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diff --git a/4983-0.txt b/4983-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..fb9d1ab --- /dev/null +++ b/4983-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,8056 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook of Slips of Speech, by John H. Bechtel + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and +most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions +whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms +of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at +www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you +will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before +using this eBook. + +Title: Slips of Speech + +Author: John H. Bechtel + +Release Date: April 7, 2002 [eBook #4983] +[Most recently updated: July 28, 2021] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +Produced by: Jim Weiler, xooqi.com. + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SLIPS OF SPEECH *** + + + + +Slips of Speech + +A helpful book for everyone who aspires to correct the everyday errors of +speaking and writing. + +by John H. Bechtel + +Author of “Practical Synonyms,” “Pronunciation,” +etc. + +Philadelphia +The Penn Publishing Company +1901 + +COPYRIGHT 1895 BY THE PENN PUBLISHING COMPANY + + +Contents + + INTRODUCTION + I. TASTE + II. CHOICE OF WORDS + III. CONTRACTIONS + IV. POSSESSIVE CASE + V. PRONOUNS + VI. NUMBER + VII. ADVERBS + VIII. CONJUNCTIONS + IX. CORRELATIVES + X. THE INFINITIVE + XI. PARTICIPLES + XII. PREPOSITIONS + XIII. THE ARTICLE + XIV. REDUNDANCY + XV. TWO NEGATIVES + XVI. ACCORDANCE OF VERB WITH SUBJECT + INDEX + + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +Homer, in all probability, knew no rules of rhetoric, and was not +tortured with the consideration of grammatical construction, and yet +his verse will endure through time. If everybody possessed the genius +of Homer, rules and cautions in writing would be unnecessary. + +To-day all men speak, and most men write, but it is observed that those +who most closely follow Homer’s method of writing without rules are +most unlike Homer in the results. The ancient bard was a law unto +himself; we need rules for our guidance. + +Rules of writing are the outgrowth of the study of the characteristics +and qualities of style which distinguish the best writers from those of +inferior skill and ability. Grammarians and rhetoricians, according to +their several lines of investigation, set forth the laws and principles +governing speech, and formulate rules whereby we may follow the true, +and avoid the false. + +Grammar and rhetoric, as too often presented in the schools, are such +uninviting studies that when +school-days are ended, the books are laid aside, and are rarely +consulted afterward. The custom of formally burning the text-books +after the final examinations—a custom that prevails in some +institutions—is but an emphatic method of showing how the students +regard the subjects treated in the books. + +If all the rules and principles had been thoroughly mastered, the huge +bonfire of text-books in grammar and rhetoric might be regarded a +fitting celebration of the students’ victory over the difficulties of +“English undefiled.” But too often these rules are merely memorized by +the student for the purpose of recitation, and are not engrafted upon +his everyday habit of speech. They are, therefore, soon forgotten, and +the principles involved are subject to daily violation. + +Hence arises the need of books like SLIPS OF SPEECH, in which the +common faults of speakers and writers are pointed out, and the correct +use of words shown. Brief and informal in treatment, they will be read +and consulted when the more voluminous text-books will be left +untouched. + +The copious index appended to this volume will afford a ready reference +to the many subjects discussed, and will contribute greatly to the +convenience and permanent value of the book. + + + + +SLIPS OF SPEECH + + +“We should be as careful of our words as of our actions.”—CICERO. + + + + +CHAPTER I +Taste + + +Taste is a universal gift. It has been found in some degree in all +nations, races, and ages. It is shown by the savage in his love of +personal decoration; by the civilized man in his love of art. + +But while it is thus universal, it is as different among men as their +faces, complexions, characters, or languages. Even among people of the +same nation, it is as different as the degrees of society. The same +individual at different periods of life, shows this variableness of +taste. + +These diversities of taste imply a susceptibility to improvement. Good +taste in writing forms no exception to the rule. While it seems to +require some basis in nature, no degree of inborn aptitude will +compensate for the lack of careful training. + +To give his natural taste firmness and fineness a writer needs to read +the best literature, not merely so +as to know it, but so as to feel the beauty, the fitness, the charm, +the strength, the delicacy of a well-chosen word. + +The study of the proper arrangement and the most effective expression +of our thoughts prompts us to think more accurately. So close is the +connection between the thought and its expression that looseness of +style in speaking and writing may nearly always be traced to +indistinctness and feebleness in the grasp of the subject. No degree of +polish in expression will compensate for inadequacy of knowledge. But +with the fullest information upon any subject, there is still room for +the highest exercise of judgment and good sense in the proper choice +and arrangement of the thoughts, and of the words with which to express +them. + +The concurrent testimony of those best qualified to render a decision, +has determined what authors reflect the finest literary taste, and +these writers should be carefully studied by all who aspire to +elegance, accuracy, and strength in literary expression. + +Fine Writing + + +Never hesitate to call a spade a _spade_. One of the most frequent +violations of good taste consists in the effort to dress a common +subject in high-sounding language. The ass in the fable showed his +stupidity +when he put on the lion’s skin and expected the other animals to +declare him to be the king of beasts. The distinction of a subject lies +in its own inherent character, and no pompous parade of words will +serve to exalt a commonplace theme. + +Poetic Terms + + +In the expression of homely ideas and the discussion of affairs of +every-day life, avoid such poetic forms as _o’er_ for over, _ne’er _for +never, _’mid_ for amid, _e’en_ for even, _’gan_ for began, _’twixt_ for +betwixt, _’neath_ for beneath, _list_ for listen, _oft_ for often, +_morn_ for morning, _eve_ for evening, _e’er_ for ever, _ere_ for +before, _’tis_ for it is, _’twas _for it was. + +In all prose composition, avoid such poetic forms as _swain, wight, +mead, brake, dingle, dell, zephyr._ + +Foreign Words + + +The unrestrained use of foreign words, whether from the ancient or from +the modern languages, savors of pedantry and affectation. The ripest +scholars, in speaking and writing English, make least use of foreign +words or phrases. Persons who indulge in their use incur the risk of +being charged with a desire to exhibit their linguistic attainments. + +On the other hand, occasions arise when the use of words from a foreign +tongue by one who is +thoroughly familiar with them, will add both grace and exactness to his +style. + +Rarely use a foreign term when your meaning can be as well expressed in +English. Instead of _blasé,_ use surfeited, or wearied; for _cortège +_use procession for _couleur de rose,_ rose-color; for _déjeuner, +_breakfast; for _employe,_ employee; for _en route,_ on the way; for +_entre nous,_ between ourselves; for _fait accompli,_ an accomplished +fact; for _in toto,_ wholly, entirely; for _penchant, _inclination; for +_raison d’être,_ reason for existence; for _recherché,_ choice, +refined; for _rôle,_ part; for _soirée dansante,_ an evening dancing +party; for _sub rosa,_ secretly, etc. + +The following incident from the _Detroit Free Press_ is in point: + +The gentleman from the West pulled his chair up to the hotel table, +tucked his napkin under his chin, picked up the bill-of-fare and began +to study it intently. Everything was in restaurant French, and he +didn’t like it. + +“Here, waiter,” he said, sternly, “there’s nothing on this I want.” + +“Ain’t there nothin’ else you would like for dinner, sir?” inquired the +waiter, politely. + +“Have you got any _sine qua non?”_ + +The waiter gasped. + +“No, sir,” he replied. + + +“Got any _bon mots?”_ + +“N—no, sir.” + +“Got any _semper idem?”_ + +“No, sir, we hain’t.” + +“Got any _jeu d’esprits?”_ + +“No, sir; not a one.” + +“Got any _tempus fugit?”_ + +“I reckon not, sir.” + +“Got any _soirée dansante?”_ + +“No, sir.” + +The waiter was edging off. + +“Got any _sine die?”_ + +“We hain’t, sir.” + +“Got any _e pluribus unum?”_ + +The waiter’s face showed some sign of intelligence. + +“Seems like I heard ob dat, sir,” and he rushed out to the kitchen, +only to return empty-handed. + +“We ain’t got none, sir,” he said, in a tone of disappointment. + +“Got any _mal de mer?”_ + +“N—no, sir.” + +The waiter was going to pieces fast. + +The gentleman from the West, was as serene as a May morning. + +“Got any _vice versa?”_ he inquired again. + +The waiter could only shake his head. + + +“No? Well, maybe you’ve got some bacon and cabbage, and a corn dodger?” + +“’Deed we have, sir,” exclaimed the waiter, in a tone of the utmost +relief, and he fairly flew out to the kitchen. + +Trite Expressions + + +Words and phrases which may once have been striking and effective, or +witty and felicitous, but which have become worn out by oft-repeated +use, should be avoided. The following hackneyed phrases will serve to +illustrate: “The staff of life,” “gave up the ship,” “counterfeit +presentment,” “the hymeneal altar,” “bold as a lion,” “throw cold water +upon,” “the rose upon the cheek,” “lords of creation,” “the weaker +sex,” “the better half,” “the rising generation,” “tripping the light +fantastic toe,” “the cup that cheers but does not inebriate,” “in the +arms of Morpheus,” “the debt of nature,” “the bourne whence no traveler +returns,” “to shuffle off this mortal coil,” “the devouring element,” +“a brow of alabaster.” + +Pet Words + + +Avoid pet words, whether individual, provincial, or national in their +use. Few persons are entirely free from the overuse of certain words. +Young people largely employ such words as _delightful, delicious,_ +_exquisite,_ and other expressive adjectives, which constitute a kind +of society slang. + +Overworked Expressions + + +Words and phrases are often taken up by writers and speakers, repeated, +and again taken up by others, and thus their use enlarges in +ever-widening circles until the expressions become threadbare. Drop +them before they have reached that state. _Function, environment, +trend, the masses, to be in touch with, to voice the sentiments +of—_these are enough to illustrate the kind of words referred to. + +Very Vulgar Vulgarisms + + +No one who has any regard for purity of diction and the proprieties of +cultivated society will be guilty of the use of such expressions as +_yaller_ for yellow, _feller_ for fellow, _kittle_ for kettle, _kiver_ +for cover, _ingons_ for onions, _cowcumbers_ for cucumbers, +_sparrowgrass_ for asparagus, _yarbs_ for herbs, _taters _for potatoes, +_tomats_ for tomatoes, _bile_ for boil, _hain’t _for ain’t or isn’t, +_het_ for heated, _kned_ for kneaded, _sot_ for sat or set, _teeny_ for +tiny, _fooling you_ for deceiving you, _them_ for those, _shut up_ for +be quiet, or be still, or cease speaking, _went back on me_ for +deceived me or took advantage of me, a _power of people_ for a great +many +people, a _power of money_ for great wealth, a _heap of houses_ for +many houses, _lots of books_ for many books, _lots of corn_ for much +corn or large quantities of corn, _gents_ for gentlemen, and many +others of a similar character. + + + + +CHAPTER II +Choice of Words + + +Our American writers evince much variety in their graces of diction, +but in the accurate choice of words James Russell Lowell and William +Cullen Bryant stand out conspicuous above the rest. So careful and +persistent was the latter, that during the time that he was editor of +_The Evening Post,_ of New York City, he required the various writers +upon that paper to avoid the use of a long list of words and +expressions which he had prepared for them, and which were commonly +employed by other papers. This list was not only used, but enlarged by +his successors. + +Strive to cultivate the habit of observing words; trace their delicate +shades of meaning as employed by the most polished writers; note their +suggestiveness; mark the accuracy with which they are chosen. In this +way your mind will be kept on the alert to discover the beauties as +well as the blemishes of all the thought pictures that are presented, +and your vocabulary will be greatly enlarged and enriched. + + +BRYANT’S LIST OF OBJECTIONABLE EXPRESSIONS + + +_Above,_ and _over,_ use more than. _Artiste,_ use artist. _Aspirant._ +_Authoress_ _Beat,_ use defeat. _Bagging,_ use capturing. _Balance,_ +use remainder. _Banquet,_ use dinner or supper. _Bogus._ +_Casket,_ use coffin. _Claimed,_ use asserted. +_Collided._ _Commence,_ use begin. _Compete._ +_Cortege,_ use procession. _Cotemporary,_ use contemporary. + _Couple,_ use two. _Darkey,_ use negro. _Day before yesterday,_ use + the day before yesterday. _Débût._ +_Decease,_ as a verb. _Democracy,_ applied to a political party. +_Develop,_ use expose. _Devouring element,_ use fire. _Donate._ +_Employe._ _Enacted,_ use acted. + _Endorse,_ use approve. _En route._ _Esq._ +_Graduate,_ use is graduated. _Gents,_ use gentlemen. +_Hon._ _House,_ use House of Representatives. +_Humbug._ _Inaugurate,_ use begin. _In our midst._ _Item,_ use +particle, extract, or paragraph. _Is being done,_ and all similar +passive forms. _Jeopardize._ +_Jubilant,_ use rejoicing. + +_Juvenile,_ use boy. _Lady,_ use wife. _Last,_ use latest. _Lengthy,_ +use long. _Leniency,_ use lenity. + _Loafer._ _Loan,_ or _loaned,_ use lend or lent. + _Located._ _Majority,_ use most. _Mrs. President._ _Mrs. Governor._ + _Mrs. General._ +_Mutual,_ use common. _Official,_ use officer. +_Ovation._ _On yesterday._ _Over his signature._ +_Pants,_ use pantaloons. _Parties,_ use persons. +_Partially,_ use partly. _Past two weeks,_ use last two weeks. + _Poetess._ _Portion,_ use part. _Posted,_ use informed. _Progress,_ + use advance. _Quite,_ when prefixed to good, large, etc. _Raid,_ use + attack. _Realized,_ use obtained. _Reliable,_ use trustworthy. + _Rendition,_ use performance. _Repudiate,_ use reject or disown. + _Retire,_ as an active verb.v _Rev.,_ use the Rev. _Role,_ use part. + _Roughs._ _Rowdies._ _Secesh._ +_Sensation,_ use noteworthy event. _Standpoint,_ use point of view. +_Start,_ in the sense of setting out. _State,_ use say. _Taboo._ +_Talent,_ use talents or ability. +_Talented._ _Tapis._ _The deceased._ _War,_ use dispute or +disagreement. + + +STILTS + + +Avoid bombastic language. Work for plain expressions rather than for +the unusual. Use the simplest words that the subject will bear. + +The following clipping, giving an account of the commencement exercises +of a noted female college, strikingly illustrates what to avoid: + +“Like some beacon-light upon a rock-bound coast against which the +surges of the ocean unceasingly roll, and casting its beams far across +the waters warning the mariner from the danger near, the college, like +a Gibraltar, stands upon the high plains of learning, shedding its rays +of knowledge, from the murmurings of the Atlantic to the whirlwinds of +the Pacific, guiding womankind from the dark valley of ignorance, and +wooing her with wisdom’s lore, leads creation’s fairest, purest, best +into flowery dells where she can pluck the richest food of knowledge, +and crowns her brow with a coronet of gems whose brilliancy can never +grow dim: for they glisten with the purest thought, that seems as a +spark struck from the mind of Deity. There is no need for the daughters +of this community to seek colleges of distant climes whereat to be +educated, for right here in their own city, God’s paradise on earth, is +situated a noble college, the bright diadem of that paradise, that has +done more for the higher education of woman than any institution in our +land.” + + +PURITY + + +An author’s diction is pure when he uses such words only as belong to +the idiom of the language. The only standard of purity is the practice +of the best writers and speakers. A violation of purity is called a +barbarism. + +Unlike the Latin, Greek, or Hebrew, the English is a living language, +and, like all living organisms, manifests its life by taking in new +material and casting off old waste continually. Science, art, and +philosophy give rise to new ideas which, in turn, demand new words for +their expression. Of these, some gain a permanent foothold, while +others float awhile upon the currents of conversation and newspaper +literature and then disappear. + +Good usage is the only real authority in the choice of reputable words; +and to determine, in every case, what good usage dictates, is not an +easy matter. Authors, like words, must be tested by time before their +forms of expression may become a law for others. Pope, in his _Essay on +Criticism,_ laid down a rule which, for point and brevity, has never +been excelled: + +“In words, as fashions, the same rule will hold; +Alike fantastic, if too new or old; +Be not the first by whom the new are tried, +Nor yet the last to lay the old aside.” + + +BARBARISMS + + +Campbell, in his _Philosophy of Rhetoric,_ says that a word to be +legitimate must have these three signs of authority: + +1. It must be _reputable,_ or that of educated people, as opposed to +that of the ignorant or vulgar. +2. It must be _national,_ as opposed to what is either local or +technical. +3. It must be _present,_ as opposed to what is obsolete. + + +Any word that does not have these three qualities may, in general, be +styled a barbarism. + +ANGLICIZED WORDS + + +Many foreign words, in process of time, become so thoroughly +domesticated that their translation, or the use of an awkward +equivalent, would be a greater mark of pedantry than the use of the +foreign words. The proper use of such terms as _fiat, palladium, cabal, +quorum, omnibus, antique, artiste, coquette, ennui, physique, régime, +tableau, amateur,_ cannot be censured on the ground of their foreign +character. + +OBSOLETE WORDS + + +Some writers affect an antiquated style by the introduction of such +words as _peradventure, perchance,_ +_anon, behest, quoth, erewhile._ The use of such words gives a strange +sound to the sentence, and generally indicates that the writer is not +thoroughly in earnest. The expression is lowered in tone and is made to +sound fantastic. + +NEW WORDS + + +A word should not be condemned because it is new. If it is really +needed it will be welcomed, and soon find a permanent place. +Shakespeare, Addison, and Johnson introduced many new words, to which +their names afterward gave a sanction. Carlyle, Coleridge, Tennyson, +and Browning have introduced or given currency to new words, and made +strange ones familiar. + +New words are objectionable when they are employed without proper +authority. The chief sources of supply of the objectionable kind are +the current slang of the street and the sensational newspaper. They are +often the result of a desire to say things in such a manner as to +reflect smartness upon the speaker, or to present things in a humorous +or picturesque way. That they are frequently very effective cannot be +gainsaid. Sometimes they are coined in the heat of political or social +discussion, and, for a time, express what everybody is talking about; +but it is impossible to tell whether they will live beyond +the occasion that produced them. So long as their usage is doubtful it +is safer not to employ them. + +SLANG + + +Slang is somewhat like chicken-pox or measles, very catching, and just +as inevitable in its run; and very few of us escape it. It is severest, +too, where the sanitary conditions are most favorable to its +development. Where there is least thought and culture to counteract its +influence slang words crowd out those of a more serious character, +until, in time, the young and inexperienced speaker or writer is unable +to distinguish between the counterfeit and the genuine. + +While most persons condemn slang, there are very few who are entirely +free from its use. It varies greatly in its degrees of coarseness or +refinement, and adapts itself to all classes and conditions. Many know +no other language, and we are unwillingly compelled to admit that while +their speech is often ungrammatical and unrhetorical, it is generally +clear, concise, and forcible. + +Strive to acquire a vocabulary so large and to cultivate a taste so +fine that when a slang expression rises to your mind you can use it if +you think it best fits the occasion, or substitute something better in +its place. Purity of diction is a garden of slow growth even under the +most favorable conditions, and the +unrestrained indulgence in slang is like scattering seeds of the vilest +plants among the choicest flowers. + +SOCIETY SLANG + + +“This is an _elegant_ day,” “that is an _elegant_ view,” “Mary is +_awfully nice,” “_Jennie is _dreadfully sweet,”_ “Gertrude is +_delicious,”_ and “Tom is _perfectly splendid.”_ The use of such +extravagant phrases tends to weaken the significance of the words when +legitimately employed. + +COMMERCIAL SLANG + + +Commercial terms are employed in the common language of everyday life +to such an extent as to constitute a form of commercial slang. The +following will serve for illustration; “The _balance_ of the journey” +for remainder, “he was _well posted.”_ for well informed, “I +_calculate_ he will come to-morrow” for believe or think, “I _reckon_ +he is your friend” for I suppose. + +COMMON SLANG + + +To materialize, to burglarize, to enthuse, to suicide, to wire, to jump +upon, to sit upon, to take in, are a few of the many examples of slang +that should be avoided. + + +PROVINCIALISMS + + +A word that is used only in a limited part of the country is called a +provincialism. It must be known and recognized for what it is worth, +but not obtruded where it does not belong. + +Whatever may be said of the faults of speech of the American people, it +is doubtful if any other nation, whether it covers a large territory or +is limited in area, speaks the language native to the country with the +uniformity that we do. Yet, there are peculiarities that mark the +expression of most of our people, even among the best informed. The +words _calculate, reckon,_ and _guess_ are not the only words that +betray the locality of the speaker. Any person who has been five +hundred miles from home cannot fail to have observed words that were +used differently from the way in which he had been accustomed to use +them, and he probably heard terms of expression that seemed strange to +him. In like manner, his own expressions sounded strange to those who +heard him. That which distinguished his speech from theirs and theirs +from his would, in large part, be covered by the word “provincialism.” + +Not only do we have local and sectional peculiarities of speech, but we +may be said to have national mannerisms. Mr. Alexander Melville Bell, +the +eminent elocutionist, relates that some years ago when residing in +Edinburgh, a stranger called to make some inquiries in regard to +professional matters. + +“I have called on you, sir, for the purpose of,” etc. + +“When did you cross the Atlantic?” I asked. + +The stranger looked up with surprise amounting almost to consternation. + +“How do you know that I have crossed the Atlantic?” + +“Your manner of using the little word ‘sir’ is not heard in England or +Scotland.” + +This gentleman, Mr. Bell says, was one of the most eminent teachers of +elocution in America, and his speech was perfectly free from ordinary +local coloring, in all but the one little element which had escaped +observation. + +WHICH? + + +Much diversity of usage exists and some difference of opinion prevails +concerning the proper expression to use when you are addressed, and +fail to understand just what has been said. Such interrogative +rejoinders as _“What?” “How?” “Which?” “Hey?”_ are plainly +objectionable. _“Sir?” _and _“Madam!”_ once common, are no longer +tolerated in society. The English expression _“Beg pardon”_ has found +favor, but it is not wholly acceptable. _“Excuse me”_ +is suggested by a writer on the subject. It has no more syllables than +_“Beg pardon,”_ and is nearly equivalent in signification, but it is +also subject to the objection that it is often used to imply a +difference of opinion, as when a person makes a statement to which you +take exception, you begin your reply with the expression, _“Excuse +me.”_ + +Whatever is adopted will doubtless be a convenient contraction, like +_“Beg pardon,”_ which is a short way of saying, “I beg your pardon for +failing to understand what you said;” or “_Excuse me,”_ which is a +condensation of “Excuse me for not fully grasping your meaning.” + +WORDS IMPROPERLY USED + +Commodious—Convenient + + +A word of caution in the use of the smaller dictionaries is necessary. +The most elaborate definition often fails to give an adequate idea of +the signification of a term unless it is accompanied with one or more +quotations illustrating its use. The small dictionaries give only the +briefest definitions, without illustration, and therefore should be +interpreted with caution. + +Some years ago a young man of moderate attainments was very desirous of +enlarging his vocabulary +and of using words beyond the ordinary vernacular of his neighborhood. +To this end, he made a small vest-pocket lexicon his constant +companion. + +Having consulted it in the course of a conversation with a friend, he +remarked, as he was about to return it to his pocket, “What a +commodious book this is.” His friend suggested that he again consult +the “commodious” volume. With a look of the utmost confidence he turned +to the word, and exclaimed: “There! I knew I was right. _Commodious_ +means _convenient,_ and that is just what this little book is.” + +It was useless to explain that smallness sometimes renders a thing +inconvenient, and this young man, doubtless, still felicitates himself +upon his intimate acquaintance with that _commodious_ pocket +dictionary. + +Ability, Capacity + + +A fond mother was told by the principal of a boarding-school that her +daughter would not be graduated, as she lacked capacity. “Get her a +capacity. Her father don’t stand on the matter of expense. Get her +anything she wants. He’ll foot the bill.” But for once the indulgent +mother was obliged to learn that there are some things money will not +purchase. The father had the financial _ability,_ but the daughter +lacked the necessary intellectual _capacity._ + + +But we may have literary as well as financial ability. _Ability +_implies the power of doing; _capacity_ the faculty of receiving. + +About, Almost + + +“This work is _about_ done.” Use “_almost_ done.” + +Acceptance, Acceptation + + +These words cannot be used interchangeably. “He wrote signifying his +_acceptance_ of the office.” “According to the common _acceptation_ of +this term, he is a knave.” + +Access, Accession + + +“He gained _access_ to the fort.” “The only _accession,_ which the +Roman empire received was the province of Britain.” + +Accident, Injury + + +Accident is sometimes used incorrectly for _injury._ as “His _accident_ +was very painful.” + +Mutual, Common + + +Some men seek to be great by copying great men’s faults. Dickens may +say “Our Mutual Friend,” but Dickens’s strong point was not grammar. If +you have a friend in common with Smith, in speaking of him to Smith, +say our _common _friend. The word _mutual_ should always convey a sense +of reciprocity, as “Happy in our mutual help and mutual love.” + + +Myself + + +This word is generally used for emphasis, as “I _myself_ will do it,” +“I wrote it _myself.”_ It should not be used for the unemphatic +pronouns _I_ and _me,_ as in “James and _myself_ are going to town,” +“He gave the books to James and _myself.”_ It is properly used with a +reflexive verb without emphasis, as “I will defend _myself.”_ + +Negligence, Neglect + + +_Negligence_ is the habit, _neglect_ the act, of leaving things undone. +The adjectives _negligent_ and _neglectful_ should, in like manner, be +discriminated. + +Never, Not + + +The word _never_ is sometimes colloquially used for _not, _as “I +_never_ remember to have seen Lincoln.” Say “I _do not _remember,” etc. +_Never_ should not be used in reference to events that can take place +but once, as “Warren _never_ died at Lexington.” + +Love, Like + + +We may _love_ our parents, our children, our country, the truth; and we +may _like_ roast turkey and cranberry sauce. “I _love _cherries,” “I +_adore_ strawberries,” are school-girl expressions that should be +avoided. Love is an emotion of the heart, and not of the palate. + + +Cheap, Low-priced + + +These words are often used synonymously. A picture purchased for ten +thousand dollars may be cheap; another, for which ten dollars was paid, +although low-priced, may be dear. + +Mad, Angry + + +The frequent use of _mad_ in the sense of angry should be avoided. A +person who is insane is _mad._ A dog that has hydrophobia is _mad._ +Figuratively we say _mad,_ with rage, _mad_ with terror, _mad_ with +pain; but to be vexed, or angry, or out of patience, does not justify +the use of so strong a term as _mad._ + +Most, Almost, Very + + +Sometimes incorrectly used for _almost,_ as “He writes to me _most_ +every week.” + +It is often loosely used in the sense of _very,_ as “This is a _most +_interesting book.” Aim to use _most_ only as the superlative of +_much_, or _many._ Do not use the indefinite article before it, as +“This is _a most_ beautiful picture.” We may say “This is _the most +_beautiful picture,” for here comparison is implied. + +Portion, Part + + +“Give me the _portion_ of goods that falleth to me.” “We traveled a +_part_ of the distance on foot.” _Portion_ is applied to that which is +set aside for a special +purpose, often as the share or allotment of an individual, as the +wife’s _portion,_ the _portion_ of the oldest son, etc. _Part_ is a +more general term. + +Postal + + +Bryant would not have said, “I will send you a _postal_ by to-morrow’s +mail.” _Postal card_ or _post card_ would be better. + +Practical, Practicable + + +These words are sometimes confounded. _Practicable_ means “that may be +done or accomplished,” and implies that the means or resources are +available; as, a _practicable_ road, a _practicable_ aim. _Practical_ +means “capable of being turned to use or account;” as, “The _practical_ +man begins by doing; the theorist often ends by thinking.” + +Predicate + + +This word is sometimes incorrectly used in the sense of _form _or +_base;_ as, “He _predicated_ his statement on the information he had +just received.” Neither should it be used in the sense of _predict; +_as, “The sky is overcast, and I _predicate_ a storm tomorrow.” + +Prefer—than + + +“I _prefer_ to walk _than_ to ride.” Say “I prefer walking to riding;” +or, “I would rather walk than +ride.” “To skate is _preferable than_ to coast.” Say “Skating is +preferable to coasting.” + +Amount, Number + + +_Amount_ applies to what is thought of in the mass or bulk, as money, +wheat, coal. _Number_ is used when we think of the individuals +composing the mass, as men, books, horses, vessels. + +Answer, Reply + + +An _answer_ implies a question. We may _reply_ to a remark or +assertion. A _reply_ is more formal than an _answer._ + +Antagonize, Alienate, Oppose + + +The word _antagonize_ should not be used in the sense of _alienate;_ +as, “Your proposition will _antagonize_ many supporters of the +measure.” “The Senate _opposed_ the bill which passed the House” is +better than “_antagonized_ the bill.” + +Anticipate, Expect + + +“The arrival of the President was hourly _anticipated”_ is pompous. Use +_expected._ + +Any, At all + + +“He was so far from the speaker’s platform that he could not hear +_any.”