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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/4983-0.txt b/4983-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..fb9d1ab --- /dev/null +++ b/4983-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,8056 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook of Slips of Speech, by John H. Bechtel + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and +most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions +whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms +of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at +www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you +will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before +using this eBook. + +Title: Slips of Speech + +Author: John H. Bechtel + +Release Date: April 7, 2002 [eBook #4983] +[Most recently updated: July 28, 2021] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +Produced by: Jim Weiler, xooqi.com. + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SLIPS OF SPEECH *** + + + + +Slips of Speech + +A helpful book for everyone who aspires to correct the everyday errors of +speaking and writing. + +by John H. Bechtel + +Author of “Practical Synonyms,” “Pronunciation,” +etc. + +Philadelphia +The Penn Publishing Company +1901 + +COPYRIGHT 1895 BY THE PENN PUBLISHING COMPANY + + +Contents + + INTRODUCTION + I. TASTE + II. CHOICE OF WORDS + III. CONTRACTIONS + IV. POSSESSIVE CASE + V. PRONOUNS + VI. NUMBER + VII. ADVERBS + VIII. CONJUNCTIONS + IX. CORRELATIVES + X. THE INFINITIVE + XI. PARTICIPLES + XII. PREPOSITIONS + XIII. THE ARTICLE + XIV. REDUNDANCY + XV. TWO NEGATIVES + XVI. ACCORDANCE OF VERB WITH SUBJECT + INDEX + + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +Homer, in all probability, knew no rules of rhetoric, and was not +tortured with the consideration of grammatical construction, and yet +his verse will endure through time. If everybody possessed the genius +of Homer, rules and cautions in writing would be unnecessary. + +To-day all men speak, and most men write, but it is observed that those +who most closely follow Homer’s method of writing without rules are +most unlike Homer in the results. The ancient bard was a law unto +himself; we need rules for our guidance. + +Rules of writing are the outgrowth of the study of the characteristics +and qualities of style which distinguish the best writers from those of +inferior skill and ability. Grammarians and rhetoricians, according to +their several lines of investigation, set forth the laws and principles +governing speech, and formulate rules whereby we may follow the true, +and avoid the false. + +Grammar and rhetoric, as too often presented in the schools, are such +uninviting studies that when +school-days are ended, the books are laid aside, and are rarely +consulted afterward. The custom of formally burning the text-books +after the final examinations—a custom that prevails in some +institutions—is but an emphatic method of showing how the students +regard the subjects treated in the books. + +If all the rules and principles had been thoroughly mastered, the huge +bonfire of text-books in grammar and rhetoric might be regarded a +fitting celebration of the students’ victory over the difficulties of +“English undefiled.” But too often these rules are merely memorized by +the student for the purpose of recitation, and are not engrafted upon +his everyday habit of speech. They are, therefore, soon forgotten, and +the principles involved are subject to daily violation. + +Hence arises the need of books like SLIPS OF SPEECH, in which the +common faults of speakers and writers are pointed out, and the correct +use of words shown. Brief and informal in treatment, they will be read +and consulted when the more voluminous text-books will be left +untouched. + +The copious index appended to this volume will afford a ready reference +to the many subjects discussed, and will contribute greatly to the +convenience and permanent value of the book. + + + + +SLIPS OF SPEECH + + +“We should be as careful of our words as of our actions.”—CICERO. + + + + +CHAPTER I +Taste + + +Taste is a universal gift. It has been found in some degree in all +nations, races, and ages. It is shown by the savage in his love of +personal decoration; by the civilized man in his love of art. + +But while it is thus universal, it is as different among men as their +faces, complexions, characters, or languages. Even among people of the +same nation, it is as different as the degrees of society. The same +individual at different periods of life, shows this variableness of +taste. + +These diversities of taste imply a susceptibility to improvement. Good +taste in writing forms no exception to the rule. While it seems to +require some basis in nature, no degree of inborn aptitude will +compensate for the lack of careful training. + +To give his natural taste firmness and fineness a writer needs to read +the best literature, not merely so +as to know it, but so as to feel the beauty, the fitness, the charm, +the strength, the delicacy of a well-chosen word. + +The study of the proper arrangement and the most effective expression +of our thoughts prompts us to think more accurately. So close is the +connection between the thought and its expression that looseness of +style in speaking and writing may nearly always be traced to +indistinctness and feebleness in the grasp of the subject. No degree of +polish in expression will compensate for inadequacy of knowledge. But +with the fullest information upon any subject, there is still room for +the highest exercise of judgment and good sense in the proper choice +and arrangement of the thoughts, and of the words with which to express +them. + +The concurrent testimony of those best qualified to render a decision, +has determined what authors reflect the finest literary taste, and +these writers should be carefully studied by all who aspire to +elegance, accuracy, and strength in literary expression. + +Fine Writing + + +Never hesitate to call a spade a _spade_. One of the most frequent +violations of good taste consists in the effort to dress a common +subject in high-sounding language. The ass in the fable showed his +stupidity +when he put on the lion’s skin and expected the other animals to +declare him to be the king of beasts. The distinction of a subject lies +in its own inherent character, and no pompous parade of words will +serve to exalt a commonplace theme. + +Poetic Terms + + +In the expression of homely ideas and the discussion of affairs of +every-day life, avoid such poetic forms as _o’er_ for over, _ne’er _for +never, _’mid_ for amid, _e’en_ for even, _’gan_ for began, _’twixt_ for +betwixt, _’neath_ for beneath, _list_ for listen, _oft_ for often, +_morn_ for morning, _eve_ for evening, _e’er_ for ever, _ere_ for +before, _’tis_ for it is, _’twas _for it was. + +In all prose composition, avoid such poetic forms as _swain, wight, +mead, brake, dingle, dell, zephyr._ + +Foreign Words + + +The unrestrained use of foreign words, whether from the ancient or from +the modern languages, savors of pedantry and affectation. The ripest +scholars, in speaking and writing English, make least use of foreign +words or phrases. Persons who indulge in their use incur the risk of +being charged with a desire to exhibit their linguistic attainments. + +On the other hand, occasions arise when the use of words from a foreign +tongue by one who is +thoroughly familiar with them, will add both grace and exactness to his +style. + +Rarely use a foreign term when your meaning can be as well expressed in +English. Instead of _blasé,_ use surfeited, or wearied; for _cortège +_use procession for _couleur de rose,_ rose-color; for _déjeuner, +_breakfast; for _employe,_ employee; for _en route,_ on the way; for +_entre nous,_ between ourselves; for _fait accompli,_ an accomplished +fact; for _in toto,_ wholly, entirely; for _penchant, _inclination; for +_raison d’être,_ reason for existence; for _recherché,_ choice, +refined; for _rôle,_ part; for _soirée dansante,_ an evening dancing +party; for _sub rosa,_ secretly, etc. + +The following incident from the _Detroit Free Press_ is in point: + +The gentleman from the West pulled his chair up to the hotel table, +tucked his napkin under his chin, picked up the bill-of-fare and began +to study it intently. Everything was in restaurant French, and he +didn’t like it. + +“Here, waiter,” he said, sternly, “there’s nothing on this I want.” + +“Ain’t there nothin’ else you would like for dinner, sir?” inquired the +waiter, politely. + +“Have you got any _sine qua non?”_ + +The waiter gasped. + +“No, sir,” he replied. + + +“Got any _bon mots?”_ + +“N—no, sir.” + +“Got any _semper idem?”_ + +“No, sir, we hain’t.” + +“Got any _jeu d’esprits?”_ + +“No, sir; not a one.” + +“Got any _tempus fugit?”_ + +“I reckon not, sir.” + +“Got any _soirée dansante?”_ + +“No, sir.” + +The waiter was edging off. + +“Got any _sine die?”_ + +“We hain’t, sir.” + +“Got any _e pluribus unum?”_ + +The waiter’s face showed some sign of intelligence. + +“Seems like I heard ob dat, sir,” and he rushed out to the kitchen, +only to return empty-handed. + +“We ain’t got none, sir,” he said, in a tone of disappointment. + +“Got any _mal de mer?”_ + +“N—no, sir.” + +The waiter was going to pieces fast. + +The gentleman from the West, was as serene as a May morning. + +“Got any _vice versa?”_ he inquired again. + +The waiter could only shake his head. + + +“No? Well, maybe you’ve got some bacon and cabbage, and a corn dodger?” + +“’Deed we have, sir,” exclaimed the waiter, in a tone of the utmost +relief, and he fairly flew out to the kitchen. + +Trite Expressions + + +Words and phrases which may once have been striking and effective, or +witty and felicitous, but which have become worn out by oft-repeated +use, should be avoided. The following hackneyed phrases will serve to +illustrate: “The staff of life,” “gave up the ship,” “counterfeit +presentment,” “the hymeneal altar,” “bold as a lion,” “throw cold water +upon,” “the rose upon the cheek,” “lords of creation,” “the weaker +sex,” “the better half,” “the rising generation,” “tripping the light +fantastic toe,” “the cup that cheers but does not inebriate,” “in the +arms of Morpheus,” “the debt of nature,” “the bourne whence no traveler +returns,” “to shuffle off this mortal coil,” “the devouring element,” +“a brow of alabaster.” + +Pet Words + + +Avoid pet words, whether individual, provincial, or national in their +use. Few persons are entirely free from the overuse of certain words. +Young people largely employ such words as _delightful, delicious,_ +_exquisite,_ and other expressive adjectives, which constitute a kind +of society slang. + +Overworked Expressions + + +Words and phrases are often taken up by writers and speakers, repeated, +and again taken up by others, and thus their use enlarges in +ever-widening circles until the expressions become threadbare. Drop +them before they have reached that state. _Function, environment, +trend, the masses, to be in touch with, to voice the sentiments +of—_these are enough to illustrate the kind of words referred to. + +Very Vulgar Vulgarisms + + +No one who has any regard for purity of diction and the proprieties of +cultivated society will be guilty of the use of such expressions as +_yaller_ for yellow, _feller_ for fellow, _kittle_ for kettle, _kiver_ +for cover, _ingons_ for onions, _cowcumbers_ for cucumbers, +_sparrowgrass_ for asparagus, _yarbs_ for herbs, _taters _for potatoes, +_tomats_ for tomatoes, _bile_ for boil, _hain’t _for ain’t or isn’t, +_het_ for heated, _kned_ for kneaded, _sot_ for sat or set, _teeny_ for +tiny, _fooling you_ for deceiving you, _them_ for those, _shut up_ for +be quiet, or be still, or cease speaking, _went back on me_ for +deceived me or took advantage of me, a _power of people_ for a great +many +people, a _power of money_ for great wealth, a _heap of houses_ for +many houses, _lots of books_ for many books, _lots of corn_ for much +corn or large quantities of corn, _gents_ for gentlemen, and many +others of a similar character. + + + + +CHAPTER II +Choice of Words + + +Our American writers evince much variety in their graces of diction, +but in the accurate choice of words James Russell Lowell and William +Cullen Bryant stand out conspicuous above the rest. So careful and +persistent was the latter, that during the time that he was editor of +_The Evening Post,_ of New York City, he required the various writers +upon that paper to avoid the use of a long list of words and +expressions which he had prepared for them, and which were commonly +employed by other papers. This list was not only used, but enlarged by +his successors. + +Strive to cultivate the habit of observing words; trace their delicate +shades of meaning as employed by the most polished writers; note their +suggestiveness; mark the accuracy with which they are chosen. In this +way your mind will be kept on the alert to discover the beauties as +well as the blemishes of all the thought pictures that are presented, +and your vocabulary will be greatly enlarged and enriched. + + +BRYANT’S LIST OF OBJECTIONABLE EXPRESSIONS + + +_Above,_ and _over,_ use more than. _Artiste,_ use artist. _Aspirant._ +_Authoress_ _Beat,_ use defeat. _Bagging,_ use capturing. _Balance,_ +use remainder. _Banquet,_ use dinner or supper. _Bogus._ +_Casket,_ use coffin. _Claimed,_ use asserted. +_Collided._ _Commence,_ use begin. _Compete._ +_Cortege,_ use procession. _Cotemporary,_ use contemporary. + _Couple,_ use two. _Darkey,_ use negro. _Day before yesterday,_ use + the day before yesterday. _Débût._ +_Decease,_ as a verb. _Democracy,_ applied to a political party. +_Develop,_ use expose. _Devouring element,_ use fire. _Donate._ +_Employe._ _Enacted,_ use acted. + _Endorse,_ use approve. _En route._ _Esq._ +_Graduate,_ use is graduated. _Gents,_ use gentlemen. +_Hon._ _House,_ use House of Representatives. +_Humbug._ _Inaugurate,_ use begin. _In our midst._ _Item,_ use +particle, extract, or paragraph. _Is being done,_ and all similar +passive forms. _Jeopardize._ +_Jubilant,_ use rejoicing. + +_Juvenile,_ use boy. _Lady,_ use wife. _Last,_ use latest. _Lengthy,_ +use long. _Leniency,_ use lenity. + _Loafer._ _Loan,_ or _loaned,_ use lend or lent. + _Located._ _Majority,_ use most. _Mrs. President._ _Mrs. Governor._ + _Mrs. General._ +_Mutual,_ use common. _Official,_ use officer. +_Ovation._ _On yesterday._ _Over his signature._ +_Pants,_ use pantaloons. _Parties,_ use persons. +_Partially,_ use partly. _Past two weeks,_ use last two weeks. + _Poetess._ _Portion,_ use part. _Posted,_ use informed. _Progress,_ + use advance. _Quite,_ when prefixed to good, large, etc. _Raid,_ use + attack. _Realized,_ use obtained. _Reliable,_ use trustworthy. + _Rendition,_ use performance. _Repudiate,_ use reject or disown. + _Retire,_ as an active verb.v _Rev.,_ use the Rev. _Role,_ use part. + _Roughs._ _Rowdies._ _Secesh._ +_Sensation,_ use noteworthy event. _Standpoint,_ use point of view. +_Start,_ in the sense of setting out. _State,_ use say. _Taboo._ +_Talent,_ use talents or ability. +_Talented._ _Tapis._ _The deceased._ _War,_ use dispute or +disagreement. + + +STILTS + + +Avoid bombastic language. Work for plain expressions rather than for +the unusual. Use the simplest words that the subject will bear. + +The following clipping, giving an account of the commencement exercises +of a noted female college, strikingly illustrates what to avoid: + +“Like some beacon-light upon a rock-bound coast against which the +surges of the ocean unceasingly roll, and casting its beams far across +the waters warning the mariner from the danger near, the college, like +a Gibraltar, stands upon the high plains of learning, shedding its rays +of knowledge, from the murmurings of the Atlantic to the whirlwinds of +the Pacific, guiding womankind from the dark valley of ignorance, and +wooing her with wisdom’s lore, leads creation’s fairest, purest, best +into flowery dells where she can pluck the richest food of knowledge, +and crowns her brow with a coronet of gems whose brilliancy can never +grow dim: for they glisten with the purest thought, that seems as a +spark struck from the mind of Deity. There is no need for the daughters +of this community to seek colleges of distant climes whereat to be +educated, for right here in their own city, God’s paradise on earth, is +situated a noble college, the bright diadem of that paradise, that has +done more for the higher education of woman than any institution in our +land.” + + +PURITY + + +An author’s diction is pure when he uses such words only as belong to +the idiom of the language. The only standard of purity is the practice +of the best writers and speakers. A violation of purity is called a +barbarism. + +Unlike the Latin, Greek, or Hebrew, the English is a living language, +and, like all living organisms, manifests its life by taking in new +material and casting off old waste continually. Science, art, and +philosophy give rise to new ideas which, in turn, demand new words for +their expression. Of these, some gain a permanent foothold, while +others float awhile upon the currents of conversation and newspaper +literature and then disappear. + +Good usage is the only real authority in the choice of reputable words; +and to determine, in every case, what good usage dictates, is not an +easy matter. Authors, like words, must be tested by time before their +forms of expression may become a law for others. Pope, in his _Essay on +Criticism,_ laid down a rule which, for point and brevity, has never +been excelled: + +“In words, as fashions, the same rule will hold; +Alike fantastic, if too new or old; +Be not the first by whom the new are tried, +Nor yet the last to lay the old aside.” + + +BARBARISMS + + +Campbell, in his _Philosophy of Rhetoric,_ says that a word to be +legitimate must have these three signs of authority: + +1. It must be _reputable,_ or that of educated people, as opposed to +that of the ignorant or vulgar. +2. It must be _national,_ as opposed to what is either local or +technical. +3. It must be _present,_ as opposed to what is obsolete. + + +Any word that does not have these three qualities may, in general, be +styled a barbarism. + +ANGLICIZED WORDS + + +Many foreign words, in process of time, become so thoroughly +domesticated that their translation, or the use of an awkward +equivalent, would be a greater mark of pedantry than the use of the +foreign words. The proper use of such terms as _fiat, palladium, cabal, +quorum, omnibus, antique, artiste, coquette, ennui, physique, régime, +tableau, amateur,_ cannot be censured on the ground of their foreign +character. + +OBSOLETE WORDS + + +Some writers affect an antiquated style by the introduction of such +words as _peradventure, perchance,_ +_anon, behest, quoth, erewhile._ The use of such words gives a strange +sound to the sentence, and generally indicates that the writer is not +thoroughly in earnest. The expression is lowered in tone and is made to +sound fantastic. + +NEW WORDS + + +A word should not be condemned because it is new. If it is really +needed it will be welcomed, and soon find a permanent place. +Shakespeare, Addison, and Johnson introduced many new words, to which +their names afterward gave a sanction. Carlyle, Coleridge, Tennyson, +and Browning have introduced or given currency to new words, and made +strange ones familiar. + +New words are objectionable when they are employed without proper +authority. The chief sources of supply of the objectionable kind are +the current slang of the street and the sensational newspaper. They are +often the result of a desire to say things in such a manner as to +reflect smartness upon the speaker, or to present things in a humorous +or picturesque way. That they are frequently very effective cannot be +gainsaid. Sometimes they are coined in the heat of political or social +discussion, and, for a time, express what everybody is talking about; +but it is impossible to tell whether they will live beyond +the occasion that produced them. So long as their usage is doubtful it +is safer not to employ them. + +SLANG + + +Slang is somewhat like chicken-pox or measles, very catching, and just +as inevitable in its run; and very few of us escape it. It is severest, +too, where the sanitary conditions are most favorable to its +development. Where there is least thought and culture to counteract its +influence slang words crowd out those of a more serious character, +until, in time, the young and inexperienced speaker or writer is unable +to distinguish between the counterfeit and the genuine. + +While most persons condemn slang, there are very few who are entirely +free from its use. It varies greatly in its degrees of coarseness or +refinement, and adapts itself to all classes and conditions. Many know +no other language, and we are unwillingly compelled to admit that while +their speech is often ungrammatical and unrhetorical, it is generally +clear, concise, and forcible. + +Strive to acquire a vocabulary so large and to cultivate a taste so +fine that when a slang expression rises to your mind you can use it if +you think it best fits the occasion, or substitute something better in +its place. Purity of diction is a garden of slow growth even under the +most favorable conditions, and the +unrestrained indulgence in slang is like scattering seeds of the vilest +plants among the choicest flowers. + +SOCIETY SLANG + + +“This is an _elegant_ day,” “that is an _elegant_ view,” “Mary is +_awfully nice,” “_Jennie is _dreadfully sweet,”_ “Gertrude is +_delicious,”_ and “Tom is _perfectly splendid.”_ The use of such +extravagant phrases tends to weaken the significance of the words when +legitimately employed. + +COMMERCIAL SLANG + + +Commercial terms are employed in the common language of everyday life +to such an extent as to constitute a form of commercial slang. The +following will serve for illustration; “The _balance_ of the journey” +for remainder, “he was _well posted.”_ for well informed, “I +_calculate_ he will come to-morrow” for believe or think, “I _reckon_ +he is your friend” for I suppose. + +COMMON SLANG + + +To materialize, to burglarize, to enthuse, to suicide, to wire, to jump +upon, to sit upon, to take in, are a few of the many examples of slang +that should be avoided. + + +PROVINCIALISMS + + +A word that is used only in a limited part of the country is called a +provincialism. It must be known and recognized for what it is worth, +but not obtruded where it does not belong. + +Whatever may be said of the faults of speech of the American people, it +is doubtful if any other nation, whether it covers a large territory or +is limited in area, speaks the language native to the country with the +uniformity that we do. Yet, there are peculiarities that mark the +expression of most of our people, even among the best informed. The +words _calculate, reckon,_ and _guess_ are not the only words that +betray the locality of the speaker. Any person who has been five +hundred miles from home cannot fail to have observed words that were +used differently from the way in which he had been accustomed to use +them, and he probably heard terms of expression that seemed strange to +him. In like manner, his own expressions sounded strange to those who +heard him. That which distinguished his speech from theirs and theirs +from his would, in large part, be covered by the word “provincialism.” + +Not only do we have local and sectional peculiarities of speech, but we +may be said to have national mannerisms. Mr. Alexander Melville Bell, +the +eminent elocutionist, relates that some years ago when residing in +Edinburgh, a stranger called to make some inquiries in regard to +professional matters. + +“I have called on you, sir, for the purpose of,” etc. + +“When did you cross the Atlantic?” I asked. + +The stranger looked up with surprise amounting almost to consternation. + +“How do you know that I have crossed the Atlantic?” + +“Your manner of using the little word ‘sir’ is not heard in England or +Scotland.” + +This gentleman, Mr. Bell says, was one of the most eminent teachers of +elocution in America, and his speech was perfectly free from ordinary +local coloring, in all but the one little element which had escaped +observation. + +WHICH? + + +Much diversity of usage exists and some difference of opinion prevails +concerning the proper expression to use when you are addressed, and +fail to understand just what has been said. Such interrogative +rejoinders as _“What?” “How?” “Which?” “Hey?”_ are plainly +objectionable. _“Sir?” _and _“Madam!”_ once common, are no longer +tolerated in society. The English expression _“Beg pardon”_ has found +favor, but it is not wholly acceptable. _“Excuse me”_ +is suggested by a writer on the subject. It has no more syllables than +_“Beg pardon,”_ and is nearly equivalent in signification, but it is +also subject to the objection that it is often used to imply a +difference of opinion, as when a person makes a statement to which you +take exception, you begin your reply with the expression, _“Excuse +me.”_ + +Whatever is adopted will doubtless be a convenient contraction, like +_“Beg pardon,”_ which is a short way of saying, “I beg your pardon for +failing to understand what you said;” or “_Excuse me,”_ which is a +condensation of “Excuse me for not fully grasping your meaning.” + +WORDS IMPROPERLY USED + +Commodious—Convenient + + +A word of caution in the use of the smaller dictionaries is necessary. +The most elaborate definition often fails to give an adequate idea of +the signification of a term unless it is accompanied with one or more +quotations illustrating its use. The small dictionaries give only the +briefest definitions, without illustration, and therefore should be +interpreted with caution. + +Some years ago a young man of moderate attainments was very desirous of +enlarging his vocabulary +and of using words beyond the ordinary vernacular of his neighborhood. +To this end, he made a small vest-pocket lexicon his constant +companion. + +Having consulted it in the course of a conversation with a friend, he +remarked, as he was about to return it to his pocket, “What a +commodious book this is.” His friend suggested that he again consult +the “commodious” volume. With a look of the utmost confidence he turned +to the word, and exclaimed: “There! I knew I was right. _Commodious_ +means _convenient,_ and that is just what this little book is.” + +It was useless to explain that smallness sometimes renders a thing +inconvenient, and this young man, doubtless, still felicitates himself +upon his intimate acquaintance with that _commodious_ pocket +dictionary. + +Ability, Capacity + + +A fond mother was told by the principal of a boarding-school that her +daughter would not be graduated, as she lacked capacity. “Get her a +capacity. Her father don’t stand on the matter of expense. Get her +anything she wants. He’ll foot the bill.” But for once the indulgent +mother was obliged to learn that there are some things money will not +purchase. The father had the financial _ability,_ but the daughter +lacked the necessary intellectual _capacity._ + + +But we may have literary as well as financial ability. _Ability +_implies the power of doing; _capacity_ the faculty of receiving. + +About, Almost + + +“This work is _about_ done.” Use “_almost_ done.” + +Acceptance, Acceptation + + +These words cannot be used interchangeably. “He wrote signifying his +_acceptance_ of the office.” “According to the common _acceptation_ of +this term, he is a knave.” + +Access, Accession + + +“He gained _access_ to the fort.” “The only _accession,_ which the +Roman empire received was the province of Britain.” + +Accident, Injury + + +Accident is sometimes used incorrectly for _injury._ as “His _accident_ +was very painful.” + +Mutual, Common + + +Some men seek to be great by copying great men’s faults. Dickens may +say “Our Mutual Friend,” but Dickens’s strong point was not grammar. If +you have a friend in common with Smith, in speaking of him to Smith, +say our _common _friend. The word _mutual_ should always convey a sense +of reciprocity, as “Happy in our mutual help and mutual love.” + + +Myself + + +This word is generally used for emphasis, as “I _myself_ will do it,” +“I wrote it _myself.”_ It should not be used for the unemphatic +pronouns _I_ and _me,_ as in “James and _myself_ are going to town,” +“He gave the books to James and _myself.”_ It is properly used with a +reflexive verb without emphasis, as “I will defend _myself.”_ + +Negligence, Neglect + + +_Negligence_ is the habit, _neglect_ the act, of leaving things undone. +The adjectives _negligent_ and _neglectful_ should, in like manner, be +discriminated. + +Never, Not + + +The word _never_ is sometimes colloquially used for _not, _as “I +_never_ remember to have seen Lincoln.” Say “I _do not _remember,” etc. +_Never_ should not be used in reference to events that can take place +but once, as “Warren _never_ died at Lexington.” + +Love, Like + + +We may _love_ our parents, our children, our country, the truth; and we +may _like_ roast turkey and cranberry sauce. “I _love _cherries,” “I +_adore_ strawberries,” are school-girl expressions that should be +avoided. Love is an emotion of the heart, and not of the palate. + + +Cheap, Low-priced + + +These words are often used synonymously. A picture purchased for ten +thousand dollars may be cheap; another, for which ten dollars was paid, +although low-priced, may be dear. + +Mad, Angry + + +The frequent use of _mad_ in the sense of angry should be avoided. A +person who is insane is _mad._ A dog that has hydrophobia is _mad._ +Figuratively we say _mad,_ with rage, _mad_ with terror, _mad_ with +pain; but to be vexed, or angry, or out of patience, does not justify +the use of so strong a term as _mad._ + +Most, Almost, Very + + +Sometimes incorrectly used for _almost,_ as “He writes to me _most_ +every week.” + +It is often loosely used in the sense of _very,_ as “This is a _most +_interesting book.” Aim to use _most_ only as the superlative of +_much_, or _many._ Do not use the indefinite article before it, as +“This is _a most_ beautiful picture.” We may say “This is _the most +_beautiful picture,” for here comparison is implied. + +Portion, Part + + +“Give me the _portion_ of goods that falleth to me.” “We traveled a +_part_ of the distance on foot.” _Portion_ is applied to that which is +set aside for a special +purpose, often as the share or allotment of an individual, as the +wife’s _portion,_ the _portion_ of the oldest son, etc. _Part_ is a +more general term. + +Postal + + +Bryant would not have said, “I will send you a _postal_ by to-morrow’s +mail.” _Postal card_ or _post card_ would be better. + +Practical, Practicable + + +These words are sometimes confounded. _Practicable_ means “that may be +done or accomplished,” and implies that the means or resources are +available; as, a _practicable_ road, a _practicable_ aim. _Practical_ +means “capable of being turned to use or account;” as, “The _practical_ +man begins by doing; the theorist often ends by thinking.” + +Predicate + + +This word is sometimes incorrectly used in the sense of _form _or +_base;_ as, “He _predicated_ his statement on the information he had +just received.” Neither should it be used in the sense of _predict; +_as, “The sky is overcast, and I _predicate_ a storm tomorrow.” + +Prefer—than + + +“I _prefer_ to walk _than_ to ride.” Say “I prefer walking to riding;” +or, “I would rather walk than +ride.” “To skate is _preferable than_ to coast.” Say “Skating is +preferable to coasting.” + +Amount, Number + + +_Amount_ applies to what is thought of in the mass or bulk, as money, +wheat, coal. _Number_ is used when we think of the individuals +composing the mass, as men, books, horses, vessels. + +Answer, Reply + + +An _answer_ implies a question. We may _reply_ to a remark or +assertion. A _reply_ is more formal than an _answer._ + +Antagonize, Alienate, Oppose + + +The word _antagonize_ should not be used in the sense of _alienate;_ +as, “Your proposition will _antagonize_ many supporters of the +measure.” “The Senate _opposed_ the bill which passed the House” is +better than “_antagonized_ the bill.” + +Anticipate, Expect + + +“The arrival of the President was hourly _anticipated”_ is pompous. Use +_expected._ + +Any, At all + + +“He was so far from the speaker’s platform that he could not hear +_any.”_ Better “that he could not hear,” or “hear at all,” or “hear +what was said.” + + +Apparent, Evident + + +These words are often used interchangeably. That which is _apparent_ +may be what it appears to be, or it may be very different; that which +is _evident _admits of no doubt. The same is true of _apparently_ and +_evidently._ + +Prejudice + + +“He is not the best person for the position, but his many kindnesses to +me _prejudice_ me in his favor.” We may be prejudiced against a person +or thing, but cannot be prejudiced in favor. Use _predispose._ + +Presume + + +This word is often employed when _think, believe,_ or _daresay _would +be better. + +Pretend, Profess + + +“I do not _pretend_ to be an orator.” _Pretend_ means _to feign, to +sham;_ as, “He _pretends_ to be asleep,” and should not be used when +_claim_ or _profess_ would better suit the purpose. + +Preventative + + +The correct form of the word is _preventive,_ not _preventative._ + +Previous, Previously + + +The adjective _previous_ is often incorrectly used for the adverb +_previously;_ as, “Previous to his imprisonment he made a confession of +his crime.” + + +Promise, Assure + + +“I _promise_ you we had a good time yesterday.” _Promise_ relates to +the future, hence “I _assure_ you,” etc., would be better. + +Propose, Purpose + + +To _propose_ is to set before the mind for consideration; to _purpose_ +is to intend. “I _propose_ sending my son to college” should be “I +_purpose,”_ etc. “I _propose_ that you go to college, my son.” “Thank +you, father, I accept the proposal.” + +Sparrowgrass, Asparagus + + +The word _sparrowgrass,_ which is a corruption of the word _asparagus,_ +illustrates how readily the uneducated mind associates an unusual term +with another that is familiar, and as the mental impression is received +through the ear, and lacks that definiteness which the printed form +would give, the new idea, when repeated, often assumes a picturesque, +if not a ludicrous, form. Many of Mrs. Partington’s quaint sayings +furnish further illustration. + +The following incident, from a Western paper, shows the successive +stages in the farmer’s mental operations from the familiar terms _skin, +hide, oxhide, _up to the unfamiliar chemical term _oxide,_ through +which he was obliged to pass before he succeeded in making known his +wants: + + +The man was in a brown study when he went into the drug store. + +“What can we do for you?” inquired the clerk. + +“I want black—something of something,” he said; “have you got any?” + +“Probably we have,” replied the clerk, “but you’ll have to be more +definite than that to get it.” + +The farmer thought for a moment. + +“Got any black sheepskin of something?” he asked. + +“No; we don’t keep sheepskins. We have chamois-skins, though.” + +“That ain’t it, I know,” said the customer. “Got any other kind of +skins?” + +“No.” + +“Skins—skins—skins!” slowly repeated the man, struggling with his +slippery memory. “Calfskin seems to be something like it. Got any black +calfskins of anything?” + +“No, not one,” and the clerk laughed. + +The customer grew red in the face. + +“Confound it!” he said, “if it ain’t a skin, what in thunder is it?” + +“Possibly it’s a hide?” suggested the clerk. + +“That’s it! That’s it!” exclaimed the man. + +“Have you got any black hides of something or anything?” + + +The clerk shook his head sadly as the man tramped up and down the +store. + +“Got any black cowhide of anything?” he asked, after a moment’s +thought. + +The clerk’s face showed a gleam of intelligence, and then broke into a +smile. + +“Possibly it’s black oxide of manganese you want?” he said, quietly. + +“Of course, that’s it!” he exclaimed, as he threw his arms around the +clerk’s neck. “I knowed blamed well there was a skin or hide or +something somewhere about the thing,” and he calmed down quietly and +waited for what he wanted. + +Accord, Give + + +“They _accorded_ him due praise.” “They _gave_ him the desired +information.” + +Act, Action + + +“The best portion of a good man’s life is his little, nameless, +unremembered _acts_ of kindness and of love.” “Suit the _action_ to the +word.” _Action_ suggests the operation; _act_, the accomplished result. + +Adherence, Adhesion + + +These words were once interchangeable, but are now distinct. _Adhesion +_relates to physical bodies; _adherence_ to mental states. + + +Adopt, Take + + +“What course will you _take?”_ is better than “What course will you +_adopt?”_ + +Affect, Effect + + +These words are sometimes confounded. “The climate _affected _their +health.” “They sailed away without _effecting_ their purpose.” + +Aggravate, Exasperate + + +To _aggravate_ means to intensify, to make worse; to _exasperate _means +to provoke, to irritate. “To _aggravate_ the horrors of the scene.” +“His remarks _exasperated_ me.” “His conduct _aggravates_ me” should be +“His conduct _annoys_ (or _displeases,_ or _irritates, _or +_exasperates)_ me.” + +Alleviate, Relieve + + +These words differ chiefly in degree. The latter is the stronger word. + +Proposal, Proposition + + +A _proposition_ implies consideration or discussion; a _proposal +_contemplates acceptance or rejection. “Your _proposition_ to build our +new warehouse has received favorable consideration, and we are ready to +receive your _proposals.”_ + +Providing, Provided + + +“You may go to skate, _providing_ you first finish your task.” +Incorrect. You should say _provided._ + + +Proved, Proven + + +_Proven_ is sometimes incorrectly used for _proved._ “The evidence was +complete and his guilt was fully _proved.” Not proven_ is a legal term +used in England to denote that the guilt of the accused is not made +out, though not disproved. + +Quantity, Number + + +_Quantity_ refers to the _how much; number_ to the _how many. _“He +purchased a large _quantity_ of _wheat, corn, apples, lime, _and +_sand,_ and a _number_ of _houses, stores_, _chairs, _and _books.”_ It +is, therefore, incorrect to say, “There was a large _quantity_ of +bicycles in the yard,” “He sold a large _quantity_ of books at +auction.” + +Quite a few + + +In some parts of the country this expression is in common use in the +sense of _many, a large number,_ etc. “How many people were at church +to-day?” _“Quite a few,”_ meaning a considerable number. + +Commence, Begin + + +Some persons always _commence,_ but never _begin._ The tendency toward +pomp and parade in speech prompts many persons to avoid the use of our +strong, rugged Anglo-Saxon words, and to substitute their high-sounding +Latin equivalents, until, in time, the preferable native forms come to +be regarded as +commonplace and objectionable. American usage is more faulty than +English in this regard. Use _begin_ and _beginning_ more, and _commence +_and, _commencement_ less. + +Complete, Finished + + +There is a distinction in the use of these words that is not always +observed. _Complete_ signifies _nothing lacking,_ every element and +part being supplied. That which is _finished_ has had all done to it +that was intended. A vessel may be _finished_ and yet be _incomplete._ + +Conclusion, End + + +The more pretentious word _conclusion_ is often used where the simple +Anglo-Saxon word _end_ would be preferable. + +Conscious, Aware + + +“He was _aware_ of the enemy’s designs.” “_Conscious_ of his fate, he +boldly approached the furious beast.” _Conscious_ relates to what is +within our own mind; _aware_ to what is without. + +Continual, Continuous + + +_Continuous_ implies _uninterrupted, unbroken. Continual _relates to +acts that are frequently repeated. “The _continuous_ ride is often +finished in five hours, but owing to _continual_ delays we were eight +hours on the way.” + + +Convict, Convince + + +The Irishman who brandished his club and, exclaimed that he was open to +conviction, but he would like to see the man that could convince him, +used a form of argument that was most convincing, but failed in his +discrimination of language. _Convict_ refers to the outer condition, +and generally applies to something wrong; _convince,_ which may be used +of either right or wrong, refers to the judgment. + +Custom, Habit + + +_Habit_ is a tendency which leads us to do easily; _custom_ grows out +of the habitual doing or frequent repetition of the same act. _Custom +_refers to the usages of society, or of the individual; _habit_ refers +more frequently to the individual acts. “Ill _habits_ gather by unseen +degrees.” + +“Man yields to custom as he bows to fate, In all things ruled— mind, +body, and estate.” + +Want, Need + + +These words are often used interchangeably, but should be +discriminated. _Need_ implies the lack; _want_ also implies the lack, +but couples with it the wish to supply the lack. “Some men _need_ help, +but will not ask for it; others _want_ help (that is, they need help, +or think they do, and ask for it) and get it, too.” + + +Way, Away + + +“He is _way_ down in Florida,” is incorrect. “He is _away _down in +Florida” is better grammar. “He is in Florida” is still better. _Down_ +indicates the direction, and _away_ magnifies the distance. As most +persons know the direction, and as modern railway travel shortens long +distances, the abbreviated sentence is sufficiently full. + +Ways, Way + + +“He is a long _ways_ from home” is a very common, but faulty +expression. Say “Uncle Charles is now a long _way_ on his journey.” +“The boat is a good _way_ off the shore.” + +Whole, All + + +“The _whole_ of the scholars went to the fair to-day.” _“All_ of the +school went to the fair to-day.” The sentences will be improved by +transposing _whole_ and _all. “All_ of the scholars went to the fair +to-day,” not half of them. “The _whole_ school went to the fair +to-day,” not a part of it. _All_ refers to the individual scholars; +_whole_ to the school as a unit. + +Without, Unless + + +“He cannot miss the way _without_ he forgets my instructions.” “I will +not dig the potatoes _without_ Tom comes to help.” Use _unless _instead +of _without._ + + +Worse, More + + +“He dislikes arithmetic _worse_ than grammar.” Use _more_ instead of +_worse._ + +Rarely, Rare + + +“It is _rarely_ that you hear of a prodigal youth growing into an +economical man.” _Rarely_ should be _rare_ to form the adjective +attribute of the verb. + +Real, Really + + +_Real_ is often incorrectly used as an adverb, especially by +schoolgirls; as, “I think he is _real_ mean.” The grammar will be +improved by substituting _really_ for _real,_ but the expression, as a +whole, being applied to all kinds and degrees of offenses, has become +meaningless. + +_Real_ is often carelessly used in the sense of _very;_ as _real +_pretty, _real_ bright, _real_ kind. + +Recipe, Receipt + + +A _recipe_ is a formula for making some mixture or preparation of +materials; a _receipt_ is an acknowledgment of that which has been +received. + +Region, Neighborhood + + +_Region_ is a broader and more comprehensive term, and should not be +applied to the narrow limits of a _neighborhood._ + + +Remit, Send + + +The word _remit_ is often used when _send_ would be better. _Remit_ +means to send back, to forgive, to relax. In its commercial sense it +means to transmit or send money in payment of a demand; as, “He +_remitted _the amount by mail.” + +Residence, House + + +This pretentious word is often used when _house_ or _home_ would be in +better taste. + +Deface, Disfigure + + +“The walls of many public buildings are _defaced_ by persons who desire +that their names shall remain when they are gone.” “They _disfigure_ +their faces that they may appear unto men to fast.” _Disfigure_ applies +more generally to persons; _deface,_ to things. + +Demean, Degrade + + +The word _demean_ is often incorrectly used in the sense of _degrade, +lower._ It should be used in the sense of _behave, conduct, deport,_ +and not in the sense of _degrade._ + +Depot, Station + + +For many years the word _depôt_ was largely employed in the sense of a +railway station. Its primary meaning is a _warehouse_ or _storehouse_ +or _military station._ As applied to a stopping place for railroad +trains the +English word _station_ is greatly to be preferred to the French word +_depôt,_ and is rapidly coming into general use in this country. + +Description, Kind + + +“Flowers of every _description_ were found in his garden.” In the above +sense the word _kind_ or _variety_ would be more appropriate. + +Bring, Fetch, Carry + + +_Bring_ implies motion from the object toward the person who issues the +command or makes the request. _Fetch_ implies two motions, first, +toward the object; second, toward the person who wishes it. The +gardener, who is in the garden, calls to his servant, who is at the +barn, “John, _bring_ me the rake. You will find it in the barn.” And if +John is with him in the garden, he would say, “John, _fetch_ me the +rake from the barn.” + +The use of _fetch_ is more common among English writers than with us. +In fact, many speakers and writers in America rarely use the word. + +_Carry_ is a more general term, and means _to convey,_ without thought +of the direction. + +Character, Reputation + + +These words are often confounded. “Character,” says Abbott, “is what a +person is; reputation is what he is supposed to be. Character is in +himself, +reputation is in the minds of others. Character is injured by +temptations and by wrong-doing; reputation by slanders and libels. +Character endures throughout defamation in every form, but perishes +where there is a voluntary transgression; reputation may last through +numerous transgressions, but be destroyed by a single, and even an +unfounded, accusation or aspersion.” + +Farther, Further + + +Although these words are often used interchangeably even by good +writers, yet a finer taste and a keener power of discrimination is +shown in the use of _farther_ when referring to literal distance, and +of _further _in reference to quantity or degree; as, “Each day’s +journey removes them _farther_ from home,” “He concluded his speech by +remarking that he had nothing _further_ to say.” _Farther_ is the +comparative of _far; further_ is the comparative of _forth._ + +Fault, Defect + + +Speakers and writers often fail to discriminate in the use of these +words. A _defect_ implies a deficiency, a lack, a falling short, while +a _fault_ signifies that there is something wrong. + +“Men still had faults, and men will have them still, +He that hath none, and lives as angels do +Must be an angel.” + + +“It is in general more profitable to reckon up our defects than to +boast of our attainments.” + +Few, Little + + +These words and their comparatives, _fewer, less,_ are often +confounded. _Few_ relates to number, or to what may be counted; _little +_refers to quantity, or to what may be measured. A man may have _few +_books and _little_ money; he may have _fewer_ friends and _less +_influence than his neighbor. But do not say “The man has _less +_friends than his neighbor.” + +Each other, One another + + +While some excellent authorities use these expressions interchangeably, +most grammarians and authors employ _each other_ in referring to two +persons or things, and _one another_ when more than two are considered; +as, “Both contestants speak kindly of _each other.” _“Gentlemen are +always polite to _one another.”_ + +Those who prefer to have wide latitude in speech will be glad to know +that Murray, in one of the rules in his grammar, says, “Two negatives +in English destroy _one another.”_ + +Shakespeare says, “It is a good divine that follows his own +instructions. I can easier teach twenty what were good to be done, than +be one of +the twenty to follow mine own teaching.” This is as true of expression +as of morals. + +Either, Neither + + +“Palms and beautiful flowers lined the hall on _either_ side,” is a +common but faulty form of expression. _Either_ refers to one of two +things. In the foregoing sentence the thought is that _both_ sides of +the hall were lined, hence the word _both_ should have been used. If, +however, each side of the hall is thought of separately, then _each,_ +would be the proper word to employ. + +_“Either_ of the two books will please you.” _“Any_ of the three books +will prove satisfactory.” _“Any one_ of the five men would make a good +candidate.” _“Neither_ of the two men will serve.” _“None_ of the ten +men were present.” “_Not one_ of all the houses was left standing.” +These sentences represent the best usage with regard to _either, +neither,_ and also of _any, none, any one, not one._ + +These kind + + +Adjectives implying number must agree with the nouns which they +qualify. _This_ and _that_ qualify nouns in the singular; _these _and +_those_ belong to nouns in the plural. + +_“These kind_ of potatoes grow well in this soil.” Use _this. “This +_twenty _years_ have I known him.” +Use _these._ “The beam was _two foot_ above my head,” Use _feet. _“For +_this,_ among other reasons, I abandoned the profession.” Say “For +_this_ reason, among others, I abandoned the profession.” “He rides the +bicycle daily, and by _this means_ he preserves his health.” “The +partners were all honest, courteous, and industrious, and by _these +means _acquired wealth.” The word _means_ being either singular or +plural, the two preceding sentences are both correct. + +Some means or another + + +“By _some means or another_ he always gets the better part of the +bargain.” This sentence may be corrected by saying _“one means or +another,”_ or _“some means or other.”_ + +Than + + +After _other, otherwise, else,_ or an adjective in the comparative +degree, _than_ should be used, and not _but_ or _except._ + +“No other way _but_ this was open to him.” Use _than._ + +“History and philosophy cannot otherwise affect the mind _but_ for its +enlargement and benefit.” Use _than._ + +“Flowers are often nothing else _but_ cultivated weeds.” Use _than._ + +“He no sooner entered the bridge _but_ he met an infuriated bull coming +toward him.” Use _than._ + + +“He offered no other objection _except_ the one already mentioned.” Use +_than._ + +“He read five other books on ‘Crime and Its Causes’ _in addition to +_those you named.” Use _than._ + +With equal propriety we may say, “He offered no objection except the +one already mentioned,” or “He read five books on ‘Crime and Its +Causes’ in addition to those you named.” It is the use of the word +_other,_ or _otherwise,_ or _else,_ that makes necessary the +correlative term _than._ + +Besides + + +After _else_ and _other_ the preposition _besides_ is sometimes +employed. + +“Other boys _besides_ these are mischievous.” + +“Other arts _besides_ music are elevating and inspiring.” + +“We must have recourse to something else _besides_ punishment.” + +It will be observed that the use of _besides_ in this section differs +from the use of _than_ in the preceding discussion. _“Other... than” +_is exclusive of those mentioned; whereas, “_other... besides” +_includes those mentioned. + +Other + + +“Iron is more useful than all the metals.” The faultiness of this +sentence becomes apparent when +we remember that iron itself is a metal and is included in the word +_metals, _which forms one side of the comparison. In short, “Iron is +more useful than iron together with all the other metals.” This +statement is absurd. The sentence should, therefore, read, “Iron is +more useful than all the _other _metals.” + +“The Washington monument is higher than any monument in America.” Since +it is in America, and as it cannot be higher than itself, the sentence +is made correct by adding the word _other;_ as, “The Washington +monument is higher than any _other_ monument in America.” + +“This book, which I have just finished, is superior to any work on the +subject that I have yet seen.” Say “to any _other_ work.” + +“Of all other creatures, man is the most highly endowed.” Say “of all +creatures,” etc. + +“No general was ever so beloved by his soldiers.” Say “No _other +_general,” etc. + +“Nothing delights him so much as a storm at sea.” “Nothing _else +_delights him,” etc. + +One’s, His + + +Whether we should say “One ought to know _one’s_ own mind,” or “One +ought to know _his_ own mind,” is a question that the critics have +earnestly discussed, but have never settled, except as each settles it +for +himself. The masculine pronoun is often used with an antecedent whose +gender is not known. There can, therefore, be no objection to the use +of _his_ on the question of gender. As a matter of euphony, _his_ is +preferable to _one’s._ Both have the sanction of good usage. + +None + + +Although literally signifying _no one,_ the word _none_ may be used +with a plural verb, having the force of a collective noun. + +_“None_ but the brave deserves the fair.”— _Dryden._ + +_“None_ knew thee but to love thee, +_None_ named thee but to praise.”—_Halleck._ + +“I look for ghosts; but _none_ will force +Their way to me.”—_Wordsworth._ + +“Of all the girls that e’er were seen, +There’s _none_ so fine as Nelly.”—_Swift._ + + +All, Whole + + +The word _all_ is often incorrectly used for _the whole._ + +“The river rose and spread over all the valley.” This should be “over +the _whole_ valley.” + +“The day being stormy, the members of Class A were _all_ the children +at school to-day.” Correct by saying “were the only children at school +to-day.” + + +Perpetually, Continually + + +_Perpetually_ is not synonymous with _continually. Perpetually _means +never-ceasing. That which is done _continually_ may be subject to +interruptions. + +Persuade, Advise + + +“Almost thou _persuadest_ me to be a Christian.” Paul had _advised +_many persons to become Christians, some of whom, like Agrippa, were +_almost persuaded._ + +Wharf, Dock + + +These words are sometimes confounded. The _wharf_ is the pier, or +landing, upon which the vessel unloads her cargo. The _dock_ is the +artificial waterway, or basin, formed by the wharves. “The vessel came +into the _dock_ and was made fast to the _wharf.”_ + +Contemptible, Contemptuous + + +_Contemptible_ is sometimes incorrectly used for _contemptuous._ A +story is told of Richard Parson, an English scholar and critic. A +gentleman being in dispute with him, angrily exclaimed, “My opinion of +you is most _contemptible,_ sir,” upon which Parson quickly retorted, +“I never knew an opinion of yours that was not _contemptible.”_ + +Healthy, Wholesome + + +These terms are not synonymous. Toadstools may be _healthy,_ but they +would not be regarded as +_wholesome._ Plants and animals are _healthy_ when the conditions of +their growth are favorable. They are _wholesome_ when, as food, they +promote the health of those persons who eat them. + +In a fix + + +Many persons instead of saying “He is in trouble,” or “He is in an +awkward position,” or “He is perplexed,” or _embarrassed,_ employ the +vulgarism, “He is _in a fix.”_ Although Shakespeare may say, “This was +the _most unkindest_ cut of all,” and De Quincey may write, “Poor Aroar +cannot live and cannot die—so that he is in an _almighty fix,”_ we +lesser mortals are forbidden such expressions. + +Fly, Flee + + +In a general sense _fly_ is applied to winged creatures and _flee_ to +persons. “What exile from himself can _flee?”_ “When the swallows +homeward _fly.”