign should therefore read: +</p> + +<p class="center"> +Men’s and Boys’ Shoes. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page125"></a> +<b>Singular Nouns</b> +</p> + +<p> +All nouns in the singular form their possessive case by adding the apostrophe +and the letter <i>s</i>; as, child’s, girl’s, woman’s, +bird’s, brother’s, sister’s, judge’s, sailor’s. +</p> + +<p> +When the noun ends in <i>s, sh, ch, ce, se,</i> or <i>x</i>, the additional +<i>s</i> makes another syllable in pronouncing the word; as, James’s, +Charles’s, witness’s, duchess’s, countess’s, +Rush’s, March’s, prince’s, horse’s, fox’s. In +poetry the terminal <i>s</i> is sometimes omitted for the sake of the meter. +</p> + +<p> +While writers differ, the tendency in modern usage is toward the additional +<i>s</i> in such expressions as <i>Mrs. Hemans’s Poems, Junius’s +Letters, Knowles’s “Virginius,” Knox’s Sermons, +Brooks’s Arithmetics, Rogers’s Essays.</i> +</p> + +<p> +By long-established usage such expressions as <i>for conscience’ sake, +for righteousness’ sake, for qoodness’ sake, for Jesus’ +sake,</i> have become idioms. Some authorities justify the omission of the +possessive <i>s</i> when the next word begins with <i>s</i>, as in +<i>Archimedes’ screw, Achilles’ sword.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Plural Nouns</b> +</p> + +<p> +Most nouns form their plurals by adding <i>s</i> or <i>es</i> to the singular. +These plurals form their possessive by adding the apostrophe; as, +horses’, countesses’, foxes’, churches’, +princes’. Nouns whose plurals are formed otherwise than by adding +<i>s</i> or <i>es,</i> form their possessive +<a name="Page126"></a> +case by adding the apostrophe and <i>s,</i> just as nouns in the singular do; +as, men’s, women’s, children’s, seraphim’s. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Pronouns</b> +</p> + +<p> +Sometimes the mistake is made of using the apostrophe with the possessive +personal pronouns; as, her’s, our’s, it’s. The personal and +relative pronouns do not require the apostrophe, but the indefinite pronouns +<i>one</i> and <i>other</i> form their possessives in the same manner as nouns; +as, “<i>each other’s eyes,” “a hundred others’ +woes.”</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Double Possessives</b> +</p> + +<p> +“John and Mary’s sled,” means one sled belonging jointly to +John and Mary. “John’s and Mary’s sleds” means that one +sled belongs to John, the other to Mary. +</p> + +<p> +“Men, women, and children’s shoes for sale here.” When +several possessives connected by <i>and</i> refer to the same noun, the sign of +the possessive is applied to the last one only. +</p> + +<p> +When a disjunctive word or words are used, the sign must be annexed to each +word; as, “These are Charles’s or James’s books.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Possessive of Nouns in Apposition</b> +</p> + +<p> +When two nouns are in apposition, or constitute a title, the possessive sign is +affixed to the last, as +<a name="Page127"></a> +“For David my servant’s sake,” “Give me here John the +Baptist’s head in a charger,” “The Prince of Wales’s +yacht,” “Frederick the Great’s kindness.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>After “of”</b> +</p> + +<p> +By a peculiarity of idiom the possessive sign is used with a noun in the +objective; as, “This is a story <i>of Lincoln’s,”</i> +“That is a letter <i>of the President’s,”</i> “A +patient <i>of Dr. Butler’s,”</i> “A pupil <i>of Professor +Ludlam’s.”</i> +</p> + +<p> +In ordinary prose the custom of the best writers is to limit the use of the +possessive chiefly to persons and personified objects; to time expressions, as, +<i>an hour’s delay, a moment’s thought;</i> and to such idioms as +<i>for brevity’s sake.</i> +</p> + +<p> +Avoid such expressions as, “America’s champion baseball +player,” “Chicago’s best five-cent cigar,” “Lake +Michigan’s swiftest steamer.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Somebody else’s</b> +</p> + +<p> +The question whether we should say “This is somebody’s else +pencil,” or “This is somebody else’s pencil,” has been +warmly argued by the grammarians, the newspapers, and the schools. If some +leading journal or magazine were to write somebody else as one word, others +would, doubtless, follow, and the question of the possessive would settle +itself. The word <i>notwithstanding</i> is composed of three separate words, +<a name="Page128"></a> +which are no more closely united in thought than are the three words <i>some, +body,</i> and <i>else.</i> Two of the latter are already united, and the close +mental union of the third with the first and second would justify the +innovation. +</p> + +<p> +But the words are at present disunited. A majority of the best writers still +conform to the old custom of placing the possessive with <i>else.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“People were so ridiculous with their illusions, carrying their +fool’s caps unawares, thinking their own lies opaque, while <i>everybody +else’s </i>were transparent.”—<i>George Eliot.</i> +</p> + +<p> +Some make a distinction by placing the possessive with <i>else</i> when the +noun follows, and with <i>somebody</i> when the noun precedes; as, “This +is <i>somebody else’s</i> pencil,” and “This pencil is +<i>somebody’s else.” </i>This distinction is not generally +followed. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="Page129"></a><a name="chap05"></a>CHAPTER V<br/> +Pronouns</h2> + +<p> +The correct use of the pronouns, personal and relative, involves a degree of +skill which many speakers and writers fail to possess. The choice of the +appropriate pronoun, the agreement with its antecedent, the proper case form, +are matters that require careful consideration. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Case Forms</b> +</p> + +<p> +Following <i>am, are, is, was,</i> and other forms of the verb <i>to be,</i> +the pronoun must be in the nominative case. +</p> + +<p> +“Are you the person that called?” “Yes; I am +<i>him.”</i> The answer should have been, “I am <i>he.”</i> +</p> + +<p> +“I saw a man trespassing on my grounds, and I think you are +<i>him.” </i>Say, “You are <i>he.”</i> +</p> + +<p> +“It is only <i>me;</i> don’t be afraid.” “It is only +<i>I”</i> is the correct form. +</p> + +<p> +“It was <i>him</i> that struck you, not <i>me.”</i> Change +<i>him,</i> to <i>he,</i> and <i>me</i> to <i>I.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“It might have been <i>him</i> that sent you the present.” Use +<i>he, </i>not <i>him.</i> +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page130"></a> +“It is <i>him whom</i> you said it was.” The sentence should be, +“It is <i>he who</i> you said it was.” +</p> + +<p> +“That was but a picture of him and not <i>him</i> himself.” Say, +“and not <i>he</i> himself.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>After Verbs and Prepositions</b> +</p> + +<p> +When a pronoun depends upon a verb or a preposition the pronoun must be in the +objective case. +</p> + +<p> +“Between you and <i>I,</i> that picture is very faulty.” The +pronouns <i>you </i>and <i>I</i> depend upon the preposition <i>between.</i> +The pronoun <i>I </i>should therefore be in the objective case, and the +sentence should be, “Between <i>you</i> and <i>me,</i> that picture is +very faulty.” +</p> + +<p> +“The president of the meeting appointed <i>you</i> and <i>I</i> upon the +committee.” As both pronouns are objects of the transitive verb +<i>appointed, </i>both should be in the objective case. <i>You</i> having the +same form in the objective as in the nominative is, therefore, correct, but +<i>I</i> should be changed to <i>me.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“The teacher selected <i>he</i> and <i>I</i> to represent the +class.” The pronouns are the objects of the verb <i>selected,</i> and +should be changed to <i>him</i> and <i>me.</i> The infinitive <i>to +represent,</i> like other infinitives, can have no subject, and, therefore, +does not control the case of the pronouns. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Interrogatives</b> +</p> + +<p> +When a question is asked, the subject is usually placed after the verb, or +between the auxiliary and +<a name="Page131"></a> +the verb; as, “Did you go to town?” “Will he sail +to-day?” “Has your uncle arrived?” “Hearest thou thy +mother’s call?” +</p> + +<p> +The object or attribute of the verb, when a pronoun, is often used to introduce +the sentence. “<i>Who</i> should I see coming toward me but my old +friend?” <i>Who</i> should be <i>whom,</i> for it is the object, and not +the subject, of the verb <i>should see.</i> +</p> + +<p> +<i>“Whom</i> do you think that tall gentleman is?” <i>Whom</i> +should be <i>who,</i> as it is the attribute of the verb <i>is.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“<i>Who</i> do you take me for?” Being the object of the +preposition <i>for, who</i> should be <i>whom.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>After “To be”</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I knew it was <i>him”</i> is incorrect, because the word which +forms the pronoun attribute of the verb <i>was</i> must be in the nominative +case. But the infinitive of the neuter verb requires the objective case. +Therefore we must say, “I knew it to be <i>him,”</i> not “I +knew it to be <i>he.”</i> The latter faulty form is very frequently +employed. +</p> + +<p> +“<i>Who</i> did you suppose it to be?” Incorrect. Say, +<i>“whom.”</i> +</p> + +<p> +<i>“Whom</i> did you suppose it was?” Incorrect. Say, +<i>“who.”</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page132"></a> +<b>After the Imperative</b> +</p> + +<p> +The imperative mood requires the objective case after it. “Let you and +<i>I</i> try it.” It should be, “Let you and <i>me</i> try +it.” +</p> + +<p> +“Let <i>he</i> who made thee answer that.”—<i>Byron.</i> He +should have said, “Let <i>him</i> who made thee answer that.” +</p> + +<p> +“Let <i>him</i> be <i>whom,</i> he may.” <i>Him</i> is the +objective after the imperative <i>let,</i> and is correct. <i>Whom</i> should +be <i>who,</i> as pronoun attribute of the verb <i>may be.</i> +“<i>Who</i> he may be, I cannot tell,” is correct. +“<i>Who</i> he may be, let him be,” is also correct. By +transposing, and by omitting <i>be,</i> we have “Let him be <i>who</i> he +may.” +</p> + +<p> +“Let the sea roar, and the fullness thereof; the world, and <i>they</i> +that dwell therein.” When, as in this case, the verb is widely separated +from its object, we need to give particular care to the case of the pronoun +which constitutes the object. <i>They</i> should be <i>them.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Silent Predicate</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Who will go with us to the woods? <i>Me.”</i> The complete answer +would be,” Me will go with you to the woods,” the faultiness of +which is evident. The answer should be “<i>I.”</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>After “Than” and “As”</b> +</p> + +<p> +The objective pronoun is often incorrectly used for the nominative after +<i>than</i> or <i>as</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page133"></a> +“He can swim better <i>than me.”</i> The complete sentence would +be, “He can swim better than <i>I</i> can swim.” The omission of +the verb <i>can swim </i>affords no reason for changing <i>I</i> to <i>me.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“He is no better than <i>me.”</i> Say, “He is no better than +<i>I,” </i>meaning, <i>I am.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“They are common people, such as you and <i>me</i>.” Such people +“as you and I are.” The pronoun should be <i>I,</i> not <i>me.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Parenthetical Expressions</b> +</p> + +<p> +When a parenthetical expression comes between a pronoun in the nominative case +and its verb, the objective is often incorrectly used instead of the +nominative. +</p> + +<p> +“She sang for the benefit of those <i>whom</i> she thought might be +interested.” The explanatory parenthesis <i>“she thought”</i> +comes between the pronominal subject and its verb <i>might be interested.</i> +Omit the explanatory clause and the case of the pronoun becomes clear. +“She sang for the benefit of those <i>who</i> might be interested.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Agreement with Antecedent</b> +</p> + +<p> +A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in <i>gender, person,</i> and +<i>number.</i> The gender and person usually take care of themselves, but the +number of pronouns is a serious obstacle to correct speech. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page134"></a> +“One tells the quality of <i>their</i> minds when <i>they</i> try to talk +well”—<i>George Eliot,</i> in <i>Middlemarch.</i> The pronouns +<i>their </i>and <i>they</i> should be singular. +</p> + +<p> +“Everybody has something to say which <i>they think</i> is worthy of +being heard.” <i>Everybody</i> refers to persons singly, and not +collectively. <i>They think</i> should be <i>he thinks, he</i> being the proper +pronoun to employ when the gender is not indicated. +</p> + +<p> +“Every nation has laws and customs of <i>their</i> own.” The use of +the word <i>every</i> necessitates a pronoun in the singular, hence +<i>their</i> should be <i>its.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“Every one is accountable for <i>their</i> own acts.” Use +<i>his.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“She studied his countenance like an inscription, and deciphered +<i>each</i> rapt expression that crossed it, and stored <i>them</i> in her +memory.” Change <i>them</i> to <i>it.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“Each of them, in <i>their</i> turn, received the reward to which <i>they +were</i> entitled.” This should be “Each of them in <i>his</i> turn +received the reward to which <i>he was</i> entitled.” +</p> + +<p> +<i>No</i> and <i>not,</i> like <i>each</i> and <i>every,</i> when they qualify +a plural antecedent, or one consisting of two or more nouns, require a pronoun +in the singular. +</p> + +<p> +“No policeman, no employee, no citizen dared to lift <i>their</i> +hand” Say, <i>his</i> hand. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page135"></a> +<b>Or, Nor</b> +</p> + +<p> +When the antecedent consists of two or more nouns separated by <i>or, nor, as +well as,</i> or any other disjunctive, the pronoun must be singular. +</p> + +<p> +“Neither spelling nor parsing <i>receive</i> the attention <i>they</i> +once received.” Verb and pronoun should be singular, <i>receives</i> and +<i>it.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Collective Noun</b> +</p> + +<p> +When a noun of multitude or collective noun is the antecedent, the pronoun, +like the verb, must be plural or singular according to the sense intended to be +conveyed. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Ambiguity</b> +</p> + +<p> +Never leave the antecedent of your pronoun in doubt. +</p> + +<p> +“John tried to see his father in the crowd, but could not, because <i>he +</i>was so short.” If the father was short, repeat the noun and omit the +pronoun, as “John tried to see his father in the crowd but could not +because his father was so short.” If John was short, recast the sentence: +“John, being short of stature, tried in vain to see his father in the +crowd.” +</p> + +<p> +“He said to his friend that, if he did not feel better soon, he thought +he had better go home.” This sentence is susceptible of four +interpretations. We shall omit the first part of the sentence in the last +<a name="Page136"></a> +three interpretations, as it is the same in all. “He said to his friend: +‘If I do not feel better soon, I think I had better go +home.’” “If I do not feel better soon, I think you had better +go home.” “If you do not feel better soon, I think I had better go +home.” “If you do not feel better soon, I think you had better go +home.” +</p> + +<p> +“The lad cannot leave his father; for, if he should leave <i>him, he</i> +would die.” To avoid ambiguity substitute <i>his father</i> for the +italicised pronouns. The repetition is not pleasant, but it is the lesser of +two evils. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Needless Pronouns</b> +</p> + +<p> +Avoid all pronouns and other words that are not essential to the meaning. +</p> + +<p> +“The father <i>he</i> died, the mother <i>she</i> soon followed <i>after, +</i>and the children <i>they</i> were <i>all</i> taken <i>down</i> sick.” +</p> + +<p> +“Let every one turn from <i>his or her</i> evil ways.” Unless there +is special reason for emphasizing the feminine pronoun, avoid the awkward +expression <i>his or her.</i> The pronoun <i>his</i> includes the other. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Mixed Pronouns</b> +</p> + +<p> +Do not use two styles of the pronoun in the same Sentence. “Enter +<i>thou</i> into the joy of <i>your</i> Lord.” “Love <i>thyself</i> +last, and others will love <i>you</i>.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page137"></a> +<b>Them, Those</b> +</p> + +<p> +It should not be necessary to caution the reader against the use of <i>them +</i>for <i>those.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“Fetch me <i>them</i> books.” “Did you see <i>them,</i> fat +oxen?” “<i>Them’s</i> good; I’ll take another +dish.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Which, Who</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Those <i>which</i> say so are mistaken.” <i>Who</i> is applied to +persons; <i>which,</i> to the lower animals and to inanimate things. +</p> + +<p> +“He has some friends <i>which</i> I know.” <i>Whom,</i> the +objective case form of the pronoun <i>who,</i> should here be used. +</p> + +<p> +“The dog, <i>who</i> was called Rover, went mad.” Use <i>which.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>What, That</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>That</i> is applied to persons, animals, and things. <i>What </i>is applied +to things. The antecedent of <i>what</i> should not be expressed. <i>What</i> +is both antecedent and relative. +</p> + +<p> +“All <i>what</i> he saw he described.” Say, “What he +saw,” or “All <i>that </i>he saw,” etc. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Uniform Relatives</b> +</p> + +<p> +When several relative clauses relate to the same antecedent, they should have +the same relative pronoun. +</p> + +<p> +“It was Joseph <i>that</i> was sold into Egypt, who +<a name="Page138"></a> +became governor of the land, and <i>which</i> saved his father and brothers +from famine.” Change <i>that</i> and <i>which</i> to <i>who</i>. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Choice of Relatives</b> +</p> + +<p> +Since <i>who</i> and <i>that</i> are both applied to persons, and <i>which</i> +and <i>that</i> are both applied to animals and things, it often becomes a +serious question which relative we shall employ. Much has been written upon the +subject, but the critics still differ in theory and in practice. The following +is probably as simple a statement of the general rule as can be found: +</p> + +<p> +If the relative clause is of such a nature that it could be introduced by +<i>and he, and she, and it, and they,</i> etc., the relative <i>who</i> (for +persons) and <i>which</i> (for animals or things) should be used in preference +to the relative <i>that.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“Man <i>that</i> is born of a woman is of few days, and full of +trouble.” The language of the Bible and of Shakespeare must stand, +although the forms of expression differ greatly from those employed at the +present day. According to modern standards, <i>that</i> should be <i>who.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“The earth is enveloped by an ocean of air <i>that</i> is a compound of +oxygen and nitrogen!” Change <i>that</i> to <i>which</i>. +</p> + +<p> +The relative <i>that</i> should be used in preference to <i>who</i> or +<i>which:</i> +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +<a name="Page139"></a> +(1) When the antecedent names both persons and things;<br/> +(2) When it would prevent ambiguity;<br/> +(3) After the words <i>same, very, all;</i><br/> +(4) After the interrogative pronoun <i>who;</i><br/> +(5) After adjectives expressing quality in the highest degree. +</p> + +<p> +“The wisest men <i>who</i> ever lived made mistakes.” Use +<i>that.</i> See (5). +</p> + +<p> +“He lived near a stagnant pool <i>which</i> was a nuisance.” Use +<i>that. </i>See (2). +</p> + +<p> +“All <i>who</i> knew him loved him.” Say <i>that.</i> See (3). +</p> + +<p> +“Who <i>who</i> saw him did not pity him.” See (4). +</p> + +<p> +“He spake of the men and things <i>which</i> he had seen.” See (1). +</p> + +<p> +“These are my pupils <i>which</i> I have brought to see you.” Use +<i>whom, </i>as <i>which</i> is not applied to persons. +</p> + +<p> +“This is the window <i>whose</i> panes were broken by the rude +boys.” Use “the panes of <i>which.”</i> Because of its +convenience, perhaps, the faulty <i>whose</i> is very largely used; as, +“The eagle <i>whose</i> wings,” “The house <i>whose</i> +gables,” “The ocean <i>whose</i> waves,” “The vessel +<i>whose</i> sails,” “The play <i>whose</i> chief merit,” +“Music <i>whose </i>chief attraction,” etc. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page140"></a> +<b>Which and Who after “And”</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Which</i> and <i>who</i> cannot follow <i>and</i> unless there has been a +preceding <i>which</i> or <i>who</i> in the same sentence and in the same +construction. +</p> + +<p> +“The more important rules, definitions and observations, <i>and which</i> +are therefore the most proper to be committed to memory, are printed +<i>with</i> a large type.”—<i>Murray’s Grammar.</i> In +Moore’s <i>Bad English</i> the sentence is corrected thus: “The +rules, definitions, and observations <i>which </i>are the more important, +<i>and which</i> are therefore the most proper to be committed to memory, are +printed in larger type.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Adverbs for Relative Pronouns</b> +</p> + +<p> +Adverbs are often employed where a preposition with a relative pronoun would +better express the sense. +</p> + +<p> +“There is no method known <i>how</i> his safety may be assured.” +Use <i>by which</i> instead of <i>how.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“He wrote me a letter <i>where</i> he repeated his instructions.” +“Letter <i>in which</i> he repeated,” etc. +</p> + +<p> +“And curse the country <i>where</i> their fathers dwelt.” +<i>“In which </i>their fathers dwelt.” +</p> + +<p> +“This is a case <i>where</i> large interests are involved.” The +preposition and relative will better express the meaning; as, “This is a +case <i>in which </i>large interests are involved.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page141"></a> +<b>Misplaced Relative</b> +</p> + +<p> +The relative should be so placed as to prevent ambiguity, and as near as +possible to its antecedent. +</p> + +<p> +“Mr. Smith needs a surgeon, <i>who</i> has broken his arm.” Say, +“Mr. Smith, <i>who</i> has broken,” etc. +</p> + +<p> +“The figs were in small wooden boxes, <i>which</i> we ate.” +“The figs <i>which </i>we ate,” etc. +</p> + +<p> +“He needs no boots <i>that</i> cannot walk.” “He <i>that</i> +cannot walk,” etc. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Omitted Relatives</b> +</p> + +<p> +The relative pronoun is often omitted when it should be expressed. +</p> + +<p> +“The next falsehood he told was the worst of all.” Say, “The +next falsehood <i>that</i> he told,” etc. +</p> + +<p> +“It is little we know of the divine perfections.” Say, +“Little <i>that</i> we know.” +</p> + +<p> +“Almost all the irregularities in the construction of any language have +arisen from the ellipsis of some words which were originally inserted in the +sentence and made it regular.”—<i>Murray’s Grammar.</i> The +sentence should end with “<i>and which</i> made it regular.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>The one, the other</b> +</p> + +<p> +When <i>the one</i> and <i>the other</i> refer to things previously mentioned, +<i>the one</i> applies to the first mentioned, and <i>the other</i> to the last +mentioned. +</p> + +<p> +“Homer was a genius, Virgil an artist: in <i>the one</i> we most admire +the man; in <i>the other,</i> the work.” +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="Page142"></a><a name="chap06"></a>CHAPTER VI<br/> +Number</h2> + +<p> +Many persons of moderate education regard nouns that do not end with <i>s</i> +or <i>es</i> as singular. Even the gifted pen of Addison once slipped so far as +to betray him into using the word <i>seraphim,</i> in the singular. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Cherubim, Seraphim</b> +</p> + +<p> +The words <i>cherub</i> and <i>seraph,</i> are singular. <i>Cherub, </i>as +applied to a little child, takes the English plural, <i>cherubs.</i> As applied +to an order of angels, it takes the Hebrew plural, <i>cherubim.</i> The +singular, <i>seraph,</i> has an English plural, <i>seraphs,</i> as well as the +Hebrew plural, <i>seraphim.</i> The double plurals, <i>cherubims</i> and +<i>seraphims,</i> although found in the King James version of the Bible, are +regarded as faulty in modern writing, and should be avoided. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>News</b> +</p> + +<p> +Although plural in form, the word <i>news</i> is singular in meaning; as, +“The <i>news</i> from Europe this morning is quite interesting.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page143"></a> +<b>Acoustics</b> +</p> + +<p> +Names of sciences ending in <i>ics,</i> are generally regarded as singular. +<i>“Acoustics</i> is a very considerable branch of physics.” Do not +say, “The <i>acoustics</i> of this hall <i>are</i> good,” but +“The <i>acoustic</i> <i>properties</i> of this hall are good.” +</p> + +<p> +Dialectics, dynamics, economics, mathematics, ethics, politics, tactics, when +used as substantives, require a verb in the singular. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Analysis</b> +</p> + +<p> +Many words like <i>analysis, crisis, ellipsis, emphasis, hypothesis, oasis, +parenthesis, synopsis,</i> form their plurals by changing the termination +<i>is</i> into <i>es;</i> as, <i>analyses, crises,</i> etc. The word <i>iris +</i>takes the English plural <i>irises;</i> Latin plural is <i>irides. +Chrysalis</i> has only the Latin plural, <i>chrysalides;</i> but <i>chrysalid, +</i>which means the same as <i>chrysalis,</i> takes the English plural, +<i>chrysalids.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Terminus</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Terminus, radius, alumnus,</i> and some other words ending in <i>us</i>, +form their plurals by changing the termination <i>us</i> into <i>i</i>; as +<i>termini, radii,</i> etc. +</p> + +<p> +Many words ending in <i>us</i> that formerly were written with only the Latin +plural, are now given an English plural also; as, <i>focuses, foci; cactuses, +cacti; sarcophaguses, sarcophagi; convolvuluses, convolvuli ; funguses, fungi; +nucleuses, nuclei.</i> +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page144"></a> +<i>Isthmus, prospectus, rebus,</i> take only the English plural. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Apparatus</i> has no plural. Avoid <i>apparatuses.</i> +</p> + +<p> +The plural of <i>genius,</i> as applied to a man of unusual vigor of mind, is +<i>geniuses.</i> When applied to a good or bad spirit, the plural is +<i>genii.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Formula</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Formulas, larvas, stigmas,</i> are regular English plurals; <i>formulae, +larvae,</i> and <i>stigmata</i> are the classical plurals. <i>Nebulae</i> and +<i>alumnae</i> are the proper plurals, the latter being the feminine noun +corresponding to the masculine plural <i>alumni.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Datum, Phenomenon</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Datum, erratum, candelabrum,</i> and <i>memorandum</i> form their plurals by +changing <i>um</i> to <i>a</i>; as, <i>data, errata,</i> etc. The last two also +take the English plurals, <i>memorandums, candelabrums.</i> +</p> + +<p> +The plural of <i>phenomenon</i> and <i>criterion</i> are <i>phenomena, +criteria,</i> although <i>criterions</i> is sometimes employed. +</p> + +<p> +The plural forms, <i>data, strata,</i> and <i>phenomena,</i> are so much more +frequently used than their singular forms, <i>datum, stratum,</i> and +<i>phenomenon,</i> that some writers have slipped into the habit of using the +plurals with a singular meaning; as, “The <i>aurora borealis</i> is a +very strange <i>phenomena.”</i> “Our <i>data</i> is insufficient to +establish a theory.” “The <i>strata</i> is broken and +irregular.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page145"></a> +<b>Mussulmans</b> +</p> + +<p> +While most words ending in <i>man</i> become plural by changing this +termination to <i>men,</i> as <i>gentlemen, noblemen, clergymen, statesmen, +</i>the following simply add <i>s</i>: <i>dragomans, Mussulmans, Ottomans, +talismans</i> “A dozen dragomans offered their services as guides and +interpreters.” “A band of Mussulmans cut off our retreat.” +“Those fierce Ottomans proved to be very revengeful.” “He +purchased five finely upholstered ottomans for his drawing-room.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Heroes, Cantos</b> +</p> + +<p> +Most nouns ending in <i>o</i> add <i>es</i> to form the plural; as, <i>heroes, +negroes, potatoes, stuccoes, manifestoes, mosquitoes.</i> Words ending in +<i>io</i> or <i>yo</i> add <i>s;</i> as, <i>folios, nuncios, olios, ratios, +embryos</i>. +</p> + +<p> +The following words, being less frequently used, often puzzle us to know +whether to add <i>s</i> or <i>es</i> to form the plural: <i>armadillos, cantos, +cuckoos, halos, juntos, octavos, provisos, salvos, solos, twos, tyros, +virtuosos.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Alms, Odds, Riches</b> +</p> + +<p> +Many nouns that end in <i>s</i> have a plural appearance, and we are often +perplexed to know whether to use <i>this</i> or <i>these,</i> and whether to +employ a singular or a plural verb when the noun is used as a substantive. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Amends</i> is singular. <i>Assets, dregs, eaves, bees, pincers, riches, +scissors, sheers, tongs, vitals,</i> are plural. When we +<a name="Page146"></a> +say <i>a</i> <i>pair of pincers,</i> or <i>scissors</i>, or <i>shears,</i> or +<i>tongs,</i> the verb should be singular. <i>Tidings,</i> in +Shakespeare’s time, was used indiscriminately with a singular or plural +verb, but is now generally regarded as plural. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Alms</i> and <i>headquarters</i> are usually made plural, but are +occasionally found with a singular verb. <i>Pains</i> is usually singular. +<i>Means, odds,</i> and <i>species</i> are singular or plural, according to the +meaning. +</p> + +<p> +“By <i>this means</i> he accomplished his purpose.” “What +other <i>means is </i>left to us?” “Your <i>means are</i> very +slender, and your waste is great.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Proper Names</b> +</p> + +<p> +These are usually pluralized by adding <i>s</i>; as, <i>the Stuarts, the +Caesars, the Beechers, the Brownings.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Titles with Proper Names</b> +</p> + +<p> +Shall we say <i>the Miss Browns, the Misses Brown,</i> or <i>the Misses +Browns?</i> Great diversity of opinion prevails. Gould Brown says: “The +name and not the title is varied to form the plural; as, <i>the Miss Howards, +the two Mr. Clarks.”</i> +</p> + +<p> +Alexander Bain, LL. D., says: “We may say <i>the Misses Brown,</i> or +<i>the Miss Browns,</i> or even <i>the Misses Browns.”</i> +</p> + +<p> +The chief objection to the last two forms is found when the proper name ends +with <i>s</i>, as when we say, <i>the Miss Brookses, the Miss Joneses, the Miss +Pottses, the</i> +<a name="Page147"></a> +<i>Miss Blisses.</i> The form <i>the Misses Brooks</i> is objected to by some +on the ground that it sounds affected. On the whole the rule given by Gould +Brown is the best, and is quite generally observed. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Knight Templar</b> +</p> + +<p> +Both words are made plural, <i>Knights Templars,</i> a very unusual way of +forming the plural. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Plural Compounds</b> +</p> + +<p> +The plural sign of a compound word is affixed to the principal part of the +word, to the part that conveys the predominant idea; as, <i>fathers-in-law, +man-servants, outpourings, ingatherings.</i> In such words as <i>handfuls, +cupfuls, mouthfuls,</i> the plural ending is added to the subordinate part +because the ideas are so closely associated as to blend into one. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Beaus, Beaux</b> +</p> + +<p> +Some words ending in <i>eau</i> have only the English plurals, as <i>bureaus, +portmanteaus;</i> others take both the English and the French plurals, as +<i>beaus, beaux; flambeaus, flambeaux; plateaus, plateaux;</i> and still others +take only the foreign plural; as, <i>bateaux, chateaux, tableaux.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Pair, Couple, Brace</b> +</p> + +<p> +After numerals, the singular form of such words as these is generally employed; +as, five <i>pair</i> of gloves, eight <i>couple</i> of dancers, three +<i>brace</i> of pigeons, five +<a name="Page148"></a> +<i>dozen</i> of eggs, four <i>score</i> years, twenty <i>sail</i> of ships, +fifty <i>head</i> of cattle, six <i>hundred</i> of these men, two <i>thousand +</i>of these cattle, etc. +</p> + +<p> +After such indefinite adjectives as <i>few, many, several,</i> some of the +above words take the plural form; as, several <i>hundreds,</i> many +<i>thousands.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Index, Appendix</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Indexes</i> of books; <i>indices,</i> if applied to mathematical signs in +algebra. <i>Appendixes</i> or <i>appendices.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Fish, Fly</b> +</p> + +<p> +The plural of <i>fish</i> is <i>fishes</i> when considered individually, and +<i>fish</i> when considered collectively. “My three pet <i>fishes</i> +feed out of my hand.” “Six barrels of <i>fish</i> were landed from +the schooner.” +</p> + +<p> +Most words ending in <i>y</i> change this termination into <i>ies,</i> as +<i>duties, cities,</i> etc. The plural of <i>fly,</i> the insect, is formed in +the usual manner, but fly, a light carriage, adds <i>s</i>; as, “Six +<i>flys </i>carried the guests to their homes.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Animalcule</b> +</p> + +<p> +The plural of this word is <i>animalcules.</i> There is no plural +<i>animalculae.</i> The plural of the Latin <i>animalculum</i> is +<i>animalcula.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Bandit</b> +</p> + +<p> +This word has two plural forms, <i>bandits</i> and <i>banditti.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page149"></a> +<b>Brother</b> +</p> + +<p> +Plural <i>brothers,</i> when referring to members of the same family; +<i>brethren,</i> when applied to members of the same church or society. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Die</b> +</p> + +<p> +Plural <i>dies,</i> when the stamp with which seals are impressed is meant; +<i>dice,</i> the cubes used in playing backgammon. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Herring</b> +</p> + +<p> +The plural is <i>herrings,</i> but <i>shad, trout, bass, pike, pickerel, +grayling,</i> have no plural form. “I caught three <i>bass</i> and seven +fine <i>pickerel</i> this morning.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Grouse</b> +</p> + +<p> +The names of game birds, as <i>grouse, quail, snipe, woodcock,</i> usually take +no plural form. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Pea</b> +</p> + +<p> +Considered individually the plural is <i>peas;</i> when referring to the crop +the proper form is <i>pease.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Penny</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He gave me twelve bright new <i>pennies,”</i> referring to the +individual coins. “I paid him twelve <i>pence,”</i> meaning a +<i>shilling.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Wharf</b> +</p> + +<p> +Plural, generally <i>wharves</i> in America; <i>wharfs</i> in England. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="Page150"></a><a name="chap07"></a>CHAPTER VII<br/> +Adverbs</h2> + +<p> +The clearness of the sentence is often dependent upon the proper placing of the +adverb. No absolute rule can be laid down, but it should generally be placed +before the word it qualifies. It is sometimes necessary to place it after the +verb, and occasionally between the auxiliary and the verb, but it should never +come between <i>to</i> and the <i>infinitive.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“I have thought of marrying <i>often.”</i> As the adverb relates to +the thinking, and not to the marrying, the sentence should read, “I have +<i>often </i>thought of marrying.” +</p> + +<p> +“We have <i>often</i> occasion to speak of health.” This should be, +“We <i>often</i> have occasion,” etc, +</p> + +<p> +“It remains then <i>undecided</i> whether we shall go to Newport or +Saratoga.” Place <i>undecided</i> before <i>then.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Adjective or Adverb?</b> +</p> + +<p> +There is often a doubt in the mind of the speaker whether to use the adjective +or the adverb, and too frequently he reaches a wrong decision. When the +limiting word expresses a quality or state of the +<a name="Page"></a> +subject or of the object of a verb, the adjective must be employed; but if the +manner of the action is to be expressed, the adverb must be used. The verbs +<i>be, seem, look, taste, smell,</i> and <i>feel</i> furnish many +stumbling-blocks. +</p> + +<p> +“This rose smells <i>sweetly.”</i> As the property or quality of +the rose is here referred to, and not the manner of smelling, the adjective +<i>sweet </i>should be employed, and not the adverb <i>sweetly.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“Thomas feels quite <i>badly</i> about it.” Here, again, it is the +condition of Thomas’s mind, and not the manner of feeling, that is to be +expressed; hence, <i>badly</i> should be <i>bad</i> or <i>uncomfortable.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“Didn’t she look <i>beautifully</i> upon the occasion of her +wedding?” No; she looked <i>beautiful.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“The sun shines brightly.” <i>Bright</i> is the better word. +</p> + +<p> +“The child looks <i>cold,”</i> refers to the condition of the +child. “The lady looked <i>coldly</i> upon her suitor,” refers to +the manner of looking. +</p> + +<p> +“The boy feels warm” is correct. “The boy feels <i>warmly</i> +the rebuke of his teacher” is equally correct. +</p> + +<p> +While license is granted to the poets to use the adjective for the adverb, as +in the line +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +“They fall <i>successive</i> and <i>successive</i> rise,” +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +in prose the one must never be substituted for the other. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page152"></a> +<i>“Agreeably</i> to my promise, I now write,” not +<i>“Agreeable</i> to my promise.” +</p> + +<p> +“An <i>awful</i> solemn funeral,” should be “An +<i>awfully</i> solemn funeral.” +</p> + +<p> +“He acts <i>bolder</i> than was expected,” should be “He acts +<i>more boldly.”</i> +</p> + +<p> +“Helen has been <i>awful</i> sick, but she is now <i>considerable +</i>better.” “Helen has been very ill, but she is now +<i>considerably </i>better.” +</p> + +<p> +Do not use <i>coarser</i> for more coarsely, <i>finer</i> for more finely, +<i>harsher</i> for more harshly, <i>conformable</i> for conformably, <i>decided +</i>for decidedly, <i>distinct</i> for distinctly, <i>fearful</i> for +fearfully, <i>fluent</i> for fluently. +</p> + +<p> +Do not say “This melon is <i>uncommon</i> good,” but “This +melon is <i>uncommonly</i> good.” +</p> + +<p> +The word <i>ill</i> is both an adjective and an adverb. Do not say “He +can illy afford to live in such a house,” but “He can <i>ill</i> +afford.” +</p> + +<p> +“That was a <i>dreadful</i> solemn sermon.” To say “That was +a <i>dreadfully </i>solemn sermon” would more grammatically express what +the speaker intended, but <i>very</i> or <i>exceedingly</i> would better +express the meaning. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Such, So</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Such</i> is often improperly used for the adverb <i>so.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“In <i>such</i> a mild and healthful climate.” This should be, +“In <i>so</i> mild and healthful a climate.” +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page153"></a> +“With all due deference to <i>such</i> a high authority on <i>such</i> a +very important matter.” Change to, “With all due deference to +<i>so</i> high an authority on <i>so</i> very important a matter.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Good, Well</b> +</p> + +<p> +Many intelligent persons carelessly use the adjective <i>good</i> in the sense +of the adverb <i>well;</i> as, “I feel <i>good</i> to-day.” +“Did you sleep <i>good</i> last night?” “Does this coat look +<i>good</i> enough to wear on the street?” “I can do it as +<i>good</i> as he can.” The frequent indulgence in such errors dulls the +sense of taste and weakens the power of discrimination. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Very much of</b> +</p> + +<p> +“She is <i>very much of</i> a lady.” Say, “She is very +ladylike.” “He is <i>very much of</i> a gentleman.” Say, +“He is very gentlemanly.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Quite</b> +</p> + +<p> +This adverb is often incorrectly used in the sense of <i>very</i> or +<i>rather.</i> It should be employed only in the sense of <i>wholly</i> or +<i>entirely.</i> These sentences are therefore incorrect: +</p> + +<p> +“He was wounded <i>quite</i> severely.” +</p> + +<p> +“James was <i>quite</i> tired of doing nothing.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page154"></a> +<b>How</b> +</p> + +<p> +This word is sometimes used when another would be more appropriate. +</p> + +<p> +“He said <i>how</i> he would quit farming.” Use <i>that.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“Ye see <i>how</i> that not many wise men are called.” We must read +the Bible as we find it, but in modern English the sentence would be corrected +by omitting <i>how.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“Be careful <i>how</i> you offend him.” If the manner of offending +is the thought to be expressed, the sentence is correct. But the true meaning +is doubtless better expressed by, “Be careful <i>lest</i> you offend +him.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>No, Not</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I cannot tell whether he will come or <i>no.”</i> “Whether +he be a sinner or <i>no</i> I know not.” In such cases <i>not</i> should +be used instead of <i>no.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>This much</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>“This much</i> can be said in his favor.” Change <i>this +much</i> to <i>so</i> <i>much</i> or<i> thus much.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>That far</b> +</p> + +<p> +The expressions <i>this far</i> and <i>that far,</i> although they are very +common, are, nevertheless, incorrect. <i>Thus</i> <i>far</i> or <i>so far +</i>should be used instead. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page155"></a> +<b>Over, More than</b> +</p> + +<p> +“There were not <i>over</i> thirty persons present.” <i>Over</i> is +incorrect; <i>above</i> has some sanction; but <i>more than,</i> is the best, +and should be used. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Real good</b> +</p> + +<p> +This is one of those good-natured expressions that insinuate themselves into +the speech of even cultured people. <i>Very good</i> is just as short, and much +more correct. <i>Really good</i> scarcely conveys the thought intended. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>So nice</b> +</p> + +<p> +“This basket of flowers is <i>so</i> <i>nice.” So nice</i> does not +tell <i>how</i> <i>nice. So</i> requires a correlative to complete its meaning. +Use <i>very nice</i> or <i>very pretty.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Pell-mell</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He rushes <i>pell-mell</i> down the street.” One bird cannot flock +by itself, nor can one man rush <i>pell-mell.</i> It will require at least +several men to produce the intermixing and confusion which the word is intended +to convey. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="Page156"></a><a name="chap08"></a>CHAPTER VIII<br/> +Conjunctions</h2> + +<p> +As a general rule, sentences should not begin with conjunctions. <i>And, +or,</i> and <i>nor</i> are often needlessly employed to introduce a sentence. +The disjunctive <i>but</i> may sometimes be used to advantage in this position, +and in animated and easy speech or writing the coordinate conjunction +<i>and</i> may be serviceable, but these and all other conjunctions, when made +to introduce sentences, should be used sparingly. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Reason, Because</b> +</p> + +<p> +“The <i>reason</i> I ask you to tell the story is <i>because</i> you can +do it better than I.” <i>Because</i> means <i>“for the +reason</i>.” This makes the sentence equivalent to “The +<i>reason</i> I ask you to tell the story is <i>for the reason</i> that you can +do it better than I.” Use <i>that </i>instead of because. +</p> + +<p> +<i>“Because</i> William studied law is no <i>reason</i> why his brother +should not do so.” The following is better: <i>“That</i> William +studied law is no <i>reason</i> why his brother should not do so.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page157"></a> +<b>Only, Except, But</b> +</p> + +<p> +“The house was as convenient as his, <i>only</i> that it was a trifle +smaller.” Use <i>except</i> for <i>only.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“The field was as large as his, <i>only</i> the soil was less +fertile.” Use <i>but</i> for <i>only.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>But, Except</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Being the eldest of the brothers <i>but</i> Philip, who was an invalid, +he assumed charge of his father’s estate.” <i>Except</i> is better +than <i>but.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>But what, But that</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Think no man so perfect <i>but what</i> he may err.” Say, +<i>“but that</i> he may err.” +</p> + +<p> +“I could not think <i>but what</i> he was insane.” Use <i>but +that.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>But, If</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I should not wonder <i>but</i> the assembly would adjourn to-day.” +Use <i>if</i> instead of <i>but.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>But, That</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I have no doubt <i>but</i> he will serve you well.” Say, +“<i>that </i>he will serve you well.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>That, That</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I wished to show, by your own writings, <i>that</i> so far were you from +being competent to teach others English composition, <i>that</i> you had need +yourself to study its first principles.”—<i>Moon, Dean’s +English.</i> +</p> + +<p> +The second <i>that</i> is superfluous. This fault is very +<a name="Page158"></a> +common with writers who use long sentences. The intervention of details between +the first <i>that</i> and the clause which it is intended to introduce causes +the writer to forget that he has used the introductory word, and prompts him to +repeat it unconsciously. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>But</b> +</p> + +<p> +“There is no doubt <i>but</i> that he is the greatest painter of the +age.” The word <i>but</i> is superfluous. “He never doubted +<i>but</i> that he was the best fisherman on the coast.” Omit <i>but.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>That</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He told me he would write as soon as he reached London.” Say, +“He told me <i>that</i> he would write,” etc. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Than</b> +</p> + +<p> +“The Romans loved war better <i>than</i> the Greeks.” Such +ambiguous forms should be avoided. As it is not probable that the speaker +intended to say that the Romans loved war better than they loved the Greeks, he +should have framed his sentence thus: “The Romans loved war better than +the Greeks did.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>But that</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He suffered no inconvenience <i>but that</i> arising from the +dust.” <i>But that,</i> or <i>except that,</i> is correct. Some persons +improperly use <i>than that</i> after <i>no.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“I don’t know <i>but</i> <i>that</i> I shall go to Europe.” +Omit <i>that. “</i>I don’t know <i>but</i> I shall go,” etc. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page159"></a> +<b>Other than</b> +</p> + +<p> +“We suffered no <i>other</i> inconvenience <i>but</i> that arising from +the dust.” This is incorrect. After <i>other</i> we should use <i>than. +</i>Therefore, “We suffered no <i>other</i> inconvenience <i>than</i> +that arising from the dust.” +</p> + +<p> +After <i>else, other, rather,</i> and all comparatives, the latter term of +comparison should be introduced by the conjunction <i>than.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Either the</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Passengers are requested not to converse with <i>either</i> conductor or +driver.” This is one of those business notices that are often more +concise than correct. It implies that there are two conductors and two drivers. +The sentence should read, “Passengers are requested not to converse with +<i>either the </i>conductor <i>or the</i> driver.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Lest, That</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I feared <i>lest</i> I should be left behind.” Use the copulative +<i>that, </i>and not the disjunctive <i>lest.</i> “I feared <i>that</i> I +should be left behind.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Otherwise than</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He cannot do <i>otherwise but</i> follow your direction.” Use +<i>than, </i>not <i>but,</i> after <i>otherwise.</i> Hence, “He cannot do +<i>otherwise than</i> follow,” etc. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>After that</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>“After that</i> I have attended to the business I will call upon +you.” The word <i>that</i> is superfluous. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page160"></a> +<b>But what</b> +</p> + +<p> +“His parents will never believe <i>but what</i> he was enticed away by +his uncle.” Omit <i>what.</i> The use of <i>but that</i> would be equally +objectionable. <i>But</i> is sufficient. +</p> + +<p> +A reconstruction of the sentence would improve it. “His parents will +always believe,” or “Will never cease to believe that,” etc. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Doubt not but</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I <i>doubt not but</i> your friend will return.” Say, “I +<i>doubt not that</i> your friend will return.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Not impossible but</b> +</p> + +<p> +“It is <i>not impossible but</i> he may call to-day.” Use <i>that +</i>instead of <i>but.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Whether, Whether</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Ginevra has not decided <i>whether</i> she will study history or +<i>whether</i> she will study philosophy.” As there is nothing gained in +clearness or in emphasis by the repetition of <i>“whether she +will,”</i> this shorter sentence would be better: “Ginevra has not +decided whether she will study history or philosophy.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>As though</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He spoke <i>as</i> <i>though,</i> he had a customer for his +house.” Say, “<i>as</i> <i>if</i> he had a <i>purchaser,”</i> +etc. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page161"></a> +<b>Except</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I will not let thee go <i>except</i> thou bless me.” This use of +the word <i>except</i> occurs frequently in the Scriptures, but it is now +regarded as obsolete. The word <i>unless</i> should be used instead. +</p> + +<p> +“Few speakers <i>except</i> Burke could have held their attention.” +In this sentence, <i>besides</i> should take the place of <i>except.</i> +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="Page162"></a><a name="chap09"></a>CHAPTER IX<br/> +Correlatives</h2> + +<p> +Certain adverbs and conjunctions, in comparison or antithesis, require the use +of corresponding adverbs and conjunctions. Such corresponding words are called +correlatives. The following are the principal ones in use: +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +as, as.<br /> +as, so.<br /> +both, and.<br /> +if, then.<br /> +either, or.<br /> +neither, nor.<br /> +not only, but.<br /> +not only, but also.<br /> +not only, but even.<br /> +not merely, but.<br /> +not merely, but also.<br /> +not merely, but even.<br /> +so, as.<br /> +so, that.<br /> +such, as.<br /> +such, that.<br /> +though, yet.<br /> +when, then.<br /> +where, there.<br /> +whether, or. +</p> + +<p> +The improper grouping of these correlatives is the cause of many errors in +speech and writing. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>As... as</b> +</p> + +<p> +“She is <i>as</i> wise <i>as</i> she is good.” “Mary is +<i>as</i> clever <i>as </i>her brother.” The correlatives <i>as... as</i> +are +<a name="Page163"></a> +employed in expressing equality. Their use in any other connection is +considered inelegant. <i>“As</i> far <i>as</i> I am able to judge, he +would make a very worthy officer.” This is a very common error. The +sentence should be, <i>“So</i> far <i>as</i> I am able,” etc. +</p> + +<p> +<i>As</i> is often followed by <i>so. “As</i> thy days, <i>so</i> shall +thy strength be.