_ Better “that he could not hear,” or “hear at all,” or “hear +what was said.” + + +Apparent, Evident + + +These words are often used interchangeably. That which is _apparent_ +may be what it appears to be, or it may be very different; that which +is _evident _admits of no doubt. The same is true of _apparently_ and +_evidently._ + +Prejudice + + +“He is not the best person for the position, but his many kindnesses to +me _prejudice_ me in his favor.” We may be prejudiced against a person +or thing, but cannot be prejudiced in favor. Use _predispose._ + +Presume + + +This word is often employed when _think, believe,_ or _daresay _would +be better. + +Pretend, Profess + + +“I do not _pretend_ to be an orator.” _Pretend_ means _to feign, to +sham;_ as, “He _pretends_ to be asleep,” and should not be used when +_claim_ or _profess_ would better suit the purpose. + +Preventative + + +The correct form of the word is _preventive,_ not _preventative._ + +Previous, Previously + + +The adjective _previous_ is often incorrectly used for the adverb +_previously;_ as, “Previous to his imprisonment he made a confession of +his crime.” + + +Promise, Assure + + +“I _promise_ you we had a good time yesterday.” _Promise_ relates to +the future, hence “I _assure_ you,” etc., would be better. + +Propose, Purpose + + +To _propose_ is to set before the mind for consideration; to _purpose_ +is to intend. “I _propose_ sending my son to college” should be “I +_purpose,”_ etc. “I _propose_ that you go to college, my son.” “Thank +you, father, I accept the proposal.” + +Sparrowgrass, Asparagus + + +The word _sparrowgrass,_ which is a corruption of the word _asparagus,_ +illustrates how readily the uneducated mind associates an unusual term +with another that is familiar, and as the mental impression is received +through the ear, and lacks that definiteness which the printed form +would give, the new idea, when repeated, often assumes a picturesque, +if not a ludicrous, form. Many of Mrs. Partington’s quaint sayings +furnish further illustration. + +The following incident, from a Western paper, shows the successive +stages in the farmer’s mental operations from the familiar terms _skin, +hide, oxhide, _up to the unfamiliar chemical term _oxide,_ through +which he was obliged to pass before he succeeded in making known his +wants: + + +The man was in a brown study when he went into the drug store. + +“What can we do for you?” inquired the clerk. + +“I want black—something of something,” he said; “have you got any?” + +“Probably we have,” replied the clerk, “but you’ll have to be more +definite than that to get it.” + +The farmer thought for a moment. + +“Got any black sheepskin of something?” he asked. + +“No; we don’t keep sheepskins. We have chamois-skins, though.” + +“That ain’t it, I know,” said the customer. “Got any other kind of +skins?” + +“No.” + +“Skins—skins—skins!” slowly repeated the man, struggling with his +slippery memory. “Calfskin seems to be something like it. Got any black +calfskins of anything?” + +“No, not one,” and the clerk laughed. + +The customer grew red in the face. + +“Confound it!” he said, “if it ain’t a skin, what in thunder is it?” + +“Possibly it’s a hide?” suggested the clerk. + +“That’s it! That’s it!” exclaimed the man. + +“Have you got any black hides of something or anything?” + + +The clerk shook his head sadly as the man tramped up and down the +store. + +“Got any black cowhide of anything?” he asked, after a moment’s +thought. + +The clerk’s face showed a gleam of intelligence, and then broke into a +smile. + +“Possibly it’s black oxide of manganese you want?” he said, quietly. + +“Of course, that’s it!” he exclaimed, as he threw his arms around the +clerk’s neck. “I knowed blamed well there was a skin or hide or +something somewhere about the thing,” and he calmed down quietly and +waited for what he wanted. + +Accord, Give + + +“They _accorded_ him due praise.” “They _gave_ him the desired +information.” + +Act, Action + + +“The best portion of a good man’s life is his little, nameless, +unremembered _acts_ of kindness and of love.” “Suit the _action_ to the +word.” _Action_ suggests the operation; _act_, the accomplished result. + +Adherence, Adhesion + + +These words were once interchangeable, but are now distinct. _Adhesion +_relates to physical bodies; _adherence_ to mental states. + + +Adopt, Take + + +“What course will you _take?”_ is better than “What course will you +_adopt?”_ + +Affect, Effect + + +These words are sometimes confounded. “The climate _affected _their +health.” “They sailed away without _effecting_ their purpose.” + +Aggravate, Exasperate + + +To _aggravate_ means to intensify, to make worse; to _exasperate _means +to provoke, to irritate. “To _aggravate_ the horrors of the scene.” +“His remarks _exasperated_ me.” “His conduct _aggravates_ me” should be +“His conduct _annoys_ (or _displeases,_ or _irritates, _or +_exasperates)_ me.” + +Alleviate, Relieve + + +These words differ chiefly in degree. The latter is the stronger word. + +Proposal, Proposition + + +A _proposition_ implies consideration or discussion; a _proposal +_contemplates acceptance or rejection. “Your _proposition_ to build our +new warehouse has received favorable consideration, and we are ready to +receive your _proposals.”_ + +Providing, Provided + + +“You may go to skate, _providing_ you first finish your task.” +Incorrect. You should say _provided._ + + +Proved, Proven + + +_Proven_ is sometimes incorrectly used for _proved._ “The evidence was +complete and his guilt was fully _proved.” Not proven_ is a legal term +used in England to denote that the guilt of the accused is not made +out, though not disproved. + +Quantity, Number + + +_Quantity_ refers to the _how much; number_ to the _how many. _“He +purchased a large _quantity_ of _wheat, corn, apples, lime, _and +_sand,_ and a _number_ of _houses, stores_, _chairs, _and _books.”_ It +is, therefore, incorrect to say, “There was a large _quantity_ of +bicycles in the yard,” “He sold a large _quantity_ of books at +auction.” + +Quite a few + + +In some parts of the country this expression is in common use in the +sense of _many, a large number,_ etc. “How many people were at church +to-day?” _“Quite a few,”_ meaning a considerable number. + +Commence, Begin + + +Some persons always _commence,_ but never _begin._ The tendency toward +pomp and parade in speech prompts many persons to avoid the use of our +strong, rugged Anglo-Saxon words, and to substitute their high-sounding +Latin equivalents, until, in time, the preferable native forms come to +be regarded as +commonplace and objectionable. American usage is more faulty than +English in this regard. Use _begin_ and _beginning_ more, and _commence +_and, _commencement_ less. + +Complete, Finished + + +There is a distinction in the use of these words that is not always +observed. _Complete_ signifies _nothing lacking,_ every element and +part being supplied. That which is _finished_ has had all done to it +that was intended. A vessel may be _finished_ and yet be _incomplete._ + +Conclusion, End + + +The more pretentious word _conclusion_ is often used where the simple +Anglo-Saxon word _end_ would be preferable. + +Conscious, Aware + + +“He was _aware_ of the enemy’s designs.” “_Conscious_ of his fate, he +boldly approached the furious beast.” _Conscious_ relates to what is +within our own mind; _aware_ to what is without. + +Continual, Continuous + + +_Continuous_ implies _uninterrupted, unbroken. Continual _relates to +acts that are frequently repeated. “The _continuous_ ride is often +finished in five hours, but owing to _continual_ delays we were eight +hours on the way.” + + +Convict, Convince + + +The Irishman who brandished his club and, exclaimed that he was open to +conviction, but he would like to see the man that could convince him, +used a form of argument that was most convincing, but failed in his +discrimination of language. _Convict_ refers to the outer condition, +and generally applies to something wrong; _convince,_ which may be used +of either right or wrong, refers to the judgment. + +Custom, Habit + + +_Habit_ is a tendency which leads us to do easily; _custom_ grows out +of the habitual doing or frequent repetition of the same act. _Custom +_refers to the usages of society, or of the individual; _habit_ refers +more frequently to the individual acts. “Ill _habits_ gather by unseen +degrees.” + +“Man yields to custom as he bows to fate, In all things ruled— mind, +body, and estate.” + +Want, Need + + +These words are often used interchangeably, but should be +discriminated. _Need_ implies the lack; _want_ also implies the lack, +but couples with it the wish to supply the lack. “Some men _need_ help, +but will not ask for it; others _want_ help (that is, they need help, +or think they do, and ask for it) and get it, too.” + + +Way, Away + + +“He is _way_ down in Florida,” is incorrect. “He is _away _down in +Florida” is better grammar. “He is in Florida” is still better. _Down_ +indicates the direction, and _away_ magnifies the distance. As most +persons know the direction, and as modern railway travel shortens long +distances, the abbreviated sentence is sufficiently full. + +Ways, Way + + +“He is a long _ways_ from home” is a very common, but faulty +expression. Say “Uncle Charles is now a long _way_ on his journey.” +“The boat is a good _way_ off the shore.” + +Whole, All + + +“The _whole_ of the scholars went to the fair to-day.” _“All_ of the +school went to the fair to-day.” The sentences will be improved by +transposing _whole_ and _all. “All_ of the scholars went to the fair +to-day,” not half of them. “The _whole_ school went to the fair +to-day,” not a part of it. _All_ refers to the individual scholars; +_whole_ to the school as a unit. + +Without, Unless + + +“He cannot miss the way _without_ he forgets my instructions.” “I will +not dig the potatoes _without_ Tom comes to help.” Use _unless _instead +of _without._ + + +Worse, More + + +“He dislikes arithmetic _worse_ than grammar.” Use _more_ instead of +_worse._ + +Rarely, Rare + + +“It is _rarely_ that you hear of a prodigal youth growing into an +economical man.” _Rarely_ should be _rare_ to form the adjective +attribute of the verb. + +Real, Really + + +_Real_ is often incorrectly used as an adverb, especially by +schoolgirls; as, “I think he is _real_ mean.” The grammar will be +improved by substituting _really_ for _real,_ but the expression, as a +whole, being applied to all kinds and degrees of offenses, has become +meaningless. + +_Real_ is often carelessly used in the sense of _very;_ as _real +_pretty, _real_ bright, _real_ kind. + +Recipe, Receipt + + +A _recipe_ is a formula for making some mixture or preparation of +materials; a _receipt_ is an acknowledgment of that which has been +received. + +Region, Neighborhood + + +_Region_ is a broader and more comprehensive term, and should not be +applied to the narrow limits of a _neighborhood._ + + +Remit, Send + + +The word _remit_ is often used when _send_ would be better. _Remit_ +means to send back, to forgive, to relax. In its commercial sense it +means to transmit or send money in payment of a demand; as, “He +_remitted _the amount by mail.” + +Residence, House + + +This pretentious word is often used when _house_ or _home_ would be in +better taste. + +Deface, Disfigure + + +“The walls of many public buildings are _defaced_ by persons who desire +that their names shall remain when they are gone.” “They _disfigure_ +their faces that they may appear unto men to fast.” _Disfigure_ applies +more generally to persons; _deface,_ to things. + +Demean, Degrade + + +The word _demean_ is often incorrectly used in the sense of _degrade, +lower._ It should be used in the sense of _behave, conduct, deport,_ +and not in the sense of _degrade._ + +Depot, Station + + +For many years the word _depôt_ was largely employed in the sense of a +railway station. Its primary meaning is a _warehouse_ or _storehouse_ +or _military station._ As applied to a stopping place for railroad +trains the +English word _station_ is greatly to be preferred to the French word +_depôt,_ and is rapidly coming into general use in this country. + +Description, Kind + + +“Flowers of every _description_ were found in his garden.” In the above +sense the word _kind_ or _variety_ would be more appropriate. + +Bring, Fetch, Carry + + +_Bring_ implies motion from the object toward the person who issues the +command or makes the request. _Fetch_ implies two motions, first, +toward the object; second, toward the person who wishes it. The +gardener, who is in the garden, calls to his servant, who is at the +barn, “John, _bring_ me the rake. You will find it in the barn.” And if +John is with him in the garden, he would say, “John, _fetch_ me the +rake from the barn.” + +The use of _fetch_ is more common among English writers than with us. +In fact, many speakers and writers in America rarely use the word. + +_Carry_ is a more general term, and means _to convey,_ without thought +of the direction. + +Character, Reputation + + +These words are often confounded. “Character,” says Abbott, “is what a +person is; reputation is what he is supposed to be. Character is in +himself, +reputation is in the minds of others. Character is injured by +temptations and by wrong-doing; reputation by slanders and libels. +Character endures throughout defamation in every form, but perishes +where there is a voluntary transgression; reputation may last through +numerous transgressions, but be destroyed by a single, and even an +unfounded, accusation or aspersion.” + +Farther, Further + + +Although these words are often used interchangeably even by good +writers, yet a finer taste and a keener power of discrimination is +shown in the use of _farther_ when referring to literal distance, and +of _further _in reference to quantity or degree; as, “Each day’s +journey removes them _farther_ from home,” “He concluded his speech by +remarking that he had nothing _further_ to say.” _Farther_ is the +comparative of _far; further_ is the comparative of _forth._ + +Fault, Defect + + +Speakers and writers often fail to discriminate in the use of these +words. A _defect_ implies a deficiency, a lack, a falling short, while +a _fault_ signifies that there is something wrong. + +“Men still had faults, and men will have them still, +He that hath none, and lives as angels do +Must be an angel.” + + +“It is in general more profitable to reckon up our defects than to +boast of our attainments.” + +Few, Little + + +These words and their comparatives, _fewer, less,_ are often +confounded. _Few_ relates to number, or to what may be counted; _little +_refers to quantity, or to what may be measured. A man may have _few +_books and _little_ money; he may have _fewer_ friends and _less +_influence than his neighbor. But do not say “The man has _less +_friends than his neighbor.” + +Each other, One another + + +While some excellent authorities use these expressions interchangeably, +most grammarians and authors employ _each other_ in referring to two +persons or things, and _one another_ when more than two are considered; +as, “Both contestants speak kindly of _each other.” _“Gentlemen are +always polite to _one another.”_ + +Those who prefer to have wide latitude in speech will be glad to know +that Murray, in one of the rules in his grammar, says, “Two negatives +in English destroy _one another.”_ + +Shakespeare says, “It is a good divine that follows his own +instructions. I can easier teach twenty what were good to be done, than +be one of +the twenty to follow mine own teaching.” This is as true of expression +as of morals. + +Either, Neither + + +“Palms and beautiful flowers lined the hall on _either_ side,” is a +common but faulty form of expression. _Either_ refers to one of two +things. In the foregoing sentence the thought is that _both_ sides of +the hall were lined, hence the word _both_ should have been used. If, +however, each side of the hall is thought of separately, then _each,_ +would be the proper word to employ. + +_“Either_ of the two books will please you.” _“Any_ of the three books +will prove satisfactory.” _“Any one_ of the five men would make a good +candidate.” _“Neither_ of the two men will serve.” _“None_ of the ten +men were present.” “_Not one_ of all the houses was left standing.” +These sentences represent the best usage with regard to _either, +neither,_ and also of _any, none, any one, not one._ + +These kind + + +Adjectives implying number must agree with the nouns which they +qualify. _This_ and _that_ qualify nouns in the singular; _these _and +_those_ belong to nouns in the plural. + +_“These kind_ of potatoes grow well in this soil.” Use _this. “This +_twenty _years_ have I known him.” +Use _these._ “The beam was _two foot_ above my head,” Use _feet. _“For +_this,_ among other reasons, I abandoned the profession.” Say “For +_this_ reason, among others, I abandoned the profession.” “He rides the +bicycle daily, and by _this means_ he preserves his health.” “The +partners were all honest, courteous, and industrious, and by _these +means _acquired wealth.” The word _means_ being either singular or +plural, the two preceding sentences are both correct. + +Some means or another + + +“By _some means or another_ he always gets the better part of the +bargain.” This sentence may be corrected by saying _“one means or +another,”_ or _“some means or other.”_ + +Than + + +After _other, otherwise, else,_ or an adjective in the comparative +degree, _than_ should be used, and not _but_ or _except._ + +“No other way _but_ this was open to him.” Use _than._ + +“History and philosophy cannot otherwise affect the mind _but_ for its +enlargement and benefit.” Use _than._ + +“Flowers are often nothing else _but_ cultivated weeds.” Use _than._ + +“He no sooner entered the bridge _but_ he met an infuriated bull coming +toward him.” Use _than._ + + +“He offered no other objection _except_ the one already mentioned.” Use +_than._ + +“He read five other books on ‘Crime and Its Causes’ _in addition to +_those you named.” Use _than._ + +With equal propriety we may say, “He offered no objection except the +one already mentioned,” or “He read five books on ‘Crime and Its +Causes’ in addition to those you named.” It is the use of the word +_other,_ or _otherwise,_ or _else,_ that makes necessary the +correlative term _than._ + +Besides + + +After _else_ and _other_ the preposition _besides_ is sometimes +employed. + +“Other boys _besides_ these are mischievous.” + +“Other arts _besides_ music are elevating and inspiring.” + +“We must have recourse to something else _besides_ punishment.” + +It will be observed that the use of _besides_ in this section differs +from the use of _than_ in the preceding discussion. _“Other... than” +_is exclusive of those mentioned; whereas, “_other... besides” +_includes those mentioned. + +Other + + +“Iron is more useful than all the metals.” The faultiness of this +sentence becomes apparent when +we remember that iron itself is a metal and is included in the word +_metals, _which forms one side of the comparison. In short, “Iron is +more useful than iron together with all the other metals.” This +statement is absurd. The sentence should, therefore, read, “Iron is +more useful than all the _other _metals.” + +“The Washington monument is higher than any monument in America.” Since +it is in America, and as it cannot be higher than itself, the sentence +is made correct by adding the word _other;_ as, “The Washington +monument is higher than any _other_ monument in America.” + +“This book, which I have just finished, is superior to any work on the +subject that I have yet seen.” Say “to any _other_ work.” + +“Of all other creatures, man is the most highly endowed.” Say “of all +creatures,” etc. + +“No general was ever so beloved by his soldiers.” Say “No _other +_general,” etc. + +“Nothing delights him so much as a storm at sea.” “Nothing _else +_delights him,” etc. + +One’s, His + + +Whether we should say “One ought to know _one’s_ own mind,” or “One +ought to know _his_ own mind,” is a question that the critics have +earnestly discussed, but have never settled, except as each settles it +for +himself. The masculine pronoun is often used with an antecedent whose +gender is not known. There can, therefore, be no objection to the use +of _his_ on the question of gender. As a matter of euphony, _his_ is +preferable to _one’s._ Both have the sanction of good usage. + +None + + +Although literally signifying _no one,_ the word _none_ may be used +with a plural verb, having the force of a collective noun. + +_“None_ but the brave deserves the fair.”— _Dryden._ + +_“None_ knew thee but to love thee, +_None_ named thee but to praise.”—_Halleck._ + +“I look for ghosts; but _none_ will force +Their way to me.”—_Wordsworth._ + +“Of all the girls that e’er were seen, +There’s _none_ so fine as Nelly.”—_Swift._ + + +All, Whole + + +The word _all_ is often incorrectly used for _the whole._ + +“The river rose and spread over all the valley.” This should be “over +the _whole_ valley.” + +“The day being stormy, the members of Class A were _all_ the children +at school to-day.” Correct by saying “were the only children at school +to-day.” + + +Perpetually, Continually + + +_Perpetually_ is not synonymous with _continually. Perpetually _means +never-ceasing. That which is done _continually_ may be subject to +interruptions. + +Persuade, Advise + + +“Almost thou _persuadest_ me to be a Christian.” Paul had _advised +_many persons to become Christians, some of whom, like Agrippa, were +_almost persuaded._ + +Wharf, Dock + + +These words are sometimes confounded. The _wharf_ is the pier, or +landing, upon which the vessel unloads her cargo. The _dock_ is the +artificial waterway, or basin, formed by the wharves. “The vessel came +into the _dock_ and was made fast to the _wharf.”_ + +Contemptible, Contemptuous + + +_Contemptible_ is sometimes incorrectly used for _contemptuous._ A +story is told of Richard Parson, an English scholar and critic. A +gentleman being in dispute with him, angrily exclaimed, “My opinion of +you is most _contemptible,_ sir,” upon which Parson quickly retorted, +“I never knew an opinion of yours that was not _contemptible.”_ + +Healthy, Wholesome + + +These terms are not synonymous. Toadstools may be _healthy,_ but they +would not be regarded as +_wholesome._ Plants and animals are _healthy_ when the conditions of +their growth are favorable. They are _wholesome_ when, as food, they +promote the health of those persons who eat them. + +In a fix + + +Many persons instead of saying “He is in trouble,” or “He is in an +awkward position,” or “He is perplexed,” or _embarrassed,_ employ the +vulgarism, “He is _in a fix.”_ Although Shakespeare may say, “This was +the _most unkindest_ cut of all,” and De Quincey may write, “Poor Aroar +cannot live and cannot die—so that he is in an _almighty fix,”_ we +lesser mortals are forbidden such expressions. + +Fly, Flee + + +In a general sense _fly_ is applied to winged creatures and _flee_ to +persons. “What exile from himself can _flee?”_ “When the swallows +homeward _fly.”_ The past tense forms are sometimes confused, as, “The +inhabitants _flew_ to the fort for safety,” “The wild geese have all +_fled_ to the South.” The principal parts of the verbs are: + +Present. Past. Perf. part. +fly, flew, flown. +flee, fled, fled. + + +The verbs _flew_ and _fled_ in the foregoing sentences should be +transposed. _Fly_ implies motion either +from or toward. _Flee_ implies motion from. _Fly_ may be used, in a +figurative sense, of persons, to indicate great speed as of wings. “I +_flew _to his rescue.” “He _flew_ to my rescue.” “Resist the devil and +he will _flee_ from you.” + +The word _flown_ is sometimes used erroneously as the past tense or +perfect participle of the verb _flow._ The parts of this verb are +_flow, flowed, flowed. “_The river has _overflowed_ (not _overflown)_ +its banks.” + +Get, Got + + +Because a horse is willing is no reason why he should be ridden to +death. The verb _get_ and its past-tense form _got_ admit of many +meanings, as the following, from an old English publication, fully +proves: “I _got_ on horseback within ten minutes after I _got_ your +letter. When I _got _to Canterbury I _got_ a chaise for town; but I +_got_ wet through before I _got_ to Canterbury, and I have _got_ such a +cold as I shall not be able to _get_ rid of in a hurry. I _got_ to the +Treasury about noon, but, first of all, I _got_ shaved and dressed. I +soon _got _into the secret of _getting_ a memorial before the Board, +but I could not _get_ an answer then. However, I _got_ intelligence +from the messenger that I should most likely _get_ an answer the next +morning. As soon as I _got_ back to my inn I _got_ my supper and _got_ +to bed. It was not long before I _got_ to sleep. +When I _got_ up in the morning I _got_ myself dressed, and then _got_ +my breakfast, that I might _get_ out in time to _get_ an answer to my +memorial. As soon as I _got_ it I _got_ into the chaise and _got_ to +Canterbury by three, and about teatime I _got_ home. I have _got_ +nothing more to say.” + +Those who are disposed to overwork the words _get_ and _got_ will find +it interesting and profitable to read the foregoing exercise, +substituting other words for those in italics. + +With _have_ the word _got_ is generally superfluous; as, “I have _got_ +a cold,” “I have _got_ to go to Boston this evening,” “Have you _got_ +Hires’s root-beer on draught?” For “I _did not get_ to meet your +cousin,” say “I _had no opportunity,”_ or “I _was prevented,” _etc. + +Another very faulty use of _got_ is heard in such expressions as “He +_got_ killed,” “They _got_ beaten,” “She _got_ cured,” etc. _Was_ or +_were_ would be more appropriate. + +Since _to get_ means _to obtain, to procure, to gain,_ the use of the +word is justified in such expressions as “I have _got_ a larger farm +than you have, because I have worked harder for it.” “I have _got_ a +better knowledge of the Pacific coast than he has, because I traveled +extensively through that region.” And yet, when we have been +overworked, the physician usually prescribes a period of absolute rest; +so, in +view of the multifarious uses to which _get_ has been applied, would it +not be well to permit it to retire for a time, in order that it may the +more quickly be rejuvenated. + +Guess, Reckon, Calculate, Allow + + +“I _guess_ he is not going to vote to-day.” “I _reckon_ we are going to +have fair weather now.” “I _calculate_ this ground would grow good +potatoes.” “I _allow_ she’s the prettiest girl that ever visited these +parts.” The foregoing sentences may be improved by recasting them. “I +think he is not going to (or will not) vote to-day.” “I believe we +shall now have fair weather.” “I suppose this ground would yield fine +potatoes.” “I regard her as the handsomest lady that has ever visited +this place (or _neighborhood,_ or _locality)._ + +Gums, Overshoes + + +“Tom is outside, cleaning his _gums_ on the mat.” While a mat will do +very well for _overshoes,_ a tooth-brush and sozodont would be better +for the _gums._ + +Funny + + +“Isn’t it _funny_ that Smith, who resided in Chicago, should have died +the same day that his father died in Boston?” “Isn’t it _funny _that +the murderer who escaped hanging on a mere technicality of the law +should have been killed the next day in a railroad accident?” “How +_funny _that these maples should grow so tall on this mountain top!” +“It is _funny_ to think that James, who now pays his addresses to me, +should once have been in love with my youngest sister.” The foregoing +illustrations are not more incongruous than those we daily hear. _Odd, +strange, peculiar, unusual, _represent some of the ideas intended to be +conveyed by that much-abused word. + +Good deal, Great deal + + +This idiom is defended by some authorities as being in perfectly good +use, and by others it is denounced as being incorrect. Both _good deal +_and _greet deal_ are somewhat colloquial, and should be used sparingly +in writing. + +Had better, Would better + + +Like _a good deal_ and some other idioms, this expression is denounced +by some writers and defended by others. Grammatical construction +supports more strongly the forms _would better, would rather,_ etc. “I +had rather be a doorkeeper in the house of my God, than to dwell in the +tents of wickedness.” “I would rather read than drive to-day.” “I would +rather not go.” Omit _rather_ and the superiority of _would_ over _had_ +becomes apparent. + + +If, Whether + + +“I do not know _if_ he sold his farm or exchanged it for city +property.” Use _whether._ + +Illy, Ill + + +Do not use _illy_ for _ill._ The former is becoming obsolete, and the +latter, as an adverb, is taking its place. Say “An ill-ventilated +room,” not “an illy-ventilated room.” + +Implicit + + +This word means _tacitly understood, resting on the word or authority +of another._ It should not be used in the sense of _unbounded, +unlimited._ + +Individual + + +This word should not be used broadly in the sense of _a_ _person,_ but +should always convey some thought of _a_ _single _thing or person, as +opposed to many. + +Journal + + +As this word is from the French, _jour,_ day, it should not be applied +to a monthly or quarterly magazine. + +Know as + + +“I do not _know as_ I can see you to-day.” Say _know that._ + + +Last, Latest + + +“Did you receive my _last_ letter?” + +“I hope not. I enjoy your letters very much, and I trust you may live +to write many more.” + +Cunning + + +This word is much used by young ladies in speaking of what is small, or +dainty, or pleasing, as “A _cunning_ little bonnet,” _“A cunning +_little watch,” etc. While the word properly embodies the idea of skill +or dexterity on the part of the workman, and while the appreciation of +such skill, in speaking of the artist or artisan, might be expressed by +_cunning,_ it is better not to use the word in referring to the product +of the workmanship. + +Curious + + +_Curious_ means _inquisitive, rare._ In the sense of _strange _or +_remarkable,_ its use should be guarded. + +Cute + + +This word is often used colloquially in the sense of _clever, sharp, +shrewd, ingenious, cunning._ It is doubtless an abbreviation of +_acute._ It is not found in good literary usage. + +Favor, Resemble + + +The use of the word _favor_ in the sense of _resemble_ is a +provincialism that should be avoided. “The +son _favors_ the father” is correct if the meaning be that the son +shows favor or kindness to the father; but if reference to their +similarity of appearance is intended, the verb _resemble_ should be +employed. + +Balance, Remainder + + +This word, like numerous others, has been borrowed from the commercial +world, and has had such a wide use that its faultiness is not noticed +even by many who regard themselves as careful speakers and writers. “I +cut down part of the timber this year, and expect to cut the _balance_ +next spring.” “My cousin will remain with us the _balance_ of this +week.” “James ate half of the melon to-day, and will eat the _balance_ +to-morrow.” In these and all similar cases the word _remainder_ should +be used. _Balance_ is a term that applies to accounts, and signifies +the amount necessary to be added to one side of the account in order to +make it equal the other. + +Behave + + +“Now, my children, you must _behave_ while I am gone.” The mother +intended to ask her children to _behave well,_ but as _behave_ is a +neutral word, and may be followed by _well_ or _ill,_ her form of +expression permits the children to supply whichever adverb suits them +the better. _Behave_ requires a qualifying word to make the meaning +clear. + + +Bound + + +“He was _determined_ to study medicine,” not “He was _bound,” _etc. +_Bound_ implies that he was under a bond or obligation to another, +rather than impelled by the action of his own mind. + +Better, Best + + +While some good writers violate the rule, yet the best authorities +restrict the use of the comparative degree to two objects. + +“Mary is the _better_ scholar of the two.” + +“Although both are young, Susan is the _younger.”