_ The past tense forms are sometimes confused, as, “The +inhabitants _flew_ to the fort for safety,” “The wild geese have all +_fled_ to the South.” The principal parts of the verbs are: + +Present. Past. Perf. part. +fly, flew, flown. +flee, fled, fled. + + +The verbs _flew_ and _fled_ in the foregoing sentences should be +transposed. _Fly_ implies motion either +from or toward. _Flee_ implies motion from. _Fly_ may be used, in a +figurative sense, of persons, to indicate great speed as of wings. “I +_flew _to his rescue.” “He _flew_ to my rescue.” “Resist the devil and +he will _flee_ from you.” + +The word _flown_ is sometimes used erroneously as the past tense or +perfect participle of the verb _flow._ The parts of this verb are +_flow, flowed, flowed. “_The river has _overflowed_ (not _overflown)_ +its banks.” + +Get, Got + + +Because a horse is willing is no reason why he should be ridden to +death. The verb _get_ and its past-tense form _got_ admit of many +meanings, as the following, from an old English publication, fully +proves: “I _got_ on horseback within ten minutes after I _got_ your +letter. When I _got _to Canterbury I _got_ a chaise for town; but I +_got_ wet through before I _got_ to Canterbury, and I have _got_ such a +cold as I shall not be able to _get_ rid of in a hurry. I _got_ to the +Treasury about noon, but, first of all, I _got_ shaved and dressed. I +soon _got _into the secret of _getting_ a memorial before the Board, +but I could not _get_ an answer then. However, I _got_ intelligence +from the messenger that I should most likely _get_ an answer the next +morning. As soon as I _got_ back to my inn I _got_ my supper and _got_ +to bed. It was not long before I _got_ to sleep. +When I _got_ up in the morning I _got_ myself dressed, and then _got_ +my breakfast, that I might _get_ out in time to _get_ an answer to my +memorial. As soon as I _got_ it I _got_ into the chaise and _got_ to +Canterbury by three, and about teatime I _got_ home. I have _got_ +nothing more to say.” + +Those who are disposed to overwork the words _get_ and _got_ will find +it interesting and profitable to read the foregoing exercise, +substituting other words for those in italics. + +With _have_ the word _got_ is generally superfluous; as, “I have _got_ +a cold,” “I have _got_ to go to Boston this evening,” “Have you _got_ +Hires’s root-beer on draught?” For “I _did not get_ to meet your +cousin,” say “I _had no opportunity,”_ or “I _was prevented,” _etc. + +Another very faulty use of _got_ is heard in such expressions as “He +_got_ killed,” “They _got_ beaten,” “She _got_ cured,” etc. _Was_ or +_were_ would be more appropriate. + +Since _to get_ means _to obtain, to procure, to gain,_ the use of the +word is justified in such expressions as “I have _got_ a larger farm +than you have, because I have worked harder for it.” “I have _got_ a +better knowledge of the Pacific coast than he has, because I traveled +extensively through that region.” And yet, when we have been +overworked, the physician usually prescribes a period of absolute rest; +so, in +view of the multifarious uses to which _get_ has been applied, would it +not be well to permit it to retire for a time, in order that it may the +more quickly be rejuvenated. + +Guess, Reckon, Calculate, Allow + + +“I _guess_ he is not going to vote to-day.” “I _reckon_ we are going to +have fair weather now.” “I _calculate_ this ground would grow good +potatoes.” “I _allow_ she’s the prettiest girl that ever visited these +parts.” The foregoing sentences may be improved by recasting them. “I +think he is not going to (or will not) vote to-day.” “I believe we +shall now have fair weather.” “I suppose this ground would yield fine +potatoes.” “I regard her as the handsomest lady that has ever visited +this place (or _neighborhood,_ or _locality)._ + +Gums, Overshoes + + +“Tom is outside, cleaning his _gums_ on the mat.” While a mat will do +very well for _overshoes,_ a tooth-brush and sozodont would be better +for the _gums._ + +Funny + + +“Isn’t it _funny_ that Smith, who resided in Chicago, should have died +the same day that his father died in Boston?” “Isn’t it _funny _that +the murderer who escaped hanging on a mere technicality of the law +should have been killed the next day in a railroad accident?” “How +_funny _that these maples should grow so tall on this mountain top!” +“It is _funny_ to think that James, who now pays his addresses to me, +should once have been in love with my youngest sister.” The foregoing +illustrations are not more incongruous than those we daily hear. _Odd, +strange, peculiar, unusual, _represent some of the ideas intended to be +conveyed by that much-abused word. + +Good deal, Great deal + + +This idiom is defended by some authorities as being in perfectly good +use, and by others it is denounced as being incorrect. Both _good deal +_and _greet deal_ are somewhat colloquial, and should be used sparingly +in writing. + +Had better, Would better + + +Like _a good deal_ and some other idioms, this expression is denounced +by some writers and defended by others. Grammatical construction +supports more strongly the forms _would better, would rather,_ etc. “I +had rather be a doorkeeper in the house of my God, than to dwell in the +tents of wickedness.” “I would rather read than drive to-day.” “I would +rather not go.” Omit _rather_ and the superiority of _would_ over _had_ +becomes apparent. + + +If, Whether + + +“I do not know _if_ he sold his farm or exchanged it for city +property.” Use _whether._ + +Illy, Ill + + +Do not use _illy_ for _ill._ The former is becoming obsolete, and the +latter, as an adverb, is taking its place. Say “An ill-ventilated +room,” not “an illy-ventilated room.” + +Implicit + + +This word means _tacitly understood, resting on the word or authority +of another._ It should not be used in the sense of _unbounded, +unlimited._ + +Individual + + +This word should not be used broadly in the sense of _a_ _person,_ but +should always convey some thought of _a_ _single _thing or person, as +opposed to many. + +Journal + + +As this word is from the French, _jour,_ day, it should not be applied +to a monthly or quarterly magazine. + +Know as + + +“I do not _know as_ I can see you to-day.” Say _know that._ + + +Last, Latest + + +“Did you receive my _last_ letter?” + +“I hope not. I enjoy your letters very much, and I trust you may live +to write many more.” + +Cunning + + +This word is much used by young ladies in speaking of what is small, or +dainty, or pleasing, as “A _cunning_ little bonnet,” _“A cunning +_little watch,” etc. While the word properly embodies the idea of skill +or dexterity on the part of the workman, and while the appreciation of +such skill, in speaking of the artist or artisan, might be expressed by +_cunning,_ it is better not to use the word in referring to the product +of the workmanship. + +Curious + + +_Curious_ means _inquisitive, rare._ In the sense of _strange _or +_remarkable,_ its use should be guarded. + +Cute + + +This word is often used colloquially in the sense of _clever, sharp, +shrewd, ingenious, cunning._ It is doubtless an abbreviation of +_acute._ It is not found in good literary usage. + +Favor, Resemble + + +The use of the word _favor_ in the sense of _resemble_ is a +provincialism that should be avoided. “The +son _favors_ the father” is correct if the meaning be that the son +shows favor or kindness to the father; but if reference to their +similarity of appearance is intended, the verb _resemble_ should be +employed. + +Balance, Remainder + + +This word, like numerous others, has been borrowed from the commercial +world, and has had such a wide use that its faultiness is not noticed +even by many who regard themselves as careful speakers and writers. “I +cut down part of the timber this year, and expect to cut the _balance_ +next spring.” “My cousin will remain with us the _balance_ of this +week.” “James ate half of the melon to-day, and will eat the _balance_ +to-morrow.” In these and all similar cases the word _remainder_ should +be used. _Balance_ is a term that applies to accounts, and signifies +the amount necessary to be added to one side of the account in order to +make it equal the other. + +Behave + + +“Now, my children, you must _behave_ while I am gone.” The mother +intended to ask her children to _behave well,_ but as _behave_ is a +neutral word, and may be followed by _well_ or _ill,_ her form of +expression permits the children to supply whichever adverb suits them +the better. _Behave_ requires a qualifying word to make the meaning +clear. + + +Bound + + +“He was _determined_ to study medicine,” not “He was _bound,” _etc. +_Bound_ implies that he was under a bond or obligation to another, +rather than impelled by the action of his own mind. + +Better, Best + + +While some good writers violate the rule, yet the best authorities +restrict the use of the comparative degree to two objects. + +“Mary is the _better_ scholar of the two.” + +“Although both are young, Susan is the _younger.”_ + +“Of two evils, choose the _lesser,”_ not the _least._ + +Former, First + + +_Former_ and _latter_ being adjectives of the comparative degree, +should be used in speaking of two objects. When more than two objects +are named, use _first_ and _last._ + +“My sons, John and Luther, are both at college. The _first _expects to +study law, and the _last_ to study medicine.” Use _former _and +_latter._ + +“New York, Philadelphia, and Chicago are the most populous cities in +the United States. The _former_ has long been at the front; the _latter +_has only recently entered the race.” Use _first_ and _last _instead of +_former_ and _latter._ + + +These, Those + + +When objects near and remote are referred to, _this_ and its plural +_these_ are applied to the objects near at hand, _that_ and its plural +_those_ to objects at a distance. + +When reference is made to contrasted antecedent terms, _this_ and +_these_ are applied to the latter; _that_ and _those_ to the former, as + +“Farewell my friends! farewell my foes! + My peace with _these,_ my love with _those!”_ + + +_—Burns._ + + +Fictitious Writer + + +Do not say a _fictitious writer_ when you mean a _writer of fiction._ + +Firstly + + +_First_ is an adverb as well as an adjective. We should, therefore, say +first, secondly, thirdly, and not _firstly, secondly, _etc. + +First-rate + + +An article may be rated in quality as first, or second, or third. If it +rates _first,_ it may be called a _first-rate_ article. The word is +properly used as an adjective, but should not be employed as an adverb, +as in the sentence, “He sings first-rate.” + +Fix, Mend, Repair + + +_Fix_ means _to make fast,_ but its incorrect use in the sense of +_mend, repair, arrange,_ is so common that the +word when properly used sounds strange, if not strained. “To _fix up_ +the room,” “to _fix up_ the accounts,” “to _fix up_ matters with my +creditors,” “to _fix_ the rascals who betrayed me,” are examples +illustrating the looseness with which the word is used. + +Round, Square + + +When a thing is _round_ or _square_ it cannot be _rounder _or +_squarer._ These adjectives do not admit of comparative and superlative +forms. But we may say _more nearly round_ or _less nearly square._ + +States, Says + + +“He _states_ he is going fishing to-morrow.” _States_ is too formal a +word, and should be used only of some important assertion. “He _says_ +he is going,” etc. + +Stop, Stay + + +To _stop_ is to cease moving. “At what hotel do you _stop” _should be +“At what hotel do you _stay.”_ “When you come to the city _stay_ with +me,” not _stop_ with me. + +Subtile, Subtle + + +_Subtile_ means thin, fine, rare, delicate; _subtle_ means sly, artful, +cunning, elusive. “More _subtile_ web Arachne cannot spin.” “He had to +contend with a _subtle_ foe.” + + +Summons + + +He was _summonsed_ to appear before the judge” should be “He was +_summoned_ to appear,” etc. + +Tasty + + +Often used in colloquial speech when _tasteful_ would be better. +_Tastily_ for _tastefully_ is still worse. + +Team + + +Properly this word relates only to the horses, and does not include the +carriage. + +Those kind, These sort + + +“It is unpleasant to have to associate with _those kind_ of people.” +“_These sort_ of sheep are the most profitable.” _Kind_ and _sort_ are +nouns of the singular number; _these_ and _those_ are plural, and, +according to the laws of grammar, the adjective and noun must agree in +number. The corrected sentences will read: “It is unpleasant to have to +associate with _this kind_ of people.” _“This sort_ of sheep is the +most profitable.” The fault arises by associating in the mind the +adjectives _these_ and _those_ with the nouns _sheep_ and _people,_ +which nouns are more prominent in the mind than the nouns _kind_ and +_sort._ If the ear is not satisfied, the sentences may readily be +recast; as, “It is unpleasant to have to associate with people of _that +kind.”_ “Sheep of _this sort_ are the most profitable.” + + +Transpire, Happen + + +This word, from _trans,_ across, through, and _spirare,_ to breathe, +means, physiologically, to pass off in the form of vapor or insensible +perspiration, or, botanically, to evaporate from living cells. Its +general meaning is to become known, to escape from secrecy. + +It is frequently employed in the sense of to occur, to come to pass, +but this use is condemned by the best critics in England and America. +“The proceedings of the secret session of the council soon +_transpired.”_ This sentence illustrates the true meaning of the word. + +Make, Manufacture + + +These words may, in some cases, be used interchangeably, but _make_ has +much the wider range of meanings. The following story, related by Eli +Perkins, will illustrate this fact: + +I was talking one day with Mr. Depew, President of the New York Central +Railroad, about demand and supply. I said the price of any commodity is +always controlled by the demand and supply. + +“Not always, Eli,” said Depew; “demand and supply don’t always govern +prices. Business tact sometimes governs them.” + +“When,” I asked, “did an instance ever occur when the price did not +depend on demand and supply?” + + +“Well,” said Mr. Depew, “the other day I stepped up to a German +butcher, and, out of curiosity, asked: + +“‘What’s the price of sausages?’ + +“‘Dwenty cends a bound,’ he said. + +“‘You asked twenty-five this morning,’ I replied. + +“‘Yah; dot vas ven I had some. Now I ain’t got none, I sell him for +dwenty cents. Dot makes a repudation for selling cheab, und I don’t +lose noddings.’ + +“You see,” said Mr. Depew, laughing, “I didn’t want any sausage and the +man didn’t have any; no demand and no supply, and still the price of +sausage went down five cents.” + +“Well, there are strange things in this world,” I said. “Now, take the +words _manufacture_ and _make._ I always thought that both words meant +the same thing.” + +“Why, they do, Eli,” said Mr. Depew. + +“Not always,” I said. + +“Now, when could they have a different meaning?” + +“Why, this morning I came down from Albany on a Central car +_manufactured _to carry fifty passengers, but it was _made_ to carry +seventy-two people.” + +“Yes, I dare say; but we’ll now talk about the Behring Sea question.” + + +Truth, Veracity + + +“The _veracity_ of his statement is doubted.” The sentence should be, +“The truth of his statement is doubted,” or “In making that statement +his _veracity_ is doubted.” _Veracity_ is applied to the person; _truth +_to the thing. + +Try the experiment + + +“They are _trying the experiment_ of running railroad trains by +electricity.” This should be, “They are _making the experiment,”_ etc. +The word _experiment_ contains the idea of _trial,_ hence, _to try the +experiment_ is to _try the trial._ + +Little piece + + +“I will go with you _a_ _little piece.” A short distance_ or _a_ _part +of the way_ would be more appropriate. + +Every confidence + + +“I have _every confidence_ in his ability to succeed.” _Confidence _is +a unit; _every_ implies several units considered separately. “I have +_the greatest_ confidence in his ability to succeed” is correct. + +Ugly + + +This word properly applies to the appearance of a person or thing, +hence such expressions as “He has an _ugly_ temper,” “This is an _ugly +_customer,” “That was an _ugly_ rumor,” etc., although common in +colloquial discourse, should be avoided in dignified address. + + +Unbeknown + + +This is a provincialism that should be avoided. Use _unknown._ + +Underhanded + + +Often incorrectly used for _underhand;_ as “That was a contemptible and +_underhanded_ trick.” + +Calligraphy + + +This word means not writing, simply, but beautiful writing; hence, to +say, “His _calligraphy_ is wretched” is equivalent to saying, “His +excellent writing is poor,” which is a contradiction of terms. + +Can but, Cannot but + + +These expressions are sometimes confounded. “If I perish, I _can but +perish,”_ means “I can _only_ perish,” or “I can do _no more than +_perish.” “I _cannot but_ speak of the things I have heard” means that +I am under a moral necessity to speak of these things. The past tense +forms _could but_ and _could not but_ should be, in like manner, +discriminated. + +Casualty, Casuality + + +The latter word is sometimes used in place of the former. The first is +legitimate; the second is without authority. The words _specialty_ and +_speciality_ have a termination similar to the above. They may +generally be used interchangeably and are both legitimate. + + +Complected. + + +“The lady is light _complected,_ has blue eyes, and auburn hair.” +_Complected_ is a provincialism without sanction. “The lady is of light +complexion, has blue eyes,” etc. + +Disremember + + +This word is obsolete. Use _forget,_ or “I do not remember.” + +Lie, Lay + + +The verbs _lie_ and _lay_ are often confounded, even by intelligent +persons. _Lie_ does not take an object. We cannot _lie_ a thing. It is +therefore intransitive. + +_Lay,_ which means to place in position, requires an object. We _lay _a +book on a table, or bricks on the wall. It is therefore transitive. + +The principal parts of the first verb are _lie, lay, lain;_ and of the +second, _lay, laid, laid._ The word _lay_ is found in both, and this +is, in part, accountable for the confusion. The most frequent errors +result from using _laid,_ the past tense form of the transitive verb, +when the word _lay,_ the past tense form of the intransitive verb, +should be used. The ear naturally expects the usual past tense ending +of the _d_ or _t _sound, and as that is absent in the past tense of +_lie,_ the past tense form of the other verb is substituted. For the +same reason the participle form _laid_ is often incorrectly used for +_lain._ + + +“He told me to _lie_ down, and I _lay_ down,” not _laid down. “_I told +him to _lay_ the book down, and he _laid_ it down.” “The ship _lay_ at +anchor.” “They _lay_ by during the storm.” “The book is _lying_ on the +shelf.” “He _lay_ on the ground and took cold.” “They _lay_ in ambush.” +_“Lie_ low or he will discover you.” “The goods are still _lying_ on +his hands.” “Time _lay_ heavily on their hands.” “We must _lie_ over at +the next station.” “A motion was made that the resolution _lie_ on the +table.” “Now I _lie_ down to sleep.” “Now I _lay_ me down to sleep.” + +The foregoing sentences illustrate the correct usage of these confusing +verbs. + +As, That + + +“Did your cousin go to town yesterday?” “Not _as_ I know.” Better, “Not +_that_ I know.” Better still, “I do not know.” “I do not know _as_ I +shall go.” Use _that_ for _as_. + +Bad toothache + + +As it is a rare thing to have a good toothache, we scarcely need the +adjective _bad_ to distinguish between the two kinds of toothache. Say +_severe._ + +Beautifully, Beautiful + + +After verbs of seeing, feeling, tasting, and smelling, the adverb is +often incorrectly used for the adjective. + + +“The colonel looked _handsomely_ in his military dress,” “I feel +_splendidly_ to-day,” “This peach tastes _badly,” “_The rose smells +_sweetly,”_ are incorrect. Use _handsome_ for _handsomely, very well_ +or _in good spirits_ for _splendidly, tastes bad_ or _has a +disagreeable taste_ for _badly,_ and _sweet_ for _sweetly._ + +Beg, Beg leave + + +“I _beg_ to announce the sale of a collection of rare and costly rugs.” +“I _beg_ to acknowledge your kindness in sending me this handsome +present.” In each case say “I _beg leave to,”_ etc. + +Due, Owing + + +His success was _due_ to his honesty and energy.” That is _due _which +should be paid as a debt; that is _owing_ which is referred to as a +cause or source. + +“The bill is now _due_ and payable at the gas office.” “His success was +_owing_ to his honesty and energy.” + +Each, Every + + +“I see him at his office _each_ day of the week.” In this sentence the +word _every_ would be better. _Each_ refers to single days +particularized. Here reference is made to what occurs on all days +without exception. + +Both words refer to nouns in the singular, hence such expressions as +the following are incorrect: +“Every soldier and sailor stood at _their_ post.” “The prisoners were +discharged and went each _their_ several ways.” Correct by saying, “The +prisoners were discharged and went each _his_ several way,” “Every +soldier and sailor stood at _his_ post.” + +Each, Both + + +_“Both_ parties maintained their original positions.” As the parties +are thought of separately, the sentence should be: “Each party +maintained its original position.” “Both parties strove to place their +best candidates upon the ticket” is correct, because the parties are +thought of collectively. + +Both, Both of + + +_Both_ is used alone before nouns and _both of_ before pronouns. +_“Both_ men have studied the currency question.” _“Both of _them are +well informed in matters relating to the currency.” + +Ever, Never + + +“Let him be _ever_ so rich,” says Emerson. “You spend _ever _so much +money in entertaining your equals and betters,” says Thackeray. “Though +he run _ever_ so fast, he cannot win the race.” Writers and grammarians +differ, some preferring _ever_, others _never._ + + +Every once in a while + + +This is a cumbersome, awkward expression that should be avoided. +_Occasionally, frequently, at intervals,_ are among the expressions +that may be used in its place. + +Exceptionable, Exceptional + + +“He enjoyed _exceptionable_ opportunities for acquiring the Greek +language.” Say _exceptional opportunities._ + +Female, Woman + + +The word _female_ is often employed when _woman_ would be better. +_Female_ applies to all of the feminine gender, including the brute +creation. + +Poet, Poetess + + +The tendency to increase the number of nouns with the feminine ending +_ess_ should be checked. Avoid _poetess, authoress, doctress,_ and +other newly-invented words of this kind. + +Fewer, Less + + +_Fewer_ refers to number, _less_ to quantity. “He had _less_ friends +than I, and yet he was elected.” Say “He had _fewer _friends.” “There +were no _less_ than fifty cows in the field.” Use _fewer._ + +Right smart + + +In some portions of the South the expression _right smart_ is employed +in colloquial discourse to convey +the idea of a large quantity or in large measure; as, “We have _right +smart _of peaches this summer,” meaning “We have a large crop of +peaches;” “He knows _right smart_ of Latin” for “He knows considerable +Latin” or “He is well versed in Latin.” + +Little bit + + +“Will you have some of this pudding?” + +“If you please. Give me _a little bit.”_ + +“Did you injure yourself when you fell?” + +“No; but I soiled my clothing _a little bit.”_ + +_A small portion_ or _piece,_ in the first sentence, and _slightly,_ in +the second, would serve as good equivalents for _a_ _little bit._ + +Sight + + +“There was a _sight_ of people at the fair to-day.” In the sense of _a +large number,_ this word, like the word _lot,_ should be avoided. + +Crowd + + +A dozen persons may constitute a _crowd_ if they push and jostle one +another by reason of insufficient space. A thousand men will not form a +crowd if all have ample room to sit or stand or move about. + +Chuck-full + + +This word is not authorized. _Chock-full_ and _choke-full_ may be used, +but are not elegant. + + +Contemplate, Propose + + +_Contemplate_ is often incorrectly used for _propose;_ as, “I +_contemplate_ going to the country.” + +Dispense, Dispense with + + +These expressions are not synonymous. _To dispense_ is _to give; to +dispense with_ is _to do without._ The pharmacist _dispenses +_medicines; we should be pleased if we could _dispense with_ them. + +Dry, Thirsty + + +_Dry_ is often incorrectly used in the sense of _thirsty; _as, “I am +_dry;_ let me have a glass of water.” To say, “I am _dry; _my +waterproof and umbrella kept out the rain,” is correct. + +Dutch, German + + +Do not call a _German_ a Dutchman. A Dutchman comes from Holland, a +German from Germany. + +Evacuate, Vacate + + +_Evacuate_ means _to make empty,_ and should not be used in the sense +of _to go_ _away, to vacate._ + +Different than, Different to + + +“The school is conducted in a very _different_ manner _than_ it used to +be.” “This basket of roses is _different to_ yours.” The above and +similar expressions are decided vulgarisms, and should be avoided. + + +“The school is conducted in a very different manner _from_ what it used +to be.” “This basket of roses is different _from_ yours.” + +Drive, Ride + + +Some confusion exists in the use of the words _drive_ and _ride._ In +England the distinction is made of applying _ride_ to going on +horseback and _drive_ to going in a carriage, whether you ride or +drive. That usage is not closely followed in this country. He who +guides the horse _drives;_ the rest of the company _ride._ The noun and +participial forms are more excusable than the verb. “Jones asked me to +_drive _with him this afternoon.” But as Jones expects to do the +driving himself, the speaker should have said, “Jones asked me to _take +a ride,”_ or _“go driving,”_ or _“take a drive,”_ etc. + +Couple, Several + + +The word _couple_ is often incorrectly used in the sense of _several;_ +as, a _couple_ of horses, mules, birds, trees, houses, etc. The use of +the word _couple_ is not only limited to two, but to two that may be +coupled or yoked together. A man and wife are spoken of as a _couple._ +We speak of a _span_ of horses, a _yoke_ of oxen, a _brace_ of ducks, a +_pair_ of gloves. + + +Directly, Immediately, As soon as + + +A faulty English use of the above words has found some favor in the +United States. _“Directly_ the whistle blew the workmen left the shop.” +Say _“As soon as_ the whistle blew,” etc. _“Immediately_ he closed his +speech his opponent rose to reply.” Say “_When”_ or _“As soon as _he +closed his speech,” etc. + +_Directly_ denotes without any delay; _immediately_ implies without any +interposition of other occupation. + +Agreeably disappointed + + +When our hopes are blasted, our plans balked, our expectations +defeated, our intentions thwarted, we are _disappointed._ We prefer the +agreeable to the disagreeable, and plan and labor to secure it. When +our plans fail we are disappointed, but not _agreeably disappointed._ +If the new conditions, which are not of our seeking, prove agreeable, +it is only after the sense of disappointment has vanished. + +Allude to, Refer to, Mention + + +The word _allude_ is often incorrectly used. Allusion is the by-play of +language. It means to hint at by remote suggestions, to speak of +figuratively or sportively. + +Whatever is directly mentioned, or spoken of, or described, cannot be +said to be _alluded to._ The terms +differ in degree, the first being the weakest. An _allusion_ is an +indirect reference. + +Among the rest + + +“Mary sat on the beach _among the rest.”_ Say _“with the rest.”_ + +Peruse + + +This is one of those high-sounding terms too often employed when _read +_would be much better. + +Emigrants, Immigrants + + +These words are sometimes confounded. “Did you see the _emigrants_ on +the ‘Indiana,’ which arrived this morning?” “Did the _immigrants_ go +directly to Italy?” Exchange the italicized words in the two sentences +and they will be correctly used. + +Somewheres + + +The terminal _s_ should be omitted in such words as _anywheres, +somewheres, nowheres, anyways, hereabouts, thereabouts, whereabouts._ +In such cases as “Whereabouts did you find him?” and “We knew his +whereabouts,” the _s_ is properly retained. + +Apart, Aside + + +“May I see you _apart_ from the others?” It should be, “May I see you +_privately”_ or “_aside”?_ + +Fire, Throw + + +We _fire_ a gun, but _throw_ a stone. To _fire a stone, fire him out of +the house, fire him out of our employ,_ may +be graphic ways of presenting the thought, but good writers never use +them and good speakers should avoid them. + +The First, Single + + +“I have not found _the first_ objection to his candidacy.” Say _“a +single objection,”_ or _“no objection.”_ + +First two + + +Such has been the strong desire to continue to use forms of expression +that we have long used that not a little time and effort have been +expended in the endeavor to make the wrong appear right. It is an +accepted fact, however, that a large majority of the best speakers and +writers now say _the first two, the last five,_ etc., rather than _the +two first, the five last._ + +Future, Subsequent + + +The word _future_ is sometimes used instead of _subsequent; _as, “Until +he was eighteen years old his conduct was marked by cruelty and malice, +but his _future_ life was characterized by kindness and generosity.” +_Future_ looks forward from the present, and not from some point of +time in the past. + +Gent’s pants + + +“_Gent’s pants_ scoured and pressed.” Business signs and business +advertisements are responsible for many vulgarisms. Never say _gent’s_ +nor _pants._ Even _pantaloons_ is not so good a word as _trousers._ + + +Sit, Set + + +Few words afford a more fertile field for grammatical blundering than +the verbs _sit_ and _set._ The important fact to remember in the use of +the words is that _sit,_ in modern usage, is an intransitive verb, and +does not take an object, while _set,_ which means _to place in +position, _is transitive, and requires an object to complete its +meaning. You cannot _sit_ a thing, but you do _set_ or place a thing. + +The verb _sit_ undergoes a slight change with the change of tense or +time. “I _sit_ at the window today.” “I _sat_ at the window yesterday.” +“I have _sat_ at the window daily for many years.” _“Sitting _at the +window, I saw the storm arise.” “Having _sat_ at his table, I can +testify to his hospitality.” + +The transitive verb _set_ undergoes no tense changes. “See me _set_ +this vase on the table.” “He _set_ his seal to the paper yesterday.” +“Jones will not _set_ the world on fire with his writings.” “Having +_set _my affairs in order, I returned home.” “I _sit_ down.” “I _sat +_down.” “I _set_ him down.” + +There are many intransitive uses of the verb _set;_ as, “The sun +_sets,”_ “The tide _sets_ toward the south,” “The fruit has _set,” “_He +_set_ out for Boston.” + +There is a difference of opinion as to whether we should say “The coat +_sets _well” or “The coat _sits_ well,” with the greater weight in +favor of _sits._ “The +hen _sits_ on her eggs.” “She is a _sitting_ hen.” When the verb is +used reflexively use _set_ and not _sat;_ as, “I _set_ me down beside +her,” not “I _sat_ me down beside her.” + +Anyhow + + +This word can scarcely be regarded as elegant, and should not be used +except in colloquial style. + +Awful + + +Few words among the many that go to make up the vocabulary of American +slang have been in longer use and have a wider range than the word +_awful._ From the loftiest and most awe-inspiring themes to the +commonest trifle, this much-abused word has been employed. A correct +speaker or writer almost fears to use the word lest he should suggest +the idea of slang, and thus detract from the subject to which the word +might most fitly be applied. + +Even the grammatical form of the word is often violated in such +expressions as “Isn’t he _awful_ nice?” “That hat of hers is _awful_ +pretty.” To say _awfully nice_ and _awfully pretty_ would improve the +grammar, but the gross vulgarism remains. + +The word, when properly used, means “inspiring with awe or dread” often +accompanied with reverence, as when Milton says: + + +“The trumpet spake not to the armed throng; +And kings sat still with awful eye, +As if they surely knew their sovran Lord was by.” + + +Back up + + +In the sense of _support,_ this, and the shorter expression _back_, are +doubtless borrowed from the commercial world. While they may be +tolerated in conversation, they must be regarded as slang. + +Bulk + + +This word is often incorrectly used for _most_ or _the greater part; +_as, “The _bulk_ of the people opposed the measure.” _Bulk_ refers to +size, not to numbers. + +Burglarize + + +This word is often used by the more sensational reporters in their +reports of crime. It should be avoided. + +But what, But that + + +“I don’t know _but what_ I shall have to punish him.” The sentence +should read, “I don’t know _but that_ I shall have to punish him.” It +is equivalent to, “I think that I shall have to punish him.” The +omission of _but_ will convey the opposite meaning. “I don’t know that +I shall have to punish him” is equivalent to “I think that I shall not +have to punish him.” + + +Calculate + + +A provincialism often used in the sense of _think, deem, suppose, +believe; _as, “I calculate the train will be here in ten minutes.” + +Calculated, Liable + + +This word is often incorrectly used in the sense of _likely, liable, +apt;_ as, “His utterances are _calculated_ to injure his cause.” In the +proper use of the word there is present the idea of purpose or intent. + +Leave, Quit + + +_Leave_ is often incorrectly used for _quit;_ as, “That eminent actor +expects soon to _leave_ the stage.” It would be a misfortune if he +should take the stage with him. Say _“quit_ the stage.” + +“Henry has _quit_ smoking.” Here _left off_ or _stopped_ would be +better. + +“The President gave me _lief_ to speak with him.” Say “gave me +_leave.”_ + +_Let it alone_ and _let me be_ are preferable to _leave it alone _and +_leave me be._ + +A 1 + + +“I have just read an A 1 article on the currency, question in the last +issue of the _North American Review!”_ This is an expression from the +vocabulary of business converted into the slang of the street. + + +Luck + + +_Luck,_ like _behavior,_ may be either good or bad. “The carpenter has +met with luck; he fell and broke his leg.” “The manager has met with +luck; his salary has been doubled.” The adjective _lucky_ and the +adverb _luckily_ are used only in a favorable sense. + +Make way with + + +This expression is often incorrectly used for _make away with;_ as, +“The Judge gave the boot-blacks a Christmas dinner, and the begrimed +urchins quickly _made way_ with the turkey and cranberry sauce.” Say +_“made away with,” _etc. + +To _make way_ is _to make room, to provide a way, to dispatch._ + +In our midst + + +“The doctor settled _in our midst.”_ Say “_among us,”_ or “_in our +neighborhood.”_ + +Indorse, Endorse + + +From the Latin _dorsum,_ the back, these words have come to mean the +writing of one’s name across the back of a check or draft or other +commercial paper to signify its transfer to another or to secure its +payment. To _indorse_ a man’s arguments or opinions is an incorrect use +of the word. + +While both forms of spelling the word are in good usage, _indorse_ +seems to be coming into more general favor. + + +In, Into + + +_In_ is often incorrectly used for _into;_ as, “He hurried up the +street and rushed _in_ the store.” We walk _in_ a room when the walking +is wholly within the apartment; we walk _into_ a room when we enter it +from some other room or from the outside. + +Just going to + + +“I was _just going to_ write you a letter.” Say “I was _just about to_ +write you a letter.” + +Kind of + + +“James swallowed the dose, and now feels _kind of_ sick.” Use +_slightly_ or _somewhat,_ or some other modifier, instead of _kind of._ + +Knowing + + +Do not use _knowing_ for _skilful_ or _intelligent._ “He is a _knowing_ +artist.” “See him prick up his ears; he is a _knowing _cur.” + +Clever, Smart + + +In England the word _clever_ is applied to one who is bright, +intelligent, ready, apt; in the United States it is often misapplied to +one who is good-natured, kind, or accommodating. + +“Do you believe in corporal punishment for stupid school-children?” + +“Yes; a spanking always makes them _smart.”_ + + +To express cleverness, brightness, intelligence, aptness, the +adjectives _clever, bright, intelligent, apt,_ are better than the word +_smart._ + +Posted, Informed + + +“He is well _posted_ on all matters relating to cattle-breeding.” Say +_informed._ + +Perspire, Sweat + + +While all mankind belongs to the animal kingdom, and no person can feel +offended at being called an animal, yet society observes certain +distinctions in speaking of men and of beasts. _To sweat_ and _to feed +_are expressions that apply to the latter; _to perspire_ and _to eat +_to the former. + +Empty + + +The Mississippi river _flows,_ or _discharges its water_ into the Gulf +of Mexico, but it can not _empty_ so long as any water remains in the +river. + +Enjoyed poor health + + +“Gold that buys health can never be ill spent, Nor hours laid out in +harmless merriment.” + +The negative form of expression, “I have not _enjoyed_ good health,” is +not only correct, but is, at the same time, a polite way of modestly +stating a fact. To say “I have _enjoyed_ poor health for the past year” +is to express a kind of enjoyment not generally appreciated. It is like +being _agreeably disappointed._ + + +Aberration of intellect + + +“He is afflicted with a slight aberration of intellect.” Simplicity +would suggest, “He is slightly insane.” + +Above, Foregoing + + +“Let me call your attention to the _above_ passage.” The highest +authority does not sanction the use of _above_ as an adjective. Say +“the _foregoing_ passage.” + +Allowed, Said + + +“He _allowed_ this was the best speech he had heard.” This is a +provincialism that should be avoided. Use _said,_ or _declared,_ or +_admitted,_ according to the meaning. + +Alternation + + +This word is sometimes used in the sense of an unbroken series. It +properly signifies a reciprocal succession, as “The alternation of +summer and winter produces an ever-changing scene.” + +Alternative + + +Etymologically and by general use, this word refers to a choice between +two; as, “If this demand is refused the _alternative_ is war.” But +Gladstone is quoted as saying, “My decided preference is for the fourth +and last of these _alternatives.”_ + +Anniversary + + +From _annus,_ a year, means recurring every year. _Centennial_ means +once in a hundred years. What then does _centennial anniversary_ mean? +Use _centenary._ + + +Learn, Teach + + +“I taught him grammar,” not “I learned him grammar.” “He taught us +history.” + +Lease, Let, Rent, Hire + + +We may _lease_ to or from. “I _leased_ the farm to my neighbor.” “I +_leased_ this house from Brown.” We _let_ to another; as, “I _let _my +house to my cousin.” We may _rent_ to or from another. We may _hire_ +from another,” as, “I hired a servant;” “he hired a boat.” With _out_ +and reflexively we may hire to another; as,” I hired out my horses;” +“he hired himself to the miller.” + +Like, As + + +Avoid the use of _like_ in the sense of _as_. “He thinks just _as _(not +_like)_ his father does.” That Anthony Trollope, Hugh Conway and other +writers are chargeable with this offence does not justify the use of +_like_ for _as_, but rather proves the need of constant vigilance in +order to avoid such errors. + +Lit, Lighted, Alighted + + +“He _lighted_ the candle.” “The crow _alighted_ on the top of the +tree.” Avoid the use of _lit_ in such cases, and also that slang form, +as, “I _lit on_ a beautiful passage in Browning,” in the sense of _met +with._ + +Lend, Loan + + +“Will you _lend_ me your book,” is better than “Will you _loan_ me your +book.” + + +Near, Nearly + + +“James is not _near_ so good a scholar as his brother is.” Use +_nearly._ + +Nasty, Nice + + +_Nasty_ is a strong adjective, and should be used only in reference to +what is offensively filthy, foul, or defiled. Such expressions as a +_nasty _day, a _nasty_ rain, mark a loose and careless use of the word. + +The word _nice_ once meant _foolish, ignorant, weak, effeminate._ It +has now come to mean _exact, fine, finished, exciting admiration on +account of skill or exactness;_ as _nice_ proportions, _nice_ +workmanship, a _nice_ distinction in philosophy. It is loosely and +colloquially used in application to what is pleasing, agreeable, +delightful, good. + +A bright young lady was once asked, “Don’t you think _nice_ is a _nasty +_word?” She replied, “And do you think _nasty_ is _a nice_ word.” The +subject was abruptly changed. + +Nicely + + +“How do you feel this morning?” _“Nicely,_ thank you.” The foregoing +use of the word is as incorrect as it is common. Use _very well_ +instead. + +No good, No use + + +“How does that new machine work?” “It’s _no good.” “_Shall I try +again?” “No; it’s _no_ _use.”_ The answers should have been, _“It is of +no good, it is of no use.”_ + + +O, Oh + + +While good usage is far from uniform, many excellent authors employ _O_ +only in cases of direct address and _oh_ when strong and sudden emotion +is to be expressed. _O_ is always written with a capital letter, and +should be followed by the name of the person or thing addressed, and +the exclamation or interrogation point placed at the end of the +sentence; as, “O Death, where is thy sting? O Grave, where is thy +victory?” “O the cold and cruel winter!” + +_Oh_ in the body of a sentence may begin with a small letter, and is +immediately followed by the exclamation point; as, “Oh! how terrible +was his fate!” “The sad intelligence was gently given, but oh! the +shock was almost unbearable.” + +Observe, Say + + +“He _observed_ that the orphan pines while the oppressor feeds.” To +_observe_ is to notice carefully, to attend closely to what one sees. +In the above sentence _said_ or _remarked_ should be used instead of +_observed._ + +Of any, Of all + + +“This is the largest tree _of any_ I have seen.” The meaning clearly +is, that of all the trees I have seen this is the largest. Hence, _of +any_ should be changed to _of all._ + + +Older, Elder + + +_Elder_ and _eldest_ are terms applied chiefly to persons, generally in +speaking of members of the same family, while _older_ and _oldest _are +applied to persons of different families, and also to things. + +“His _elder_ brother died yesterday.” “His _eldest_ sister has gone to +Italy on her wedding trip.” “Our _oldest_ neighbor was born in 1825.” +“This oak is _older_ than that pine.” The foregoing sentences +illustrate the best usage as applied to the comparatives _older_ and +_elder_ and the superlatives _oldest_ and _eldest._ + +When the direct comparison is made the word _older_ is used, followed +by the conjunction _than;_ as, “My father is _older than_ my mother.” +But when the comparison is assumed the word _elder_ should be employed; +as, “My father is the _elder_ of my parents.” + +Only + + +Perhaps no other word in the language is so often misplaced as the word +_only._ The only general rule is to place it as near as possible to the +word which it modifies. “He _only_ lent me a dollar” means that he did +not make me a present of the dollar, but expects me to return it. “He +lent me _only_ a dollar” means that the sum lent was neither greater +nor less than one dollar. The former expression is often used when the +latter should be. + + +_“Only_ the man walked to the post-office to-day.” The woman did not +walk with him. + +“The man _only_ walked to the post-office to-day.” He did not ride or +drive. + +“The man walked _only_ to the post-office to-day.” He did not go so far +as the store. + +“The man walked to the post-once _only_ to-day.” Yesterday he rode and +the day before he drove. Today is the only day that he walked. + +George Eliot, in _Middlemarch,_ says: “I _only_ know two gentlemen who +sing at all well,” and in another place, “I have _only_ seen her once +before.” The word _only_ should be placed before two in the first +sentence, and before _once_ in the second. + +Onto + + +There is a growing tendency to write the words _on_ and _to_ as one +word. “Although nearly drowned he yet had strength enough to climb +_onto _the rock.” The use of _upon_ or _on_ is generally better. When +neither of these can be used write _on_ and _to_ as separate words. + +Outstart + + +This word is sometimes used when _outset_ should be employed. + +Over and Above + + +“He earned twenty dollars _over and above_ his expenses.” Use _more +than_ or _above._ + + +Party, Person + + +“Is she the _party_ of whom you spoke?” “No; she is the _person.”_ + +One man may be a party to a contract or agreement. Several men may form +a party. When no contract is implied, one man or woman must be spoken +of as a _person,_ not as a _party._ + +Patron, Customer + + +Unless there is a sense of obligation or condescension, use the term +_customer_ and not _patron._ In like manner, use _custom _instead of +_patronage._ + +Per + + +_Per_ is a Latin preposition and should be used only with Latin nouns. +We should say _per annum,_ but not _per year; per diem,_ and not _per +day; per capita,_ and not _per head._ “He received a thousand dollars +_a_ _year_ is shorter and better than “he received a thousand dollars +_per year.”_ + +Perchance, Peradventure + + +These are poetic and archaic forms that should be avoided in ordinary +prose. + +Performers + + +“The entertainment consisted of reading, recitations, and singing, and +the _performers_ acquitted themselves well.” Readers, reciters, and +singers are not +_performers._ The term is applied to the stage, and to those who play +on musical instruments. Even in the latter application, “he _plays_ +well on the piano,” is better than “he _performs_ well on the piano.” + +Period, Point + + +Do not use _period_ for _a point_ of time. _Period _implies extended +time. + +Nothing like + + +“James is _nothing like_ so successful as his brother” illustrates a +colloquialism that should be avoided. Use _not nearly so,_ etc. + +Notorious, Noted + + +“He was elected to Congress, then Governor, and we now think of sending +him to the United States Senate. He is becoming quite _notorious.” _The +word _notorious_ implies some bad or doubtful quality or +characteristic, and must not be used in the sense of _noted_ or +_famous._ + +Nowhere near so + + +“He trapped _nowhere near_ so many rabbits as his cousin.” This +vulgarism should be avoided. Use _not nearly._ + +Plead + + +The past tense of _read_ is _read,_ but the past tense of _plead_ is +_pleaded,_ not _plead. “_The prisoner _pleaded _for mercy.” + + +Plenty, Plentiful + + +“Money is _plenty_ this summer.” _Plenty_ is a noun and should not be +used as an adjective. Therefore “money is _plentiful_ this summer.” +Shakespeare says, “If reasons were as _plenty_ as blackberries,” etc., +but words have settled into more definite grooves since Shakespeare’s +time. “This house is _plenty_ large enough.” Neither is _plenty_ an +adverb. Say, “This house is quite large enough,” or, simply, _large +enough._ + +About, around + + +“She was pleased with the conversation _about_ her.” Use “_around_ +her.” + +“She was pained by the conversation _about_ her.” Use “_concerning +_her.” + +Overlook, Oversee + + +This word means to look down upon from a place that is over or above; +as, “From the top of the Washington monument you can readily _overlook_ +the city.” But it also means to look over and beyond an object in order +to see a second object, thus missing the view of the first object; +hence, to refrain from bestowing notice upon, to neglect. The +confounding of these two ideas begets ambiguity, as “Brown’s business +was _to overlook_ the workmen in the shop.” His business was _to +oversee_ or _superintend_ them, and not to _neglect_ or _overlook_ +them. + + +Revolting + + +To _revolt_ is to _rebel,_ to _renounce allegiance,_ but the +participial form _revolting_ also means _repugnant, loathsome._ In the +sentence, “A band of _revolting_ Huns has just passed down the street,” +we should be in doubt whether the speaker referred to their acts +against the government or to their appearance. The use of the word +_rebellious_ in the former sense, and of _disagreeable_ or +_disgusting,_ or the stronger adjectives given above, for the latter +meaning, would make the sentence clear. + +Unexampled + + +Such adjectives as _unexampled, unparalleled, unprecedented,_ do not +admit of comparison, hence such expressions as _the most unexampled +_bravery, _the most unparalleled heroism,_ etc., should be avoided. + +Utter + + +This verb should be distinguished from _express_ or _say. Utter +_carries with it the idea of articulate expression, except in the sense +of _uttering_ false coins or forged notes. + +As an adjective it is defined by _complete, perfect, absolute,_ etc., +but it can be applied only to what is unpleasant or unfavorable. “I +enjoyed _utter_ happiness” would be an absurd expression, but “I was +doomed to _utter_ misery” illustrates a proper use of the word. + + +Valuable, Valued + + +These words are not synonymous; _valuable_ means precious, costly, +having value; _valued_ refers to our estimation of the worth. “He is +one of our most _valued_ contributors,” not _valuable,_ unless you are +thinking of the value of his contributions and the smallness of the +compensation. + +Very pleased + + +A few participles used as adjectives may be directly modified by _too_ +or _very;_ as, “I was _very tired,” “_He was _too fatigued_ to go +farther.” + +We sometimes hear the expression, “I was _very pleased,”_ but the +critics insist upon “I was _very much_ pleased,” or “greatly pleased,” +or “very greatly pleased.” + +Vicinity + + +Often too high-sounding a word for the thought; _neighborhood_ is less +pretentious. + +The old man + + +The use of such words as _dad, daddy, mam, mammy, the old man, the old +woman,_ when applied to parents, not only indicates a lack of +refinement, but shows positive disrespect. The words _pap, pappy, +governor, _etc., are also objectionable. After the first lispings of +childhood the words _papa_ and _mamma_, properly accented, should be +insisted upon by parents, and at +the age of twelve or fifteen the words _father_ and _mother_ should be +substituted and ever after used, as showing a proper respect on the +part of children. + +Great big + + +“He gave me a _great big_ apple.” This is a colloquialism that should +be avoided. Use _large._ + +Argue, Augur + + +“The hollow whistling of the wind among the trees _argues_ an +approaching storm.” Use _augurs._ + +Barbaric, Barbarous + + +_Barbaric_ refers to a people; _barbarous_ to their low state of life +and their habits of cruelty. + +Cut in half + + +A colloquialism in very frequent use. “I will _cut_ this melon _in +half_ and share it with you.” Say, _cut in two,_ or _cut in halves,_ or +_cut in two parts._ + +Hearty meal + + +“He ate a hearty meal before starting on his journey.” _Hearty_ applies +to the eater rather than to the meal. “He ate heartily,” etc. + +Some better + + +“John has been _right sick,_ but is now _some_ better.” _Somewhat, +rather,_ or _slightly_ may take the place of _some._ The sentence may +be otherwise improved. “John has been _quite ill,_ but is now +_somewhat_ better.” + + +Through, Finished + + +Unless you have fallen through a trap door and finished your career, do +not say, “I am through,” when you mean “I have finished.” The +school-boy says, “I _am through with,_ that lesson,” when he should +say, “I _have finished_ that lesson.” The farmer asks the man in his +employ, _“Are _you _through with_ that field?” when he should have +asked, _“Have _you _finished_ ploughing that field?” You ask your +friend, _“Are _you _through, with Trilby?”_ when you should ask, +_“Have_ you _finished_ reading _Trilby.”_ + +Winterish + + +Do not say _summerish_ and _winterish,_ but _summery,_ or _summerlike,_ +and _wintry._ + +Wish + + +The word _hope_ should be employed instead of _wish_ in such cases as, +“I _wish_ you may succeed in your undertaking.” + +Right + + +This little word has many meanings and is put to many uses. In the +following senses it should be avoided: + +“Stand _right_ here.” In most instances the briefer expression, “Stand +here,” is sufficient. If it is necessary to locate the place more +definitely or to emphasize the position, “Stand just here,” or “Stand +on this very spot,” may be better. + + +“The train came to a standstill _right_ here.” Better, “The train +stopped _just_ here.” + +“Do it _right away.”_ This is a colloquialism that should be avoided. +_Immediately, instantly, at once, without delay,_ are expressions that +may safely be substituted for _right away._ + +“I heard of your misfortune, and came to you _right away.”_ “John, post +this letter for me _right off.” Directly_ or _immediately,_ in the +place of _right away_ and _right off,_ is better English. + +“James is _right_ sick, and the doctor comes to see him _right _often.” +The use of _right_ as an intensive with adjectives and adverbs is very +common in many quarters. _Quite ill_ or _very ill_ is better than +_right sick,_ and _often_ or _frequently_ is better than _right often._ + +“We have a _right_ good crop of wheat this year.” Use _very _instead of +_right._ + +“You have as good a _right_ to be punished as I have.” The person +addressed would gladly relinquish his _right._ “You _merit _punishment +as well as I,” or “You _deserve_ to be punished,” etc. + +Shall, Will, Should, Would + + +Few persons can claim to be entirely free from slips of speech in the +use of these auxiliaries. Simply to express a future action or event, +_shall _is used with the first person and _will_ with the second and +third; as, + + +I shall read, We shall read, +You will read, You will read, +He will read, They will read. + + +But when I desire to show determination on my part to do a certain +thing, or when I exercise my authority over another, or express +promise, command, or threat, _will_ is used in the first person and +_shall_ in the second and third; as, + +I will read, We will read, +You shall read, You shall read, +He shall read, They shall read. + + +_Shall_ primarily implies obligation; _will_ implies intention or +purpose. _Will_ and _would_ should be used whenever the subject names +the one whose will controls the action; _shall_ and _should_ must be +employed whenever the one named by the subject is under the control of +another. + +The difference between _should_ and _would_ is, in general, about the +same as that between _shall_ and _will._ + +The foregoing suggestions cover the ordinary uses of these auxiliaries, +but there are some special cases deserving attention. + +_Will,_ in the first person, expresses assent or promise, as well as +determination; as, + +“I will read this poem for you since you have requested it.” + + +“I will meet you to-morrow at the time appointed.” + +_Will,_ in the second person, may express a command; as, + +“You will take the places assigned you.” + +“You will report immediately at my office.” + +_Will_ is sometimes employed to express a general fact, without +conveying the idea of futurity; as, “Accidents will happen.” +“Differences will arise.” + +_Will_ is sometimes incorrectly used instead of _shall;_ as, _“Will_ I +go?” for _“Shall_ I go?” This fault is common in Scotland, and prevails +to some extent in this country. + +_Will_ is also used where _may_ would be more appropriate; as, “Be that +as it _will.”_ + +Shall you? Will you? + + +The distinction between _shall_ and _will_ in the interrogative forms +of the second person are not very clearly defined. Many writers and +speakers use them interchangeably. The answer should have the same +auxiliary as the question. + +“Shall you go to town to-morrow?” “I _shall.”_ + +“Will you attend to this matter promptly?” “I _will.”_ + +Should, Would, Ought + + +_Should_ is often used in the sense of _ought;_ as, “Mary should remain +at home to-day and wait upon her sick mother.” + + +_Should_ and _would_ are employed to express a conditional assertion; +as, “I _should_ go to college, if I could secure the necessary means.” +“He _would_ have gone fishing, if his father had been willing.” + +_Would_ is often used to express a custom, a determination, or a wish; +as, “He _would_ sit all day and moan.” _“Would_ to God we had died in +the land of Egypt.” “He _would_ go, and his parents could not prevent +him.” + +Talented + + +Certain authors and critics, including Coleridge, have objected +strongly to the use of _talented._ One writer argues that since there +is no such verb as _to talent,_ the formation of such a participle as +_talented_ cannot be defended, and he further declares that no good +writer is known to use it, Webster _(The International Dictionary)_ +states that, as a formative, _talented_ is just as analogical and +legitimate as _gifted, bigoted, moneyed, lauded, lilied, honeyed,_ and +numerous other adjectives having a participial form, but derived +directly from nouns and not from verbs. + +We must therefore conclude that the use of _talented_ as an adjective +is entirely legitimate. + +Climb down + + +The critics generally oppose the use of the expression _climb down. +_When the verb is employed +without its adverbial modifier, the upward direction is always +understood. In figurative language, as “Black vapors climb aloft, and +cloud the day,” “The general climbed the heights of fame,” the upward +direction is also understood. + +But in a specific sense _climb_ is defined “to mount laboriously, +especially by the use of hands and feet.” Here the manner seems to be +as important as the direction. When the same manner must be employed in +descending, as a tree, a mast, or a steep, rocky cliff, the general +term _descend_ fails to convey the meaning, and to use _slip, slide, +drop, tumble, fall,_ would be incorrect. We are then left to choose +between the short and clear, but objectionable, expression _climb down_ +and some long and cumbersome equivalent. + +Mighty + + +Never use _mighty_ in the sense of _very,_ or _exceedingly._ It is not +only inappropriate but inelegant. + +Of, From + + +“She had consumption and died _from_ the disease.” Say, “died _of _the +disease.” + +On, Over, Upon + + +“Mary called _upon_ her friend.” Say, “called _on_ her friend.” “The +Senator prevailed _over_ his friends to support his bill.” Say, +“prevailed _upon_ his +friends.” “The candidate prevailed _over_ his enemies.” + +Partake + + +This word means _to take a part of, to share with_ another. It is often +incorrectly used for _ate,_ as “He _partook_ sparingly of the food.” + +Powerful sight + + +This is a Westernism to be avoided. It is used indiscriminately for a +_large number,_ a _great quantity,_ a _vast amount,_ etc. + +Apprehend, Comprehend + + +To _apprehend_ is to take into the mind; to _comprehend_ is to +understand fully what is already there. We may _apprehend_ many truths +which we do not _comprehend._ + +Introduce, Present + + +_Present_ implies more formality than _introduce._ We introduce one +friend to another. An envoy is _presented_ to the King. Foreign +ministers are _presented_ to the President of the United States. + +Same as + + +“This is the _same_ story _as_ I read last week.” Use _same that._ + + +Section + + +“We raise finer horses in our _section.”