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>So... as</b> +</p> + +<p> +In such negative assertions as, “This is not <i>as</i> fine a tree +<i>as</i> that,” the first <i>as</i> should be changed to <i>so</i>. Say, +“She is not <i>so</i> handsome <i>as</i> she once was.” “This +edition of Tennyson is not <i>so</i> fine <i>as</i> that.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Either, Neither</b> +</p> + +<p> +The correlatives <i>either, or,</i> and <i>neither, nor,</i> are employed when +two objects are mentioned; as, <i>“Either</i> you <i>or</i> I must go to +town to-day,” “<i>Neither</i> James <i>nor</i> Henry was proficient +in history.” +</p> + +<p> +“He <i>neither</i> bought, sold, <i>or</i> exchanged stocks and +bonds.” The sentence should be, “He <i>neither</i> bought, sold, +<i>nor</i> exchanged stocks and bonds.” +</p> + +<p> +“That is not true, <i>neither.”</i> As we already have one negative +in the word <i>not,</i> the word <i>neither</i> should be changed <i>to +either,</i> to avoid the double negation. +</p> + +<p> +A negative other than <i>neither</i> may take either <i>or</i> or <i>nor </i>as +its correlative, “She was <i>not</i> so handsome as her mother, <i>or +</i>so brilliant as her father.” “He was <i>never</i> happy <i>nor +</i>contented afterward.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page164"></a> +<b>Position of correlatives</b> +</p> + +<p> +The placing of correlatives requires care. “He <i>not only</i> gave me +advice, <i>but also</i> money.” This is a faulty construction because the +first member of the correlative, <i>not only,</i> being placed before the verb +<i>gave</i> leads us to expect that the action of <i>giving</i> is to be +contrasted with some other action. The close of the sentence reveals the fact +that the words <i>advice</i> and <i>money</i> represent the ideas intended for +contrast. The first correlative should, therefore, have been placed before +<i>advice,</i> and the sentence should read, “He gave me <i>not only</i> +advice, <i>but also </i>money.” +</p> + +<p> +“I remember that I am not here as a censor <i>either</i> of manners <i>or +</i>morals.” This sentence from Richard Grant White will be improved by +changing the position of the first member of the correlative. “I remember +that I am not here as a censor of <i>either</i> manners <i>or</i> +morals.” +</p> + +<p> +“I <i>neither</i> estimated myself highly <i>nor</i> lowly.” It +should be, “I estimated myself <i>neither</i> highly <i>nor</i> +lowly.” +</p> + +<p> +“He <i>neither</i> attempted to excite anger, <i>nor</i> ridicule, <i>nor +</i>admiration.” The sentence should be, “He attempted to excite +<i>neither </i>anger, <i>nor</i> ridicule, <i>nor</i> admiration.” But +here we have the correlative <i>neither, nor,</i> used with more than two +objects, which is a violation of a principle previously stated. The +<a name="Page165"></a> +sentence is purposely introduced to call attention to the fact that many +respectable writers not only use <i>neither, nor,</i> with three or more +objects, but also defend it. This usage may be avoided by a reconstruction of +the sentence; as, “He did not attempt to excite anger, nor ridicule, nor +admiration.” +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="Page166"></a><a name="chap10"></a>CHAPTER X<br/> +The Infinitive</h2> + +<p> +Many errors arise from not knowing how to use the infinitive mood. Perhaps the +most common fault is to interpose an adverb between the preposition <i>to</i> +and the infinitive verb; as, “It is not necessary <i>to accurately +relate</i> all that he said.” “You must not expect <i>to always +find</i> people agreeable.” Whether we shall place the adverb before the +verb or after it must often be determined by considerations of emphasis and +smoothness as well as of clearness and correctness. In the foregoing sentences +it is better to place <i>accurately</i> after the verb, and <i>always</i> +before the preposition <i>to.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Supply “to”</b> +</p> + +<p> +The preposition <i>to</i> as the sign of the infinitive is often improperly +omitted. +</p> + +<p> +“Please <i>write</i> clearly, so that we may understand,” +“Your efforts will tend to hinder rather than <i>hasten</i> the +work,” “Strive so to criticise as not to embarrass +<a name="Page167"></a> +nor <i>discourage</i> your pupil.” These sentences will be corrected by +inserting <i>to</i> before the italicized words. +</p> + +<p> +In such expressions as “Please <i>excuse</i> my son’s +absence,” “Please <i>write</i> me a letter,” “Please +<i>hand</i> me the book,” many authorities insist upon the use of +<i>to</i> before the verb. The sentences may, however, be regarded as softened +forms of the imperative; as, <i>“Hand</i> me the book, if you +please.” Transposed, “If you please, hand me the book.” +Contracted, “Please, hand me the book.” From this, the comma may +have slipped out and left the sentence as first written. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Omit “to”</b> +</p> + +<p> +When a series of infinitives relate to the same object, the word <i>to</i> +should be used before the first verb and omitted before the others; as, +“He taught me <i>to read, write,</i> and <i>cipher.”</i> “The +most accomplished way of using books at present is to serve them as some do +lords—<i>learn</i> their titles and then <i>brag</i> of their +acquaintance.” +</p> + +<p> +The active verbs <i>bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, see,</i> and their +participles, usually take the infinitive after them, without the preposition +<i>to.</i> Such expressions, as “He bade me <i>to depart,” +“</i>I dare <i>to say</i> he is a villain,” “I had difficulty +in making him <i>to see</i> his error,” are, therefore, wrong, and are +corrected by omitting <i>to.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page168"></a> +<b>Incomplete Infinitive</b> +</p> + +<p> +Such incomplete expressions as the following are very common: “He has not +gone to Europe, nor is he likely <i>to.” “</i>She has not written +her essay, nor does she intend <i>to.” “</i>Can a man arrive at +excellence who has no desire <i>to?”</i> The addition of the word +<i>go</i> to the first sentence, and of <i>write it,</i> to the second would +make them complete. In the case of the third sentence it would be awkward to +say, “Can a man arrive at excellence who has no desire <i>to arrive at +excellence.”</i> We therefore substitute the more convenient expression +“<i>to do so.”</i> +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="Page169"></a><a name="chap11"></a>CHAPTER XI<br/> +Participles</h2> + +<p> +Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, or else are governed by prepositions. +Those ending in <i>ing</i> should not be made the subjects or objects of verbs +while they retain the government and adjuncts of participles. They may often be +converted into nouns or take the form of the infinitive. +</p> + +<p> +“Not <i>attending</i> to this rule is the cause of a very common +error.” Better, <i>“Inattention</i> to this rule,” etc. +“He abhorred <i>being</i> in debt.” Better, “He abhorred +<i>debt,” “Cavilling</i> and <i>objecting</i> upon any subject is +much easier than <i>clearing</i> up difficulties.” Say, “<i>To +cavil</i> and <i>object</i> upon any subject is much easier than <i>to clear +</i>up difficulties.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Omit “of”</b> +</p> + +<p> +Active participles have the same government as the verbs from which they are +derived. The preposition <i>of,</i> therefore, should not be used after the +participle, when the verb would not require it. Omit <i>of</i> in such +expressions as these: “Keeping <i>of</i> one day +<a name="Page170"></a> +in seven,” “By preaching <i>of</i> repentance,” “They +left beating <i>of </i>Paul,” “From calling <i>of</i> names they +came to blows,” “They set about repairing <i>of</i> the +walls.” +</p> + +<p> +If the article <i>the</i> occurs before the participle, the preposition <i>of +</i>must be retained; as, “They strictly observed <i>the keeping of</i> +one day in seven.” +</p> + +<p> +When a transitive participle is converted into a noun, <i>of</i> must be +inserted to govern the object following. “He was very exact in <i>forming +</i>his sentences,” “He was very exact in <i>the formation of</i> +his sentences.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Omit the possessive</b> +</p> + +<p> +The possessive case should not be prefixed to a participle that is not taken in +all respects as a noun. It should, therefore, be expunged in the following +sentences: “By <i>our</i> offending others, we expose ourselves.” +“She rewarded the boy for <i>his</i> studying so diligently.” +“He errs in <i>his</i> giving the word a double construction.” +</p> + +<p> +The possessives in such cases as the following should be avoided: “I have +some recollection of his <i>father’s</i> being a judge.” “To +prevent <i>its </i>being a dry detail of terms.” These sentences may be +improved by recasting them. “I have some recollection that his father was +a judge.” “To prevent it from being a dry detail of terms.” +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page171"></a> +When the noun or pronoun to which the participle relates is a passive subject, +it should not have the possessive form; as, “The daily instances of +<i>men’s </i>dying around us remind us of the brevity of human +life.” “We do not speak of a <i>monosyllable’s</i> having a +primary accent.” Change <i>men’s</i> to <i>men,</i> and +<i>monosyllable’s</i> to <i>monosyllable.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>After verbs</b> +</p> + +<p> +Verbs do not govern participles. “I intend <i>doing</i> it,” +“I remember <i>meeting</i> Longfellow,” and similar expressions +should be changed by the substitution of the infinitive for the participle; as, +“I intend <i>to do it,” </i>“I remember <i>to have met</i> +Longfellow.” +</p> + +<p> +After verbs signifying <i>to persevere, to desist,</i> the participle ending in +<i>ing</i> is permitted; as, “So when they <i>continued asking</i> him, +he lifted up himself, and said unto them.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Place</b> +</p> + +<p> +In the use of participles and of verbal nouns, the leading word in sense should +always be made the leading word, and not the adjunct, in the construction. +</p> + +<p> +“They did not give notice of the <i>pupil</i> leaving.” Here, the +leading idea is <i>leaving. Pupil</i> should, therefore, be subordinate by +changing its form to the possessive; as, “They did not give notice of the +<i>pupil’s </i>leaving.” Better still, “They did not give +notice that the pupil had left.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page172"></a> +<b>Clearness</b> +</p> + +<p> +The word to which the participle relates should stand out clearly. “By +giving way to sin, trouble is encountered.” This implies that trouble +gives way to sin. The relation of the participle is made clear by saying, +“By giving way to sin, we encounter trouble.” +</p> + +<p> +“By yielding to temptation, our peace is sacrificed.” This should +be, “By yielding to temptation we sacrifice our peace.” +</p> + +<p> +“A poor child was found in the streets by a wealthy and benevolent +gentleman, suffering from cold and hunger.” Say, “A poor child, +suffering from cold and hunger, was found,” etc. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Awkward Construction</b> +</p> + +<p> +Such awkward sentences as the following should be avoided. In most cases they +will require to be recast. +</p> + +<p> +“But as soon as the whole body <i>is attempted to be carved,</i> a +disproportion between its various parts results.” +</p> + +<p> +“The offence <i>attempted to be charged</i> should be alleged under +another section of the statute.” The following is a better arrangement: +</p> + +<p> +“But as soon as an attempt is made to carve the whole body,” etc. +“The offence which it is attempted to charge,” etc. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page173"></a> +<b>Is building</b> +</p> + +<p> +The active participle in a passive sense is employed by many excellent writers +and is condemned by others. +</p> + +<p> +“Corn <i>is selling</i> for fifty cents a bushel.” +</p> + +<p> +“Corn <i>is</i> <i>being sold</i> for fifty cents a bushel.” +</p> + +<p> +The commercial world evidently prefers the former sentence. There is a +breeziness and an energy in it that is lacking in the latter. It must, however, +be used with caution. In the following examples the passive form is decidedly +better than the active: “The foundation <i>was</i> <i>being +laid,”</i> “They <i>are being educated,” “</i>While the +speech <i>was being delivered,” </i>etc. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="Page174"></a><a name="chap12"></a>CHAPTER XII<br/> +Prepositions</h2> + +<p> +Clearness and elegance of style are, in no small degree, dependent upon the +choice and right use of prepositions. Many rules have been formulated, some of +which are deserving of consideration, while others are nearly or quite useless. +Among the latter may be mentioned, by way of illustration, the oft-repeated +rule that <i>between</i> or <i>betwixt</i> must invariably be used when only +two things are referred to, and that <i>among</i> must be employed when more +than two are named. While it is true that the order could not be reversed, that +<i>among,</i> when used, must be employed in reference to three or more persons +or things, and that <i>between</i> may always be employed in speaking of two +objects, yet the practice of many of the best writers does not limit the use of +<i>between</i> to two objects. In fact, there are cases in which <i>among</i> +will not take the place of <i>between;</i> as, “I set out eighty trees +with ample space <i>between</i> them.” “The stones on his farm were +so plentiful that the grass could not grow up <i>between</i> them.” +</p> + + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page175"></a> +<b>Between, Among</b> +</p> + +<p> +“The seven children divided the apples <i>between</i> them.” Two +children may divide apples <i>between,</i> them, but in this case it is better +to say, “The seven children divided the apples <i>among</i> them.” +</p> + +<p> +George Eliot, in <i>Middlemarch,</i> says: “The fight lay entirely +<i>between </i>Pinkerton, the old Tory member; Bagster, the new Whig member; +and Brook, the Independent member.” In this case, <i>between</i> or +<i>with</i> is more satisfactory than <i>among,</i> although three persons are +referred to. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Choice</b> +</p> + +<p> +Many sentences betoken ignorance and others indicate extreme carelessness on +the part of the writers by the inapt choice of their prepositions, which often +express relations so delicate in their distinctions that nothing short of an +extended study of the best writers will confer the desired skill. We present +some examples. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>By, In</b> +</p> + +<p> +“We do not accept the proposition referred to <i>by</i> your +letter.” The writer should have employed the preposition <i>in.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Differ with, From</b> +</p> + +<p> +We differ <i>with</i> a person in opinion or belief; we differ <i>from</i> him +in appearance, in attainments, in wealth, in rank, etc. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page176"></a> +<b>Different from, To, Than</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Your story is very plausible, but Henry’s is different <i>to +</i>that.” “My book is quite different <i>than</i> his.” The +adjective <i>different</i> must not be followed by the preposition <i>to</i> or +<i>than. </i>The sentences will be correct when <i>from</i> is substituted. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>At, To</b> +</p> + +<p> +Never use the vulgar expression, “He is <i>to</i> home.” Say <i>at +home.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Preferred before, To</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He was <i>preferred before</i> me.” Say <i>preferred to me.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>With, Of</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He died <i>with</i> consumption.” <i>Of</i> is the proper +preposition to employ. But we say, He is afflicted <i>with</i> rheumatism, or +bronchitis, or other disease. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>In respect of, To</b> +</p> + +<p> +“In respect <i>of</i> this matter, he is at fault.” Better, +<i>“to</i> this matter.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Of, From</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He was acquitted <i>from</i> the charge of larceny.” Acquitted +<i>of </i>the charge. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>In, Into</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Into</i> implies direction or motion. “They walked <i>into</i> the +church,” means that they entered it from the outside. “They walked +<i>in</i> the church,” means that they walked back and forth within the +church. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page177"></a> +“The vessel is <i>in</i> port.” “She came <i>into</i> port +yesterday.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Of, In</b> +</p> + +<p> +“There was no use <i>of</i> asking his permission, for he would not grant +it.” <i>In</i> asking. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>In, On</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He is a person <i>in</i> whom you can rely.” “That is a man +<i>in</i> whose statements you can depend.” Use <i>on</i> for <i>in.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>To, With</b> +</p> + +<p> +Two persons are reconciled <i>to</i> each other; two doctrines or measures are +reconciled <i>with</i> each other when they are made to agree. +</p> + +<p> +“This noun is in apposition <i>to</i> that.” Use <i>with.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>With, By</b> +</p> + +<p> +These two prepositions are often confounded. They have a similarity of +signification with a difference of use. Both imply a connection between some +instrument or means and the agent by whom it is used. <i>With</i> signifies the +closer relation and <i>by</i> the more remote one. +</p> + +<p> +It is said that an ancient king of Scotland once asked his nobles by what +tenure they held their lands. The chiefs drew their swords, saying, +<i>“By </i>these we acquired our lands, and <i>with</i> these we will +defend them.” +</p> + +<p> +<i>By</i> often relates to the person; <i>with</i> to the instrument. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page178"></a> +“He lay on the ground half concealed <i>with</i> a clump of +bushes.” “That speech was characterized <i>with</i> +eloquence.” Use <i>by</i> in the last two sentences. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>With, To</b> +</p> + +<p> +We <i>correspond with</i> a person when we exchange letters. In speaking of the +adaptation of one object to another, the preposition <i>to </i>should be used +after the verb correspond; as, “This picture corresponds <i>to</i> +that.” <i>With</i> is often incorrectly used in such cases instead of +<i>to.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Position</b> +</p> + +<p> +The old grammarian gave a very good rule when he said, “A preposition is +a very bad word to end a sentence with;” but it is sometimes easier to +follow his example than his precept. In general, the strength of a sentence is +improved by not placing small particles at the end. +</p> + +<p> +“Which house do you live <i>in?”</i> Better, “In which house +do you live?” +</p> + +<p> +“Avarice is a vice which most men are guilty <i>of.”</i> Say, +“of which most men are guilty.” +</p> + +<p> +“He is a man that you should be acquainted <i>with.”</i> Say, +<i>“with </i>whom you should be acquainted.” +</p> + +<p> +“Is this the man that you spoke <i>of?”</i> Better, +<i>“of</i> whom you spoke.” +</p> + +<p> +“These are principles that our forefathers died <i>for.”</i> +Rather, <i>“for </i>which our forefathers died.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page179"></a> +<b>Omission</b> +</p> + +<p> +Prepositions are often omitted when their use is necessary to the correct +grammatical construction of the sentence. +</p> + +<p> +“They now live on this side the river.” Say, “on this side +<i>of</i> the river.” +</p> + +<p> +“Esther and Helen sit opposite each other.” It is more correct to +say, “sit opposite <i>to</i> each other.” +</p> + +<p> +“John is worthy our help.” Better, “<i>of</i> our +help.” +</p> + +<p> +“What use is this to us?” <i>Of</i> what use, etc. +</p> + +<p> +“This law was passed the same year that I was born.” Say, “In +the same year,” etc. +</p> + +<p> +“Washington was inaugurated President April 30, 1789.” Some critics +insist upon the insertion of <i>on</i> before a date, as <i>“on</i> April +30,” but general usage justifies its omission. With equal force they +might urge the use of <i>in</i> before 1789. The entire expression of day, +month, and year is elliptical. +</p> + +<p> +If the same preposition be required by several nouns or pronouns, it must be +repeated in every case if it be repeated at all. “He is interested <i>in +</i>philosophy, history, and <i>in</i> science.” This sentence may be +corrected by placing <i>in</i> before history or by omitting it before science. +The several subjects are individualized more strongly by the use of <i>in +</i>before each noun. This is shown in the greater obscurity given to +<i>history</i> by the omission of the preposition in the foregoing sentence. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page180"></a> +“We may have a feeling of innocence or of guilt, of merit or +demerit.” Insert <i>of</i> before demerit. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Needless Prepositions</b> +</p> + +<p> +Prepositions, like other parts of speech that contribute nothing to the +meaning, should not be suffered to cumber the sentence. +</p> + +<p> +Where am I <i>at?</i> Where is my book <i>at?</i> I went there <i>at</i> about +noon. In what latitude is Chicago <i>in?</i> Where are you going <i>to? +</i>Take your hat off <i>of</i> the table. Where has James been <i>to?</i> They +offered <i>to</i> Caesar a crown. This is a subject <i>of</i> which I intended +to speak <i>about</i> (omit <i>of</i> or <i>about,</i> but not both). She has a +sister <i>of</i> ten years old. Leap <i>in</i> with me into this angry flood. +</p> + +<p> +The older writers employed the useless <i>for</i> in such expressions as, What +went ye out <i>for</i> to see? The apostles and elders came together <i>for +</i>to consider <i>of</i> this matter. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>All of</b> +</p> + +<p> +A very common error is the unnecessary use of the preposition <i>of</i> after +<i>all;</i> as, “during <i>all of</i> this period,” “in +<i>all of</i> these cases,” “for <i>all of</i> the +conditions,” etc. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Up above</b> +</p> + +<p> +In most cases one of these prepositions will be found useless. “The +ladder reached <i>up above</i> the chimney.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>From hence</b> +</p> + +<p> +The adverbs <i>hence, thence, whence,</i> include the idea of <i>from.</i> The +preposition should, therefore, be omitted. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="Page181"></a><a name="chap13"></a>CHAPTER XIII<br/> +The Article</h2> + +<p> +<i>A,</i> which is a shortened form of <i>an,</i> signifies <i>one, </i>or +<i>any. An</i> was formerly used before nouns beginning with either a consonant +or a vowel sound, but now <i>an</i> is used before a vowel sound and <i>a</i> +before a consonant sound; as, <i>a</i> book, <i>a</i> hat, <i>an </i>apple, +<i>an</i> eagle. +</p> + +<p> +It will be observed that <i>an</i> heiress, <i>an</i> herb, <i>an</i> honest +man, <i>an</i> honorable career, <i>an</i> hourly visit, <i>a</i> euchre party, +<i>a</i> euphemism, <i>a</i> eulogy, <i>a</i> union, etc., are not exceptions +to the foregoing rule, for the <i>h</i> being silent in <i>heiress, herb, +</i>etc., the article <i>an</i> precedes a vowel sound, and in <i>euphemism, +eulogy, union,</i> the article <i>a</i> precedes the consonant sound of <i>y. +</i>Compare <i>u-nit</i> with <i>you knit.</i> +</p> + +<p> +In like manner some persons have felt disposed to say <i>many an one +</i>instead of <i>many a one</i> because of the presence of the vowel <i>o</i>. +But the sound is the consonant sound of <i>w</i> as in <i>won</i>, and the +article should be <i>a</i> and not <i>an.</i> +</p> + +<p> +There is a difference of opinion among writers concerning the use of <i>a</i> +and <i>an,</i> before words +<a name="Page182"></a> +beginning with <i>h,</i> when not silent, especially when the accent falls on +the second syllable; as, <i>a</i> harpoon, <i>a</i> hegira, <i>a</i> herbarium, +<i>a</i> herculean effort, <i>a</i> hiatus, <i>a</i> hidalgo, <i>a</i> +hydraulic engine, <i>a</i> hyena, <i>a</i> historian. The absence of the accent +weakens the <i>h </i>sound, and makes it seem as if the article <i>a</i> was +made to precede a vowel. The use of <i>an</i> is certainly more euphonious and +is supported by <i>Webster’s Dictionary</i> and other high authority. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>The Honorable, The Reverend</b> +</p> + +<p> +Such titles as <i>Honorable</i> and <i>Reverend</i> require the article +<i>the;</i> as, “The Honorable William R. Gladstone is often styled +‘The Grand Old Man,’” “The Reverend Henry Ward Beecher +was an eloquent orator,” not <i>Honorable William, E. Gladstone,</i> or +<i>Reverend Henry Ward Beecher.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Article omitted</b> +</p> + +<p> +“A clergyman and philosopher entered the hall together.” +<i>“A </i>clergyman and philosopher” means one person who is both +clergyman and philosopher. The article should be repeated. <i>“A</i> +clergyman and <i>a</i> philosopher entered the hall together.” +</p> + +<p> +<i>“A</i> red and white flag” means one flag of two colors. +<i>“A</i> red and <i>a</i> white flag” means two flags, a red flag +and a white flag. <i>“A </i>great and <i>a</i> good man has +departed.” The verb <i>has</i> implies that only +<a name="Page183"></a> +one man has departed, hence the sentence should be, “A great and good man +has departed.” +</p> + +<p> +“They sang the first and second verse,” should be, “They sang +<i>the</i> first and <i>the</i> second verse.” “The literal and +figurative meaning of words” should be, <i>“The</i> literal and +<i>the</i> figurative meaning of words.” +</p> + +<p> +“In framing of his sentences he was very exact,” should be, +“In <i>the </i>framing,” etc., or, “In framing his sentences +he was very exact.” “The masculine and feminine gender,” +should be, “<i>The</i> masculine and <i>the </i>feminine gender.” +</p> + +<p> +“After singing a hymn, Miss Willard made a stirring address.” If +Miss Willard alone sang the hymn the sentence is correct. If the congregation +sang the hymn the sentence should be, “After <i>the</i> singing of a +hymn, Miss Willard made a stirring address.” +</p> + +<p> +“He is but a poor writer at best.” Say, “at <i>the</i> +best.” “He received but a thousand votes at most.” Say, +“at <i>the</i> most.” +</p> + +<p> +“John came day before yesterday.” Say, <i>“the</i> day before +yesterday.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Article redundant</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Shakespeare was a greater writer than <i>an</i> actor,” should be, +“Shakespeare was a greater writer than actor.” +</p> + +<p> +“This is the kind of <i>a</i> tree of which he was +<a name="Page184"></a> +speaking,” should be, “This is the kind of tree,” etc. +“What kind of <i>a</i> bird is this?” should be, “What kind +of bird.” +</p> + +<p> +“The one styled <i>the</i> Provost is the head of the University,” +should be, “The one styled Provost.” +</p> + +<p> +“The nominative and <i>the</i> objective cases,” should be +“The nominative and objective cases.” +</p> + +<p> +“He made a mistake in <i>the</i> giving out the text.” Say +“in giving out the text,” or, “in <i>the</i> giving out of +the text.” In the latter instance, the participle becomes a noun and may +take the article before it. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Articles interchanged</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>“An</i> elephant is the emblem of Siam,” should be, “The +elephant is the emblem,” etc. “A digraph is <i>the</i> union of two +letters to represent one sound.” Should be, “A digraph is <i>a</i> +union,” etc. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="Page185"></a><a name="chap14"></a>CHAPTER XIV<br/> +Redundancy</h2> + +<p> +We are all creatures of habit. Our sayings, as well as our doings, are largely +a series of habits. In some instances we are unconscious of our peculiarities +and find it almost impossible to shake them off. +</p> + +<p> +The following are verbatim expressions as they dropped from the lips of a young +clergyman in the pulpit. They show a deeply-seated habit of repetition of +thought. As he was a graduate of one of the first colleges in the land, we are +the more surprised that the habit was not checked before he passed through his +college and seminary courses. The expressions are here given as a caution to +others to be on their guard: “Supremest and highest,” +“separate and sever us,” “derision, sarcasm, and +contempt,” “disobedient and disloyal and sinful,” “hold +aloof from iniquity, from sin,” “necessity of being reclaimed and +brought back,” “their beautiful and their elegant city,” +“so abandoned and given up to evil and iniquity,” “soaked and +stained with human gore and blood,” “beautiful and +resplendent,” “hardened and solidified into stone and +adamant,” “this +<a name="Page186"></a> +arctic splendor and brilliancy,” “were being slaughtered and cut +down,” “in the rapidity and the swiftness of the train,” +“with all the mightiness and the splendor of his genius,” +“the force and the pressure it brings to bear,” “has and +possesses the power,” “lights flashed and gleamed.” +</p> + +<p> +The above were all taken from a single discourse. Another peculiarity of the +same speaker was his use of the preposition <i>between.</i> Instead of saying, +“Between him and his father there was a perfect understanding of the +matter,” he would say, “Between him and <i>between</i> his father +there was a perfect understanding of the matter.” +</p> + +<p> +Young writers will find it a valuable exercise to go through a letter, essay, +or other composition which they have written, with the view of ascertaining how +many words they can eliminate without diminishing the force of what has been +written. An article or two from the daily paper, and an occasional page from +some recent work of fiction will afford further opportunity for profitable +practice in pruning. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Widow woman</b> +</p> + +<p> +“And Jeroboam the son of Nebat, an Ephrathite of Zereda, Solomon’s +servant, whose mother’s name was Zeruah, a <i>widow woman,</i> even he +lifted up his hand against the king.”—I Kings xi, 26. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page187"></a> +The expression is now regarded as an archaism, and not to be used in modern +speech or writing. Omit <i>woman.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Why</b> +</p> + +<p> +Many persons have a foolish habit of beginning their answer to a question with +the word <i>why</i>. In some cases it doubtless has its origin in the desire to +gain time while the mind is preparing the answer, but in most instances it is +merely a habit. +</p> + +<p> +Some persons prefix the word <i>why</i> to the statement of a fact or to the +asking of a question. This is even worse than to employ it to introduce the +answer. Restrict it to its legitimate use. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Look at here</b> +</p> + +<p> +This is one of the numerous expressions designed to call the attention of the +person addressed to the speaker. It is both ungrammatical and vulgar. The +omission of <i>at</i> will render it grammatical. “<i>See here”</i> +is still better. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Look and see</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>“Look and see</i> if the teacher is coming.” The words +<i>“look and” </i>are superfluous. “See whether the teacher +is coming” is a better expression. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Recollect of</b> +</p> + +<p> +The word <i>of</i> is superfluous in such expressions; as, “I +<i>recollect of </i>crossing Lake Champlain on the ice,” “Do you +<i>recollect of</i> his paying you a compliment?” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page188"></a> +<b>Settle up, down</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He has <i>settled up</i> his father’s affairs.” “He +has <i>settled down </i>upon the old farm.” <i>Up</i> and <i>down</i> may +be omitted. +</p> + +<p> +“He has <i>settled down</i> to business” is a colloquial expression +which may be improved by recasting the sentence. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>In so far</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He is not to blame <i>in so far</i> as I understand the +circumstances.” <i>“In so</i> <i>far</i> as I know he is a +thoroughly honest man.” <i>“In so far</i> as I have influence it +shall be exerted in your favor.” Omit <i>in.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Pocket-handkerchief</b> +</p> + +<p> +The word <i>handkerchief</i> conveys the full meaning. <i>Pocket </i>is +therefore superfluous and should be omitted. If a cloth or tie for the neck is +meant, call it a <i>neck tie</i> or a <i>neckerchief,</i> but not a +<i>neck-handkerchief.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Have got</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I <i>have got</i> a fine farm.” “He <i>has got</i> four sons +and three daughters.” “James <i>has</i> <i>got</i> a rare +collection of butterflies.” In such expressions <i>got</i> is +superfluous. But, if the idea of gaining or acquiring is to be conveyed, the +word <i>got</i> may be retained; as, “I <i>have got</i> my +license,” “I <i>have got</i> my degree,” “I <i>have +got</i> my reward.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page189"></a> +<b>Off of</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Can I borrow a pencil <i>off</i> <i>of</i> you?” “I bought a +knife <i>off</i> <i>of</i> him yesterday.” Such faulty expressions are +very common among school children, and should be promptly checked by the +teacher. The <i>off</i> is superfluous. +</p> + +<p> +“He jumped <i>off</i> <i>of</i> the boat.” Say, “He jumped +<i>off</i> the boat.” +</p> + +<p> +The young lady appointed to sell articles at a church fair entreated her +friends to “buy something <i>off of</i> me.” She should say, +“Please buy something from me,” or “Make your purchases at my +table.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>For to see</b> +</p> + +<p> +“But what went ye out <i>for</i> to see? A man clothed in soft +raiment?” Matt. xi, 8. “I will try <i>for</i> to do what you +wish.” This form of expression, once very common, is now obsolete. Omit +<i>for.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Appreciate highly</b> +</p> + +<p> +To <i>appreciate</i> is to set a full value upon a thing. We may <i>value +highly,</i> or <i>prize highly,</i> or <i>esteem</i> <i>highly,</i> but the +word <i>highly</i> when used with <i>appreciate</i> is superfluous. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Ascend up</b> +</p> + +<p> +“With great difficulty they <i>ascended up</i> the hill.” As they +could not <i>ascend down</i> the hill it is evident that the word <i>up</i> is +superfluous. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page190"></a> +<b>Been to</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Where has he <i>been to?”</i> The sentence is not only more +concise, but more elegant without the terminal <i>to.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Both</b> +</p> + +<p> +The sentence, “The two children <i>both</i> resembled each other,” +will be greatly improved by omitting the word <i>both.</i> So also in +“These baskets are <i>both</i> alike,” “William and I +<i>both</i> went to Cuba.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>But that</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I do not doubt <i>but that</i> my uncle will come.” The sentence +is shorter and more clear without the word <i>but. “</i>I have no idea +<i>but that</i> the crew was drowned.” Here <i>but</i> is necessary. +Without it the opposite meaning would be conveyed. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Equally as well</b> +</p> + +<p> +“James did it well, but Henry did it <i>equally as</i> <i>well.” As +well</i> or <i>equally well</i> should be used instead of <i>equally as well. +</i>“This method will be equally <i>as</i> efficacious.” Omit +<i>as</i>. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Everywheres</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I have looked <i>everywheres</i> for the book, and I cannot find +it.” This is a vulgarism that should be avoided. Say <i>everywhere.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Feel like</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I feel <i>like</i> as if I should be sick.” The word <i>like +</i>is unnecessary. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page191"></a> +<b>Few</b> +</p> + +<p> +“There are a few persons who read well.” This sentence will be +improved by saying, “Few persons read well.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Help but be</b> +</p> + +<p> +This is an awkward expression which is improved by being reduced to the two +words <i>help being;</i> as, “I could not help being moved by his +appeal.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Kind of a</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He jumped into a <i>kind of a</i> chaise, and hurried off to the +station.” <i>A</i> <i>kind of chaise</i> would be better. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>New beginner</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Mary plays on the piano very well for a <i>new beginner.”</i> If +she is a <i>beginner</i> she must of necessity be <i>new</i> to it. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Opens up</b> +</p> + +<p> +“This story <i>opens up</i> beautifully.” The <i>up</i> is +superfluous. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Seeming paradox</b> +</p> + +<p> +The word <i>paradox</i> alone implies all that the word <i>seeming </i>is +intended to convey, hence <i>seeming</i> is superfluous. “This was once a +paradox but time now gives it proof.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Different</b> +</p> + +<p> +“There were ten <i>different</i> men ready to accept the offer.” As +no reference to the appearance or characteristics of the men is intended, the +word <i>different</i> is unnecessary. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page192"></a> +<b>Rise up</b> +</p> + +<p> +“They <i>rose up</i> early and started on their journey.” <i>Up</i> +is superfluous and should be omitted. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Sink down</b> +</p> + +<p> +“The multitude <i>sank down</i> upon the ground.” As they could not +<i>sink up </i>or in any other direction than <i>down,</i> the latter word +should be omitted. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Smell of</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Did you <i>smell of</i> the roses?” “No; but I +<i>smelled</i> them and found them very fragrant.” “The gardener +<i>smelt of</i> them for he has been culling them all morning and his clothing +is perfumed with them.” The <i>of</i> is superfluous in such expressions +as <i>taste of, feel of,</i> and usually in <i>smell of.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Think for</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He is taller than you <i>think for.” For</i> is unnecessary. +“He is taller than you think” is the contracted form of “He +is taller than you think he is.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Differ among themselves</b> +</p> + +<p> +“The authorities <i>differed among</i> themselves.” The words +<i>among themselves</i> may be omitted. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>End up</b> +</p> + +<p> +“That <i>ends up</i> the business.” Say “that <i>ends</i> (or +<i>closes</i>) the business.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Had have</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Had I <i>have</i> known that he was a lawyer I should have consulted +him.” Omit <i>have.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page193"></a> +<b>Had ought to</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I had ought to have gone to school to-day; I hadn’t ought to have +gone fishing.” Incorrect. Say, “I ought to have gone (or <i>I +should have gone) </i>to school to-day; I ought not to have gone +fishing.” If the second clause is not an after-thought the sentence can +be still further improved by condensing it; as, “I should have gone to +school to-day, and not to have gone fishing.” +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="Page194"></a><a name="chap15"></a>CHAPTER XV<br/> +Two Negatives</h2> + +<p> +The use of two negatives in a sentence is much more common than is generally +supposed. To assume that only those who are grossly ignorant of grammatical +rules and constructions employ them, is an error. Writers whose names are as +bright stars in the constellation of literature have slipped on this +treacherous ground. +</p> + +<p> +A negation, in English, admits of only one negative word. The use of a single +negative carries the meaning halfway around the circle. The meaning is +therefore diametrically opposed to that which would be expressed without the +negative. The use of a second negative would carry the meaning the remaining +distance around the circle, thus bringing it to the starting point, and making +it equivalent to the affirmative. The second negative destroys the effect of +the first. The two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Double Negatives</b> +</p> + +<p> +While two negatives in the same sentence destroy each other, a double negative +has the effect of a more +<a name="Page195"></a> +exact and guarded affirmative; as, “It is <i>not im</i>probable that +Congress will convene in special session before the end of the summer.” +“It is <i>not un</i>important that, he attend to the matter at +once.” “His story was <i>not in</i>credible.” “The fund +was <i>not in</i>exhaustible.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Redundant Negatives</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>“No</i> one <i>else</i> but the workmen had any business at the +meeting.” Omit <i>else.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“Let us see whether <i>or not</i> there was <i>not</i> a mistake in the +record.” Omit either <i>or not</i> or the second <i>not.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“The boat will <i>not</i> stop <i>only</i> when the signal flag is +raised.” Omit <i>not</i> or change <i>only</i> to <i>except.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“He will <i>never</i> return, I <i>don’t believe.”</i> Say, +“He will never return,” or, if that statement is two emphatic, say, +“I don’t believe he will ever return.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Don’t want none</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I <i>don’t want none,” “</i>I <i>ain’t got +nothing,” “</i>He <i>can’t do no more,”</i> are +inelegant expressions that convey a meaning opposed to that intended. +</p> + +<p> +“I don’t want any,” or, “I do not want any,” or, +“I want none,” are correct equivalents for the first sentence; +“I haven’t anything,” or, “I have nothing,” +should take the place of the second; and, “He can’t do any +more,” or, “He can do no more,” or “He cannot do +more,” will serve for the third. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page196"></a> +<b>Not—Hardly</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I <i>cannot</i> stop to tell you <i>hardly</i> any of the adventures +that befell Theseus.” Change <i>cannot</i> to <i>can</i>. “I have +<i>not </i>had a moment’s time to read <i>hardly</i> since I left +school.” Say, “I have hardly a moment’s time,” etc. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>No—no</b> +</p> + +<p> +“The faculties are called into <i>no</i> exercise by doing a thing merely +because others do it, <i>no</i> more than by believing a thing only because +others believe it,” says George P. Marsh. He should have used <i>any +</i>instead of the second <i>no.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Nothing—nor</b> +</p> + +<p> +“There was <i>nothing</i> at the Columbian Exposition more beautiful, +<i>nor</i> more suggestive of the progress of American art, than +Tiffany’s display.” Change <i>nor</i> to <i>or.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Can’t do nothing</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He says he <i>can’t do nothing</i> for me.” Use “He +can do nothing,” or “He can’t do anything for me.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Cannot by no means</b> +</p> + +<p> +This double negative should be avoided. “I <i>cannot by no means +</i>permit you to go.” Say, “I <i>cannot possibly,”</i> or +“I <i>cannot, under any consideration,</i> permit you to go.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page197"></a> +<b>Nor—no</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Give not me counsel, <i>nor</i> let <i>no</i> comforter delight mine +ear,” says Shakespeare. +</p> + +<p> +“There can be no rules laid down, <i>nor no</i> manner +recommended,” says Sheridan. +</p> + +<p> +“No skill could obviate, <i>nor no</i> remedy dispel the terrible +infection.” +</p> + +<p> +The foregoing sentences may be corrected by changing <i>nor</i> to <i>and.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Not—no</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I pray you bear with me; I <i>cannot</i> go <i>no</i> further,” +says Shakespeare. “I can go <i>no</i> further,” or “I cannot +go <i>any</i> further,” will make the sentence correct. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Nor—not</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I never did repent for doing good, <i>nor</i> shall <i>not</i> +now.” +</p> + +<p> +“We need not, <i>nor</i> do <i>not,</i> confine the purposes of +God.” +</p> + +<p> +“Which do not continue, <i>nor</i> are <i>not</i> binding.” +</p> + +<p> +“For my part I love him <i>not, nor</i> hate him <i>not.”</i> +</p> + +<p> +In these sentences, change <i>nor</i> to <i>and.</i> +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="Page198"></a><a name="chap16"></a>CHAPTER XVI<br/> +Accordance of Verb with Subject</h2> + +<p> +No rule of grammar is more familiar to the schoolboy than that which relates to +the agreement of the verb with its subject, or nominative, and none that is +more frequently violated. It would be a mistake, however, to assume that the +schoolboy is the only transgressor. Ladies and gentlemen of culture and +refinement, writers and speakers of experience and renown, have alike been +caught in the quicksands of verb constructions. +</p> + +<p> +“This painting is one of the finest masterpieces that ever <i>was</i> +given to the world.” A transposition of the sentence will show that the +verb should be <i>were,</i> and not <i>was. “</i>Of the finest +masterpieces that ever <i>were </i>given to the world, this painting is +one.” +</p> + +<p> +“His essay on ‘Capital and Labor’ is one of the best that +<i>has</i> ever been written on the subject.” The verb should be +<i>have.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“The steamer, with all her passengers and crew, <i>were</i> lost.” +The subject is <i>steamer,</i> and the verb should be <i>was.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page199"></a> +<b>Interrogative sentences</b> +</p> + +<p> +“What <i>signifies</i> his good resolutions, when he does not possess +strength of purpose sufficient to put them into practice?” +<i>Resolutions</i> is the subject, and the verb should be <i>signify.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“Of what profit is his prayers, while his practices are the abomination +of the neighborhood?” <i>Prayers</i> being plural, the verb should be +<i>are.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“What <i>avails</i> good sentiments with a bad life?” Use +<i>avail.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Subject after the Verb</b> +</p> + +<p> +“In virtue and piety <i>consist</i> the happiness of man.” +<i>Happiness, </i>the subject, being singular, the verb should be +<i>consists,</i> to agree with its nominative. +</p> + +<p> +“To these recommendations <i>were</i> appended a copy of the minority +report.” A transposition of the sentence will show that the verb should +be <i>was</i>, and not <i>were.</i> “A copy of the minority report +<i>was</i> appended to these recommendations.” +</p> + +<p> +Whenever the sentence is introduced by a phrase consisting in part of a noun in +the plural, or several nouns in the singular or plural, and, especially, where +the subject follows the verb; care must be taken to keep the nominative well in +mind, so that the verb may be in strict accord with it. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page200"></a> +<b>Compound Subjects</b> +</p> + +<p> +When a verb has two or more nominatives it must be plural. These nominatives +may or may not be connected by <i>and</i> or other connecting particle. The +nominatives may consist of nouns or pronouns, either singular or plural, or +they may be phrases. +</p> + +<p> +“Washington and Lincoln <i>were</i> chosen instruments of +government.” +</p> + +<p> +“Judges and senates <i>have</i> been bought for gold, +</p> + +<p> +Esteem and love <i>were</i> never to be sold.”—<i>Pope.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“Art, empire, earth itself, to change <i>are </i>doomed.”— +<i>Beattie.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“You and he <i>resemble</i> each other.” +</p> + +<p> +“To read and to sing <i>are</i> desirable accomplishments.” +</p> + +<p> +“To be wise in our own eyes, to be wise in the opinion of the world, and +to be wise in the sight of our Creator, <i>are</i> three things so very +different as rarely to coincide.”—<i>Blair.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Singular in Meaning</b> +</p> + +<p> +Nominatives are sometimes plural in form but singular in meaning. Such +nominatives require a verb in the singular. +</p> + +<p> +“The philosopher and poet <i>was</i> banished from his country.” +<i>Was</i> is correct, because philosopher and poet are the same person. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page201"></a> +“Ambition, and not the safety of the state, <i>was</i> concerned.” +<i>Was</i> is correct, because <i>ambition</i> is the subject. The words, +<i>“and not the safety of the state,”</i> simply emphasize the +subject, but do not give it a plural meaning. +</p> + +<p> +“Truth, and truth only, <i>is</i> worth seeking for its own sake.” +Another case of emphasis. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Each, Every, No, Not</b> +</p> + +<p> +When two or more nominatives are qualified by one of the foregoing words the +verb must be singular. +</p> + +<p> +“Every limb and feature <i>appears</i> with its respective +grace.”—<i>Steele.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“Not a bird, not a beast, not a tree, not a shrub <i>were</i> to be +seen.” Use <i>was</i> instead of <i>were.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Poetical Construction</b> +</p> + +<p> +When the verb separates its nominatives, it agrees with that which precedes it. +</p> + +<p> +“Forth in the pleasing spring, Thy beauty <i>walks,</i> thy tenderness, +and love.”—<i>Thomson.</i> <i></i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Or, Nor, As well as, But, Save</b> +</p> + +<p> +When two or more nominatives in the singular are separated by such words as the +preceding, the verb must be singular. +</p> + +<p> +“Veracity, as well as justice, <i>is</i> to be our rule of +life.”—<i>Butler.</i> +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page202"></a> +“Not a weed nor a blade of grass <i>were</i> to be seen.” Change +<i>were </i>to <i>was</i>. +</p> + +<p> +“Nothing but wailings <i>were</i> heard.” Transpose. “Nothing +<i>was</i> heard but wailings.” The verb should be <i>was</i>. +</p> + +<p> +“Either one or the other of them <i>are</i> in the wrong.” The verb +should be <i>is.</i> +</p> + +<p> +If, however, one or more of the nominatives are plural, the verb must be +plural. +</p> + +<p> +“It is not his wealth, or gifts, or culture that <i>gives</i> him this +distinction.” <i>Gifts</i> being plural, the verb should be <i>give.</i> +</p> + +<p> +Some authorities say that the verb should agree in number with the subject +which is placed next before it, and be understood (or silent) to the rest; as, +“Neither he nor his brothers <i>were</i> there,” “Neither his +brothers nor he was there,” “Neither you nor I <i>am</i> +concerned.” +</p> + +<p> +Prof. Genung, author of <i>Outlines of Rhetoric,</i> says: “When a clash +of concord arises, either choose subjects that have the same number, or choose +a verb that has the same form for both numbers.” He gives this sentence +to show the change of verb: “Fame or the emoluments of valor <i>were</i> +(<i>was</i>) never to be his.” “Fame or the emoluments of valor +could never be his.” And this sentence to show the change of one of the +subjects: “Neither the halter nor +<a name="Page203"></a> +bayonets <i>are</i> (<i>is</i>) sufficient to prevent us from obtaining our +rights.” “Neither the halter nor the bayonet <i>is</i> sufficient +to prevent us from obtaining our rights.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Collective Nouns</b> +</p> + +<p> +Collective nouns, like <i>army, committee, class, peasantry, nobility, </i>are, +grammatically, singular, but they are often so modified by their surroundings +as to convey a plural idea, and when so modified the verb must be plural. When +the collective noun conveys the idea of unity, the verb must be singular. +</p> + +<p> +“The army <i>was</i> disbanded.” +</p> + +<p> +“The council <i>were</i> divided.” +</p> + +<p> +“A number of men and women <i>were</i> present.” +</p> + +<p> +“The people <i>rejoice</i> in their freedom.” +</p> + +<p> +“The peasantry <i>go</i> barefoot, and the middle sort <i>make</i> use of +wooden shoes.” +</p> + +<p> +“The world <i>stands</i> in awe of your majesty.” +</p> + +<p> +“All the world <i>are</i> spectators of your conduct.