_ + +“Of two evils, choose the _lesser,”_ not the _least._ + +Former, First + + +_Former_ and _latter_ being adjectives of the comparative degree, +should be used in speaking of two objects. When more than two objects +are named, use _first_ and _last._ + +“My sons, John and Luther, are both at college. The _first _expects to +study law, and the _last_ to study medicine.” Use _former _and +_latter._ + +“New York, Philadelphia, and Chicago are the most populous cities in +the United States. The _former_ has long been at the front; the _latter +_has only recently entered the race.” Use _first_ and _last _instead of +_former_ and _latter._ + + +These, Those + + +When objects near and remote are referred to, _this_ and its plural +_these_ are applied to the objects near at hand, _that_ and its plural +_those_ to objects at a distance. + +When reference is made to contrasted antecedent terms, _this_ and +_these_ are applied to the latter; _that_ and _those_ to the former, as + +“Farewell my friends! farewell my foes! + My peace with _these,_ my love with _those!”_ + + +_—Burns._ + + +Fictitious Writer + + +Do not say a _fictitious writer_ when you mean a _writer of fiction._ + +Firstly + + +_First_ is an adverb as well as an adjective. We should, therefore, say +first, secondly, thirdly, and not _firstly, secondly, _etc. + +First-rate + + +An article may be rated in quality as first, or second, or third. If it +rates _first,_ it may be called a _first-rate_ article. The word is +properly used as an adjective, but should not be employed as an adverb, +as in the sentence, “He sings first-rate.” + +Fix, Mend, Repair + + +_Fix_ means _to make fast,_ but its incorrect use in the sense of +_mend, repair, arrange,_ is so common that the +word when properly used sounds strange, if not strained. “To _fix up_ +the room,” “to _fix up_ the accounts,” “to _fix up_ matters with my +creditors,” “to _fix_ the rascals who betrayed me,” are examples +illustrating the looseness with which the word is used. + +Round, Square + + +When a thing is _round_ or _square_ it cannot be _rounder _or +_squarer._ These adjectives do not admit of comparative and superlative +forms. But we may say _more nearly round_ or _less nearly square._ + +States, Says + + +“He _states_ he is going fishing to-morrow.” _States_ is too formal a +word, and should be used only of some important assertion. “He _says_ +he is going,” etc. + +Stop, Stay + + +To _stop_ is to cease moving. “At what hotel do you _stop” _should be +“At what hotel do you _stay.”_ “When you come to the city _stay_ with +me,” not _stop_ with me. + +Subtile, Subtle + + +_Subtile_ means thin, fine, rare, delicate; _subtle_ means sly, artful, +cunning, elusive. “More _subtile_ web Arachne cannot spin.” “He had to +contend with a _subtle_ foe.” + + +Summons + + +He was _summonsed_ to appear before the judge” should be “He was +_summoned_ to appear,” etc. + +Tasty + + +Often used in colloquial speech when _tasteful_ would be better. +_Tastily_ for _tastefully_ is still worse. + +Team + + +Properly this word relates only to the horses, and does not include the +carriage. + +Those kind, These sort + + +“It is unpleasant to have to associate with _those kind_ of people.” +“_These sort_ of sheep are the most profitable.” _Kind_ and _sort_ are +nouns of the singular number; _these_ and _those_ are plural, and, +according to the laws of grammar, the adjective and noun must agree in +number. The corrected sentences will read: “It is unpleasant to have to +associate with _this kind_ of people.” _“This sort_ of sheep is the +most profitable.” The fault arises by associating in the mind the +adjectives _these_ and _those_ with the nouns _sheep_ and _people,_ +which nouns are more prominent in the mind than the nouns _kind_ and +_sort._ If the ear is not satisfied, the sentences may readily be +recast; as, “It is unpleasant to have to associate with people of _that +kind.”_ “Sheep of _this sort_ are the most profitable.” + + +Transpire, Happen + + +This word, from _trans,_ across, through, and _spirare,_ to breathe, +means, physiologically, to pass off in the form of vapor or insensible +perspiration, or, botanically, to evaporate from living cells. Its +general meaning is to become known, to escape from secrecy. + +It is frequently employed in the sense of to occur, to come to pass, +but this use is condemned by the best critics in England and America. +“The proceedings of the secret session of the council soon +_transpired.”_ This sentence illustrates the true meaning of the word. + +Make, Manufacture + + +These words may, in some cases, be used interchangeably, but _make_ has +much the wider range of meanings. The following story, related by Eli +Perkins, will illustrate this fact: + +I was talking one day with Mr. Depew, President of the New York Central +Railroad, about demand and supply. I said the price of any commodity is +always controlled by the demand and supply. + +“Not always, Eli,” said Depew; “demand and supply don’t always govern +prices. Business tact sometimes governs them.” + +“When,” I asked, “did an instance ever occur when the price did not +depend on demand and supply?” + + +“Well,” said Mr. Depew, “the other day I stepped up to a German +butcher, and, out of curiosity, asked: + +“‘What’s the price of sausages?’ + +“‘Dwenty cends a bound,’ he said. + +“‘You asked twenty-five this morning,’ I replied. + +“‘Yah; dot vas ven I had some. Now I ain’t got none, I sell him for +dwenty cents. Dot makes a repudation for selling cheab, und I don’t +lose noddings.’ + +“You see,” said Mr. Depew, laughing, “I didn’t want any sausage and the +man didn’t have any; no demand and no supply, and still the price of +sausage went down five cents.” + +“Well, there are strange things in this world,” I said. “Now, take the +words _manufacture_ and _make._ I always thought that both words meant +the same thing.” + +“Why, they do, Eli,” said Mr. Depew. + +“Not always,” I said. + +“Now, when could they have a different meaning?” + +“Why, this morning I came down from Albany on a Central car +_manufactured _to carry fifty passengers, but it was _made_ to carry +seventy-two people.” + +“Yes, I dare say; but we’ll now talk about the Behring Sea question.” + + +Truth, Veracity + + +“The _veracity_ of his statement is doubted.” The sentence should be, +“The truth of his statement is doubted,” or “In making that statement +his _veracity_ is doubted.” _Veracity_ is applied to the person; _truth +_to the thing. + +Try the experiment + + +“They are _trying the experiment_ of running railroad trains by +electricity.” This should be, “They are _making the experiment,”_ etc. +The word _experiment_ contains the idea of _trial,_ hence, _to try the +experiment_ is to _try the trial._ + +Little piece + + +“I will go with you _a_ _little piece.” A short distance_ or _a_ _part +of the way_ would be more appropriate. + +Every confidence + + +“I have _every confidence_ in his ability to succeed.” _Confidence _is +a unit; _every_ implies several units considered separately. “I have +_the greatest_ confidence in his ability to succeed” is correct. + +Ugly + + +This word properly applies to the appearance of a person or thing, +hence such expressions as “He has an _ugly_ temper,” “This is an _ugly +_customer,” “That was an _ugly_ rumor,” etc., although common in +colloquial discourse, should be avoided in dignified address. + + +Unbeknown + + +This is a provincialism that should be avoided. Use _unknown._ + +Underhanded + + +Often incorrectly used for _underhand;_ as “That was a contemptible and +_underhanded_ trick.” + +Calligraphy + + +This word means not writing, simply, but beautiful writing; hence, to +say, “His _calligraphy_ is wretched” is equivalent to saying, “His +excellent writing is poor,” which is a contradiction of terms. + +Can but, Cannot but + + +These expressions are sometimes confounded. “If I perish, I _can but +perish,”_ means “I can _only_ perish,” or “I can do _no more than +_perish.” “I _cannot but_ speak of the things I have heard” means that +I am under a moral necessity to speak of these things. The past tense +forms _could but_ and _could not but_ should be, in like manner, +discriminated. + +Casualty, Casuality + + +The latter word is sometimes used in place of the former. The first is +legitimate; the second is without authority. The words _specialty_ and +_speciality_ have a termination similar to the above. They may +generally be used interchangeably and are both legitimate. + + +Complected. + + +“The lady is light _complected,_ has blue eyes, and auburn hair.” +_Complected_ is a provincialism without sanction. “The lady is of light +complexion, has blue eyes,” etc. + +Disremember + + +This word is obsolete. Use _forget,_ or “I do not remember.” + +Lie, Lay + + +The verbs _lie_ and _lay_ are often confounded, even by intelligent +persons. _Lie_ does not take an object. We cannot _lie_ a thing. It is +therefore intransitive. + +_Lay,_ which means to place in position, requires an object. We _lay _a +book on a table, or bricks on the wall. It is therefore transitive. + +The principal parts of the first verb are _lie, lay, lain;_ and of the +second, _lay, laid, laid._ The word _lay_ is found in both, and this +is, in part, accountable for the confusion. The most frequent errors +result from using _laid,_ the past tense form of the transitive verb, +when the word _lay,_ the past tense form of the intransitive verb, +should be used. The ear naturally expects the usual past tense ending +of the _d_ or _t _sound, and as that is absent in the past tense of +_lie,_ the past tense form of the other verb is substituted. For the +same reason the participle form _laid_ is often incorrectly used for +_lain._ + + +“He told me to _lie_ down, and I _lay_ down,” not _laid down. “_I told +him to _lay_ the book down, and he _laid_ it down.” “The ship _lay_ at +anchor.” “They _lay_ by during the storm.” “The book is _lying_ on the +shelf.” “He _lay_ on the ground and took cold.” “They _lay_ in ambush.” +_“Lie_ low or he will discover you.” “The goods are still _lying_ on +his hands.” “Time _lay_ heavily on their hands.” “We must _lie_ over at +the next station.” “A motion was made that the resolution _lie_ on the +table.” “Now I _lie_ down to sleep.” “Now I _lay_ me down to sleep.” + +The foregoing sentences illustrate the correct usage of these confusing +verbs. + +As, That + + +“Did your cousin go to town yesterday?” “Not _as_ I know.” Better, “Not +_that_ I know.” Better still, “I do not know.” “I do not know _as_ I +shall go.” Use _that_ for _as_. + +Bad toothache + + +As it is a rare thing to have a good toothache, we scarcely need the +adjective _bad_ to distinguish between the two kinds of toothache. Say +_severe._ + +Beautifully, Beautiful + + +After verbs of seeing, feeling, tasting, and smelling, the adverb is +often incorrectly used for the adjective. + + +“The colonel looked _handsomely_ in his military dress,” “I feel +_splendidly_ to-day,” “This peach tastes _badly,” “_The rose smells +_sweetly,”_ are incorrect. Use _handsome_ for _handsomely, very well_ +or _in good spirits_ for _splendidly, tastes bad_ or _has a +disagreeable taste_ for _badly,_ and _sweet_ for _sweetly._ + +Beg, Beg leave + + +“I _beg_ to announce the sale of a collection of rare and costly rugs.” +“I _beg_ to acknowledge your kindness in sending me this handsome +present.” In each case say “I _beg leave to,”_ etc. + +Due, Owing + + +His success was _due_ to his honesty and energy.” That is _due _which +should be paid as a debt; that is _owing_ which is referred to as a +cause or source. + +“The bill is now _due_ and payable at the gas office.” “His success was +_owing_ to his honesty and energy.” + +Each, Every + + +“I see him at his office _each_ day of the week.” In this sentence the +word _every_ would be better. _Each_ refers to single days +particularized. Here reference is made to what occurs on all days +without exception. + +Both words refer to nouns in the singular, hence such expressions as +the following are incorrect: +“Every soldier and sailor stood at _their_ post.” “The prisoners were +discharged and went each _their_ several ways.” Correct by saying, “The +prisoners were discharged and went each _his_ several way,” “Every +soldier and sailor stood at _his_ post.” + +Each, Both + + +_“Both_ parties maintained their original positions.” As the parties +are thought of separately, the sentence should be: “Each party +maintained its original position.” “Both parties strove to place their +best candidates upon the ticket” is correct, because the parties are +thought of collectively. + +Both, Both of + + +_Both_ is used alone before nouns and _both of_ before pronouns. +_“Both_ men have studied the currency question.” _“Both of _them are +well informed in matters relating to the currency.” + +Ever, Never + + +“Let him be _ever_ so rich,” says Emerson. “You spend _ever _so much +money in entertaining your equals and betters,” says Thackeray. “Though +he run _ever_ so fast, he cannot win the race.” Writers and grammarians +differ, some preferring _ever_, others _never._ + + +Every once in a while + + +This is a cumbersome, awkward expression that should be avoided. +_Occasionally, frequently, at intervals,_ are among the expressions +that may be used in its place. + +Exceptionable, Exceptional + + +“He enjoyed _exceptionable_ opportunities for acquiring the Greek +language.” Say _exceptional opportunities._ + +Female, Woman + + +The word _female_ is often employed when _woman_ would be better. +_Female_ applies to all of the feminine gender, including the brute +creation. + +Poet, Poetess + + +The tendency to increase the number of nouns with the feminine ending +_ess_ should be checked. Avoid _poetess, authoress, doctress,_ and +other newly-invented words of this kind. + +Fewer, Less + + +_Fewer_ refers to number, _less_ to quantity. “He had _less_ friends +than I, and yet he was elected.” Say “He had _fewer _friends.” “There +were no _less_ than fifty cows in the field.” Use _fewer._ + +Right smart + + +In some portions of the South the expression _right smart_ is employed +in colloquial discourse to convey +the idea of a large quantity or in large measure; as, “We have _right +smart _of peaches this summer,” meaning “We have a large crop of +peaches;” “He knows _right smart_ of Latin” for “He knows considerable +Latin” or “He is well versed in Latin.” + +Little bit + + +“Will you have some of this pudding?” + +“If you please. Give me _a little bit.”_ + +“Did you injure yourself when you fell?” + +“No; but I soiled my clothing _a little bit.”_ + +_A small portion_ or _piece,_ in the first sentence, and _slightly,_ in +the second, would serve as good equivalents for _a_ _little bit._ + +Sight + + +“There was a _sight_ of people at the fair to-day.” In the sense of _a +large number,_ this word, like the word _lot,_ should be avoided. + +Crowd + + +A dozen persons may constitute a _crowd_ if they push and jostle one +another by reason of insufficient space. A thousand men will not form a +crowd if all have ample room to sit or stand or move about. + +Chuck-full + + +This word is not authorized. _Chock-full_ and _choke-full_ may be used, +but are not elegant. + + +Contemplate, Propose + + +_Contemplate_ is often incorrectly used for _propose;_ as, “I +_contemplate_ going to the country.” + +Dispense, Dispense with + + +These expressions are not synonymous. _To dispense_ is _to give; to +dispense with_ is _to do without._ The pharmacist _dispenses +_medicines; we should be pleased if we could _dispense with_ them. + +Dry, Thirsty + + +_Dry_ is often incorrectly used in the sense of _thirsty; _as, “I am +_dry;_ let me have a glass of water.” To say, “I am _dry; _my +waterproof and umbrella kept out the rain,” is correct. + +Dutch, German + + +Do not call a _German_ a Dutchman. A Dutchman comes from Holland, a +German from Germany. + +Evacuate, Vacate + + +_Evacuate_ means _to make empty,_ and should not be used in the sense +of _to go_ _away, to vacate._ + +Different than, Different to + + +“The school is conducted in a very _different_ manner _than_ it used to +be.” “This basket of roses is _different to_ yours.” The above and +similar expressions are decided vulgarisms, and should be avoided. + + +“The school is conducted in a very different manner _from_ what it used +to be.” “This basket of roses is different _from_ yours.” + +Drive, Ride + + +Some confusion exists in the use of the words _drive_ and _ride._ In +England the distinction is made of applying _ride_ to going on +horseback and _drive_ to going in a carriage, whether you ride or +drive. That usage is not closely followed in this country. He who +guides the horse _drives;_ the rest of the company _ride._ The noun and +participial forms are more excusable than the verb. “Jones asked me to +_drive _with him this afternoon.” But as Jones expects to do the +driving himself, the speaker should have said, “Jones asked me to _take +a ride,”_ or _“go driving,”_ or _“take a drive,”_ etc. + +Couple, Several + + +The word _couple_ is often incorrectly used in the sense of _several;_ +as, a _couple_ of horses, mules, birds, trees, houses, etc. The use of +the word _couple_ is not only limited to two, but to two that may be +coupled or yoked together. A man and wife are spoken of as a _couple._ +We speak of a _span_ of horses, a _yoke_ of oxen, a _brace_ of ducks, a +_pair_ of gloves. + + +Directly, Immediately, As soon as + + +A faulty English use of the above words has found some favor in the +United States. _“Directly_ the whistle blew the workmen left the shop.” +Say _“As soon as_ the whistle blew,” etc. _“Immediately_ he closed his +speech his opponent rose to reply.” Say “_When”_ or _“As soon as _he +closed his speech,” etc. + +_Directly_ denotes without any delay; _immediately_ implies without any +interposition of other occupation. + +Agreeably disappointed + + +When our hopes are blasted, our plans balked, our expectations +defeated, our intentions thwarted, we are _disappointed._ We prefer the +agreeable to the disagreeable, and plan and labor to secure it. When +our plans fail we are disappointed, but not _agreeably disappointed._ +If the new conditions, which are not of our seeking, prove agreeable, +it is only after the sense of disappointment has vanished. + +Allude to, Refer to, Mention + + +The word _allude_ is often incorrectly used. Allusion is the by-play of +language. It means to hint at by remote suggestions, to speak of +figuratively or sportively. + +Whatever is directly mentioned, or spoken of, or described, cannot be +said to be _alluded to._ The terms +differ in degree, the first being the weakest. An _allusion_ is an +indirect reference. + +Among the rest + + +“Mary sat on the beach _among the rest.”_ Say _“with the rest.”_ + +Peruse + + +This is one of those high-sounding terms too often employed when _read +_would be much better. + +Emigrants, Immigrants + + +These words are sometimes confounded. “Did you see the _emigrants_ on +the ‘Indiana,’ which arrived this morning?” “Did the _immigrants_ go +directly to Italy?” Exchange the italicized words in the two sentences +and they will be correctly used. + +Somewheres + + +The terminal _s_ should be omitted in such words as _anywheres, +somewheres, nowheres, anyways, hereabouts, thereabouts, whereabouts._ +In such cases as “Whereabouts did you find him?” and “We knew his +whereabouts,” the _s_ is properly retained. + +Apart, Aside + + +“May I see you _apart_ from the others?” It should be, “May I see you +_privately”_ or “_aside”?_ + +Fire, Throw + + +We _fire_ a gun, but _throw_ a stone. To _fire a stone, fire him out of +the house, fire him out of our employ,_ may +be graphic ways of presenting the thought, but good writers never use +them and good speakers should avoid them. + +The First, Single + + +“I have not found _the first_ objection to his candidacy.” Say _“a +single objection,”_ or _“no objection.”_ + +First two + + +Such has been the strong desire to continue to use forms of expression +that we have long used that not a little time and effort have been +expended in the endeavor to make the wrong appear right. It is an +accepted fact, however, that a large majority of the best speakers and +writers now say _the first two, the last five,_ etc., rather than _the +two first, the five last._ + +Future, Subsequent + + +The word _future_ is sometimes used instead of _subsequent; _as, “Until +he was eighteen years old his conduct was marked by cruelty and malice, +but his _future_ life was characterized by kindness and generosity.” +_Future_ looks forward from the present, and not from some point of +time in the past. + +Gent’s pants + + +“_Gent’s pants_ scoured and pressed.” Business signs and business +advertisements are responsible for many vulgarisms. Never say _gent’s_ +nor _pants._ Even _pantaloons_ is not so good a word as _trousers._ + + +Sit, Set + + +Few words afford a more fertile field for grammatical blundering than +the verbs _sit_ and _set._ The important fact to remember in the use of +the words is that _sit,_ in modern usage, is an intransitive verb, and +does not take an object, while _set,_ which means _to place in +position, _is transitive, and requires an object to complete its +meaning. You cannot _sit_ a thing, but you do _set_ or place a thing. + +The verb _sit_ undergoes a slight change with the change of tense or +time. “I _sit_ at the window today.” “I _sat_ at the window yesterday.” +“I have _sat_ at the window daily for many years.” _“Sitting _at the +window, I saw the storm arise.” “Having _sat_ at his table, I can +testify to his hospitality.” + +The transitive verb _set_ undergoes no tense changes. “See me _set_ +this vase on the table.” “He _set_ his seal to the paper yesterday.” +“Jones will not _set_ the world on fire with his writings.” “Having +_set _my affairs in order, I returned home.” “I _sit_ down.” “I _sat +_down.” “I _set_ him down.” + +There are many intransitive uses of the verb _set;_ as, “The sun +_sets,”_ “The tide _sets_ toward the south,” “The fruit has _set,” “_He +_set_ out for Boston.” + +There is a difference of opinion as to whether we should say “The coat +_sets _well” or “The coat _sits_ well,” with the greater weight in +favor of _sits._ “The +hen _sits_ on her eggs.” “She is a _sitting_ hen.” When the verb is +used reflexively use _set_ and not _sat;_ as, “I _set_ me down beside +her,” not “I _sat_ me down beside her.” + +Anyhow + + +This word can scarcely be regarded as elegant, and should not be used +except in colloquial style. + +Awful + + +Few words among the many that go to make up the vocabulary of American +slang have been in longer use and have a wider range than the word +_awful._ From the loftiest and most awe-inspiring themes to the +commonest trifle, this much-abused word has been employed. A correct +speaker or writer almost fears to use the word lest he should suggest +the idea of slang, and thus detract from the subject to which the word +might most fitly be applied. + +Even the grammatical form of the word is often violated in such +expressions as “Isn’t he _awful_ nice?” “That hat of hers is _awful_ +pretty.” To say _awfully nice_ and _awfully pretty_ would improve the +grammar, but the gross vulgarism remains. + +The word, when properly used, means “inspiring with awe or dread” often +accompanied with reverence, as when Milton says: + + +“The trumpet spake not to the armed throng; +And kings sat still with awful eye, +As if they surely knew their sovran Lord was by.” + + +Back up + + +In the sense of _support,_ this, and the shorter expression _back_, are +doubtless borrowed from the commercial world. While they may be +tolerated in conversation, they must be regarded as slang. + +Bulk + + +This word is often incorrectly used for _most_ or _the greater part; +_as, “The _bulk_ of the people opposed the measure.” _Bulk_ refers to +size, not to numbers. + +Burglarize + + +This word is often used by the more sensational reporters in their +reports of crime. It should be avoided. + +But what, But that + + +“I don’t know _but what_ I shall have to punish him.” The sentence +should read, “I don’t know _but that_ I shall have to punish him.” It +is equivalent to, “I think that I shall have to punish him.” The +omission of _but_ will convey the opposite meaning. “I don’t know that +I shall have to punish him” is equivalent to “I think that I shall not +have to punish him.” + + +Calculate + + +A provincialism often used in the sense of _think, deem, suppose, +believe; _as, “I calculate the train will be here in ten minutes.” + +Calculated, Liable + + +This word is often incorrectly used in the sense of _likely, liable, +apt;_ as, “His utterances are _calculated_ to injure his cause.” In the +proper use of the word there is present the idea of purpose or intent. + +Leave, Quit + + +_Leave_ is often incorrectly used for _quit;_ as, “That eminent actor +expects soon to _leave_ the stage.” It would be a misfortune if he +should take the stage with him. Say _“quit_ the stage.” + +“Henry has _quit_ smoking.” Here _left off_ or _stopped_ would be +better. + +“The President gave me _lief_ to speak with him.” Say “gave me +_leave.”_ + +_Let it alone_ and _let me be_ are preferable to _leave it alone _and +_leave me be._ + +A 1 + + +“I have just read an A 1 article on the currency, question in the last +issue of the _North American Review!”_ This is an expression from the +vocabulary of business converted into the slang of the street. + + +Luck + + +_Luck,_ like _behavior,_ may be either good or bad. “The carpenter has +met with luck; he fell and broke his leg.” “The manager has met with +luck; his salary has been doubled.” The adjective _lucky_ and the +adverb _luckily_ are used only in a favorable sense. + +Make way with + + +This expression is often incorrectly used for _make away with;_ as, +“The Judge gave the boot-blacks a Christmas dinner, and the begrimed +urchins quickly _made way_ with the turkey and cranberry sauce.” Say +_“made away with,” _etc. + +To _make way_ is _to make room, to provide a way, to dispatch._ + +In our midst + + +“The doctor settled _in our midst.”_ Say “_among us,”_ or “_in our +neighborhood.”_ + +Indorse, Endorse + + +From the Latin _dorsum,_ the back, these words have come to mean the +writing of one’s name across the back of a check or draft or other +commercial paper to signify its transfer to another or to secure its +payment. To _indorse_ a man’s arguments or opinions is an incorrect use +of the word. + +While both forms of spelling the word are in good usage, _indorse_ +seems to be coming into more general favor. + + +In, Into + + +_In_ is often incorrectly used for _into;_ as, “He hurried up the +street and rushed _in_ the store.” We walk _in_ a room when the walking +is wholly within the apartment; we walk _into_ a room when we enter it +from some other room or from the outside. + +Just going to + + +“I was _just going to_ write you a letter.” Say “I was _just about to_ +write you a letter.” + +Kind of + + +“James swallowed the dose, and now feels _kind of_ sick.” Use +_slightly_ or _somewhat,_ or some other modifier, instead of _kind of._ + +Knowing + + +Do not use _knowing_ for _skilful_ or _intelligent._ “He is a _knowing_ +artist.” “See him prick up his ears; he is a _knowing _cur.” + +Clever, Smart + + +In England the word _clever_ is applied to one who is bright, +intelligent, ready, apt; in the United States it is often misapplied to +one who is good-natured, kind, or accommodating. + +“Do you believe in corporal punishment for stupid school-children?” + +“Yes; a spanking always makes them _smart.”