_ This is an Americanism that +should be avoided. Neighborhood, vicinity, region, part of the country +or State, may be substituted for _section._ + +Seldom or ever + + +This incorrect expression is sometimes used instead of _seldom or never +_or _seldom if ever._ “I have _seldom if ever_ heard so eloquent an +oration.” “I have _seldom or never_ seen the man.” + +Sewage, Sewerage + + +These words have distinct meanings. _Sewage_ refers to the contents of +the sewer; _sewerage_ to the system of sewers. + +Sociable, Social + + +“He is one of the most _sociable_ men I have met. He is fond of +society, and is very ready in conversation.” _Sociable_ means +companionable; _social_ applies to the relations of men in society; as +_social _duties, _social_ pleasures, _social_ interests. + +Specialty, Speciality + + +These words are interchangeable, but the former is the better word. + +Requirement, Requisition, Requisite + + +While these words have something in common, each has a meaning peculiar +to itself. _Requirement_ +means that which is required as an essential condition, or as something +necessary; _requisition,_ that which is required as of right, a demand +or application made as by authority; _requisite,_ that which is +required by the nature of things, or by circumstances, that which +cannot be dispensed with. “She understood the nature of the child and +of its _requirements.”_ “The officer made a _requisition_ for more +troops.” “This is as much a _requisite_ as food and clothing.” + +Sick, Ill + + +There is a growing tendency to discriminate between _sickness _and +_illness,_ limiting the words _sick_ and _sickness_ to some slight +disturbance of the physical system, as nausea, and applying the words +_ill_ and _illness_ to protracted disease and disordered health. + +Scholar, Pupil + + +Although these words are often used synonymously and with good +authority, it would be better to limit the former to learned persons +and to apply the latter to persons under instruction. + +Commenced to write + + +“I _commenced to write_ at a very early age.” After the verb _commence_ +the best writers use the verbal +noun instead of the infinitive with _to;_ as, “I _commenced writing _at +a very early age.” + +Beside, Besides + + +These words were formerly used interchangeably, but the best writers of +to-day make a distinction. _Beside_ means by _the side of. Besides +_means _in addition to. Besides_ is sometimes incorrectly used for +_except;_ as, “No trees will grow here _besides_ the pine.” + +Bountiful, Plentiful + + +_Bountiful_ applies to the giver; _plentiful_ to the things furnished. +“The _bountiful_ Giver of all good furnishes a _plentiful _supply of +all things needful for our comfort and happiness.” Do not say a +_bountiful_ repast, a _bountiful_ harvest. + +Attacked, Burst, Drowned + + +The incorrect past tense forms _attackted, bursted, drownded,_ are +sometimes heard; as, “The cashier was _attackted_ by three of the +ruffians,” “The cannon _bursted_ and killed the gunners,” “The +fishermen were _drownded_ off the bar.” Use _attacked, burst, drowned._ + +All + + +This little word is used in a great many ways, some of which are quite +colloquial, and in some cases provincial. When the grocer’s clerk has +taken your order he is prompted to say, “Is that _all?”_ Or if +he should say, “Is there anything else that you wish?” you are likely +to reply, “No; that is _all.”_ Whether used in the question or in the +reply, the word _all_ should be avoided, or else the expression should +be expanded so as to make a clear sentence. + +A friend calls to see you, and, finding you alone when he expected to +meet others with you, he says, “Good morning; I see you are _all_ +alone.” _All_ is not a good equivalent for _quite_ or _entirely,_ +either of which words would be better than _all._ In truth, the +sentence is as clear and as strong and more concise without the use of +a modifier. “I see you are _alone.”_ + +Inaugurate + + +_To inaugurate_ means _to induct_ into office or _to set in motion_ +with formality and serious ceremony. Pompous writers too often employ +the word in referring to commonplace events. A new business is +_established._ A new hall or library is _opened._ A new pastor is +_installed._ A new order of procedure is _adopted._ In general, the +word _begin_ or _commence_ would be more appropriate than _inaugurate._ + +Came across, Met with + + +“I _came across_ the passage quite unexpectedly.” Better, “I _chanced +upon,”_ or “_happened upon,,”_ or “_met with_ the passage quite +unexpectedly.” + + +Expect + + +Few words are more frequently incorrectly used than _expect. “_I +_expect_ you went to town yesterday,” “I _expect_ you will hear from me +to-morrow,” “I _expect_ the train has arrived,” represent some of the +uses to which this word is often put. _Expect_ refers wholly to the +future, and should not refer to present or past events; as, “I _expect +_you to write me from Liverpool.” “John _expects_ to see his father +to-morrow.” Among the expressions that can most readily and +appropriately be substituted for _expect_ are _suspect, suppose, think, +believe, presume, daresay._ + +Over with + + +“After the supper was _over with_ the guests departed.” Omit _with._ + +Overflown + + +“The lowlands along the river are _overflown.”_ Use _overflowed. _The +perfect participle of _overflow_ is _overflowed,_ not _overflown._ + +Good piece + + +“I have come a _good piece_ to see you.” Say “I have come a _long +distance_ to see you.” + +Stand a chance + + +“He does not stand any chance of an election.” Say, “It is not probable +that he will be elected.” + + +No more than I could help + + +“As I was not in sympathy with the cause, I gave _no more than I could +help.”_ So accustomed are we to hearing this awkward, blundering +expression that we readily understand the meaning it is intended to +convey, and should be sorely puzzled to interpret the correct form. Let +us analyze it. I gave five dollars. That much I could not help +(giving). I gave no more. Hence, “I gave no more than I could not +help.” This last form appears to be correct. By changing the +phraseology the sentence can be greatly improved. “I gave no more than +I felt compelled to give.” “I made my contribution as small as +possible.” “My gift was limited to the measure of my sense of +obligation.” + +Above, More than, Preceding + + +“It is _above_ a week since I heard from my brother.” We may say +_“above_ the earth,” _“above_ the housetops,” but in the preceding +sentence it is better to say, “It is _more than_ a week since I heard +from my brother.” + +“In the _above_ paragraph he quotes from Horace.” Say, “In the +_preceding_ or _foregoing_ paragraph,” etc. The awkwardness of the use +of the word _above_ becomes very apparent when the line in which it +occurs is found at the top of a page, and the passage +to which reference is made appears at the bottom of the previous page. + +Climax + + +The Greek word _climax_ means literally _a_ _ladder, _and implies +_ascent, upward movement._ The best authors use it only in this sense, +and not to denote the highest point. + +Factor + + +This word, from the Latin _factor,_ a doer, an agent, signifies +_working, doing, effecting._ Its frequent use in the sense of _source +_or _part_ should be avoided. + +“All are but _factors_ of one stupendous whole, +Whose body Nature is, and God the soul.” + + +Pope employs the better word _parts._ + +Hung, Hanged + + +Pictures, signs, bells, and other inanimate objects are _hung; _men are +_hanged._ While some writers ignore this distinction, the best +authorities observe it. + +Healthy, Healthful + + +A lady wrote to a paper asking, “Are plants in a sleeping-room +_unhealthy?”_ The answer came, “Not necessarily; we have seen some very +_healthy_ plants growing in sleeping-rooms.” + +Persons are _healthy_ or _unhealthy._ A plant or tree is +_healthy_ or _unhealthy_ according as it possesses vigor. Food, +surroundings and conditions are _healthful_ or _unhealthful _according +as they promote or destroy health. + +Idea, Opinion + + +“Many persons think that the interior of the earth is a mass of fire; +what is your _idea?”_ Say, “What is your _opinion?”_ + +Alone, Only + + +“An _only_ child” is one that has neither brother nor sister. “A child +_alone”_ is one that is left to itself. “Virtue _alone_ makes us happy” +means that virtue unaccompanied by any other advantages is sufficient +to make us happy. “Virtue _only_ makes us happy” means that nothing +else can do it. + +Grow, Raise, Rear + + +“We _grow_ wheat, corn, oats, and potatoes on our farm.” “We _raise_ +wheat,” etc., would be better. With the same propriety we might use +_sleep_ for _lodge,_ and _eat_ for _feed,_ or supply with food; as, “We +can _eat_ and _sleep_ fifty persons at one time.” + +The word _raise_ is often incorrectly used in the sense of _rear; _as, +“She _raised_ a family of nine children.” It is sometimes employed in +the sense of _increase,_ as, “The landlord _raised_ my_ _rent.” +_Increased_ would be better. + + +Has went + + +“He goes to school,” “He went to school yesterday,” “He has gone to the +West.” Avoid such ungrammatical forms as “He _has_ _went,” “_I _have_ +saw.” + +Badly, Greatly + + +_Badly_ is often incorrectly used for _greatly_ or _very much,_ as, “I +need it _badly,”_ “He was _badly_ hurt.” + +“That fence wants painting _badly,_ I think I’ll do it myself,” said +the economical husband. + +“Yes,” said his wife, “you had better do it yourself if you think it +wants to be done _badly.”_ + +At you + + +“If you don’t stop teasing me I will do something _at_ you,” meaning “I +will punish you.” That form of expression is very common in some +localities, and it is even more inelegant than common. The use of the +preposition _to_ instead of _at_ would be a slight improvement, but the +sentence should be entirely recast. + +Haply, Happily + + +In the reading of the Scriptures the word _happily_ is sometimes used +where the archaic word _haply_ should be employed. In like manner the +word _thoroughly_ is substituted for the old form _throughly._ Both +words should be pronounced as they are spelled. + + +Thanks + + +To say “I thank you” requires but little more effort than to say +_“Thanks,”_ and it will be received as a more sincere token of +thankfulness. + +Got to + + +This inelegant expression is often employed where _must_ would serve +the purpose better. “This work _has got to be_ done.” Say, “Must be +done.” + +Hangs on + + +“The cold weather _hangs on.”_ Better, “The cold weather continues.” + +Under the Weather + + +“Are you well?” “No; I have been quite _under the weather.” _Substitute +_sick_ or _ill,_ for the colloquial expression _under the weather._ + +Again, Against + + +_Again_ is often erroneously used for _against;_ as, “He leaned _again_ +the tree for support.” Say, “He leaned _against_ the tree for support.” + +Could, Can, Will + + +_Could_ is often incorrectly employed where _can_ or _will_ would be +more appropriate. + +_“Could_ you lend me a dollar this morning?” If the thought of the +inquirer is, “Are you willing to lend,” etc., he should have used _will +_instead of _could;_ +but if his thought was, “Are you able to lend,” or “Do you have a +dollar to spare this morning,” he should have used _can._ + +Bravery, Courage + + +_Bravery_ is inborn; _courage_ is the result of reason and +determination. The _brave_ are often reckless; the _courageous_ are +always cautious. + +Hate + + +Avoid the use of _hate_ for _dislike,_ and all other intensive words +when the thought is more correctly expressed by a milder word. + +Pretty, Very + + +_Pretty_ is often incorrectly used in the sense of _very _or +_moderately,_ as “He was _pretty_ badly hurt,” “He is a _pretty_ good +scholar,” “She is _pretty_ wealthy,” “Thomas is _pretty_ ugly.” So +common is this provincialism in some localities that the incongruity of +such an expression as the last would pass undiscovered. + +Lot, Number + + +The use of _lot_ for _number_ or _many_ is a colloquialism that should +be avoided. “He collected a _lot (large number) _of books on the +subject.” “A _lot_ of policemen were gathered there” “I ate _lots of_ +oranges while I was in Florida.” + + +Lead a dance + + +“He _led_ his companion _a fine dance.”_ This expression, as generally +used, is ironical, and implies that the leader conducts those who are +led through experiences unfamiliar to them and usually to their +disadvantage. To lead astray, to deceive, to corrupt the morals of, may +be substituted for the foregoing inelegant expression. + +Try and + + +“Have you been to the country this summer?” “No; but I will _try and go +_next week.”. The second speaker intends to convey the idea that it is +his purpose to go if nothing occurs to prevent, but his going is still +a matter of uncertainty. His statement, however, when properly +interpreted means that he not only will try, but that he positively +will go. + +“Try _and_ finish that work to-day.” Here the purpose is not to command +that the work shall be finished, but that the trial shall be made. As +the sentence stands two distinct commands are given, first, that the +trial shall be made, and, second, that the work must be completed. The +sentence should read, “Try to finish that work to-day.” + +Use _to_ instead of _and_ in such expressions as “Try _and _make it +convenient to come,” “Try _and_ do your work properly,” “Try _and_ +think of your lessons,” “Try _and_ go _and_ see our sick neighbor.” + + + + +CHAPTER III +Contractions + + +Whatever may be said against employing contractions in dignified +discourse, their use in colloquial speech is too firmly established to +justify our censure. But, in their use, as, indeed, in the use of all +words, proper discrimination must be shown. + +Just why _haven’t, hasn’t, doesn’t, isn’t, wasn’t,_ are regarded as +being in good repute, and _ain’t, weren’t, mightn’t, oughtn’t,_ are +regarded with less favor, and why _shalln’t, willn’t_ are absolutely +excluded, it would be difficult to explain. + +_Use determines the law of language,_ whether for single words, +grammatical forms, or grammatical constructions. Wherever a people, by +common consent, employ a particular word to mean a certain thing, that +word becomes an inherent part of the language of that people, whether +it has any basis in etymology or not. We must not wrest this law to our +own convenience, however, by assuming that such words and phrases as +are introduced and employed by the illiterate, or even by the educated, +within a circumscribed territory, are, therefore, to be regarded as +reputable words. The sanction of all classes, the educated as well as +the uneducated, throughout the entire country in which the language is +spoken, is necessary and preliminary to the proper introduction of a +new word into the language. + +Ain’t + + +This word is a contraction of _am_ _not_ or _are not, _and can, +therefore, be used only with the singular pronouns _I_ and _you_, and +with the plural pronouns _we, you,_ and _they,_ and with nouns in the +plural. + +I _am not_ pleased. I _ain’t_ pleased. + +You _are not_ kind. You _ain’t_ kind. + +They _are not_ gentlemen. They _ain’t_ gentlemen. + +These sentences will serve to illustrate the proper use of _ain’t,_ if +it is ever proper to use such an inelegant word as that. “James _ain’t_ +a good student,” “Mary _ain’t_ a skillful musician,” or “This orange +_ain’t_ sweet,” are expressions frequently heard, yet those who use +them would be shocked to hear the same expressions with the proper +equivalent _am not_ or _are not_ substituted for the misleading +_ain’t._ + +The expression _ain’t_ is compounded of the verb _am_ or _are_ and the +adverb _not,_ and by the contraction the three vocal impulses +_I-am-not,_ or _you-are-not,_ or _they-are-not,_ are reduced to two. By +compounding the pronoun with the verb and preserving the full adverb, +as in “_I’m not,” “You’re not,”_ “_They’re not,”_ we also reduce the +three vocal impulses to two, thus securing as short a contraction in +sound and one that is as fully adapted to colloquial speech, and that +is, at the same time, in much better taste. + +The old form for _ain’t_ was _an’t,_ but this has now become obsolete. +It will be a blessing to the English-speaking people when the +descendant shall sleep with his father. + +_Are not_ is sometimes contracted into _aren’t,_ but this form has not +found much favor. + +Can’t and Couldn’t + + +As _cannot_ and _could not_ may be used with pronouns of the first, +second, or third person, in either number, and with nouns in both +numbers, no error is likely to follow the use of their contracted +forms. + +Why _cannot_ is properly written as one word, and _could not _requires +two, is not founded upon any principle of philosophy. The concurrent +sanction of all classes in all parts of the English-speaking world +establishes it as law. + +Observe that the _a_ in the verb _can’t_ is broader in sound than the +_short a_ in the noun _cant._ + +Don’t and Didn’t + + +_Don’t_ is a contraction of _do not._ It is in very general use and in +good repute. It may be employed +wherever the expanded expression _do not_ could be applied, and only +there. + +“One swallow _don’t_ make a spring” is equivalent to saying, “One +swallow _do not_ make a spring.” We may say “_I don’t,” “You don’t,” +“We don’t,” “They don’t,” “The men_ (or _birds,_ or _trees) don’t,”_ +but we must use _doesn’t_ with _he,_ or _she,_ or _it,_ or _the man, +the grove, the cloud,_ etc. + +Unlike the verb _do_, its past tense form _did_ undergoes no change in +conjugation, hence the contraction _didn’t_ is also uniform. + +Haven’t, Hasn’t, and Hadn’t + + +The verb _have,_ like the verb _do,_ has a distinct form for the third +person singular. The same change affects the contraction. I _haven’t,_ +you _haven’t,_ he _hasn’t._ The construction _hadn’t_ undergoes no +change. + +Haint, Taint + + +_Haint_ is used indiscriminately for _haven’t_ and _hasn’t. Taint_ is +used for _tisn’t._ Their use is indicative of an entire lack of +culture. + +Isn’t + + +No one need hesitate to use this word. It is smooth in utterance and +contributes much to the freedom and ease of social intercourse. Its +equivalent is too stately for colloquial forms of speech, and is often +suggestive of pedantry. Compare _“Isn’t_ he an eloquent speaker?” +“_Isn’t_ this a beautiful flower?” with _“Is not_ he an eloquent +speaker?” “_Is_ this _not_ a beautiful flower?” + +Wasn’t + + +Although not so elegant as the present tense form _isn’t,_ yet the +contraction _wasn’t_ is in excellent repute. It is properly used only +in the first and third persons singular. No one who makes any +pretension to culture would be guilty of saying” You _was_ my neighbor, +but you _wasn’t_ my friend,” “We _was_ engaged in trade, and they +_wasn’t _of any use to us.” Say we _were_ or _were not,_ but never +_wasn’t_ or _wa’nt._ + +Weren’t + + +The forms _aren’t,_ and _weren’t_ do not have the sanction of the best +speakers and writers, and should be used sparingly, if at all. + +Shouldn’t and Wouldn’t + + +These are frequently used in speech, but are not so common in writing. + +Mustn’t, Mayn’t, Mightn’t, and Oughtn’t + + +_Mustn’t_ may be used in light conversation, but not in writing. The +others should be avoided in speech and writing. + + +I’m, You’re, He’s, She’s, It’s, We’re, They’re + + +The contractions formed by compounding the pronoun with the verb are +very common, and tend to preserve conversation from becoming stiff and +formal. Nouns in the singular are sometimes compounded in like manner; +as, “John’s going by the early train,” “Mary’s caught a bird.” Not many +verbs beside _is_ and _has_ are thus compounded, and the practice +should be discouraged. + +Mayst, Mightst + + +Although _mayst, canst, mightst, couldst, wouldst,_ and _shouldst_ are +contracted forms, the apostrophe is not employed to indicate the +contraction. + +Daren’t, Dursent + + +_Dare not_ is sometimes contracted to _daren’t_ and _durst not_ to_ +dursent,_ but the practice should not be encouraged. + +Let’s + + +While verbs are often contracted when compounded with pronouns, as +_it’s, he’s, I’m, you’re,_ etc., the pronoun must not be contracted to +form a combination with the verb. It may be a poor rule, but it will +not work both ways. _Let’s_ should therefore be _let us._ + + + + +CHAPTER IV +Possessive Case + + +Some time ago a shoe merchant called upon the writer to know how to +arrange the points in the wording of a new sign that he was preparing +to place over his door. He made a specialty of shoes for men and boys. +He presented a paper containing the lines: + +Men’s and Boy’s Shoes. Mens’ and Boys’ Shoes. + + +He was politely informed that both were incorrect; that the two words +form their plurals differently, and that the possessive case is, +therefore, formed in a different manner. The plural of _man_ is _men,;_ +the plural of _boy_ is _boys_. The possessive of _man_ is _man’s;_ of +_men_ is _men’s._ The possessive of _boy_ is _boy’s;_ of _boys_ is +_boys’._ In the latter case we are obliged to place the apostrophe +after the _s_ in order to distinguish the possessive plural from the +possessive singular. All nouns that form their plurals by adding _s_ to +the singular, form their possessive case as the word _boy _does. The +sign should therefore read: + +Men’s and Boys’ Shoes. + + +Singular Nouns + + +All nouns in the singular form their possessive case by adding the +apostrophe and the letter _s_; as, child’s, girl’s, woman’s, bird’s, +brother’s, sister’s, judge’s, sailor’s. + +When the noun ends in _s, sh, ch, ce, se,_ or _x_, the additional _s_ +makes another syllable in pronouncing the word; as, James’s, Charles’s, +witness’s, duchess’s, countess’s, Rush’s, March’s, prince’s, horse’s, +fox’s. In poetry the terminal _s_ is sometimes omitted for the sake of +the meter. + +While writers differ, the tendency in modern usage is toward the +additional _s_ in such expressions as _Mrs. Hemans’s Poems, Junius’s +Letters, Knowles’s “Virginius,” Knox’s Sermons, Brooks’s Arithmetics, +Rogers’s Essays._ + +By long-established usage such expressions as _for conscience’ sake, +for righteousness’ sake, for qoodness’ sake, for Jesus’ sake,_ have +become idioms. Some authorities justify the omission of the possessive +_s_ when the next word begins with _s_, as in _Archimedes’ screw, +Achilles’ sword._ + +Plural Nouns + + +Most nouns form their plurals by adding _s_ or _es_ to the singular. +These plurals form their possessive by adding the apostrophe; as, +horses’, countesses’, foxes’, churches’, princes’. Nouns whose plurals +are formed otherwise than by adding _s_ or _es,_ form their possessive +case by adding the apostrophe and _s,_ just as nouns in the singular +do; as, men’s, women’s, children’s, seraphim’s. + +Pronouns + + +Sometimes the mistake is made of using the apostrophe with the +possessive personal pronouns; as, her’s, our’s, it’s. The personal and +relative pronouns do not require the apostrophe, but the indefinite +pronouns _one_ and _other_ form their possessives in the same manner as +nouns; as, “_each other’s eyes,” “a hundred others’ woes.”_ + +Double Possessives + + +“John and Mary’s sled,” means one sled belonging jointly to John and +Mary. “John’s and Mary’s sleds” means that one sled belongs to John, +the other to Mary. + +“Men, women, and children’s shoes for sale here.” When several +possessives connected by _and_ refer to the same noun, the sign of the +possessive is applied to the last one only. + +When a disjunctive word or words are used, the sign must be annexed to +each word; as, “These are Charles’s or James’s books.” + +Possessive of Nouns in Apposition + + +When two nouns are in apposition, or constitute a title, the possessive +sign is affixed to the last, as +“For David my servant’s sake,” “Give me here John the Baptist’s head in +a charger,” “The Prince of Wales’s yacht,” “Frederick the Great’s +kindness.” + +After “of” + + +By a peculiarity of idiom the possessive sign is used with a noun in +the objective; as, “This is a story _of Lincoln’s,”_ “That is a letter +_of the President’s,”_ “A patient _of Dr. Butler’s,”_ “A pupil _of +Professor Ludlam’s.”_ + +In ordinary prose the custom of the best writers is to limit the use of +the possessive chiefly to persons and personified objects; to time +expressions, as, _an hour’s delay, a moment’s thought;_ and to such +idioms as _for brevity’s sake._ + +Avoid such expressions as, “America’s champion baseball player,” +“Chicago’s best five-cent cigar,” “Lake Michigan’s swiftest steamer.” + +Somebody else’s + + +The question whether we should say “This is somebody’s else pencil,” or +“This is somebody else’s pencil,” has been warmly argued by the +grammarians, the newspapers, and the schools. If some leading journal +or magazine were to write somebody else as one word, others would, +doubtless, follow, and the question of the possessive would settle +itself. The word _notwithstanding_ is composed of three separate words, +which are no more closely united in thought than are the three words +_some, body,_ and _else._ Two of the latter are already united, and the +close mental union of the third with the first and second would justify +the innovation. + +But the words are at present disunited. A majority of the best writers +still conform to the old custom of placing the possessive with _else._ + +“People were so ridiculous with their illusions, carrying their fool’s +caps unawares, thinking their own lies opaque, while _everybody else’s +_were transparent.”—_George Eliot._ + +Some make a distinction by placing the possessive with _else_ when the +noun follows, and with _somebody_ when the noun precedes; as, “This is +_somebody else’s_ pencil,” and “This pencil is _somebody’s else.” _This +distinction is not generally followed. + + + + +CHAPTER V +Pronouns + + +The correct use of the pronouns, personal and relative, involves a +degree of skill which many speakers and writers fail to possess. The +choice of the appropriate pronoun, the agreement with its antecedent, +the proper case form, are matters that require careful consideration. + +Case Forms + + +Following _am, are, is, was,_ and other forms of the verb _to be,_ the +pronoun must be in the nominative case. + +“Are you the person that called?” “Yes; I am _him.”_ The answer should +have been, “I am _he.”_ + +“I saw a man trespassing on my grounds, and I think you are _him.” +_Say, “You are _he.”_ + +“It is only _me;_ don’t be afraid.” “It is only _I”_ is the correct +form. + +“It was _him_ that struck you, not _me.”_ Change _him,_ to _he,_ and +_me_ to _I._ + +“It might have been _him_ that sent you the present.” Use _he, _not +_him._ + + +“It is _him whom_ you said it was.” The sentence should be, “It is _he +who_ you said it was.” + +“That was but a picture of him and not _him_ himself.” Say, “and not +_he_ himself.” + +After Verbs and Prepositions + + +When a pronoun depends upon a verb or a preposition the pronoun must be +in the objective case. + +“Between you and _I,_ that picture is very faulty.” The pronouns _you +_and _I_ depend upon the preposition _between._ The pronoun _I _should +therefore be in the objective case, and the sentence should be, +“Between _you_ and _me,_ that picture is very faulty.” + +“The president of the meeting appointed _you_ and _I_ upon the +committee.” As both pronouns are objects of the transitive verb +_appointed, _both should be in the objective case. _You_ having the +same form in the objective as in the nominative is, therefore, correct, +but _I_ should be changed to _me._ + +“The teacher selected _he_ and _I_ to represent the class.” The +pronouns are the objects of the verb _selected,_ and should be changed +to _him_ and _me._ The infinitive _to represent,_ like other +infinitives, can have no subject, and, therefore, does not control the +case of the pronouns. + +Interrogatives + + +When a question is asked, the subject is usually placed after the verb, +or between the auxiliary and +the verb; as, “Did you go to town?” “Will he sail to-day?” “Has your +uncle arrived?” “Hearest thou thy mother’s call?” + +The object or attribute of the verb, when a pronoun, is often used to +introduce the sentence. “_Who_ should I see coming toward me but my old +friend?” _Who_ should be _whom,_ for it is the object, and not the +subject, of the verb _should see._ + +_“Whom_ do you think that tall gentleman is?” _Whom_ should be _who,_ +as it is the attribute of the verb _is._ + +“_Who_ do you take me for?” Being the object of the preposition _for, +who_ should be _whom._ + +After “To be” + + +“I knew it was _him”_ is incorrect, because the word which forms the +pronoun attribute of the verb _was_ must be in the nominative case. But +the infinitive of the neuter verb requires the objective case. +Therefore we must say, “I knew it to be _him,”_ not “I knew it to be +_he.”_ The latter faulty form is very frequently employed. + +“_Who_ did you suppose it to be?” Incorrect. Say, _“whom.”_ + +_“Whom_ did you suppose it was?” Incorrect. Say, _“who.”_ + + +After the Imperative + + +The imperative mood requires the objective case after it. “Let you and +_I_ try it.” It should be, “Let you and _me_ try it.” + +“Let _he_ who made thee answer that.”—_Byron._ He should have said, +“Let _him_ who made thee answer that.” + +“Let _him_ be _whom,_ he may.” _Him_ is the objective after the +imperative _let,_ and is correct. _Whom_ should be _who,_ as pronoun +attribute of the verb _may be._ “_Who_ he may be, I cannot tell,” is +correct. “_Who_ he may be, let him be,” is also correct. By +transposing, and by omitting _be,_ we have “Let him be _who_ he may.” + +“Let the sea roar, and the fullness thereof; the world, and _they_ that +dwell therein.” When, as in this case, the verb is widely separated +from its object, we need to give particular care to the case of the +pronoun which constitutes the object. _They_ should be _them._ + +Silent Predicate + + +“Who will go with us to the woods? _Me.”_ The complete answer would +be,” Me will go with you to the woods,” the faultiness of which is +evident. The answer should be “_I.”_ + +After “Than” and “As” + + +The objective pronoun is often incorrectly used for the nominative +after _than_ or _as_. + + +“He can swim better _than me.”_ The complete sentence would be, “He can +swim better than _I_ can swim.” The omission of the verb _can swim +_affords no reason for changing _I_ to _me._ + +“He is no better than _me.”_ Say, “He is no better than _I,” _meaning, +_I am._ + +“They are common people, such as you and _me_.” Such people “as you and +I are.” The pronoun should be _I,_ not _me._ + +Parenthetical Expressions + + +When a parenthetical expression comes between a pronoun in the +nominative case and its verb, the objective is often incorrectly used +instead of the nominative. + +“She sang for the benefit of those _whom_ she thought might be +interested.” The explanatory parenthesis _“she thought”_ comes between +the pronominal subject and its verb _might be interested._ Omit the +explanatory clause and the case of the pronoun becomes clear. “She sang +for the benefit of those _who_ might be interested.” + +Agreement with Antecedent + + +A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in _gender, person,_ and +_number._ The gender and person usually take care of themselves, but +the number of pronouns is a serious obstacle to correct speech. + + +“One tells the quality of _their_ minds when _they_ try to talk +well”—_George Eliot,_ in _Middlemarch._ The pronouns _their _and _they_ +should be singular. + +“Everybody has something to say which _they think_ is worthy of being +heard.” _Everybody_ refers to persons singly, and not collectively. +_They think_ should be _he thinks, he_ being the proper pronoun to +employ when the gender is not indicated. + +“Every nation has laws and customs of _their_ own.” The use of the word +_every_ necessitates a pronoun in the singular, hence _their_ should be +_its._ + +“Every one is accountable for _their_ own acts.” Use _his._ + +“She studied his countenance like an inscription, and deciphered _each_ +rapt expression that crossed it, and stored _them_ in her memory.” +Change _them_ to _it._ + +“Each of them, in _their_ turn, received the reward to which _they +were_ entitled.” This should be “Each of them in _his_ turn received +the reward to which _he was_ entitled.” + +_No_ and _not,_ like _each_ and _every,_ when they qualify a plural +antecedent, or one consisting of two or more nouns, require a pronoun +in the singular. + +“No policeman, no employee, no citizen dared to lift _their_ hand” Say, +_his_ hand. + + +Or, Nor + + +When the antecedent consists of two or more nouns separated by _or, +nor, as well as,_ or any other disjunctive, the pronoun must be +singular. + +“Neither spelling nor parsing _receive_ the attention _they_ once +received.” Verb and pronoun should be singular, _receives_ and _it._ + +Collective Noun + + +When a noun of multitude or collective noun is the antecedent, the +pronoun, like the verb, must be plural or singular according to the +sense intended to be conveyed. + +Ambiguity + + +Never leave the antecedent of your pronoun in doubt. + +“John tried to see his father in the crowd, but could not, because _he +_was so short.” If the father was short, repeat the noun and omit the +pronoun, as “John tried to see his father in the crowd but could not +because his father was so short.” If John was short, recast the +sentence: “John, being short of stature, tried in vain to see his +father in the crowd.” + +“He said to his friend that, if he did not feel better soon, he thought +he had better go home.” This sentence is susceptible of four +interpretations. We shall omit the first part of the sentence in the +last +three interpretations, as it is the same in all. “He said to his +friend: ‘If I do not feel better soon, I think I had better go home.’” +“If I do not feel better soon, I think you had better go home.” “If you +do not feel better soon, I think I had better go home.” “If you do not +feel better soon, I think you had better go home.” + +“The lad cannot leave his father; for, if he should leave _him, he_ +would die.” To avoid ambiguity substitute _his father_ for the +italicised pronouns. The repetition is not pleasant, but it is the +lesser of two evils. + +Needless Pronouns + + +Avoid all pronouns and other words that are not essential to the +meaning. + +“The father _he_ died, the mother _she_ soon followed _after, _and the +children _they_ were _all_ taken _down_ sick.” + +“Let every one turn from _his or her_ evil ways.” Unless there is +special reason for emphasizing the feminine pronoun, avoid the awkward +expression _his or her._ The pronoun _his_ includes the other. + +Mixed Pronouns + + +Do not use two styles of the pronoun in the same Sentence. “Enter +_thou_ into the joy of _your_ Lord.” “Love _thyself_ last, and others +will love _you_.” + + +Them, Those + + +It should not be necessary to caution the reader against the use of +_them _for _those._ + +“Fetch me _them_ books.” “Did you see _them,_ fat oxen?” “_Them’s_ +good; I’ll take another dish.” + +Which, Who + + +“Those _which_ say so are mistaken.” _Who_ is applied to persons; +_which,_ to the lower animals and to inanimate things. + +“He has some friends _which_ I know.” _Whom,_ the objective case form +of the pronoun _who,_ should here be used. + +“The dog, _who_ was called Rover, went mad.” Use _which._ + +What, That + + +_That_ is applied to persons, animals, and things. _What _is applied to +things. The antecedent of _what_ should not be expressed. _What_ is +both antecedent and relative. + +“All _what_ he saw he described.” Say, “What he saw,” or “All _that _he +saw,” etc. + +Uniform Relatives + + +When several relative clauses relate to the same antecedent, they +should have the same relative pronoun. + +“It was Joseph _that_ was sold into Egypt, who +became governor of the land, and _which_ saved his father and brothers +from famine.” Change _that_ and _which_ to _who_. + +Choice of Relatives + + +Since _who_ and _that_ are both applied to persons, and _which_ and +_that_ are both applied to animals and things, it often becomes a +serious question which relative we shall employ. Much has been written +upon the subject, but the critics still differ in theory and in +practice. The following is probably as simple a statement of the +general rule as can be found: + +If the relative clause is of such a nature that it could be introduced +by _and he, and she, and it, and they,_ etc., the relative _who_ (for +persons) and _which_ (for animals or things) should be used in +preference to the relative _that._ + +“Man _that_ is born of a woman is of few days, and full of trouble.” +The language of the Bible and of Shakespeare must stand, although the +forms of expression differ greatly from those employed at the present +day. According to modern standards, _that_ should be _who._ + +“The earth is enveloped by an ocean of air _that_ is a compound of +oxygen and nitrogen!” Change _that_ to _which_. + +The relative _that_ should be used in preference to _who_ or _which:_ + + +(1) When the antecedent names both persons and things; +(2) When it would prevent ambiguity; +(3) After the words _same, very, all;_ +(4) After the interrogative pronoun _who;_ +(5) After adjectives expressing quality in the highest degree. + +“The wisest men _who_ ever lived made mistakes.” Use _that._ See (5). + +“He lived near a stagnant pool _which_ was a nuisance.” Use _that. _See +(2). + +“All _who_ knew him loved him.” Say _that._ See (3). + +“Who _who_ saw him did not pity him.” See (4). + +“He spake of the men and things _which_ he had seen.” See (1). + +“These are my pupils _which_ I have brought to see you.” Use _whom, _as +_which_ is not applied to persons. + +“This is the window _whose_ panes were broken by the rude boys.” Use +“the panes of _which.”_ Because of its convenience, perhaps, the faulty +_whose_ is very largely used; as, “The eagle _whose_ wings,” “The house +_whose_ gables,” “The ocean _whose_ waves,” “The vessel _whose_ sails,” +“The play _whose_ chief merit,” “Music _whose _chief attraction,” etc. + + +Which and Who after “And” + + +_Which_ and _who_ cannot follow _and_ unless there has been a preceding +_which_ or _who_ in the same sentence and in the same construction. + +“The more important rules, definitions and observations, _and which_ +are therefore the most proper to be committed to memory, are printed +_with_ a large type.”—_Murray’s Grammar._ In Moore’s _Bad English_ the +sentence is corrected thus: “The rules, definitions, and observations +_which _are the more important, _and which_ are therefore the most +proper to be committed to memory, are printed in larger type.” + +Adverbs for Relative Pronouns + + +Adverbs are often employed where a preposition with a relative pronoun +would better express the sense. + +“There is no method known _how_ his safety may be assured.” Use _by +which_ instead of _how._ + +“He wrote me a letter _where_ he repeated his instructions.” “Letter +_in which_ he repeated,” etc. + +“And curse the country _where_ their fathers dwelt.” _“In which _their +fathers dwelt.” + +“This is a case _where_ large interests are involved.” The preposition +and relative will better express the meaning; as, “This is a case _in +which _large interests are involved.” + + +Misplaced Relative + + +The relative should be so placed as to prevent ambiguity, and as near +as possible to its antecedent. + +“Mr. Smith needs a surgeon, _who_ has broken his arm.” Say, “Mr. Smith, +_who_ has broken,” etc. + +“The figs were in small wooden boxes, _which_ we ate.” “The figs _which +_we ate,” etc. + +“He needs no boots _that_ cannot walk.” “He _that_ cannot walk,” etc. + +Omitted Relatives + + +The relative pronoun is often omitted when it should be expressed. + +“The next falsehood he told was the worst of all.” Say, “The next +falsehood _that_ he told,” etc. + +“It is little we know of the divine perfections.” Say, “Little _that_ +we know.” + +“Almost all the irregularities in the construction of any language have +arisen from the ellipsis of some words which were originally inserted +in the sentence and made it regular.”—_Murray’s Grammar._ The sentence +should end with “_and which_ made it regular.” + +The one, the other + + +When _the one_ and _the other_ refer to things previously mentioned, +_the one_ applies to the first mentioned, and _the other_ to the last +mentioned. + +“Homer was a genius, Virgil an artist: in _the one_ we most admire the +man; in _the other,_ the work.” + + + + +CHAPTER VI +Number + + +Many persons of moderate education regard nouns that do not end with +_s_ or _es_ as singular. Even the gifted pen of Addison once slipped so +far as to betray him into using the word _seraphim,_ in the singular. + +Cherubim, Seraphim + + +The words _cherub_ and _seraph,_ are singular. _Cherub, _as applied to +a little child, takes the English plural, _cherubs._ As applied to an +order of angels, it takes the Hebrew plural, _cherubim._ The singular, +_seraph,_ has an English plural, _seraphs,_ as well as the Hebrew +plural, _seraphim._ The double plurals, _cherubims_ and _seraphims,_ +although found in the King James version of the Bible, are regarded as +faulty in modern writing, and should be avoided. + +News + + +Although plural in form, the word _news_ is singular in meaning; as, +“The _news_ from Europe this morning is quite interesting.” + + +Acoustics + + +Names of sciences ending in _ics,_ are generally regarded as singular. +_“Acoustics_ is a very considerable branch of physics.” Do not say, +“The _acoustics_ of this hall _are_ good,” but “The _acoustic_ +_properties_ of this hall are good.” + +Dialectics, dynamics, economics, mathematics, ethics, politics, +tactics, when used as substantives, require a verb in the singular. + +Analysis + + +Many words like _analysis, crisis, ellipsis, emphasis, hypothesis, +oasis, parenthesis, synopsis,_ form their plurals by changing the +termination _is_ into _es;_ as, _analyses, crises,_ etc. The word _iris +_takes the English plural _irises;_ Latin plural is _irides. Chrysalis_ +has only the Latin plural, _chrysalides;_ but _chrysalid, _which means +the same as _chrysalis,_ takes the English plural, _chrysalids._ + +Terminus + + +_Terminus, radius, alumnus,_ and some other words ending in _us_, form +their plurals by changing the termination _us_ into _i_; as _termini, +radii,_ etc. + +Many words ending in _us_ that formerly were written with only the +Latin plural, are now given an English plural also; as, _focuses, foci; +cactuses, cacti; sarcophaguses, sarcophagi; convolvuluses, convolvuli ; +funguses, fungi; nucleuses, nuclei._ + + +_Isthmus, prospectus, rebus,_ take only the English plural. + +_Apparatus_ has no plural. Avoid _apparatuses._ + +The plural of _genius,_ as applied to a man of unusual vigor of mind, +is _geniuses._ When applied to a good or bad spirit, the plural is +_genii._ + +Formula + + +_Formulas, larvas, stigmas,_ are regular English plurals; _formulae, +larvae,_ and _stigmata_ are the classical plurals. _Nebulae_ and +_alumnae_ are the proper plurals, the latter being the feminine noun +corresponding to the masculine plural _alumni._ + +Datum, Phenomenon + + +_Datum, erratum, candelabrum,_ and _memorandum_ form their plurals by +changing _um_ to _a_; as, _data, errata,_ etc. The last two also take +the English plurals, _memorandums, candelabrums._ + +The plural of _phenomenon_ and _criterion_ are _phenomena, criteria,_ +although _criterions_ is sometimes employed. + +The plural forms, _data, strata,_ and _phenomena,_ are so much more +frequently used than their singular forms, _datum, stratum,_ and +_phenomenon,_ that some writers have slipped into the habit of using +the plurals with a singular meaning; as, “The _aurora borealis_ is a +very strange _phenomena.”_ “Our _data_ is insufficient to establish a +theory.” “The _strata_ is broken and irregular.” + + +Mussulmans + + +While most words ending in _man_ become plural by changing this +termination to _men,_ as _gentlemen, noblemen, clergymen, statesmen, +_the following simply add _s_: _dragomans, Mussulmans, Ottomans, +talismans_ “A dozen dragomans offered their services as guides and +interpreters.” “A band of Mussulmans cut off our retreat.” “Those +fierce Ottomans proved to be very revengeful.” “He purchased five +finely upholstered ottomans for his drawing-room.” + +Heroes, Cantos + + +Most nouns ending in _o_ add _es_ to form the plural; as, _heroes, +negroes, potatoes, stuccoes, manifestoes, mosquitoes._ Words ending in +_io_ or _yo_ add _s;_ as, _folios, nuncios, olios, ratios, embryos_. + +The following words, being less frequently used, often puzzle us to +know whether to add _s_ or _es_ to form the plural: _armadillos, +cantos, cuckoos, halos, juntos, octavos, provisos, salvos, solos, twos, +tyros, virtuosos._ + +Alms, Odds, Riches + + +Many nouns that end in _s_ have a plural appearance, and we are often +perplexed to know whether to use _this_ or _these,_ and whether to +employ a singular or a plural verb when the noun is used as a +substantive. + +_Amends_ is singular. _Assets, dregs, eaves, bees, pincers, riches, +scissors, sheers, tongs, vitals,_ are plural. When we +say _a_ _pair of pincers,_ or _scissors_, or _shears,_ or _tongs,_ the +verb should be singular. _Tidings,_ in Shakespeare’s time, was used +indiscriminately with a singular or plural verb, but is now generally +regarded as plural. + +_Alms_ and _headquarters_ are usually made plural, but are occasionally +found with a singular verb. _Pains_ is usually singular. _Means, odds,_ +and _species_ are singular or plural, according to the meaning. + +“By _this means_ he accomplished his purpose.” “What other _means is +_left to us?” “Your _means are_ very slender, and your waste is great.” + +Proper Names + + +These are usually pluralized by adding _s_; as, _the Stuarts, the +Caesars, the Beechers, the Brownings._ + +Titles with Proper Names + + +Shall we say _the Miss Browns, the Misses Brown,_ or _the Misses +Browns?_ Great diversity of opinion prevails. Gould Brown says: “The +name and not the title is varied to form the plural; as, _the Miss +Howards, the two Mr. Clarks.”_ + +Alexander Bain, LL. D., says: “We may say _the Misses Brown,_ or _the +Miss Browns,_ or even _the Misses Browns.”_ + +The chief objection to the last two forms is found when the proper name +ends with _s_, as when we say, _the Miss Brookses, the Miss Joneses, +the Miss Pottses, the_ +_Miss Blisses._ The form _the Misses Brooks_ is objected to by some on +the ground that it sounds affected. On the whole the rule given by +Gould Brown is the best, and is quite generally observed. + +Knight Templar + + +Both words are made plural, _Knights Templars,_ a very unusual way of +forming the plural. + +Plural Compounds + + +The plural sign of a compound word is affixed to the principal part of +the word, to the part that conveys the predominant idea; as, +_fathers-in-law, man-servants, outpourings, ingatherings._ In such +words as _handfuls, cupfuls, mouthfuls,_ the plural ending is added to +the subordinate part because the ideas are so closely associated as to +blend into one. + +Beaus, Beaux + + +Some words ending in _eau_ have only the English plurals, as _bureaus, +portmanteaus;_ others take both the English and the French plurals, as +_beaus, beaux; flambeaus, flambeaux; plateaus, plateaux;_ and still +others take only the foreign plural; as, _bateaux, chateaux, tableaux._ + +Pair, Couple, Brace + + +After numerals, the singular form of such words as these is generally +employed; as, five _pair_ of gloves, eight _couple_ of dancers, three +_brace_ of pigeons, five +_dozen_ of eggs, four _score_ years, twenty _sail_ of ships, fifty +_head_ of cattle, six _hundred_ of these men, two _thousand _of these +cattle, etc. + +After such indefinite adjectives as _few, many, several,_ some of the +above words take the plural form; as, several _hundreds,_ many +_thousands._ + +Index, Appendix + + +_Indexes_ of books; _indices,_ if applied to mathematical signs in +algebra. _Appendixes_ or _appendices._ + +Fish, Fly + + +The plural of _fish_ is _fishes_ when considered individually, and +_fish_ when considered collectively. “My three pet _fishes_ feed out of +my hand.” “Six barrels of _fish_ were landed from the schooner.” + +Most words ending in _y_ change this termination into _ies,_ as +_duties, cities,_ etc. The plural of _fly,_ the insect, is formed in +the usual manner, but fly, a light carriage, adds _s_; as, “Six _flys +_carried the guests to their homes.” + +Animalcule + + +The plural of this word is _animalcules._ There is no plural +_animalculae._ The plural of the Latin _animalculum_ is _animalcula._ + +Bandit + + +This word has two plural forms, _bandits_ and _banditti._ + + +Brother + + +Plural _brothers,_ when referring to members of the same family; +_brethren,_ when applied to members of the same church or society. + +Die + + +Plural _dies,_ when the stamp with which seals are impressed is meant; +_dice,_ the cubes used in playing backgammon. + +Herring + + +The plural is _herrings,_ but _shad, trout, bass, pike, pickerel, +grayling,_ have no plural form. “I caught three _bass_ and seven fine +_pickerel_ this morning.” + +Grouse + + +The names of game birds, as _grouse, quail, snipe, woodcock,_ usually +take no plural form. + +Pea + + +Considered individually the plural is _peas;_ when referring to the +crop the proper form is _pease._ + +Penny + + +“He gave me twelve bright new _pennies,”_ referring to the individual +coins. “I paid him twelve _pence,”_ meaning a _shilling._ + +Wharf + + +Plural, generally _wharves_ in America; _wharfs_ in England. + + + + +CHAPTER VII +Adverbs + + +The clearness of the sentence is often dependent upon the proper +placing of the adverb. No absolute rule can be laid down, but it should +generally be placed before the word it qualifies. It is sometimes +necessary to place it after the verb, and occasionally between the +auxiliary and the verb, but it should never come between _to_ and the +_infinitive._ + +“I have thought of marrying _often.”_ As the adverb relates to the +thinking, and not to the marrying, the sentence should read, “I have +_often _thought of marrying.” + +“We have _often_ occasion to speak of health.” This should be, “We +_often_ have occasion,” etc, + +“It remains then _undecided_ whether we shall go to Newport or +Saratoga.” Place _undecided_ before _then._ + +Adjective or Adverb? + + +There is often a doubt in the mind of the speaker whether to use the +adjective or the adverb, and too frequently he reaches a wrong +decision. When the limiting word expresses a quality or state of the +subject or of the object of a verb, the adjective must be employed; but +if the manner of the action is to be expressed, the adverb must be +used. The verbs _be, seem, look, taste, smell,_ and _feel_ furnish many +stumbling-blocks. + +“This rose smells _sweetly.”_ As the property or quality of the rose is +here referred to, and not the manner of smelling, the adjective _sweet +_should be employed, and not the adverb _sweetly._ + +“Thomas feels quite _badly_ about it.” Here, again, it is the condition +of Thomas’s mind, and not the manner of feeling, that is to be +expressed; hence, _badly_ should be _bad_ or _uncomfortable._ + +“Didn’t she look _beautifully_ upon the occasion of her wedding?” No; +she looked _beautiful._ + +“The sun shines brightly.” _Bright_ is the better word. + +“The child looks _cold,”_ refers to the condition of the child. “The +lady looked _coldly_ upon her suitor,” refers to the manner of looking. + +“The boy feels warm” is correct. “The boy feels _warmly_ the rebuke of +his teacher” is equally correct. + +While license is granted to the poets to use the adjective for the +adverb, as in the line + +“They fall _successive_ and _successive_ rise,” + + +in prose the one must never be substituted for the other. + + +_“Agreeably_ to my promise, I now write,” not _“Agreeable_ to my +promise.” + +“An _awful_ solemn funeral,” should be “An _awfully_ solemn funeral.” + +“He acts _bolder_ than was expected,” should be “He acts _more +boldly.”_ + +“Helen has been _awful_ sick, but she is now _considerable _better.” +“Helen has been very ill, but she is now _considerably _better.” + +Do not use _coarser_ for more coarsely, _finer_ for more finely, +_harsher_ for more harshly, _conformable_ for conformably, _decided +_for decidedly, _distinct_ for distinctly, _fearful_ for fearfully, +_fluent_ for fluently. + +Do not say “This melon is _uncommon_ good,” but “This melon is +_uncommonly_ good.” + +The word _ill_ is both an adjective and an adverb. Do not say “He can +illy afford to live in such a house,” but “He can _ill_ afford.” + +“That was a _dreadful_ solemn sermon.” To say “That was a _dreadfully +_solemn sermon” would more grammatically express what the speaker +intended, but _very_ or _exceedingly_ would better express the meaning. + +Such, So + + +_Such_ is often improperly used for the adverb _so._ + +“In _such_ a mild and healthful climate.” This should be, “In _so_ mild +and healthful a climate.” + + +“With all due deference to _such_ a high authority on _such_ a very +important matter.” Change to, “With all due deference to _so_ high an +authority on _so_ very important a matter.” + +Good, Well + + +Many intelligent persons carelessly use the adjective _good_ in the +sense of the adverb _well;_ as, “I feel _good_ to-day.” “Did you sleep +_good_ last night?” “Does this coat look _good_ enough to wear on the +street?” “I can do it as _good_ as he can.” The frequent indulgence in +such errors dulls the sense of taste and weakens the power of +discrimination. + +Very much of + + +“She is _very much of_ a lady.” Say, “She is very ladylike.” “He is +_very much of_ a gentleman.” Say, “He is very gentlemanly.” + +Quite + + +This adverb is often incorrectly used in the sense of _very_ or +_rather._ It should be employed only in the sense of _wholly_ or +_entirely._ These sentences are therefore incorrect: + +“He was wounded _quite_ severely.” + +“James was _quite_ tired of doing nothing.” + + +How + + +This word is sometimes used when another would be more appropriate. + +“He said _how_ he would quit farming.” Use _that._ + +“Ye see _how_ that not many wise men are called.” We must read the +Bible as we find it, but in modern English the sentence would be +corrected by omitting _how._ + +“Be careful _how_ you offend him.” If the manner of offending is the +thought to be expressed, the sentence is correct. But the true meaning +is doubtless better expressed by, “Be careful _lest_ you offend him.” + +No, Not + + +“I cannot tell whether he will come or _no.”