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Weights, Measures, and Values</b> +</p> + +<p> +The names of weights, measures, and values, when considered as wholes, require +singular verbs, and when considered as units require verbs in the plural. +</p> + +<p> +“There <i>is</i> twenty shillings in my purse,” meaning one pound +in value. “There <i>are</i> twenty shillings in my purse,” meaning +twenty separate coins, each being a shilling. “Sixty-three gallons +<i>equals</i> a hogshead.” “Ten tons of coal <i>are</i> consumed +daily.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page204"></a> +<b>Titles of Books</b> +</p> + +<p> +Whether the form be singular or plural, the title is considered a unit, and +requires a verb in the singular; as, “‘The Merry Wives of +Windsor’ <i>was</i> written by Shakespeare.” “Dr. +Holmes’s <i>American Annals was</i> published in 1805.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Whereabouts</b> +</p> + +<p> +“The whereabouts of his cousins <i>were</i> not known to him.” The +plural form of this word is misleading. The verb should be <i>was.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Phenomena, Effluvia</b> +</p> + +<p> +“A strange phenomena,” “A disagreeable effluvia” are +incorrect forms not infrequently met with. Both words are plural, and require +plural verbs and also the omission of the article <i>a.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>You was</b> +</p> + +<p> +This very incorrect form is often employed by those who know better, and who +use it, seemingly, out of courtesy to the uneducated people with whom they are +brought in contact. If it be a courtesy, it is one that is “more honored +in the breach than in the observance.” +</p> + +<p> +Those who use the expression ignorantly are not likely to read this book, or +any other of a similar character, and need scarcely be told that <i>was</i> +should be <i>were</i>. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2> +<a name="Page209"></a><a name="chap17"></a>INDEX</h2> + +<p class="noindent"> +A, An, 181.<br/> Aberration of intellect, 87.<br/> A 1,83.<br/> A hundred +others’ woes—Pronouns, 126.<br/> Ability, Capacity, 27.<br/> +About, Almost, 28.<br/> About, Around, 95.<br/> Above, More than, Preceding, +111.<br/> Above, Foregoing, 87.<br/> Above up, 180.<br/> Acceptance, +Acceptation, 28.<br/> Access, Accession, 28.<br/> Accident, Injury, 28.<br/> +Accord, Give, 86.<br/> Accordance of Verb with Subject, 198.<br/> Collective +Nouns, 203.<br/> Compound Subjects, 200.<br/> Each, Every, No, Not, 201.<br/> +Interrogative sentences, 199.<br/> Or, Nor, As well as, But, Save, 201.<br/> +Phenomena, Effluvia, 204.<br/> Poetical Construction, 201.<br/> Singular in +Meaning, 200.<br/> Subject after the Verb, 199.<br/> Titles of Books, 204.<br/> +Weights, Measures, and Values, 203.<br/> Whereabouts, 204.<br/> You was, +204.<br/> Acoustics, Ethics, Politics, 143.<br/> Act, Action, 86.<br/> +Adherence, Adhesion, 36.<br/> Adjective or Adverb, 150.<br/> Adopt, Take, +37.<br/> Adverbs, 150.<br/> Adverbs for Relative Pronouns, 140.<br/> Advise, +Persuade, 52.<br/> Affect, Effect, 37.<br/> After <i>of—</i>Possessive +case, 127.<br/> After <i>than</i> and as—Pronouns, 132.<br/> After that, +159.<br/> After the Imperative—Pronouns, 132.<br/> After verbs— +Participles, 171.<br/> After the verb To be—Pronouns, 131.<br/> After +verbs and prepositions—Pronouns, 130.<br/> Again, Against, 115.<br/> +Aggravate, Exasperate, 37.<br/> Agreeably disappointed, 77.<br/> Agreement with +Antecedent—Pronouns, 133.<br/> Ain’t, 119.<br/> Alex. Melville +Bell, 24.<br/> Alienate, Antagonize, Oppose, 32.<br/> Alighted, Lit, Lighted, +88.<br/> All, Is that all? 108.<br/> All of, 180.<br/> All, Whole, 41, 51.<br/> +Alleviate, Relieve, 37.<br/> Allow, Guess, Reckon, Calculate, 56.<br/> Allowed, +Said, 87.<br/> Allude to, Refer to, 77.<br/> Almost, About, 28.<br/> Almost, +Most, Very, 30.<br/> Alms, Odds, Riches, 145.<br/> Alone, Only, 113.<br/> +Alternative, 87.<br/> Alternation, 87.<br/> Alumna, Formula, 144,<br/> Alumnus, +Terminus, Cactus, 143.<br/> Ambiguity—Pronouns, 135.<br/> Among the +rest, 78.<br/> Among, Between, 175.<br/> Amount, Number, 32.<br/> Analysis, +Crises, 143.<br/> And, To—Try and, 117.<br/> Anglicized Words, 20.<br/> +Angry, Mad, 30.<br/> Animalcules, not Animalculae, 148.<br/> Anniversary, +87.<br/> Answer, Reply, 32.<br/> Antagonize, Alienate, Oppose, 32.<br/> +Anticipate, Expect, 32.<br/> Any, At all, 32.<br/> Anyhow, 81.<br/> Anyways, +Somewheres, Thereabouts, 78.<br/> Apart, Aside, 78.<br/> Apparent, Evident, +33.<br/> Appendix, Index, 148.<br/> Appointed you and <i>I—</i>after +verbs and prepositions, 130.<br/> Appreciate highly, 189.<br/> Apprehend, +Comprehend, 105.<br/> Archimedes’ Screw, 125.<br/> Argue, Augur, 98.<br/> +Around, About, 95.<br/> Articles, 181.<br/> A, An, 181.<br/> Interchanged, +184.<br/> Omitted, 182.<br/> Redundant, 183.<br/> Titles—The Reverend, +182.<br/> <i>As</i> after <i>Equally,</i> 190.<br/> As... as, 162.<br/> As, +Like, 88.<br/> As... so, 163.<br/> As soon as, Directly, Immediately, 77.<br/> +As, That, 70.<br/> As though, As if, 160.<br/> As well as, Or, Nor, But, Save, +201.<br/> Ascend up, 189.<br/> Aside, Apart, 78.<br/> Asparagus, Sparrowgrass, +34.<br/> Assets, Alms, Scissors, 145.<br/> Assure, Promise, 34.<br/> At all, +Any, 32.<br/> At, To, 176.<br/> At you, 114.<br/> Attacked, Burst, Drowned, +108.<br/> Aware, Conscious, 39.<br/> Away, Way, 41.<br/> Awful, 81.<br/> +Awkward construction—Participles, 172. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Back up, Support, 82.<br/> Badly, Greatly, 114.<br/> Bad toothache, 70.<br/> +Balance, Remainder, 60.<br/> Bandits, Banditti, 148.<br/> Barbaric, Barbarous, +98.<br/> Barbarisms, 20.<br/> Beaus, Tableaux, Chateaux, 147.<br/> Beautifully, +Beautiful, 70.<br/> Because, Reason, 156. <br/> Been to, 190.<br/> Beg, Beg +leave, 71.<br/> Beg pardon, Which? 26.<br/> Begin, Commence, 38.<br/> Behave, +60.<br/> Bell, Alex. Melville, 24.<br/> Besides, 49.<br/> Beside, Besides, +108.<br/> Better, Best, 61.<br/> Between, Among, 175.<br/> Between you and +<i>I—</i>After verbs and prepositions, 130.<br/> Black Oxide of +Manganese, 36.<br/> Bombastic Language, 18.<br/> Both, 190.<br/> Both, Both of, +72.<br/> Both, Each, 72.<br/> Bound, 61.<br/> Bountiful, Plentiful, 108.<br/> +Brace, Pair, Couple, 147.<br/> Bravery, Courage, 116.<br/> Bring, Fetch, Carry, +44.<br/> Brooks’s Arithmetics, 125.<br/> Brothers, Brethren, 149.<br/> +Bryant’s list, 16.<br/> Bulk, 82.<br/> Burglarize, 82.<br/> Burst, +Attacked, Drowned, 108.<br/> But, Except, 157.<br/> But, If, 157.<br/> But, +Only, Except, 157.<br/> But, Or, Nor, Save—As well as, 201.<br/> +<i>But</i> superfluous, 158.<br/> But that, 158, 190.<br/> But that, But what, +82, 157.<br/> But that, 157.<br/> But that, Than that, 158.<br/> But what, +160.<br/> But what, But that, 82, 157.<br/> By, In, 175.<br/> By, With, 177. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Calculate, 83.<br/> Calculate, Guess, Reckon, Allow, 56.<br/> Calculated, +Liable, 83.<br/> Calligraphy, 68.<br/> Came across, Met with, 109.<br/> +Campbell’s law, 20.<br/> Can, Could, Will, 115.<br/> Can but, Cannot but, +68.<br/> Cannot by no means, 196.<br/> Can’t and Couldn’t, +120.<br/> Can’t do nothing, 196.<br/> Cantos, Heroes, 145.<br/> Capacity, +Ability, 27.<br/> Carry, Bring, Fetch, 44.<br/> Case forms—Pronouns, +129.<br/> Casualty, Casuality, 68.<br/> Character, Reputation, 44.<br/> +Chauncey Depew and Eli Perkins, 65.<br/> Cheap, Low-priced, 30.<br/> Cherubim, +Seraphim, 142.<br/> Choice of prepositions, 175.<br/> Choice of +relatives—Pronouns, 138.<br/> Choice of words, 15.<br/> Chrysalis, +Analysis, 143.<br/> Chuck-full, 74.<br/> Clearness—Participles, +172.<br/> Clever, Smart, 85.<br/> Climax, 112.<br/> Climb down, 103.<br/> +Collective nouns, 203.<br/> Collective nouns—Pronouns, 135.<br/> +Commence, Begin, 38.<br/> Commenced to write, 107.<br/> Commercial slang, +23.<br/> Commodious, Convenient, 26.<br/> Common, Mutual, 28.<br/> Common +slang, 23.<br/> Complected, 69.<br/> Complete, Finished, Through, 39, 99.<br/> +Compound subject, 200.<br/> Comprehend, Apprehend, 105.<br/> Conclusion, End, +39.<br/> Conjunctions, 156.<br/> Conscious, Aware, 39.<br/> Contemplate, +Propose, 75.<br/> Contemptible, Contemptuous, 52.<br/> Continual, Continuous, +39.<br/> Continually, Perpetually, 52.<br/> Contractions, 118.<br/> Convenient, +Commodious, 26.<br/> Convict, Convince, 40.<br/> Correlatives, 162.<br/> Could, +Can, Will, 115.<br/> Couldn’t, Can’t, 120.<br/> Couple, Pair, +Brace, 147.<br/> Couple, Several, 76.<br/> Courage, Bravery, 116.<br/> +Criterion, Datum, 144.<br/> Crowd, 74.<br/> Cunning, 59.<br/> Cupfuls— +Plural compounds, 147.<br/> Curious, 59.<br/> Custom, Habit, 40.<br/> Customer, +Patron, 93.<br/> Cute, 59.<br/> Cut in half, 98. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Daren’t, Dursen’t, 123.<br/> Data, Strata, 144.<br/> Datum, +Phenomenon, 144, 204.<br/> Deface, Disfigure, 43.<br/> Defect, Fault, 45.<br/> +Degrade, Demean, 43.<br/> Depot, Station, 43.<br/> Description, Kind, 44.<br/> +Didn’t, Don’t, 120.<br/> Dies, Dice, 149.<br/> Differ among +themselves, 192.<br/> Different, 191.<br/> Differ with, From, 175.<br/> +Different from, to, than, 75, 176.<br/> Directly, Immediately, As soon as, +77.<br/> Disfigure, Deface, 43.<br/> Disremember, 69.<br/> Dispense, Dispense +with, 75.<br/> Dock, Wharf, 52.<br/> Don’t and Didn’t, 120.<br/> +Don’t want none, 195.<br/> Double negatives, 194.<br/> Double +possessives, 126.<br/> Doubt not but, 160.<br/> Dreadful solemn— +Adjective or adverb? 152.<br/> Drive, Ride, 76.<br/> Drowned, Attacked, Burst, +108.<br/> Dry, Thirsty, 75.<br/> Due, Owing, 71.<br/> Dursent, Daren’t, +123.<br/> Dutch, German, 75. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Each, Both, 72.<br/> Each, Every, 71.<br/> Each, Every, No, Not, 201.<br/> Each +other, One another, 46.<br/> Each other’s eyes—Pronouns, 126.<br/> +Each... <i>their—</i>Agreement with antecedent, 134.<br/> Effect, +Affect, 37.<br/> Effluvia, Phenomena, 144, 204.<br/> Either, Neither, 47, +163.<br/> Either the... or the, 159.<br/> Elder, Older, 91.<br/> Eli Perkins +and Chauncey Depew, 65.<br/> Ellipsis, Analysis, 143.<br/> Else ...besides, +49.<br/> Else than, Other than, 159.<br/> Emigrants, Immigrants, 78.<br/> +Empty, 86.<br/> End, Conclusion, 39.<br/> Endorse, Indorse, 84.<br/> End up, +192.<br/> Enjoy, 86.<br/> Enjoyed poor health, 36.<br/> Equally as well, +190.<br/> Evacuate, Vacate, 75.<br/> Ever, Never, 72.<br/> Every confidence, +67.<br/> Every, Each, 71.<br/> Every, Each, No, Not, 201.<br/> Everybody +else’s, 128.<br/> Everybody... <i>they—</i>Agreement with +antecedent, 134.<br/> Every once in awhile, 73.<br/> Everywheres, 190.<br/> +Evident, Apparent, 33.<br/> Exasperate, Aggravate, 37.<br/> Except, But, +157.<br/> Except, But, Only, 157.<br/> Except, Unless, Besides, 161.<br/> +Exceptionable, Exceptional, 73.<br/> Excuse me—Which? 26.<br/> Expect, +Anticipate, 32.<br/> Expect, Suspect, Suppose, 110. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Factor, 112.<br/> Farther, Further, 45.<br/> Fathers-in-law—Plural +compounds, 147.<br/> Fault, Defect, 45.<br/> Favor, Resemble, 59.<br/> Feel +like, 190.<br/> Feels badly—Adjective or adverb? 151.<br/> Female, +Woman, 73.<br/> Fetch, Bring, Carry, 44.<br/> Few, 191.<br/> Few, Little, +46.<br/> Fewer, Less, 73.<br/> Fictitious writer, 62.<br/> Fine writing, +8.<br/> Finished, Complete, Through, 39, 99.<br/> Fire, Throw, 78.<br/> First, +Firstly, 62.<br/> First, Former, 61.<br/> First-rate, 62.<br/> First two, +79.<br/> Fish, Fly, 148.<br/> Fix, In a, 53.<br/> Fix, Mend, Repair, 62.<br/> +Fly, Flee, 53.<br/> Flys, Fishes, 148.<br/> Foregoing, Above, 87.<br/> Foreign +words, 9.<br/> Former, First, 61.<br/> Formulas, Larvas, Stigmas, 144.<br/> For +to see, 189.<br/> Frederick the Great’s Kindness—Nouns in +apposition, 127.<br/> From hence, thence, whence, 180.<br/> From, Of, 104, +176.<br/> Funny, 56.<br/> Further, Farther, 45.<br/> Future, Subsequent, 79. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Gent’s pants, 79.<br/> German, Dutch, 75.<br/> Get, Got, 54.<br/> Give, +Accord, 36.<br/> Good deal, Great deal, 57.<br/> Good piece, Long distance, +110.<br/> Good usage, 19.<br/> Good, Well, 158.<br/> Got to, Must, 115.<br/> +Governor, the old man, 97.<br/> Great big, 98.<br/> Great deal, Good deal, +57.<br/> Greatly, Badly, 114.<br/> Grouse, Quail, Snipe, 149.<br/> Grow, Raise, +Rear, 113.<br/> Guess, Reckon, Calculate, Allow, 56.<br/> Gums, Overshoes, 56. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Habit, Custom, 40.<br/> Had better, Would better, 57.<br/> Had have, 192.<br/> +Had ought to, 193.<br/> Hadn’t, Haven’t, Hasn’t, 121.<br/> +Haint, Taint, 121.<br/> Hangs on, Continues, 115.<br/> Have got, 188.<br/> Have +saw, Has went, 114.<br/> Haven’t, Hasn’t, Hadn’t, 121.<br/> +Haply, Happily, 114.<br/> Happen, Transpire, 65.<br/> Has went, Have saw, +114.<br/> Hate, Dislike, 116.<br/> Healthy, Wholesome, 52.<br/> Healthy, +Healthful, 112.<br/> Hearty meal, 98.<br/> He is no better than <i>me— +</i>After <i>than</i> and as, 133.<br/> Help but be, 191.<br/> Heroes, Cantos, +Stuccoes, 145.<br/> Herrings, Trout, Pike, 149.<br/> He’s, She’s, +It’s, 123.<br/> Hey? Which? 25.<br/> Hire, Lease, Let, Rent, 88.<br/> +His, One’s, 50.<br/> His or her—Needless pronouns, 136.<br/> Hope, +Wish, 99.<br/> House, Residence, 43.<br/> <i>How</i> for <i>by which— +</i>Adverbs for relative pronouns, 140<br/> How, That, 154.<br/> Hung, Hanged, +112. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +I am <i>him</i>-Case forms, 129.<br/> Idea, Opinion, 113.<br/> If, But, +157.<br/> If, Whether, 58.<br/> Ill, Sick, 107.<br/> Illy, Ill, 58.<br/> +Immediately, Directly, As soon as, 77.<br/> Immigrants, Emigrants, 78.<br/> +Implicit, 58.<br/> I’m, You’re, He’s, She’s, +It’s, We’re, They’re, 123.<br/> In a fix, 53.<br/> In, By, +175.<br/> In, Into, 85, 176.<br/> In, Of, 177.<br/> In, On, 177.<br/> In our +midst, 84.<br/> In respect of, To, 176.<br/> In so far, 188.<br/> Inaugurate, +109.<br/> Incomplete Infinitive, 168.<br/> Index, Appendix, 148.<br/> +Individual, 58.<br/> Indorse, Endorse, 84.<br/> Infinitive, 166.<br/> +Infinitive, Incomplete, 168.<br/> Infinitive needed—Supply <i>To,</i> +166.<br/> Infinitive unnecessary—Omit “To,” 167.<br/> +Informed, Posted, 86.<br/> Injury, Accident, 28.<br/> Interchanged Articles, +184.<br/> Interrogatives—Pronouns, 130.<br/> Interrogative sentences, +199.<br/> Into, In, 85, 176.<br/> Introduce, Present, 105.<br/> “Is +building,” 173.<br/> Isn’t, 121.<br/> It’s, He’s, +She’s, 123.<br/> It is <i>me—</i>Case forms, 129. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +John and Mary’s sled—Double possessives, 126.<br/> Journal, +68.<br/> Junius’s letters, 125.<br/> Juntos, Heroes, Virtuosos, 145.<br/> +Just going to, 85. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Kind, Description, 44.<br/> Kind of, 85.<br/> Kind of a, 191.<br/> Knights +Templars, 147.<br/> Know as, Know that, 58.<br/> Knowing, 85. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Last, Latest, 59.<br/> Lay, Lie, 69.<br/> Lead a dance, 117.<br/> Learn, Teach, +88.<br/> Lease, Let, Rent, Hire, 88.<br/> Leave, Quit, 83.<br/> Lend, Loan, +88.<br/> Less, Fewer, 73.<br/> Lest, That, 159.<br/> Let it alone, Leave it +alone, 83.<br/> Let, Lease, Rent, Hire, 88.<br/> Let you and <i>I</i> try +it—After the Imperative, 132.<br/> Let’s, 123.<br/> Liable, +Calculated, 83.<br/> Lie, Lay, 69.<br/> Lighted, Lit, Alighted, 88.<br/> Like, +As, 88.<br/> Like, Love, 29.<br/> List of Principal Correlatives, 162.<br/> +Lit, Lighted, 88.<br/> Little, Few, 46.<br/> Little piece, Short distance, +67.<br/> Little bit, 74.<br/> Loan, Lend, 88.<br/> Look and see, 187.<br/> Look +at here, 187.<br/> Lot, Number, 116. Love, Like, 29.<br/> Low-priced, Cheap, +30.<br/> Luck, 84. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Mad, Angry, 30.<br/> Make, Manufacture, 65.<br/> Make way with, 84.<br/> +Mayn’t, Mustn’t, Mightn’t, Oughtn’t, 122.<br/> Mayst, +Mightest, 123.<br/> Means, Alms, Headquarters, 146.<br/> Measures, Weights, +Values, 203.<br/> Memorandum, Datum, 144.<br/> Mend, Fix, Repair, 62.<br/> +Mention, Allude to, Refer to, 77.<br/> Men’s and boys’ shoes, +124.<br/> Men, women, and children’s shoes—Double possessives, +126.<br/> Met with, Came across, 109.<br/> Mightn’t, Mustn’t, +Mayn’t, Oughtn’t, 122.<br/> Mightst, Mayst, 123.<br/> Mighty, Very, +104.<br/> Misplaced relatives—Pronouns, 141.<br/> Mixed pronouns, +136.<br/> More than, Above, Preceding, 111.<br/> More than, Over, 155.<br/> +More, Worse, 42.<br/> Mosquitoes, Heroes, Halos, 145.<br/> Most, Almost, Very, +30.<br/> Musselmans, Dragomans, 145.<br/> Mustn’t, Mayn’t, +Mightn’t, and Oughtn’t, 122.<br/> Mutual, Common, 28.<br/> Myself, +29. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Nasty, Nice, 89.<br/> Near, Nearly, 89.<br/> Need, Want, 40.<br/> Needless +Articles, 183.<br/> Needless Prepositions, 180.<br/> Needless Pronouns, +136.<br/> Negatives, 194.<br/> Negligence, Neglect, 29.<br/> Neighborhood, +Region, 42.<br/> Neither, Either, 47, 163.<br/> Neither... nor, Either, +163.<br/> Never, Ever, 72.<br/> Never... nor (or or), Either, 163.<br/> Never, +Not, 29.<br/> News, 142.<br/> New beginner, 191.<br/> New Words, 21.<br/> Nice, +Nasty, 89.<br/> Nicely, 89.<br/> No, Each, Every, Not, 201.<br/> No... no, 154, +196.<br/> No, Not, 154.<br/> No good, No use, 89.<br/> No more than I could +help, 111.<br/> No use, No good, 89.<br/> Nor... no, 197.<br/> Nor, Or— +Pronouns, 135.<br/> Nor, Or, As well as, But, Save, 201.<br/> Nor... not, +197.<br/> None, Singular or plural, 51.<br/> Not... hardly, 196.<br/> Not +impossible but, 160.<br/> Not... neither, Either, 163.<br/> Not, Never, +29.<br/> Not... or (or <i>nor),</i> Either, 163.<br/> Not... no, 197.<br/> +Noted, Notorious, 94.<br/> Nothing like, 94.<br/> Nothing... nor, 196.<br/> +Notorious, Noted, 94.<br/> Nouns in Apposition—Possessive Case 126.<br/> +Nouns, Plural-Possessive Case, 125.<br/> Nouns, Singular—Possessive +Case, 125.<br/> Nowhere near so, 94.<br/> Nucleus, Terminus, Fungus, 143.<br/> +Number, 142.<br/> Number, Amount, 32.<br/> Number, Lot, 116.<br/> Number, +Quantity, 38. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +O, Oh, 90.<br/> Observe, Say, 90.<br/> Obsolete Words, 20.<br/> Odds, Alms, +Riches, 145.<br/> Of any, Of all, 90.<br/> Of, From, 104,176.<br/> Of, In, +177.<br/> “Of” redundant, 169.<br/> Of, With, 176.<br/> Off of, +189.<br/> Older, Elder, 91.<br/> Omission of Article, 182.