_ + + +To express cleverness, brightness, intelligence, aptness, the +adjectives _clever, bright, intelligent, apt,_ are better than the word +_smart._ + +Posted, Informed + + +“He is well _posted_ on all matters relating to cattle-breeding.” Say +_informed._ + +Perspire, Sweat + + +While all mankind belongs to the animal kingdom, and no person can feel +offended at being called an animal, yet society observes certain +distinctions in speaking of men and of beasts. _To sweat_ and _to feed +_are expressions that apply to the latter; _to perspire_ and _to eat +_to the former. + +Empty + + +The Mississippi river _flows,_ or _discharges its water_ into the Gulf +of Mexico, but it can not _empty_ so long as any water remains in the +river. + +Enjoyed poor health + + +“Gold that buys health can never be ill spent, Nor hours laid out in +harmless merriment.” + +The negative form of expression, “I have not _enjoyed_ good health,” is +not only correct, but is, at the same time, a polite way of modestly +stating a fact. To say “I have _enjoyed_ poor health for the past year” +is to express a kind of enjoyment not generally appreciated. It is like +being _agreeably disappointed._ + + +Aberration of intellect + + +“He is afflicted with a slight aberration of intellect.” Simplicity +would suggest, “He is slightly insane.” + +Above, Foregoing + + +“Let me call your attention to the _above_ passage.” The highest +authority does not sanction the use of _above_ as an adjective. Say +“the _foregoing_ passage.” + +Allowed, Said + + +“He _allowed_ this was the best speech he had heard.” This is a +provincialism that should be avoided. Use _said,_ or _declared,_ or +_admitted,_ according to the meaning. + +Alternation + + +This word is sometimes used in the sense of an unbroken series. It +properly signifies a reciprocal succession, as “The alternation of +summer and winter produces an ever-changing scene.” + +Alternative + + +Etymologically and by general use, this word refers to a choice between +two; as, “If this demand is refused the _alternative_ is war.” But +Gladstone is quoted as saying, “My decided preference is for the fourth +and last of these _alternatives.”_ + +Anniversary + + +From _annus,_ a year, means recurring every year. _Centennial_ means +once in a hundred years. What then does _centennial anniversary_ mean? +Use _centenary._ + + +Learn, Teach + + +“I taught him grammar,” not “I learned him grammar.” “He taught us +history.” + +Lease, Let, Rent, Hire + + +We may _lease_ to or from. “I _leased_ the farm to my neighbor.” “I +_leased_ this house from Brown.” We _let_ to another; as, “I _let _my +house to my cousin.” We may _rent_ to or from another. We may _hire_ +from another,” as, “I hired a servant;” “he hired a boat.” With _out_ +and reflexively we may hire to another; as,” I hired out my horses;” +“he hired himself to the miller.” + +Like, As + + +Avoid the use of _like_ in the sense of _as_. “He thinks just _as _(not +_like)_ his father does.” That Anthony Trollope, Hugh Conway and other +writers are chargeable with this offence does not justify the use of +_like_ for _as_, but rather proves the need of constant vigilance in +order to avoid such errors. + +Lit, Lighted, Alighted + + +“He _lighted_ the candle.” “The crow _alighted_ on the top of the +tree.” Avoid the use of _lit_ in such cases, and also that slang form, +as, “I _lit on_ a beautiful passage in Browning,” in the sense of _met +with._ + +Lend, Loan + + +“Will you _lend_ me your book,” is better than “Will you _loan_ me your +book.” + + +Near, Nearly + + +“James is not _near_ so good a scholar as his brother is.” Use +_nearly._ + +Nasty, Nice + + +_Nasty_ is a strong adjective, and should be used only in reference to +what is offensively filthy, foul, or defiled. Such expressions as a +_nasty _day, a _nasty_ rain, mark a loose and careless use of the word. + +The word _nice_ once meant _foolish, ignorant, weak, effeminate._ It +has now come to mean _exact, fine, finished, exciting admiration on +account of skill or exactness;_ as _nice_ proportions, _nice_ +workmanship, a _nice_ distinction in philosophy. It is loosely and +colloquially used in application to what is pleasing, agreeable, +delightful, good. + +A bright young lady was once asked, “Don’t you think _nice_ is a _nasty +_word?” She replied, “And do you think _nasty_ is _a nice_ word.” The +subject was abruptly changed. + +Nicely + + +“How do you feel this morning?” _“Nicely,_ thank you.” The foregoing +use of the word is as incorrect as it is common. Use _very well_ +instead. + +No good, No use + + +“How does that new machine work?” “It’s _no good.” “_Shall I try +again?” “No; it’s _no_ _use.”_ The answers should have been, _“It is of +no good, it is of no use.”_ + + +O, Oh + + +While good usage is far from uniform, many excellent authors employ _O_ +only in cases of direct address and _oh_ when strong and sudden emotion +is to be expressed. _O_ is always written with a capital letter, and +should be followed by the name of the person or thing addressed, and +the exclamation or interrogation point placed at the end of the +sentence; as, “O Death, where is thy sting? O Grave, where is thy +victory?” “O the cold and cruel winter!” + +_Oh_ in the body of a sentence may begin with a small letter, and is +immediately followed by the exclamation point; as, “Oh! how terrible +was his fate!” “The sad intelligence was gently given, but oh! the +shock was almost unbearable.” + +Observe, Say + + +“He _observed_ that the orphan pines while the oppressor feeds.” To +_observe_ is to notice carefully, to attend closely to what one sees. +In the above sentence _said_ or _remarked_ should be used instead of +_observed._ + +Of any, Of all + + +“This is the largest tree _of any_ I have seen.” The meaning clearly +is, that of all the trees I have seen this is the largest. Hence, _of +any_ should be changed to _of all._ + + +Older, Elder + + +_Elder_ and _eldest_ are terms applied chiefly to persons, generally in +speaking of members of the same family, while _older_ and _oldest _are +applied to persons of different families, and also to things. + +“His _elder_ brother died yesterday.” “His _eldest_ sister has gone to +Italy on her wedding trip.” “Our _oldest_ neighbor was born in 1825.” +“This oak is _older_ than that pine.” The foregoing sentences +illustrate the best usage as applied to the comparatives _older_ and +_elder_ and the superlatives _oldest_ and _eldest._ + +When the direct comparison is made the word _older_ is used, followed +by the conjunction _than;_ as, “My father is _older than_ my mother.” +But when the comparison is assumed the word _elder_ should be employed; +as, “My father is the _elder_ of my parents.” + +Only + + +Perhaps no other word in the language is so often misplaced as the word +_only._ The only general rule is to place it as near as possible to the +word which it modifies. “He _only_ lent me a dollar” means that he did +not make me a present of the dollar, but expects me to return it. “He +lent me _only_ a dollar” means that the sum lent was neither greater +nor less than one dollar. The former expression is often used when the +latter should be. + + +_“Only_ the man walked to the post-office to-day.” The woman did not +walk with him. + +“The man _only_ walked to the post-office to-day.” He did not ride or +drive. + +“The man walked _only_ to the post-office to-day.” He did not go so far +as the store. + +“The man walked to the post-once _only_ to-day.” Yesterday he rode and +the day before he drove. Today is the only day that he walked. + +George Eliot, in _Middlemarch,_ says: “I _only_ know two gentlemen who +sing at all well,” and in another place, “I have _only_ seen her once +before.” The word _only_ should be placed before two in the first +sentence, and before _once_ in the second. + +Onto + + +There is a growing tendency to write the words _on_ and _to_ as one +word. “Although nearly drowned he yet had strength enough to climb +_onto _the rock.” The use of _upon_ or _on_ is generally better. When +neither of these can be used write _on_ and _to_ as separate words. + +Outstart + + +This word is sometimes used when _outset_ should be employed. + +Over and Above + + +“He earned twenty dollars _over and above_ his expenses.” Use _more +than_ or _above._ + + +Party, Person + + +“Is she the _party_ of whom you spoke?” “No; she is the _person.”_ + +One man may be a party to a contract or agreement. Several men may form +a party. When no contract is implied, one man or woman must be spoken +of as a _person,_ not as a _party._ + +Patron, Customer + + +Unless there is a sense of obligation or condescension, use the term +_customer_ and not _patron._ In like manner, use _custom _instead of +_patronage._ + +Per + + +_Per_ is a Latin preposition and should be used only with Latin nouns. +We should say _per annum,_ but not _per year; per diem,_ and not _per +day; per capita,_ and not _per head._ “He received a thousand dollars +_a_ _year_ is shorter and better than “he received a thousand dollars +_per year.”_ + +Perchance, Peradventure + + +These are poetic and archaic forms that should be avoided in ordinary +prose. + +Performers + + +“The entertainment consisted of reading, recitations, and singing, and +the _performers_ acquitted themselves well.” Readers, reciters, and +singers are not +_performers._ The term is applied to the stage, and to those who play +on musical instruments. Even in the latter application, “he _plays_ +well on the piano,” is better than “he _performs_ well on the piano.” + +Period, Point + + +Do not use _period_ for _a point_ of time. _Period _implies extended +time. + +Nothing like + + +“James is _nothing like_ so successful as his brother” illustrates a +colloquialism that should be avoided. Use _not nearly so,_ etc. + +Notorious, Noted + + +“He was elected to Congress, then Governor, and we now think of sending +him to the United States Senate. He is becoming quite _notorious.” _The +word _notorious_ implies some bad or doubtful quality or +characteristic, and must not be used in the sense of _noted_ or +_famous._ + +Nowhere near so + + +“He trapped _nowhere near_ so many rabbits as his cousin.” This +vulgarism should be avoided. Use _not nearly._ + +Plead + + +The past tense of _read_ is _read,_ but the past tense of _plead_ is +_pleaded,_ not _plead. “_The prisoner _pleaded _for mercy.” + + +Plenty, Plentiful + + +“Money is _plenty_ this summer.” _Plenty_ is a noun and should not be +used as an adjective. Therefore “money is _plentiful_ this summer.” +Shakespeare says, “If reasons were as _plenty_ as blackberries,” etc., +but words have settled into more definite grooves since Shakespeare’s +time. “This house is _plenty_ large enough.” Neither is _plenty_ an +adverb. Say, “This house is quite large enough,” or, simply, _large +enough._ + +About, around + + +“She was pleased with the conversation _about_ her.” Use “_around_ +her.” + +“She was pained by the conversation _about_ her.” Use “_concerning +_her.” + +Overlook, Oversee + + +This word means to look down upon from a place that is over or above; +as, “From the top of the Washington monument you can readily _overlook_ +the city.” But it also means to look over and beyond an object in order +to see a second object, thus missing the view of the first object; +hence, to refrain from bestowing notice upon, to neglect. The +confounding of these two ideas begets ambiguity, as “Brown’s business +was _to overlook_ the workmen in the shop.” His business was _to +oversee_ or _superintend_ them, and not to _neglect_ or _overlook_ +them. + + +Revolting + + +To _revolt_ is to _rebel,_ to _renounce allegiance,_ but the +participial form _revolting_ also means _repugnant, loathsome._ In the +sentence, “A band of _revolting_ Huns has just passed down the street,” +we should be in doubt whether the speaker referred to their acts +against the government or to their appearance. The use of the word +_rebellious_ in the former sense, and of _disagreeable_ or +_disgusting,_ or the stronger adjectives given above, for the latter +meaning, would make the sentence clear. + +Unexampled + + +Such adjectives as _unexampled, unparalleled, unprecedented,_ do not +admit of comparison, hence such expressions as _the most unexampled +_bravery, _the most unparalleled heroism,_ etc., should be avoided. + +Utter + + +This verb should be distinguished from _express_ or _say. Utter +_carries with it the idea of articulate expression, except in the sense +of _uttering_ false coins or forged notes. + +As an adjective it is defined by _complete, perfect, absolute,_ etc., +but it can be applied only to what is unpleasant or unfavorable. “I +enjoyed _utter_ happiness” would be an absurd expression, but “I was +doomed to _utter_ misery” illustrates a proper use of the word. + + +Valuable, Valued + + +These words are not synonymous; _valuable_ means precious, costly, +having value; _valued_ refers to our estimation of the worth. “He is +one of our most _valued_ contributors,” not _valuable,_ unless you are +thinking of the value of his contributions and the smallness of the +compensation. + +Very pleased + + +A few participles used as adjectives may be directly modified by _too_ +or _very;_ as, “I was _very tired,” “_He was _too fatigued_ to go +farther.” + +We sometimes hear the expression, “I was _very pleased,”_ but the +critics insist upon “I was _very much_ pleased,” or “greatly pleased,” +or “very greatly pleased.” + +Vicinity + + +Often too high-sounding a word for the thought; _neighborhood_ is less +pretentious. + +The old man + + +The use of such words as _dad, daddy, mam, mammy, the old man, the old +woman,_ when applied to parents, not only indicates a lack of +refinement, but shows positive disrespect. The words _pap, pappy, +governor, _etc., are also objectionable. After the first lispings of +childhood the words _papa_ and _mamma_, properly accented, should be +insisted upon by parents, and at +the age of twelve or fifteen the words _father_ and _mother_ should be +substituted and ever after used, as showing a proper respect on the +part of children. + +Great big + + +“He gave me a _great big_ apple.” This is a colloquialism that should +be avoided. Use _large._ + +Argue, Augur + + +“The hollow whistling of the wind among the trees _argues_ an +approaching storm.” Use _augurs._ + +Barbaric, Barbarous + + +_Barbaric_ refers to a people; _barbarous_ to their low state of life +and their habits of cruelty. + +Cut in half + + +A colloquialism in very frequent use. “I will _cut_ this melon _in +half_ and share it with you.” Say, _cut in two,_ or _cut in halves,_ or +_cut in two parts._ + +Hearty meal + + +“He ate a hearty meal before starting on his journey.” _Hearty_ applies +to the eater rather than to the meal. “He ate heartily,” etc. + +Some better + + +“John has been _right sick,_ but is now _some_ better.” _Somewhat, +rather,_ or _slightly_ may take the place of _some._ The sentence may +be otherwise improved. “John has been _quite ill,_ but is now +_somewhat_ better.” + + +Through, Finished + + +Unless you have fallen through a trap door and finished your career, do +not say, “I am through,” when you mean “I have finished.” The +school-boy says, “I _am through with,_ that lesson,” when he should +say, “I _have finished_ that lesson.” The farmer asks the man in his +employ, _“Are _you _through with_ that field?” when he should have +asked, _“Have _you _finished_ ploughing that field?” You ask your +friend, _“Are _you _through, with Trilby?”_ when you should ask, +_“Have_ you _finished_ reading _Trilby.”_ + +Winterish + + +Do not say _summerish_ and _winterish,_ but _summery,_ or _summerlike,_ +and _wintry._ + +Wish + + +The word _hope_ should be employed instead of _wish_ in such cases as, +“I _wish_ you may succeed in your undertaking.” + +Right + + +This little word has many meanings and is put to many uses. In the +following senses it should be avoided: + +“Stand _right_ here.” In most instances the briefer expression, “Stand +here,” is sufficient. If it is necessary to locate the place more +definitely or to emphasize the position, “Stand just here,” or “Stand +on this very spot,” may be better. + + +“The train came to a standstill _right_ here.” Better, “The train +stopped _just_ here.” + +“Do it _right away.”_ This is a colloquialism that should be avoided. +_Immediately, instantly, at once, without delay,_ are expressions that +may safely be substituted for _right away._ + +“I heard of your misfortune, and came to you _right away.”_ “John, post +this letter for me _right off.” Directly_ or _immediately,_ in the +place of _right away_ and _right off,_ is better English. + +“James is _right_ sick, and the doctor comes to see him _right _often.” +The use of _right_ as an intensive with adjectives and adverbs is very +common in many quarters. _Quite ill_ or _very ill_ is better than +_right sick,_ and _often_ or _frequently_ is better than _right often._ + +“We have a _right_ good crop of wheat this year.” Use _very _instead of +_right._ + +“You have as good a _right_ to be punished as I have.” The person +addressed would gladly relinquish his _right._ “You _merit _punishment +as well as I,” or “You _deserve_ to be punished,” etc. + +Shall, Will, Should, Would + + +Few persons can claim to be entirely free from slips of speech in the +use of these auxiliaries. Simply to express a future action or event, +_shall _is used with the first person and _will_ with the second and +third; as, + + +I shall read, We shall read, +You will read, You will read, +He will read, They will read. + + +But when I desire to show determination on my part to do a certain +thing, or when I exercise my authority over another, or express +promise, command, or threat, _will_ is used in the first person and +_shall_ in the second and third; as, + +I will read, We will read, +You shall read, You shall read, +He shall read, They shall read. + + +_Shall_ primarily implies obligation; _will_ implies intention or +purpose. _Will_ and _would_ should be used whenever the subject names +the one whose will controls the action; _shall_ and _should_ must be +employed whenever the one named by the subject is under the control of +another. + +The difference between _should_ and _would_ is, in general, about the +same as that between _shall_ and _will._ + +The foregoing suggestions cover the ordinary uses of these auxiliaries, +but there are some special cases deserving attention. + +_Will,_ in the first person, expresses assent or promise, as well as +determination; as, + +“I will read this poem for you since you have requested it.” + + +“I will meet you to-morrow at the time appointed.” + +_Will,_ in the second person, may express a command; as, + +“You will take the places assigned you.” + +“You will report immediately at my office.” + +_Will_ is sometimes employed to express a general fact, without +conveying the idea of futurity; as, “Accidents will happen.” +“Differences will arise.” + +_Will_ is sometimes incorrectly used instead of _shall;_ as, _“Will_ I +go?” for _“Shall_ I go?” This fault is common in Scotland, and prevails +to some extent in this country. + +_Will_ is also used where _may_ would be more appropriate; as, “Be that +as it _will.”_ + +Shall you? Will you? + + +The distinction between _shall_ and _will_ in the interrogative forms +of the second person are not very clearly defined. Many writers and +speakers use them interchangeably. The answer should have the same +auxiliary as the question. + +“Shall you go to town to-morrow?” “I _shall.”_ + +“Will you attend to this matter promptly?” “I _will.”_ + +Should, Would, Ought + + +_Should_ is often used in the sense of _ought;_ as, “Mary should remain +at home to-day and wait upon her sick mother.” + + +_Should_ and _would_ are employed to express a conditional assertion; +as, “I _should_ go to college, if I could secure the necessary means.” +“He _would_ have gone fishing, if his father had been willing.” + +_Would_ is often used to express a custom, a determination, or a wish; +as, “He _would_ sit all day and moan.” _“Would_ to God we had died in +the land of Egypt.” “He _would_ go, and his parents could not prevent +him.” + +Talented + + +Certain authors and critics, including Coleridge, have objected +strongly to the use of _talented._ One writer argues that since there +is no such verb as _to talent,_ the formation of such a participle as +_talented_ cannot be defended, and he further declares that no good +writer is known to use it, Webster _(The International Dictionary)_ +states that, as a formative, _talented_ is just as analogical and +legitimate as _gifted, bigoted, moneyed, lauded, lilied, honeyed,_ and +numerous other adjectives having a participial form, but derived +directly from nouns and not from verbs. + +We must therefore conclude that the use of _talented_ as an adjective +is entirely legitimate. + +Climb down + + +The critics generally oppose the use of the expression _climb down. +_When the verb is employed +without its adverbial modifier, the upward direction is always +understood. In figurative language, as “Black vapors climb aloft, and +cloud the day,” “The general climbed the heights of fame,” the upward +direction is also understood. + +But in a specific sense _climb_ is defined “to mount laboriously, +especially by the use of hands and feet.” Here the manner seems to be +as important as the direction. When the same manner must be employed in +descending, as a tree, a mast, or a steep, rocky cliff, the general +term _descend_ fails to convey the meaning, and to use _slip, slide, +drop, tumble, fall,_ would be incorrect. We are then left to choose +between the short and clear, but objectionable, expression _climb down_ +and some long and cumbersome equivalent. + +Mighty + + +Never use _mighty_ in the sense of _very,_ or _exceedingly._ It is not +only inappropriate but inelegant. + +Of, From + + +“She had consumption and died _from_ the disease.” Say, “died _of _the +disease.” + +On, Over, Upon + + +“Mary called _upon_ her friend.” Say, “called _on_ her friend.” “The +Senator prevailed _over_ his friends to support his bill.” Say, +“prevailed _upon_ his +friends.” “The candidate prevailed _over_ his enemies.” + +Partake + + +This word means _to take a part of, to share with_ another. It is often +incorrectly used for _ate,_ as “He _partook_ sparingly of the food.” + +Powerful sight + + +This is a Westernism to be avoided. It is used indiscriminately for a +_large number,_ a _great quantity,_ a _vast amount,_ etc. + +Apprehend, Comprehend + + +To _apprehend_ is to take into the mind; to _comprehend_ is to +understand fully what is already there. We may _apprehend_ many truths +which we do not _comprehend._ + +Introduce, Present + + +_Present_ implies more formality than _introduce._ We introduce one +friend to another. An envoy is _presented_ to the King. Foreign +ministers are _presented_ to the President of the United States. + +Same as + + +“This is the _same_ story _as_ I read last week.” Use _same that._ + + +Section + + +“We raise finer horses in our _section.”_ This is an Americanism that +should be avoided. Neighborhood, vicinity, region, part of the country +or State, may be substituted for _section._ + +Seldom or ever + + +This incorrect expression is sometimes used instead of _seldom or never +_or _seldom if ever._ “I have _seldom if ever_ heard so eloquent an +oration.” “I have _seldom or never_ seen the man.” + +Sewage, Sewerage + + +These words have distinct meanings. _Sewage_ refers to the contents of +the sewer; _sewerage_ to the system of sewers. + +Sociable, Social + + +“He is one of the most _sociable_ men I have met. He is fond of +society, and is very ready in conversation.” _Sociable_ means +companionable; _social_ applies to the relations of men in society; as +_social _duties, _social_ pleasures, _social_ interests. + +Specialty, Speciality + + +These words are interchangeable, but the former is the better word. + +Requirement, Requisition, Requisite + + +While these words have something in common, each has a meaning peculiar +to itself. _Requirement_ +means that which is required as an essential condition, or as something +necessary; _requisition,_ that which is required as of right, a demand +or application made as by authority; _requisite,_ that which is +required by the nature of things, or by circumstances, that which +cannot be dispensed with. “She understood the nature of the child and +of its _requirements.”_ “The officer made a _requisition_ for more +troops.” “This is as much a _requisite_ as food and clothing.” + +Sick, Ill + + +There is a growing tendency to discriminate between _sickness _and +_illness,_ limiting the words _sick_ and _sickness_ to some slight +disturbance of the physical system, as nausea, and applying the words +_ill_ and _illness_ to protracted disease and disordered health. + +Scholar, Pupil + + +Although these words are often used synonymously and with good +authority, it would be better to limit the former to learned persons +and to apply the latter to persons under instruction. + +Commenced to write + + +“I _commenced to write_ at a very early age.” After the verb _commence_ +the best writers use the verbal +noun instead of the infinitive with _to;_ as, “I _commenced writing _at +a very early age.” + +Beside, Besides + + +These words were formerly used interchangeably, but the best writers of +to-day make a distinction. _Beside_ means by _the side of. Besides +_means _in addition to. Besides_ is sometimes incorrectly used for +_except;_ as, “No trees will grow here _besides_ the pine.” + +Bountiful, Plentiful + + +_Bountiful_ applies to the giver; _plentiful_ to the things furnished. +“The _bountiful_ Giver of all good furnishes a _plentiful _supply of +all things needful for our comfort and happiness.” Do not say a +_bountiful_ repast, a _bountiful_ harvest. + +Attacked, Burst, Drowned + + +The incorrect past tense forms _attackted, bursted, drownded,_ are +sometimes heard; as, “The cashier was _attackted_ by three of the +ruffians,” “The cannon _bursted_ and killed the gunners,” “The +fishermen were _drownded_ off the bar.” Use _attacked, burst, drowned._ + +All + + +This little word is used in a great many ways, some of which are quite +colloquial, and in some cases provincial. When the grocer’s clerk has +taken your order he is prompted to say, “Is that _all?”_ Or if +he should say, “Is there anything else that you wish?” you are likely +to reply, “No; that is _all.”_ Whether used in the question or in the +reply, the word _all_ should be avoided, or else the expression should +be expanded so as to make a clear sentence. + +A friend calls to see you, and, finding you alone when he expected to +meet others with you, he says, “Good morning; I see you are _all_ +alone.” _All_ is not a good equivalent for _quite_ or _entirely,_ +either of which words would be better than _all._ In truth, the +sentence is as clear and as strong and more concise without the use of +a modifier. “I see you are _alone.”_ + +Inaugurate + + +_To inaugurate_ means _to induct_ into office or _to set in motion_ +with formality and serious ceremony. Pompous writers too often employ +the word in referring to commonplace events. A new business is +_established._ A new hall or library is _opened._ A new pastor is +_installed._ A new order of procedure is _adopted._ In general, the +word _begin_ or _commence_ would be more appropriate than _inaugurate._ + +Came across, Met with + + +“I _came across_ the passage quite unexpectedly.” Better, “I _chanced +upon,”_ or “_happened upon,,”_ or “_met with_ the passage quite +unexpectedly.” + + +Expect + + +Few words are more frequently incorrectly used than _expect. “_I +_expect_ you went to town yesterday,” “I _expect_ you will hear from me +to-morrow,” “I _expect_ the train has arrived,” represent some of the +uses to which this word is often put. _Expect_ refers wholly to the +future, and should not refer to present or past events; as, “I _expect +_you to write me from Liverpool.” “John _expects_ to see his father +to-morrow.” Among the expressions that can most readily and +appropriately be substituted for _expect_ are _suspect, suppose, think, +believe, presume, daresay._ + +Over with + + +“After the supper was _over with_ the guests departed.” Omit _with._ + +Overflown + + +“The lowlands along the river are _overflown.”_ Use _overflowed. _The +perfect participle of _overflow_ is _overflowed,_ not _overflown._ + +Good piece + + +“I have come a _good piece_ to see you.” Say “I have come a _long +distance_ to see you.” + +Stand a chance + + +“He does not stand any chance of an election.” Say, “It is not probable +that he will be elected.” + + +No more than I could help + + +“As I was not in sympathy with the cause, I gave _no more than I could +help.”_ So accustomed are we to hearing this awkward, blundering +expression that we readily understand the meaning it is intended to +convey, and should be sorely puzzled to interpret the correct form. Let +us analyze it. I gave five dollars. That much I could not help +(giving). I gave no more. Hence, “I gave no more than I could not +help.” This last form appears to be correct. By changing the +phraseology the sentence can be greatly improved. “I gave no more than +I felt compelled to give.” “I made my contribution as small as +possible.” “My gift was limited to the measure of my sense of +obligation.” + +Above, More than, Preceding + + +“It is _above_ a week since I heard from my brother.” We may say +_“above_ the earth,” _“above_ the housetops,” but in the preceding +sentence it is better to say, “It is _more than_ a week since I heard +from my brother.” + +“In the _above_ paragraph he quotes from Horace.” Say, “In the +_preceding_ or _foregoing_ paragraph,” etc. The awkwardness of the use +of the word _above_ becomes very apparent when the line in which it +occurs is found at the top of a page, and the passage +to which reference is made appears at the bottom of the previous page. + +Climax + + +The Greek word _climax_ means literally _a_ _ladder, _and implies +_ascent, upward movement._ The best authors use it only in this sense, +and not to denote the highest point. + +Factor + + +This word, from the Latin _factor,_ a doer, an agent, signifies +_working, doing, effecting._ Its frequent use in the sense of _source +_or _part_ should be avoided. + +“All are but _factors_ of one stupendous whole, +Whose body Nature is, and God the soul.” + + +Pope employs the better word _parts._ + +Hung, Hanged + + +Pictures, signs, bells, and other inanimate objects are _hung; _men are +_hanged._ While some writers ignore this distinction, the best +authorities observe it. + +Healthy, Healthful + + +A lady wrote to a paper asking, “Are plants in a sleeping-room +_unhealthy?”