_ “Whether he be a sinner +or _no_ I know not.” In such cases _not_ should be used instead of +_no._ + +This much + + +_“This much_ can be said in his favor.” Change _this much_ to _so_ +_much_ or_ thus much._ + +That far + + +The expressions _this far_ and _that far,_ although they are very +common, are, nevertheless, incorrect. _Thus_ _far_ or _so far _should +be used instead. + + +Over, More than + + +“There were not _over_ thirty persons present.” _Over_ is incorrect; +_above_ has some sanction; but _more than,_ is the best, and should be +used. + +Real good + + +This is one of those good-natured expressions that insinuate themselves +into the speech of even cultured people. _Very good_ is just as short, +and much more correct. _Really good_ scarcely conveys the thought +intended. + +So nice + + +“This basket of flowers is _so_ _nice.” So nice_ does not tell _how_ +_nice. So_ requires a correlative to complete its meaning. Use _very +nice_ or _very pretty._ + +Pell-mell + + +“He rushes _pell-mell_ down the street.” One bird cannot flock by +itself, nor can one man rush _pell-mell._ It will require at least +several men to produce the intermixing and confusion which the word is +intended to convey. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII +Conjunctions + + +As a general rule, sentences should not begin with conjunctions. _And, +or,_ and _nor_ are often needlessly employed to introduce a sentence. +The disjunctive _but_ may sometimes be used to advantage in this +position, and in animated and easy speech or writing the coordinate +conjunction _and_ may be serviceable, but these and all other +conjunctions, when made to introduce sentences, should be used +sparingly. + +Reason, Because + + +“The _reason_ I ask you to tell the story is _because_ you can do it +better than I.” _Because_ means _“for the reason_.” This makes the +sentence equivalent to “The _reason_ I ask you to tell the story is +_for the reason_ that you can do it better than I.” Use _that _instead +of because. + +_“Because_ William studied law is no _reason_ why his brother should +not do so.” The following is better: _“That_ William studied law is no +_reason_ why his brother should not do so.” + + +Only, Except, But + + +“The house was as convenient as his, _only_ that it was a trifle +smaller.” Use _except_ for _only._ + +“The field was as large as his, _only_ the soil was less fertile.” Use +_but_ for _only._ + +But, Except + + +“Being the eldest of the brothers _but_ Philip, who was an invalid, he +assumed charge of his father’s estate.” _Except_ is better than _but._ + +But what, But that + + +“Think no man so perfect _but what_ he may err.” Say, _“but that_ he +may err.” + +“I could not think _but what_ he was insane.” Use _but that._ + +But, If + + +“I should not wonder _but_ the assembly would adjourn to-day.” Use _if_ +instead of _but._ + +But, That + + +“I have no doubt _but_ he will serve you well.” Say, “_that _he will +serve you well.” + +That, That + + +“I wished to show, by your own writings, _that_ so far were you from +being competent to teach others English composition, _that_ you had +need yourself to study its first principles.”—_Moon, Dean’s English._ + +The second _that_ is superfluous. This fault is very +common with writers who use long sentences. The intervention of details +between the first _that_ and the clause which it is intended to +introduce causes the writer to forget that he has used the introductory +word, and prompts him to repeat it unconsciously. + +But + + +“There is no doubt _but_ that he is the greatest painter of the age.” +The word _but_ is superfluous. “He never doubted _but_ that he was the +best fisherman on the coast.” Omit _but._ + +That + + +“He told me he would write as soon as he reached London.” Say, “He told +me _that_ he would write,” etc. + +Than + + +“The Romans loved war better _than_ the Greeks.” Such ambiguous forms +should be avoided. As it is not probable that the speaker intended to +say that the Romans loved war better than they loved the Greeks, he +should have framed his sentence thus: “The Romans loved war better than +the Greeks did.” + +But that + + +“He suffered no inconvenience _but that_ arising from the dust.” _But +that,_ or _except that,_ is correct. Some persons improperly use _than +that_ after _no._ + +“I don’t know _but_ _that_ I shall go to Europe.” Omit _that. “_I don’t +know _but_ I shall go,” etc. + + +Other than + + +“We suffered no _other_ inconvenience _but_ that arising from the +dust.” This is incorrect. After _other_ we should use _than. +_Therefore, “We suffered no _other_ inconvenience _than_ that arising +from the dust.” + +After _else, other, rather,_ and all comparatives, the latter term of +comparison should be introduced by the conjunction _than._ + +Either the + + +“Passengers are requested not to converse with _either_ conductor or +driver.” This is one of those business notices that are often more +concise than correct. It implies that there are two conductors and two +drivers. The sentence should read, “Passengers are requested not to +converse with _either the _conductor _or the_ driver.” + +Lest, That + + +“I feared _lest_ I should be left behind.” Use the copulative _that, +_and not the disjunctive _lest._ “I feared _that_ I should be left +behind.” + +Otherwise than + + +“He cannot do _otherwise but_ follow your direction.” Use _than, _not +_but,_ after _otherwise._ Hence, “He cannot do _otherwise than_ +follow,” etc. + +After that + + +_“After that_ I have attended to the business I will call upon you.” +The word _that_ is superfluous. + + +But what + + +“His parents will never believe _but what_ he was enticed away by his +uncle.” Omit _what._ The use of _but that_ would be equally +objectionable. _But_ is sufficient. + +A reconstruction of the sentence would improve it. “His parents will +always believe,” or “Will never cease to believe that,” etc. + +Doubt not but + + +“I _doubt not but_ your friend will return.” Say, “I _doubt not that_ +your friend will return.” + +Not impossible but + + +“It is _not impossible but_ he may call to-day.” Use _that _instead of +_but._ + +Whether, Whether + + +“Ginevra has not decided _whether_ she will study history or _whether_ +she will study philosophy.” As there is nothing gained in clearness or +in emphasis by the repetition of _“whether she will,”_ this shorter +sentence would be better: “Ginevra has not decided whether she will +study history or philosophy.” + +As though + + +“He spoke _as_ _though,_ he had a customer for his house.” Say, “_as_ +_if_ he had a _purchaser,”_ etc. + + +Except + + +“I will not let thee go _except_ thou bless me.” This use of the word +_except_ occurs frequently in the Scriptures, but it is now regarded as +obsolete. The word _unless_ should be used instead. + +“Few speakers _except_ Burke could have held their attention.” In this +sentence, _besides_ should take the place of _except._ + + + + +CHAPTER IX +Correlatives + + +Certain adverbs and conjunctions, in comparison or antithesis, require +the use of corresponding adverbs and conjunctions. Such corresponding +words are called correlatives. The following are the principal ones in +use: + +as, as. +as, so. +both, and. +if, then. +either, or. +neither, nor. +not only, but. +not only, but also. +not only, but even. +not merely, but. +not merely, but also. +not merely, but even. +so, as. +so, that. +such, as. +such, that. +though, yet. +when, then. +where, there. +whether, or. + + +The improper grouping of these correlatives is the cause of many errors +in speech and writing. + +As... as + + +“She is _as_ wise _as_ she is good.” “Mary is _as_ clever _as _her +brother.” The correlatives _as... as_ are +employed in expressing equality. Their use in any other connection is +considered inelegant. _“As_ far _as_ I am able to judge, he would make +a very worthy officer.” This is a very common error. The sentence +should be, _“So_ far _as_ I am able,” etc. + +_As_ is often followed by _so. “As_ thy days, _so_ shall thy strength +be.” + +So... as + + +In such negative assertions as, “This is not _as_ fine a tree _as_ +that,” the first _as_ should be changed to _so_. Say, “She is not _so_ +handsome _as_ she once was.” “This edition of Tennyson is not _so_ fine +_as_ that.” + +Either, Neither + + +The correlatives _either, or,_ and _neither, nor,_ are employed when +two objects are mentioned; as, _“Either_ you _or_ I must go to town +to-day,” “_Neither_ James _nor_ Henry was proficient in history.” + +“He _neither_ bought, sold, _or_ exchanged stocks and bonds.” The +sentence should be, “He _neither_ bought, sold, _nor_ exchanged stocks +and bonds.” + +“That is not true, _neither.”_ As we already have one negative in the +word _not,_ the word _neither_ should be changed _to either,_ to avoid +the double negation. + +A negative other than _neither_ may take either _or_ or _nor _as its +correlative, “She was _not_ so handsome as her mother, _or _so +brilliant as her father.” “He was _never_ happy _nor _contented +afterward.” + + +Position of correlatives + + +The placing of correlatives requires care. “He _not only_ gave me +advice, _but also_ money.” This is a faulty construction because the +first member of the correlative, _not only,_ being placed before the +verb _gave_ leads us to expect that the action of _giving_ is to be +contrasted with some other action. The close of the sentence reveals +the fact that the words _advice_ and _money_ represent the ideas +intended for contrast. The first correlative should, therefore, have +been placed before _advice,_ and the sentence should read, “He gave me +_not only_ advice, _but also _money.” + +“I remember that I am not here as a censor _either_ of manners _or +_morals.” This sentence from Richard Grant White will be improved by +changing the position of the first member of the correlative. “I +remember that I am not here as a censor of _either_ manners _or_ +morals.” + +“I _neither_ estimated myself highly _nor_ lowly.” It should be, “I +estimated myself _neither_ highly _nor_ lowly.” + +“He _neither_ attempted to excite anger, _nor_ ridicule, _nor +_admiration.” The sentence should be, “He attempted to excite _neither +_anger, _nor_ ridicule, _nor_ admiration.” But here we have the +correlative _neither, nor,_ used with more than two objects, which is a +violation of a principle previously stated. The +sentence is purposely introduced to call attention to the fact that +many respectable writers not only use _neither, nor,_ with three or +more objects, but also defend it. This usage may be avoided by a +reconstruction of the sentence; as, “He did not attempt to excite +anger, nor ridicule, nor admiration.” + + + + +CHAPTER X +The Infinitive + + +Many errors arise from not knowing how to use the infinitive mood. +Perhaps the most common fault is to interpose an adverb between the +preposition _to_ and the infinitive verb; as, “It is not necessary _to +accurately relate_ all that he said.” “You must not expect _to always +find_ people agreeable.” Whether we shall place the adverb before the +verb or after it must often be determined by considerations of emphasis +and smoothness as well as of clearness and correctness. In the +foregoing sentences it is better to place _accurately_ after the verb, +and _always_ before the preposition _to._ + +Supply “to” + + +The preposition _to_ as the sign of the infinitive is often improperly +omitted. + +“Please _write_ clearly, so that we may understand,” “Your efforts will +tend to hinder rather than _hasten_ the work,” “Strive so to criticise +as not to embarrass +nor _discourage_ your pupil.” These sentences will be corrected by +inserting _to_ before the italicized words. + +In such expressions as “Please _excuse_ my son’s absence,” “Please +_write_ me a letter,” “Please _hand_ me the book,” many authorities +insist upon the use of _to_ before the verb. The sentences may, +however, be regarded as softened forms of the imperative; as, _“Hand_ +me the book, if you please.” Transposed, “If you please, hand me the +book.” Contracted, “Please, hand me the book.” From this, the comma may +have slipped out and left the sentence as first written. + +Omit “to” + + +When a series of infinitives relate to the same object, the word _to_ +should be used before the first verb and omitted before the others; as, +“He taught me _to read, write,_ and _cipher.”_ “The most accomplished +way of using books at present is to serve them as some do lords—_learn_ +their titles and then _brag_ of their acquaintance.” + +The active verbs _bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, see,_ and +their participles, usually take the infinitive after them, without the +preposition _to._ Such expressions, as “He bade me _to depart,” “_I +dare _to say_ he is a villain,” “I had difficulty in making him _to +see_ his error,” are, therefore, wrong, and are corrected by omitting +_to._ + + +Incomplete Infinitive + + +Such incomplete expressions as the following are very common: “He has +not gone to Europe, nor is he likely _to.” “_She has not written her +essay, nor does she intend _to.” “_Can a man arrive at excellence who +has no desire _to?”_ The addition of the word _go_ to the first +sentence, and of _write it,_ to the second would make them complete. In +the case of the third sentence it would be awkward to say, “Can a man +arrive at excellence who has no desire _to arrive at excellence.”_ We +therefore substitute the more convenient expression “_to do so.”_ + + + + +CHAPTER XI +Participles + + +Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, or else are governed by +prepositions. Those ending in _ing_ should not be made the subjects or +objects of verbs while they retain the government and adjuncts of +participles. They may often be converted into nouns or take the form of +the infinitive. + +“Not _attending_ to this rule is the cause of a very common error.” +Better, _“Inattention_ to this rule,” etc. “He abhorred _being_ in +debt.” Better, “He abhorred _debt,” “Cavilling_ and _objecting_ upon +any subject is much easier than _clearing_ up difficulties.” Say, “_To +cavil_ and _object_ upon any subject is much easier than _to clear _up +difficulties.” + +Omit “of” + + +Active participles have the same government as the verbs from which +they are derived. The preposition _of,_ therefore, should not be used +after the participle, when the verb would not require it. Omit _of_ in +such expressions as these: “Keeping _of_ one day +in seven,” “By preaching _of_ repentance,” “They left beating _of +_Paul,” “From calling _of_ names they came to blows,” “They set about +repairing _of_ the walls.” + +If the article _the_ occurs before the participle, the preposition _of +_must be retained; as, “They strictly observed _the keeping of_ one day +in seven.” + +When a transitive participle is converted into a noun, _of_ must be +inserted to govern the object following. “He was very exact in _forming +_his sentences,” “He was very exact in _the formation of_ his +sentences.” + +Omit the possessive + + +The possessive case should not be prefixed to a participle that is not +taken in all respects as a noun. It should, therefore, be expunged in +the following sentences: “By _our_ offending others, we expose +ourselves.” “She rewarded the boy for _his_ studying so diligently.” +“He errs in _his_ giving the word a double construction.” + +The possessives in such cases as the following should be avoided: “I +have some recollection of his _father’s_ being a judge.” “To prevent +_its _being a dry detail of terms.” These sentences may be improved by +recasting them. “I have some recollection that his father was a judge.” +“To prevent it from being a dry detail of terms.” + + +When the noun or pronoun to which the participle relates is a passive +subject, it should not have the possessive form; as, “The daily +instances of _men’s _dying around us remind us of the brevity of human +life.” “We do not speak of a _monosyllable’s_ having a primary accent.” +Change _men’s_ to _men,_ and _monosyllable’s_ to _monosyllable._ + +After verbs + + +Verbs do not govern participles. “I intend _doing_ it,” “I remember +_meeting_ Longfellow,” and similar expressions should be changed by the +substitution of the infinitive for the participle; as, “I intend _to do +it,” _“I remember _to have met_ Longfellow.” + +After verbs signifying _to persevere, to desist,_ the participle ending +in _ing_ is permitted; as, “So when they _continued asking_ him, he +lifted up himself, and said unto them.” + +Place + + +In the use of participles and of verbal nouns, the leading word in +sense should always be made the leading word, and not the adjunct, in +the construction. + +“They did not give notice of the _pupil_ leaving.” Here, the leading +idea is _leaving. Pupil_ should, therefore, be subordinate by changing +its form to the possessive; as, “They did not give notice of the +_pupil’s _leaving.” Better still, “They did not give notice that the +pupil had left.” + + +Clearness + + +The word to which the participle relates should stand out clearly. “By +giving way to sin, trouble is encountered.” This implies that trouble +gives way to sin. The relation of the participle is made clear by +saying, “By giving way to sin, we encounter trouble.” + +“By yielding to temptation, our peace is sacrificed.” This should be, +“By yielding to temptation we sacrifice our peace.” + +“A poor child was found in the streets by a wealthy and benevolent +gentleman, suffering from cold and hunger.” Say, “A poor child, +suffering from cold and hunger, was found,” etc. + +Awkward Construction + + +Such awkward sentences as the following should be avoided. In most +cases they will require to be recast. + +“But as soon as the whole body _is attempted to be carved,_ a +disproportion between its various parts results.” + +“The offence _attempted to be charged_ should be alleged under another +section of the statute.” The following is a better arrangement: + +“But as soon as an attempt is made to carve the whole body,” etc. “The +offence which it is attempted to charge,” etc. + + +Is building + + +The active participle in a passive sense is employed by many excellent +writers and is condemned by others. + +“Corn _is selling_ for fifty cents a bushel.” + +“Corn _is_ _being sold_ for fifty cents a bushel.” + +The commercial world evidently prefers the former sentence. There is a +breeziness and an energy in it that is lacking in the latter. It must, +however, be used with caution. In the following examples the passive +form is decidedly better than the active: “The foundation _was_ _being +laid,”_ “They _are being educated,” “_While the speech _was being +delivered,” _etc. + + + + +CHAPTER XII +Prepositions + + +Clearness and elegance of style are, in no small degree, dependent upon +the choice and right use of prepositions. Many rules have been +formulated, some of which are deserving of consideration, while others +are nearly or quite useless. Among the latter may be mentioned, by way +of illustration, the oft-repeated rule that _between_ or _betwixt_ must +invariably be used when only two things are referred to, and that +_among_ must be employed when more than two are named. While it is true +that the order could not be reversed, that _among,_ when used, must be +employed in reference to three or more persons or things, and that +_between_ may always be employed in speaking of two objects, yet the +practice of many of the best writers does not limit the use of +_between_ to two objects. In fact, there are cases in which _among_ +will not take the place of _between;_ as, “I set out eighty trees with +ample space _between_ them.” “The stones on his farm were so plentiful +that the grass could not grow up _between_ them.” + + +Between, Among + + +“The seven children divided the apples _between_ them.” Two children +may divide apples _between,_ them, but in this case it is better to +say, “The seven children divided the apples _among_ them.” + +George Eliot, in _Middlemarch,_ says: “The fight lay entirely _between +_Pinkerton, the old Tory member; Bagster, the new Whig member; and +Brook, the Independent member.” In this case, _between_ or _with_ is +more satisfactory than _among,_ although three persons are referred to. + +Choice + + +Many sentences betoken ignorance and others indicate extreme +carelessness on the part of the writers by the inapt choice of their +prepositions, which often express relations so delicate in their +distinctions that nothing short of an extended study of the best +writers will confer the desired skill. We present some examples. + +By, In + + +“We do not accept the proposition referred to _by_ your letter.” The +writer should have employed the preposition _in._ + +Differ with, From + + +We differ _with_ a person in opinion or belief; we differ _from_ him in +appearance, in attainments, in wealth, in rank, etc. + + +Different from, To, Than + + +“Your story is very plausible, but Henry’s is different _to _that.” “My +book is quite different _than_ his.” The adjective _different_ must not +be followed by the preposition _to_ or _than. _The sentences will be +correct when _from_ is substituted. + +At, To + + +Never use the vulgar expression, “He is _to_ home.” Say _at home._ + +Preferred before, To + + +“He was _preferred before_ me.” Say _preferred to me._ + +With, Of + + +“He died _with_ consumption.” _Of_ is the proper preposition to employ. +But we say, He is afflicted _with_ rheumatism, or bronchitis, or other +disease. + +In respect of, To + + +“In respect _of_ this matter, he is at fault.” Better, _“to_ this +matter.” + +Of, From + + +“He was acquitted _from_ the charge of larceny.” Acquitted _of _the +charge. + +In, Into + + +_Into_ implies direction or motion. “They walked _into_ the church,” +means that they entered it from the outside. “They walked _in_ the +church,” means that they walked back and forth within the church. + + +“The vessel is _in_ port.” “She came _into_ port yesterday.” + +Of, In + + +“There was no use _of_ asking his permission, for he would not grant +it.” _In_ asking. + +In, On + + +“He is a person _in_ whom you can rely.” “That is a man _in_ whose +statements you can depend.” Use _on_ for _in._ + +To, With + + +Two persons are reconciled _to_ each other; two doctrines or measures +are reconciled _with_ each other when they are made to agree. + +“This noun is in apposition _to_ that.” Use _with._ + +With, By + + +These two prepositions are often confounded. They have a similarity of +signification with a difference of use. Both imply a connection between +some instrument or means and the agent by whom it is used. _With_ +signifies the closer relation and _by_ the more remote one. + +It is said that an ancient king of Scotland once asked his nobles by +what tenure they held their lands. The chiefs drew their swords, +saying, _“By _these we acquired our lands, and _with_ these we will +defend them.” + +_By_ often relates to the person; _with_ to the instrument. + + +“He lay on the ground half concealed _with_ a clump of bushes.” “That +speech was characterized _with_ eloquence.” Use _by_ in the last two +sentences. + +With, To + + +We _correspond with_ a person when we exchange letters. In speaking of +the adaptation of one object to another, the preposition _to _should be +used after the verb correspond; as, “This picture corresponds _to_ +that.” _With_ is often incorrectly used in such cases instead of _to._ + +Position + + +The old grammarian gave a very good rule when he said, “A preposition +is a very bad word to end a sentence with;” but it is sometimes easier +to follow his example than his precept. In general, the strength of a +sentence is improved by not placing small particles at the end. + +“Which house do you live _in?”_ Better, “In which house do you live?” + +“Avarice is a vice which most men are guilty _of.”_ Say, “of which most +men are guilty.” + +“He is a man that you should be acquainted _with.”_ Say, _“with _whom +you should be acquainted.” + +“Is this the man that you spoke _of?”_ Better, _“of_ whom you spoke.” + +“These are principles that our forefathers died _for.”_ Rather, _“for +_which our forefathers died.” + + +Omission + + +Prepositions are often omitted when their use is necessary to the +correct grammatical construction of the sentence. + +“They now live on this side the river.” Say, “on this side _of_ the +river.” + +“Esther and Helen sit opposite each other.” It is more correct to say, +“sit opposite _to_ each other.” + +“John is worthy our help.” Better, “_of_ our help.” + +“What use is this to us?” _Of_ what use, etc. + +“This law was passed the same year that I was born.” Say, “In the same +year,” etc. + +“Washington was inaugurated President April 30, 1789.” Some critics +insist upon the insertion of _on_ before a date, as _“on_ April 30,” +but general usage justifies its omission. With equal force they might +urge the use of _in_ before 1789. The entire expression of day, month, +and year is elliptical. + +If the same preposition be required by several nouns or pronouns, it +must be repeated in every case if it be repeated at all. “He is +interested _in _philosophy, history, and _in_ science.” This sentence +may be corrected by placing _in_ before history or by omitting it +before science. The several subjects are individualized more strongly +by the use of _in _before each noun. This is shown in the greater +obscurity given to _history_ by the omission of the preposition in the +foregoing sentence. + + +“We may have a feeling of innocence or of guilt, of merit or demerit.” +Insert _of_ before demerit. + +Needless Prepositions + + +Prepositions, like other parts of speech that contribute nothing to the +meaning, should not be suffered to cumber the sentence. + +Where am I _at?_ Where is my book _at?_ I went there _at_ about noon. +In what latitude is Chicago _in?_ Where are you going _to? _Take your +hat off _of_ the table. Where has James been _to?_ They offered _to_ +Caesar a crown. This is a subject _of_ which I intended to speak +_about_ (omit _of_ or _about,_ but not both). She has a sister _of_ ten +years old. Leap _in_ with me into this angry flood. + +The older writers employed the useless _for_ in such expressions as, +What went ye out _for_ to see? The apostles and elders came together +_for _to consider _of_ this matter. + +All of + + +A very common error is the unnecessary use of the preposition _of_ +after _all;_ as, “during _all of_ this period,” “in _all of_ these +cases,” “for _all of_ the conditions,” etc. + +Up above + + +In most cases one of these prepositions will be found useless. “The +ladder reached _up above_ the chimney.” + +From hence + + +The adverbs _hence, thence, whence,_ include the idea of _from._ The +preposition should, therefore, be omitted. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII +The Article + + +_A,_ which is a shortened form of _an,_ signifies _one, _or _any. An_ +was formerly used before nouns beginning with either a consonant or a +vowel sound, but now _an_ is used before a vowel sound and _a_ before a +consonant sound; as, _a_ book, _a_ hat, _an _apple, _an_ eagle. + +It will be observed that _an_ heiress, _an_ herb, _an_ honest man, _an_ +honorable career, _an_ hourly visit, _a_ euchre party, _a_ euphemism, +_a_ eulogy, _a_ union, etc., are not exceptions to the foregoing rule, +for the _h_ being silent in _heiress, herb, _etc., the article _an_ +precedes a vowel sound, and in _euphemism, eulogy, union,_ the article +_a_ precedes the consonant sound of _y. _Compare _u-nit_ with _you +knit._ + +In like manner some persons have felt disposed to say _many an one +_instead of _many a one_ because of the presence of the vowel _o_. But +the sound is the consonant sound of _w_ as in _won_, and the article +should be _a_ and not _an._ + +There is a difference of opinion among writers concerning the use of +_a_ and _an,_ before words +beginning with _h,_ when not silent, especially when the accent falls +on the second syllable; as, _a_ harpoon, _a_ hegira, _a_ herbarium, _a_ +herculean effort, _a_ hiatus, _a_ hidalgo, _a_ hydraulic engine, _a_ +hyena, _a_ historian. The absence of the accent weakens the _h _sound, +and makes it seem as if the article _a_ was made to precede a vowel. +The use of _an_ is certainly more euphonious and is supported by +_Webster’s Dictionary_ and other high authority. + +The Honorable, The Reverend + + +Such titles as _Honorable_ and _Reverend_ require the article _the;_ +as, “The Honorable William R. Gladstone is often styled ‘The Grand Old +Man,’” “The Reverend Henry Ward Beecher was an eloquent orator,” not +_Honorable William, E. Gladstone,_ or _Reverend Henry Ward Beecher._ + +Article omitted + + +“A clergyman and philosopher entered the hall together.” _“A _clergyman +and philosopher” means one person who is both clergyman and +philosopher. The article should be repeated. _“A_ clergyman and _a_ +philosopher entered the hall together.” + +_“A_ red and white flag” means one flag of two colors. _“A_ red and _a_ +white flag” means two flags, a red flag and a white flag. _“A _great +and _a_ good man has departed.” The verb _has_ implies that only +one man has departed, hence the sentence should be, “A great and good +man has departed.” + +“They sang the first and second verse,” should be, “They sang _the_ +first and _the_ second verse.” “The literal and figurative meaning of +words” should be, _“The_ literal and _the_ figurative meaning of +words.” + +“In framing of his sentences he was very exact,” should be, “In _the +_framing,” etc., or, “In framing his sentences he was very exact.” “The +masculine and feminine gender,” should be, “_The_ masculine and _the +_feminine gender.” + +“After singing a hymn, Miss Willard made a stirring address.” If Miss +Willard alone sang the hymn the sentence is correct. If the +congregation sang the hymn the sentence should be, “After _the_ singing +of a hymn, Miss Willard made a stirring address.” + +“He is but a poor writer at best.” Say, “at _the_ best.” “He received +but a thousand votes at most.” Say, “at _the_ most.” + +“John came day before yesterday.” Say, _“the_ day before yesterday.” + +Article redundant + + +“Shakespeare was a greater writer than _an_ actor,” should be, +“Shakespeare was a greater writer than actor.” + +“This is the kind of _a_ tree of which he was +speaking,” should be, “This is the kind of tree,” etc. “What kind of +_a_ bird is this?” should be, “What kind of bird.” + +“The one styled _the_ Provost is the head of the University,” should +be, “The one styled Provost.” + +“The nominative and _the_ objective cases,” should be “The nominative +and objective cases.” + +“He made a mistake in _the_ giving out the text.” Say “in giving out +the text,” or, “in _the_ giving out of the text.” In the latter +instance, the participle becomes a noun and may take the article before +it. + +Articles interchanged + + +_“An_ elephant is the emblem of Siam,” should be, “The elephant is the +emblem,” etc. “A digraph is _the_ union of two letters to represent one +sound.” Should be, “A digraph is _a_ union,” etc. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV +Redundancy + + +We are all creatures of habit. Our sayings, as well as our doings, are +largely a series of habits. In some instances we are unconscious of our +peculiarities and find it almost impossible to shake them off. + +The following are verbatim expressions as they dropped from the lips of +a young clergyman in the pulpit. They show a deeply-seated habit of +repetition of thought. As he was a graduate of one of the first +colleges in the land, we are the more surprised that the habit was not +checked before he passed through his college and seminary courses. The +expressions are here given as a caution to others to be on their guard: +“Supremest and highest,” “separate and sever us,” “derision, sarcasm, +and contempt,” “disobedient and disloyal and sinful,” “hold aloof from +iniquity, from sin,” “necessity of being reclaimed and brought back,” +“their beautiful and their elegant city,” “so abandoned and given up to +evil and iniquity,” “soaked and stained with human gore and blood,” +“beautiful and resplendent,” “hardened and solidified into stone and +adamant,” “this +arctic splendor and brilliancy,” “were being slaughtered and cut down,” +“in the rapidity and the swiftness of the train,” “with all the +mightiness and the splendor of his genius,” “the force and the pressure +it brings to bear,” “has and possesses the power,” “lights flashed and +gleamed.” + +The above were all taken from a single discourse. Another peculiarity +of the same speaker was his use of the preposition _between._ Instead +of saying, “Between him and his father there was a perfect +understanding of the matter,” he would say, “Between him and _between_ +his father there was a perfect understanding of the matter.” + +Young writers will find it a valuable exercise to go through a letter, +essay, or other composition which they have written, with the view of +ascertaining how many words they can eliminate without diminishing the +force of what has been written. An article or two from the daily paper, +and an occasional page from some recent work of fiction will afford +further opportunity for profitable practice in pruning. + +Widow woman + + +“And Jeroboam the son of Nebat, an Ephrathite of Zereda, Solomon’s +servant, whose mother’s name was Zeruah, a _widow woman,_ even he +lifted up his hand against the king.”—I Kings xi, 26. + + +The expression is now regarded as an archaism, and not to be used in +modern speech or writing. Omit _woman._ + +Why + + +Many persons have a foolish habit of beginning their answer to a +question with the word _why_. In some cases it doubtless has its origin +in the desire to gain time while the mind is preparing the answer, but +in most instances it is merely a habit. + +Some persons prefix the word _why_ to the statement of a fact or to the +asking of a question. This is even worse than to employ it to introduce +the answer. Restrict it to its legitimate use. + +Look at here + + +This is one of the numerous expressions designed to call the attention +of the person addressed to the speaker. It is both ungrammatical and +vulgar. The omission of _at_ will render it grammatical. “_See here”_ +is still better. + +Look and see + + +_“Look and see_ if the teacher is coming.” The words _“look and” _are +superfluous. “See whether the teacher is coming” is a better +expression. + +Recollect of + + +The word _of_ is superfluous in such expressions; as, “I _recollect of +_crossing Lake Champlain on the ice,” “Do you _recollect of_ his paying +you a compliment?” + + +Settle up, down + + +“He has _settled up_ his father’s affairs.” “He has _settled down _upon +the old farm.” _Up_ and _down_ may be omitted. + +“He has _settled down_ to business” is a colloquial expression which +may be improved by recasting the sentence. + +In so far + + +“He is not to blame _in so far_ as I understand the circumstances.” +_“In so_ _far_ as I know he is a thoroughly honest man.” _“In so far_ +as I have influence it shall be exerted in your favor.” Omit _in._ + +Pocket-handkerchief + + +The word _handkerchief_ conveys the full meaning. _Pocket _is therefore +superfluous and should be omitted. If a cloth or tie for the neck is +meant, call it a _neck tie_ or a _neckerchief,_ but not a +_neck-handkerchief._ + +Have got + + +“I _have got_ a fine farm.” “He _has got_ four sons and three +daughters.” “James _has_ _got_ a rare collection of butterflies.” In +such expressions _got_ is superfluous. But, if the idea of gaining or +acquiring is to be conveyed, the word _got_ may be retained; as, “I +_have got_ my license,” “I _have got_ my degree,” “I _have got_ my +reward.” + + +Off of + + +“Can I borrow a pencil _off_ _of_ you?” “I bought a knife _off_ _of_ +him yesterday.” Such faulty expressions are very common among school +children, and should be promptly checked by the teacher. The _off_ is +superfluous. + +“He jumped _off_ _of_ the boat.” Say, “He jumped _off_ the boat.” + +The young lady appointed to sell articles at a church fair entreated +her friends to “buy something _off of_ me.” She should say, “Please buy +something from me,” or “Make your purchases at my table.” + +For to see + + +“But what went ye out _for_ to see? A man clothed in soft raiment?” +Matt. xi, 8. “I will try _for_ to do what you wish.” This form of +expression, once very common, is now obsolete. Omit _for._ + +Appreciate highly + + +To _appreciate_ is to set a full value upon a thing. We may _value +highly,_ or _prize highly,_ or _esteem_ _highly,_ but the word _highly_ +when used with _appreciate_ is superfluous. + +Ascend up + + +“With great difficulty they _ascended up_ the hill.” As they could not +_ascend down_ the hill it is evident that the word _up_ is superfluous. + + +Been to + + +“Where has he _been to?”_ The sentence is not only more concise, but +more elegant without the terminal _to._ + +Both + + +The sentence, “The two children _both_ resembled each other,” will be +greatly improved by omitting the word _both._ So also in “These baskets +are _both_ alike,” “William and I _both_ went to Cuba.” + +But that + + +“I do not doubt _but that_ my uncle will come.” The sentence is shorter +and more clear without the word _but. “_I have no idea _but that_ the +crew was drowned.” Here _but_ is necessary. Without it the opposite +meaning would be conveyed. + +Equally as well + + +“James did it well, but Henry did it _equally as_ _well.” As well_ or +_equally well_ should be used instead of _equally as well. _“This +method will be equally _as_ efficacious.” Omit _as_. + +Everywheres + + +“I have looked _everywheres_ for the book, and I cannot find it.” This +is a vulgarism that should be avoided. Say _everywhere._ + +Feel like + + +“I feel _like_ as if I should be sick.” The word _like _is unnecessary. + + +Few + + +“There are a few persons who read well.” This sentence will be improved +by saying, “Few persons read well.” + +Help but be + + +This is an awkward expression which is improved by being reduced to the +two words _help being;_ as, “I could not help being moved by his +appeal.” + +Kind of a + + +“He jumped into a _kind of a_ chaise, and hurried off to the station.” +_A_ _kind of chaise_ would be better. + +New beginner + + +“Mary plays on the piano very well for a _new beginner.”_ If she is a +_beginner_ she must of necessity be _new_ to it. + +Opens up + + +“This story _opens up_ beautifully.” The _up_ is superfluous. + +Seeming paradox + + +The word _paradox_ alone implies all that the word _seeming _is +intended to convey, hence _seeming_ is superfluous. “This was once a +paradox but time now gives it proof.” + +Different + + +“There were ten _different_ men ready to accept the offer.” As no +reference to the appearance or characteristics of the men is intended, +the word _different_ is unnecessary. + + +Rise up + + +“They _rose up_ early and started on their journey.” _Up_ is +superfluous and should be omitted. + +Sink down + + +“The multitude _sank down_ upon the ground.” As they could not _sink up +_or in any other direction than _down,_ the latter word should be +omitted. + +Smell of + + +“Did you _smell of_ the roses?” “No; but I _smelled_ them and found +them very fragrant.” “The gardener _smelt of_ them for he has been +culling them all morning and his clothing is perfumed with them.” The +_of_ is superfluous in such expressions as _taste of, feel of,_ and +usually in _smell of._ + +Think for + + +“He is taller than you _think for.” For_ is unnecessary. “He is taller +than you think” is the contracted form of “He is taller than you think +he is.” + +Differ among themselves + + +“The authorities _differed among_ themselves.” The words _among +themselves_ may be omitted. + +End up + + +“That _ends up_ the business.” Say “that _ends_ (or _closes_) the +business.” + +Had have + + +“Had I _have_ known that he was a lawyer I should have consulted him.” +Omit _have._ + + +Had ought to + + +“I had ought to have gone to school to-day; I hadn’t ought to have gone +fishing.” Incorrect. Say, “I ought to have gone (or _I should have +gone) _to school to-day; I ought not to have gone fishing.” If the +second clause is not an after-thought the sentence can be still further +improved by condensing it; as, “I should have gone to school to-day, +and not to have gone fishing.” + + + + +CHAPTER XV +Two Negatives + + +The use of two negatives in a sentence is much more common than is +generally supposed. To assume that only those who are grossly ignorant +of grammatical rules and constructions employ them, is an error. +Writers whose names are as bright stars in the constellation of +literature have slipped on this treacherous ground. + +A negation, in English, admits of only one negative word. The use of a +single negative carries the meaning halfway around the circle. The +meaning is therefore diametrically opposed to that which would be +expressed without the negative. The use of a second negative would +carry the meaning the remaining distance around the circle, thus +bringing it to the starting point, and making it equivalent to the +affirmative. The second negative destroys the effect of the first. The +two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative. + +Double Negatives + + +While two negatives in the same sentence destroy each other, a double +negative has the effect of a more +exact and guarded affirmative; as, “It is _not im_probable that +Congress will convene in special session before the end of the summer.” +“It is _not un_important that, he attend to the matter at once.” “His +story was _not in_credible.” “The fund was _not in_exhaustible.” + +Redundant Negatives + + +_“No_ one _else_ but the workmen had any business at the meeting.” Omit +_else._ + +“Let us see whether _or not_ there was _not_ a mistake in the record.” +Omit either _or not_ or the second _not._ + +“The boat will _not_ stop _only_ when the signal flag is raised.” Omit +_not_ or change _only_ to _except._ + +“He will _never_ return, I _don’t believe.”_ Say, “He will never +return,” or, if that statement is two emphatic, say, “I don’t believe +he will ever return.” + +Don’t want none + + +“I _don’t want none,” “_I _ain’t got nothing,” “_He _can’t do no +more,”_ are inelegant expressions that convey a meaning opposed to that +intended. + +“I don’t want any,” or, “I do not want any,” or, “I want none,” are +correct equivalents for the first sentence; “I haven’t anything,” or, +“I have nothing,” should take the place of the second; and, “He can’t +do any more,” or, “He can do no more,” or “He cannot do more,” will +serve for the third. + + +Not—Hardly + + +“I _cannot_ stop to tell you _hardly_ any of the adventures that befell +Theseus.” Change _cannot_ to _can_. “I have _not _had a moment’s time +to read _hardly_ since I left school.” Say, “I have hardly a moment’s +time,” etc. + +No—no + + +“The faculties are called into _no_ exercise by doing a thing merely +because others do it, _no_ more than by believing a thing only because +others believe it,” says George P. Marsh. He should have used _any +_instead of the second _no._ + +Nothing—nor + + +“There was _nothing_ at the Columbian Exposition more beautiful, _nor_ +more suggestive of the progress of American art, than Tiffany’s +display.” Change _nor_ to _or._ + +Can’t do nothing + + +“He says he _can’t do nothing_ for me.” Use “He can do nothing,” or “He +can’t do anything for me.” + +Cannot by no means + + +This double negative should be avoided. “I _cannot by no means _permit +you to go.” Say, “I _cannot possibly,”_ or “I _cannot, under any +consideration,_ permit you to go.” + + +Nor—no + + +“Give not me counsel, _nor_ let _no_ comforter delight mine ear,” says +Shakespeare. + +“There can be no rules laid down, _nor no_ manner recommended,” says +Sheridan. + +“No skill could obviate, _nor no_ remedy dispel the terrible +infection.” + +The foregoing sentences may be corrected by changing _nor_ to _and._ + +Not—no + + +“I pray you bear with me; I _cannot_ go _no_ further,” says +Shakespeare. “I can go _no_ further,” or “I cannot go _any_ further,” +will make the sentence correct. + +Nor—not + + +“I never did repent for doing good, _nor_ shall _not_ now.” + +“We need not, _nor_ do _not,_ confine the purposes of God.” + +“Which do not continue, _nor_ are _not_ binding.” + +“For my part I love him _not, nor_ hate him _not.”_ + +In these sentences, change _nor_ to _and._ + + + + +CHAPTER XVI +Accordance of Verb with Subject + + +No rule of grammar is more familiar to the schoolboy than that which +relates to the agreement of the verb with its subject, or nominative, +and none that is more frequently violated. It would be a mistake, +however, to assume that the schoolboy is the only transgressor. Ladies +and gentlemen of culture and refinement, writers and speakers of +experience and renown, have alike been caught in the quicksands of verb +constructions. + +“This painting is one of the finest masterpieces that ever _was_ given +to the world.” A transposition of the sentence will show that the verb +should be _were,_ and not _was. “_Of the finest masterpieces that ever +_were _given to the world, this painting is one.” + +“His essay on ‘Capital and Labor’ is one of the best that _has_ ever +been written on the subject.” The verb should be _have._ + +“The steamer, with all her passengers and crew, _were_ lost.” The +subject is _steamer,_ and the verb should be _was._ + + +Interrogative sentences + + +“What _signifies_ his good resolutions, when he does not possess +strength of purpose sufficient to put them into practice?” +_Resolutions_ is the subject, and the verb should be _signify._ + +“Of what profit is his prayers, while his practices are the abomination +of the neighborhood?” _Prayers_ being plural, the verb should be _are._ + +“What _avails_ good sentiments with a bad life?” Use _avail._ + +Subject after the Verb + + +“In virtue and piety _consist_ the happiness of man.” _Happiness, _the +subject, being singular, the verb should be _consists,_ to agree with +its nominative. + +“To these recommendations _were_ appended a copy of the minority +report.” A transposition of the sentence will show that the verb should +be _was_, and not _were._ “A copy of the minority report _was_ appended +to these recommendations.” + +Whenever the sentence is introduced by a phrase consisting in part of a +noun in the plural, or several nouns in the singular or plural, and, +especially, where the subject follows the verb; care must be taken to +keep the nominative well in mind, so that the verb may be in strict +accord with it. + + +Compound Subjects + + +When a verb has two or more nominatives it must be plural. These +nominatives may or may not be connected by _and_ or other connecting +particle. The nominatives may consist of nouns or pronouns, either +singular or plural, or they may be phrases. + +“Washington and Lincoln _were_ chosen instruments of government.” + +“Judges and senates _have_ been bought for gold, + +Esteem and love _were_ never to be sold.”—_Pope._ + +“Art, empire, earth itself, to change _are _doomed.”— _Beattie._ + +“You and he _resemble_ each other.” + +“To read and to sing _are_ desirable accomplishments.” + +“To be wise in our own eyes, to be wise in the opinion of the world, +and to be wise in the sight of our Creator, _are_ three things so very +different as rarely to coincide.”—_Blair._ + +Singular in Meaning + + +Nominatives are sometimes plural in form but singular in meaning. Such +nominatives require a verb in the singular. + +“The philosopher and poet _was_ banished from his country.” _Was_ is +correct, because philosopher and poet are the same person. + + +“Ambition, and not the safety of the state, _was_ concerned.” _Was_ is +correct, because _ambition_ is the subject. The words, _“and not the +safety of the state,”_ simply emphasize the subject, but do not give it +a plural meaning. + +“Truth, and truth only, _is_ worth seeking for its own sake.” Another +case of emphasis. + +Each, Every, No, Not + + +When two or more nominatives are qualified by one of the foregoing +words the verb must be singular. + +“Every limb and feature _appears_ with its respective grace.”—_Steele._ + +“Not a bird, not a beast, not a tree, not a shrub _were_ to be seen.” +Use _was_ instead of _were._ + +Poetical Construction + + +When the verb separates its nominatives, it agrees with that which +precedes it. + +“Forth in the pleasing spring, Thy beauty _walks,_ thy tenderness, and +love.”—_Thomson._ __ + +Or, Nor, As well as, But, Save + + +When two or more nominatives in the singular are separated by such +words as the preceding, the verb must be singular. + +“Veracity, as well as justice, _is_ to be our rule of life.”—_Butler._ + + +“Not a weed nor a blade of grass _were_ to be seen.” Change _were _to +_was_. + +“Nothing but wailings _were_ heard.” Transpose. “Nothing _was_ heard +but wailings.” The verb should be _was_. + +“Either one or the other of them _are_ in the wrong.” The verb should +be _is._ + +If, however, one or more of the nominatives are plural, the verb must +be plural. + +“It is not his wealth, or gifts, or culture that _gives_ him this +distinction.” _Gifts_ being plural, the verb should be _give._ + +Some authorities say that the verb should agree in number with the +subject which is placed next before it, and be understood (or silent) +to the rest; as, “Neither he nor his brothers _were_ there,” “Neither +his brothers nor he was there,” “Neither you nor I _am_ concerned.” + +Prof. Genung, author of _Outlines of Rhetoric,_ says: “When a clash of +concord arises, either choose subjects that have the same number, or +choose a verb that has the same form for both numbers.” He gives this +sentence to show the change of verb: “Fame or the emoluments of valor +_were_ (_was_) never to be his.” “Fame or the emoluments of valor could +never be his.” And this sentence to show the change of one of the +subjects: “Neither the halter nor +bayonets _are_ (_is_) sufficient to prevent us from obtaining our +rights.” “Neither the halter nor the bayonet _is_ sufficient to prevent +us from obtaining our rights.” + +Collective Nouns + + +Collective nouns, like _army, committee, class, peasantry, nobility, +_are, grammatically, singular, but they are often so modified by their +surroundings as to convey a plural idea, and when so modified the verb +must be plural. When the collective noun conveys the idea of unity, the +verb must be singular. + +“The army _was_ disbanded.” + +“The council _were_ divided.” + +“A number of men and women _were_ present.” + +“The people _rejoice_ in their freedom.” + +“The peasantry _go_ barefoot, and the middle sort _make_ use of wooden +shoes.” + +“The world _stands_ in awe of your majesty.” + +“All the world _are_ spectators of your conduct.” + +Weights, Measures, and Values + + +The names of weights, measures, and values, when considered as wholes, +require singular verbs, and when considered as units require verbs in +the plural. + +“There _is_ twenty shillings in my purse,” meaning one pound in value. +“There _are_ twenty shillings in my purse,” meaning twenty separate +coins, each being a shilling. “Sixty-three gallons _equals_ a +hogshead.” “Ten tons of coal _are_ consumed daily.” + + +Titles of Books + + +Whether the form be singular or plural, the title is considered a unit, +and requires a verb in the singular; as, “‘The Merry Wives of Windsor’ +_was_ written by Shakespeare.” “Dr. Holmes’s _American Annals was_ +published in 1805.” + +Whereabouts + + +“The whereabouts of his cousins _were_ not known to him.” The plural +form of this word is misleading. The verb should be _was._ + +Phenomena, Effluvia + + +“A strange phenomena,” “A disagreeable effluvia” are incorrect forms +not infrequently met with. Both words are plural, and require plural +verbs and also the omission of the article _a._ + +You was + + +This very incorrect form is often employed by those who know better, +and who use it, seemingly, out of courtesy to the uneducated people +with whom they are brought in contact. If it be a courtesy, it is one +that is “more honored in the breach than in the observance.” + +Those who use the expression ignorantly are not likely to read this +book, or any other of a similar character, and need scarcely be told +that _was_ should be _were_. + + + + +INDEX + + +A, An, 181. +Aberration of intellect, 87. +A 1,83. +A hundred others’ woes—Pronouns, 126. +Ability, Capacity, 27. +About, Almost, 28. +About, Around, 95. +Above, More than, Preceding, 111. +Above, Foregoing, 87. +Above up, 180. +Acceptance, Acceptation, 28. +Access, Accession, 28. +Accident, Injury, 28. +Accord, Give, 86. +Accordance of Verb with Subject, 198. +Collective Nouns, 203. +Compound Subjects, 200. +Each, Every, No, Not, 201. +Interrogative sentences, 199. +Or, Nor, As well as, But, Save, 201. +Phenomena, Effluvia, 204. +Poetical Construction, 201. +Singular in Meaning, 200. +Subject after the Verb, 199. +Titles of Books, 204. +Weights, Measures, and Values, 203. +Whereabouts, 204. +You was, 204. +Acoustics, Ethics, Politics, 143. +Act, Action, 86. +Adherence, Adhesion, 36. +Adjective or Adverb, 150. +Adopt, Take, 37. +Adverbs, 150. +Adverbs for Relative Pronouns, 140. +Advise, Persuade, 52. +Affect, Effect, 37. +After _of—_Possessive case, 127. +After _than_ and as—Pronouns, 132. +After that, 159. +After the Imperative—Pronouns, 132. +After verbs— Participles, 171. +After the verb To be—Pronouns, 131. +After verbs and prepositions—Pronouns, 130. +Again, Against, 115. +Aggravate, Exasperate, 37. +Agreeably disappointed, 77. +Agreement with Antecedent—Pronouns, 133. +Ain’t, 119. +Alex. Melville Bell, 24. +Alienate, Antagonize, Oppose, 32. +Alighted, Lit, Lighted, 88. +All, Is that all? 108. +All of, 180. +All, Whole, 41, 51. +Alleviate, Relieve, 37. +Allow, Guess, Reckon, Calculate, 56. +Allowed, Said, 87. +Allude to, Refer to, 77. +Almost, About, 28. +Almost, Most, Very, 30. +Alms, Odds, Riches, 145. +Alone, Only, 113. +Alternative, 87. +Alternation, 87. +Alumna, Formula, 144, +Alumnus, Terminus, Cactus, 143. +Ambiguity—Pronouns, 135. +Among the rest, 78. +Among, Between, 175. +Amount, Number, 32. +Analysis, Crises, 143. +And, To—Try and, 117. +Anglicized Words, 20. +Angry, Mad, 30. +Animalcules, not Animalculae, 148. +Anniversary, 87. +Answer, Reply, 32. +Antagonize, Alienate, Oppose, 32. +Anticipate, Expect, 32. +Any, At all, 32. +Anyhow, 81. +Anyways, Somewheres, Thereabouts, 78. +Apart, Aside, 78. +Apparent, Evident, 33. +Appendix, Index, 148. +Appointed you and _I—_after verbs and prepositions, 130. +Appreciate highly, 189. +Apprehend, Comprehend, 105. +Archimedes’ Screw, 125. +Argue, Augur, 98. +Around, About, 95. +Articles, 181. +A, An, 181. +Interchanged, 184. +Omitted, 182. +Redundant, 183. +Titles—The Reverend, 182. +_As_ after _Equally,_ 190. +As... as, 162. +As, Like, 88. +As... so, 163. +As soon as, Directly, Immediately, 77. +As, That, 70. +As though, As if, 160. +As well as, Or, Nor, But, Save, 201. +Ascend up, 189. +Aside, Apart, 78. +Asparagus, Sparrowgrass, 34. +Assets, Alms, Scissors, 145. +Assure, Promise, 34. +At all, Any, 32. +At, To, 176. +At you, 114. +Attacked, Burst, Drowned, 108. +Aware, Conscious, 39. +Away, Way, 41. +Awful, 81. +Awkward construction—Participles, 172. + +Back up, Support, 82. +Badly, Greatly, 114. +Bad toothache, 70. +Balance, Remainder, 60. +Bandits, Banditti, 148. +Barbaric, Barbarous, 98. +Barbarisms, 20. +Beaus, Tableaux, Chateaux, 147. +Beautifully, Beautiful, 70. +Because, Reason, 156. +Been to, 190. +Beg, Beg leave, 71. +Beg pardon, Which? 26. +Begin, Commence, 38. +Behave, 60. +Bell, Alex. Melville, 24. +Besides, 49. +Beside, Besides, 108. +Better, Best, 61. +Between, Among, 175. +Between you and _I—_After verbs and prepositions, 130. +Black Oxide of Manganese, 36. +Bombastic Language, 18. +Both, 190. +Both, Both of, 72. +Both, Each, 72. +Bound, 61. +Bountiful, Plentiful, 108. +Brace, Pair, Couple, 147. +Bravery, Courage, 116. +Bring, Fetch, Carry, 44. +Brooks’s Arithmetics, 125. +Brothers, Brethren, 149. +Bryant’s list, 16. +Bulk, 82. +Burglarize, 82. +Burst, Attacked, Drowned, 108. +But, Except, 157. +But, If, 157. +But, Only, Except, 157. +But, Or, Nor, Save—As well as, 201. +_But_ superfluous, 158. +But that, 158, 190. +But that, But what, 82, 157. +But that, 157. +But that, Than that, 158. +But what, 160. +But what, But that, 82, 157. +By, In, 175. +By, With, 177. + +Calculate, 83. +Calculate, Guess, Reckon, Allow, 56. +Calculated, Liable, 83. +Calligraphy, 68. +Came across, Met with, 109. +Campbell’s law, 20. +Can, Could, Will, 115. +Can but, Cannot but, 68. +Cannot by no means, 196. +Can’t and Couldn’t, 120. +Can’t do nothing, 196. +Cantos, Heroes, 145. +Capacity, Ability, 27. +Carry, Bring, Fetch, 44. +Case forms—Pronouns, 129. +Casualty, Casuality, 68. +Character, Reputation, 44. +Chauncey Depew and Eli Perkins, 65. +Cheap, Low-priced, 30. +Cherubim, Seraphim, 142. +Choice of prepositions, 175. +Choice of relatives—Pronouns, 138. +Choice of words, 15. +Chrysalis, Analysis, 143. +Chuck-full, 74. +Clearness—Participles, 172. +Clever, Smart, 85. +Climax, 112. +Climb down, 103. +Collective nouns, 203. +Collective nouns—Pronouns, 135. +Commence, Begin, 38. +Commenced to write, 107. +Commercial slang, 23. +Commodious, Convenient, 26. +Common, Mutual, 28. +Common slang, 23. +Complected, 69. +Complete, Finished, Through, 39, 99. +Compound subject, 200. +Comprehend, Apprehend, 105. +Conclusion, End, 39. +Conjunctions, 156. +Conscious, Aware, 39. +Contemplate, Propose, 75. +Contemptible, Contemptuous, 52. +Continual, Continuous, 39. +Continually, Perpetually, 52. +Contractions, 118. +Convenient, Commodious, 26. +Convict, Convince, 40. +Correlatives, 162. +Could, Can, Will, 115. +Couldn’t, Can’t, 120. +Couple, Pair, Brace, 147. +Couple, Several, 76. +Courage, Bravery, 116. +Criterion, Datum, 144. +Crowd, 74. +Cunning, 59. +Cupfuls— Plural compounds, 147. +Curious, 59. +Custom, Habit, 40. +Customer, Patron, 93. +Cute, 59. +Cut in half, 98. + +Daren’t, Dursen’t, 123. +Data, Strata, 144. +Datum, Phenomenon, 144, 204. +Deface, Disfigure, 43. +Defect, Fault, 45. +Degrade, Demean, 43. +Depot, Station, 43. +Description, Kind, 44. +Didn’t, Don’t, 120. +Dies, Dice, 149. +Differ among themselves, 192. +Different, 191. +Differ with, From, 175. +Different from, to, than, 75, 176. +Directly, Immediately, As soon as, 77. +Disfigure, Deface, 43. +Disremember, 69. +Dispense, Dispense with, 75. +Dock, Wharf, 52. +Don’t and Didn’t, 120. +Don’t want none, 195. +Double negatives, 194. +Double possessives, 126. +Doubt not but, 160. +Dreadful solemn— Adjective or adverb? 