<br/> Omit the +Possessive, 170.<br/> Omission of Preposition, 179.<br/> Omit “Of,” +169.<br/> Omit “To,” 167.<br/> Omitted Relatives—Pronouns, +141.<br/> On, Over, Upon, 104.<br/> One another, Each other, 46.<br/> One... +they—Agreement with Antecedent, 134.<br/> One’s, His, 50.<br/> +Only, 91.<br/> Only, Alone, 113.<br/> Only, Except, But, 157.<br/> Onto, Upon, +92.<br/> Opens up, 191.<br/> Opinion, Idea, 113.<br/> Oppose, antagonize, +Alienate, 32.<br/> Or. Nor, As well as, But, Save, 201.<br/> Or, Nor— +Pronouns, 135.<br/> Other, 49.<br/> Other... besides, 49.<br/> Other than, +159.<br/> Other than, Otherwise than, 48.<br/> Otherwise than, Otherwise but, +159.<br/> Ottomans, Mussulmans, 145.<br/> Ought, Should, Would, 102.<br/> +Oughtn’t, Mustn’t, Mayn’t, Mightn’t, 122.<br/> +Outstart, 92.<br/> Over and Above, More than, 92.<br/> Over, More than, +155.<br/> Over, On, Upon, 104.<br/> Over with, 110.<br/> Overflown, Overflowed, +110.<br/> Overlook, Oversee, 95.<br/> Overshoes, Gums, 56.<br/> Overworked +Expressions, 13.<br/> Owing, Due, 71.<br/> Oxide of Manganese, Black, 36. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Pair, Couple, Brace, 147.<br/> Pants, Gent’s, 79.<br/> Pappy, the Old +Man, 97.<br/> Parenthetical Expressions—Pronouns, 133.<br/> Part, +Portion, 30.<br/> Partake, Ate, 105.<br/> Participles, 169,<br/> After Verbs, +171.<br/> Awkward Construction, 172.<br/> Clearness, 172.<br/> “Is +building,” 173.<br/> “Of” redundant, 169.<br/> Omit the +Possessive, 170.<br/> Place of, 171.<br/> Party, Person, 93.<br/> Patron, +Customer, 93.<br/> Peas, Pease, 149.<br/> Pell-mell, 155.<br/> Pennies, Pence, +149.<br/> Per, 93.<br/> Peradventure, Perchance, 93.<br/> Performers, 93. <br/> +Period, Point, 94.<br/> Perpetually, Continually, 52.<br/> Person, Party, +93.<br/> Perspire, Sweat, 86.<br/> Persuade, Advise, 52.<br/> Peruse, 78.<br/> +Pet Words, 12.<br/> Phenomena, Data, Effluvia, 144, 204.<br/> Place of +Participles, 171.<br/> Plead, Pleaded, 94.<br/> Plenty, Plentiful, 95.<br/> +Plural Compounds, 147.<br/> Plural Nouns, 125.<br/> Pocket-handkerchief, +188.<br/> Poet, Poetess, 73.<br/> Poetic Terms, 9.<br/> Poetical Construction, +201.<br/> Point, Period, 94.<br/> Politics, Acoustics, Ethics, 143.<br/> +Portion, Part, 30.<br/> Position of Correlatives, 164.<br/> Position of +Preposition, 178.<br/> Possessive Case, 124.<br/> After of, 127.<br/> Double +possessives, 126.<br/> Nouns, Singular, 125.<br/> ” Plural, 125.<br/> +” in apposition, 126.<br/> Pronouns, 126.<br/> Somebody else’s, +127.<br/> Postal, 31.<br/> Posted, Informed, 86.<br/> Powerful sight, 105.<br/> +Practical, Practicable, 31.<br/> Preceding, Above, More than, 111.<br/> +Predicate, 31.<br/> Prefer than, 31.<br/> Preferred before, to, 176.<br/> +Prejudice, 33.<br/> Prepositions, 174.<br/> All of, 180.<br/> At, To, 176.<br/> +Between, Among, 175.<br/> By, In, 175.<br/> Choice, 175.<br/> Differ with, +from, 175.<br/> Different from, to, than, 176.<br/> From hence, 180.<br/> In, +Into, 176.<br/> In, On, 177.<br/> In respect of, to, 176.<br/> Needless +prepositions, 180.<br/> Of, In, 177.<br/> Of, From, 176.<br/> Omission of +prepositions, 179.<br/> Position, 178.<br/> Preferred before, to, 176.<br/> To, +With, 177.<br/> Up above, 180.<br/> With, By, 177.<br/> With, Of, 176.<br/> +With, To, 178.<br/> Present, Introduce, 105.<br/> Presume, Think, Believe, +33.<br/> Pretend, Profess, 33.<br/> Pretty, Very, 116.<br/> Preventative, +Preventive, 33.<br/> Previous, Previously, 33.<br/> Profess, Pretend, 33.<br/> +Promise, Assure, 34.<br/> Pronouns, 129.<br/> Adverbs for Relative Pronouns, +140.<br/> After <i>than</i> and as, 132.<br/> ” the Imperative, +132.<br/> ” To be, 131.<br/> ” Verbs and Prepositions, 130.<br/> +Agreement with Antecedent, 133.<br/> Ambiguity, 135.<br/> Case Forms, 129.<br/> +Choice of Relatives, 138.<br/> Collective Nouns, 135.<br/> Interrogatives, +130.<br/> Misplaced Relatives, 141.<br/> Mixed, 136.<br/> Needless, 136.<br/> +Omitted Relatives, 141.<br/> Or, Nor, 135.<br/> Parenthetical expressions, +133.<br/> Silent Predicate, 132.<br/> The one, the other, 141.<br/> Uniform +Relatives, 137.<br/> <i> Which</i> and who after and, 140.<br/> +Pronouns—Possessive Case, 126.<br/> Pronouns—Personal and +Relative, 129.<br/> Proper Names—Plurals, 146.<br/> Propose, Purpose, +34.<br/> Proposal, Proposition, 37.<br/> Propose, Contemplate, 75.<br/> +Prospectus, Terminus, Apparatus, 148.<br/> Proved, Proven, 38.<br/> Providing, +Provided, 37.<br/> Provincialisms, 24.<br/> Pupil, Scholar, 107.<br/> Purity of +Diction, 19.<br/> Purpose, Propose, 34. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Quail, Grouse, Woodcock, 149.<br/> Quantity, Number, 38.<br/> Quite, Very, +Rather, 153.<br/> Quite a few, 38.<br/> Quit, Leave, 83. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Raise, Grow, Rear, 113.<br/> Rarely, Rare, 42.<br/> Rather than, Other than, +159.<br/> Real, Really, 42.<br/> Real good, 155.<br/> Rear, Raise, Grow, +113.<br/> Reason, Because, 156.<br/> Receipt, Recipe, 42.<br/> Reckon, Guess, +Calculate, Allow, 56.<br/> Recollect of, 187.<br/> Redundancy, 185.<br/> +Redundant Article, 183.<br/> Redundant Negatives, 195.<br/> Refer to, Allude +to, 77.<br/> Region, Neighborhood, 42.<br/> Relieve, Alleviate, 37.<br/> +Remainder, Balance, 60.<br/> Remit, Send, 43.<br/> Rent, Lease, Let, Hire, +88.<br/> Repair, Fix, Mend, 62.<br/> Reply, Answer, 32.<br/> Reputation, +Character, 44.<br/> Requisite, Requisition, Requirement, 106.<br/> Resemble, +Favor, 59.<br/> Residence, House, 43.<br/> Restaurant French, 10.<br/> +Revolting, 96.<br/> Reverend, 182.<br/> Riches, Alms, Odds, 145.<br/> Ride, +Drive, 76.<br/> Right, Right here, Just here, 99.<br/> Right smart, 73.<br/> +Rise up, 192.<br/> Round, Square, 63. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Said, Allowed, 87.<br/> Same as, Same that, 105.<br/> Save, But, Or, Nor, As +well as, 201.<br/> Say, Observe, 90.<br/> Says, States, 63.<br/> Scholar, +Pupil, 107.<br/> Section, Region, 106.<br/> Seeming Paradox, 191.<br/> Seldom +or ever, 106.<br/> Send, Remit, 43.<br/> Seraphim, Cherubim, 142.<br/> Set, +Sit, 80.<br/> Settle up, down, 188.<br/> Several, Couple, 76.<br/> Sewage, +Sewerage, 106.<br/> Shall, Will, Should, Would, 100.<br/> Shall you? Will you? +102.<br/> She’s, He’s, It’s, 123.<br/> Should, Would, Ought, +102.<br/> Should, Would, Shall, Will, 100.<br/> Shouldn’t and +Wouldn’t, 122.<br/> Sick, Ill, 107.<br/> Sight, Many, 74.<br/> Silent +Predicate—Pronouns, 132.<br/> Single, The first, 79.<br/> Singular +Nouns, 125.<br/> Singular in Meaning, 201.<br/> Sink down, 192.<br/> Sit, Set, +80.<br/> Slang, 22.<br/> Slang, Commercial, Common, and Society, 23.<br/> +Smart, Clever, 85.<br/> Smell of, 192.<br/> Smells sweetly—Adjective or +Adverb? 151.<br/> Sociable, Social, 106.<br/> Society Slang, 23.<br/> So... as, +163.<br/> So far, That far, 154.<br/> So nice, 155.<br/> So, Such, 152.<br/> +Solos, Heroes, Octavos, 145.<br/> Some better, 98.<br/> Some means or another, +48.<br/> Somebody else’s, 127.<br/> Somewheres, Anyways, Thereabouts, +78.<br/> Sparrowgrass, Asparagus, 34.<br/> Specialty, Speciality, 106.<br/> +Square, Round, 63.<br/> Stand a chance, 110.<br/> States, Says, 63.<br/> +Station, Depot, 43.<br/> Stay, Stop, 63.<br/> Stilts, 18.<br/> Stop, Stay, +63.<br/> Strata, Data, 144.<br/> Subject after the verb, 199.<br/> Subsequent, +Future, 79.<br/> Subtile, Subtle, 63.<br/> Such as you and <i>me— +</i>After than and as, 133.<br/> Such, So, 152.<br/> Summerish, Winterish, +99.<br/> Summons, 64.<br/> Supply “To,” 166.<br/> Support, Back up, +82.<br/> Sweat, Perspire, 86. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Tableaux, Beaus, Plateaus, 147.<br/> Tactics, Acoustics, 143.<br/> Taint, +Haint, 121.<br/> Take, Adopt, 37.<br/> Talented, 103.<br/> Taste, 7.<br/> +Tasty, Tasteful, 64.<br/> Team, 64.<br/> Teach, Learn, 88.<br/> Terminus, +Radius, Focus, 143.<br/> Than, 48.<br/> <i>Than</i> ambiguous, 158.<br/> +Thanks, I thank you, 115.<br/> That, As, 70.<br/> That, But, 157.<br/> That +far, Thus far, 154.<br/> That, Lest, 159.<br/> That omitted, 158.<br/> That, +that, 157.<br/> The father he died—Needless pronouns, 136.<br/> The +first, Single, 79.<br/> The Honorable, the Reverend, 182.<br/> The Infinitive, +166.<br/> The Miss Browns—Titles, 146.<br/> The Old Man, 97.<br/> The +one, the other—Pronouns, 141.<br/> Them books, 137.<br/> Thereabouts, +Somewheres, Any ways, 78.<br/> These kind, Those kind, 47.<br/> These sort, +Those kind, 64.<br/> These, Those, 62.<br/> They’re, We’re, +You’re, 123.<br/> Think for, 192.<br/> Thirsty, Dry, 75.<br/> This much, +154.<br/> This twenty years, These kind, 47.<br/> Those kind, These sort, +64.<br/> Through, Finished, Complete, 39, 99.<br/> Throw, Fire, 78.<br/> Titles +of Books, 204.<br/> Titles—The Reverend, the Honorable, 182.<br/> Titles +with Proper Names, 146.<br/> To always find—The Infinitive, 166.<br/> +To, With, 177, 178.<br/> To, At, 176.<br/> Transpire, Happen, 65.<br/> Trite +Expressions, 12.<br/> Truth, Veracity, 67.<br/> Try and, Try to, 117.<br/> Try +the experiment, 67.<br/> Two foot, These kind, 48.<br/> Two Negatives, 194. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Ugly, 67.<br/> Unbeknown, 68.<br/> Underhanded, 68.<br/> Under the weather, +Ill, 115.<br/> Unexampled, 96.<br/> Uniform Relatives—Pronouns, +137.<br/> Unless, Without, 41.<br/> Up above, 180.<br/> Upon, On, Over, +104.<br/> Utter, Express, 96. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Vacate, Evacuate, 75.<br/> Valuable, Valued, 97.<br/> Values, Weights, +Measures, 203.<br/> Veracity, Truth, 67.<br/> Very, Most, Almost, 30.<br/> Very +much of, 153.<br/> Very pleased, 97.<br/> Very, Pretty, 116.<br/> Very Vulgar +Vulgarisms, 13.<br/> Vicinity, Neighborhood, 97.<br/> Vulgarisms, 13. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Want, Need, 40.<br/> Wasn’t, 122.<br/> Way, Away, 41.<br/> Ways, way, +41.<br/> Weights, Measures, and Values, 203.<br/> Well, Good, 153.<br/> +Weren’t, 122.<br/> We’re, They’re, You’re, 123.<br/> +Wharf, Dock, 52.<br/> Wharf, Wharves, 149.<br/> What for <i>that,</i> 137.<br/> +What? Which? Hey? 25.<br/> Whereabouts, 204.<br/> <i>Where</i> for <i>in +which—</i>Adverbs for Relative Pronouns, 140.<br/> Whether, If, 58.<br/> +Whether... Whether, 160.<br/> Which? 25.<br/> Which? Beg pardon, 25.<br/> Which +for <i>who,</i> 137.<br/> Which? What? 25.<br/> Which and <i>who</i> after +<i>and—</i>Pronouns, 140.<br/> Who should I see—Interrogatives, +131.<br/> Whole, All, 41, 51.<br/> Wholesome, Healthy, 52.<br/> <i>Whom</i> do +you think he is—Interrogatives, 131.<br/> Why, 187.<br/> Widow woman, +186.<br/> Will, Could, Can, 115.<br/> Will, Shall, Should, Would, 100.<br/> +Will you? Shall you? 102.<br/> Winterish, Summerish, 99.<br/> Wish, Hope, +99.<br/> With, By, 177.<br/> With, Of, 176.<br/> With, To, 177, 178.<br/> +Without, Unless, 41.<br/> Woman, Female, 73.<br/> Words, Anglicized, 20.<br/> +Words Improperly Used, 26.<br/> Words, New, 21.<br/> Words, Obsolete. 20.<br/> +Words to be avoided, 18.<br/> Worse, More, 42.<br/> Would better, Had better, +57.<br/> Would Should, Ought, 102.<br/> Would, Should, Shall, Will, 100.<br/> +Wouldn’t, Shouldn’t, 122. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +You are <i>him—</i>Case Forms, 129.<br/> You’re, We’re, +They’re, 123.<br/> You was, 204. +</p> + +<hr /> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Popular Handbooks</i> +</p> + +<hr /> + +<p> +Some books are designed for entertainment, others for information. This series +combines both features. The information is not only complete and reliable, it +is compact and readable. 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A perusal of this book will prevent such blunders. It is a +book for everybody, for the select sets as well as for the less ambitious. The +subject is presented in a bright and interesting manner, and represents the +latest vogue. +</p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="center"> +<b>LETTER WRITING</b> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>By Agnes H. Morton</b> +</p> + +<p> +Why do most persons dislike letter writing? Is it not because they cannot say +the right thing in the right place? This admirable book not only shows by +numerous examples just what kind of letters to write, but by directions and +suggestions enables the reader to become an accomplished original letter +writer. There are forms for all kinds of business and social letters, including +invitations, acceptances, letters of sympathy, congratulations, and love +letters. +</p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="center"> +<b>QUOTATIONS</b> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>By Agnes H. Morton</b> +</p> + +<p> +A clever compilation of pithy quotations, selected from a great variety of +sources, and alphabetically arranged according to the sentiment. In addition to +all the popular quotations in current use, it contains many rare bits of prose +and verse not generally found in similar collections. An important feature of +the book is the characteristic lines from well known authors, in which the +familiar sayings are credited to their original sources. +</p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="center"> +<b>THINGS WORTH KNOWING</b> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>By John H. Bechtel</b> +</p> + +<p> +It is a comparatively easy task to fill a book with a mass of uninteresting +statistical matter. It is quite another thing to get together a vast +accumulation of valuable material on all conceivable subjects. This book is +thoroughly up to date, and embraces many subjects not usually found in works of +this kind. It contains information for everybody, whether it pertains to +health, household, business, affairs of state, foreign countries, or the +planets, and all most conveniently indexed. +</p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="center"> +<b>A DICTIONARY OF MYTHOLOGY</b> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>By John H. Bechtel</b> +</p> + +<p> +The average person dislikes to look up a mythological subject because of the +time occupied. This book remedies that difficulty because in it can be found at +a glance just what is wanted. It is comprehensive, convenient, condensed, and +the information is presented in such an interesting manner as when once read to +be always remembered. A distinctive feature of the book is the pronunciation of +the proper names, something found in few other works. +</p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="center"> +<b>SLIPS OF SPEECH</b> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>By John H. Bechtel</b> +</p> + +<p> +Who does not make them? The best of us do. Why not avoid them? Any one inspired +with the spirit of self-improvement can readily do so. No necessity for +studying rules of grammar or rhetoric when this book can be had. It teaches +both without the study of either. It is a counsellor, a critic, a companion, +and a guide, and is written in a most entertaining and chatty style. +</p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="center"> +<b>HANDBOOK OF PRONUNCIATION</b> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>By John H. Bechtel</b> +</p> + +<p> +What is more disagreeable than a faulty pronunciation? No other defect so +clearly shows a lack of culture. This book contains over 5,000 words on which +most of us are apt to trip. They are here pronounced in the clearest and +simplest manner, and according to the best authority. It is more readily +consulted than a dictionary, and is just as reliable. +</p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="center"> +<b>PRACTICAL SYNONYMS</b> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>By John H. Bechtel</b> +</p> + +<p> +Any one with the least desire to add to his vocabulary or to improve his choice +of words should have a copy of this book. It is designed mainly to meet the +wants of busy merchants or lawyers, thoughtful clergymen or teachers, and +wide-awake school-boys or girls who are ambitious to express the thoughts of +the mind in more fitting phrases than they are at present capable of doing. +</p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="center"> +<b>TOASTS</b> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>By William Pittenger</b> +</p> + +<p> +Most men dread being called upon to respond to a toast or to make an address. +What would you not give for the ability to be rid of this embarrassment? No +need to give much when you can learn the art from this little book. It will +tell you how to do it; not only that, but by example it will show the way. It +is valuable not alone to the novice, but the experienced speaker will gather +from it many suggestions. +</p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="center"> +<b>THE DEBATER’S TREASURY</b> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>By William Pittenger</b> +</p> + +<p> +There is no greater ability than the power of skillful and forcible debate, and +no accomplishment more readily acquired if the person is properly directed. In +this little volume are directions for organizing and conducting debating +societies and practical suggestions for all who desire to discuss questions in +public. There is also a list of over 200 questions for debate, with arguments +both affirmative and negative. +</p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="center"> +<b>PUNCTUATION</b> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>By Paul Allardyce</b> +</p> + +<p> +Few persons can punctuate properly; to avoid mistakes, many do not punctuate at +all. A perusal of this book will remove all difficulties and make all points +clear. The rules are clearly stated and freely illustrated, thus furnishing a +most useful volume. The author is everywhere recognized as the leading +authority upon the subject, and what he has to say is practical, concise, and +comprehensive. +</p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="center"> +<b>ORATORY</b> +</p> + + +<p class="center"> +<b>By Henry Ward Beecher</b> +</p> + +<p> +It must be conceded that few men ever enjoyed a wider experience or achieved a +higher reputation in the realm of public oratory than Mr. Beecher. What he had +to say on this subject was born of experience, and his own inimitable style was +at once both statement and illustration of his theme. 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