_ The answer came, “Not necessarily; we have seen some very +_healthy_ plants growing in sleeping-rooms.” + +Persons are _healthy_ or _unhealthy._ A plant or tree is +_healthy_ or _unhealthy_ according as it possesses vigor. Food, +surroundings and conditions are _healthful_ or _unhealthful _according +as they promote or destroy health. + +Idea, Opinion + + +“Many persons think that the interior of the earth is a mass of fire; +what is your _idea?”_ Say, “What is your _opinion?”_ + +Alone, Only + + +“An _only_ child” is one that has neither brother nor sister. “A child +_alone”_ is one that is left to itself. “Virtue _alone_ makes us happy” +means that virtue unaccompanied by any other advantages is sufficient +to make us happy. “Virtue _only_ makes us happy” means that nothing +else can do it. + +Grow, Raise, Rear + + +“We _grow_ wheat, corn, oats, and potatoes on our farm.” “We _raise_ +wheat,” etc., would be better. With the same propriety we might use +_sleep_ for _lodge,_ and _eat_ for _feed,_ or supply with food; as, “We +can _eat_ and _sleep_ fifty persons at one time.” + +The word _raise_ is often incorrectly used in the sense of _rear; _as, +“She _raised_ a family of nine children.” It is sometimes employed in +the sense of _increase,_ as, “The landlord _raised_ my_ _rent.” +_Increased_ would be better. + + +Has went + + +“He goes to school,” “He went to school yesterday,” “He has gone to the +West.” Avoid such ungrammatical forms as “He _has_ _went,” “_I _have_ +saw.” + +Badly, Greatly + + +_Badly_ is often incorrectly used for _greatly_ or _very much,_ as, “I +need it _badly,”_ “He was _badly_ hurt.” + +“That fence wants painting _badly,_ I think I’ll do it myself,” said +the economical husband. + +“Yes,” said his wife, “you had better do it yourself if you think it +wants to be done _badly.”_ + +At you + + +“If you don’t stop teasing me I will do something _at_ you,” meaning “I +will punish you.” That form of expression is very common in some +localities, and it is even more inelegant than common. The use of the +preposition _to_ instead of _at_ would be a slight improvement, but the +sentence should be entirely recast. + +Haply, Happily + + +In the reading of the Scriptures the word _happily_ is sometimes used +where the archaic word _haply_ should be employed. In like manner the +word _thoroughly_ is substituted for the old form _throughly._ Both +words should be pronounced as they are spelled. + + +Thanks + + +To say “I thank you” requires but little more effort than to say +_“Thanks,”_ and it will be received as a more sincere token of +thankfulness. + +Got to + + +This inelegant expression is often employed where _must_ would serve +the purpose better. “This work _has got to be_ done.” Say, “Must be +done.” + +Hangs on + + +“The cold weather _hangs on.”_ Better, “The cold weather continues.” + +Under the Weather + + +“Are you well?” “No; I have been quite _under the weather.” _Substitute +_sick_ or _ill,_ for the colloquial expression _under the weather._ + +Again, Against + + +_Again_ is often erroneously used for _against;_ as, “He leaned _again_ +the tree for support.” Say, “He leaned _against_ the tree for support.” + +Could, Can, Will + + +_Could_ is often incorrectly employed where _can_ or _will_ would be +more appropriate. + +_“Could_ you lend me a dollar this morning?” If the thought of the +inquirer is, “Are you willing to lend,” etc., he should have used _will +_instead of _could;_ +but if his thought was, “Are you able to lend,” or “Do you have a +dollar to spare this morning,” he should have used _can._ + +Bravery, Courage + + +_Bravery_ is inborn; _courage_ is the result of reason and +determination. The _brave_ are often reckless; the _courageous_ are +always cautious. + +Hate + + +Avoid the use of _hate_ for _dislike,_ and all other intensive words +when the thought is more correctly expressed by a milder word. + +Pretty, Very + + +_Pretty_ is often incorrectly used in the sense of _very _or +_moderately,_ as “He was _pretty_ badly hurt,” “He is a _pretty_ good +scholar,” “She is _pretty_ wealthy,” “Thomas is _pretty_ ugly.” So +common is this provincialism in some localities that the incongruity of +such an expression as the last would pass undiscovered. + +Lot, Number + + +The use of _lot_ for _number_ or _many_ is a colloquialism that should +be avoided. “He collected a _lot (large number) _of books on the +subject.” “A _lot_ of policemen were gathered there” “I ate _lots of_ +oranges while I was in Florida.” + + +Lead a dance + + +“He _led_ his companion _a fine dance.”_ This expression, as generally +used, is ironical, and implies that the leader conducts those who are +led through experiences unfamiliar to them and usually to their +disadvantage. To lead astray, to deceive, to corrupt the morals of, may +be substituted for the foregoing inelegant expression. + +Try and + + +“Have you been to the country this summer?” “No; but I will _try and go +_next week.”. The second speaker intends to convey the idea that it is +his purpose to go if nothing occurs to prevent, but his going is still +a matter of uncertainty. His statement, however, when properly +interpreted means that he not only will try, but that he positively +will go. + +“Try _and_ finish that work to-day.” Here the purpose is not to command +that the work shall be finished, but that the trial shall be made. As +the sentence stands two distinct commands are given, first, that the +trial shall be made, and, second, that the work must be completed. The +sentence should read, “Try to finish that work to-day.” + +Use _to_ instead of _and_ in such expressions as “Try _and _make it +convenient to come,” “Try _and_ do your work properly,” “Try _and_ +think of your lessons,” “Try _and_ go _and_ see our sick neighbor.” + + + + +CHAPTER III +Contractions + + +Whatever may be said against employing contractions in dignified +discourse, their use in colloquial speech is too firmly established to +justify our censure. But, in their use, as, indeed, in the use of all +words, proper discrimination must be shown. + +Just why _haven’t, hasn’t, doesn’t, isn’t, wasn’t,_ are regarded as +being in good repute, and _ain’t, weren’t, mightn’t, oughtn’t,_ are +regarded with less favor, and why _shalln’t, willn’t_ are absolutely +excluded, it would be difficult to explain. + +_Use determines the law of language,_ whether for single words, +grammatical forms, or grammatical constructions. Wherever a people, by +common consent, employ a particular word to mean a certain thing, that +word becomes an inherent part of the language of that people, whether +it has any basis in etymology or not. We must not wrest this law to our +own convenience, however, by assuming that such words and phrases as +are introduced and employed by the illiterate, or even by the educated, +within a circumscribed territory, are, therefore, to be regarded as +reputable words. The sanction of all classes, the educated as well as +the uneducated, throughout the entire country in which the language is +spoken, is necessary and preliminary to the proper introduction of a +new word into the language. + +Ain’t + + +This word is a contraction of _am_ _not_ or _are not, _and can, +therefore, be used only with the singular pronouns _I_ and _you_, and +with the plural pronouns _we, you,_ and _they,_ and with nouns in the +plural. + +I _am not_ pleased. I _ain’t_ pleased. + +You _are not_ kind. You _ain’t_ kind. + +They _are not_ gentlemen. They _ain’t_ gentlemen. + +These sentences will serve to illustrate the proper use of _ain’t,_ if +it is ever proper to use such an inelegant word as that. “James _ain’t_ +a good student,” “Mary _ain’t_ a skillful musician,” or “This orange +_ain’t_ sweet,” are expressions frequently heard, yet those who use +them would be shocked to hear the same expressions with the proper +equivalent _am not_ or _are not_ substituted for the misleading +_ain’t._ + +The expression _ain’t_ is compounded of the verb _am_ or _are_ and the +adverb _not,_ and by the contraction the three vocal impulses +_I-am-not,_ or _you-are-not,_ or _they-are-not,_ are reduced to two. By +compounding the pronoun with the verb and preserving the full adverb, +as in “_I’m not,” “You’re not,”_ “_They’re not,”_ we also reduce the +three vocal impulses to two, thus securing as short a contraction in +sound and one that is as fully adapted to colloquial speech, and that +is, at the same time, in much better taste. + +The old form for _ain’t_ was _an’t,_ but this has now become obsolete. +It will be a blessing to the English-speaking people when the +descendant shall sleep with his father. + +_Are not_ is sometimes contracted into _aren’t,_ but this form has not +found much favor. + +Can’t and Couldn’t + + +As _cannot_ and _could not_ may be used with pronouns of the first, +second, or third person, in either number, and with nouns in both +numbers, no error is likely to follow the use of their contracted +forms. + +Why _cannot_ is properly written as one word, and _could not _requires +two, is not founded upon any principle of philosophy. The concurrent +sanction of all classes in all parts of the English-speaking world +establishes it as law. + +Observe that the _a_ in the verb _can’t_ is broader in sound than the +_short a_ in the noun _cant._ + +Don’t and Didn’t + + +_Don’t_ is a contraction of _do not._ It is in very general use and in +good repute. It may be employed +wherever the expanded expression _do not_ could be applied, and only +there. + +“One swallow _don’t_ make a spring” is equivalent to saying, “One +swallow _do not_ make a spring.” We may say “_I don’t,” “You don’t,” +“We don’t,” “They don’t,” “The men_ (or _birds,_ or _trees) don’t,”_ +but we must use _doesn’t_ with _he,_ or _she,_ or _it,_ or _the man, +the grove, the cloud,_ etc. + +Unlike the verb _do_, its past tense form _did_ undergoes no change in +conjugation, hence the contraction _didn’t_ is also uniform. + +Haven’t, Hasn’t, and Hadn’t + + +The verb _have,_ like the verb _do,_ has a distinct form for the third +person singular. The same change affects the contraction. I _haven’t,_ +you _haven’t,_ he _hasn’t._ The construction _hadn’t_ undergoes no +change. + +Haint, Taint + + +_Haint_ is used indiscriminately for _haven’t_ and _hasn’t. Taint_ is +used for _tisn’t._ Their use is indicative of an entire lack of +culture. + +Isn’t + + +No one need hesitate to use this word. It is smooth in utterance and +contributes much to the freedom and ease of social intercourse. Its +equivalent is too stately for colloquial forms of speech, and is often +suggestive of pedantry. Compare _“Isn’t_ he an eloquent speaker?” +“_Isn’t_ this a beautiful flower?” with _“Is not_ he an eloquent +speaker?” “_Is_ this _not_ a beautiful flower?” + +Wasn’t + + +Although not so elegant as the present tense form _isn’t,_ yet the +contraction _wasn’t_ is in excellent repute. It is properly used only +in the first and third persons singular. No one who makes any +pretension to culture would be guilty of saying” You _was_ my neighbor, +but you _wasn’t_ my friend,” “We _was_ engaged in trade, and they +_wasn’t _of any use to us.” Say we _were_ or _were not,_ but never +_wasn’t_ or _wa’nt._ + +Weren’t + + +The forms _aren’t,_ and _weren’t_ do not have the sanction of the best +speakers and writers, and should be used sparingly, if at all. + +Shouldn’t and Wouldn’t + + +These are frequently used in speech, but are not so common in writing. + +Mustn’t, Mayn’t, Mightn’t, and Oughtn’t + + +_Mustn’t_ may be used in light conversation, but not in writing. The +others should be avoided in speech and writing. + + +I’m, You’re, He’s, She’s, It’s, We’re, They’re + + +The contractions formed by compounding the pronoun with the verb are +very common, and tend to preserve conversation from becoming stiff and +formal. Nouns in the singular are sometimes compounded in like manner; +as, “John’s going by the early train,” “Mary’s caught a bird.” Not many +verbs beside _is_ and _has_ are thus compounded, and the practice +should be discouraged. + +Mayst, Mightst + + +Although _mayst, canst, mightst, couldst, wouldst,_ and _shouldst_ are +contracted forms, the apostrophe is not employed to indicate the +contraction. + +Daren’t, Dursent + + +_Dare not_ is sometimes contracted to _daren’t_ and _durst not_ to_ +dursent,_ but the practice should not be encouraged. + +Let’s + + +While verbs are often contracted when compounded with pronouns, as +_it’s, he’s, I’m, you’re,_ etc., the pronoun must not be contracted to +form a combination with the verb. It may be a poor rule, but it will +not work both ways. _Let’s_ should therefore be _let us._ + + + + +CHAPTER IV +Possessive Case + + +Some time ago a shoe merchant called upon the writer to know how to +arrange the points in the wording of a new sign that he was preparing +to place over his door. He made a specialty of shoes for men and boys. +He presented a paper containing the lines: + +Men’s and Boy’s Shoes. Mens’ and Boys’ Shoes. + + +He was politely informed that both were incorrect; that the two words +form their plurals differently, and that the possessive case is, +therefore, formed in a different manner. The plural of _man_ is _men,;_ +the plural of _boy_ is _boys_. The possessive of _man_ is _man’s;_ of +_men_ is _men’s._ The possessive of _boy_ is _boy’s;_ of _boys_ is +_boys’._ In the latter case we are obliged to place the apostrophe +after the _s_ in order to distinguish the possessive plural from the +possessive singular. All nouns that form their plurals by adding _s_ to +the singular, form their possessive case as the word _boy _does. The +sign should therefore read: + +Men’s and Boys’ Shoes. + + +Singular Nouns + + +All nouns in the singular form their possessive case by adding the +apostrophe and the letter _s_; as, child’s, girl’s, woman’s, bird’s, +brother’s, sister’s, judge’s, sailor’s. + +When the noun ends in _s, sh, ch, ce, se,_ or _x_, the additional _s_ +makes another syllable in pronouncing the word; as, James’s, Charles’s, +witness’s, duchess’s, countess’s, Rush’s, March’s, prince’s, horse’s, +fox’s. In poetry the terminal _s_ is sometimes omitted for the sake of +the meter. + +While writers differ, the tendency in modern usage is toward the +additional _s_ in such expressions as _Mrs. Hemans’s Poems, Junius’s +Letters, Knowles’s “Virginius,” Knox’s Sermons, Brooks’s Arithmetics, +Rogers’s Essays._ + +By long-established usage such expressions as _for conscience’ sake, +for righteousness’ sake, for qoodness’ sake, for Jesus’ sake,_ have +become idioms. Some authorities justify the omission of the possessive +_s_ when the next word begins with _s_, as in _Archimedes’ screw, +Achilles’ sword._ + +Plural Nouns + + +Most nouns form their plurals by adding _s_ or _es_ to the singular. +These plurals form their possessive by adding the apostrophe; as, +horses’, countesses’, foxes’, churches’, princes’. Nouns whose plurals +are formed otherwise than by adding _s_ or _es,_ form their possessive +case by adding the apostrophe and _s,_ just as nouns in the singular +do; as, men’s, women’s, children’s, seraphim’s. + +Pronouns + + +Sometimes the mistake is made of using the apostrophe with the +possessive personal pronouns; as, her’s, our’s, it’s. The personal and +relative pronouns do not require the apostrophe, but the indefinite +pronouns _one_ and _other_ form their possessives in the same manner as +nouns; as, “_each other’s eyes,” “a hundred others’ woes.”_ + +Double Possessives + + +“John and Mary’s sled,” means one sled belonging jointly to John and +Mary. “John’s and Mary’s sleds” means that one sled belongs to John, +the other to Mary. + +“Men, women, and children’s shoes for sale here.” When several +possessives connected by _and_ refer to the same noun, the sign of the +possessive is applied to the last one only. + +When a disjunctive word or words are used, the sign must be annexed to +each word; as, “These are Charles’s or James’s books.” + +Possessive of Nouns in Apposition + + +When two nouns are in apposition, or constitute a title, the possessive +sign is affixed to the last, as +“For David my servant’s sake,” “Give me here John the Baptist’s head in +a charger,” “The Prince of Wales’s yacht,” “Frederick the Great’s +kindness.” + +After “of” + + +By a peculiarity of idiom the possessive sign is used with a noun in +the objective; as, “This is a story _of Lincoln’s,”_ “That is a letter +_of the President’s,”_ “A patient _of Dr. Butler’s,”_ “A pupil _of +Professor Ludlam’s.”_ + +In ordinary prose the custom of the best writers is to limit the use of +the possessive chiefly to persons and personified objects; to time +expressions, as, _an hour’s delay, a moment’s thought;_ and to such +idioms as _for brevity’s sake._ + +Avoid such expressions as, “America’s champion baseball player,” +“Chicago’s best five-cent cigar,” “Lake Michigan’s swiftest steamer.” + +Somebody else’s + + +The question whether we should say “This is somebody’s else pencil,” or +“This is somebody else’s pencil,” has been warmly argued by the +grammarians, the newspapers, and the schools. If some leading journal +or magazine were to write somebody else as one word, others would, +doubtless, follow, and the question of the possessive would settle +itself. The word _notwithstanding_ is composed of three separate words, +which are no more closely united in thought than are the three words +_some, body,_ and _else._ Two of the latter are already united, and the +close mental union of the third with the first and second would justify +the innovation. + +But the words are at present disunited. A majority of the best writers +still conform to the old custom of placing the possessive with _else._ + +“People were so ridiculous with their illusions, carrying their fool’s +caps unawares, thinking their own lies opaque, while _everybody else’s +_were transparent.”—_George Eliot._ + +Some make a distinction by placing the possessive with _else_ when the +noun follows, and with _somebody_ when the noun precedes; as, “This is +_somebody else’s_ pencil,” and “This pencil is _somebody’s else.” _This +distinction is not generally followed. + + + + +CHAPTER V +Pronouns + + +The correct use of the pronouns, personal and relative, involves a +degree of skill which many speakers and writers fail to possess. The +choice of the appropriate pronoun, the agreement with its antecedent, +the proper case form, are matters that require careful consideration. + +Case Forms + + +Following _am, are, is, was,_ and other forms of the verb _to be,_ the +pronoun must be in the nominative case. + +“Are you the person that called?” “Yes; I am _him.”_ The answer should +have been, “I am _he.”_ + +“I saw a man trespassing on my grounds, and I think you are _him.” +_Say, “You are _he.”_ + +“It is only _me;_ don’t be afraid.” “It is only _I”_ is the correct +form. + +“It was _him_ that struck you, not _me.”_ Change _him,_ to _he,_ and +_me_ to _I._ + +“It might have been _him_ that sent you the present.” Use _he, _not +_him._ + + +“It is _him whom_ you said it was.” The sentence should be, “It is _he +who_ you said it was.” + +“That was but a picture of him and not _him_ himself.” Say, “and not +_he_ himself.” + +After Verbs and Prepositions + + +When a pronoun depends upon a verb or a preposition the pronoun must be +in the objective case. + +“Between you and _I,_ that picture is very faulty.” The pronouns _you +_and _I_ depend upon the preposition _between._ The pronoun _I _should +therefore be in the objective case, and the sentence should be, +“Between _you_ and _me,_ that picture is very faulty.” + +“The president of the meeting appointed _you_ and _I_ upon the +committee.” As both pronouns are objects of the transitive verb +_appointed, _both should be in the objective case. _You_ having the +same form in the objective as in the nominative is, therefore, correct, +but _I_ should be changed to _me._ + +“The teacher selected _he_ and _I_ to represent the class.” The +pronouns are the objects of the verb _selected,_ and should be changed +to _him_ and _me._ The infinitive _to represent,_ like other +infinitives, can have no subject, and, therefore, does not control the +case of the pronouns. + +Interrogatives + + +When a question is asked, the subject is usually placed after the verb, +or between the auxiliary and +the verb; as, “Did you go to town?” “Will he sail to-day?” “Has your +uncle arrived?” “Hearest thou thy mother’s call?” + +The object or attribute of the verb, when a pronoun, is often used to +introduce the sentence. “_Who_ should I see coming toward me but my old +friend?” _Who_ should be _whom,_ for it is the object, and not the +subject, of the verb _should see._ + +_“Whom_ do you think that tall gentleman is?” _Whom_ should be _who,_ +as it is the attribute of the verb _is._ + +“_Who_ do you take me for?” Being the object of the preposition _for, +who_ should be _whom._ + +After “To be” + + +“I knew it was _him”_ is incorrect, because the word which forms the +pronoun attribute of the verb _was_ must be in the nominative case. But +the infinitive of the neuter verb requires the objective case. +Therefore we must say, “I knew it to be _him,”_ not “I knew it to be +_he.”_ The latter faulty form is very frequently employed. + +“_Who_ did you suppose it to be?” Incorrect. Say, _“whom.”_ + +_“Whom_ did you suppose it was?” Incorrect. Say, _“who.”_ + + +After the Imperative + + +The imperative mood requires the objective case after it. “Let you and +_I_ try it.” It should be, “Let you and _me_ try it.” + +“Let _he_ who made thee answer that.”—_Byron._ He should have said, +“Let _him_ who made thee answer that.” + +“Let _him_ be _whom,_ he may.” _Him_ is the objective after the +imperative _let,_ and is correct. _Whom_ should be _who,_ as pronoun +attribute of the verb _may be._ “_Who_ he may be, I cannot tell,” is +correct. “_Who_ he may be, let him be,” is also correct. By +transposing, and by omitting _be,_ we have “Let him be _who_ he may.” + +“Let the sea roar, and the fullness thereof; the world, and _they_ that +dwell therein.” When, as in this case, the verb is widely separated +from its object, we need to give particular care to the case of the +pronoun which constitutes the object. _They_ should be _them._ + +Silent Predicate + + +“Who will go with us to the woods? _Me.”_ The complete answer would +be,” Me will go with you to the woods,” the faultiness of which is +evident. The answer should be “_I.”_ + +After “Than” and “As” + + +The objective pronoun is often incorrectly used for the nominative +after _than_ or _as_. + + +“He can swim better _than me.”_ The complete sentence would be, “He can +swim better than _I_ can swim.” The omission of the verb _can swim +_affords no reason for changing _I_ to _me._ + +“He is no better than _me.”_ Say, “He is no better than _I,” _meaning, +_I am._ + +“They are common people, such as you and _me_.” Such people “as you and +I are.” The pronoun should be _I,_ not _me._ + +Parenthetical Expressions + + +When a parenthetical expression comes between a pronoun in the +nominative case and its verb, the objective is often incorrectly used +instead of the nominative. + +“She sang for the benefit of those _whom_ she thought might be +interested.” The explanatory parenthesis _“she thought”_ comes between +the pronominal subject and its verb _might be interested._ Omit the +explanatory clause and the case of the pronoun becomes clear. “She sang +for the benefit of those _who_ might be interested.” + +Agreement with Antecedent + + +A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in _gender, person,_ and +_number._ The gender and person usually take care of themselves, but +the number of pronouns is a serious obstacle to correct speech. + + +“One tells the quality of _their_ minds when _they_ try to talk +well”—_George Eliot,_ in _Middlemarch._ The pronouns _their _and _they_ +should be singular. + +“Everybody has something to say which _they think_ is worthy of being +heard.” _Everybody_ refers to persons singly, and not collectively. +_They think_ should be _he thinks, he_ being the proper pronoun to +employ when the gender is not indicated. + +“Every nation has laws and customs of _their_ own.” The use of the word +_every_ necessitates a pronoun in the singular, hence _their_ should be +_its._ + +“Every one is accountable for _their_ own acts.” Use _his._ + +“She studied his countenance like an inscription, and deciphered _each_ +rapt expression that crossed it, and stored _them_ in her memory.” +Change _them_ to _it._ + +“Each of them, in _their_ turn, received the reward to which _they +were_ entitled.” This should be “Each of them in _his_ turn received +the reward to which _he was_ entitled.” + +_No_ and _not,_ like _each_ and _every,_ when they qualify a plural +antecedent, or one consisting of two or more nouns, require a pronoun +in the singular. + +“No policeman, no employee, no citizen dared to lift _their_ hand” Say, +_his_ hand. + + +Or, Nor + + +When the antecedent consists of two or more nouns separated by _or, +nor, as well as,_ or any other disjunctive, the pronoun must be +singular. + +“Neither spelling nor parsing _receive_ the attention _they_ once +received.” Verb and pronoun should be singular, _receives_ and _it._ + +Collective Noun + + +When a noun of multitude or collective noun is the antecedent, the +pronoun, like the verb, must be plural or singular according to the +sense intended to be conveyed. + +Ambiguity + + +Never leave the antecedent of your pronoun in doubt. + +“John tried to see his father in the crowd, but could not, because _he +_was so short.” If the father was short, repeat the noun and omit the +pronoun, as “John tried to see his father in the crowd but could not +because his father was so short.” If John was short, recast the +sentence: “John, being short of stature, tried in vain to see his +father in the crowd.” + +“He said to his friend that, if he did not feel better soon, he thought +he had better go home.” This sentence is susceptible of four +interpretations. We shall omit the first part of the sentence in the +last +three interpretations, as it is the same in all. “He said to his +friend: ‘If I do not feel better soon, I think I had better go home.’” +“If I do not feel better soon, I think you had better go home.” “If you +do not feel better soon, I think I had better go home.” “If you do not +feel better soon, I think you had better go home.” + +“The lad cannot leave his father; for, if he should leave _him, he_ +would die.” To avoid ambiguity substitute _his father_ for the +italicised pronouns. The repetition is not pleasant, but it is the +lesser of two evils. + +Needless Pronouns + + +Avoid all pronouns and other words that are not essential to the +meaning. + +“The father _he_ died, the mother _she_ soon followed _after, _and the +children _they_ were _all_ taken _down_ sick.” + +“Let every one turn from _his or her_ evil ways.” Unless there is +special reason for emphasizing the feminine pronoun, avoid the awkward +expression _his or her._ The pronoun _his_ includes the other. + +Mixed Pronouns + + +Do not use two styles of the pronoun in the same Sentence. “Enter +_thou_ into the joy of _your_ Lord.” “Love _thyself_ last, and others +will love _you_.” + + +Them, Those + + +It should not be necessary to caution the reader against the use of +_them _for _those._ + +“Fetch me _them_ books.” “Did you see _them,_ fat oxen?” “_Them’s_ +good; I’ll take another dish.” + +Which, Who + + +“Those _which_ say so are mistaken.” _Who_ is applied to persons; +_which,_ to the lower animals and to inanimate things. + +“He has some friends _which_ I know.” _Whom,_ the objective case form +of the pronoun _who,_ should here be used. + +“The dog, _who_ was called Rover, went mad.” Use _which._ + +What, That + + +_That_ is applied to persons, animals, and things. _What _is applied to +things. The antecedent of _what_ should not be expressed. _What_ is +both antecedent and relative. + +“All _what_ he saw he described.” Say, “What he saw,” or “All _that _he +saw,” etc. + +Uniform Relatives + + +When several relative clauses relate to the same antecedent, they +should have the same relative pronoun. + +“It was Joseph _that_ was sold into Egypt, who +became governor of the land, and _which_ saved his father and brothers +from famine.” Change _that_ and _which_ to _who_. + +Choice of Relatives + + +Since _who_ and _that_ are both applied to persons, and _which_ and +_that_ are both applied to animals and things, it often becomes a +serious question which relative we shall employ. Much has been written +upon the subject, but the critics still differ in theory and in +practice. The following is probably as simple a statement of the +general rule as can be found: + +If the relative clause is of such a nature that it could be introduced +by _and he, and she, and it, and they,_ etc., the relative _who_ (for +persons) and _which_ (for animals or things) should be used in +preference to the relative _that._ + +“Man _that_ is born of a woman is of few days, and full of trouble.” +The language of the Bible and of Shakespeare must stand, although the +forms of expression differ greatly from those employed at the present +day. According to modern standards, _that_ should be _who._ + +“The earth is enveloped by an ocean of air _that_ is a compound of +oxygen and nitrogen!” Change _that_ to _which_. + +The relative _that_ should be used in preference to _who_ or _which:_ + + +(1) When the antecedent names both persons and things; +(2) When it would prevent ambiguity; +(3) After the words _same, very, all;_ +(4) After the interrogative pronoun _who;_ +(5) After adjectives expressing quality in the highest degree. + +“The wisest men _who_ ever lived made mistakes.” Use _that._ See (5). + +“He lived near a stagnant pool _which_ was a nuisance.” Use _that. _See +(2). + +“All _who_ knew him loved him.” Say _that._ See (3). + +“Who _who_ saw him did not pity him.” See (4). + +“He spake of the men and things _which_ he had seen.” See (1). + +“These are my pupils _which_ I have brought to see you.” Use _whom, _as +_which_ is not applied to persons. + +“This is the window _whose_ panes were broken by the rude boys.” Use +“the panes of _which.”