152. +Drive, Ride, 76. +Drowned, Attacked, Burst, 108. +Dry, Thirsty, 75. +Due, Owing, 71. +Dursent, Daren’t, 123. +Dutch, German, 75. + +Each, Both, 72. +Each, Every, 71. +Each, Every, No, Not, 201. +Each other, One another, 46. +Each other’s eyes—Pronouns, 126. +Each... _their—_Agreement with antecedent, 134. +Effect, Affect, 37. +Effluvia, Phenomena, 144, 204. +Either, Neither, 47, 163. +Either the... or the, 159. +Elder, Older, 91. +Eli Perkins and Chauncey Depew, 65. +Ellipsis, Analysis, 143. +Else ...besides, 49. +Else than, Other than, 159. +Emigrants, Immigrants, 78. +Empty, 86. +End, Conclusion, 39. +Endorse, Indorse, 84. +End up, 192. +Enjoy, 86. +Enjoyed poor health, 36. +Equally as well, 190. +Evacuate, Vacate, 75. +Ever, Never, 72. +Every confidence, 67. +Every, Each, 71. +Every, Each, No, Not, 201. +Everybody else’s, 128. +Everybody... _they—_Agreement with antecedent, 134. +Every once in awhile, 73. +Everywheres, 190. +Evident, Apparent, 33. +Exasperate, Aggravate, 37. +Except, But, 157. +Except, But, Only, 157. +Except, Unless, Besides, 161. +Exceptionable, Exceptional, 73. +Excuse me—Which? 26. +Expect, Anticipate, 32. +Expect, Suspect, Suppose, 110. + +Factor, 112. +Farther, Further, 45. +Fathers-in-law—Plural compounds, 147. +Fault, Defect, 45. +Favor, Resemble, 59. +Feel like, 190. +Feels badly—Adjective or adverb? 151. +Female, Woman, 73. +Fetch, Bring, Carry, 44. +Few, 191. +Few, Little, 46. +Fewer, Less, 73. +Fictitious writer, 62. +Fine writing, 8. +Finished, Complete, Through, 39, 99. +Fire, Throw, 78. +First, Firstly, 62. +First, Former, 61. +First-rate, 62. +First two, 79. +Fish, Fly, 148. +Fix, In a, 53. +Fix, Mend, Repair, 62. +Fly, Flee, 53. +Flys, Fishes, 148. +Foregoing, Above, 87. +Foreign words, 9. +Former, First, 61. +Formulas, Larvas, Stigmas, 144. +For to see, 189. +Frederick the Great’s Kindness—Nouns in apposition, 127. +From hence, thence, whence, 180. +From, Of, 104, 176. +Funny, 56. +Further, Farther, 45. +Future, Subsequent, 79. + +Gent’s pants, 79. +German, Dutch, 75. +Get, Got, 54. +Give, Accord, 36. +Good deal, Great deal, 57. +Good piece, Long distance, 110. +Good usage, 19. +Good, Well, 158. +Got to, Must, 115. +Governor, the old man, 97. +Great big, 98. +Great deal, Good deal, 57. +Greatly, Badly, 114. +Grouse, Quail, Snipe, 149. +Grow, Raise, Rear, 113. +Guess, Reckon, Calculate, Allow, 56. +Gums, Overshoes, 56. + +Habit, Custom, 40. +Had better, Would better, 57. +Had have, 192. +Had ought to, 193. +Hadn’t, Haven’t, Hasn’t, 121. +Haint, Taint, 121. +Hangs on, Continues, 115. +Have got, 188. +Have saw, Has went, 114. +Haven’t, Hasn’t, Hadn’t, 121. +Haply, Happily, 114. +Happen, Transpire, 65. +Has went, Have saw, 114. +Hate, Dislike, 116. +Healthy, Wholesome, 52. +Healthy, Healthful, 112. +Hearty meal, 98. +He is no better than _me— _After _than_ and as, 133. +Help but be, 191. +Heroes, Cantos, Stuccoes, 145. +Herrings, Trout, Pike, 149. +He’s, She’s, It’s, 123. +Hey? Which? 25. +Hire, Lease, Let, Rent, 88. +His, One’s, 50. +His or her—Needless pronouns, 136. +Hope, Wish, 99. +House, Residence, 43. +_How_ for _by which— _Adverbs for relative pronouns, 140 +How, That, 154. +Hung, Hanged, 112. + +I am _him_-Case forms, 129. +Idea, Opinion, 113. +If, But, 157. +If, Whether, 58. +Ill, Sick, 107. +Illy, Ill, 58. +Immediately, Directly, As soon as, 77. +Immigrants, Emigrants, 78. +Implicit, 58. +I’m, You’re, He’s, She’s, It’s, We’re, They’re, 123. +In a fix, 53. +In, By, 175. +In, Into, 85, 176. +In, Of, 177. +In, On, 177. +In our midst, 84. +In respect of, To, 176. +In so far, 188. +Inaugurate, 109. +Incomplete Infinitive, 168. +Index, Appendix, 148. +Individual, 58. +Indorse, Endorse, 84. +Infinitive, 166. +Infinitive, Incomplete, 168. +Infinitive needed—Supply _To,_ 166. +Infinitive unnecessary—Omit “To,” 167. +Informed, Posted, 86. +Injury, Accident, 28. +Interchanged Articles, 184. +Interrogatives—Pronouns, 130. +Interrogative sentences, 199. +Into, In, 85, 176. +Introduce, Present, 105. +“Is building,” 173. +Isn’t, 121. +It’s, He’s, She’s, 123. +It is _me—_Case forms, 129. + +John and Mary’s sled—Double possessives, 126. +Journal, 68. +Junius’s letters, 125. +Juntos, Heroes, Virtuosos, 145. +Just going to, 85. + +Kind, Description, 44. +Kind of, 85. +Kind of a, 191. +Knights Templars, 147. +Know as, Know that, 58. +Knowing, 85. + +Last, Latest, 59. +Lay, Lie, 69. +Lead a dance, 117. +Learn, Teach, 88. +Lease, Let, Rent, Hire, 88. +Leave, Quit, 83. +Lend, Loan, 88. +Less, Fewer, 73. +Lest, That, 159. +Let it alone, Leave it alone, 83. +Let, Lease, Rent, Hire, 88. +Let you and _I_ try it—After the Imperative, 132. +Let’s, 123. +Liable, Calculated, 83. +Lie, Lay, 69. +Lighted, Lit, Alighted, 88. +Like, As, 88. +Like, Love, 29. +List of Principal Correlatives, 162. +Lit, Lighted, 88. +Little, Few, 46. +Little piece, Short distance, 67. +Little bit, 74. +Loan, Lend, 88. +Look and see, 187. +Look at here, 187. +Lot, Number, 116. Love, Like, 29. +Low-priced, Cheap, 30. +Luck, 84. + +Mad, Angry, 30. +Make, Manufacture, 65. +Make way with, 84. +Mayn’t, Mustn’t, Mightn’t, Oughtn’t, 122. +Mayst, Mightest, 123. +Means, Alms, Headquarters, 146. +Measures, Weights, Values, 203. +Memorandum, Datum, 144. +Mend, Fix, Repair, 62. +Mention, Allude to, Refer to, 77. +Men’s and boys’ shoes, 124. +Men, women, and children’s shoes—Double possessives, 126. +Met with, Came across, 109. +Mightn’t, Mustn’t, Mayn’t, Oughtn’t, 122. +Mightst, Mayst, 123. +Mighty, Very, 104. +Misplaced relatives—Pronouns, 141. +Mixed pronouns, 136. +More than, Above, Preceding, 111. +More than, Over, 155. +More, Worse, 42. +Mosquitoes, Heroes, Halos, 145. +Most, Almost, Very, 30. +Musselmans, Dragomans, 145. +Mustn’t, Mayn’t, Mightn’t, and Oughtn’t, 122. +Mutual, Common, 28. +Myself, 29. + +Nasty, Nice, 89. +Near, Nearly, 89. +Need, Want, 40. +Needless Articles, 183. +Needless Prepositions, 180. +Needless Pronouns, 136. +Negatives, 194. +Negligence, Neglect, 29. +Neighborhood, Region, 42. +Neither, Either, 47, 163. +Neither... nor, Either, 163. +Never, Ever, 72. +Never... nor (or or), Either, 163. +Never, Not, 29. +News, 142. +New beginner, 191. +New Words, 21. +Nice, Nasty, 89. +Nicely, 89. +No, Each, Every, Not, 201. +No... no, 154, 196. +No, Not, 154. +No good, No use, 89. +No more than I could help, 111. +No use, No good, 89. +Nor... no, 197. +Nor, Or— Pronouns, 135. +Nor, Or, As well as, But, Save, 201. +Nor... not, 197. +None, Singular or plural, 51. +Not... hardly, 196. +Not impossible but, 160. +Not... neither, Either, 163. +Not, Never, 29. +Not... or (or _nor),_ Either, 163. +Not... no, 197. +Noted, Notorious, 94. +Nothing like, 94. +Nothing... nor, 196. +Notorious, Noted, 94. +Nouns in Apposition—Possessive Case 126. +Nouns, Plural-Possessive Case, 125. +Nouns, Singular—Possessive Case, 125. +Nowhere near so, 94. +Nucleus, Terminus, Fungus, 143. +Number, 142. +Number, Amount, 32. +Number, Lot, 116. +Number, Quantity, 38. + +O, Oh, 90. +Observe, Say, 90. +Obsolete Words, 20. +Odds, Alms, Riches, 145. +Of any, Of all, 90. +Of, From, 104,176. +Of, In, 177. +“Of” redundant, 169. +Of, With, 176. +Off of, 189. +Older, Elder, 91. +Omission of Article, 182. +Omit the Possessive, 170. +Omission of Preposition, 179. +Omit “Of,” 169. +Omit “To,” 167. +Omitted Relatives—Pronouns, 141. +On, Over, Upon, 104. +One another, Each other, 46. +One... they—Agreement with Antecedent, 134. +One’s, His, 50. +Only, 91. +Only, Alone, 113. +Only, Except, But, 157. +Onto, Upon, 92. +Opens up, 191. +Opinion, Idea, 113. +Oppose, antagonize, Alienate, 32. +Or. Nor, As well as, But, Save, 201. +Or, Nor— Pronouns, 135. +Other, 49. +Other... besides, 49. +Other than, 159. +Other than, Otherwise than, 48. +Otherwise than, Otherwise but, 159. +Ottomans, Mussulmans, 145. +Ought, Should, Would, 102. +Oughtn’t, Mustn’t, Mayn’t, Mightn’t, 122. +Outstart, 92. +Over and Above, More than, 92. +Over, More than, 155. +Over, On, Upon, 104. +Over with, 110. +Overflown, Overflowed, 110. +Overlook, Oversee, 95. +Overshoes, Gums, 56. +Overworked Expressions, 13. +Owing, Due, 71. +Oxide of Manganese, Black, 36. + +Pair, Couple, Brace, 147. +Pants, Gent’s, 79. +Pappy, the Old Man, 97. +Parenthetical Expressions—Pronouns, 133. +Part, Portion, 30. +Partake, Ate, 105. +Participles, 169, +After Verbs, 171. +Awkward Construction, 172. +Clearness, 172. +“Is building,” 173. +“Of” redundant, 169. +Omit the Possessive, 170. +Place of, 171. +Party, Person, 93. +Patron, Customer, 93. +Peas, Pease, 149. +Pell-mell, 155. +Pennies, Pence, 149. +Per, 93. +Peradventure, Perchance, 93. +Performers, 93. +Period, Point, 94. +Perpetually, Continually, 52. +Person, Party, 93. +Perspire, Sweat, 86. +Persuade, Advise, 52. +Peruse, 78. +Pet Words, 12. +Phenomena, Data, Effluvia, 144, 204. +Place of Participles, 171. +Plead, Pleaded, 94. +Plenty, Plentiful, 95. +Plural Compounds, 147. +Plural Nouns, 125. +Pocket-handkerchief, 188. +Poet, Poetess, 73. +Poetic Terms, 9. +Poetical Construction, 201. +Point, Period, 94. +Politics, Acoustics, Ethics, 143. +Portion, Part, 30. +Position of Correlatives, 164. +Position of Preposition, 178. +Possessive Case, 124. +After of, 127. +Double possessives, 126. +Nouns, Singular, 125. +” Plural, 125. +” in apposition, 126. +Pronouns, 126. +Somebody else’s, 127. +Postal, 31. +Posted, Informed, 86. +Powerful sight, 105. +Practical, Practicable, 31. +Preceding, Above, More than, 111. +Predicate, 31. +Prefer than, 31. +Preferred before, to, 176. +Prejudice, 33. +Prepositions, 174. +All of, 180. +At, To, 176. +Between, Among, 175. +By, In, 175. +Choice, 175. +Differ with, from, 175. +Different from, to, than, 176. +From hence, 180. +In, Into, 176. +In, On, 177. +In respect of, to, 176. +Needless prepositions, 180. +Of, In, 177. +Of, From, 176. +Omission of prepositions, 179. +Position, 178. +Preferred before, to, 176. +To, With, 177. +Up above, 180. +With, By, 177. +With, Of, 176. +With, To, 178. +Present, Introduce, 105. +Presume, Think, Believe, 33. +Pretend, Profess, 33. +Pretty, Very, 116. +Preventative, Preventive, 33. +Previous, Previously, 33. +Profess, Pretend, 33. +Promise, Assure, 34. +Pronouns, 129. +Adverbs for Relative Pronouns, 140. +After _than_ and as, 132. +” the Imperative, 132. +” To be, 131. +” Verbs and Prepositions, 130. +Agreement with Antecedent, 133. +Ambiguity, 135. +Case Forms, 129. +Choice of Relatives, 138. +Collective Nouns, 135. +Interrogatives, 130. +Misplaced Relatives, 141. +Mixed, 136. +Needless, 136. +Omitted Relatives, 141. +Or, Nor, 135. +Parenthetical expressions, 133. +Silent Predicate, 132. +The one, the other, 141. +Uniform Relatives, 137. +_ Which_ and who after and, 140. +Pronouns—Possessive Case, 126. +Pronouns—Personal and Relative, 129. +Proper Names—Plurals, 146. +Propose, Purpose, 34. +Proposal, Proposition, 37. +Propose, Contemplate, 75. +Prospectus, Terminus, Apparatus, 148. +Proved, Proven, 38. +Providing, Provided, 37. +Provincialisms, 24. +Pupil, Scholar, 107. +Purity of Diction, 19. +Purpose, Propose, 34. + +Quail, Grouse, Woodcock, 149. +Quantity, Number, 38. +Quite, Very, Rather, 153. +Quite a few, 38. +Quit, Leave, 83. + +Raise, Grow, Rear, 113. +Rarely, Rare, 42. +Rather than, Other than, 159. +Real, Really, 42. +Real good, 155. +Rear, Raise, Grow, 113. +Reason, Because, 156. +Receipt, Recipe, 42. +Reckon, Guess, Calculate, Allow, 56. +Recollect of, 187. +Redundancy, 185. +Redundant Article, 183. +Redundant Negatives, 195. +Refer to, Allude to, 77. +Region, Neighborhood, 42. +Relieve, Alleviate, 37. +Remainder, Balance, 60. +Remit, Send, 43. +Rent, Lease, Let, Hire, 88. +Repair, Fix, Mend, 62. +Reply, Answer, 32. +Reputation, Character, 44. +Requisite, Requisition, Requirement, 106. +Resemble, Favor, 59. +Residence, House, 43. +Restaurant French, 10. +Revolting, 96. +Reverend, 182. +Riches, Alms, Odds, 145. +Ride, Drive, 76. +Right, Right here, Just here, 99. +Right smart, 73. +Rise up, 192. +Round, Square, 63. + +Said, Allowed, 87. +Same as, Same that, 105. +Save, But, Or, Nor, As well as, 201. +Say, Observe, 90. +Says, States, 63. +Scholar, Pupil, 107. +Section, Region, 106. +Seeming Paradox, 191. +Seldom or ever, 106. +Send, Remit, 43. +Seraphim, Cherubim, 142. +Set, Sit, 80. +Settle up, down, 188. +Several, Couple, 76. +Sewage, Sewerage, 106. +Shall, Will, Should, Would, 100. +Shall you? Will you? 102. +She’s, He’s, It’s, 123. +Should, Would, Ought, 102. +Should, Would, Shall, Will, 100. +Shouldn’t and Wouldn’t, 122. +Sick, Ill, 107. +Sight, Many, 74. +Silent Predicate—Pronouns, 132. +Single, The first, 79. +Singular Nouns, 125. +Singular in Meaning, 201. +Sink down, 192. +Sit, Set, 80. +Slang, 22. +Slang, Commercial, Common, and Society, 23. +Smart, Clever, 85. +Smell of, 192. +Smells sweetly—Adjective or Adverb? 151. +Sociable, Social, 106. +Society Slang, 23. +So... as, 163. +So far, That far, 154. +So nice, 155. +So, Such, 152. +Solos, Heroes, Octavos, 145. +Some better, 98. +Some means or another, 48. +Somebody else’s, 127. +Somewheres, Anyways, Thereabouts, 78. +Sparrowgrass, Asparagus, 34. +Specialty, Speciality, 106. +Square, Round, 63. +Stand a chance, 110. +States, Says, 63. +Station, Depot, 43. +Stay, Stop, 63. +Stilts, 18. +Stop, Stay, 63. +Strata, Data, 144. +Subject after the verb, 199. +Subsequent, Future, 79. +Subtile, Subtle, 63. +Such as you and _me— _After than and as, 133. +Such, So, 152. +Summerish, Winterish, 99. +Summons, 64. +Supply “To,” 166. +Support, Back up, 82. +Sweat, Perspire, 86. + +Tableaux, Beaus, Plateaus, 147. +Tactics, Acoustics, 143. +Taint, Haint, 121. +Take, Adopt, 37. +Talented, 103. +Taste, 7. +Tasty, Tasteful, 64. +Team, 64. +Teach, Learn, 88. +Terminus, Radius, Focus, 143. +Than, 48. +_Than_ ambiguous, 158. +Thanks, I thank you, 115. +That, As, 70. +That, But, 157. +That far, Thus far, 154. +That, Lest, 159. +That omitted, 158. +That, that, 157. +The father he died—Needless pronouns, 136. +The first, Single, 79. +The Honorable, the Reverend, 182. +The Infinitive, 166. +The Miss Browns—Titles, 146. +The Old Man, 97. +The one, the other—Pronouns, 141. +Them books, 137. +Thereabouts, Somewheres, Any ways, 78. +These kind, Those kind, 47. +These sort, Those kind, 64. +These, Those, 62. +They’re, We’re, You’re, 123. +Think for, 192. +Thirsty, Dry, 75. +This much, 154. +This twenty years, These kind, 47. +Those kind, These sort, 64. +Through, Finished, Complete, 39, 99. +Throw, Fire, 78. +Titles of Books, 204. +Titles—The Reverend, the Honorable, 182. +Titles with Proper Names, 146. +To always find—The Infinitive, 166. +To, With, 177, 178. +To, At, 176. +Transpire, Happen, 65. +Trite Expressions, 12. +Truth, Veracity, 67. +Try and, Try to, 117. +Try the experiment, 67. +Two foot, These kind, 48. +Two Negatives, 194. + +Ugly, 67. +Unbeknown, 68. +Underhanded, 68. +Under the weather, Ill, 115. +Unexampled, 96. +Uniform Relatives—Pronouns, 137. +Unless, Without, 41. +Up above, 180. +Upon, On, Over, 104. +Utter, Express, 96. + +Vacate, Evacuate, 75. +Valuable, Valued, 97. +Values, Weights, Measures, 203. +Veracity, Truth, 67. +Very, Most, Almost, 30. +Very much of, 153. +Very pleased, 97. +Very, Pretty, 116. +Very Vulgar Vulgarisms, 13. +Vicinity, Neighborhood, 97. +Vulgarisms, 13. + +Want, Need, 40. +Wasn’t, 122. +Way, Away, 41. +Ways, way, 41. +Weights, Measures, and Values, 203. +Well, Good, 153. +Weren’t, 122. +We’re, They’re, You’re, 123. +Wharf, Dock, 52. +Wharf, Wharves, 149. +What for _that,_ 137. +What? Which? Hey? 25. +Whereabouts, 204. +_Where_ for _in which—_Adverbs for Relative Pronouns, 140. +Whether, If, 58. +Whether... Whether, 160. +Which? 25. +Which? Beg pardon, 25. +Which for _who,_ 137. +Which? What? 25. +Which and _who_ after _and—_Pronouns, 140. +Who should I see—Interrogatives, 131. +Whole, All, 41, 51. +Wholesome, Healthy, 52. +_Whom_ do you think he is—Interrogatives, 131. +Why, 187. +Widow woman, 186. +Will, Could, Can, 115. +Will, Shall, Should, Would, 100. +Will you? Shall you? 102. +Winterish, Summerish, 99. +Wish, Hope, 99. +With, By, 177. +With, Of, 176. +With, To, 177, 178. +Without, Unless, 41. +Woman, Female, 73. +Words, Anglicized, 20. +Words Improperly Used, 26. +Words, New, 21. +Words, Obsolete. 20. +Words to be avoided, 18. +Worse, More, 42. +Would better, Had better, 57. +Would Should, Ought, 102. +Would, Should, Shall, Will, 100. +Wouldn’t, Shouldn’t, 122. + +You are _him—_Case Forms, 129. +You’re, We’re, They’re, 123. +You was, 204. + + + + +_Popular Handbooks_ + + +Some books are designed for entertainment, others for information. This +series combines both features. The information is not only complete and +reliable, it is compact and readable. In this busy, bustling age it is +required that the information which books contain shall be ready to +hand and presented in the clearest and briefest manner possible. These +volumes are replete with valuable information, compact in form and +unequalled in point of merit and cheapness. 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Bechtel</div> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and +most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions +whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms +of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online +at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you +are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the +country where you are located before using this eBook. +</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Slips of Speech</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: John H. Bechtel</div> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: April 7, 2002 [eBook #4983]<br /> +[Most recently updated: July 28, 2021]</div> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Character set encoding: UTF-8</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced by: Jim Weiler, xooqi.com.</div> +<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SLIPS OF SPEECH ***</div> + +<h1>Slips of Speech</h1> + +<p class="center"> +A helpful book for everyone who aspires to correct the everyday errors of +speaking and writing. +</p> + +<h2 class="no-break">by John H. Bechtel</h2> + +<h5>Author of “Practical Synonyms,” “Pronunciation,” +etc.</h5> + +<h4>Philadelphia</h4> + +<h4>The Penn Publishing Company</h4> + +<h4>1901</h4> + +<hr /> + +<h4>COPYRIGHT 1895 BY THE PENN PUBLISHING COMPANY</h4> + +<hr /> + +<h2>Contents</h2> + +<table summary="" style=""> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap00">INTRODUCTION</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap01">I. TASTE</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap02">II. CHOICE OF WORDS</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap03">III. CONTRACTIONS</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap04">IV. POSSESSIVE CASE</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap05">V. PRONOUNS</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap06">VI. NUMBER</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap07">VII. ADVERBS</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap08">VIII. CONJUNCTIONS</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap09">IX. CORRELATIVES</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap10">X. THE INFINITIVE</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap11">XI. PARTICIPLES</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap12">XII. PREPOSITIONS</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap13">XIII. THE ARTICLE</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap14">XIV. REDUNDANCY</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap15">XV. TWO NEGATIVES</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap16">XVI. ACCORDANCE OF VERB WITH SUBJECT</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> <a href="#chap17">INDEX</a></td> +</tr> + +</table> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap00"></a>INTRODUCTION</h2> + +<p> +Homer, in all probability, knew no rules of rhetoric, and was not tortured with +the consideration of grammatical construction, and yet his verse will endure +through time. If everybody possessed the genius of Homer, rules and cautions in +writing would be unnecessary. +</p> + +<p> +To-day all men speak, and most men write, but it is observed that those who +most closely follow Homer’s method of writing without rules are most +unlike Homer in the results. The ancient bard was a law unto himself; we need +rules for our guidance. +</p> + +<p> +Rules of writing are the outgrowth of the study of the characteristics and +qualities of style which distinguish the best writers from those of inferior +skill and ability. Grammarians and rhetoricians, according to their several +lines of investigation, set forth the laws and principles governing speech, and +formulate rules whereby we may follow the true, and avoid the false. +</p> + +<p> +Grammar and rhetoric, as too often presented in the schools, are such +uninviting studies that when +<a name="Page04"></a> +school-days are ended, the books are laid aside, and are rarely consulted +afterward. The custom of formally burning the text-books after the final +examinations—a custom that prevails in some institutions—is but +an emphatic method of showing how the students regard the subjects treated in +the books. +</p> + +<p> +If all the rules and principles had been thoroughly mastered, the huge bonfire +of text-books in grammar and rhetoric might be regarded a fitting celebration +of the students’ victory over the difficulties of “English +undefiled.” But too often these rules are merely memorized by the student +for the purpose of recitation, and are not engrafted upon his everyday habit of +speech. They are, therefore, soon forgotten, and the principles involved are +subject to daily violation. +</p> + +<p> +Hence arises the need of books like SLIPS OF SPEECH, in which the common faults +of speakers and writers are pointed out, and the correct use of words shown. +Brief and informal in treatment, they will be read and consulted when the more +voluminous text-books will be left untouched. +</p> + +<p> +The copious index appended to this volume will afford a ready reference to the +many subjects discussed, and will contribute greatly to the convenience and +permanent value of the book. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2>SLIPS OF SPEECH</h2> + +<p class="letter"> +“We should be as careful of our words as of our +actions.”—CICERO. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="chap01"></a>CHAPTER I<br /> +Taste</h2> + +<p> +Taste is a universal gift. It has been found in some degree in all nations, +races, and ages. It is shown by the savage in his love of personal decoration; +by the civilized man in his love of art. +</p> + +<p> +But while it is thus universal, it is as different among men as their faces, +complexions, characters, or languages. Even among people of the same nation, it +is as different as the degrees of society. The same individual at different +periods of life, shows this variableness of taste. +</p> + +<p> +These diversities of taste imply a susceptibility to improvement. Good taste in +writing forms no exception to the rule. While it seems to require some basis in +nature, no degree of inborn aptitude will compensate for the lack of careful +training. +</p> + +<p> +To give his natural taste firmness and fineness a writer needs to read the best +literature, not merely so +<a name="Page08"></a> +as to know it, but so as to feel the beauty, the fitness, the charm, the +strength, the delicacy of a well-chosen word. +</p> + +<p> +The study of the proper arrangement and the most effective expression of our +thoughts prompts us to think more accurately. So close is the connection +between the thought and its expression that looseness of style in speaking and +writing may nearly always be traced to indistinctness and feebleness in the +grasp of the subject. No degree of polish in expression will compensate for +inadequacy of knowledge. But with the fullest information upon any subject, +there is still room for the highest exercise of judgment and good sense in the +proper choice and arrangement of the thoughts, and of the words with which to +express them. +</p> + +<p> +The concurrent testimony of those best qualified to render a decision, has +determined what authors reflect the finest literary taste, and these writers +should be carefully studied by all who aspire to elegance, accuracy, and +strength in literary expression. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Fine Writing</b> +</p> + +<p> +Never hesitate to call a spade a <i>spade</i>. One of the most frequent +violations of good taste consists in the effort to dress a common subject in +high-sounding language. The ass in the fable showed his stupidity +<a name="Page09"></a> +when he put on the lion’s skin and expected the other animals to declare +him to be the king of beasts. The distinction of a subject lies in its own +inherent character, and no pompous parade of words will serve to exalt a +commonplace theme. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Poetic Terms</b> +</p> + +<p> +In the expression of homely ideas and the discussion of affairs of every-day +life, avoid such poetic forms as <i>o’er</i> for over, <i>ne’er +</i>for never, <i>’mid</i> for amid, <i>e’en</i> for even, +<i>’gan</i> for began, <i>’twixt</i> for betwixt, +<i>’neath</i> for beneath, <i>list</i> for listen, <i>oft</i> for often, +<i>morn</i> for morning, <i>eve</i> for evening, <i>e’er</i> for ever, +<i>ere</i> for before, <i>’tis</i> for it is, <i>’twas </i>for it +was. +</p> + +<p> +In all prose composition, avoid such poetic forms as <i>swain, wight, mead, +brake, dingle, dell, zephyr.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Foreign Words</b> +</p> + +<p> +The unrestrained use of foreign words, whether from the ancient or from the +modern languages, savors of pedantry and affectation. The ripest scholars, in +speaking and writing English, make least use of foreign words or phrases. +Persons who indulge in their use incur the risk of being charged with a desire +to exhibit their linguistic attainments. +</p> + +<p> +On the other hand, occasions arise when the use of words from a foreign tongue +by one who is +<a name="Page10"></a> +thoroughly familiar with them, will add both grace and exactness to his style. +</p> + +<p> +Rarely use a foreign term when your meaning can be as well expressed in +English. Instead of <i>blasé,</i> use surfeited, or wearied; for <i>cortège +</i>use procession for <i>couleur de rose,</i> rose-color; for <i>déjeuner, +</i>breakfast; for <i>employe,</i> employee; for <i>en route,</i> on the way; +for <i>entre nous,</i> between ourselves; for <i>fait accompli,</i> an +accomplished fact; for <i>in toto,</i> wholly, entirely; for <i>penchant, +</i>inclination; for <i>raison d’être,</i> reason for existence; for +<i>recherché,</i> choice, refined; for <i>rôle,</i> part; for <i>soirée +dansante,</i> an evening dancing party; for <i>sub rosa,</i> secretly, etc. +</p> + +<p> +The following incident from the <i>Detroit Free Press</i> is in point: +</p> + +<p> +The gentleman from the West pulled his chair up to the hotel table, tucked his +napkin under his chin, picked up the bill-of-fare and began to study it +intently. Everything was in restaurant French, and he didn’t like it. +</p> + +<p> +“Here, waiter,” he said, sternly, “there’s nothing on +this I want.” +</p> + +<p> +“Ain’t there nothin’ else you would like for dinner, +sir?” inquired the waiter, politely. +</p> + +<p> +“Have you got any <i>sine qua non?”</i> +</p> + +<p> +The waiter gasped. +</p> + +<p> +“No, sir,” he replied. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page11"></a> +“Got any <i>bon mots?”</i> +</p> + +<p> +“N—no, sir.” +</p> + +<p> +“Got any <i>semper idem?”</i> +</p> + +<p> +“No, sir, we hain’t.” +</p> + +<p> +“Got any <i>jeu d’esprits?”</i> +</p> + +<p> +“No, sir; not a one.” +</p> + +<p> +“Got any <i>tempus fugit?”</i> +</p> + +<p> +“I reckon not, sir.” +</p> + +<p> +“Got any <i>soirée dansante?”</i> +</p> + +<p> +“No, sir.” +</p> + +<p> +The waiter was edging off. +</p> + +<p> +“Got any <i>sine die?”</i> +</p> + +<p> +“We hain’t, sir.” +</p> + +<p> +“Got any <i>e pluribus unum?”</i> +</p> + +<p> +The waiter’s face showed some sign of intelligence. +</p> + +<p> +“Seems like I heard ob dat, sir,” and he rushed out to the kitchen, +only to return empty-handed. +</p> + +<p> +“We ain’t got none, sir,” he said, in a tone of +disappointment. +</p> + +<p> +“Got any <i>mal de mer?”</i> +</p> + +<p> +“N—no, sir.” +</p> + +<p> +The waiter was going to pieces fast. +</p> + +<p> +The gentleman from the West, was as serene as a May morning. +</p> + +<p> +“Got any <i>vice versa?”</i> he inquired again. +</p> + +<p> +The waiter could only shake his head. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page12"></a> +“No? Well, maybe you’ve got some bacon and cabbage, and a corn +dodger?” +</p> + +<p> +“’Deed we have, sir,” exclaimed the waiter, in a tone of the +utmost relief, and he fairly flew out to the kitchen. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Trite Expressions</b> +</p> + +<p> +Words and phrases which may once have been striking and effective, or witty and +felicitous, but which have become worn out by oft-repeated use, should be +avoided. The following hackneyed phrases will serve to illustrate: “The +staff of life,” “gave up the ship,” “counterfeit +presentment,” “the hymeneal altar,” “bold as a +lion,” “throw cold water upon,” “the rose upon the +cheek,” “lords of creation,” “the weaker sex,” +“the better half,” “the rising generation,” +“tripping the light fantastic toe,” “the cup that cheers but +does not inebriate,” “in the arms of Morpheus,” “the +debt of nature,” “the bourne whence no traveler returns,” +“to shuffle off this mortal coil,” “the devouring +element,” “a brow of alabaster.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Pet Words</b> +</p> + +<p> +Avoid pet words, whether individual, provincial, or national in their use. Few +persons are entirely free from the overuse of certain words. Young people +largely employ such words as <i>delightful, delicious,</i> +<a name="Page13"></a> +<i>exquisite,</i> and other expressive adjectives, which constitute a kind of +society slang. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Overworked Expressions</b> +</p> + +<p> +Words and phrases are often taken up by writers and speakers, repeated, and +again taken up by others, and thus their use enlarges in ever-widening circles +until the expressions become threadbare. Drop them before they have reached +that state. <i>Function, environment, trend, the masses, to be in touch with, +to voice the sentiments of—</i>these are enough to illustrate the kind +of words referred to. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Very Vulgar Vulgarisms</b> +</p> + +<p> +No one who has any regard for purity of diction and the proprieties of +cultivated society will be guilty of the use of such expressions as +<i>yaller</i> for yellow, <i>feller</i> for fellow, <i>kittle</i> for kettle, +<i>kiver</i> for cover, <i>ingons</i> for onions, <i>cowcumbers</i> for +cucumbers, <i>sparrowgrass</i> for asparagus, <i>yarbs</i> for herbs, <i>taters +</i>for potatoes, <i>tomats</i> for tomatoes, <i>bile</i> for boil, +<i>hain’t </i>for ain’t or isn’t, <i>het</i> for heated, +<i>kned</i> for kneaded, <i>sot</i> for sat or set, <i>teeny</i> for tiny, +<i>fooling you</i> for deceiving you, <i>them</i> for those, <i>shut up</i> for +be quiet, or be still, or cease speaking, <i>went back on me</i> for deceived +me or took advantage of me, a <i>power of people</i> for a great many +<a name="Page14"></a> +people, a <i>power of money</i> for great wealth, a <i>heap of houses</i> for +many houses, <i>lots of books</i> for many books, <i>lots of corn</i> for much +corn or large quantities of corn, <i>gents</i> for gentlemen, and many others +of a similar character. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="Page15"></a><a name="chap02"></a>CHAPTER II<br /> +Choice of Words</h2> + +<p> +Our American writers evince much variety in their graces of diction, but in the +accurate choice of words James Russell Lowell and William Cullen Bryant stand +out conspicuous above the rest. So careful and persistent was the latter, that +during the time that he was editor of <i>The Evening Post,</i> of New York +City, he required the various writers upon that paper to avoid the use of a +long list of words and expressions which he had prepared for them, and which +were commonly employed by other papers. This list was not only used, but +enlarged by his successors. +</p> + +<p> +Strive to cultivate the habit of observing words; trace their delicate shades +of meaning as employed by the most polished writers; note their suggestiveness; +mark the accuracy with which they are chosen. In this way your mind will be +kept on the alert to discover the beauties as well as the blemishes of all the +thought pictures that are presented, and your vocabulary will be greatly +enlarged and enriched. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page16"></a> +BRYANT’S LIST OF OBJECTIONABLE EXPRESSIONS +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +<i>Above,</i> and <i>over,</i> use more than.<br/> <i>Artiste,</i> use +artist.<br/> <i>Aspirant.</i><br/> <i>Authoress</i><br/> <i>Beat,</i> use +defeat. <br/> <i>Bagging,</i> use capturing. <br/> <i>Balance,</i> use +remainder. <br/> <i>Banquet,</i> use dinner or supper. <br/> <i>Bogus.</i><br/> +<i>Casket,</i> use coffin. <br/> <i>Claimed,</i> use asserted. <br/> +<i>Collided.</i><br/> <i>Commence,</i> use begin. <br/> <i>Compete.</i><br/> +<i>Cortege,</i> use procession. <br/> <i>Cotemporary,</i> use contemporary. +<br/> <i>Couple,</i> use two. <br/> <i>Darkey,</i> use negro. <br/> <i>Day +before yesterday,</i> use the day before yesterday. <br/> <i>Débût.</i><br/> +<i>Decease,</i> as a verb. <br/> <i>Democracy,</i> applied to a political +party. <br/> <i>Develop,</i> use expose. <br/> <i>Devouring element,</i> use +fire. <br/> <i>Donate.</i><br/> <i>Employe.</i><br/> <i>Enacted,</i> use acted. +<br/> <i>Endorse,</i> use approve. <br/> <i>En route.</i><br/> <i>Esq.</i><br/> +<i>Graduate,</i> use is graduated. <br/> <i>Gents,</i> use gentlemen. <br/> +<i>Hon.</i><br/> <i>House,</i> use House of Representatives. <br/> +<i>Humbug.</i><br/> <i>Inaugurate,</i> use begin. <br/> <i>In our +midst.</i><br/> <i>Item,</i> use particle, extract, or paragraph. <br/> <i>Is +being done,</i> and all similar passive forms. <br/> <i>Jeopardize.</i><br/> +<i>Jubilant,</i> use rejoicing.<br/> +<a name="Page17"></a> +<i>Juvenile,</i> use boy. <br/> <i>Lady,</i> use wife. <br/> <i>Last,</i> use +latest. <br/> <i>Lengthy,</i> use long. <br/> <i>Leniency,</i> use lenity. +<br/> <i>Loafer.</i><br/> <i>Loan,</i> or <i>loaned,</i> use lend or lent. +<br/> <i>Located.</i><br/> <i>Majority,</i> use most. <br/> <i>Mrs. +President.</i><br/> <i>Mrs. Governor.</i><br/> <i>Mrs. General.</i><br/> +<i>Mutual,</i> use common. <br/> <i>Official,</i> use officer. <br/> +<i>Ovation.</i><br/> <i>On yesterday.</i><br/> <i>Over his signature.</i><br/> +<i>Pants,</i> use pantaloons. <br/> <i>Parties,</i> use persons. <br/> +<i>Partially,</i> use partly. <br/> <i>Past two weeks,</i> use last two weeks. +<br/> <i>Poetess.</i><br/> <i>Portion,</i> use part. <br/> <i>Posted,</i> use +informed. <br/> <i>Progress,</i> use advance. <br/> <i>Quite,</i> when prefixed +to good, large, etc. <br/> <i>Raid,</i> use attack. <br/> <i>Realized,</i> use +obtained. <br/> <i>Reliable,</i> use trustworthy. <br/> <i>Rendition,</i> use +performance. <br/> <i>Repudiate,</i> use reject or disown. <br/> <i>Retire,</i> +as an active verb.v <i>Rev.,</i> use the Rev. <br/> <i>Role,</i> use part. +<br/> <i>Roughs.</i><br/> <i>Rowdies.</i><br/> <i>Secesh.</i><br/> +<i>Sensation,</i> use noteworthy event. <br/> <i>Standpoint,</i> use point of +view. <br/> <i>Start,</i> in the sense of setting out. <br/> <i>State,</i> use +say. <br/> <i>Taboo.</i><br/> <i>Talent,</i> use talents or ability. <br/> +<i>Talented.</i><br/> <i>Tapis.</i><br/> <i>The deceased.</i><br/> <i>War,</i> +use dispute or disagreement. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page18"></a> +STILTS +</p> + +<p> +Avoid bombastic language. Work for plain expressions rather than for the +unusual. Use the simplest words that the subject will bear. +</p> + +<p> +The following clipping, giving an account of the commencement exercises of a +noted female college, strikingly illustrates what to avoid: +</p> + +<p> +“Like some beacon-light upon a rock-bound coast against which the surges +of the ocean unceasingly roll, and casting its beams far across the waters +warning the mariner from the danger near, the college, like a Gibraltar, stands +upon the high plains of learning, shedding its rays of knowledge, from the +murmurings of the Atlantic to the whirlwinds of the Pacific, guiding womankind +from the dark valley of ignorance, and wooing her with wisdom’s lore, +leads creation’s fairest, purest, best into flowery dells where she can +pluck the richest food of knowledge, and crowns her brow with a coronet of gems +whose brilliancy can never grow dim: for they glisten with the purest thought, +that seems as a spark struck from the mind of Deity. There is no need for the +daughters of this community to seek colleges of distant climes whereat to be +educated, for right here in their own city, God’s paradise on earth, is +situated a noble college, the bright diadem of that paradise, that has done +more for the higher education of woman than any institution in our land.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page19"></a> +PURITY +</p> + +<p> +An author’s diction is pure when he uses such words only as belong to the +idiom of the language. The only standard of purity is the practice of the best +writers and speakers. A violation of purity is called a barbarism. +</p> + +<p> +Unlike the Latin, Greek, or Hebrew, the English is a living language, and, like +all living organisms, manifests its life by taking in new material and casting +off old waste continually. Science, art, and philosophy give rise to new ideas +which, in turn, demand new words for their expression. Of these, some gain a +permanent foothold, while others float awhile upon the currents of conversation +and newspaper literature and then disappear. +</p> + +<p> +Good usage is the only real authority in the choice of reputable words; and to +determine, in every case, what good usage dictates, is not an easy matter. +Authors, like words, must be tested by time before their forms of expression +may become a law for others. Pope, in his <i>Essay on Criticism,</i> laid down +a rule which, for point and brevity, has never been excelled: +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +“In words, as fashions, the same rule will hold;<br/> +Alike fantastic, if too new or old;<br/> +Be not the first by whom the new are tried,<br/> +Nor yet the last to lay the old aside.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page20"></a> +BARBARISMS +</p> + +<p> +Campbell, in his <i>Philosophy of Rhetoric,</i> says that a word to be +legitimate must have these three signs of authority: +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +1. It must be <i>reputable,</i> or that of educated people, as opposed to that +of the ignorant or vulgar.<br/> +2. It must be <i>national,</i> as opposed to what is either local or +technical.<br/> +3. It must be <i>present,</i> as opposed to what is obsolete. +</p> + +<p> +Any word that does not have these three qualities may, in general, be styled a +barbarism. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +ANGLICIZED WORDS +</p> + +<p> +Many foreign words, in process of time, become so thoroughly domesticated that +their translation, or the use of an awkward equivalent, would be a greater mark +of pedantry than the use of the foreign words. The proper use of such terms as +<i>fiat, palladium, cabal, quorum, omnibus, antique, artiste, coquette, ennui, +physique, régime, tableau, amateur,</i> cannot be censured on the ground of +their foreign character. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +OBSOLETE WORDS +</p> + +<p> +Some writers affect an antiquated style by the introduction of such words as +<i>peradventure, perchance,</i> +<a name="Page21"></a> +<i>anon, behest, quoth, erewhile.</i> The use of such words gives a strange +sound to the sentence, and generally indicates that the writer is not +thoroughly in earnest. The expression is lowered in tone and is made to sound +fantastic. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +NEW WORDS +</p> + +<p> +A word should not be condemned because it is new. If it is really needed it +will be welcomed, and soon find a permanent place. Shakespeare, Addison, and +Johnson introduced many new words, to which their names afterward gave a +sanction. Carlyle, Coleridge, Tennyson, and Browning have introduced or given +currency to new words, and made strange ones familiar. +</p> + +<p> +New words are objectionable when they are employed without proper authority. +The chief sources of supply of the objectionable kind are the current slang of +the street and the sensational newspaper. They are often the result of a desire +to say things in such a manner as to reflect smartness upon the speaker, or to +present things in a humorous or picturesque way. That they are frequently very +effective cannot be gainsaid. Sometimes they are coined in the heat of +political or social discussion, and, for a time, express what everybody is +talking about; but it is impossible to tell whether they will live beyond +<a name="Page22"></a> +the occasion that produced them. So long as their usage is doubtful it is safer +not to employ them. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +SLANG +</p> + +<p> +Slang is somewhat like chicken-pox or measles, very catching, and just as +inevitable in its run; and very few of us escape it. It is severest, too, where +the sanitary conditions are most favorable to its development. Where there is +least thought and culture to counteract its influence slang words crowd out +those of a more serious character, until, in time, the young and inexperienced +speaker or writer is unable to distinguish between the counterfeit and the +genuine. +</p> + +<p> +While most persons condemn slang, there are very few who are entirely free from +its use. It varies greatly in its degrees of coarseness or refinement, and +adapts itself to all classes and conditions. Many know no other language, and +we are unwillingly compelled to admit that while their speech is often +ungrammatical and unrhetorical, it is generally clear, concise, and forcible. +</p> + +<p> +Strive to acquire a vocabulary so large and to cultivate a taste so fine that +when a slang expression rises to your mind you can use it if you think it best +fits the occasion, or substitute something better in its place. Purity of +diction is a garden of slow growth even under the most favorable conditions, +and the +<a name="Page23"></a> +unrestrained indulgence in slang is like scattering seeds of the vilest plants +among the choicest flowers. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +SOCIETY SLANG +</p> + +<p> +“This is an <i>elegant</i> day,” “that is an <i>elegant</i> +view,” “Mary is <i>awfully nice,” “</i>Jennie is +<i>dreadfully sweet,”</i> “Gertrude is <i>delicious,”</i> and +“Tom is <i>perfectly splendid.”</i> The use of such extravagant +phrases tends to weaken the significance of the words when legitimately +employed. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +COMMERCIAL SLANG +</p> + +<p> +Commercial terms are employed in the common language of everyday life to such +an extent as to constitute a form of commercial slang. The following will serve +for illustration; “The <i>balance</i> of the journey” for +remainder, “he was <i>well posted.”</i> for well informed, “I +<i>calculate</i> he will come to-morrow” for believe or think, “I +<i>reckon</i> he is your friend” for I suppose. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +COMMON SLANG +</p> + +<p> +To materialize, to burglarize, to enthuse, to suicide, to wire, to jump upon, +to sit upon, to take in, are a few of the many examples of slang that should be +avoided. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page24"></a> +PROVINCIALISMS +</p> + +<p> +A word that is used only in a limited part of the country is called a +provincialism. It must be known and recognized for what it is worth, but not +obtruded where it does not belong. +</p> + +<p> +Whatever may be said of the faults of speech of the American people, it is +doubtful if any other nation, whether it covers a large territory or is limited +in area, speaks the language native to the country with the uniformity that we +do. Yet, there are peculiarities that mark the expression of most of our +people, even among the best informed. The words <i>calculate, reckon,</i> and +<i>guess</i> are not the only words that betray the locality of the speaker. +Any person who has been five hundred miles from home cannot fail to have +observed words that were used differently from the way in which he had been +accustomed to use them, and he probably heard terms of expression that seemed +strange to him. In like manner, his own expressions sounded strange to those +who heard him. That which distinguished his speech from theirs and theirs from +his would, in large part, be covered by the word “provincialism.” +</p> + +<p> +Not only do we have local and sectional peculiarities of speech, but we may be +said to have national mannerisms. Mr. Alexander Melville Bell, the +<a name="Page25"></a> +eminent elocutionist, relates that some years ago when residing in Edinburgh, a +stranger called to make some inquiries in regard to professional matters. +</p> + +<p> +“I have called on you, sir, for the purpose of,” etc. +</p> + +<p> +“When did you cross the Atlantic?” I asked. +</p> + +<p> +The stranger looked up with surprise amounting almost to consternation. +</p> + +<p> +“How do you know that I have crossed the Atlantic?” +</p> + +<p> +“Your manner of using the little word ‘sir’ is not heard in +England or Scotland.” +</p> + +<p> +This gentleman, Mr. Bell says, was one of the most eminent teachers of +elocution in America, and his speech was perfectly free from ordinary local +coloring, in all but the one little element which had escaped observation. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +WHICH? +</p> + +<p> +Much diversity of usage exists and some difference of opinion prevails +concerning the proper expression to use when you are addressed, and fail to +understand just what has been said. Such interrogative rejoinders as +<i>“What?” “How?” “Which?” +“Hey?”</i> are plainly objectionable. <i>“Sir?” </i>and +<i>“Madam!”</i> once common, are no longer tolerated in society. +The English expression <i>“Beg pardon”</i> has found favor, but it +is not wholly acceptable. <i>“Excuse me”</i> +<a name="Page26"></a> +is suggested by a writer on the subject. It has no more syllables than +<i>“Beg pardon,”</i> and is nearly equivalent in signification, but +it is also subject to the objection that it is often used to imply a difference +of opinion, as when a person makes a statement to which you take exception, you +begin your reply with the expression, <i>“Excuse me.”</i> +</p> + +<p> +Whatever is adopted will doubtless be a convenient contraction, like +<i>“Beg pardon,”</i> which is a short way of saying, “I beg +your pardon for failing to understand what you said;” or “<i>Excuse +me,”</i> which is a condensation of “Excuse me for not fully +grasping your meaning.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +WORDS IMPROPERLY USED<br/><br/> +<b>Commodious—Convenient</b> +</p> + +<p> +A word of caution in the use of the smaller dictionaries is necessary. The most +elaborate definition often fails to give an adequate idea of the signification +of a term unless it is accompanied with one or more quotations illustrating its +use. The small dictionaries give only the briefest definitions, without +illustration, and therefore should be interpreted with caution. +</p> + +<p> +Some years ago a young man of moderate attainments was very desirous of +enlarging his vocabulary +<a name="Page27"></a> +and of using words beyond the ordinary vernacular of his neighborhood. To this +end, he made a small vest-pocket lexicon his constant companion. +</p> + +<p> +Having consulted it in the course of a conversation with a friend, he remarked, +as he was about to return it to his pocket, “What a commodious book this +is.” His friend suggested that he again consult the +“commodious” volume. With a look of the utmost confidence he turned +to the word, and exclaimed: “There! I knew I was right. <i>Commodious</i> +means <i>convenient,</i> and that is just what this little book is.” +</p> + +<p> +It was useless to explain that smallness sometimes renders a thing +inconvenient, and this young man, doubtless, still felicitates himself upon his +intimate acquaintance with that <i>commodious</i> pocket dictionary. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Ability, Capacity</b> +</p> + +<p> +A fond mother was told by the principal of a boarding-school that her daughter +would not be graduated, as she lacked capacity. “Get her a capacity. Her +father don’t stand on the matter of expense. Get her anything she wants. +He’ll foot the bill.” But for once the indulgent mother was obliged +to learn that there are some things money will not purchase. The father had the +financial <i>ability,</i> but the daughter lacked the necessary intellectual +<i>capacity.</i> +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page28"></a> +But we may have literary as well as financial ability. <i>Ability </i>implies +the power of doing; <i>capacity</i> the faculty of receiving. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>About, Almost</b> +</p> + +<p> +“This work is <i>about</i> done.” Use “<i>almost</i> +done.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Acceptance, Acceptation</b> +</p> + +<p> +These words cannot be used interchangeably. “He wrote signifying his +<i>acceptance</i> of the office.” “According to the common +<i>acceptation</i> of this term, he is a knave.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Access, Accession</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He gained <i>access</i> to the fort.” “The only +<i>accession,</i> which the Roman empire received was the province of +Britain.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Accident, Injury</b> +</p> + +<p> +Accident is sometimes used incorrectly for <i>injury.</i> as “His +<i>accident</i> was very painful.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Mutual, Common</b> +</p> + +<p> +Some men seek to be great by copying great men’s faults. Dickens may say +“Our Mutual Friend,” but Dickens’s strong point was not +grammar. If you have a friend in common with Smith, in speaking of him to +Smith, say our <i>common </i>friend. The word <i>mutual</i> should always +convey a sense of reciprocity, as “Happy in our mutual help and mutual +love.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page29"></a> +<b>Myself</b> +</p> + +<p> +This word is generally used for emphasis, as “I <i>myself</i> will do +it,” “I wrote it <i>myself.”</i> It should not be used for +the unemphatic pronouns <i>I</i> and <i>me,</i> as in “James and +<i>myself</i> are going to town,” “He gave the books to James and +<i>myself.”</i> It is properly used with a reflexive verb without +emphasis, as “I will defend <i>myself.”</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Negligence, Neglect</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Negligence</i> is the habit, <i>neglect</i> the act, of leaving things +undone. The adjectives <i>negligent</i> and <i>neglectful</i> should, in like +manner, be discriminated. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Never, Not</b> +</p> + +<p> +The word <i>never</i> is sometimes colloquially used for <i>not, </i>as +“I <i>never</i> remember to have seen Lincoln.” Say “I <i>do +not </i>remember,” etc. <i>Never</i> should not be used in reference to +events that can take place but once, as “Warren <i>never</i> died at +Lexington.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Love, Like</b> +</p> + +<p> +We may <i>love</i> our parents, our children, our country, the truth; and we +may <i>like</i> roast turkey and cranberry sauce. “I <i>love +</i>cherries,” “I <i>adore</i> strawberries,” are school-girl +expressions that should be avoided. Love is an emotion of the heart, and not of +the palate. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page30"></a> +<b>Cheap, Low-priced</b> +</p> + +<p> +These words are often used synonymously. A picture purchased for ten thousand +dollars may be cheap; another, for which ten dollars was paid, although +low-priced, may be dear. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Mad, Angry</b> +</p> + +<p> +The frequent use of <i>mad</i> in the sense of angry should be avoided. A +person who is insane is <i>mad.</i> A dog that has hydrophobia is <i>mad.</i> +Figuratively we say <i>mad,</i> with rage, <i>mad</i> with terror, <i>mad</i> +with pain; but to be vexed, or angry, or out of patience, does not justify the +use of so strong a term as <i>mad.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Most, Almost, Very</b> +</p> + +<p> +Sometimes incorrectly used for <i>almost,</i> as “He writes to me +<i>most</i> every week.” +</p> + +<p> +It is often loosely used in the sense of <i>very,</i> as “This is a +<i>most </i>interesting book.” Aim to use <i>most</i> only as the +superlative of <i>much</i>, or <i>many.</i> Do not use the indefinite article +before it, as “This is <i>a most</i> beautiful picture.” We may say +“This is <i>the most </i>beautiful picture,” for here comparison is +implied. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Portion, Part</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Give me the <i>portion</i> of goods that falleth to me.” “We +traveled a <i>part</i> of the distance on foot.” <i>Portion</i> is +applied to that which is set aside for a special +<a name="Page31"></a> +purpose, often as the share or allotment of an individual, as the wife’s +<i>portion,</i> the <i>portion</i> of the oldest son, etc. <i>Part</i> is a +more general term. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Postal</b> +</p> + +<p> +Bryant would not have said, “I will send you a <i>postal</i> by +to-morrow’s mail.” <i>Postal card</i> or <i>post card</i> would be +better. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Practical, Practicable</b> +</p> + +<p> +These words are sometimes confounded. <i>Practicable</i> means “that may +be done or accomplished,” and implies that the means or resources are +available; as, a <i>practicable</i> road, a <i>practicable</i> aim. +<i>Practical</i> means “capable of being turned to use or account;” +as, “The <i>practical</i> man begins by doing; the theorist often ends by +thinking.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Predicate</b> +</p> + +<p> +This word is sometimes incorrectly used in the sense of <i>form </i>or +<i>base;</i> as, “He <i>predicated</i> his statement on the information +he had just received.” Neither should it be used in the sense of +<i>predict; </i>as, “The sky is overcast, and I <i>predicate</i> a storm +tomorrow.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Prefer—than</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I <i>prefer</i> to walk <i>than</i> to ride.” Say “I prefer +walking to riding;” or, “I would rather walk than +<a name="Page32"></a> +ride.” “To skate is <i>preferable than</i> to coast.” Say +“Skating is preferable to coasting.