_ Because of its convenience, perhaps, the faulty +_whose_ is very largely used; as, “The eagle _whose_ wings,” “The house +_whose_ gables,” “The ocean _whose_ waves,” “The vessel _whose_ sails,” +“The play _whose_ chief merit,” “Music _whose _chief attraction,” etc. + + +Which and Who after “And” + + +_Which_ and _who_ cannot follow _and_ unless there has been a preceding +_which_ or _who_ in the same sentence and in the same construction. + +“The more important rules, definitions and observations, _and which_ +are therefore the most proper to be committed to memory, are printed +_with_ a large type.”—_Murray’s Grammar._ In Moore’s _Bad English_ the +sentence is corrected thus: “The rules, definitions, and observations +_which _are the more important, _and which_ are therefore the most +proper to be committed to memory, are printed in larger type.” + +Adverbs for Relative Pronouns + + +Adverbs are often employed where a preposition with a relative pronoun +would better express the sense. + +“There is no method known _how_ his safety may be assured.” Use _by +which_ instead of _how._ + +“He wrote me a letter _where_ he repeated his instructions.” “Letter +_in which_ he repeated,” etc. + +“And curse the country _where_ their fathers dwelt.” _“In which _their +fathers dwelt.” + +“This is a case _where_ large interests are involved.” The preposition +and relative will better express the meaning; as, “This is a case _in +which _large interests are involved.” + + +Misplaced Relative + + +The relative should be so placed as to prevent ambiguity, and as near +as possible to its antecedent. + +“Mr. Smith needs a surgeon, _who_ has broken his arm.” Say, “Mr. Smith, +_who_ has broken,” etc. + +“The figs were in small wooden boxes, _which_ we ate.” “The figs _which +_we ate,” etc. + +“He needs no boots _that_ cannot walk.” “He _that_ cannot walk,” etc. + +Omitted Relatives + + +The relative pronoun is often omitted when it should be expressed. + +“The next falsehood he told was the worst of all.” Say, “The next +falsehood _that_ he told,” etc. + +“It is little we know of the divine perfections.” Say, “Little _that_ +we know.” + +“Almost all the irregularities in the construction of any language have +arisen from the ellipsis of some words which were originally inserted +in the sentence and made it regular.”—_Murray’s Grammar._ The sentence +should end with “_and which_ made it regular.” + +The one, the other + + +When _the one_ and _the other_ refer to things previously mentioned, +_the one_ applies to the first mentioned, and _the other_ to the last +mentioned. + +“Homer was a genius, Virgil an artist: in _the one_ we most admire the +man; in _the other,_ the work.” + + + + +CHAPTER VI +Number + + +Many persons of moderate education regard nouns that do not end with +_s_ or _es_ as singular. Even the gifted pen of Addison once slipped so +far as to betray him into using the word _seraphim,_ in the singular. + +Cherubim, Seraphim + + +The words _cherub_ and _seraph,_ are singular. _Cherub, _as applied to +a little child, takes the English plural, _cherubs._ As applied to an +order of angels, it takes the Hebrew plural, _cherubim._ The singular, +_seraph,_ has an English plural, _seraphs,_ as well as the Hebrew +plural, _seraphim._ The double plurals, _cherubims_ and _seraphims,_ +although found in the King James version of the Bible, are regarded as +faulty in modern writing, and should be avoided. + +News + + +Although plural in form, the word _news_ is singular in meaning; as, +“The _news_ from Europe this morning is quite interesting.” + + +Acoustics + + +Names of sciences ending in _ics,_ are generally regarded as singular. +_“Acoustics_ is a very considerable branch of physics.” Do not say, +“The _acoustics_ of this hall _are_ good,” but “The _acoustic_ +_properties_ of this hall are good.” + +Dialectics, dynamics, economics, mathematics, ethics, politics, +tactics, when used as substantives, require a verb in the singular. + +Analysis + + +Many words like _analysis, crisis, ellipsis, emphasis, hypothesis, +oasis, parenthesis, synopsis,_ form their plurals by changing the +termination _is_ into _es;_ as, _analyses, crises,_ etc. The word _iris +_takes the English plural _irises;_ Latin plural is _irides. Chrysalis_ +has only the Latin plural, _chrysalides;_ but _chrysalid, _which means +the same as _chrysalis,_ takes the English plural, _chrysalids._ + +Terminus + + +_Terminus, radius, alumnus,_ and some other words ending in _us_, form +their plurals by changing the termination _us_ into _i_; as _termini, +radii,_ etc. + +Many words ending in _us_ that formerly were written with only the +Latin plural, are now given an English plural also; as, _focuses, foci; +cactuses, cacti; sarcophaguses, sarcophagi; convolvuluses, convolvuli ; +funguses, fungi; nucleuses, nuclei._ + + +_Isthmus, prospectus, rebus,_ take only the English plural. + +_Apparatus_ has no plural. Avoid _apparatuses._ + +The plural of _genius,_ as applied to a man of unusual vigor of mind, +is _geniuses._ When applied to a good or bad spirit, the plural is +_genii._ + +Formula + + +_Formulas, larvas, stigmas,_ are regular English plurals; _formulae, +larvae,_ and _stigmata_ are the classical plurals. _Nebulae_ and +_alumnae_ are the proper plurals, the latter being the feminine noun +corresponding to the masculine plural _alumni._ + +Datum, Phenomenon + + +_Datum, erratum, candelabrum,_ and _memorandum_ form their plurals by +changing _um_ to _a_; as, _data, errata,_ etc. The last two also take +the English plurals, _memorandums, candelabrums._ + +The plural of _phenomenon_ and _criterion_ are _phenomena, criteria,_ +although _criterions_ is sometimes employed. + +The plural forms, _data, strata,_ and _phenomena,_ are so much more +frequently used than their singular forms, _datum, stratum,_ and +_phenomenon,_ that some writers have slipped into the habit of using +the plurals with a singular meaning; as, “The _aurora borealis_ is a +very strange _phenomena.”_ “Our _data_ is insufficient to establish a +theory.” “The _strata_ is broken and irregular.” + + +Mussulmans + + +While most words ending in _man_ become plural by changing this +termination to _men,_ as _gentlemen, noblemen, clergymen, statesmen, +_the following simply add _s_: _dragomans, Mussulmans, Ottomans, +talismans_ “A dozen dragomans offered their services as guides and +interpreters.” “A band of Mussulmans cut off our retreat.” “Those +fierce Ottomans proved to be very revengeful.” “He purchased five +finely upholstered ottomans for his drawing-room.” + +Heroes, Cantos + + +Most nouns ending in _o_ add _es_ to form the plural; as, _heroes, +negroes, potatoes, stuccoes, manifestoes, mosquitoes._ Words ending in +_io_ or _yo_ add _s;_ as, _folios, nuncios, olios, ratios, embryos_. + +The following words, being less frequently used, often puzzle us to +know whether to add _s_ or _es_ to form the plural: _armadillos, +cantos, cuckoos, halos, juntos, octavos, provisos, salvos, solos, twos, +tyros, virtuosos._ + +Alms, Odds, Riches + + +Many nouns that end in _s_ have a plural appearance, and we are often +perplexed to know whether to use _this_ or _these,_ and whether to +employ a singular or a plural verb when the noun is used as a +substantive. + +_Amends_ is singular. _Assets, dregs, eaves, bees, pincers, riches, +scissors, sheers, tongs, vitals,_ are plural. When we +say _a_ _pair of pincers,_ or _scissors_, or _shears,_ or _tongs,_ the +verb should be singular. _Tidings,_ in Shakespeare’s time, was used +indiscriminately with a singular or plural verb, but is now generally +regarded as plural. + +_Alms_ and _headquarters_ are usually made plural, but are occasionally +found with a singular verb. _Pains_ is usually singular. _Means, odds,_ +and _species_ are singular or plural, according to the meaning. + +“By _this means_ he accomplished his purpose.” “What other _means is +_left to us?” “Your _means are_ very slender, and your waste is great.” + +Proper Names + + +These are usually pluralized by adding _s_; as, _the Stuarts, the +Caesars, the Beechers, the Brownings._ + +Titles with Proper Names + + +Shall we say _the Miss Browns, the Misses Brown,_ or _the Misses +Browns?_ Great diversity of opinion prevails. Gould Brown says: “The +name and not the title is varied to form the plural; as, _the Miss +Howards, the two Mr. Clarks.”_ + +Alexander Bain, LL. D., says: “We may say _the Misses Brown,_ or _the +Miss Browns,_ or even _the Misses Browns.”_ + +The chief objection to the last two forms is found when the proper name +ends with _s_, as when we say, _the Miss Brookses, the Miss Joneses, +the Miss Pottses, the_ +_Miss Blisses._ The form _the Misses Brooks_ is objected to by some on +the ground that it sounds affected. On the whole the rule given by +Gould Brown is the best, and is quite generally observed. + +Knight Templar + + +Both words are made plural, _Knights Templars,_ a very unusual way of +forming the plural. + +Plural Compounds + + +The plural sign of a compound word is affixed to the principal part of +the word, to the part that conveys the predominant idea; as, +_fathers-in-law, man-servants, outpourings, ingatherings._ In such +words as _handfuls, cupfuls, mouthfuls,_ the plural ending is added to +the subordinate part because the ideas are so closely associated as to +blend into one. + +Beaus, Beaux + + +Some words ending in _eau_ have only the English plurals, as _bureaus, +portmanteaus;_ others take both the English and the French plurals, as +_beaus, beaux; flambeaus, flambeaux; plateaus, plateaux;_ and still +others take only the foreign plural; as, _bateaux, chateaux, tableaux._ + +Pair, Couple, Brace + + +After numerals, the singular form of such words as these is generally +employed; as, five _pair_ of gloves, eight _couple_ of dancers, three +_brace_ of pigeons, five +_dozen_ of eggs, four _score_ years, twenty _sail_ of ships, fifty +_head_ of cattle, six _hundred_ of these men, two _thousand _of these +cattle, etc. + +After such indefinite adjectives as _few, many, several,_ some of the +above words take the plural form; as, several _hundreds,_ many +_thousands._ + +Index, Appendix + + +_Indexes_ of books; _indices,_ if applied to mathematical signs in +algebra. _Appendixes_ or _appendices._ + +Fish, Fly + + +The plural of _fish_ is _fishes_ when considered individually, and +_fish_ when considered collectively. “My three pet _fishes_ feed out of +my hand.” “Six barrels of _fish_ were landed from the schooner.” + +Most words ending in _y_ change this termination into _ies,_ as +_duties, cities,_ etc. The plural of _fly,_ the insect, is formed in +the usual manner, but fly, a light carriage, adds _s_; as, “Six _flys +_carried the guests to their homes.” + +Animalcule + + +The plural of this word is _animalcules._ There is no plural +_animalculae._ The plural of the Latin _animalculum_ is _animalcula._ + +Bandit + + +This word has two plural forms, _bandits_ and _banditti._ + + +Brother + + +Plural _brothers,_ when referring to members of the same family; +_brethren,_ when applied to members of the same church or society. + +Die + + +Plural _dies,_ when the stamp with which seals are impressed is meant; +_dice,_ the cubes used in playing backgammon. + +Herring + + +The plural is _herrings,_ but _shad, trout, bass, pike, pickerel, +grayling,_ have no plural form. “I caught three _bass_ and seven fine +_pickerel_ this morning.” + +Grouse + + +The names of game birds, as _grouse, quail, snipe, woodcock,_ usually +take no plural form. + +Pea + + +Considered individually the plural is _peas;_ when referring to the +crop the proper form is _pease._ + +Penny + + +“He gave me twelve bright new _pennies,”_ referring to the individual +coins. “I paid him twelve _pence,”_ meaning a _shilling._ + +Wharf + + +Plural, generally _wharves_ in America; _wharfs_ in England. + + + + +CHAPTER VII +Adverbs + + +The clearness of the sentence is often dependent upon the proper +placing of the adverb. No absolute rule can be laid down, but it should +generally be placed before the word it qualifies. It is sometimes +necessary to place it after the verb, and occasionally between the +auxiliary and the verb, but it should never come between _to_ and the +_infinitive._ + +“I have thought of marrying _often.”_ As the adverb relates to the +thinking, and not to the marrying, the sentence should read, “I have +_often _thought of marrying.” + +“We have _often_ occasion to speak of health.” This should be, “We +_often_ have occasion,” etc, + +“It remains then _undecided_ whether we shall go to Newport or +Saratoga.” Place _undecided_ before _then._ + +Adjective or Adverb? + + +There is often a doubt in the mind of the speaker whether to use the +adjective or the adverb, and too frequently he reaches a wrong +decision. When the limiting word expresses a quality or state of the +subject or of the object of a verb, the adjective must be employed; but +if the manner of the action is to be expressed, the adverb must be +used. The verbs _be, seem, look, taste, smell,_ and _feel_ furnish many +stumbling-blocks. + +“This rose smells _sweetly.”_ As the property or quality of the rose is +here referred to, and not the manner of smelling, the adjective _sweet +_should be employed, and not the adverb _sweetly._ + +“Thomas feels quite _badly_ about it.” Here, again, it is the condition +of Thomas’s mind, and not the manner of feeling, that is to be +expressed; hence, _badly_ should be _bad_ or _uncomfortable._ + +“Didn’t she look _beautifully_ upon the occasion of her wedding?” No; +she looked _beautiful._ + +“The sun shines brightly.” _Bright_ is the better word. + +“The child looks _cold,”_ refers to the condition of the child. “The +lady looked _coldly_ upon her suitor,” refers to the manner of looking. + +“The boy feels warm” is correct. “The boy feels _warmly_ the rebuke of +his teacher” is equally correct. + +While license is granted to the poets to use the adjective for the +adverb, as in the line + +“They fall _successive_ and _successive_ rise,” + + +in prose the one must never be substituted for the other. + + +_“Agreeably_ to my promise, I now write,” not _“Agreeable_ to my +promise.” + +“An _awful_ solemn funeral,” should be “An _awfully_ solemn funeral.” + +“He acts _bolder_ than was expected,” should be “He acts _more +boldly.”_ + +“Helen has been _awful_ sick, but she is now _considerable _better.” +“Helen has been very ill, but she is now _considerably _better.” + +Do not use _coarser_ for more coarsely, _finer_ for more finely, +_harsher_ for more harshly, _conformable_ for conformably, _decided +_for decidedly, _distinct_ for distinctly, _fearful_ for fearfully, +_fluent_ for fluently. + +Do not say “This melon is _uncommon_ good,” but “This melon is +_uncommonly_ good.” + +The word _ill_ is both an adjective and an adverb. Do not say “He can +illy afford to live in such a house,” but “He can _ill_ afford.” + +“That was a _dreadful_ solemn sermon.” To say “That was a _dreadfully +_solemn sermon” would more grammatically express what the speaker +intended, but _very_ or _exceedingly_ would better express the meaning. + +Such, So + + +_Such_ is often improperly used for the adverb _so._ + +“In _such_ a mild and healthful climate.” This should be, “In _so_ mild +and healthful a climate.” + + +“With all due deference to _such_ a high authority on _such_ a very +important matter.” Change to, “With all due deference to _so_ high an +authority on _so_ very important a matter.” + +Good, Well + + +Many intelligent persons carelessly use the adjective _good_ in the +sense of the adverb _well;_ as, “I feel _good_ to-day.” “Did you sleep +_good_ last night?” “Does this coat look _good_ enough to wear on the +street?” “I can do it as _good_ as he can.” The frequent indulgence in +such errors dulls the sense of taste and weakens the power of +discrimination. + +Very much of + + +“She is _very much of_ a lady.” Say, “She is very ladylike.” “He is +_very much of_ a gentleman.” Say, “He is very gentlemanly.” + +Quite + + +This adverb is often incorrectly used in the sense of _very_ or +_rather._ It should be employed only in the sense of _wholly_ or +_entirely._ These sentences are therefore incorrect: + +“He was wounded _quite_ severely.” + +“James was _quite_ tired of doing nothing.” + + +How + + +This word is sometimes used when another would be more appropriate. + +“He said _how_ he would quit farming.” Use _that._ + +“Ye see _how_ that not many wise men are called.” We must read the +Bible as we find it, but in modern English the sentence would be +corrected by omitting _how._ + +“Be careful _how_ you offend him.” If the manner of offending is the +thought to be expressed, the sentence is correct. But the true meaning +is doubtless better expressed by, “Be careful _lest_ you offend him.” + +No, Not + + +“I cannot tell whether he will come or _no.”_ “Whether he be a sinner +or _no_ I know not.” In such cases _not_ should be used instead of +_no._ + +This much + + +_“This much_ can be said in his favor.” Change _this much_ to _so_ +_much_ or_ thus much._ + +That far + + +The expressions _this far_ and _that far,_ although they are very +common, are, nevertheless, incorrect. _Thus_ _far_ or _so far _should +be used instead. + + +Over, More than + + +“There were not _over_ thirty persons present.” _Over_ is incorrect; +_above_ has some sanction; but _more than,_ is the best, and should be +used. + +Real good + + +This is one of those good-natured expressions that insinuate themselves +into the speech of even cultured people. _Very good_ is just as short, +and much more correct. _Really good_ scarcely conveys the thought +intended. + +So nice + + +“This basket of flowers is _so_ _nice.” So nice_ does not tell _how_ +_nice. So_ requires a correlative to complete its meaning. Use _very +nice_ or _very pretty._ + +Pell-mell + + +“He rushes _pell-mell_ down the street.” One bird cannot flock by +itself, nor can one man rush _pell-mell._ It will require at least +several men to produce the intermixing and confusion which the word is +intended to convey. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII +Conjunctions + + +As a general rule, sentences should not begin with conjunctions. _And, +or,_ and _nor_ are often needlessly employed to introduce a sentence. +The disjunctive _but_ may sometimes be used to advantage in this +position, and in animated and easy speech or writing the coordinate +conjunction _and_ may be serviceable, but these and all other +conjunctions, when made to introduce sentences, should be used +sparingly. + +Reason, Because + + +“The _reason_ I ask you to tell the story is _because_ you can do it +better than I.” _Because_ means _“for the reason_.” This makes the +sentence equivalent to “The _reason_ I ask you to tell the story is +_for the reason_ that you can do it better than I.” Use _that _instead +of because. + +_“Because_ William studied law is no _reason_ why his brother should +not do so.” The following is better: _“That_ William studied law is no +_reason_ why his brother should not do so.” + + +Only, Except, But + + +“The house was as convenient as his, _only_ that it was a trifle +smaller.” Use _except_ for _only._ + +“The field was as large as his, _only_ the soil was less fertile.” Use +_but_ for _only._ + +But, Except + + +“Being the eldest of the brothers _but_ Philip, who was an invalid, he +assumed charge of his father’s estate.” _Except_ is better than _but._ + +But what, But that + + +“Think no man so perfect _but what_ he may err.” Say, _“but that_ he +may err.” + +“I could not think _but what_ he was insane.” Use _but that._ + +But, If + + +“I should not wonder _but_ the assembly would adjourn to-day.” Use _if_ +instead of _but._ + +But, That + + +“I have no doubt _but_ he will serve you well.” Say, “_that _he will +serve you well.” + +That, That + + +“I wished to show, by your own writings, _that_ so far were you from +being competent to teach others English composition, _that_ you had +need yourself to study its first principles.”—_Moon, Dean’s English._ + +The second _that_ is superfluous. This fault is very +common with writers who use long sentences. The intervention of details +between the first _that_ and the clause which it is intended to +introduce causes the writer to forget that he has used the introductory +word, and prompts him to repeat it unconsciously. + +But + + +“There is no doubt _but_ that he is the greatest painter of the age.” +The word _but_ is superfluous. “He never doubted _but_ that he was the +best fisherman on the coast.” Omit _but._ + +That + + +“He told me he would write as soon as he reached London.” Say, “He told +me _that_ he would write,” etc. + +Than + + +“The Romans loved war better _than_ the Greeks.” Such ambiguous forms +should be avoided. As it is not probable that the speaker intended to +say that the Romans loved war better than they loved the Greeks, he +should have framed his sentence thus: “The Romans loved war better than +the Greeks did.” + +But that + + +“He suffered no inconvenience _but that_ arising from the dust.” _But +that,_ or _except that,_ is correct. Some persons improperly use _than +that_ after _no._ + +“I don’t know _but_ _that_ I shall go to Europe.” Omit _that. “_I don’t +know _but_ I shall go,” etc. + + +Other than + + +“We suffered no _other_ inconvenience _but_ that arising from the +dust.” This is incorrect. After _other_ we should use _than. +_Therefore, “We suffered no _other_ inconvenience _than_ that arising +from the dust.” + +After _else, other, rather,_ and all comparatives, the latter term of +comparison should be introduced by the conjunction _than._ + +Either the + + +“Passengers are requested not to converse with _either_ conductor or +driver.” This is one of those business notices that are often more +concise than correct. It implies that there are two conductors and two +drivers. The sentence should read, “Passengers are requested not to +converse with _either the _conductor _or the_ driver.” + +Lest, That + + +“I feared _lest_ I should be left behind.” Use the copulative _that, +_and not the disjunctive _lest._ “I feared _that_ I should be left +behind.” + +Otherwise than + + +“He cannot do _otherwise but_ follow your direction.” Use _than, _not +_but,_ after _otherwise._ Hence, “He cannot do _otherwise than_ +follow,” etc. + +After that + + +_“After that_ I have attended to the business I will call upon you.” +The word _that_ is superfluous. + + +But what + + +“His parents will never believe _but what_ he was enticed away by his +uncle.” Omit _what._ The use of _but that_ would be equally +objectionable. _But_ is sufficient. + +A reconstruction of the sentence would improve it. “His parents will +always believe,” or “Will never cease to believe that,” etc. + +Doubt not but + + +“I _doubt not but_ your friend will return.” Say, “I _doubt not that_ +your friend will return.” + +Not impossible but + + +“It is _not impossible but_ he may call to-day.” Use _that _instead of +_but._ + +Whether, Whether + + +“Ginevra has not decided _whether_ she will study history or _whether_ +she will study philosophy.” As there is nothing gained in clearness or +in emphasis by the repetition of _“whether she will,”_ this shorter +sentence would be better: “Ginevra has not decided whether she will +study history or philosophy.” + +As though + + +“He spoke _as_ _though,_ he had a customer for his house.” Say, “_as_ +_if_ he had a _purchaser,”_ etc. + + +Except + + +“I will not let thee go _except_ thou bless me.” This use of the word +_except_ occurs frequently in the Scriptures, but it is now regarded as +obsolete. The word _unless_ should be used instead. + +“Few speakers _except_ Burke could have held their attention.” In this +sentence, _besides_ should take the place of _except._ + + + + +CHAPTER IX +Correlatives + + +Certain adverbs and conjunctions, in comparison or antithesis, require +the use of corresponding adverbs and conjunctions. Such corresponding +words are called correlatives. The following are the principal ones in +use: + +as, as. +as, so. +both, and. +if, then. +either, or. +neither, nor. +not only, but. +not only, but also. +not only, but even. +not merely, but. +not merely, but also. +not merely, but even. +so, as. +so, that. +such, as. +such, that. +though, yet. +when, then. +where, there. +whether, or. + + +The improper grouping of these correlatives is the cause of many errors +in speech and writing. + +As... as + + +“She is _as_ wise _as_ she is good.” “Mary is _as_ clever _as _her +brother.” The correlatives _as... as_ are +employed in expressing equality. Their use in any other connection is +considered inelegant. _“As_ far _as_ I am able to judge, he would make +a very worthy officer.” This is a very common error. The sentence +should be, _“So_ far _as_ I am able,” etc. + +_As_ is often followed by _so. “As_ thy days, _so_ shall thy strength +be.” + +So... as + + +In such negative assertions as, “This is not _as_ fine a tree _as_ +that,” the first _as_ should be changed to _so_. Say, “She is not _so_ +handsome _as_ she once was.” “This edition of Tennyson is not _so_ fine +_as_ that.” + +Either, Neither + + +The correlatives _either, or,_ and _neither, nor,_ are employed when +two objects are mentioned; as, _“Either_ you _or_ I must go to town +to-day,” “_Neither_ James _nor_ Henry was proficient in history.” + +“He _neither_ bought, sold, _or_ exchanged stocks and bonds.” The +sentence should be, “He _neither_ bought, sold, _nor_ exchanged stocks +and bonds.” + +“That is not true, _neither.”_ As we already have one negative in the +word _not,_ the word _neither_ should be changed _to either,_ to avoid +the double negation. + +A negative other than _neither_ may take either _or_ or _nor _as its +correlative, “She was _not_ so handsome as her mother, _or _so +brilliant as her father.” “He was _never_ happy _nor _contented +afterward.” + + +Position of correlatives + + +The placing of correlatives requires care. “He _not only_ gave me +advice, _but also_ money.” This is a faulty construction because the +first member of the correlative, _not only,_ being placed before the +verb _gave_ leads us to expect that the action of _giving_ is to be +contrasted with some other action. The close of the sentence reveals +the fact that the words _advice_ and _money_ represent the ideas +intended for contrast. The first correlative should, therefore, have +been placed before _advice,_ and the sentence should read, “He gave me +_not only_ advice, _but also _money.” + +“I remember that I am not here as a censor _either_ of manners _or +_morals.” This sentence from Richard Grant White will be improved by +changing the position of the first member of the correlative. “I +remember that I am not here as a censor of _either_ manners _or_ +morals.” + +“I _neither_ estimated myself highly _nor_ lowly.” It should be, “I +estimated myself _neither_ highly _nor_ lowly.” + +“He _neither_ attempted to excite anger, _nor_ ridicule, _nor +_admiration.” The sentence should be, “He attempted to excite _neither +_anger, _nor_ ridicule, _nor_ admiration.” But here we have the +correlative _neither, nor,_ used with more than two objects, which is a +violation of a principle previously stated. The +sentence is purposely introduced to call attention to the fact that +many respectable writers not only use _neither, nor,_ with three or +more objects, but also defend it. This usage may be avoided by a +reconstruction of the sentence; as, “He did not attempt to excite +anger, nor ridicule, nor admiration.” + + + + +CHAPTER X +The Infinitive + + +Many errors arise from not knowing how to use the infinitive mood. +Perhaps the most common fault is to interpose an adverb between the +preposition _to_ and the infinitive verb; as, “It is not necessary _to +accurately relate_ all that he said.” “You must not expect _to always +find_ people agreeable.” Whether we shall place the adverb before the +verb or after it must often be determined by considerations of emphasis +and smoothness as well as of clearness and correctness. In the +foregoing sentences it is better to place _accurately_ after the verb, +and _always_ before the preposition _to._ + +Supply “to” + + +The preposition _to_ as the sign of the infinitive is often improperly +omitted. + +“Please _write_ clearly, so that we may understand,” “Your efforts will +tend to hinder rather than _hasten_ the work,” “Strive so to criticise +as not to embarrass +nor _discourage_ your pupil.” These sentences will be corrected by +inserting _to_ before the italicized words. + +In such expressions as “Please _excuse_ my son’s absence,” “Please +_write_ me a letter,” “Please _hand_ me the book,” many authorities +insist upon the use of _to_ before the verb. The sentences may, +however, be regarded as softened forms of the imperative; as, _“Hand_ +me the book, if you please.” Transposed, “If you please, hand me the +book.” Contracted, “Please, hand me the book.” From this, the comma may +have slipped out and left the sentence as first written. + +Omit “to” + + +When a series of infinitives relate to the same object, the word _to_ +should be used before the first verb and omitted before the others; as, +“He taught me _to read, write,_ and _cipher.”_ “The most accomplished +way of using books at present is to serve them as some do lords—_learn_ +their titles and then _brag_ of their acquaintance.” + +The active verbs _bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, see,_ and +their participles, usually take the infinitive after them, without the +preposition _to._ Such expressions, as “He bade me _to depart,” “_I +dare _to say_ he is a villain,” “I had difficulty in making him _to +see_ his error,” are, therefore, wrong, and are corrected by omitting +_to._ + + +Incomplete Infinitive + + +Such incomplete expressions as the following are very common: “He has +not gone to Europe, nor is he likely _to.” “_She has not written her +essay, nor does she intend _to.” “_Can a man arrive at excellence who +has no desire _to?”_ The addition of the word _go_ to the first +sentence, and of _write it,_ to the second would make them complete. In +the case of the third sentence it would be awkward to say, “Can a man +arrive at excellence who has no desire _to arrive at excellence.”_ We +therefore substitute the more convenient expression “_to do so.”_ + + + + +CHAPTER XI +Participles + + +Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, or else are governed by +prepositions. Those ending in _ing_ should not be made the subjects or +objects of verbs while they retain the government and adjuncts of +participles. They may often be converted into nouns or take the form of +the infinitive. + +“Not _attending_ to this rule is the cause of a very common error.” +Better, _“Inattention_ to this rule,” etc. “He abhorred _being_ in +debt.” Better, “He abhorred _debt,” “Cavilling_ and _objecting_ upon +any subject is much easier than _clearing_ up difficulties.” Say, “_To +cavil_ and _object_ upon any subject is much easier than _to clear _up +difficulties.” + +Omit “of” + + +Active participles have the same government as the verbs from which +they are derived. The preposition _of,_ therefore, should not be used +after the participle, when the verb would not require it. Omit _of_ in +such expressions as these: “Keeping _of_ one day +in seven,” “By preaching _of_ repentance,” “They left beating _of +_Paul,” “From calling _of_ names they came to blows,” “They set about +repairing _of_ the walls.” + +If the article _the_ occurs before the participle, the preposition _of +_must be retained; as, “They strictly observed _the keeping of_ one day +in seven.” + +When a transitive participle is converted into a noun, _of_ must be +inserted to govern the object following. “He was very exact in _forming +_his sentences,” “He was very exact in _the formation of_ his +sentences.” + +Omit the possessive + + +The possessive case should not be prefixed to a participle that is not +taken in all respects as a noun. It should, therefore, be expunged in +the following sentences: “By _our_ offending others, we expose +ourselves.” “She rewarded the boy for _his_ studying so diligently.” +“He errs in _his_ giving the word a double construction.” + +The possessives in such cases as the following should be avoided: “I +have some recollection of his _father’s_ being a judge.” “To prevent +_its _being a dry detail of terms.” These sentences may be improved by +recasting them. “I have some recollection that his father was a judge.” +“To prevent it from being a dry detail of terms.” + + +When the noun or pronoun to which the participle relates is a passive +subject, it should not have the possessive form; as, “The daily +instances of _men’s _dying around us remind us of the brevity of human +life.” “We do not speak of a _monosyllable’s_ having a primary accent.” +Change _men’s_ to _men,_ and _monosyllable’s_ to _monosyllable._ + +After verbs + + +Verbs do not govern participles. “I intend _doing_ it,” “I remember +_meeting_ Longfellow,” and similar expressions should be changed by the +substitution of the infinitive for the participle; as, “I intend _to do +it,” _“I remember _to have met_ Longfellow.” + +After verbs signifying _to persevere, to desist,_ the participle ending +in _ing_ is permitted; as, “So when they _continued asking_ him, he +lifted up himself, and said unto them.” + +Place + + +In the use of participles and of verbal nouns, the leading word in +sense should always be made the leading word, and not the adjunct, in +the construction. + +“They did not give notice of the _pupil_ leaving.” Here, the leading +idea is _leaving. Pupil_ should, therefore, be subordinate by changing +its form to the possessive; as, “They did not give notice of the +_pupil’s _leaving.” Better still, “They did not give notice that the +pupil had left.” + + +Clearness + + +The word to which the participle relates should stand out clearly. “By +giving way to sin, trouble is encountered.” This implies that trouble +gives way to sin. The relation of the participle is made clear by +saying, “By giving way to sin, we encounter trouble.” + +“By yielding to temptation, our peace is sacrificed.” This should be, +“By yielding to temptation we sacrifice our peace.” + +“A poor child was found in the streets by a wealthy and benevolent +gentleman, suffering from cold and hunger.” Say, “A poor child, +suffering from cold and hunger, was found,” etc. + +Awkward Construction + + +Such awkward sentences as the following should be avoided. In most +cases they will require to be recast. + +“But as soon as the whole body _is attempted to be carved,_ a +disproportion between its various parts results.” + +“The offence _attempted to be charged_ should be alleged under another +section of the statute.” The following is a better arrangement: + +“But as soon as an attempt is made to carve the whole body,” etc. “The +offence which it is attempted to charge,” etc. + + +Is building + + +The active participle in a passive sense is employed by many excellent +writers and is condemned by others. + +“Corn _is selling_ for fifty cents a bushel.” + +“Corn _is_ _being sold_ for fifty cents a bushel.” + +The commercial world evidently prefers the former sentence. There is a +breeziness and an energy in it that is lacking in the latter. It must, +however, be used with caution. In the following examples the passive +form is decidedly better than the active: “The foundation _was_ _being +laid,”_ “They _are being educated,” “_While the speech _was being +delivered,” _etc. + + + + +CHAPTER XII +Prepositions + + +Clearness and elegance of style are, in no small degree, dependent upon +the choice and right use of prepositions. Many rules have been +formulated, some of which are deserving of consideration, while others +are nearly or quite useless. Among the latter may be mentioned, by way +of illustration, the oft-repeated rule that _between_ or _betwixt_ must +invariably be used when only two things are referred to, and that +_among_ must be employed when more than two are named. While it is true +that the order could not be reversed, that _among,_ when used, must be +employed in reference to three or more persons or things, and that +_between_ may always be employed in speaking of two objects, yet the +practice of many of the best writers does not limit the use of +_between_ to two objects. In fact, there are cases in which _among_ +will not take the place of _between;_ as, “I set out eighty trees with +ample space _between_ them.” “The stones on his farm were so plentiful +that the grass could not grow up _between_ them.” + + +Between, Among + + +“The seven children divided the apples _between_ them.” Two children +may divide apples _between,_ them, but in this case it is better to +say, “The seven children divided the apples _among_ them.” + +George Eliot, in _Middlemarch,_ says: “The fight lay entirely _between +_Pinkerton, the old Tory member; Bagster, the new Whig member; and +Brook, the Independent member.” In this case, _between_ or _with_ is +more satisfactory than _among,_ although three persons are referred to. + +Choice + + +Many sentences betoken ignorance and others indicate extreme +carelessness on the part of the writers by the inapt choice of their +prepositions, which often express relations so delicate in their +distinctions that nothing short of an extended study of the best +writers will confer the desired skill. We present some examples. + +By, In + + +“We do not accept the proposition referred to _by_ your letter.” The +writer should have employed the preposition _in._ + +Differ with, From + + +We differ _with_ a person in opinion or belief; we differ _from_ him in +appearance, in attainments, in wealth, in rank, etc. + + +Different from, To, Than + + +“Your story is very plausible, but Henry’s is different _to _that.” “My +book is quite different _than_ his.” The adjective _different_ must not +be followed by the preposition _to_ or _than. _The sentences will be +correct when _from_ is substituted. + +At, To + + +Never use the vulgar expression, “He is _to_ home.” Say _at home._ + +Preferred before, To + + +“He was _preferred before_ me.” Say _preferred to me._ + +With, Of + + +“He died _with_ consumption.” _Of_ is the proper preposition to employ. +But we say, He is afflicted _with_ rheumatism, or bronchitis, or other +disease. + +In respect of, To + + +“In respect _of_ this matter, he is at fault.” Better, _“to_ this +matter.” + +Of, From + + +“He was acquitted _from_ the charge of larceny.” Acquitted _of _the +charge. + +In, Into + + +_Into_ implies direction or motion. “They walked _into_ the church,” +means that they entered it from the outside. “They walked _in_ the +church,” means that they walked back and forth within the church. + + +“The vessel is _in_ port.” “She came _into_ port yesterday.” + +Of, In + + +“There was no use _of_ asking his permission, for he would not grant +it.” _In_ asking. + +In, On + + +“He is a person _in_ whom you can rely.” “That is a man _in_ whose +statements you can depend.” Use _on_ for _in._ + +To, With + + +Two persons are reconciled _to_ each other; two doctrines or measures +are reconciled _with_ each other when they are made to agree. + +“This noun is in apposition _to_ that.” Use _with._ + +With, By + + +These two prepositions are often confounded. They have a similarity of +signification with a difference of use. Both imply a connection between +some instrument or means and the agent by whom it is used. _With_ +signifies the closer relation and _by_ the more remote one. + +It is said that an ancient king of Scotland once asked his nobles by +what tenure they held their lands. The chiefs drew their swords, +saying, _“By _these we acquired our lands, and _with_ these we will +defend them.” + +_By_ often relates to the person; _with_ to the instrument. + + +“He lay on the ground half concealed _with_ a clump of bushes.” “That +speech was characterized _with_ eloquence.” Use _by_ in the last two +sentences. + +With, To + + +We _correspond with_ a person when we exchange letters. In speaking of +the adaptation of one object to another, the preposition _to _should be +used after the verb correspond; as, “This picture corresponds _to_ +that.” _With_ is often incorrectly used in such cases instead of _to._ + +Position + + +The old grammarian gave a very good rule when he said, “A preposition +is a very bad word to end a sentence with;” but it is sometimes easier +to follow his example than his precept. In general, the strength of a +sentence is improved by not placing small particles at the end. + +“Which house do you live _in?”_ Better, “In which house do you live?” + +“Avarice is a vice which most men are guilty _of.”_ Say, “of which most +men are guilty.” + +“He is a man that you should be acquainted _with.”_ Say, _“with _whom +you should be acquainted.” + +“Is this the man that you spoke _of?”_ Better, _“of_ whom you spoke.” + +“These are principles that our forefathers died _for.”_ Rather, _“for +_which our forefathers died.” + + +Omission + + +Prepositions are often omitted when their use is necessary to the +correct grammatical construction of the sentence. + +“They now live on this side the river.” Say, “on this side _of_ the +river.” + +“Esther and Helen sit opposite each other.” It is more correct to say, +“sit opposite _to_ each other.” + +“John is worthy our help.” Better, “_of_ our help.” + +“What use is this to us?” _Of_ what use, etc. + +“This law was passed the same year that I was born.” Say, “In the same +year,” etc. + +“Washington was inaugurated President April 30, 1789.” Some critics +insist upon the insertion of _on_ before a date, as _“on_ April 30,” +but general usage justifies its omission. With equal force they might +urge the use of _in_ before 1789. The entire expression of day, month, +and year is elliptical. + +If the same preposition be required by several nouns or pronouns, it +must be repeated in every case if it be repeated at all. “He is +interested _in _philosophy, history, and _in_ science.” This sentence +may be corrected by placing _in_ before history or by omitting it +before science. The several subjects are individualized more strongly +by the use of _in _before each noun. This is shown in the greater +obscurity given to _history_ by the omission of the preposition in the +foregoing sentence. + + +“We may have a feeling of innocence or of guilt, of merit or demerit.” +Insert _of_ before demerit. + +Needless Prepositions + + +Prepositions, like other parts of speech that contribute nothing to the +meaning, should not be suffered to cumber the sentence. + +Where am I _at?_ Where is my book _at?_ I went there _at_ about noon. +In what latitude is Chicago _in?_ Where are you going _to? _Take your +hat off _of_ the table. Where has James been _to?_ They offered _to_ +Caesar a crown. This is a subject _of_ which I intended to speak +_about_ (omit _of_ or _about,_ but not both). She has a sister _of_ ten +years old. Leap _in_ with me into this angry flood. + +The older writers employed the useless _for_ in such expressions as, +What went ye out _for_ to see? The apostles and elders came together +_for _to consider _of_ this matter. + +All of + + +A very common error is the unnecessary use of the preposition _of_ +after _all;_ as, “during _all of_ this period,” “in _all of_ these +cases,” “for _all of_ the conditions,” etc. + +Up above + + +In most cases one of these prepositions will be found useless. “The +ladder reached _up above_ the chimney.” + +From hence + + +The adverbs _hence, thence, whence,_ include the idea of _from._ The +preposition should, therefore, be omitted. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII +The Article + + +_A,_ which is a shortened form of _an,_ signifies _one, _or _any. An_ +was formerly used before nouns beginning with either a consonant or a +vowel sound, but now _an_ is used before a vowel sound and _a_ before a +consonant sound; as, _a_ book, _a_ hat, _an _apple, _an_ eagle. + +It will be observed that _an_ heiress, _an_ herb, _an_ honest man, _an_ +honorable career, _an_ hourly visit, _a_ euchre party, _a_ euphemism, +_a_ eulogy, _a_ union, etc., are not exceptions to the foregoing rule, +for the _h_ being silent in _heiress, herb, _etc., the article _an_ +precedes a vowel sound, and in _euphemism, eulogy, union,_ the article +_a_ precedes the consonant sound of _y. _Compare _u-nit_ with _you +knit._ + +In like manner some persons have felt disposed to say _many an one +_instead of _many a one_ because of the presence of the vowel _o_. But +the sound is the consonant sound of _w_ as in _won_, and the article +should be _a_ and not _an._ + +There is a difference of opinion among writers concerning the use of +_a_ and _an,_ before words +beginning with _h,_ when not silent, especially when the accent falls +on the second syllable; as, _a_ harpoon, _a_ hegira, _a_ herbarium, _a_ +herculean effort, _a_ hiatus, _a_ hidalgo, _a_ hydraulic engine, _a_ +hyena, _a_ historian. The absence of the accent weakens the _h _sound, +and makes it seem as if the article _a_ was made to precede a vowel. +The use of _an_ is certainly more euphonious and is supported by +_Webster’s Dictionary_ and other high authority. + +The Honorable, The Reverend + + +Such titles as _Honorable_ and _Reverend_ require the article _the;_ +as, “The Honorable William R. Gladstone is often styled ‘The Grand Old +Man,’” “The Reverend Henry Ward Beecher was an eloquent orator,” not +_Honorable William, E. Gladstone,_ or _Reverend Henry Ward Beecher._ + +Article omitted + + +“A clergyman and philosopher entered the hall together.” _“A _clergyman +and philosopher” means one person who is both clergyman and +philosopher. The article should be repeated. _“A_ clergyman and _a_ +philosopher entered the hall together.” + +_“A_ red and white flag” means one flag of two colors. _“A_ red and _a_ +white flag” means two flags, a red flag and a white flag. _“A _great +and _a_ good man has departed.” The verb _has_ implies that only +one man has departed, hence the sentence should be, “A great and good +man has departed.” + +“They sang the first and second verse,” should be, “They sang _the_ +first and _the_ second verse.” “The literal and figurative meaning of +words” should be, _“The_ literal and _the_ figurative meaning of +words.” + +“In framing of his sentences he was very exact,” should be, “In _the +_framing,” etc., or, “In framing his sentences he was very exact.” “The +masculine and feminine gender,” should be, “_The_ masculine and _the +_feminine gender.” + +“After singing a hymn, Miss Willard made a stirring address.” If Miss +Willard alone sang the hymn the sentence is correct. If the +congregation sang the hymn the sentence should be, “After _the_ singing +of a hymn, Miss Willard made a stirring address.” + +“He is but a poor writer at best.” Say, “at _the_ best.” “He received +but a thousand votes at most.” Say, “at _the_ most.” + +“John came day before yesterday.” Say, _“the_ day before yesterday.” + +Article redundant + + +“Shakespeare was a greater writer than _an_ actor,” should be, +“Shakespeare was a greater writer than actor.” + +“This is the kind of _a_ tree of which he was +speaking,” should be, “This is the kind of tree,” etc. “What kind of +_a_ bird is this?” should be, “What kind of bird.” + +“The one styled _the_ Provost is the head of the University,” should +be, “The one styled Provost.” + +“The nominative and _the_ objective cases,” should be “The nominative +and objective cases.” + +“He made a mistake in _the_ giving out the text.” Say “in giving out +the text,” or, “in _the_ giving out of the text.” In the latter +instance, the participle becomes a noun and may take the article before +it. + +Articles interchanged + + +_“An_ elephant is the emblem of Siam,” should be, “The elephant is the +emblem,” etc. “A digraph is _the_ union of two letters to represent one +sound.” Should be, “A digraph is _a_ union,” etc. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV +Redundancy + + +We are all creatures of habit. Our sayings, as well as our doings, are +largely a series of habits. In some instances we are unconscious of our +peculiarities and find it almost impossible to shake them off. + +The following are verbatim expressions as they dropped from the lips of +a young clergyman in the pulpit. They show a deeply-seated habit of +repetition of thought. As he was a graduate of one of the first +colleges in the land, we are the more surprised that the habit was not +checked before he passed through his college and seminary courses. The +expressions are here given as a caution to others to be on their guard: +“Supremest and highest,” “separate and sever us,” “derision, sarcasm, +and contempt,” “disobedient and disloyal and sinful,” “hold aloof from +iniquity, from sin,” “necessity of being reclaimed and brought back,” +“their beautiful and their elegant city,” “so abandoned and given up to +evil and iniquity,” “soaked and stained with human gore and blood,” +“beautiful and resplendent,” “hardened and solidified into stone and +adamant,” “this +arctic splendor and brilliancy,” “were being slaughtered and cut down,” +“in the rapidity and the swiftness of the train,” “with all the +mightiness and the splendor of his genius,” “the force and the pressure +it brings to bear,” “has and possesses the power,” “lights flashed and +gleamed.” + +The above were all taken from a single discourse. Another peculiarity +of the same speaker was his use of the preposition _between._ Instead +of saying, “Between him and his father there was a perfect +understanding of the matter,” he would say, “Between him and _between_ +his father there was a perfect understanding of the matter.” + +Young writers will find it a valuable exercise to go through a letter, +essay, or other composition which they have written, with the view of +ascertaining how many words they can eliminate without diminishing the +force of what has been written. An article or two from the daily paper, +and an occasional page from some recent work of fiction will afford +further opportunity for profitable practice in pruning. + +Widow woman + + +“And Jeroboam the son of Nebat, an Ephrathite of Zereda, Solomon’s +servant, whose mother’s name was Zeruah, a _widow woman,_ even he +lifted up his hand against the king.”—I Kings xi, 26. + + +The expression is now regarded as an archaism, and not to be used in +modern speech or writing. Omit _woman._ + +Why + + +Many persons have a foolish habit of beginning their answer to a +question with the word _why_. In some cases it doubtless has its origin +in the desire to gain time while the mind is preparing the answer, but +in most instances it is merely a habit. + +Some persons prefix the word _why_ to the statement of a fact or to the +asking of a question. This is even worse than to employ it to introduce +the answer. Restrict it to its legitimate use. + +Look at here + + +This is one of the numerous expressions designed to call the attention +of the person addressed to the speaker. It is both ungrammatical and +vulgar. The omission of _at_ will render it grammatical. “_See here”_ +is still better. + +Look and see + + +_“Look and see_ if the teacher is coming.” The words _“look and” _are +superfluous. “See whether the teacher is coming” is a better +expression. + +Recollect of + + +The word _of_ is superfluous in such expressions; as, “I _recollect of +_crossing Lake Champlain on the ice,” “Do you _recollect of_ his paying +you a compliment?” + + +Settle up, down + + +“He has _settled up_ his father’s affairs.” “He has _settled down _upon +the old farm.” _Up_ and _down_ may be omitted. + +“He has _settled down_ to business” is a colloquial expression which +may be improved by recasting the sentence. + +In so far + + +“He is not to blame _in so far_ as I understand the circumstances.” +_“In so_ _far_ as I know he is a thoroughly honest man.” _“In so far_ +as I have influence it shall be exerted in your favor.” Omit _in._ + +Pocket-handkerchief + + +The word _handkerchief_ conveys the full meaning. _Pocket _is therefore +superfluous and should be omitted. If a cloth or tie for the neck is +meant, call it a _neck tie_ or a _neckerchief,_ but not a +_neck-handkerchief._ + +Have got + + +“I _have got_ a fine farm.” “He _has got_ four sons and three +daughters.” “James _has_ _got_ a rare collection of butterflies.” In +such expressions _got_ is superfluous. But, if the idea of gaining or +acquiring is to be conveyed, the word _got_ may be retained; as, “I +_have got_ my license,” “I _have got_ my degree,” “I _have got_ my +reward.” + + +Off of + + +“Can I borrow a pencil _off_ _of_ you?” “I bought a knife _off_ _of_ +him yesterday.” Such faulty expressions are very common among school +children, and should be promptly checked by the teacher. The _off_ is +superfluous. + +“He jumped _off_ _of_ the boat.” Say, “He jumped _off_ the boat.” + +The young lady appointed to sell articles at a church fair entreated +her friends to “buy something _off of_ me.” She should say, “Please buy +something from me,” or “Make your purchases at my table.” + +For to see + + +“But what went ye out _for_ to see? A man clothed in soft raiment?” +Matt. xi, 8. “I will try _for_ to do what you wish.” This form of +expression, once very common, is now obsolete. Omit _for._ + +Appreciate highly + + +To _appreciate_ is to set a full value upon a thing. We may _value +highly,_ or _prize highly,_ or _esteem_ _highly,_ but the word _highly_ +when used with _appreciate_ is superfluous. + +Ascend up + + +“With great difficulty they _ascended up_ the hill.” As they could not +_ascend down_ the hill it is evident that the word _up_ is superfluous. + + +Been to + + +“Where has he _been to?”_ The sentence is not only more concise, but +more elegant without the terminal _to._ + +Both + + +The sentence, “The two children _both_ resembled each other,” will be +greatly improved by omitting the word _both._ So also in “These baskets +are _both_ alike,” “William and I _both_ went to Cuba.” + +But that + + +“I do not doubt _but that_ my uncle will come.” The sentence is shorter +and more clear without the word _but. “_I have no idea _but that_ the +crew was drowned.” Here _but_ is necessary. Without it the opposite +meaning would be conveyed. + +Equally as well + + +“James did it well, but Henry did it _equally as_ _well.” As well_ or +_equally well_ should be used instead of _equally as well. _“This +method will be equally _as_ efficacious.” Omit _as_. + +Everywheres + + +“I have looked _everywheres_ for the book, and I cannot find it.” This +is a vulgarism that should be avoided. Say _everywhere._ + +Feel like + + +“I feel _like_ as if I should be sick.” The word _like _is unnecessary. + + +Few + + +“There are a few persons who read well.” This sentence will be improved +by saying, “Few persons read well.” + +Help but be + + +This is an awkward expression which is improved by being reduced to the +two words _help being;_ as, “I could not help being moved by his +appeal.” + +Kind of a + + +“He jumped into a _kind of a_ chaise, and hurried off to the station.” +_A_ _kind of chaise_ would be better. + +New beginner + + +“Mary plays on the piano very well for a _new beginner.”_ If she is a +_beginner_ she must of necessity be _new_ to it. + +Opens up + + +“This story _opens up_ beautifully.” The _up_ is superfluous. + +Seeming paradox + + +The word _paradox_ alone implies all that the word _seeming _is +intended to convey, hence _seeming_ is superfluous. “This was once a +paradox but time now gives it proof.” + +Different + + +“There were ten _different_ men ready to accept the offer.” As no +reference to the appearance or characteristics of the men is intended, +the word _different_ is unnecessary. + + +Rise up + + +“They _rose up_ early and started on their journey.” _Up_ is +superfluous and should be omitted. + +Sink down + + +“The multitude _sank down_ upon the ground.” As they could not _sink up +_or in any other direction than _down,_ the latter word should be +omitted. + +Smell of + + +“Did you _smell of_ the roses?” “No; but I _smelled_ them and found +them very fragrant.” “The gardener _smelt of_ them for he has been +culling them all morning and his clothing is perfumed with them.” The +_of_ is superfluous in such expressions as _taste of, feel of,_ and +usually in _smell of._ + +Think for + + +“He is taller than you _think for.” For_ is unnecessary. “He is taller +than you think” is the contracted form of “He is taller than you think +he is.” + +Differ among themselves + + +“The authorities _differed among_ themselves.” The words _among +themselves_ may be omitted. + +End up + + +“That _ends up_ the business.” Say “that _ends_ (or _closes_) the +business.” + +Had have + + +“Had I _have_ known that he was a lawyer I should have consulted him.” +Omit _have._ + + +Had ought to + + +“I had ought to have gone to school to-day; I hadn’t ought to have gone +fishing.” Incorrect. Say, “I ought to have gone (or _I should have +gone) _to school to-day; I ought not to have gone fishing.” If the +second clause is not an after-thought the sentence can be still further +improved by condensing it; as, “I should have gone to school to-day, +and not to have gone fishing.” + + + + +CHAPTER XV +Two Negatives + + +The use of two negatives in a sentence is much more common than is +generally supposed. To assume that only those who are grossly ignorant +of grammatical rules and constructions employ them, is an error. +Writers whose names are as bright stars in the constellation of +literature have slipped on this treacherous ground. + +A negation, in English, admits of only one negative word. The use of a +single negative carries the meaning halfway around the circle. The +meaning is therefore diametrically opposed to that which would be +expressed without the negative. The use of a second negative would +carry the meaning the remaining distance around the circle, thus +bringing it to the starting point, and making it equivalent to the +affirmative. The second negative destroys the effect of the first. The +two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative. + +Double Negatives + + +While two negatives in the same sentence destroy each other, a double +negative has the effect of a more +exact and guarded affirmative; as, “It is _not im_probable that +Congress will convene in special session before the end of the summer.” +“It is _not un_important that, he attend to the matter at once.” “His +story was _not in_credible.” “The fund was _not in_exhaustible.” + +Redundant Negatives + + +_“No_ one _else_ but the workmen had any business at the meeting.” Omit +_else._ + +“Let us see whether _or not_ there was _not_ a mistake in the record.” +Omit either _or not_ or the second _not._ + +“The boat will _not_ stop _only_ when the signal flag is raised.” Omit +_not_ or change _only_ to _except._ + +“He will _never_ return, I _don’t believe.”_ Say, “He will never +return,” or, if that statement is two emphatic, say, “I don’t believe +he will ever return.” + +Don’t want none + + +“I _don’t want none,” “_I _ain’t got nothing,” “_He _can’t do no +more,”_ are inelegant expressions that convey a meaning opposed to that +intended. + +“I don’t want any,” or, “I do not want any,” or, “I want none,” are +correct equivalents for the first sentence; “I haven’t anything,” or, +“I have nothing,” should take the place of the second; and, “He can’t +do any more,” or, “He can do no more,” or “He cannot do more,” will +serve for the third. + + +Not—Hardly + + +“I _cannot_ stop to tell you _hardly_ any of the adventures that befell +Theseus.” Change _cannot_ to _can_. “I have _not _had a moment’s time +to read _hardly_ since I left school.” Say, “I have hardly a moment’s +time,” etc. + +No—no + + +“The faculties are called into _no_ exercise by doing a thing merely +because others do it, _no_ more than by believing a thing only because +others believe it,” says George P. Marsh. He should have used _any +_instead of the second _no._ + +Nothing—nor + + +“There was _nothing_ at the Columbian Exposition more beautiful, _nor_ +more suggestive of the progress of American art, than Tiffany’s +display.” Change _nor_ to _or._ + +Can’t do nothing + + +“He says he _can’t do nothing_ for me.” Use “He can do nothing,” or “He +can’t do anything for me.” + +Cannot by no means + + +This double negative should be avoided. “I _cannot by no means _permit +you to go.” Say, “I _cannot possibly,”_ or “I _cannot, under any +consideration,_ permit you to go.” + + +Nor—no + + +“Give not me counsel, _nor_ let _no_ comforter delight mine ear,” says +Shakespeare. + +“There can be no rules laid down, _nor no_ manner recommended,” says +Sheridan. + +“No skill could obviate, _nor no_ remedy dispel the terrible +infection.” + +The foregoing sentences may be corrected by changing _nor_ to _and._ + +Not—no + + +“I pray you bear with me; I _cannot_ go _no_ further,” says +Shakespeare. “I can go _no_ further,” or “I cannot go _any_ further,” +will make the sentence correct. + +Nor—not + + +“I never did repent for doing good, _nor_ shall _not_ now.” + +“We need not, _nor_ do _not,_ confine the purposes of God.” + +“Which do not continue, _nor_ are _not_ binding.” + +“For my part I love him _not, nor_ hate him _not.”