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Amount, Number</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Amount</i> applies to what is thought of in the mass or bulk, as money, +wheat, coal. <i>Number</i> is used when we think of the individuals composing +the mass, as men, books, horses, vessels. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Answer, Reply</b> +</p> + +<p> +An <i>answer</i> implies a question. We may <i>reply</i> to a remark or +assertion. A <i>reply</i> is more formal than an <i>answer.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Antagonize, Alienate, Oppose</b> +</p> + +<p> +The word <i>antagonize</i> should not be used in the sense of <i>alienate;</i> +as, “Your proposition will <i>antagonize</i> many supporters of the +measure.” “The Senate <i>opposed</i> the bill which passed the +House” is better than “<i>antagonized</i> the bill.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Anticipate, Expect</b> +</p> + +<p> +“The arrival of the President was hourly <i>anticipated”</i> is +pompous. Use <i>expected.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Any, At all</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He was so far from the speaker’s platform that he could not hear +<i>any.”</i> Better “that he could not hear,” or “hear +at all,” or “hear what was said.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page33"></a> +<b>Apparent, Evident</b> +</p> + +<p> +These words are often used interchangeably. That which is <i>apparent</i> may +be what it appears to be, or it may be very different; that which is <i>evident +</i>admits of no doubt. The same is true of <i>apparently</i> and +<i>evidently.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Prejudice</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He is not the best person for the position, but his many kindnesses to +me <i>prejudice</i> me in his favor.” We may be prejudiced against a +person or thing, but cannot be prejudiced in favor. Use <i>predispose.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Presume</b> +</p> + +<p> +This word is often employed when <i>think, believe,</i> or <i>daresay </i>would +be better. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Pretend, Profess</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I do not <i>pretend</i> to be an orator.” <i>Pretend</i> means +<i>to feign, to sham;</i> as, “He <i>pretends</i> to be asleep,” +and should not be used when <i>claim</i> or <i>profess</i> would better suit +the purpose. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Preventative</b> +</p> + +<p> +The correct form of the word is <i>preventive,</i> not <i>preventative.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Previous, Previously</b> +</p> + +<p> +The adjective <i>previous</i> is often incorrectly used for the adverb +<i>previously;</i> as, “Previous to his imprisonment he made a confession +of his crime.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page34"></a> +<b>Promise, Assure</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I <i>promise</i> you we had a good time yesterday.” <i>Promise</i> +relates to the future, hence “I <i>assure</i> you,” etc., would be +better. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Propose, Purpose</b> +</p> + +<p> +To <i>propose</i> is to set before the mind for consideration; to +<i>purpose</i> is to intend. “I <i>propose</i> sending my son to +college” should be “I <i>purpose,”</i> etc. “I +<i>propose</i> that you go to college, my son.” “Thank you, father, +I accept the proposal.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Sparrowgrass, Asparagus</b> +</p> + +<p> +The word <i>sparrowgrass,</i> which is a corruption of the word +<i>asparagus,</i> illustrates how readily the uneducated mind associates an +unusual term with another that is familiar, and as the mental impression is +received through the ear, and lacks that definiteness which the printed form +would give, the new idea, when repeated, often assumes a picturesque, if not a +ludicrous, form. Many of Mrs. Partington’s quaint sayings furnish further +illustration. +</p> + +<p> +The following incident, from a Western paper, shows the successive stages in +the farmer’s mental operations from the familiar terms <i>skin, hide, +oxhide, </i>up to the unfamiliar chemical term <i>oxide,</i> through which he +was obliged to pass before he succeeded in making known his wants: +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page35"></a> +The man was in a brown study when he went into the drug store. +</p> + +<p> +“What can we do for you?” inquired the clerk. +</p> + +<p> +“I want black—something of something,” he said; “have +you got any?” +</p> + +<p> +“Probably we have,” replied the clerk, “but you’ll have +to be more definite than that to get it.” +</p> + +<p> +The farmer thought for a moment. +</p> + +<p> +“Got any black sheepskin of something?” he asked. +</p> + +<p> +“No; we don’t keep sheepskins. We have chamois-skins, +though.” +</p> + +<p> +“That ain’t it, I know,” said the customer. “Got any +other kind of skins?” +</p> + +<p> +“No.” +</p> + +<p> +“Skins—skins—skins!” slowly repeated the man, +struggling with his slippery memory. “Calfskin seems to be something like +it. Got any black calfskins of anything?” +</p> + +<p> +“No, not one,” and the clerk laughed. +</p> + +<p> +The customer grew red in the face. +</p> + +<p> +“Confound it!” he said, “if it ain’t a skin, what in +thunder is it?” +</p> + +<p> +“Possibly it’s a hide?” suggested the clerk. +</p> + +<p> +“That’s it! That’s it!” exclaimed the man. +</p> + +<p> +“Have you got any black hides of something or anything?” +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page36"></a> +The clerk shook his head sadly as the man tramped up and down the store. +</p> + +<p> +“Got any black cowhide of anything?” he asked, after a +moment’s thought. +</p> + +<p> +The clerk’s face showed a gleam of intelligence, and then broke into a +smile. +</p> + +<p> +“Possibly it’s black oxide of manganese you want?” he said, +quietly. +</p> + +<p> +“Of course, that’s it!” he exclaimed, as he threw his arms +around the clerk’s neck. “I knowed blamed well there was a skin or +hide or something somewhere about the thing,” and he calmed down quietly +and waited for what he wanted. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Accord, Give</b> +</p> + +<p> +“They <i>accorded</i> him due praise.” “They <i>gave</i> him +the desired information.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Act, Action</b> +</p> + +<p> +“The best portion of a good man’s life is his little, nameless, +unremembered <i>acts</i> of kindness and of love.” “Suit the +<i>action</i> to the word.” <i>Action</i> suggests the operation; +<i>act</i>, the accomplished result. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Adherence, Adhesion</b> +</p> + +<p> +These words were once interchangeable, but are now distinct. <i>Adhesion +</i>relates to physical bodies; <i>adherence</i> to mental states. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page37"></a> +<b>Adopt, Take</b> +</p> + +<p> +“What course will you <i>take?”</i> is better than “What +course will you <i>adopt?”</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Affect, Effect</b> +</p> + +<p> +These words are sometimes confounded. “The climate <i>affected </i>their +health.” “They sailed away without <i>effecting</i> their +purpose.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Aggravate, Exasperate</b> +</p> + +<p> +To <i>aggravate</i> means to intensify, to make worse; to <i>exasperate +</i>means to provoke, to irritate. “To <i>aggravate</i> the horrors of +the scene.” “His remarks <i>exasperated</i> me.” “His +conduct <i>aggravates</i> me” should be “His conduct <i>annoys</i> +(or <i>displeases,</i> or <i>irritates, </i>or <i>exasperates)</i> me.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Alleviate, Relieve</b> +</p> + +<p> +These words differ chiefly in degree. The latter is the stronger word. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Proposal, Proposition</b> +</p> + +<p> +A <i>proposition</i> implies consideration or discussion; a <i>proposal +</i>contemplates acceptance or rejection. “Your <i>proposition</i> to +build our new warehouse has received favorable consideration, and we are ready +to receive your <i>proposals.”</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Providing, Provided</b> +</p> + +<p> +“You may go to skate, <i>providing</i> you first finish your task.” +Incorrect. You should say <i>provided.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page38"></a> +<b>Proved, Proven</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Proven</i> is sometimes incorrectly used for <i>proved.</i> “The +evidence was complete and his guilt was fully <i>proved.” Not proven</i> +is a legal term used in England to denote that the guilt of the accused is not +made out, though not disproved. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Quantity, Number</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Quantity</i> refers to the <i>how much; number</i> to the <i>how many. +</i>“He purchased a large <i>quantity</i> of <i>wheat, corn, apples, +lime, </i>and <i>sand,</i> and a <i>number</i> of <i>houses, stores</i>, +<i>chairs, </i>and <i>books.”</i> It is, therefore, incorrect to say, +“There was a large <i>quantity</i> of bicycles in the yard,” +“He sold a large <i>quantity</i> of books at auction.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Quite a few</b> +</p> + +<p> +In some parts of the country this expression is in common use in the sense of +<i>many, a large number,</i> etc. “How many people were at church +to-day?” <i>“Quite a few,”</i> meaning a considerable number. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Commence, Begin</b> +</p> + +<p> +Some persons always <i>commence,</i> but never <i>begin.</i> The tendency +toward pomp and parade in speech prompts many persons to avoid the use of our +strong, rugged Anglo-Saxon words, and to substitute their high-sounding Latin +equivalents, until, in time, the preferable native forms come to be regarded as +<a name="Page39"></a> +commonplace and objectionable. American usage is more faulty than English in +this regard. Use <i>begin</i> and <i>beginning</i> more, and <i>commence +</i>and, <i>commencement</i> less. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Complete, Finished</b> +</p> + +<p> +There is a distinction in the use of these words that is not always observed. +<i>Complete</i> signifies <i>nothing lacking,</i> every element and part being +supplied. That which is <i>finished</i> has had all done to it that was +intended. A vessel may be <i>finished</i> and yet be <i>incomplete.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Conclusion, End</b> +</p> + +<p> +The more pretentious word <i>conclusion</i> is often used where the simple +Anglo-Saxon word <i>end</i> would be preferable. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Conscious, Aware</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He was <i>aware</i> of the enemy’s designs.” +“<i>Conscious</i> of his fate, he boldly approached the furious +beast.” <i>Conscious</i> relates to what is within our own mind; +<i>aware</i> to what is without. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Continual, Continuous</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Continuous</i> implies <i>uninterrupted, unbroken. Continual </i>relates to +acts that are frequently repeated. “The <i>continuous</i> ride is often +finished in five hours, but owing to <i>continual</i> delays we were eight +hours on the way.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page40"></a> +<b>Convict, Convince</b> +</p> + +<p> +The Irishman who brandished his club and, exclaimed that he was open to +conviction, but he would like to see the man that could convince him, used a +form of argument that was most convincing, but failed in his discrimination of +language. <i>Convict</i> refers to the outer condition, and generally applies +to something wrong; <i>convince,</i> which may be used of either right or +wrong, refers to the judgment. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Custom, Habit</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Habit</i> is a tendency which leads us to do easily; <i>custom</i> grows out +of the habitual doing or frequent repetition of the same act. <i>Custom +</i>refers to the usages of society, or of the individual; <i>habit</i> refers +more frequently to the individual acts. “Ill <i>habits</i> gather by +unseen degrees.” +</p> + +<p> +“Man yields to custom as he bows to fate,<br/> In all things ruled— +mind, body, and estate.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Want, Need</b> +</p> + +<p> +These words are often used interchangeably, but should be discriminated. +<i>Need</i> implies the lack; <i>want</i> also implies the lack, but couples +with it the wish to supply the lack. “Some men <i>need</i> help, but will +not ask for it; others <i>want</i> help (that is, they need help, or think they +do, and ask for it) and get it, too.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page41"></a> +<b>Way, Away</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He is <i>way</i> down in Florida,” is incorrect. “He is +<i>away </i>down in Florida” is better grammar. “He is in +Florida” is still better. <i>Down</i> indicates the direction, and +<i>away</i> magnifies the distance. As most persons know the direction, and as +modern railway travel shortens long distances, the abbreviated sentence is +sufficiently full. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Ways, Way</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He is a long <i>ways</i> from home” is a very common, but faulty +expression. Say “Uncle Charles is now a long <i>way</i> on his +journey.” “The boat is a good <i>way</i> off the shore.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Whole, All</b> +</p> + +<p> +“The <i>whole</i> of the scholars went to the fair to-day.” +<i>“All</i> of the school went to the fair to-day.” The sentences +will be improved by transposing <i>whole</i> and <i>all. “All</i> of the +scholars went to the fair to-day,” not half of them. “The +<i>whole</i> school went to the fair to-day,” not a part of it. +<i>All</i> refers to the individual scholars; <i>whole</i> to the school as a +unit. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Without, Unless</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He cannot miss the way <i>without</i> he forgets my instructions.” +“I will not dig the potatoes <i>without</i> Tom comes to help.” Use +<i>unless </i>instead of <i>without.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page42"></a> +<b>Worse, More</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He dislikes arithmetic <i>worse</i> than grammar.” Use <i>more</i> +instead of <i>worse.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Rarely, Rare</b> +</p> + +<p> +“It is <i>rarely</i> that you hear of a prodigal youth growing into an +economical man.” <i>Rarely</i> should be <i>rare</i> to form the +adjective attribute of the verb. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Real, Really</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Real</i> is often incorrectly used as an adverb, especially by schoolgirls; +as, “I think he is <i>real</i> mean.” The grammar will be improved +by substituting <i>really</i> for <i>real,</i> but the expression, as a whole, +being applied to all kinds and degrees of offenses, has become meaningless. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Real</i> is often carelessly used in the sense of <i>very;</i> as <i>real +</i>pretty, <i>real</i> bright, <i>real</i> kind. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Recipe, Receipt</b> +</p> + +<p> +A <i>recipe</i> is a formula for making some mixture or preparation of +materials; a <i>receipt</i> is an acknowledgment of that which has been +received. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Region, Neighborhood</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Region</i> is a broader and more comprehensive term, and should not be +applied to the narrow limits of a <i>neighborhood.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page43"></a> +<b>Remit, Send</b> +</p> + +<p> +The word <i>remit</i> is often used when <i>send</i> would be better. +<i>Remit</i> means to send back, to forgive, to relax. In its commercial sense +it means to transmit or send money in payment of a demand; as, “He +<i>remitted </i>the amount by mail.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Residence, House</b> +</p> + +<p> +This pretentious word is often used when <i>house</i> or <i>home</i> would be +in better taste. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Deface, Disfigure</b> +</p> + +<p> +“The walls of many public buildings are <i>defaced</i> by persons who +desire that their names shall remain when they are gone.” “They +<i>disfigure</i> their faces that they may appear unto men to fast.” +<i>Disfigure</i> applies more generally to persons; <i>deface,</i> to things. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Demean, Degrade</b> +</p> + +<p> +The word <i>demean</i> is often incorrectly used in the sense of <i>degrade, +lower.</i> It should be used in the sense of <i>behave, conduct, deport,</i> +and not in the sense of <i>degrade.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Depot, Station</b> +</p> + +<p> +For many years the word <i>depôt</i> was largely employed in the sense of a +railway station. Its primary meaning is a <i>warehouse</i> or <i>storehouse</i> +or <i>military station.</i> As applied to a stopping place for railroad trains +the +<a name="Page44"></a> +English word <i>station</i> is greatly to be preferred to the French word +<i>depôt,</i> and is rapidly coming into general use in this country. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Description, Kind</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Flowers of every <i>description</i> were found in his garden.” In +the above sense the word <i>kind</i> or <i>variety</i> would be more +appropriate. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Bring, Fetch, Carry</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Bring</i> implies motion from the object toward the person who issues the +command or makes the request. <i>Fetch</i> implies two motions, first, toward +the object; second, toward the person who wishes it. The gardener, who is in +the garden, calls to his servant, who is at the barn, “John, <i>bring</i> +me the rake. You will find it in the barn.” And if John is with him in +the garden, he would say, “John, <i>fetch</i> me the rake from the +barn.” +</p> + +<p> +The use of <i>fetch</i> is more common among English writers than with us. In +fact, many speakers and writers in America rarely use the word. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Carry</i> is a more general term, and means <i>to convey,</i> without +thought of the direction. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Character, Reputation</b> +</p> + +<p> +These words are often confounded. “Character,” says Abbott, +“is what a person is; reputation is what he is supposed to be. Character +is in himself, +<a name="Page45"></a> +reputation is in the minds of others. Character is injured by temptations and +by wrong-doing; reputation by slanders and libels. Character endures throughout +defamation in every form, but perishes where there is a voluntary +transgression; reputation may last through numerous transgressions, but be +destroyed by a single, and even an unfounded, accusation or aspersion.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Farther, Further</b> +</p> + +<p> +Although these words are often used interchangeably even by good writers, yet a +finer taste and a keener power of discrimination is shown in the use of +<i>farther</i> when referring to literal distance, and of <i>further </i>in +reference to quantity or degree; as, “Each day’s journey removes +them <i>farther</i> from home,” “He concluded his speech by +remarking that he had nothing <i>further</i> to say.” <i>Farther</i> is +the comparative of <i>far; further</i> is the comparative of <i>forth.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Fault, Defect</b> +</p> + +<p> +Speakers and writers often fail to discriminate in the use of these words. A +<i>defect</i> implies a deficiency, a lack, a falling short, while a +<i>fault</i> signifies that there is something wrong. +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +“Men still had faults, and men will have them still,<br/> +He that hath none, and lives as angels do<br/> +Must be an angel.” +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page46"></a> +“It is in general more profitable to reckon up our defects than to boast +of our attainments.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Few, Little</b> +</p> + +<p> +These words and their comparatives, <i>fewer, less,</i> are often confounded. +<i>Few</i> relates to number, or to what may be counted; <i>little </i>refers +to quantity, or to what may be measured. A man may have <i>few </i>books and +<i>little</i> money; he may have <i>fewer</i> friends and <i>less </i>influence +than his neighbor. But do not say “The man has <i>less </i>friends than +his neighbor.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Each other, One another</b> +</p> + +<p> +While some excellent authorities use these expressions interchangeably, most +grammarians and authors employ <i>each other</i> in referring to two persons or +things, and <i>one another</i> when more than two are considered; as, +“Both contestants speak kindly of <i>each other.” +</i>“Gentlemen are always polite to <i>one another.”</i> +</p> + +<p> +Those who prefer to have wide latitude in speech will be glad to know that +Murray, in one of the rules in his grammar, says, “Two negatives in +English destroy <i>one another.”</i> +</p> + +<p> +Shakespeare says, “It is a good divine that follows his own instructions. +I can easier teach twenty what were good to be done, than be one of +<a name="Page47"></a> +the twenty to follow mine own teaching.” This is as true of expression as +of morals. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Either, Neither</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Palms and beautiful flowers lined the hall on <i>either</i> side,” +is a common but faulty form of expression. <i>Either</i> refers to one of two +things. In the foregoing sentence the thought is that <i>both</i> sides of the +hall were lined, hence the word <i>both</i> should have been used. If, however, +each side of the hall is thought of separately, then <i>each,</i> would be the +proper word to employ. +</p> + +<p> +<i>“Either</i> of the two books will please you.” <i>“Any</i> +of the three books will prove satisfactory.” <i>“Any one</i> of the +five men would make a good candidate.” <i>“Neither</i> of the two +men will serve.” <i>“None</i> of the ten men were present.” +“<i>Not one</i> of all the houses was left standing.” These +sentences represent the best usage with regard to <i>either, neither,</i> and +also of <i>any, none, any one, not one.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>These kind</b> +</p> + +<p> +Adjectives implying number must agree with the nouns which they qualify. +<i>This</i> and <i>that</i> qualify nouns in the singular; <i>these </i>and +<i>those</i> belong to nouns in the plural. +</p> + +<p> +<i>“These kind</i> of potatoes grow well in this soil.” Use +<i>this. “This </i>twenty <i>years</i> have I known him.” +<a name="Page48"></a> +Use <i>these.</i> “The beam was <i>two foot</i> above my head,” Use +<i>feet. </i>“For <i>this,</i> among other reasons, I abandoned the +profession.” Say “For <i>this</i> reason, among others, I abandoned +the profession.” “He rides the bicycle daily, and by <i>this +means</i> he preserves his health.” “The partners were all honest, +courteous, and industrious, and by <i>these means </i>acquired wealth.” +The word <i>means</i> being either singular or plural, the two preceding +sentences are both correct. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Some means or another</b> +</p> + +<p> +“By <i>some means or another</i> he always gets the better part of the +bargain.” This sentence may be corrected by saying <i>“one means or +another,”</i> or <i>“some means or other.”</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Than</b> +</p> + +<p> +After <i>other, otherwise, else,</i> or an adjective in the comparative degree, +<i>than</i> should be used, and not <i>but</i> or <i>except.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“No other way <i>but</i> this was open to him.” Use <i>than.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“History and philosophy cannot otherwise affect the mind <i>but</i> for +its enlargement and benefit.” Use <i>than.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“Flowers are often nothing else <i>but</i> cultivated weeds.” Use +<i>than.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“He no sooner entered the bridge <i>but</i> he met an infuriated bull +coming toward him.” Use <i>than.</i> +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page49"></a> +“He offered no other objection <i>except</i> the one already +mentioned.” Use <i>than.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“He read five other books on ‘Crime and Its Causes’ <i>in +addition to </i>those you named.” Use <i>than.</i> +</p> + +<p> +With equal propriety we may say, “He offered no objection except the one +already mentioned,” or “He read five books on ‘Crime and Its +Causes’ in addition to those you named.” It is the use of the word +<i>other,</i> or <i>otherwise,</i> or <i>else,</i> that makes necessary the +correlative term <i>than.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Besides</b> +</p> + +<p> +After <i>else</i> and <i>other</i> the preposition <i>besides</i> is sometimes +employed. +</p> + +<p> +“Other boys <i>besides</i> these are mischievous.” +</p> + +<p> +“Other arts <i>besides</i> music are elevating and inspiring.” +</p> + +<p> +“We must have recourse to something else <i>besides</i> +punishment.” +</p> + +<p> +It will be observed that the use of <i>besides</i> in this section differs from +the use of <i>than</i> in the preceding discussion. <i>“Other... +than” </i>is exclusive of those mentioned; whereas, “<i>other... +besides” </i>includes those mentioned. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Other</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Iron is more useful than all the metals.” The faultiness of this +sentence becomes apparent when +<a name="Page50"></a> +we remember that iron itself is a metal and is included in the word <i>metals, +</i>which forms one side of the comparison. In short, “Iron is more +useful than iron together with all the other metals.” This statement is +absurd. The sentence should, therefore, read, “Iron is more useful than +all the <i>other </i>metals.” +</p> + +<p> +“The Washington monument is higher than any monument in America.” +Since it is in America, and as it cannot be higher than itself, the sentence is +made correct by adding the word <i>other;</i> as, “The Washington +monument is higher than any <i>other</i> monument in America.” +</p> + +<p> +“This book, which I have just finished, is superior to any work on the +subject that I have yet seen.” Say “to any <i>other</i> +work.” +</p> + +<p> +“Of all other creatures, man is the most highly endowed.” Say +“of all creatures,” etc. +</p> + +<p> +“No general was ever so beloved by his soldiers.” Say “No +<i>other </i>general,” etc. +</p> + +<p> +“Nothing delights him so much as a storm at sea.” “Nothing +<i>else </i>delights him,” etc. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>One’s, His</b> +</p> + +<p> +Whether we should say “One ought to know <i>one’s</i> own +mind,” or “One ought to know <i>his</i> own mind,” is a +question that the critics have earnestly discussed, but have never settled, +except as each settles it for +<a name="Page51"></a> +himself. The masculine pronoun is often used with an antecedent whose gender is +not known. There can, therefore, be no objection to the use of <i>his</i> on +the question of gender. As a matter of euphony, <i>his</i> is preferable to +<i>one’s.</i> Both have the sanction of good usage. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>None</b> +</p> + +<p> +Although literally signifying <i>no one,</i> the word <i>none</i> may be used +with a plural verb, having the force of a collective noun. +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +<i>“None</i> but the brave deserves the fair.”— +<i>Dryden.</i><br/> +<br/> +<i>“None</i> knew thee but to love thee,<br/> +<i>None</i> named thee but to praise.”—<i>Halleck.</i><br/> +<br/> +“I look for ghosts; but <i>none</i> will force<br/> +Their way to +me.”—<i>Wordsworth.</i><br/> +<br/> +“Of all the girls that +e’er were seen,<br/> +There’s <i>none</i> so fine as +Nelly.”—<i>Swift.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>All, Whole</b> +</p> + +<p> +The word <i>all</i> is often incorrectly used for <i>the whole.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“The river rose and spread over all the valley.” This should be +“over the <i>whole</i> valley.” +</p> + +<p> +“The day being stormy, the members of Class A were <i>all</i> the +children at school to-day.” Correct by saying “were the only +children at school to-day.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page52"></a> +<b>Perpetually, Continually</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Perpetually</i> is not synonymous with <i>continually. Perpetually </i>means +never-ceasing. That which is done <i>continually</i> may be subject to +interruptions. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Persuade, Advise</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Almost thou <i>persuadest</i> me to be a Christian.” Paul had +<i>advised </i>many persons to become Christians, some of whom, like Agrippa, +were <i>almost persuaded.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Wharf, Dock</b> +</p> + +<p> +These words are sometimes confounded. The <i>wharf</i> is the pier, or landing, +upon which the vessel unloads her cargo. The <i>dock</i> is the artificial +waterway, or basin, formed by the wharves. “The vessel came into the +<i>dock</i> and was made fast to the <i>wharf.”</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Contemptible, Contemptuous</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Contemptible</i> is sometimes incorrectly used for <i>contemptuous.</i> A +story is told of Richard Parson, an English scholar and critic. A gentleman +being in dispute with him, angrily exclaimed, “My opinion of you is most +<i>contemptible,</i> sir,” upon which Parson quickly retorted, “I +never knew an opinion of yours that was not <i>contemptible.”</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Healthy, Wholesome</b> +</p> + +<p> +These terms are not synonymous. Toadstools may be <i>healthy,</i> but they +would not be regarded as +<a name="Page53"></a> +<i>wholesome.</i> Plants and animals are <i>healthy</i> when the conditions of +their growth are favorable. They are <i>wholesome</i> when, as food, they +promote the health of those persons who eat them. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>In a fix</b> +</p> + +<p> +Many persons instead of saying “He is in trouble,” or “He is +in an awkward position,” or “He is perplexed,” or +<i>embarrassed,</i> employ the vulgarism, “He is <i>in a fix.”</i> +Although Shakespeare may say, “This was the <i>most unkindest</i> cut of +all,” and De Quincey may write, “Poor Aroar cannot live and cannot +die—so that he is in an <i>almighty fix,”</i> we lesser mortals +are forbidden such expressions. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Fly, Flee</b> +</p> + +<p> +In a general sense <i>fly</i> is applied to winged creatures and <i>flee</i> to +persons. “What exile from himself can <i>flee?”</i> “When the +swallows homeward <i>fly.”</i> The past tense forms are sometimes +confused, as, “The inhabitants <i>flew</i> to the fort for safety,” +“The wild geese have all <i>fled</i> to the South.” The principal +parts of the verbs are: +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +Present. Past. Perf. part.<br /> +fly, flew, flown.<br /> +flee, fled, fled. +</p> + +<p> +The verbs <i>flew</i> and <i>fled</i> in the foregoing sentences should be +transposed. <i>Fly</i> implies motion either +<a name="Page54"></a> +from or toward. <i>Flee</i> implies motion from. <i>Fly</i> may be used, in a +figurative sense, of persons, to indicate great speed as of wings. “I +<i>flew </i>to his rescue.” “He <i>flew</i> to my rescue.” +“Resist the devil and he will <i>flee</i> from you.” +</p> + +<p> +The word <i>flown</i> is sometimes used erroneously as the past tense or +perfect participle of the verb <i>flow.</i> The parts of this verb are <i>flow, +flowed, flowed. “</i>The river has <i>overflowed</i> (not +<i>overflown)</i> its banks.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Get, Got</b> +</p> + +<p> +Because a horse is willing is no reason why he should be ridden to death. The +verb <i>get</i> and its past-tense form <i>got</i> admit of many meanings, as +the following, from an old English publication, fully proves: “I +<i>got</i> on horseback within ten minutes after I <i>got</i> your letter. When +I <i>got </i>to Canterbury I <i>got</i> a chaise for town; but I <i>got</i> wet +through before I <i>got</i> to Canterbury, and I have <i>got</i> such a cold as +I shall not be able to <i>get</i> rid of in a hurry. I <i>got</i> to the +Treasury about noon, but, first of all, I <i>got</i> shaved and dressed. I soon +<i>got </i>into the secret of <i>getting</i> a memorial before the Board, but I +could not <i>get</i> an answer then. However, I <i>got</i> intelligence from +the messenger that I should most likely <i>get</i> an answer the next morning. +As soon as I <i>got</i> back to my inn I <i>got</i> my supper and <i>got</i> to +bed. It was not long before I <i>got</i> to sleep. +<a name="Page55"></a> +When I <i>got</i> up in the morning I <i>got</i> myself dressed, and then +<i>got</i> my breakfast, that I might <i>get</i> out in time to <i>get</i> an +answer to my memorial. As soon as I <i>got</i> it I <i>got</i> into the chaise +and <i>got</i> to Canterbury by three, and about teatime I <i>got</i> home. I +have <i>got</i> nothing more to say.” +</p> + +<p> +Those who are disposed to overwork the words <i>get</i> and <i>got</i> will +find it interesting and profitable to read the foregoing exercise, substituting +other words for those in italics. +</p> + +<p> +With <i>have</i> the word <i>got</i> is generally superfluous; as, “I +have <i>got</i> a cold,” “I have <i>got</i> to go to Boston this +evening,” “Have you <i>got</i> Hires’s root-beer on +draught?” For “I <i>did not get</i> to meet your cousin,” say +“I <i>had no opportunity,”</i> or “I <i>was prevented,” +</i>etc. +</p> + +<p> +Another very faulty use of <i>got</i> is heard in such expressions as “He +<i>got</i> killed,” “They <i>got</i> beaten,” “She +<i>got</i> cured,” etc. <i>Was</i> or <i>were</i> would be more +appropriate. +</p> + +<p> +Since <i>to get</i> means <i>to obtain, to procure, to gain,</i> the use of the +word is justified in such expressions as “I have <i>got</i> a larger farm +than you have, because I have worked harder for it.” “I have +<i>got</i> a better knowledge of the Pacific coast than he has, because I +traveled extensively through that region.” And yet, when we have been +overworked, the physician usually prescribes a period of absolute rest; so, in +<a name="Page56"></a> +view of the multifarious uses to which <i>get</i> has been applied, would it +not be well to permit it to retire for a time, in order that it may the more +quickly be rejuvenated. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Guess, Reckon, Calculate, Allow</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I <i>guess</i> he is not going to vote to-day.” “I +<i>reckon</i> we are going to have fair weather now.” “I +<i>calculate</i> this ground would grow good potatoes.” “I +<i>allow</i> she’s the prettiest girl that ever visited these +parts.” The foregoing sentences may be improved by recasting them. +“I think he is not going to (or will not) vote to-day.” “I +believe we shall now have fair weather.” “I suppose this ground +would yield fine potatoes.” “I regard her as the handsomest lady +that has ever visited this place (or <i>neighborhood,</i> or <i>locality).</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Gums, Overshoes</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Tom is outside, cleaning his <i>gums</i> on the mat.” While a mat +will do very well for <i>overshoes,</i> a tooth-brush and sozodont would be +better for the <i>gums.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Funny</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Isn’t it <i>funny</i> that Smith, who resided in Chicago, should +have died the same day that his father died in Boston?” +“Isn’t it <i>funny </i>that the murderer who escaped hanging on a +mere technicality of the law +<a name="Page57"></a> +should have been killed the next day in a railroad accident?” “How +<i>funny </i>that these maples should grow so tall on this mountain top!” +“It is <i>funny</i> to think that James, who now pays his addresses to +me, should once have been in love with my youngest sister.” The foregoing +illustrations are not more incongruous than those we daily hear. <i>Odd, +strange, peculiar, unusual, </i>represent some of the ideas intended to be +conveyed by that much-abused word. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Good deal, Great deal</b> +</p> + +<p> +This idiom is defended by some authorities as being in perfectly good use, and +by others it is denounced as being incorrect. Both <i>good deal </i>and +<i>greet deal</i> are somewhat colloquial, and should be used sparingly in +writing. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Had better, Would better</b> +</p> + +<p> +Like <i>a good deal</i> and some other idioms, this expression is denounced by +some writers and defended by others. Grammatical construction supports more +strongly the forms <i>would better, would rather,</i> etc. “I had rather +be a doorkeeper in the house of my God, than to dwell in the tents of +wickedness.” “I would rather read than drive to-day.” +“I would rather not go.” Omit <i>rather</i> and the superiority of +<i>would</i> over <i>had</i> becomes apparent. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page58"></a> +<b>If, Whether</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I do not know <i>if</i> he sold his farm or exchanged it for city +property.” Use <i>whether.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Illy, Ill</b> +</p> + +<p> +Do not use <i>illy</i> for <i>ill.</i> The former is becoming obsolete, and the +latter, as an adverb, is taking its place. Say “An ill-ventilated +room,” not “an illy-ventilated room.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Implicit</b> +</p> + +<p> +This word means <i>tacitly understood, resting on the word or authority of +another.</i> It should not be used in the sense of <i>unbounded, unlimited.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Individual</b> +</p> + +<p> +This word should not be used broadly in the sense of <i>a</i> <i>person,</i> +but should always convey some thought of <i>a</i> <i>single </i>thing or +person, as opposed to many. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Journal</b> +</p> + +<p> +As this word is from the French, <i>jour,</i> day, it should not be applied to +a monthly or quarterly magazine. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Know as</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I do not <i>know as</i> I can see you to-day.” Say <i>know +that.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page59"></a> +<b>Last, Latest</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Did you receive my <i>last</i> letter?” +</p> + +<p> +“I hope not. I enjoy your letters very much, and I trust you may live to +write many more.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Cunning</b> +</p> + +<p> +This word is much used by young ladies in speaking of what is small, or dainty, +or pleasing, as “A <i>cunning</i> little bonnet,” <i>“A +cunning </i>little watch,” etc. While the word properly embodies the idea +of skill or dexterity on the part of the workman, and while the appreciation of +such skill, in speaking of the artist or artisan, might be expressed by +<i>cunning,</i> it is better not to use the word in referring to the product of +the workmanship. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Curious</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Curious</i> means <i>inquisitive, rare.</i> In the sense of <i>strange +</i>or <i>remarkable,</i> its use should be guarded. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Cute</b> +</p> + +<p> +This word is often used colloquially in the sense of <i>clever, sharp, shrewd, +ingenious, cunning.</i> It is doubtless an abbreviation of <i>acute.</i> It is +not found in good literary usage. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Favor, Resemble</b> +</p> + +<p> +The use of the word <i>favor</i> in the sense of <i>resemble</i> is a +provincialism that should be avoided. “The +<a name="Page60"></a> +son <i>favors</i> the father” is correct if the meaning be that the son +shows favor or kindness to the father; but if reference to their similarity of +appearance is intended, the verb <i>resemble</i> should be employed. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Balance, Remainder</b> +</p> + +<p> +This word, like numerous others, has been borrowed from the commercial world, +and has had such a wide use that its faultiness is not noticed even by many who +regard themselves as careful speakers and writers. “I cut down part of +the timber this year, and expect to cut the <i>balance</i> next spring.” +“My cousin will remain with us the <i>balance</i> of this week.” +“James ate half of the melon to-day, and will eat the <i>balance</i> +to-morrow.” In these and all similar cases the word <i>remainder</i> +should be used. <i>Balance</i> is a term that applies to accounts, and +signifies the amount necessary to be added to one side of the account in order +to make it equal the other. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Behave</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Now, my children, you must <i>behave</i> while I am gone.” The +mother intended to ask her children to <i>behave well,</i> but as <i>behave</i> +is a neutral word, and may be followed by <i>well</i> or <i>ill,</i> her form +of expression permits the children to supply whichever adverb suits them the +better. <i>Behave</i> requires a qualifying word to make the meaning clear. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page61"></a> +<b>Bound</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He was <i>determined</i> to study medicine,” not “He was +<i>bound,” </i>etc. <i>Bound</i> implies that he was under a bond or +obligation to another, rather than impelled by the action of his own mind. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Better, Best</b> +</p> + +<p> +While some good writers violate the rule, yet the best authorities restrict the +use of the comparative degree to two objects. +</p> + +<p> +“Mary is the <i>better</i> scholar of the two.” +</p> + +<p> +“Although both are young, Susan is the <i>younger.”</i> +</p> + +<p> +“Of two evils, choose the <i>lesser,”</i> not the <i>least.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Former, First</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Former</i> and <i>latter</i> being adjectives of the comparative degree, +should be used in speaking of two objects. When more than two objects are +named, use <i>first</i> and <i>last.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“My sons, John and Luther, are both at college. The <i>first </i>expects +to study law, and the <i>last</i> to study medicine.” Use <i>former +</i>and <i>latter.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“New York, Philadelphia, and Chicago are the most populous cities in the +United States. The <i>former</i> has long been at the front; the <i>latter +</i>has only recently entered the race.” Use <i>first</i> and <i>last +</i>instead of <i>former</i> and <i>latter.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page62"></a> +<b>These, Those</b> +</p> + +<p> +When objects near and remote are referred to, <i>this</i> and its plural +<i>these</i> are applied to the objects near at hand, <i>that</i> and its +plural <i>those</i> to objects at a distance. +</p> + +<p> +When reference is made to contrasted antecedent terms, <i>this</i> and +<i>these</i> are applied to the latter; <i>that</i> and <i>those</i> to the +former, as +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +“Farewell my friends! farewell my foes!<br/> + My peace with <i>these,</i> my love with <i>those!”</i><br/> +</p> + +<p class="left"> +<i>—Burns.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Fictitious Writer</b> +</p> + +<p> +Do not say a <i>fictitious writer</i> when you mean a <i>writer of fiction.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Firstly</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>First</i> is an adverb as well as an adjective. We should, therefore, say +first, secondly, thirdly, and not <i>firstly, secondly, </i>etc. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>First-rate</b> +</p> + +<p> +An article may be rated in quality as first, or second, or third. If it rates +<i>first,</i> it may be called a <i>first-rate</i> article. The word is +properly used as an adjective, but should not be employed as an adverb, as in +the sentence, “He sings first-rate.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Fix, Mend, Repair</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Fix</i> means <i>to make fast,</i> but its incorrect use in the sense of +<i>mend, repair, arrange,</i> is so common that the +<a name="Page63"></a> +word when properly used sounds strange, if not strained. “To <i>fix +up</i> the room,” “to <i>fix up</i> the accounts,” “to +<i>fix up</i> matters with my creditors,” “to <i>fix</i> the +rascals who betrayed me,” are examples illustrating the looseness with +which the word is used. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Round, Square</b> +</p> + +<p> +When a thing is <i>round</i> or <i>square</i> it cannot be <i>rounder </i>or +<i>squarer.</i> These adjectives do not admit of comparative and superlative +forms. But we may say <i>more nearly round</i> or <i>less nearly square.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>States, Says</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He <i>states</i> he is going fishing to-morrow.” <i>States</i> is +too formal a word, and should be used only of some important assertion. +“He <i>says</i> he is going,” etc. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Stop, Stay</b> +</p> + +<p> +To <i>stop</i> is to cease moving. “At what hotel do you <i>stop” +</i>should be “At what hotel do you <i>stay.”</i> “When you +come to the city <i>stay</i> with me,” not <i>stop</i> with me. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Subtile, Subtle</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Subtile</i> means thin, fine, rare, delicate; <i>subtle</i> means sly, +artful, cunning, elusive. “More <i>subtile</i> web Arachne cannot +spin.” “He had to contend with a <i>subtle</i> foe.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page64"></a> +<b>Summons</b> +</p> + +<p> +He was <i>summonsed</i> to appear before the judge” should be “He +was <i>summoned</i> to appear,” etc. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Tasty</b> +</p> + +<p> +Often used in colloquial speech when <i>tasteful</i> would be better. +<i>Tastily</i> for <i>tastefully</i> is still worse. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Team</b> +</p> + +<p> +Properly this word relates only to the horses, and does not include the +carriage. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Those kind, These sort</b> +</p> + +<p> +“It is unpleasant to have to associate with <i>those kind</i> of +people.” “<i>These sort</i> of sheep are the most +profitable.” <i>Kind</i> and <i>sort</i> are nouns of the singular +number; <i>these</i> and <i>those</i> are plural, and, according to the laws of +grammar, the adjective and noun must agree in number. The corrected sentences +will read: “It is unpleasant to have to associate with <i>this kind</i> +of people.” <i>“This sort</i> of sheep is the most +profitable.” The fault arises by associating in the mind the adjectives +<i>these</i> and <i>those</i> with the nouns <i>sheep</i> and <i>people,</i> +which nouns are more prominent in the mind than the nouns <i>kind</i> and +<i>sort.</i> If the ear is not satisfied, the sentences may readily be recast; +as, “It is unpleasant to have to associate with people of <i>that +kind.”</i> “Sheep of <i>this sort</i> are the most +profitable.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page65"></a> +<b>Transpire, Happen</b> +</p> + +<p> +This word, from <i>trans,</i> across, through, and <i>spirare,</i> to breathe, +means, physiologically, to pass off in the form of vapor or insensible +perspiration, or, botanically, to evaporate from living cells. Its general +meaning is to become known, to escape from secrecy. +</p> + +<p> +It is frequently employed in the sense of to occur, to come to pass, but this +use is condemned by the best critics in England and America. “The +proceedings of the secret session of the council soon <i>transpired.”</i> +This sentence illustrates the true meaning of the word. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Make, Manufacture</b> +</p> + +<p> +These words may, in some cases, be used interchangeably, but <i>make</i> has +much the wider range of meanings. The following story, related by Eli Perkins, +will illustrate this fact: +</p> + +<p> +I was talking one day with Mr. Depew, President of the New York Central +Railroad, about demand and supply. I said the price of any commodity is always +controlled by the demand and supply. +</p> + +<p> +“Not always, Eli,” said Depew; “demand and supply don’t +always govern prices. Business tact sometimes governs them.” +</p> + +<p> +“When,” I asked, “did an instance ever occur when the price +did not depend on demand and supply?” +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page66"></a> +“Well,” said Mr. Depew, “the other day I stepped up to a +German butcher, and, out of curiosity, asked: +</p> + +<p> +“‘What’s the price of sausages?’ +</p> + +<p> +“‘Dwenty cends a bound,’ he said. +</p> + +<p> +“‘You asked twenty-five this morning,’ I replied. +</p> + +<p> +“‘Yah; dot vas ven I had some. Now I ain’t got none, I sell +him for dwenty cents. Dot makes a repudation for selling cheab, und I +don’t lose noddings.’ +</p> + +<p> +“You see,” said Mr. Depew, laughing, “I didn’t want any +sausage and the man didn’t have any; no demand and no supply, and still +the price of sausage went down five cents.” +</p> + +<p> +“Well, there are strange things in this world,” I said. “Now, +take the words <i>manufacture</i> and <i>make.</i> I always thought that both +words meant the same thing.” +</p> + +<p> +“Why, they do, Eli,” said Mr. Depew. +</p> + +<p> +“Not always,” I said. +</p> + +<p> +“Now, when could they have a different meaning?” +</p> + +<p> +“Why, this morning I came down from Albany on a Central car +<i>manufactured </i>to carry fifty passengers, but it was <i>made</i> to carry +seventy-two people.” +</p> + +<p> +“Yes, I dare say; but we’ll now talk about the Behring Sea +question.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page67"></a> +<b>Truth, Veracity</b> +</p> + +<p> +“The <i>veracity</i> of his statement is doubted.” The sentence +should be, “The truth of his statement is doubted,” or “In +making that statement his <i>veracity</i> is doubted.” <i>Veracity</i> is +applied to the person; <i>truth </i>to the thing. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Try the experiment</b> +</p> + +<p> +“They are <i>trying the experiment</i> of running railroad trains by +electricity.” This should be, “They are <i>making the +experiment,”</i> etc. The word <i>experiment</i> contains the idea of +<i>trial,</i> hence, <i>to try the experiment</i> is to <i>try the trial.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Little piece</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I will go with you <i>a</i> <i>little piece.” A short distance</i> +or <i>a</i> <i>part of the way</i> would be more appropriate. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Every confidence</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I have <i>every confidence</i> in his ability to succeed.” +<i>Confidence </i>is a unit; <i>every</i> implies several units considered +separately. “I have <i>the greatest</i> confidence in his ability to +succeed” is correct. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Ugly</b> +</p> + +<p> +This word properly applies to the appearance of a person or thing, hence such +expressions as “He has an <i>ugly</i> temper,” “This is an +<i>ugly </i>customer,” “That was an <i>ugly</i> rumor,” etc., +although common in colloquial discourse, should be avoided in dignified +address. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page68"></a> +<b>Unbeknown</b> +</p> + +<p> +This is a provincialism that should be avoided. Use <i>unknown.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Underhanded</b> +</p> + +<p> +Often incorrectly used for <i>underhand;</i> as “That was a contemptible +and <i>underhanded</i> trick.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Calligraphy</b> +</p> + +<p> +This word means not writing, simply, but beautiful writing; hence, to say, +“His <i>calligraphy</i> is wretched” is equivalent to saying, +“His excellent writing is poor,” which is a contradiction of terms. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Can but, Cannot but</b> +</p> + +<p> +These expressions are sometimes confounded. “If I perish, I <i>can but +perish,”</i> means “I can <i>only</i> perish,” or “I +can do <i>no more than </i>perish.” “I <i>cannot but</i> speak of +the things I have heard” means that I am under a moral necessity to speak +of these things. The past tense forms <i>could but</i> and <i>could not but</i> +should be, in like manner, discriminated. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Casualty, Casuality</b> +</p> + +<p> +The latter word is sometimes used in place of the former. The first is +legitimate; the second is without authority. The words <i>specialty</i> and +<i>speciality</i> have a termination similar to the above. They may generally +be used interchangeably and are both legitimate. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page69"></a> +<b>Complected.</b> +</p> + +<p> +“The lady is light <i>complected,</i> has blue eyes, and auburn +hair.” <i>Complected</i> is a provincialism without sanction. “The +lady is of light complexion, has blue eyes,” etc. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Disremember</b> +</p> + +<p> +This word is obsolete. Use <i>forget,</i> or “I do not remember.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Lie, Lay</b> +</p> + +<p> +The verbs <i>lie</i> and <i>lay</i> are often confounded, even by intelligent +persons. <i>Lie</i> does not take an object. We cannot <i>lie</i> a thing. It +is therefore intransitive. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Lay,</i> which means to place in position, requires an object. We <i>lay +</i>a book on a table, or bricks on the wall. It is therefore transitive. +</p> + +<p> +The principal parts of the first verb are <i>lie, lay, lain;</i> and of the +second, <i>lay, laid, laid.</i> The word <i>lay</i> is found in both, and this +is, in part, accountable for the confusion. The most frequent errors result +from using <i>laid,</i> the past tense form of the transitive verb, when the +word <i>lay,</i> the past tense form of the intransitive verb, should be used. +The ear naturally expects the usual past tense ending of the <i>d</i> or <i>t +</i>sound, and as that is absent in the past tense of <i>lie,</i> the past +tense form of the other verb is substituted. For the same reason the participle +form <i>laid</i> is often incorrectly used for <i>lain.