_ + +In these sentences, change _nor_ to _and._ + + + + +CHAPTER XVI +Accordance of Verb with Subject + + +No rule of grammar is more familiar to the schoolboy than that which +relates to the agreement of the verb with its subject, or nominative, +and none that is more frequently violated. It would be a mistake, +however, to assume that the schoolboy is the only transgressor. Ladies +and gentlemen of culture and refinement, writers and speakers of +experience and renown, have alike been caught in the quicksands of verb +constructions. + +“This painting is one of the finest masterpieces that ever _was_ given +to the world.” A transposition of the sentence will show that the verb +should be _were,_ and not _was. “_Of the finest masterpieces that ever +_were _given to the world, this painting is one.” + +“His essay on ‘Capital and Labor’ is one of the best that _has_ ever +been written on the subject.” The verb should be _have._ + +“The steamer, with all her passengers and crew, _were_ lost.” The +subject is _steamer,_ and the verb should be _was._ + + +Interrogative sentences + + +“What _signifies_ his good resolutions, when he does not possess +strength of purpose sufficient to put them into practice?” +_Resolutions_ is the subject, and the verb should be _signify._ + +“Of what profit is his prayers, while his practices are the abomination +of the neighborhood?” _Prayers_ being plural, the verb should be _are._ + +“What _avails_ good sentiments with a bad life?” Use _avail._ + +Subject after the Verb + + +“In virtue and piety _consist_ the happiness of man.” _Happiness, _the +subject, being singular, the verb should be _consists,_ to agree with +its nominative. + +“To these recommendations _were_ appended a copy of the minority +report.” A transposition of the sentence will show that the verb should +be _was_, and not _were._ “A copy of the minority report _was_ appended +to these recommendations.” + +Whenever the sentence is introduced by a phrase consisting in part of a +noun in the plural, or several nouns in the singular or plural, and, +especially, where the subject follows the verb; care must be taken to +keep the nominative well in mind, so that the verb may be in strict +accord with it. + + +Compound Subjects + + +When a verb has two or more nominatives it must be plural. These +nominatives may or may not be connected by _and_ or other connecting +particle. The nominatives may consist of nouns or pronouns, either +singular or plural, or they may be phrases. + +“Washington and Lincoln _were_ chosen instruments of government.” + +“Judges and senates _have_ been bought for gold, + +Esteem and love _were_ never to be sold.”—_Pope._ + +“Art, empire, earth itself, to change _are _doomed.”— _Beattie._ + +“You and he _resemble_ each other.” + +“To read and to sing _are_ desirable accomplishments.” + +“To be wise in our own eyes, to be wise in the opinion of the world, +and to be wise in the sight of our Creator, _are_ three things so very +different as rarely to coincide.”—_Blair._ + +Singular in Meaning + + +Nominatives are sometimes plural in form but singular in meaning. Such +nominatives require a verb in the singular. + +“The philosopher and poet _was_ banished from his country.” _Was_ is +correct, because philosopher and poet are the same person. + + +“Ambition, and not the safety of the state, _was_ concerned.” _Was_ is +correct, because _ambition_ is the subject. The words, _“and not the +safety of the state,”_ simply emphasize the subject, but do not give it +a plural meaning. + +“Truth, and truth only, _is_ worth seeking for its own sake.” Another +case of emphasis. + +Each, Every, No, Not + + +When two or more nominatives are qualified by one of the foregoing +words the verb must be singular. + +“Every limb and feature _appears_ with its respective grace.”—_Steele._ + +“Not a bird, not a beast, not a tree, not a shrub _were_ to be seen.” +Use _was_ instead of _were._ + +Poetical Construction + + +When the verb separates its nominatives, it agrees with that which +precedes it. + +“Forth in the pleasing spring, Thy beauty _walks,_ thy tenderness, and +love.”—_Thomson._ __ + +Or, Nor, As well as, But, Save + + +When two or more nominatives in the singular are separated by such +words as the preceding, the verb must be singular. + +“Veracity, as well as justice, _is_ to be our rule of life.”—_Butler._ + + +“Not a weed nor a blade of grass _were_ to be seen.” Change _were _to +_was_. + +“Nothing but wailings _were_ heard.” Transpose. “Nothing _was_ heard +but wailings.” The verb should be _was_. + +“Either one or the other of them _are_ in the wrong.” The verb should +be _is._ + +If, however, one or more of the nominatives are plural, the verb must +be plural. + +“It is not his wealth, or gifts, or culture that _gives_ him this +distinction.” _Gifts_ being plural, the verb should be _give._ + +Some authorities say that the verb should agree in number with the +subject which is placed next before it, and be understood (or silent) +to the rest; as, “Neither he nor his brothers _were_ there,” “Neither +his brothers nor he was there,” “Neither you nor I _am_ concerned.” + +Prof. Genung, author of _Outlines of Rhetoric,_ says: “When a clash of +concord arises, either choose subjects that have the same number, or +choose a verb that has the same form for both numbers.” He gives this +sentence to show the change of verb: “Fame or the emoluments of valor +_were_ (_was_) never to be his.” “Fame or the emoluments of valor could +never be his.” And this sentence to show the change of one of the +subjects: “Neither the halter nor +bayonets _are_ (_is_) sufficient to prevent us from obtaining our +rights.” “Neither the halter nor the bayonet _is_ sufficient to prevent +us from obtaining our rights.” + +Collective Nouns + + +Collective nouns, like _army, committee, class, peasantry, nobility, +_are, grammatically, singular, but they are often so modified by their +surroundings as to convey a plural idea, and when so modified the verb +must be plural. When the collective noun conveys the idea of unity, the +verb must be singular. + +“The army _was_ disbanded.” + +“The council _were_ divided.” + +“A number of men and women _were_ present.” + +“The people _rejoice_ in their freedom.” + +“The peasantry _go_ barefoot, and the middle sort _make_ use of wooden +shoes.” + +“The world _stands_ in awe of your majesty.” + +“All the world _are_ spectators of your conduct.” + +Weights, Measures, and Values + + +The names of weights, measures, and values, when considered as wholes, +require singular verbs, and when considered as units require verbs in +the plural. + +“There _is_ twenty shillings in my purse,” meaning one pound in value. +“There _are_ twenty shillings in my purse,” meaning twenty separate +coins, each being a shilling. “Sixty-three gallons _equals_ a +hogshead.” “Ten tons of coal _are_ consumed daily.” + + +Titles of Books + + +Whether the form be singular or plural, the title is considered a unit, +and requires a verb in the singular; as, “‘The Merry Wives of Windsor’ +_was_ written by Shakespeare.” “Dr. Holmes’s _American Annals was_ +published in 1805.” + +Whereabouts + + +“The whereabouts of his cousins _were_ not known to him.” The plural +form of this word is misleading. The verb should be _was._ + +Phenomena, Effluvia + + +“A strange phenomena,” “A disagreeable effluvia” are incorrect forms +not infrequently met with. Both words are plural, and require plural +verbs and also the omission of the article _a._ + +You was + + +This very incorrect form is often employed by those who know better, +and who use it, seemingly, out of courtesy to the uneducated people +with whom they are brought in contact. If it be a courtesy, it is one +that is “more honored in the breach than in the observance.” + +Those who use the expression ignorantly are not likely to read this +book, or any other of a similar character, and need scarcely be told +that _was_ should be _were_. + + + + +INDEX + + +A, An, 181. +Aberration of intellect, 87. +A 1,83. +A hundred others’ woes—Pronouns, 126. +Ability, Capacity, 27. +About, Almost, 28. +About, Around, 95. +Above, More than, Preceding, 111. +Above, Foregoing, 87. +Above up, 180. +Acceptance, Acceptation, 28. +Access, Accession, 28. +Accident, Injury, 28. +Accord, Give, 86. +Accordance of Verb with Subject, 198. +Collective Nouns, 203. +Compound Subjects, 200. +Each, Every, No, Not, 201. +Interrogative sentences, 199. +Or, Nor, As well as, But, Save, 201. +Phenomena, Effluvia, 204. +Poetical Construction, 201. +Singular in Meaning, 200. +Subject after the Verb, 199. +Titles of Books, 204. +Weights, Measures, and Values, 203. +Whereabouts, 204. +You was, 204. +Acoustics, Ethics, Politics, 143. +Act, Action, 86. +Adherence, Adhesion, 36. +Adjective or Adverb, 150. +Adopt, Take, 37. +Adverbs, 150. +Adverbs for Relative Pronouns, 140. +Advise, Persuade, 52. +Affect, Effect, 37. +After _of—_Possessive case, 127. +After _than_ and as—Pronouns, 132. +After that, 159. +After the Imperative—Pronouns, 132. +After verbs— Participles, 171. +After the verb To be—Pronouns, 131. +After verbs and prepositions—Pronouns, 130. +Again, Against, 115. +Aggravate, Exasperate, 37. +Agreeably disappointed, 77. +Agreement with Antecedent—Pronouns, 133. +Ain’t, 119. +Alex. Melville Bell, 24. +Alienate, Antagonize, Oppose, 32. +Alighted, Lit, Lighted, 88. +All, Is that all? 108. +All of, 180. +All, Whole, 41, 51. +Alleviate, Relieve, 37. +Allow, Guess, Reckon, Calculate, 56. +Allowed, Said, 87. +Allude to, Refer to, 77. +Almost, About, 28. +Almost, Most, Very, 30. +Alms, Odds, Riches, 145. +Alone, Only, 113. +Alternative, 87. +Alternation, 87. +Alumna, Formula, 144, +Alumnus, Terminus, Cactus, 143. +Ambiguity—Pronouns, 135. +Among the rest, 78. +Among, Between, 175. +Amount, Number, 32. +Analysis, Crises, 143. +And, To—Try and, 117. +Anglicized Words, 20. +Angry, Mad, 30. +Animalcules, not Animalculae, 148. +Anniversary, 87. +Answer, Reply, 32. +Antagonize, Alienate, Oppose, 32. +Anticipate, Expect, 32. +Any, At all, 32. +Anyhow, 81. +Anyways, Somewheres, Thereabouts, 78. +Apart, Aside, 78. +Apparent, Evident, 33. +Appendix, Index, 148. +Appointed you and _I—_after verbs and prepositions, 130. +Appreciate highly, 189. +Apprehend, Comprehend, 105. +Archimedes’ Screw, 125. +Argue, Augur, 98. +Around, About, 95. +Articles, 181. +A, An, 181. +Interchanged, 184. +Omitted, 182. +Redundant, 183. +Titles—The Reverend, 182. +_As_ after _Equally,_ 190. +As... as, 162. +As, Like, 88. +As... so, 163. +As soon as, Directly, Immediately, 77. +As, That, 70. +As though, As if, 160. +As well as, Or, Nor, But, Save, 201. +Ascend up, 189. +Aside, Apart, 78. +Asparagus, Sparrowgrass, 34. +Assets, Alms, Scissors, 145. +Assure, Promise, 34. +At all, Any, 32. +At, To, 176. +At you, 114. +Attacked, Burst, Drowned, 108. +Aware, Conscious, 39. +Away, Way, 41. +Awful, 81. +Awkward construction—Participles, 172. + +Back up, Support, 82. +Badly, Greatly, 114. +Bad toothache, 70. +Balance, Remainder, 60. +Bandits, Banditti, 148. +Barbaric, Barbarous, 98. +Barbarisms, 20. +Beaus, Tableaux, Chateaux, 147. +Beautifully, Beautiful, 70. +Because, Reason, 156. +Been to, 190. +Beg, Beg leave, 71. +Beg pardon, Which? 26. +Begin, Commence, 38. +Behave, 60. +Bell, Alex. Melville, 24. +Besides, 49. +Beside, Besides, 108. +Better, Best, 61. +Between, Among, 175. +Between you and _I—_After verbs and prepositions, 130. +Black Oxide of Manganese, 36. +Bombastic Language, 18. +Both, 190. +Both, Both of, 72. +Both, Each, 72. +Bound, 61. +Bountiful, Plentiful, 108. +Brace, Pair, Couple, 147. +Bravery, Courage, 116. +Bring, Fetch, Carry, 44. +Brooks’s Arithmetics, 125. +Brothers, Brethren, 149. +Bryant’s list, 16. +Bulk, 82. +Burglarize, 82. +Burst, Attacked, Drowned, 108. +But, Except, 157. +But, If, 157. +But, Only, Except, 157. +But, Or, Nor, Save—As well as, 201. +_But_ superfluous, 158. +But that, 158, 190. +But that, But what, 82, 157. +But that, 157. +But that, Than that, 158. +But what, 160. +But what, But that, 82, 157. +By, In, 175. +By, With, 177. + +Calculate, 83. +Calculate, Guess, Reckon, Allow, 56. +Calculated, Liable, 83. +Calligraphy, 68. +Came across, Met with, 109. +Campbell’s law, 20. +Can, Could, Will, 115. +Can but, Cannot but, 68. +Cannot by no means, 196. +Can’t and Couldn’t, 120. +Can’t do nothing, 196. +Cantos, Heroes, 145. +Capacity, Ability, 27. +Carry, Bring, Fetch, 44. +Case forms—Pronouns, 129. +Casualty, Casuality, 68. +Character, Reputation, 44. +Chauncey Depew and Eli Perkins, 65. +Cheap, Low-priced, 30. +Cherubim, Seraphim, 142. +Choice of prepositions, 175. +Choice of relatives—Pronouns, 138. +Choice of words, 15. +Chrysalis, Analysis, 143. +Chuck-full, 74. +Clearness—Participles, 172. +Clever, Smart, 85. +Climax, 112. +Climb down, 103. +Collective nouns, 203. +Collective nouns—Pronouns, 135. +Commence, Begin, 38. +Commenced to write, 107. +Commercial slang, 23. +Commodious, Convenient, 26. +Common, Mutual, 28. +Common slang, 23. +Complected, 69. +Complete, Finished, Through, 39, 99. +Compound subject, 200. +Comprehend, Apprehend, 105. +Conclusion, End, 39. +Conjunctions, 156. +Conscious, Aware, 39. +Contemplate, Propose, 75. +Contemptible, Contemptuous, 52. +Continual, Continuous, 39. +Continually, Perpetually, 52. +Contractions, 118. +Convenient, Commodious, 26. +Convict, Convince, 40. +Correlatives, 162. +Could, Can, Will, 115. +Couldn’t, Can’t, 120. +Couple, Pair, Brace, 147. +Couple, Several, 76. +Courage, Bravery, 116. +Criterion, Datum, 144. +Crowd, 74. +Cunning, 59. +Cupfuls— Plural compounds, 147. +Curious, 59. +Custom, Habit, 40. +Customer, Patron, 93. +Cute, 59. +Cut in half, 98. + +Daren’t, Dursen’t, 123. +Data, Strata, 144. +Datum, Phenomenon, 144, 204. +Deface, Disfigure, 43. +Defect, Fault, 45. +Degrade, Demean, 43. +Depot, Station, 43. +Description, Kind, 44. +Didn’t, Don’t, 120. +Dies, Dice, 149. +Differ among themselves, 192. +Different, 191. +Differ with, From, 175. +Different from, to, than, 75, 176. +Directly, Immediately, As soon as, 77. +Disfigure, Deface, 43. +Disremember, 69. +Dispense, Dispense with, 75. +Dock, Wharf, 52. +Don’t and Didn’t, 120. +Don’t want none, 195. +Double negatives, 194. +Double possessives, 126. +Doubt not but, 160. +Dreadful solemn— Adjective or adverb? 152. +Drive, Ride, 76. +Drowned, Attacked, Burst, 108. +Dry, Thirsty, 75. +Due, Owing, 71. +Dursent, Daren’t, 123. +Dutch, German, 75. + +Each, Both, 72. +Each, Every, 71. +Each, Every, No, Not, 201. +Each other, One another, 46. +Each other’s eyes—Pronouns, 126. +Each... _their—_Agreement with antecedent, 134. +Effect, Affect, 37. +Effluvia, Phenomena, 144, 204. +Either, Neither, 47, 163. +Either the... or the, 159. +Elder, Older, 91. +Eli Perkins and Chauncey Depew, 65. +Ellipsis, Analysis, 143. +Else ...besides, 49. +Else than, Other than, 159. +Emigrants, Immigrants, 78. +Empty, 86. +End, Conclusion, 39. +Endorse, Indorse, 84. +End up, 192. +Enjoy, 86. +Enjoyed poor health, 36. +Equally as well, 190. +Evacuate, Vacate, 75. +Ever, Never, 72. +Every confidence, 67. +Every, Each, 71. +Every, Each, No, Not, 201. +Everybody else’s, 128. +Everybody... _they—_Agreement with antecedent, 134. +Every once in awhile, 73. +Everywheres, 190. +Evident, Apparent, 33. +Exasperate, Aggravate, 37. +Except, But, 157. +Except, But, Only, 157. +Except, Unless, Besides, 161. +Exceptionable, Exceptional, 73. +Excuse me—Which? 26. +Expect, Anticipate, 32. +Expect, Suspect, Suppose, 110. + +Factor, 112. +Farther, Further, 45. +Fathers-in-law—Plural compounds, 147. +Fault, Defect, 45. +Favor, Resemble, 59. +Feel like, 190. +Feels badly—Adjective or adverb? 151. +Female, Woman, 73. +Fetch, Bring, Carry, 44. +Few, 191. +Few, Little, 46. +Fewer, Less, 73. +Fictitious writer, 62. +Fine writing, 8. +Finished, Complete, Through, 39, 99. +Fire, Throw, 78. +First, Firstly, 62. +First, Former, 61. +First-rate, 62. +First two, 79. +Fish, Fly, 148. +Fix, In a, 53. +Fix, Mend, Repair, 62. +Fly, Flee, 53. +Flys, Fishes, 148. +Foregoing, Above, 87. +Foreign words, 9. +Former, First, 61. +Formulas, Larvas, Stigmas, 144. +For to see, 189. +Frederick the Great’s Kindness—Nouns in apposition, 127. +From hence, thence, whence, 180. +From, Of, 104, 176. +Funny, 56. +Further, Farther, 45. +Future, Subsequent, 79. + +Gent’s pants, 79. +German, Dutch, 75. +Get, Got, 54. +Give, Accord, 36. +Good deal, Great deal, 57. +Good piece, Long distance, 110. +Good usage, 19. +Good, Well, 158. +Got to, Must, 115. +Governor, the old man, 97. +Great big, 98. +Great deal, Good deal, 57. +Greatly, Badly, 114. +Grouse, Quail, Snipe, 149. +Grow, Raise, Rear, 113. +Guess, Reckon, Calculate, Allow, 56. +Gums, Overshoes, 56. + +Habit, Custom, 40. +Had better, Would better, 57. +Had have, 192. +Had ought to, 193. +Hadn’t, Haven’t, Hasn’t, 121. +Haint, Taint, 121. +Hangs on, Continues, 115. +Have got, 188. +Have saw, Has went, 114. +Haven’t, Hasn’t, Hadn’t, 121. +Haply, Happily, 114. +Happen, Transpire, 65. +Has went, Have saw, 114. +Hate, Dislike, 116. +Healthy, Wholesome, 52. +Healthy, Healthful, 112. +Hearty meal, 98. +He is no better than _me— _After _than_ and as, 133. +Help but be, 191. +Heroes, Cantos, Stuccoes, 145. +Herrings, Trout, Pike, 149. +He’s, She’s, It’s, 123. +Hey? Which? 25. +Hire, Lease, Let, Rent, 88. +His, One’s, 50. +His or her—Needless pronouns, 136. +Hope, Wish, 99. +House, Residence, 43. +_How_ for _by which— _Adverbs for relative pronouns, 140 +How, That, 154. +Hung, Hanged, 112. + +I am _him_-Case forms, 129. +Idea, Opinion, 113. +If, But, 157. +If, Whether, 58. +Ill, Sick, 107. +Illy, Ill, 58. +Immediately, Directly, As soon as, 77. +Immigrants, Emigrants, 78. +Implicit, 58. +I’m, You’re, He’s, She’s, It’s, We’re, They’re, 123. +In a fix, 53. +In, By, 175. +In, Into, 85, 176. +In, Of, 177. +In, On, 177. +In our midst, 84. +In respect of, To, 176. +In so far, 188. +Inaugurate, 109. +Incomplete Infinitive, 168. +Index, Appendix, 148. +Individual, 58. +Indorse, Endorse, 84. +Infinitive, 166. +Infinitive, Incomplete, 168. +Infinitive needed—Supply _To,_ 166. +Infinitive unnecessary—Omit “To,” 167. +Informed, Posted, 86. +Injury, Accident, 28. +Interchanged Articles, 184. +Interrogatives—Pronouns, 130. +Interrogative sentences, 199. +Into, In, 85, 176. +Introduce, Present, 105. +“Is building,” 173. +Isn’t, 121. +It’s, He’s, She’s, 123. +It is _me—_Case forms, 129. + +John and Mary’s sled—Double possessives, 126. +Journal, 68. +Junius’s letters, 125. +Juntos, Heroes, Virtuosos, 145. +Just going to, 85. + +Kind, Description, 44. +Kind of, 85. +Kind of a, 191. +Knights Templars, 147. +Know as, Know that, 58. +Knowing, 85. + +Last, Latest, 59. +Lay, Lie, 69. +Lead a dance, 117. +Learn, Teach, 88. +Lease, Let, Rent, Hire, 88. +Leave, Quit, 83. +Lend, Loan, 88. +Less, Fewer, 73. +Lest, That, 159. +Let it alone, Leave it alone, 83. +Let, Lease, Rent, Hire, 88. +Let you and _I_ try it—After the Imperative, 132. +Let’s, 123. +Liable, Calculated, 83. +Lie, Lay, 69. +Lighted, Lit, Alighted, 88. +Like, As, 88. +Like, Love, 29. +List of Principal Correlatives, 162. +Lit, Lighted, 88. +Little, Few, 46. +Little piece, Short distance, 67. +Little bit, 74. +Loan, Lend, 88. +Look and see, 187. +Look at here, 187. +Lot, Number, 116. Love, Like, 29. +Low-priced, Cheap, 30. +Luck, 84. + +Mad, Angry, 30. +Make, Manufacture, 65. +Make way with, 84. +Mayn’t, Mustn’t, Mightn’t, Oughtn’t, 122. +Mayst, Mightest, 123. +Means, Alms, Headquarters, 146. +Measures, Weights, Values, 203. +Memorandum, Datum, 144. +Mend, Fix, Repair, 62. +Mention, Allude to, Refer to, 77. +Men’s and boys’ shoes, 124. +Men, women, and children’s shoes—Double possessives, 126. +Met with, Came across, 109. +Mightn’t, Mustn’t, Mayn’t, Oughtn’t, 122. +Mightst, Mayst, 123. +Mighty, Very, 104. +Misplaced relatives—Pronouns, 141. +Mixed pronouns, 136. +More than, Above, Preceding, 111. +More than, Over, 155. +More, Worse, 42. +Mosquitoes, Heroes, Halos, 145. +Most, Almost, Very, 30. +Musselmans, Dragomans, 145. +Mustn’t, Mayn’t, Mightn’t, and Oughtn’t, 122. +Mutual, Common, 28. +Myself, 29. + +Nasty, Nice, 89. +Near, Nearly, 89. +Need, Want, 40. +Needless Articles, 183. +Needless Prepositions, 180. +Needless Pronouns, 136. +Negatives, 194. +Negligence, Neglect, 29. +Neighborhood, Region, 42. +Neither, Either, 47, 163. +Neither... nor, Either, 163. +Never, Ever, 72. +Never... nor (or or), Either, 163. +Never, Not, 29. +News, 142. +New beginner, 191. +New Words, 21. +Nice, Nasty, 89. +Nicely, 89. +No, Each, Every, Not, 201. +No... no, 154, 196. +No, Not, 154. +No good, No use, 89. +No more than I could help, 111. +No use, No good, 89. +Nor... no, 197. +Nor, Or— Pronouns, 135. +Nor, Or, As well as, But, Save, 201. +Nor... not, 197. +None, Singular or plural, 51. +Not... hardly, 196. +Not impossible but, 160. +Not... neither, Either, 163. +Not, Never, 29. +Not... or (or _nor),_ Either, 163. +Not... no, 197. +Noted, Notorious, 94. +Nothing like, 94. +Nothing... nor, 196. +Notorious, Noted, 94. +Nouns in Apposition—Possessive Case 126. +Nouns, Plural-Possessive Case, 125. +Nouns, Singular—Possessive Case, 125. +Nowhere near so, 94. +Nucleus, Terminus, Fungus, 143. +Number, 142. +Number, Amount, 32. +Number, Lot, 116. +Number, Quantity, 38. + +O, Oh, 90. +Observe, Say, 90. +Obsolete Words, 20. +Odds, Alms, Riches, 145. +Of any, Of all, 90. +Of, From, 104,176. +Of, In, 177. +“Of” redundant, 169. +Of, With, 176. +Off of, 189. +Older, Elder, 91. +Omission of Article, 182. +Omit the Possessive, 170. +Omission of Preposition, 179. +Omit “Of,” 169. +Omit “To,” 167. +Omitted Relatives—Pronouns, 141. +On, Over, Upon, 104. +One another, Each other, 46. +One... they—Agreement with Antecedent, 134. +One’s, His, 50. +Only, 91. +Only, Alone, 113. +Only, Except, But, 157. +Onto, Upon, 92. +Opens up, 191. +Opinion, Idea, 113. +Oppose, antagonize, Alienate, 32. +Or. Nor, As well as, But, Save, 201. +Or, Nor— Pronouns, 135. +Other, 49. +Other... besides, 49. +Other than, 159. +Other than, Otherwise than, 48. +Otherwise than, Otherwise but, 159. +Ottomans, Mussulmans, 145. +Ought, Should, Would, 102. +Oughtn’t, Mustn’t, Mayn’t, Mightn’t, 122. +Outstart, 92. +Over and Above, More than, 92. +Over, More than, 155. +Over, On, Upon, 104. +Over with, 110. +Overflown, Overflowed, 110. +Overlook, Oversee, 95. +Overshoes, Gums, 56. +Overworked Expressions, 13. +Owing, Due, 71. +Oxide of Manganese, Black, 36. + +Pair, Couple, Brace, 147. +Pants, Gent’s, 79. +Pappy, the Old Man, 97. +Parenthetical Expressions—Pronouns, 133. +Part, Portion, 30. +Partake, Ate, 105. +Participles, 169, +After Verbs, 171. +Awkward Construction, 172. +Clearness, 172. +“Is building,” 173. +“Of” redundant, 169. +Omit the Possessive, 170. +Place of, 171. +Party, Person, 93. +Patron, Customer, 93. +Peas, Pease, 149. +Pell-mell, 155. +Pennies, Pence, 149. +Per, 93. +Peradventure, Perchance, 93. +Performers, 93. +Period, Point, 94. +Perpetually, Continually, 52. +Person, Party, 93. +Perspire, Sweat, 86. +Persuade, Advise, 52. +Peruse, 78. +Pet Words, 12. +Phenomena, Data, Effluvia, 144, 204. +Place of Participles, 171. +Plead, Pleaded, 94. +Plenty, Plentiful, 95. +Plural Compounds, 147. +Plural Nouns, 125. +Pocket-handkerchief, 188. +Poet, Poetess, 73. +Poetic Terms, 9. +Poetical Construction, 201. +Point, Period, 94. +Politics, Acoustics, Ethics, 143. +Portion, Part, 30. +Position of Correlatives, 164. +Position of Preposition, 178. +Possessive Case, 124. +After of, 127. +Double possessives, 126. +Nouns, Singular, 125. +” Plural, 125. +” in apposition, 126. +Pronouns, 126. +Somebody else’s, 127. +Postal, 31. +Posted, Informed, 86. +Powerful sight, 105. +Practical, Practicable, 31. +Preceding, Above, More than, 111. +Predicate, 31. +Prefer than, 31. +Preferred before, to, 176. +Prejudice, 33. +Prepositions, 174. +All of, 180. +At, To, 176. +Between, Among, 175. +By, In, 175. +Choice, 175. +Differ with, from, 175. +Different from, to, than, 176. +From hence, 180. +In, Into, 176. +In, On, 177. +In respect of, to, 176. +Needless prepositions, 180. +Of, In, 177. +Of, From, 176. +Omission of prepositions, 179. +Position, 178. +Preferred before, to, 176. +To, With, 177. +Up above, 180. +With, By, 177. +With, Of, 176. +With, To, 178. +Present, Introduce, 105. +Presume, Think, Believe, 33. +Pretend, Profess, 33. +Pretty, Very, 116. +Preventative, Preventive, 33. +Previous, Previously, 33. +Profess, Pretend, 33. +Promise, Assure, 34. +Pronouns, 129. +Adverbs for Relative Pronouns, 140. +After _than_ and as, 132. +” the Imperative, 132. +” To be, 131. +” Verbs and Prepositions, 130. +Agreement with Antecedent, 133. +Ambiguity, 135. +Case Forms, 129. +Choice of Relatives, 138. +Collective Nouns, 135. +Interrogatives, 130. +Misplaced Relatives, 141. +Mixed, 136. +Needless, 136. +Omitted Relatives, 141. +Or, Nor, 135. +Parenthetical expressions, 133. +Silent Predicate, 132. +The one, the other, 141. +Uniform Relatives, 137. +_ Which_ and who after and, 140. +Pronouns—Possessive Case, 126. +Pronouns—Personal and Relative, 129. +Proper Names—Plurals, 146. +Propose, Purpose, 34. +Proposal, Proposition, 37. +Propose, Contemplate, 75. +Prospectus, Terminus, Apparatus, 148. +Proved, Proven, 38. +Providing, Provided, 37. +Provincialisms, 24. +Pupil, Scholar, 107. +Purity of Diction, 19. +Purpose, Propose, 34. + +Quail, Grouse, Woodcock, 149. +Quantity, Number, 38. +Quite, Very, Rather, 153. +Quite a few, 38. +Quit, Leave, 83. + +Raise, Grow, Rear, 113. +Rarely, Rare, 42. +Rather than, Other than, 159. +Real, Really, 42. +Real good, 155. +Rear, Raise, Grow, 113. +Reason, Because, 156. +Receipt, Recipe, 42. +Reckon, Guess, Calculate, Allow, 56. +Recollect of, 187. +Redundancy, 185. +Redundant Article, 183. +Redundant Negatives, 195. +Refer to, Allude to, 77. +Region, Neighborhood, 42. +Relieve, Alleviate, 37. +Remainder, Balance, 60. +Remit, Send, 43. +Rent, Lease, Let, Hire, 88. +Repair, Fix, Mend, 62. +Reply, Answer, 32. +Reputation, Character, 44. +Requisite, Requisition, Requirement, 106. +Resemble, Favor, 59. +Residence, House, 43. +Restaurant French, 10. +Revolting, 96. +Reverend, 182. +Riches, Alms, Odds, 145. +Ride, Drive, 76. +Right, Right here, Just here, 99. +Right smart, 73. +Rise up, 192. +Round, Square, 63. + +Said, Allowed, 87. +Same as, Same that, 105. +Save, But, Or, Nor, As well as, 201. +Say, Observe, 90. +Says, States, 63. +Scholar, Pupil, 107. +Section, Region, 106. +Seeming Paradox, 191. +Seldom or ever, 106. +Send, Remit, 43. +Seraphim, Cherubim, 142. +Set, Sit, 80. +Settle up, down, 188. +Several, Couple, 76. +Sewage, Sewerage, 106. +Shall, Will, Should, Would, 100. +Shall you? Will you? 102. +She’s, He’s, It’s, 123. +Should, Would, Ought, 102. +Should, Would, Shall, Will, 100. +Shouldn’t and Wouldn’t, 122. +Sick, Ill, 107. +Sight, Many, 74. +Silent Predicate—Pronouns, 132. +Single, The first, 79. +Singular Nouns, 125. +Singular in Meaning, 201. +Sink down, 192. +Sit, Set, 80. +Slang, 22. +Slang, Commercial, Common, and Society, 23. +Smart, Clever, 85. +Smell of, 192. +Smells sweetly—Adjective or Adverb? 151. +Sociable, Social, 106. +Society Slang, 23. +So... as, 163. +So far, That far, 154. +So nice, 155. +So, Such, 152. +Solos, Heroes, Octavos, 145. +Some better, 98. +Some means or another, 48. +Somebody else’s, 127. +Somewheres, Anyways, Thereabouts, 78. +Sparrowgrass, Asparagus, 34. +Specialty, Speciality, 106. +Square, Round, 63. +Stand a chance, 110. +States, Says, 63. +Station, Depot, 43. +Stay, Stop, 63. +Stilts, 18. +Stop, Stay, 63. +Strata, Data, 144. +Subject after the verb, 199. +Subsequent, Future, 79. +Subtile, Subtle, 63. +Such as you and _me— _After than and as, 133. +Such, So, 152. +Summerish, Winterish, 99. +Summons, 64. +Supply “To,” 166. +Support, Back up, 82. +Sweat, Perspire, 86. + +Tableaux, Beaus, Plateaus, 147. +Tactics, Acoustics, 143. +Taint, Haint, 121. +Take, Adopt, 37. +Talented, 103. +Taste, 7. +Tasty, Tasteful, 64. +Team, 64. +Teach, Learn, 88. +Terminus, Radius, Focus, 143. +Than, 48. +_Than_ ambiguous, 158. +Thanks, I thank you, 115. +That, As, 70. +That, But, 157. +That far, Thus far, 154. +That, Lest, 159. +That omitted, 158. +That, that, 157. +The father he died—Needless pronouns, 136. +The first, Single, 79. +The Honorable, the Reverend, 182. +The Infinitive, 166. +The Miss Browns—Titles, 146. +The Old Man, 97. +The one, the other—Pronouns, 141. +Them books, 137. +Thereabouts, Somewheres, Any ways, 78. +These kind, Those kind, 47. +These sort, Those kind, 64. +These, Those, 62. +They’re, We’re, You’re, 123. +Think for, 192. +Thirsty, Dry, 75. +This much, 154. +This twenty years, These kind, 47. +Those kind, These sort, 64. +Through, Finished, Complete, 39, 99. +Throw, Fire, 78. +Titles of Books, 204. +Titles—The Reverend, the Honorable, 182. +Titles with Proper Names, 146. +To always find—The Infinitive, 166. +To, With, 177, 178. +To, At, 176. +Transpire, Happen, 65. +Trite Expressions, 12. +Truth, Veracity, 67. +Try and, Try to, 117. +Try the experiment, 67. +Two foot, These kind, 48. +Two Negatives, 194. + +Ugly, 67. +Unbeknown, 68. +Underhanded, 68. +Under the weather, Ill, 115. +Unexampled, 96. +Uniform Relatives—Pronouns, 137. +Unless, Without, 41. +Up above, 180. +Upon, On, Over, 104. +Utter, Express, 96. + +Vacate, Evacuate, 75. +Valuable, Valued, 97. +Values, Weights, Measures, 203. +Veracity, Truth, 67. +Very, Most, Almost, 30. +Very much of, 153. +Very pleased, 97. +Very, Pretty, 116. +Very Vulgar Vulgarisms, 13. +Vicinity, Neighborhood, 97. +Vulgarisms, 13. + +Want, Need, 40. +Wasn’t, 122. +Way, Away, 41. +Ways, way, 41. +Weights, Measures, and Values, 203. +Well, Good, 153. +Weren’t, 122. +We’re, They’re, You’re, 123. +Wharf, Dock, 52. +Wharf, Wharves, 149. +What for _that,_ 137. +What? Which? Hey? 25. +Whereabouts, 204. +_Where_ for _in which—_Adverbs for Relative Pronouns, 140. +Whether, If, 58. +Whether... Whether, 160. +Which? 25. +Which? Beg pardon, 25. +Which for _who,_ 137. +Which? What? 25. +Which and _who_ after _and—_Pronouns, 140. +Who should I see—Interrogatives, 131. +Whole, All, 41, 51. +Wholesome, Healthy, 52. +_Whom_ do you think he is—Interrogatives, 131. +Why, 187. +Widow woman, 186. +Will, Could, Can, 115. +Will, Shall, Should, Would, 100. +Will you? Shall you? 102. +Winterish, Summerish, 99. +Wish, Hope, 99. +With, By, 177. +With, Of, 176. +With, To, 177, 178. +Without, Unless, 41. +Woman, Female, 73. +Words, Anglicized, 20. +Words Improperly Used, 26. +Words, New, 21. +Words, Obsolete. 20. +Words to be avoided, 18. +Worse, More, 42. +Would better, Had better, 57. +Would Should, Ought, 102. +Would, Should, Shall, Will, 100. +Wouldn’t, Shouldn’t, 122. + +You are _him—_Case Forms, 129. +You’re, We’re, They’re, 123. +You was, 204. + + + + +_Popular Handbooks_ + + +Some books are designed for entertainment, others for information. This +series combines both features. The information is not only complete and +reliable, it is compact and readable. In this busy, bustling age it is +required that the information which books contain shall be ready to +hand and presented in the clearest and briefest manner possible. These +volumes are replete with valuable information, compact in form and +unequalled in point of merit and cheapness. 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