</i> +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page70"></a> +“He told me to <i>lie</i> down, and I <i>lay</i> down,” not <i>laid +down. “</i>I told him to <i>lay</i> the book down, and he <i>laid</i> it +down.” “The ship <i>lay</i> at anchor.” “They +<i>lay</i> by during the storm.” “The book is <i>lying</i> on the +shelf.” “He <i>lay</i> on the ground and took cold.” +“They <i>lay</i> in ambush.” <i>“Lie</i> low or he will +discover you.” “The goods are still <i>lying</i> on his +hands.” “Time <i>lay</i> heavily on their hands.” “We +must <i>lie</i> over at the next station.” “A motion was made that +the resolution <i>lie</i> on the table.” “Now I <i>lie</i> down to +sleep.” “Now I <i>lay</i> me down to sleep.” +</p> + +<p> +The foregoing sentences illustrate the correct usage of these confusing verbs. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>As, That</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Did your cousin go to town yesterday?” “Not <i>as</i> I +know.” Better, “Not <i>that</i> I know.” Better still, +“I do not know.” “I do not know <i>as</i> I shall go.” +Use <i>that</i> for <i>as</i>. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Bad toothache</b> +</p> + +<p> +As it is a rare thing to have a good toothache, we scarcely need the adjective +<i>bad</i> to distinguish between the two kinds of toothache. Say +<i>severe.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Beautifully, Beautiful</b> +</p> + +<p> +After verbs of seeing, feeling, tasting, and smelling, the adverb is often +incorrectly used for the adjective. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page71"></a> +“The colonel looked <i>handsomely</i> in his military dress,” +“I feel <i>splendidly</i> to-day,” “This peach tastes +<i>badly,” “</i>The rose smells <i>sweetly,”</i> are +incorrect. Use <i>handsome</i> for <i>handsomely, very well</i> or <i>in good +spirits</i> for <i>splendidly, tastes bad</i> or <i>has a disagreeable +taste</i> for <i>badly,</i> and <i>sweet</i> for <i>sweetly.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Beg, Beg leave</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I <i>beg</i> to announce the sale of a collection of rare and costly +rugs.” “I <i>beg</i> to acknowledge your kindness in sending me +this handsome present.” In each case say “I <i>beg leave +to,”</i> etc. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Due, Owing</b> +</p> + +<p> +His success was <i>due</i> to his honesty and energy.” That is <i>due +</i>which should be paid as a debt; that is <i>owing</i> which is referred to +as a cause or source. +</p> + +<p> +“The bill is now <i>due</i> and payable at the gas office.” +“His success was <i>owing</i> to his honesty and energy.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Each, Every</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I see him at his office <i>each</i> day of the week.” In this +sentence the word <i>every</i> would be better. <i>Each</i> refers to single +days particularized. Here reference is made to what occurs on all days without +exception. +</p> + +<p> +Both words refer to nouns in the singular, hence such expressions as the +following are incorrect: +<a name="Page72"></a> +“Every soldier and sailor stood at <i>their</i> post.” “The +prisoners were discharged and went each <i>their</i> several ways.” +Correct by saying, “The prisoners were discharged and went each +<i>his</i> several way,” “Every soldier and sailor stood at +<i>his</i> post.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Each, Both</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>“Both</i> parties maintained their original positions.” As the +parties are thought of separately, the sentence should be: “Each party +maintained its original position.” “Both parties strove to place +their best candidates upon the ticket” is correct, because the parties +are thought of collectively. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Both, Both of</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Both</i> is used alone before nouns and <i>both of</i> before pronouns. +<i>“Both</i> men have studied the currency question.” +<i>“Both of </i>them are well informed in matters relating to the +currency.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Ever, Never</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Let him be <i>ever</i> so rich,” says Emerson. “You spend +<i>ever </i>so much money in entertaining your equals and betters,” says +Thackeray. “Though he run <i>ever</i> so fast, he cannot win the +race.” Writers and grammarians differ, some preferring <i>ever</i>, +others <i>never.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page73"></a> +<b>Every once in a while</b> +</p> + +<p> +This is a cumbersome, awkward expression that should be avoided. +<i>Occasionally, frequently, at intervals,</i> are among the expressions that +may be used in its place. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Exceptionable, Exceptional</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He enjoyed <i>exceptionable</i> opportunities for acquiring the Greek +language.” Say <i>exceptional opportunities.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Female, Woman</b> +</p> + +<p> +The word <i>female</i> is often employed when <i>woman</i> would be better. +<i>Female</i> applies to all of the feminine gender, including the brute +creation. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Poet, Poetess</b> +</p> + +<p> +The tendency to increase the number of nouns with the feminine ending +<i>ess</i> should be checked. Avoid <i>poetess, authoress, doctress,</i> and +other newly-invented words of this kind. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Fewer, Less</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Fewer</i> refers to number, <i>less</i> to quantity. “He had +<i>less</i> friends than I, and yet he was elected.” Say “He had +<i>fewer </i>friends.” “There were no <i>less</i> than fifty cows +in the field.” Use <i>fewer.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Right smart</b> +</p> + +<p> +In some portions of the South the expression <i>right smart</i> is employed in +colloquial discourse to convey +<a name="Page74"></a> +the idea of a large quantity or in large measure; as, “We have <i>right +smart </i>of peaches this summer,” meaning “We have a large crop of +peaches;” “He knows <i>right smart</i> of Latin” for +“He knows considerable Latin” or “He is well versed in +Latin.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Little bit</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Will you have some of this pudding?” +</p> + +<p> +“If you please. Give me <i>a little bit.”</i> +</p> + +<p> +“Did you injure yourself when you fell?” +</p> + +<p> +“No; but I soiled my clothing <i>a little bit.”</i> +</p> + +<p> +<i>A small portion</i> or <i>piece,</i> in the first sentence, and +<i>slightly,</i> in the second, would serve as good equivalents for <i>a</i> +<i>little bit.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Sight</b> +</p> + +<p> +“There was a <i>sight</i> of people at the fair to-day.” In the +sense of <i>a large number,</i> this word, like the word <i>lot,</i> should be +avoided. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Crowd</b> +</p> + +<p> +A dozen persons may constitute a <i>crowd</i> if they push and jostle one +another by reason of insufficient space. A thousand men will not form a crowd +if all have ample room to sit or stand or move about. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Chuck-full</b> +</p> + +<p> +This word is not authorized. <i>Chock-full</i> and <i>choke-full</i> may be +used, but are not elegant. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page75"></a> +<b>Contemplate, Propose</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Contemplate</i> is often incorrectly used for <i>propose;</i> as, “I +<i>contemplate</i> going to the country.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Dispense, Dispense with</b> +</p> + +<p> +These expressions are not synonymous. <i>To dispense</i> is <i>to give; to +dispense with</i> is <i>to do without.</i> The pharmacist <i>dispenses +</i>medicines; we should be pleased if we could <i>dispense with</i> them. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Dry, Thirsty</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Dry</i> is often incorrectly used in the sense of <i>thirsty; </i>as, +“I am <i>dry;</i> let me have a glass of water.” To say, “I +am <i>dry; </i>my waterproof and umbrella kept out the rain,” is correct. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Dutch, German</b> +</p> + +<p> +Do not call a <i>German</i> a Dutchman. A Dutchman comes from Holland, a German +from Germany. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Evacuate, Vacate</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Evacuate</i> means <i>to make empty,</i> and should not be used in the sense +of <i>to go</i> <i>away, to vacate.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Different than, Different to</b> +</p> + +<p> +“The school is conducted in a very <i>different</i> manner <i>than</i> it +used to be.” “This basket of roses is <i>different to</i> +yours.” The above and similar expressions are decided vulgarisms, and +should be avoided. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page76"></a> +“The school is conducted in a very different manner <i>from</i> what it +used to be.” “This basket of roses is different <i>from</i> +yours.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Drive, Ride</b> +</p> + +<p> +Some confusion exists in the use of the words <i>drive</i> and <i>ride.</i> In +England the distinction is made of applying <i>ride</i> to going on horseback +and <i>drive</i> to going in a carriage, whether you ride or drive. That usage +is not closely followed in this country. He who guides the horse <i>drives;</i> +the rest of the company <i>ride.</i> The noun and participial forms are more +excusable than the verb. “Jones asked me to <i>drive </i>with him this +afternoon.” But as Jones expects to do the driving himself, the speaker +should have said, “Jones asked me to <i>take a ride,”</i> or +<i>“go driving,”</i> or <i>“take a drive,”</i> etc. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Couple, Several</b> +</p> + +<p> +The word <i>couple</i> is often incorrectly used in the sense of +<i>several;</i> as, a <i>couple</i> of horses, mules, birds, trees, houses, +etc. The use of the word <i>couple</i> is not only limited to two, but to two +that may be coupled or yoked together. A man and wife are spoken of as a +<i>couple.</i> We speak of a <i>span</i> of horses, a <i>yoke</i> of oxen, a +<i>brace</i> of ducks, a <i>pair</i> of gloves. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page77"></a> +<b>Directly, Immediately, As soon as</b> +</p> + +<p> +A faulty English use of the above words has found some favor in the United +States. <i>“Directly</i> the whistle blew the workmen left the +shop.” Say <i>“As soon as</i> the whistle blew,” etc. +<i>“Immediately</i> he closed his speech his opponent rose to +reply.” Say “<i>When”</i> or <i>“As soon as </i>he +closed his speech,” etc. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Directly</i> denotes without any delay; <i>immediately</i> implies without +any interposition of other occupation. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Agreeably disappointed</b> +</p> + +<p> +When our hopes are blasted, our plans balked, our expectations defeated, our +intentions thwarted, we are <i>disappointed.</i> We prefer the agreeable to the +disagreeable, and plan and labor to secure it. When our plans fail we are +disappointed, but not <i>agreeably disappointed.</i> If the new conditions, +which are not of our seeking, prove agreeable, it is only after the sense of +disappointment has vanished. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Allude to, Refer to, Mention</b> +</p> + +<p> +The word <i>allude</i> is often incorrectly used. Allusion is the by-play of +language. It means to hint at by remote suggestions, to speak of figuratively +or sportively. +</p> + +<p> +Whatever is directly mentioned, or spoken of, or described, cannot be said to +be <i>alluded to.</i> The terms +<a name="Page78"></a> +differ in degree, the first being the weakest. An <i>allusion</i> is an +indirect reference. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Among the rest</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Mary sat on the beach <i>among the rest.”</i> Say <i>“with +the rest.”</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Peruse</b> +</p> + +<p> +This is one of those high-sounding terms too often employed when <i>read +</i>would be much better. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Emigrants, Immigrants</b> +</p> + +<p> +These words are sometimes confounded. “Did you see the <i>emigrants</i> +on the ‘Indiana,’ which arrived this morning?” “Did the +<i>immigrants</i> go directly to Italy?” Exchange the italicized words in +the two sentences and they will be correctly used. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Somewheres</b> +</p> + +<p> +The terminal <i>s</i> should be omitted in such words as <i>anywheres, +somewheres, nowheres, anyways, hereabouts, thereabouts, whereabouts.</i> In +such cases as “Whereabouts did you find him?” and “We knew +his whereabouts,” the <i>s</i> is properly retained. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Apart, Aside</b> +</p> + +<p> +“May I see you <i>apart</i> from the others?” It should be, +“May I see you <i>privately”</i> or “<i>aside”?</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Fire, Throw</b> +</p> + +<p> +We <i>fire</i> a gun, but <i>throw</i> a stone. To <i>fire a stone, fire him +out of the house, fire him out of our employ,</i> may +<a name="Page79"></a> +be graphic ways of presenting the thought, but good writers never use them and +good speakers should avoid them. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>The First, Single</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I have not found <i>the first</i> objection to his candidacy.” Say +<i>“a single objection,”</i> or <i>“no objection.”</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>First two</b> +</p> + +<p> +Such has been the strong desire to continue to use forms of expression that we +have long used that not a little time and effort have been expended in the +endeavor to make the wrong appear right. It is an accepted fact, however, that +a large majority of the best speakers and writers now say <i>the first two, the +last five,</i> etc., rather than <i>the two first, the five last.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Future, Subsequent</b> +</p> + +<p> +The word <i>future</i> is sometimes used instead of <i>subsequent; </i>as, +“Until he was eighteen years old his conduct was marked by cruelty and +malice, but his <i>future</i> life was characterized by kindness and +generosity.” <i>Future</i> looks forward from the present, and not from +some point of time in the past. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Gent’s pants</b> +</p> + +<p> +“<i>Gent’s pants</i> scoured and pressed.” Business signs and +business advertisements are responsible for many vulgarisms. Never say +<i>gent’s</i> nor <i>pants.</i> Even <i>pantaloons</i> is not so good a +word as <i>trousers.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page80"></a> +<b>Sit, Set</b> +</p> + +<p> +Few words afford a more fertile field for grammatical blundering than the verbs +<i>sit</i> and <i>set.</i> The important fact to remember in the use of the +words is that <i>sit,</i> in modern usage, is an intransitive verb, and does +not take an object, while <i>set,</i> which means <i>to place in position, +</i>is transitive, and requires an object to complete its meaning. You cannot +<i>sit</i> a thing, but you do <i>set</i> or place a thing. +</p> + +<p> +The verb <i>sit</i> undergoes a slight change with the change of tense or time. +“I <i>sit</i> at the window today.” “I <i>sat</i> at the +window yesterday.” “I have <i>sat</i> at the window daily for many +years.” <i>“Sitting </i>at the window, I saw the storm +arise.” “Having <i>sat</i> at his table, I can testify to his +hospitality.” +</p> + +<p> +The transitive verb <i>set</i> undergoes no tense changes. “See me +<i>set</i> this vase on the table.” “He <i>set</i> his seal to the +paper yesterday.” “Jones will not <i>set</i> the world on fire with +his writings.” “Having <i>set </i>my affairs in order, I returned +home.” “I <i>sit</i> down.” “I <i>sat </i>down.” +“I <i>set</i> him down.” +</p> + +<p> +There are many intransitive uses of the verb <i>set;</i> as, “The sun +<i>sets,”</i> “The tide <i>sets</i> toward the south,” +“The fruit has <i>set,” “</i>He <i>set</i> out for +Boston.” +</p> + +<p> +There is a difference of opinion as to whether we should say “The coat +<i>sets </i>well” or “The coat <i>sits</i> well,” with the +greater weight in favor of <i>sits.</i> “The +<a name="Page81"></a> +hen <i>sits</i> on her eggs.” “She is a <i>sitting</i> hen.” +When the verb is used reflexively use <i>set</i> and not <i>sat;</i> as, +“I <i>set</i> me down beside her,” not “I <i>sat</i> me down +beside her.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Anyhow</b> +</p> + +<p> +This word can scarcely be regarded as elegant, and should not be used except in +colloquial style. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Awful</b> +</p> + +<p> +Few words among the many that go to make up the vocabulary of American slang +have been in longer use and have a wider range than the word <i>awful.</i> From +the loftiest and most awe-inspiring themes to the commonest trifle, this +much-abused word has been employed. A correct speaker or writer almost fears to +use the word lest he should suggest the idea of slang, and thus detract from +the subject to which the word might most fitly be applied. +</p> + +<p> +Even the grammatical form of the word is often violated in such expressions as +“Isn’t he <i>awful</i> nice?” “That hat of hers is +<i>awful</i> pretty.” To say <i>awfully nice</i> and <i>awfully +pretty</i> would improve the grammar, but the gross vulgarism remains. +</p> + +<p> +The word, when properly used, means “inspiring with awe or dread” +often accompanied with reverence, as when Milton says: +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +<a name="Page82"></a> +“The trumpet spake not to the armed throng;<br/> +And kings sat still with awful eye,<br/> +As if they surely knew their sovran Lord was by.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Back up</b> +</p> + +<p> +In the sense of <i>support,</i> this, and the shorter expression <i>back</i>, +are doubtless borrowed from the commercial world. While they may be tolerated +in conversation, they must be regarded as slang. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Bulk</b> +</p> + +<p> +This word is often incorrectly used for <i>most</i> or <i>the greater part; +</i>as, “The <i>bulk</i> of the people opposed the measure.” +<i>Bulk</i> refers to size, not to numbers. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Burglarize</b> +</p> + +<p> +This word is often used by the more sensational reporters in their reports of +crime. It should be avoided. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>But what, But that</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I don’t know <i>but what</i> I shall have to punish him.” +The sentence should read, “I don’t know <i>but that</i> I shall +have to punish him.” It is equivalent to, “I think that I shall +have to punish him.” The omission of <i>but</i> will convey the opposite +meaning. “I don’t know that I shall have to punish him” is +equivalent to “I think that I shall not have to punish him.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page83"></a> +<b>Calculate</b> +</p> + +<p> +A provincialism often used in the sense of <i>think, deem, suppose, believe; +</i>as, “I calculate the train will be here in ten minutes.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Calculated, Liable</b> +</p> + +<p> +This word is often incorrectly used in the sense of <i>likely, liable, apt;</i> +as, “His utterances are <i>calculated</i> to injure his cause.” In +the proper use of the word there is present the idea of purpose or intent. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Leave, Quit</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Leave</i> is often incorrectly used for <i>quit;</i> as, “That eminent +actor expects soon to <i>leave</i> the stage.” It would be a misfortune +if he should take the stage with him. Say <i>“quit</i> the stage.” +</p> + +<p> +“Henry has <i>quit</i> smoking.” Here <i>left off</i> or +<i>stopped</i> would be better. +</p> + +<p> +“The President gave me <i>lief</i> to speak with him.” Say +“gave me <i>leave.”</i> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Let it alone</i> and <i>let me be</i> are preferable to <i>leave it alone +</i>and <i>leave me be.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>A 1</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I have just read an A 1 article on the currency, question in the last +issue of the <i>North American Review!”</i> This is an expression from +the vocabulary of business converted into the slang of the street. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page84"></a> +<b>Luck</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Luck,</i> like <i>behavior,</i> may be either good or bad. “The +carpenter has met with luck; he fell and broke his leg.” “The +manager has met with luck; his salary has been doubled.” The adjective +<i>lucky</i> and the adverb <i>luckily</i> are used only in a favorable sense. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Make way with</b> +</p> + +<p> +This expression is often incorrectly used for <i>make away with;</i> as, +“The Judge gave the boot-blacks a Christmas dinner, and the begrimed +urchins quickly <i>made way</i> with the turkey and cranberry sauce.” Say +<i>“made away with,” </i>etc. +</p> + +<p> +To <i>make way</i> is <i>to make room, to provide a way, to dispatch.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>In our midst</b> +</p> + +<p> +“The doctor settled <i>in our midst.”</i> Say “<i>among +us,”</i> or “<i>in our neighborhood.”</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Indorse, Endorse</b> +</p> + +<p> +From the Latin <i>dorsum,</i> the back, these words have come to mean the +writing of one’s name across the back of a check or draft or other +commercial paper to signify its transfer to another or to secure its payment. +To <i>indorse</i> a man’s arguments or opinions is an incorrect use of +the word. +</p> + +<p> +While both forms of spelling the word are in good usage, <i>indorse</i> seems +to be coming into more general favor. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page85"></a> +<b>In, Into</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>In</i> is often incorrectly used for <i>into;</i> as, “He hurried up +the street and rushed <i>in</i> the store.” We walk <i>in</i> a room when +the walking is wholly within the apartment; we walk <i>into</i> a room when we +enter it from some other room or from the outside. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Just going to</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I was <i>just going to</i> write you a letter.” Say “I was +<i>just about to</i> write you a letter.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Kind of</b> +</p> + +<p> +“James swallowed the dose, and now feels <i>kind of</i> sick.” Use +<i>slightly</i> or <i>somewhat,</i> or some other modifier, instead of <i>kind +of.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Knowing</b> +</p> + +<p> +Do not use <i>knowing</i> for <i>skilful</i> or <i>intelligent.</i> “He +is a <i>knowing</i> artist.” “See him prick up his ears; he is a +<i>knowing </i>cur.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Clever, Smart</b> +</p> + +<p> +In England the word <i>clever</i> is applied to one who is bright, intelligent, +ready, apt; in the United States it is often misapplied to one who is +good-natured, kind, or accommodating. +</p> + +<p> +“Do you believe in corporal punishment for stupid school-children?” +</p> + +<p> +“Yes; a spanking always makes them <i>smart.”</i> +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page86"></a> +To express cleverness, brightness, intelligence, aptness, the adjectives +<i>clever, bright, intelligent, apt,</i> are better than the word <i>smart.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Posted, Informed</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He is well <i>posted</i> on all matters relating to +cattle-breeding.” Say <i>informed.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Perspire, Sweat</b> +</p> + +<p> +While all mankind belongs to the animal kingdom, and no person can feel +offended at being called an animal, yet society observes certain distinctions +in speaking of men and of beasts. <i>To sweat</i> and <i>to feed </i>are +expressions that apply to the latter; <i>to perspire</i> and <i>to eat </i>to +the former. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Empty</b> +</p> + +<p> +The Mississippi river <i>flows,</i> or <i>discharges its water</i> into the +Gulf of Mexico, but it can not <i>empty</i> so long as any water remains in the +river. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Enjoyed poor health</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Gold that buys health can never be ill spent,<br/> Nor hours laid out in +harmless merriment.” +</p> + +<p> +The negative form of expression, “I have not <i>enjoyed</i> good +health,” is not only correct, but is, at the same time, a polite way of +modestly stating a fact. To say “I have <i>enjoyed</i> poor health for +the past year” is to express a kind of enjoyment not generally +appreciated. It is like being <i>agreeably disappointed.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page87"></a> +<b>Aberration of intellect</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He is afflicted with a slight aberration of intellect.” Simplicity +would suggest, “He is slightly insane.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Above, Foregoing</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Let me call your attention to the <i>above</i> passage.” The +highest authority does not sanction the use of <i>above</i> as an adjective. +Say “the <i>foregoing</i> passage.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Allowed, Said</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He <i>allowed</i> this was the best speech he had heard.” This is +a provincialism that should be avoided. Use <i>said,</i> or <i>declared,</i> or +<i>admitted,</i> according to the meaning. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Alternation</b> +</p> + +<p> +This word is sometimes used in the sense of an unbroken series. It properly +signifies a reciprocal succession, as “The alternation of summer and +winter produces an ever-changing scene.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Alternative</b> +</p> + +<p> +Etymologically and by general use, this word refers to a choice between two; +as, “If this demand is refused the <i>alternative</i> is war.” But +Gladstone is quoted as saying, “My decided preference is for the fourth +and last of these <i>alternatives.”</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Anniversary</b> +</p> + +<p> +From <i>annus,</i> a year, means recurring every year. <i>Centennial</i> means +once in a hundred years. What then does <i>centennial anniversary</i> mean? Use +<i>centenary.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page88"></a> +<b>Learn, Teach</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I taught him grammar,” not “I learned him grammar.” +“He taught us history.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Lease, Let, Rent, Hire</b> +</p> + +<p> +We may <i>lease</i> to or from. “I <i>leased</i> the farm to my +neighbor.” “I <i>leased</i> this house from Brown.” We +<i>let</i> to another; as, “I <i>let </i>my house to my cousin.” We +may <i>rent</i> to or from another. We may <i>hire</i> from another,” as, +“I hired a servant;” “he hired a boat.” With <i>out</i> +and reflexively we may hire to another; as,” I hired out my +horses;” “he hired himself to the miller.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Like, As</b> +</p> + +<p> +Avoid the use of <i>like</i> in the sense of <i>as</i>. “He thinks just +<i>as </i>(not <i>like)</i> his father does.” That Anthony Trollope, Hugh +Conway and other writers are chargeable with this offence does not justify the +use of <i>like</i> for <i>as</i>, but rather proves the need of constant +vigilance in order to avoid such errors. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Lit, Lighted, Alighted</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He <i>lighted</i> the candle.” “The crow <i>alighted</i> on +the top of the tree.” Avoid the use of <i>lit</i> in such cases, and also +that slang form, as, “I <i>lit on</i> a beautiful passage in +Browning,” in the sense of <i>met with.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Lend, Loan</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Will you <i>lend</i> me your book,” is better than “Will you +<i>loan</i> me your book.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page89"></a> +<b>Near, Nearly</b> +</p> + +<p> +“James is not <i>near</i> so good a scholar as his brother is.” Use +<i>nearly.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Nasty, Nice</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Nasty</i> is a strong adjective, and should be used only in reference to +what is offensively filthy, foul, or defiled. Such expressions as a <i>nasty +</i>day, a <i>nasty</i> rain, mark a loose and careless use of the word. +</p> + +<p> +The word <i>nice</i> once meant <i>foolish, ignorant, weak, effeminate.</i> It +has now come to mean <i>exact, fine, finished, exciting admiration on account +of skill or exactness;</i> as <i>nice</i> proportions, <i>nice</i> workmanship, +a <i>nice</i> distinction in philosophy. It is loosely and colloquially used in +application to what is pleasing, agreeable, delightful, good. +</p> + +<p> +A bright young lady was once asked, “Don’t you think <i>nice</i> is +a <i>nasty </i>word?” She replied, “And do you think <i>nasty</i> +is <i>a nice</i> word.” The subject was abruptly changed. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Nicely</b> +</p> + +<p> +“How do you feel this morning?” <i>“Nicely,</i> thank +you.” The foregoing use of the word is as incorrect as it is common. Use +<i>very well</i> instead. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>No good, No use</b> +</p> + +<p> +“How does that new machine work?” “It’s <i>no +good.” “</i>Shall I try again?” “No; it’s +<i>no</i> <i>use.”</i> The answers should have been, <i>“It is of +no good, it is of no use.”</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page90"></a> +<b>O, Oh</b> +</p> + +<p> +While good usage is far from uniform, many excellent authors employ <i>O</i> +only in cases of direct address and <i>oh</i> when strong and sudden emotion is +to be expressed. <i>O</i> is always written with a capital letter, and should +be followed by the name of the person or thing addressed, and the exclamation +or interrogation point placed at the end of the sentence; as, “O Death, +where is thy sting? O Grave, where is thy victory?” “O the cold and +cruel winter!” +</p> + +<p> +<i>Oh</i> in the body of a sentence may begin with a small letter, and is +immediately followed by the exclamation point; as, “Oh! how terrible was +his fate!” “The sad intelligence was gently given, but oh! the +shock was almost unbearable.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Observe, Say</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He <i>observed</i> that the orphan pines while the oppressor +feeds.” To <i>observe</i> is to notice carefully, to attend closely to +what one sees. In the above sentence <i>said</i> or <i>remarked</i> should be +used instead of <i>observed.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Of any, Of all</b> +</p> + +<p> +“This is the largest tree <i>of any</i> I have seen.” The meaning +clearly is, that of all the trees I have seen this is the largest. Hence, <i>of +any</i> should be changed to <i>of all.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page91"></a> +<b>Older, Elder</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Elder</i> and <i>eldest</i> are terms applied chiefly to persons, generally +in speaking of members of the same family, while <i>older</i> and <i>oldest +</i>are applied to persons of different families, and also to things. +</p> + +<p> +“His <i>elder</i> brother died yesterday.” “His <i>eldest</i> +sister has gone to Italy on her wedding trip.” “Our <i>oldest</i> +neighbor was born in 1825.” “This oak is <i>older</i> than that +pine.” The foregoing sentences illustrate the best usage as applied to +the comparatives <i>older</i> and <i>elder</i> and the superlatives +<i>oldest</i> and <i>eldest.</i> +</p> + +<p> +When the direct comparison is made the word <i>older</i> is used, followed by +the conjunction <i>than;</i> as, “My father is <i>older than</i> my +mother.” But when the comparison is assumed the word <i>elder</i> should +be employed; as, “My father is the <i>elder</i> of my parents.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Only</b> +</p> + +<p> +Perhaps no other word in the language is so often misplaced as the word +<i>only.</i> The only general rule is to place it as near as possible to the +word which it modifies. “He <i>only</i> lent me a dollar” means +that he did not make me a present of the dollar, but expects me to return it. +“He lent me <i>only</i> a dollar” means that the sum lent was +neither greater nor less than one dollar. The former expression is often used +when the latter should be. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page92"></a> +<i>“Only</i> the man walked to the post-office to-day.” The woman +did not walk with him. +</p> + +<p> +“The man <i>only</i> walked to the post-office to-day.” He did not +ride or drive. +</p> + +<p> +“The man walked <i>only</i> to the post-office to-day.” He did not +go so far as the store. +</p> + +<p> +“The man walked to the post-once <i>only</i> to-day.” Yesterday he +rode and the day before he drove. Today is the only day that he walked. +</p> + +<p> +George Eliot, in <i>Middlemarch,</i> says: “I <i>only</i> know two +gentlemen who sing at all well,” and in another place, “I have +<i>only</i> seen her once before.” The word <i>only</i> should be placed +before two in the first sentence, and before <i>once</i> in the second. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Onto</b> +</p> + +<p> +There is a growing tendency to write the words <i>on</i> and <i>to</i> as one +word. “Although nearly drowned he yet had strength enough to climb +<i>onto </i>the rock.” The use of <i>upon</i> or <i>on</i> is generally +better. When neither of these can be used write <i>on</i> and <i>to</i> as +separate words. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Outstart</b> +</p> + +<p> +This word is sometimes used when <i>outset</i> should be employed. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Over and Above</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He earned twenty dollars <i>over and above</i> his expenses.” Use +<i>more than</i> or <i>above.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page93"></a> +<b>Party, Person</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Is she the <i>party</i> of whom you spoke?” “No; she is the +<i>person.”</i> +</p> + +<p> +One man may be a party to a contract or agreement. Several men may form a +party. When no contract is implied, one man or woman must be spoken of as a +<i>person,</i> not as a <i>party.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Patron, Customer</b> +</p> + +<p> +Unless there is a sense of obligation or condescension, use the term +<i>customer</i> and not <i>patron.</i> In like manner, use <i>custom +</i>instead of <i>patronage.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Per</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Per</i> is a Latin preposition and should be used only with Latin nouns. We +should say <i>per annum,</i> but not <i>per year; per diem,</i> and not <i>per +day; per capita,</i> and not <i>per head.</i> “He received a thousand +dollars <i>a</i> <i>year</i> is shorter and better than “he received a +thousand dollars <i>per year.”</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Perchance, Peradventure</b> +</p> + +<p> +These are poetic and archaic forms that should be avoided in ordinary prose. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Performers</b> +</p> + +<p> +“The entertainment consisted of reading, recitations, and singing, and +the <i>performers</i> acquitted themselves well.” Readers, reciters, and +singers are not +<a name="Page94"></a> +<i>performers.</i> The term is applied to the stage, and to those who play on +musical instruments. Even in the latter application, “he <i>plays</i> +well on the piano,” is better than “he <i>performs</i> well on the +piano.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Period, Point</b> +</p> + +<p> +Do not use <i>period</i> for <i>a point</i> of time. <i>Period </i>implies +extended time. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Nothing like</b> +</p> + +<p> +“James is <i>nothing like</i> so successful as his brother” +illustrates a colloquialism that should be avoided. Use <i>not nearly so,</i> +etc. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Notorious, Noted</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He was elected to Congress, then Governor, and we now think of sending +him to the United States Senate. He is becoming quite <i>notorious.” +</i>The word <i>notorious</i> implies some bad or doubtful quality or +characteristic, and must not be used in the sense of <i>noted</i> or +<i>famous.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Nowhere near so</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He trapped <i>nowhere near</i> so many rabbits as his cousin.” +This vulgarism should be avoided. Use <i>not nearly.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Plead</b> +</p> + +<p> +The past tense of <i>read</i> is <i>read,</i> but the past tense of +<i>plead</i> is <i>pleaded,</i> not <i>plead. “</i>The prisoner +<i>pleaded </i>for mercy.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page95"></a> +<b>Plenty, Plentiful</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Money is <i>plenty</i> this summer.” <i>Plenty</i> is a noun and +should not be used as an adjective. Therefore “money is <i>plentiful</i> +this summer.” Shakespeare says, “If reasons were as <i>plenty</i> +as blackberries,” etc., but words have settled into more definite grooves +since Shakespeare’s time. “This house is <i>plenty</i> large +enough.” Neither is <i>plenty</i> an adverb. Say, “This house is +quite large enough,” or, simply, <i>large enough.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>About, around</b> +</p> + +<p> +“She was pleased with the conversation <i>about</i> her.” Use +“<i>around</i> her.” +</p> + +<p> +“She was pained by the conversation <i>about</i> her.” Use +“<i>concerning </i>her.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Overlook, Oversee</b> +</p> + +<p> +This word means to look down upon from a place that is over or above; as, +“From the top of the Washington monument you can readily <i>overlook</i> +the city.” But it also means to look over and beyond an object in order +to see a second object, thus missing the view of the first object; hence, to +refrain from bestowing notice upon, to neglect. The confounding of these two +ideas begets ambiguity, as “Brown’s business was <i>to overlook</i> +the workmen in the shop.” His business was <i>to oversee</i> or +<i>superintend</i> them, and not to <i>neglect</i> or <i>overlook</i> them. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page96"></a> +<b>Revolting</b> +</p> + +<p> +To <i>revolt</i> is to <i>rebel,</i> to <i>renounce allegiance,</i> but the +participial form <i>revolting</i> also means <i>repugnant, loathsome.</i> In +the sentence, “A band of <i>revolting</i> Huns has just passed down the +street,” we should be in doubt whether the speaker referred to their acts +against the government or to their appearance. The use of the word +<i>rebellious</i> in the former sense, and of <i>disagreeable</i> or +<i>disgusting,</i> or the stronger adjectives given above, for the latter +meaning, would make the sentence clear. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Unexampled</b> +</p> + +<p> +Such adjectives as <i>unexampled, unparalleled, unprecedented,</i> do not admit +of comparison, hence such expressions as <i>the most unexampled </i>bravery, +<i>the most unparalleled heroism,</i> etc., should be avoided. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Utter</b> +</p> + +<p> +This verb should be distinguished from <i>express</i> or <i>say. Utter +</i>carries with it the idea of articulate expression, except in the sense of +<i>uttering</i> false coins or forged notes. +</p> + +<p> +As an adjective it is defined by <i>complete, perfect, absolute,</i> etc., but +it can be applied only to what is unpleasant or unfavorable. “I enjoyed +<i>utter</i> happiness” would be an absurd expression, but “I was +doomed to <i>utter</i> misery” illustrates a proper use of the word. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page97"></a> +<b>Valuable, Valued</b> +</p> + +<p> +These words are not synonymous; <i>valuable</i> means precious, costly, having +value; <i>valued</i> refers to our estimation of the worth. “He is one of +our most <i>valued</i> contributors,” not <i>valuable,</i> unless you are +thinking of the value of his contributions and the smallness of the +compensation. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Very pleased</b> +</p> + +<p> +A few participles used as adjectives may be directly modified by <i>too</i> or +<i>very;</i> as, “I was <i>very tired,” “</i>He was <i>too +fatigued</i> to go farther.” +</p> + +<p> +We sometimes hear the expression, “I was <i>very pleased,”</i> but +the critics insist upon “I was <i>very much</i> pleased,” or +“greatly pleased,” or “very greatly pleased.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Vicinity</b> +</p> + +<p> +Often too high-sounding a word for the thought; <i>neighborhood</i> is less +pretentious. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>The old man</b> +</p> + +<p> +The use of such words as <i>dad, daddy, mam, mammy, the old man, the old +woman,</i> when applied to parents, not only indicates a lack of refinement, +but shows positive disrespect. The words <i>pap, pappy, governor, </i>etc., are +also objectionable. After the first lispings of childhood the words <i>papa</i> +and <i>mamma</i>, properly accented, should be insisted upon by parents, and at +<a name="Page98"></a> +the age of twelve or fifteen the words <i>father</i> and <i>mother</i> should +be substituted and ever after used, as showing a proper respect on the part of +children. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Great big</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He gave me a <i>great big</i> apple.” This is a colloquialism that +should be avoided. Use <i>large.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Argue, Augur</b> +</p> + +<p> +“The hollow whistling of the wind among the trees <i>argues</i> an +approaching storm.” Use <i>augurs.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Barbaric, Barbarous</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Barbaric</i> refers to a people; <i>barbarous</i> to their low state of life +and their habits of cruelty. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Cut in half</b> +</p> + +<p> +A colloquialism in very frequent use. “I will <i>cut</i> this melon <i>in +half</i> and share it with you.” Say, <i>cut in two,</i> or <i>cut in +halves,</i> or <i>cut in two parts.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Hearty meal</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He ate a hearty meal before starting on his journey.” +<i>Hearty</i> applies to the eater rather than to the meal. “He ate +heartily,” etc. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Some better</b> +</p> + +<p> +“John has been <i>right sick,</i> but is now <i>some</i> better.” +<i>Somewhat, rather,</i> or <i>slightly</i> may take the place of <i>some.</i> +The sentence may be otherwise improved. “John has been <i>quite ill,</i> +but is now <i>somewhat</i> better.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page99"></a> +<b>Through, Finished</b> +</p> + +<p> +Unless you have fallen through a trap door and finished your career, do not +say, “I am through,” when you mean “I have finished.” +The school-boy says, “I <i>am through with,</i> that lesson,” when +he should say, “I <i>have finished</i> that lesson.” The farmer +asks the man in his employ, <i>“Are </i>you <i>through with</i> that +field?” when he should have asked, <i>“Have </i>you <i>finished</i> +ploughing that field?” You ask your friend, <i>“Are </i>you +<i>through, with Trilby?”</i> when you should ask, <i>“Have</i> you +<i>finished</i> reading <i>Trilby.”</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Winterish</b> +</p> + +<p> +Do not say <i>summerish</i> and <i>winterish,</i> but <i>summery,</i> or +<i>summerlike,</i> and <i>wintry.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Wish</b> +</p> + +<p> +The word <i>hope</i> should be employed instead of <i>wish</i> in such cases +as, “I <i>wish</i> you may succeed in your undertaking.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Right</b> +</p> + +<p> +This little word has many meanings and is put to many uses. In the following +senses it should be avoided: +</p> + +<p> +“Stand <i>right</i> here.” In most instances the briefer +expression, “Stand here,” is sufficient. If it is necessary to +locate the place more definitely or to emphasize the position, “Stand +just here,” or “Stand on this very spot,” may be better. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page100"></a> +“The train came to a standstill <i>right</i> here.” Better, +“The train stopped <i>just</i> here.” +</p> + +<p> +“Do it <i>right away.”</i> This is a colloquialism that should be +avoided. <i>Immediately, instantly, at once, without delay,</i> are expressions +that may safely be substituted for <i>right away.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“I heard of your misfortune, and came to you <i>right away.”</i> +“John, post this letter for me <i>right off.” Directly</i> or +<i>immediately,</i> in the place of <i>right away</i> and <i>right off,</i> is +better English. +</p> + +<p> +“James is <i>right</i> sick, and the doctor comes to see him <i>right +</i>often.” The use of <i>right</i> as an intensive with adjectives and +adverbs is very common in many quarters. <i>Quite ill</i> or <i>very ill</i> is +better than <i>right sick,</i> and <i>often</i> or <i>frequently</i> is better +than <i>right often.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“We have a <i>right</i> good crop of wheat this year.” Use <i>very +</i>instead of <i>right.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“You have as good a <i>right</i> to be punished as I have.” The +person addressed would gladly relinquish his <i>right.</i> “You <i>merit +</i>punishment as well as I,” or “You <i>deserve</i> to be +punished,” etc. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Shall, Will, Should, Would</b> +</p> + +<p> +Few persons can claim to be entirely free from slips of speech in the use of +these auxiliaries. Simply to express a future action or event, <i>shall </i>is +used with the first person and <i>will</i> with the second and third; as, +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +<a name="Page101"></a> +I shall read, We shall read,<br /> +You will read, You will read,<br /> +He will read, They will read. +</p> + +<p> +But when I desire to show determination on my part to do a certain thing, or +when I exercise my authority over another, or express promise, command, or +threat, <i>will</i> is used in the first person and <i>shall</i> in the second +and third; as, +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +I will read, We will read,<br /> +You shall read, You shall read,<br /> +He shall read, They shall read. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Shall</i> primarily implies obligation; <i>will</i> implies intention or +purpose. <i>Will</i> and <i>would</i> should be used whenever the subject names +the one whose will controls the action; <i>shall</i> and <i>should</i> must be +employed whenever the one named by the subject is under the control of another. +</p> + +<p> +The difference between <i>should</i> and <i>would</i> is, in general, about the +same as that between <i>shall</i> and <i>will.</i> +</p> + +<p> +The foregoing suggestions cover the ordinary uses of these auxiliaries, but +there are some special cases deserving attention. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Will,</i> in the first person, expresses assent or promise, as well as +determination; as, +</p> + +<p> +“I will read this poem for you since you have requested it.” +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page102"></a> +“I will meet you to-morrow at the time appointed.” +</p> + +<p> +<i>Will,</i> in the second person, may express a command; as, +</p> + +<p> +“You will take the places assigned you.” +</p> + +<p> +“You will report immediately at my office.” +</p> + +<p> +<i>Will</i> is sometimes employed to express a general fact, without conveying +the idea of futurity; as, “Accidents will happen.” +“Differences will arise.” +</p> + +<p> +<i>Will</i> is sometimes incorrectly used instead of <i>shall;</i> as, +<i>“Will</i> I go?” for <i>“Shall</i> I go?” This fault +is common in Scotland, and prevails to some extent in this country. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Will</i> is also used where <i>may</i> would be more appropriate; as, +“Be that as it <i>will.”</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Shall you? Will you?</b> +</p> + +<p> +The distinction between <i>shall</i> and <i>will</i> in the interrogative forms +of the second person are not very clearly defined. Many writers and speakers +use them interchangeably. The answer should have the same auxiliary as the +question. +</p> + +<p> +“Shall you go to town to-morrow?” “I <i>shall.”</i> +</p> + +<p> +“Will you attend to this matter promptly?” “I +<i>will.”</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Should, Would, Ought</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Should</i> is often used in the sense of <i>ought;</i> as, “Mary +should remain at home to-day and wait upon her sick mother.” +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page103"></a> +<i>Should</i> and <i>would</i> are employed to express a conditional assertion; +as, “I <i>should</i> go to college, if I could secure the necessary +means.” “He <i>would</i> have gone fishing, if his father had been +willing.” +</p> + +<p> +<i>Would</i> is often used to express a custom, a determination, or a wish; as, +“He <i>would</i> sit all day and moan.” <i>“Would</i> to God +we had died in the land of Egypt.” “He <i>would</i> go, and his +parents could not prevent him.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Talented</b> +</p> + +<p> +Certain authors and critics, including Coleridge, have objected strongly to the +use of <i>talented.</i> One writer argues that since there is no such verb as +<i>to talent,</i> the formation of such a participle as <i>talented</i> cannot +be defended, and he further declares that no good writer is known to use it, +Webster <i>(The International Dictionary)</i> states that, as a formative, +<i>talented</i> is just as analogical and legitimate as <i>gifted, bigoted, +moneyed, lauded, lilied, honeyed,</i> and numerous other adjectives having a +participial form, but derived directly from nouns and not from verbs. +</p> + +<p> +We must therefore conclude that the use of <i>talented</i> as an adjective is +entirely legitimate. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Climb down</b> +</p> + +<p> +The critics generally oppose the use of the expression <i>climb down. </i>When +the verb is employed +<a name="Page104"></a> +without its adverbial modifier, the upward direction is always understood. In +figurative language, as “Black vapors climb aloft, and cloud the +day,” “The general climbed the heights of fame,” the upward +direction is also understood. +</p> + +<p> +But in a specific sense <i>climb</i> is defined “to mount laboriously, +especially by the use of hands and feet.” Here the manner seems to be as +important as the direction. When the same manner must be employed in +descending, as a tree, a mast, or a steep, rocky cliff, the general term +<i>descend</i> fails to convey the meaning, and to use <i>slip, slide, drop, +tumble, fall,</i> would be incorrect. We are then left to choose between the +short and clear, but objectionable, expression <i>climb down</i> and some long +and cumbersome equivalent. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Mighty</b> +</p> + +<p> +Never use <i>mighty</i> in the sense of <i>very,</i> or <i>exceedingly.</i> It +is not only inappropriate but inelegant. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Of, From</b> +</p> + +<p> +“She had consumption and died <i>from</i> the disease.” Say, +“died <i>of </i>the disease.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>On, Over, Upon</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Mary called <i>upon</i> her friend.” Say, “called <i>on</i> +her friend.” “The Senator prevailed <i>over</i> his friends to +support his bill.” Say, “prevailed <i>upon</i> his +<a name="Page105"></a> +friends.” “The candidate prevailed <i>over</i> his enemies.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Partake</b> +</p> + +<p> +This word means <i>to take a part of, to share with</i> another. It is often +incorrectly used for <i>ate,</i> as “He <i>partook</i> sparingly of the +food.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Powerful sight</b> +</p> + +<p> +This is a Westernism to be avoided. It is used indiscriminately for a <i>large +number,</i> a <i>great quantity,</i> a <i>vast amount,</i> etc. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Apprehend, Comprehend</b> +</p> + +<p> +To <i>apprehend</i> is to take into the mind; to <i>comprehend</i> is to +understand fully what is already there. We may <i>apprehend</i> many truths +which we do not <i>comprehend.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Introduce, Present</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Present</i> implies more formality than <i>introduce.</i> We introduce one +friend to another. An envoy is <i>presented</i> to the King. Foreign ministers +are <i>presented</i> to the President of the United States. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Same as</b> +</p> + +<p> +“This is the <i>same</i> story <i>as</i> I read last week.” Use +<i>same that.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page106"></a> +<b>Section</b> +</p> + +<p> +“We raise finer horses in our <i>section.”</i> This is an +Americanism that should be avoided. Neighborhood, vicinity, region, part of the +country or State, may be substituted for <i>section.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Seldom or ever</b> +</p> + +<p> +This incorrect expression is sometimes used instead of <i>seldom or never +</i>or <i>seldom if ever.</i> “I have <i>seldom if ever</i> heard so +eloquent an oration.” “I have <i>seldom or never</i> seen the +man.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Sewage, Sewerage</b> +</p> + +<p> +These words have distinct meanings. <i>Sewage</i> refers to the contents of the +sewer; <i>sewerage</i> to the system of sewers. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Sociable, Social</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He is one of the most <i>sociable</i> men I have met. He is fond of +society, and is very ready in conversation.” <i>Sociable</i> means +companionable; <i>social</i> applies to the relations of men in society; as +<i>social </i>duties, <i>social</i> pleasures, <i>social</i> interests. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Specialty, Speciality</b> +</p> + +<p> +These words are interchangeable, but the former is the better word. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Requirement, Requisition, Requisite</b> +</p> + +<p> +While these words have something in common, each has a meaning peculiar to +itself. <i>Requirement</i> +<a name="Page107"></a> +means that which is required as an essential condition, or as something +necessary; <i>requisition,</i> that which is required as of right, a demand or +application made as by authority; <i>requisite,</i> that which is required by +the nature of things, or by circumstances, that which cannot be dispensed with. +“She understood the nature of the child and of its +<i>requirements.”</i> “The officer made a <i>requisition</i> for +more troops.” “This is as much a <i>requisite</i> as food and +clothing.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Sick, Ill</b> +</p> + +<p> +There is a growing tendency to discriminate between <i>sickness </i>and +<i>illness,</i> limiting the words <i>sick</i> and <i>sickness</i> to some +slight disturbance of the physical system, as nausea, and applying the words +<i>ill</i> and <i>illness</i> to protracted disease and disordered health. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Scholar, Pupil</b> +</p> + +<p> +Although these words are often used synonymously and with good authority, it +would be better to limit the former to learned persons and to apply the latter +to persons under instruction. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Commenced to write</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I <i>commenced to write</i> at a very early age.” After the verb +<i>commence</i> the best writers use the verbal +<a name="Page108"></a> +noun instead of the infinitive with <i>to;</i> as, “I <i>commenced +writing </i>at a very early age.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Beside, Besides</b> +</p> + +<p> +These words were formerly used interchangeably, but the best writers of to-day +make a distinction. <i>Beside</i> means by <i>the side of. Besides </i>means +<i>in addition to. Besides</i> is sometimes incorrectly used for <i>except;</i> +as, “No trees will grow here <i>besides</i> the pine.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Bountiful, Plentiful</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Bountiful</i> applies to the giver; <i>plentiful</i> to the things +furnished. “The <i>bountiful</i> Giver of all good furnishes a +<i>plentiful </i>supply of all things needful for our comfort and +happiness.” Do not say a <i>bountiful</i> repast, a <i>bountiful</i> +harvest. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Attacked, Burst, Drowned</b> +</p> + +<p> +The incorrect past tense forms <i>attackted, bursted, drownded,</i> are +sometimes heard; as, “The cashier was <i>attackted</i> by three of the +ruffians,” “The cannon <i>bursted</i> and killed the +gunners,” “The fishermen were <i>drownded</i> off the bar.” +Use <i>attacked, burst, drowned.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>All</b> +</p> + +<p> +This little word is used in a great many ways, some of which are quite +colloquial, and in some cases provincial. When the grocer’s clerk has +taken your order he is prompted to say, “Is that <i>all?”</i> Or if +<a name="Page109"></a> +he should say, “Is there anything else that you wish?” you are +likely to reply, “No; that is <i>all.”</i> Whether used in the +question or in the reply, the word <i>all</i> should be avoided, or else the +expression should be expanded so as to make a clear sentence. +</p> + +<p> +A friend calls to see you, and, finding you alone when he expected to meet +others with you, he says, “Good morning; I see you are <i>all</i> +alone.” <i>All</i> is not a good equivalent for <i>quite</i> or +<i>entirely,</i> either of which words would be better than <i>all.</i> In +truth, the sentence is as clear and as strong and more concise without the use +of a modifier. “I see you are <i>alone.”</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Inaugurate</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>To inaugurate</i> means <i>to induct</i> into office or <i>to set in +motion</i> with formality and serious ceremony. Pompous writers too often +employ the word in referring to commonplace events. A new business is +<i>established.</i> A new hall or library is <i>opened.</i> A new pastor is +<i>installed.</i> A new order of procedure is <i>adopted.</i> In general, the +word <i>begin</i> or <i>commence</i> would be more appropriate than +<i>inaugurate.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Came across, Met with</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I <i>came across</i> the passage quite unexpectedly.” Better, +“I <i>chanced upon,”</i> or “<i>happened upon,,”</i> or +“<i>met with</i> the passage quite unexpectedly.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page110"></a> +<b>Expect</b> +</p> + +<p> +Few words are more frequently incorrectly used than <i>expect. “</i>I +<i>expect</i> you went to town yesterday,” “I <i>expect</i> you +will hear from me to-morrow,” “I <i>expect</i> the train has +arrived,” represent some of the uses to which this word is often put. +<i>Expect</i> refers wholly to the future, and should not refer to present or +past events; as, “I <i>expect </i>you to write me from Liverpool.” +“John <i>expects</i> to see his father to-morrow.” Among the +expressions that can most readily and appropriately be substituted for +<i>expect</i> are <i>suspect, suppose, think, believe, presume, daresay.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Over with</b> +</p> + +<p> +“After the supper was <i>over with</i> the guests departed.” Omit +<i>with.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Overflown</b> +</p> + +<p> +“The lowlands along the river are <i>overflown.”</i> Use +<i>overflowed. </i>The perfect participle of <i>overflow</i> is +<i>overflowed,</i> not <i>overflown.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Good piece</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I have come a <i>good piece</i> to see you.” Say “I have +come a <i>long distance</i> to see you.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Stand a chance</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He does not stand any chance of an election.” Say, “It is +not probable that he will be elected.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page111"></a> +<b>No more than I could help</b> +</p> + +<p> +“As I was not in sympathy with the cause, I gave <i>no more than I could +help.”</i> So accustomed are we to hearing this awkward, blundering +expression that we readily understand the meaning it is intended to convey, and +should be sorely puzzled to interpret the correct form. Let us analyze it. I +gave five dollars. That much I could not help (giving). I gave no more. Hence, +“I gave no more than I could not help.” This last form appears to +be correct. By changing the phraseology the sentence can be greatly improved. +“I gave no more than I felt compelled to give.” “I made my +contribution as small as possible.” “My gift was limited to the +measure of my sense of obligation.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Above, More than, Preceding</b> +</p> + +<p> +“It is <i>above</i> a week since I heard from my brother.” We may +say <i>“above</i> the earth,” <i>“above</i> the +housetops,” but in the preceding sentence it is better to say, “It +is <i>more than</i> a week since I heard from my brother.” +</p> + +<p> +“In the <i>above</i> paragraph he quotes from Horace.” Say, +“In the <i>preceding</i> or <i>foregoing</i> paragraph,” etc. The +awkwardness of the use of the word <i>above</i> becomes very apparent when the +line in which it occurs is found at the top of a page, and the passage +<a name="Page112"></a> +to which reference is made appears at the bottom of the previous page. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Climax</b> +</p> + +<p> +The Greek word <i>climax</i> means literally <i>a</i> <i>ladder, </i>and +implies <i>ascent, upward movement.</i> The best authors use it only in this +sense, and not to denote the highest point. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Factor</b> +</p> + +<p> +This word, from the Latin <i>factor,</i> a doer, an agent, signifies +<i>working, doing, effecting.</i> Its frequent use in the sense of <i>source +</i>or <i>part</i> should be avoided. +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +“All are but <i>factors</i> of one stupendous whole,<br/> +Whose body Nature is, and God the soul.” +</p> + +<p> +Pope employs the better word <i>parts.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Hung, Hanged</b> +</p> + +<p> +Pictures, signs, bells, and other inanimate objects are <i>hung; </i>men are +<i>hanged.</i> While some writers ignore this distinction, the best authorities +observe it. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Healthy, Healthful</b> +</p> + +<p> +A lady wrote to a paper asking, “Are plants in a sleeping-room +<i>unhealthy?”</i> The answer came, “Not necessarily; we have seen +some very <i>healthy</i> plants growing in sleeping-rooms.” +</p> + +<p> +Persons are <i>healthy</i> or <i>unhealthy.</i> A plant or tree is +<a name="Page113"></a> +<i>healthy</i> or <i>unhealthy</i> according as it possesses vigor. Food, +surroundings and conditions are <i>healthful</i> or <i>unhealthful +</i>according as they promote or destroy health. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Idea, Opinion</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Many persons think that the interior of the earth is a mass of fire; +what is your <i>idea?”</i> Say, “What is your +<i>opinion?”</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Alone, Only</b> +</p> + +<p> +“An <i>only</i> child” is one that has neither brother nor sister. +“A child <i>alone”</i> is one that is left to itself. “Virtue +<i>alone</i> makes us happy” means that virtue unaccompanied by any other +advantages is sufficient to make us happy. “Virtue <i>only</i> makes us +happy” means that nothing else can do it. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Grow, Raise, Rear</b> +</p> + +<p> +“We <i>grow</i> wheat, corn, oats, and potatoes on our farm.” +“We <i>raise</i> wheat,” etc., would be better. With the same +propriety we might use <i>sleep</i> for <i>lodge,</i> and <i>eat</i> for +<i>feed,</i> or supply with food; as, “We can <i>eat</i> and <i>sleep</i> +fifty persons at one time.” +</p> + +<p> +The word <i>raise</i> is often incorrectly used in the sense of <i>rear; +</i>as, “She <i>raised</i> a family of nine children.” It is +sometimes employed in the sense of <i>increase,</i> as, “The landlord +<i>raised</i> my<i> </i>rent.” <i>Increased</i> would be better. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page114"></a> +<b>Has went</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He goes to school,” “He went to school yesterday,” +“He has gone to the West.” Avoid such ungrammatical forms as +“He <i>has</i> <i>went,” “</i>I <i>have</i> saw.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Badly, Greatly</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Badly</i> is often incorrectly used for <i>greatly</i> or <i>very much,</i> +as, “I need it <i>badly,”</i> “He was <i>badly</i> +hurt.” +</p> + +<p> +“That fence wants painting <i>badly,</i> I think I’ll do it +myself,” said the economical husband. +</p> + +<p> +“Yes,” said his wife, “you had better do it yourself if you +think it wants to be done <i>badly.”</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>At you</b> +</p> + +<p> +“If you don’t stop teasing me I will do something <i>at</i> +you,” meaning “I will punish you.” That form of expression is +very common in some localities, and it is even more inelegant than common. The +use of the preposition <i>to</i> instead of <i>at</i> would be a slight +improvement, but the sentence should be entirely recast. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Haply, Happily</b> +</p> + +<p> +In the reading of the Scriptures the word <i>happily</i> is sometimes used +where the archaic word <i>haply</i> should be employed. In like manner the word +<i>thoroughly</i> is substituted for the old form <i>throughly.</i> Both words +should be pronounced as they are spelled. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page115"></a> +<b>Thanks</b> +</p> + +<p> +To say “I thank you” requires but little more effort than to say +<i>“Thanks,”</i> and it will be received as a more sincere token of +thankfulness. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Got to</b> +</p> + +<p> +This inelegant expression is often employed where <i>must</i> would serve the +purpose better. “This work <i>has got to be</i> done.” Say, +“Must be done.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Hangs on</b> +</p> + +<p> +“The cold weather <i>hangs on.”</i> Better, “The cold weather +continues.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Under the Weather</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Are you well?” “No; I have been quite <i>under the +weather.” </i>Substitute <i>sick</i> or <i>ill,</i> for the colloquial +expression <i>under the weather.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Again, Against</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Again</i> is often erroneously used for <i>against;</i> as, “He leaned +<i>again</i> the tree for support.” Say, “He leaned <i>against</i> +the tree for support.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Could, Can, Will</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Could</i> is often incorrectly employed where <i>can</i> or <i>will</i> +would be more appropriate. +</p> + +<p> +<i>“Could</i> you lend me a dollar this morning?” If the thought of +the inquirer is, “Are you willing to lend,” etc., he should have +used <i>will </i>instead of <i>could;</i> +<a name="Page116"></a> +but if his thought was, “Are you able to lend,” or “Do you +have a dollar to spare this morning,” he should have used <i>can.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Bravery, Courage</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Bravery</i> is inborn; <i>courage</i> is the result of reason and +determination. The <i>brave</i> are often reckless; the <i>courageous</i> are +always cautious. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Hate</b> +</p> + +<p> +Avoid the use of <i>hate</i> for <i>dislike,</i> and all other intensive words +when the thought is more correctly expressed by a milder word. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Pretty, Very</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Pretty</i> is often incorrectly used in the sense of <i>very </i>or +<i>moderately,</i> as “He was <i>pretty</i> badly hurt,” “He +is a <i>pretty</i> good scholar,” “She is <i>pretty</i> +wealthy,” “Thomas is <i>pretty</i> ugly.” So common is this +provincialism in some localities that the incongruity of such an expression as +the last would pass undiscovered. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Lot, Number</b> +</p> + +<p> +The use of <i>lot</i> for <i>number</i> or <i>many</i> is a colloquialism that +should be avoided. “He collected a <i>lot (large number) </i>of books on +the subject.” “A <i>lot</i> of policemen were gathered there” +“I ate <i>lots of</i> oranges while I was in Florida.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page117"></a> +<b>Lead a dance</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He <i>led</i> his companion <i>a fine dance.”</i> This expression, +as generally used, is ironical, and implies that the leader conducts those who +are led through experiences unfamiliar to them and usually to their +disadvantage. To lead astray, to deceive, to corrupt the morals of, may be +substituted for the foregoing inelegant expression. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Try and</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Have you been to the country this summer?” “No; but I will +<i>try and go </i>next week.”. The second speaker intends to convey the +idea that it is his purpose to go if nothing occurs to prevent, but his going +is still a matter of uncertainty. His statement, however, when properly +interpreted means that he not only will try, but that he positively will go. +</p> + +<p> +“Try <i>and</i> finish that work to-day.” Here the purpose is not +to command that the work shall be finished, but that the trial shall be made. +As the sentence stands two distinct commands are given, first, that the trial +shall be made, and, second, that the work must be completed. The sentence +should read, “Try to finish that work to-day.” +</p> + +<p> +Use <i>to</i> instead of <i>and</i> in such expressions as “Try <i>and +</i>make it convenient to come,” “Try <i>and</i> do your work +properly,” “Try <i>and</i> think of your lessons,” “Try +<i>and</i> go <i>and</i> see our sick neighbor.” +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="Page118"></a><a name="chap03"></a>CHAPTER III<br /> +Contractions</h2> + +<p> +Whatever may be said against employing contractions in dignified discourse, +their use in colloquial speech is too firmly established to justify our +censure. But, in their use, as, indeed, in the use of all words, proper +discrimination must be shown. +</p> + +<p> +Just why <i>haven’t, hasn’t, doesn’t, isn’t, +wasn’t,</i> are regarded as being in good repute, and <i>ain’t, +weren’t, mightn’t, oughtn’t,</i> are regarded with less +favor, and why <i>shalln’t, willn’t</i> are absolutely excluded, it +would be difficult to explain. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Use determines the law of language,</i> whether for single words, +grammatical forms, or grammatical constructions. Wherever a people, by common +consent, employ a particular word to mean a certain thing, that word becomes an +inherent part of the language of that people, whether it has any basis in +etymology or not. We must not wrest this law to our own convenience, however, +by assuming that such words and phrases as are introduced and employed by the +illiterate, or even by the educated, within a circumscribed territory, are, +therefore, to be regarded as +<a name="Page119"></a> +reputable words. The sanction of all classes, the educated as well as the +uneducated, throughout the entire country in which the language is spoken, is +necessary and preliminary to the proper introduction of a new word into the +language. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Ain’t</b> +</p> + +<p> +This word is a contraction of <i>am</i> <i>not</i> or <i>are not, </i>and can, +therefore, be used only with the singular pronouns <i>I</i> and <i>you</i>, and +with the plural pronouns <i>we, you,</i> and <i>they,</i> and with nouns in the +plural. +</p> + +<p> +I <i>am not</i> pleased. I <i>ain’t</i> pleased. +</p> + +<p> +You <i>are not</i> kind. You <i>ain’t</i> kind. +</p> + +<p> +They <i>are not</i> gentlemen. They <i>ain’t</i> gentlemen. +</p> + +<p> +These sentences will serve to illustrate the proper use of <i>ain’t,</i> +if it is ever proper to use such an inelegant word as that. “James +<i>ain’t</i> a good student,” “Mary <i>ain’t</i> a +skillful musician,” or “This orange <i>ain’t</i> +sweet,” are expressions frequently heard, yet those who use them would be +shocked to hear the same expressions with the proper equivalent <i>am not</i> +or <i>are not</i> substituted for the misleading <i>ain’t.</i> +</p> + +<p> +The expression <i>ain’t</i> is compounded of the verb <i>am</i> or +<i>are</i> and the adverb <i>not,</i> and by the contraction the three vocal +impulses <i>I-am-not,</i> or <i>you-are-not,</i> or <i>they-are-not,</i> are +reduced to two. By compounding the pronoun with the verb and preserving the +full adverb, +<a name="Page120"></a> +as in “<i>I’m not,” “You’re not,”</i> +“<i>They’re not,”</i> we also reduce the three vocal impulses +to two, thus securing as short a contraction in sound and one that is as fully +adapted to colloquial speech, and that is, at the same time, in much better +taste. +</p> + +<p> +The old form for <i>ain’t</i> was <i>an’t,</i> but this has now +become obsolete. It will be a blessing to the English-speaking people when the +descendant shall sleep with his father. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Are not</i> is sometimes contracted into <i>aren’t,</i> but this form +has not found much favor. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Can’t and Couldn’t</b> +</p> + +<p> +As <i>cannot</i> and <i>could not</i> may be used with pronouns of the first, +second, or third person, in either number, and with nouns in both numbers, no +error is likely to follow the use of their contracted forms. +</p> + +<p> +Why <i>cannot</i> is properly written as one word, and <i>could not +</i>requires two, is not founded upon any principle of philosophy. The +concurrent sanction of all classes in all parts of the English-speaking world +establishes it as law. +</p> + +<p> +Observe that the <i>a</i> in the verb <i>can’t</i> is broader in sound +than the <i>short a</i> in the noun <i>cant.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Don’t and Didn’t</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Don’t</i> is a contraction of <i>do not.</i> It is in very general use +and in good repute. It may be employed +<a name="Page121"></a> +wherever the expanded expression <i>do not</i> could be applied, and only +there. +</p> + +<p> +“One swallow <i>don’t</i> make a spring” is equivalent to +saying, “One swallow <i>do not</i> make a spring.” We may say +“<i>I don’t,” “You don’t,” “We +don’t,” “They don’t,” “The men</i> (or +<i>birds,</i> or <i>trees) don’t,”</i> but we must use +<i>doesn’t</i> with <i>he,</i> or <i>she,</i> or <i>it,</i> or <i>the +man, the grove, the cloud,</i> etc. +</p> + +<p> +Unlike the verb <i>do</i>, its past tense form <i>did</i> undergoes no change +in conjugation, hence the contraction <i>didn’t</i> is also uniform. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Haven’t, Hasn’t, and Hadn’t</b> +</p> + +<p> +The verb <i>have,</i> like the verb <i>do,</i> has a distinct form for the +third person singular. The same change affects the contraction. I +<i>haven’t,</i> you <i>haven’t,</i> he <i>hasn’t.</i> The +construction <i>hadn’t</i> undergoes no change. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Haint, Taint</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Haint</i> is used indiscriminately for <i>haven’t</i> and +<i>hasn’t. Taint</i> is used for <i>tisn’t.</i> Their use is +indicative of an entire lack of culture. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Isn’t</b> +</p> + +<p> +No one need hesitate to use this word. It is smooth in utterance and +contributes much to the freedom and ease of social intercourse. Its equivalent +is too stately for colloquial forms of speech, and is often +<a name="Page122"></a> +suggestive of pedantry. Compare <i>“Isn’t</i> he an eloquent +speaker?” “<i>Isn’t</i> this a beautiful flower?” with +<i>“Is not</i> he an eloquent speaker?” “<i>Is</i> this +<i>not</i> a beautiful flower?” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Wasn’t</b> +</p> + +<p> +Although not so elegant as the present tense form <i>isn’t,</i> yet the +contraction <i>wasn’t</i> is in excellent repute. It is properly used +only in the first and third persons singular. No one who makes any pretension +to culture would be guilty of saying” You <i>was</i> my neighbor, but you +<i>wasn’t</i> my friend,” “We <i>was</i> engaged in trade, +and they <i>wasn’t </i>of any use to us.” Say we <i>were</i> or +<i>were not,</i> but never <i>wasn’t</i> or <i>wa’nt.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Weren’t</b> +</p> + +<p> +The forms <i>aren’t,</i> and <i>weren’t</i> do not have the +sanction of the best speakers and writers, and should be used sparingly, if at +all. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Shouldn’t and Wouldn’t</b> +</p> + +<p> +These are frequently used in speech, but are not so common in writing. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Mustn’t, Mayn’t, Mightn’t, and Oughtn’t</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Mustn’t</i> may be used in light conversation, but not in writing. The +others should be avoided in speech and writing. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page123"></a> +<b>I’m, You’re, He’s, She’s, It’s, We’re, +They’re</b> +</p> + +<p> +The contractions formed by compounding the pronoun with the verb are very +common, and tend to preserve conversation from becoming stiff and formal. Nouns +in the singular are sometimes compounded in like manner; as, +“John’s going by the early train,” “Mary’s caught +a bird.” Not many verbs beside <i>is</i> and <i>has</i> are thus +compounded, and the practice should be discouraged. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Mayst, Mightst</b> +</p> + +<p> +Although <i>mayst, canst, mightst, couldst, wouldst,</i> and <i>shouldst</i> +are contracted forms, the apostrophe is not employed to indicate the +contraction. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Daren’t, Dursent</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Dare not</i> is sometimes contracted to <i>daren’t</i> and <i>durst +not</i> to<i> dursent,</i> but the practice should not be encouraged. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Let’s</b> +</p> + +<p> +While verbs are often contracted when compounded with pronouns, as +<i>it’s, he’s, I’m, you’re,</i> etc., the pronoun must +not be contracted to form a combination with the verb. It may be a poor rule, +but it will not work both ways. <i>Let’s</i> should therefore be <i>let +us.</i> +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="Page124"></a><a name="chap04"></a>CHAPTER IV<br/> +Possessive Case</h2> + +<p> +Some time ago a shoe merchant called upon the writer to know how to arrange the +points in the wording of a new sign that he was preparing to place over his +door. He made a specialty of shoes for men and boys. He presented a paper +containing the lines: +</p> + +<p class="center"> +Men’s and Boy’s Shoes.<br/> Mens’ and Boys’ Shoes. +</p> + +<p> +He was politely informed that both were incorrect; that the two words form +their plurals differently, and that the possessive case is, therefore, formed +in a different manner. The plural of <i>man</i> is <i>men,;</i> the plural of +<i>boy</i> is <i>boys</i>. The possessive of <i>man</i> is <i>man’s;</i> +of <i>men</i> is <i>men’s.</i> The possessive of <i>boy</i> is +<i>boy’s;</i> of <i>boys</i> is <i>boys’.</i> In the latter case we +are obliged to place the apostrophe after the <i>s</i> in order to distinguish +the possessive plural from the possessive singular. All nouns that form their +plurals by adding <i>s</i> to the singular, form their possessive case as the +word <i>boy </i>does. The sign should therefore read: +</p> + +<p class="center"> +Men’s and Boys’ Shoes. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page125"></a> +<b>Singular Nouns</b> +</p> + +<p> +All nouns in the singular form their possessive case by adding the apostrophe +and the letter <i>s</i>; as, child’s, girl’s, woman’s, +bird’s, brother’s, sister’s, judge’s, sailor’s. +</p> + +<p> +When the noun ends in <i>s, sh, ch, ce, se,</i> or <i>x</i>, the additional +<i>s</i> makes another syllable in pronouncing the word; as, James’s, +Charles’s, witness’s, duchess’s, countess’s, +Rush’s, March’s, prince’s, horse’s, fox’s. In +poetry the terminal <i>s</i> is sometimes omitted for the sake of the meter. +</p> + +<p> +While writers differ, the tendency in modern usage is toward the additional +<i>s</i> in such expressions as <i>Mrs. Hemans’s Poems, Junius’s +Letters, Knowles’s “Virginius,” Knox’s Sermons, +Brooks’s Arithmetics, Rogers’s Essays.</i> +</p> + +<p> +By long-established usage such expressions as <i>for conscience’ sake, +for righteousness’ sake, for qoodness’ sake, for Jesus’ +sake,</i> have become idioms. Some authorities justify the omission of the +possessive <i>s</i> when the next word begins with <i>s</i>, as in +<i>Archimedes’ screw, Achilles’ sword.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Plural Nouns</b> +</p> + +<p> +Most nouns form their plurals by adding <i>s</i> or <i>es</i> to the singular. +These plurals form their possessive by adding the apostrophe; as, +horses’, countesses’, foxes’, churches’, +princes’. Nouns whose plurals are formed otherwise than by adding +<i>s</i> or <i>es,</i> form their possessive +<a name="Page126"></a> +case by adding the apostrophe and <i>s,</i> just as nouns in the singular do; +as, men’s, women’s, children’s, seraphim’s. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Pronouns</b> +</p> + +<p> +Sometimes the mistake is made of using the apostrophe with the possessive +personal pronouns; as, her’s, our’s, it’s. The personal and +relative pronouns do not require the apostrophe, but the indefinite pronouns +<i>one</i> and <i>other</i> form their possessives in the same manner as nouns; +as, “<i>each other’s eyes,” “a hundred others’ +woes.”</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Double Possessives</b> +</p> + +<p> +“John and Mary’s sled,” means one sled belonging jointly to +John and Mary. “John’s and Mary’s sleds” means that one +sled belongs to John, the other to Mary. +</p> + +<p> +“Men, women, and children’s shoes for sale here.” When +several possessives connected by <i>and</i> refer to the same noun, the sign of +the possessive is applied to the last one only. +</p> + +<p> +When a disjunctive word or words are used, the sign must be annexed to each +word; as, “These are Charles’s or James’s books.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Possessive of Nouns in Apposition</b> +</p> + +<p> +When two nouns are in apposition, or constitute a title, the possessive sign is +affixed to the last, as +<a name="Page127"></a> +“For David my servant’s sake,” “Give me here John the +Baptist’s head in a charger,” “The Prince of Wales’s +yacht,” “Frederick the Great’s kindness.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>After “of”</b> +</p> + +<p> +By a peculiarity of idiom the possessive sign is used with a noun in the +objective; as, “This is a story <i>of Lincoln’s,”</i> +“That is a letter <i>of the President’s,”</i> “A +patient <i>of Dr. Butler’s,”</i> “A pupil <i>of Professor +Ludlam’s.”</i> +</p> + +<p> +In ordinary prose the custom of the best writers is to limit the use of the +possessive chiefly to persons and personified objects; to time expressions, as, +<i>an hour’s delay, a moment’s thought;</i> and to such idioms as +<i>for brevity’s sake.</i> +</p> + +<p> +Avoid such expressions as, “America’s champion baseball +player,” “Chicago’s best five-cent cigar,” “Lake +Michigan’s swiftest steamer.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Somebody else’s</b> +</p> + +<p> +The question whether we should say “This is somebody’s else +pencil,” or “This is somebody else’s pencil,” has been +warmly argued by the grammarians, the newspapers, and the schools. If some +leading journal or magazine were to write somebody else as one word, others +would, doubtless, follow, and the question of the possessive would settle +itself. The word <i>notwithstanding</i> is composed of three separate words, +<a name="Page128"></a> +which are no more closely united in thought than are the three words <i>some, +body,</i> and <i>else.</i> Two of the latter are already united, and the close +mental union of the third with the first and second would justify the +innovation. +</p> + +<p> +But the words are at present disunited. A majority of the best writers still +conform to the old custom of placing the possessive with <i>else.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“People were so ridiculous with their illusions, carrying their +fool’s caps unawares, thinking their own lies opaque, while <i>everybody +else’s </i>were transparent.”—<i>George Eliot.</i> +</p> + +<p> +Some make a distinction by placing the possessive with <i>else</i> when the +noun follows, and with <i>somebody</i> when the noun precedes; as, “This +is <i>somebody else’s</i> pencil,” and “This pencil is +<i>somebody’s else.” </i>This distinction is not generally +followed. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="Page129"></a><a name="chap05"></a>CHAPTER V<br/> +Pronouns</h2> + +<p> +The correct use of the pronouns, personal and relative, involves a degree of +skill which many speakers and writers fail to possess. The choice of the +appropriate pronoun, the agreement with its antecedent, the proper case form, +are matters that require careful consideration. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Case Forms</b> +</p> + +<p> +Following <i>am, are, is, was,</i> and other forms of the verb <i>to be,</i> +the pronoun must be in the nominative case. +</p> + +<p> +“Are you the person that called?” “Yes; I am +<i>him.”</i> The answer should have been, “I am <i>he.”</i> +</p> + +<p> +“I saw a man trespassing on my grounds, and I think you are +<i>him.” </i>Say, “You are <i>he.”</i> +</p> + +<p> +“It is only <i>me;</i> don’t be afraid.” “It is only +<i>I”</i> is the correct form. +</p> + +<p> +“It was <i>him</i> that struck you, not <i>me.”</i> Change +<i>him,</i> to <i>he,</i> and <i>me</i> to <i>I.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“It might have been <i>him</i> that sent you the present.” Use +<i>he, </i>not <i>him.</i> +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page130"></a> +“It is <i>him whom</i> you said it was.” The sentence should be, +“It is <i>he who</i> you said it was.” +</p> + +<p> +“That was but a picture of him and not <i>him</i> himself.” Say, +“and not <i>he</i> himself.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>After Verbs and Prepositions</b> +</p> + +<p> +When a pronoun depends upon a verb or a preposition the pronoun must be in the +objective case. +</p> + +<p> +“Between you and <i>I,</i> that picture is very faulty.” The +pronouns <i>you </i>and <i>I</i> depend upon the preposition <i>between.</i> +The pronoun <i>I </i>should therefore be in the objective case, and the +sentence should be, “Between <i>you</i> and <i>me,</i> that picture is +very faulty.” +</p> + +<p> +“The president of the meeting appointed <i>you</i> and <i>I</i> upon the +committee.” As both pronouns are objects of the transitive verb +<i>appointed, </i>both should be in the objective case. <i>You</i> having the +same form in the objective as in the nominative is, therefore, correct, but +<i>I</i> should be changed to <i>me.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“The teacher selected <i>he</i> and <i>I</i> to represent the +class.” The pronouns are the objects of the verb <i>selected,</i> and +should be changed to <i>him</i> and <i>me.</i> The infinitive <i>to +represent,</i> like other infinitives, can have no subject, and, therefore, +does not control the case of the pronouns. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Interrogatives</b> +</p> + +<p> +When a question is asked, the subject is usually placed after the verb, or +between the auxiliary and +<a name="Page131"></a> +the verb; as, “Did you go to town?” “Will he sail +to-day?” “Has your uncle arrived?” “Hearest thou thy +mother’s call?” +</p> + +<p> +The object or attribute of the verb, when a pronoun, is often used to introduce +the sentence. “<i>Who</i> should I see coming toward me but my old +friend?” <i>Who</i> should be <i>whom,</i> for it is the object, and not +the subject, of the verb <i>should see.</i> +</p> + +<p> +<i>“Whom</i> do you think that tall gentleman is?” <i>Whom</i> +should be <i>who,</i> as it is the attribute of the verb <i>is.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“<i>Who</i> do you take me for?” Being the object of the +preposition <i>for, who</i> should be <i>whom.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>After “To be”</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I knew it was <i>him”</i> is incorrect, because the word which +forms the pronoun attribute of the verb <i>was</i> must be in the nominative +case. But the infinitive of the neuter verb requires the objective case. +Therefore we must say, “I knew it to be <i>him,”</i> not “I +knew it to be <i>he.”</i> The latter faulty form is very frequently +employed. +</p> + +<p> +“<i>Who</i> did you suppose it to be?” Incorrect. Say, +<i>“whom.”</i> +</p> + +<p> +<i>“Whom</i> did you suppose it was?” Incorrect. Say, +<i>“who.”</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page132"></a> +<b>After the Imperative</b> +</p> + +<p> +The imperative mood requires the objective case after it. “Let you and +<i>I</i> try it.” It should be, “Let you and <i>me</i> try +it.” +</p> + +<p> +“Let <i>he</i> who made thee answer that.”—<i>Byron.</i> He +should have said, “Let <i>him</i> who made thee answer that.” +</p> + +<p> +“Let <i>him</i> be <i>whom,</i> he may.” <i>Him</i> is the +objective after the imperative <i>let,</i> and is correct. <i>Whom</i> should +be <i>who,</i> as pronoun attribute of the verb <i>may be.</i> +“<i>Who</i> he may be, I cannot tell,” is correct. +“<i>Who</i> he may be, let him be,” is also correct. By +transposing, and by omitting <i>be,</i> we have “Let him be <i>who</i> he +may.” +</p> + +<p> +“Let the sea roar, and the fullness thereof; the world, and <i>they</i> +that dwell therein.” When, as in this case, the verb is widely separated +from its object, we need to give particular care to the case of the pronoun +which constitutes the object. <i>They</i> should be <i>them.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Silent Predicate</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Who will go with us to the woods? <i>Me.”</i> The complete answer +would be,” Me will go with you to the woods,” the faultiness of +which is evident. The answer should be “<i>I.”</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>After “Than” and “As”</b> +</p> + +<p> +The objective pronoun is often incorrectly used for the nominative after +<i>than</i> or <i>as</i>. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page133"></a> +“He can swim better <i>than me.”</i> The complete sentence would +be, “He can swim better than <i>I</i> can swim.” The omission of +the verb <i>can swim </i>affords no reason for changing <i>I</i> to <i>me.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“He is no better than <i>me.”</i> Say, “He is no better than +<i>I,” </i>meaning, <i>I am.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“They are common people, such as you and <i>me</i>.” Such people +“as you and I are.” The pronoun should be <i>I,</i> not <i>me.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Parenthetical Expressions</b> +</p> + +<p> +When a parenthetical expression comes between a pronoun in the nominative case +and its verb, the objective is often incorrectly used instead of the +nominative. +</p> + +<p> +“She sang for the benefit of those <i>whom</i> she thought might be +interested.” The explanatory parenthesis <i>“she thought”</i> +comes between the pronominal subject and its verb <i>might be interested.</i> +Omit the explanatory clause and the case of the pronoun becomes clear. +“She sang for the benefit of those <i>who</i> might be interested.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Agreement with Antecedent</b> +</p> + +<p> +A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in <i>gender, person,</i> and +<i>number.</i> The gender and person usually take care of themselves, but the +number of pronouns is a serious obstacle to correct speech. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page134"></a> +“One tells the quality of <i>their</i> minds when <i>they</i> try to talk +well”—<i>George Eliot,</i> in <i>Middlemarch.</i> The pronouns +<i>their </i>and <i>they</i> should be singular. +</p> + +<p> +“Everybody has something to say which <i>they think</i> is worthy of +being heard.” <i>Everybody</i> refers to persons singly, and not +collectively. <i>They think</i> should be <i>he thinks, he</i> being the proper +pronoun to employ when the gender is not indicated. +</p> + +<p> +“Every nation has laws and customs of <i>their</i> own.” The use of +the word <i>every</i> necessitates a pronoun in the singular, hence +<i>their</i> should be <i>its.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“Every one is accountable for <i>their</i> own acts.” Use +<i>his.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“She studied his countenance like an inscription, and deciphered +<i>each</i> rapt expression that crossed it, and stored <i>them</i> in her +memory.” Change <i>them</i> to <i>it.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“Each of them, in <i>their</i> turn, received the reward to which <i>they +were</i> entitled.” This should be “Each of them in <i>his</i> turn +received the reward to which <i>he was</i> entitled.” +</p> + +<p> +<i>No</i> and <i>not,</i> like <i>each</i> and <i>every,</i> when they qualify +a plural antecedent, or one consisting of two or more nouns, require a pronoun +in the singular. +</p> + +<p> +“No policeman, no employee, no citizen dared to lift <i>their</i> +hand” Say, <i>his</i> hand. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page135"></a> +<b>Or, Nor</b> +</p> + +<p> +When the antecedent consists of two or more nouns separated by <i>or, nor, as +well as,</i> or any other disjunctive, the pronoun must be singular. +</p> + +<p> +“Neither spelling nor parsing <i>receive</i> the attention <i>they</i> +once received.” Verb and pronoun should be singular, <i>receives</i> and +<i>it.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Collective Noun</b> +</p> + +<p> +When a noun of multitude or collective noun is the antecedent, the pronoun, +like the verb, must be plural or singular according to the sense intended to be +conveyed. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Ambiguity</b> +</p> + +<p> +Never leave the antecedent of your pronoun in doubt. +</p> + +<p> +“John tried to see his father in the crowd, but could not, because <i>he +</i>was so short.” If the father was short, repeat the noun and omit the +pronoun, as “John tried to see his father in the crowd but could not +because his father was so short.” If John was short, recast the sentence: +“John, being short of stature, tried in vain to see his father in the +crowd.” +</p> + +<p> +“He said to his friend that, if he did not feel better soon, he thought +he had better go home.” This sentence is susceptible of four +interpretations. We shall omit the first part of the sentence in the last +<a name="Page136"></a> +three interpretations, as it is the same in all. “He said to his friend: +‘If I do not feel better soon, I think I had better go +home.’” “If I do not feel better soon, I think you had better +go home.” “If you do not feel better soon, I think I had better go +home.” “If you do not feel better soon, I think you had better go +home.” +</p> + +<p> +“The lad cannot leave his father; for, if he should leave <i>him, he</i> +would die.” To avoid ambiguity substitute <i>his father</i> for the +italicised pronouns. The repetition is not pleasant, but it is the lesser of +two evils. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Needless Pronouns</b> +</p> + +<p> +Avoid all pronouns and other words that are not essential to the meaning. +</p> + +<p> +“The father <i>he</i> died, the mother <i>she</i> soon followed <i>after, +</i>and the children <i>they</i> were <i>all</i> taken <i>down</i> sick.” +</p> + +<p> +“Let every one turn from <i>his or her</i> evil ways.” Unless there +is special reason for emphasizing the feminine pronoun, avoid the awkward +expression <i>his or her.</i> The pronoun <i>his</i> includes the other. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Mixed Pronouns</b> +</p> + +<p> +Do not use two styles of the pronoun in the same Sentence. “Enter +<i>thou</i> into the joy of <i>your</i> Lord.” “Love <i>thyself</i> +last, and others will love <i>you</i>.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page137"></a> +<b>Them, Those</b> +</p> + +<p> +It should not be necessary to caution the reader against the use of <i>them +</i>for <i>those.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“Fetch me <i>them</i> books.” “Did you see <i>them,</i> fat +oxen?” “<i>Them’s</i> good; I’ll take another +dish.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Which, Who</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Those <i>which</i> say so are mistaken.” <i>Who</i> is applied to +persons; <i>which,</i> to the lower animals and to inanimate things. +</p> + +<p> +“He has some friends <i>which</i> I know.” <i>Whom,</i> the +objective case form of the pronoun <i>who,</i> should here be used. +</p> + +<p> +“The dog, <i>who</i> was called Rover, went mad.” Use <i>which.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>What, That</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>That</i> is applied to persons, animals, and things. <i>What </i>is applied +to things. The antecedent of <i>what</i> should not be expressed. <i>What</i> +is both antecedent and relative. +</p> + +<p> +“All <i>what</i> he saw he described.” Say, “What he +saw,” or “All <i>that </i>he saw,” etc. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Uniform Relatives</b> +</p> + +<p> +When several relative clauses relate to the same antecedent, they should have +the same relative pronoun. +</p> + +<p> +“It was Joseph <i>that</i> was sold into Egypt, who +<a name="Page138"></a> +became governor of the land, and <i>which</i> saved his father and brothers +from famine.” Change <i>that</i> and <i>which</i> to <i>who</i>. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Choice of Relatives</b> +</p> + +<p> +Since <i>who</i> and <i>that</i> are both applied to persons, and <i>which</i> +and <i>that</i> are both applied to animals and things, it often becomes a +serious question which relative we shall employ. Much has been written upon the +subject, but the critics still differ in theory and in practice. The following +is probably as simple a statement of the general rule as can be found: +</p> + +<p> +If the relative clause is of such a nature that it could be introduced by +<i>and he, and she, and it, and they,</i> etc., the relative <i>who</i> (for +persons) and <i>which</i> (for animals or things) should be used in preference +to the relative <i>that.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“Man <i>that</i> is born of a woman is of few days, and full of +trouble.” The language of the Bible and of Shakespeare must stand, +although the forms of expression differ greatly from those employed at the +present day. According to modern standards, <i>that</i> should be <i>who.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“The earth is enveloped by an ocean of air <i>that</i> is a compound of +oxygen and nitrogen!” Change <i>that</i> to <i>which</i>. +</p> + +<p> +The relative <i>that</i> should be used in preference to <i>who</i> or +<i>which:</i> +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +<a name="Page139"></a> +(1) When the antecedent names both persons and things;<br/> +(2) When it would prevent ambiguity;<br/> +(3) After the words <i>same, very, all;</i><br/> +(4) After the interrogative pronoun <i>who;</i><br/> +(5) After adjectives expressing quality in the highest degree. +</p> + +<p> +“The wisest men <i>who</i> ever lived made mistakes.” Use +<i>that.</i> See (5). +</p> + +<p> +“He lived near a stagnant pool <i>which</i> was a nuisance.” Use +<i>that. </i>See (2). +</p> + +<p> +“All <i>who</i> knew him loved him.” Say <i>that.</i> See (3). +</p> + +<p> +“Who <i>who</i> saw him did not pity him.” See (4). +</p> + +<p> +“He spake of the men and things <i>which</i> he had seen.” See (1). +</p> + +<p> +“These are my pupils <i>which</i> I have brought to see you.” Use +<i>whom, </i>as <i>which</i> is not applied to persons. +</p> + +<p> +“This is the window <i>whose</i> panes were broken by the rude +boys.” Use “the panes of <i>which.”</i> Because of its +convenience, perhaps, the faulty <i>whose</i> is very largely used; as, +“The eagle <i>whose</i> wings,” “The house <i>whose</i> +gables,” “The ocean <i>whose</i> waves,” “The vessel +<i>whose</i> sails,” “The play <i>whose</i> chief merit,” +“Music <i>whose </i>chief attraction,” etc. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page140"></a> +<b>Which and Who after “And”</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Which</i> and <i>who</i> cannot follow <i>and</i> unless there has been a +preceding <i>which</i> or <i>who</i> in the same sentence and in the same +construction. +</p> + +<p> +“The more important rules, definitions and observations, <i>and which</i> +are therefore the most proper to be committed to memory, are printed +<i>with</i> a large type.”—<i>Murray’s Grammar.</i> In +Moore’s <i>Bad English</i> the sentence is corrected thus: “The +rules, definitions, and observations <i>which </i>are the more important, +<i>and which</i> are therefore the most proper to be committed to memory, are +printed in larger type.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Adverbs for Relative Pronouns</b> +</p> + +<p> +Adverbs are often employed where a preposition with a relative pronoun would +better express the sense. +</p> + +<p> +“There is no method known <i>how</i> his safety may be assured.” +Use <i>by which</i> instead of <i>how.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“He wrote me a letter <i>where</i> he repeated his instructions.” +“Letter <i>in which</i> he repeated,” etc. +</p> + +<p> +“And curse the country <i>where</i> their fathers dwelt.” +<i>“In which </i>their fathers dwelt.” +</p> + +<p> +“This is a case <i>where</i> large interests are involved.” The +preposition and relative will better express the meaning; as, “This is a +case <i>in which </i>large interests are involved.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page141"></a> +<b>Misplaced Relative</b> +</p> + +<p> +The relative should be so placed as to prevent ambiguity, and as near as +possible to its antecedent. +</p> + +<p> +“Mr. Smith needs a surgeon, <i>who</i> has broken his arm.” Say, +“Mr. Smith, <i>who</i> has broken,” etc. +</p> + +<p> +“The figs were in small wooden boxes, <i>which</i> we ate.” +“The figs <i>which </i>we ate,” etc. +</p> + +<p> +“He needs no boots <i>that</i> cannot walk.” “He <i>that</i> +cannot walk,” etc. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Omitted Relatives</b> +</p> + +<p> +The relative pronoun is often omitted when it should be expressed. +</p> + +<p> +“The next falsehood he told was the worst of all.” Say, “The +next falsehood <i>that</i> he told,” etc. +</p> + +<p> +“It is little we know of the divine perfections.” Say, +“Little <i>that</i> we know.” +</p> + +<p> +“Almost all the irregularities in the construction of any language have +arisen from the ellipsis of some words which were originally inserted in the +sentence and made it regular.”—<i>Murray’s Grammar.</i> The +sentence should end with “<i>and which</i> made it regular.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>The one, the other</b> +</p> + +<p> +When <i>the one</i> and <i>the other</i> refer to things previously mentioned, +<i>the one</i> applies to the first mentioned, and <i>the other</i> to the last +mentioned. +</p> + +<p> +“Homer was a genius, Virgil an artist: in <i>the one</i> we most admire +the man; in <i>the other,</i> the work.” +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="Page142"></a><a name="chap06"></a>CHAPTER VI<br/> +Number</h2> + +<p> +Many persons of moderate education regard nouns that do not end with <i>s</i> +or <i>es</i> as singular. Even the gifted pen of Addison once slipped so far as +to betray him into using the word <i>seraphim,</i> in the singular. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Cherubim, Seraphim</b> +</p> + +<p> +The words <i>cherub</i> and <i>seraph,</i> are singular. <i>Cherub, </i>as +applied to a little child, takes the English plural, <i>cherubs.</i> As applied +to an order of angels, it takes the Hebrew plural, <i>cherubim.</i> The +singular, <i>seraph,</i> has an English plural, <i>seraphs,</i> as well as the +Hebrew plural, <i>seraphim.</i> The double plurals, <i>cherubims</i> and +<i>seraphims,</i> although found in the King James version of the Bible, are +regarded as faulty in modern writing, and should be avoided. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>News</b> +</p> + +<p> +Although plural in form, the word <i>news</i> is singular in meaning; as, +“The <i>news</i> from Europe this morning is quite interesting.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page143"></a> +<b>Acoustics</b> +</p> + +<p> +Names of sciences ending in <i>ics,</i> are generally regarded as singular. +<i>“Acoustics</i> is a very considerable branch of physics.” Do not +say, “The <i>acoustics</i> of this hall <i>are</i> good,” but +“The <i>acoustic</i> <i>properties</i> of this hall are good.” +</p> + +<p> +Dialectics, dynamics, economics, mathematics, ethics, politics, tactics, when +used as substantives, require a verb in the singular. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Analysis</b> +</p> + +<p> +Many words like <i>analysis, crisis, ellipsis, emphasis, hypothesis, oasis, +parenthesis, synopsis,</i> form their plurals by changing the termination +<i>is</i> into <i>es;</i> as, <i>analyses, crises,</i> etc. The word <i>iris +</i>takes the English plural <i>irises;</i> Latin plural is <i>irides. +Chrysalis</i> has only the Latin plural, <i>chrysalides;</i> but <i>chrysalid, +</i>which means the same as <i>chrysalis,</i> takes the English plural, +<i>chrysalids.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Terminus</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Terminus, radius, alumnus,</i> and some other words ending in <i>us</i>, +form their plurals by changing the termination <i>us</i> into <i>i</i>; as +<i>termini, radii,</i> etc. +</p> + +<p> +Many words ending in <i>us</i> that formerly were written with only the Latin +plural, are now given an English plural also; as, <i>focuses, foci; cactuses, +cacti; sarcophaguses, sarcophagi; convolvuluses, convolvuli ; funguses, fungi; +nucleuses, nuclei.</i> +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page144"></a> +<i>Isthmus, prospectus, rebus,</i> take only the English plural. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Apparatus</i> has no plural. Avoid <i>apparatuses.</i> +</p> + +<p> +The plural of <i>genius,</i> as applied to a man of unusual vigor of mind, is +<i>geniuses.</i> When applied to a good or bad spirit, the plural is +<i>genii.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Formula</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Formulas, larvas, stigmas,</i> are regular English plurals; <i>formulae, +larvae,</i> and <i>stigmata</i> are the classical plurals. <i>Nebulae</i> and +<i>alumnae</i> are the proper plurals, the latter being the feminine noun +corresponding to the masculine plural <i>alumni.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Datum, Phenomenon</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Datum, erratum, candelabrum,</i> and <i>memorandum</i> form their plurals by +changing <i>um</i> to <i>a</i>; as, <i>data, errata,</i> etc. The last two also +take the English plurals, <i>memorandums, candelabrums.</i> +</p> + +<p> +The plural of <i>phenomenon</i> and <i>criterion</i> are <i>phenomena, +criteria,</i> although <i>criterions</i> is sometimes employed. +</p> + +<p> +The plural forms, <i>data, strata,</i> and <i>phenomena,</i> are so much more +frequently used than their singular forms, <i>datum, stratum,</i> and +<i>phenomenon,</i> that some writers have slipped into the habit of using the +plurals with a singular meaning; as, “The <i>aurora borealis</i> is a +very strange <i>phenomena.”</i> “Our <i>data</i> is insufficient to +establish a theory.” “The <i>strata</i> is broken and +irregular.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page145"></a> +<b>Mussulmans</b> +</p> + +<p> +While most words ending in <i>man</i> become plural by changing this +termination to <i>men,</i> as <i>gentlemen, noblemen, clergymen, statesmen, +</i>the following simply add <i>s</i>: <i>dragomans, Mussulmans, Ottomans, +talismans</i> “A dozen dragomans offered their services as guides and +interpreters.” “A band of Mussulmans cut off our retreat.” +“Those fierce Ottomans proved to be very revengeful.” “He +purchased five finely upholstered ottomans for his drawing-room.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Heroes, Cantos</b> +</p> + +<p> +Most nouns ending in <i>o</i> add <i>es</i> to form the plural; as, <i>heroes, +negroes, potatoes, stuccoes, manifestoes, mosquitoes.</i> Words ending in +<i>io</i> or <i>yo</i> add <i>s;</i> as, <i>folios, nuncios, olios, ratios, +embryos</i>. +</p> + +<p> +The following words, being less frequently used, often puzzle us to know +whether to add <i>s</i> or <i>es</i> to form the plural: <i>armadillos, cantos, +cuckoos, halos, juntos, octavos, provisos, salvos, solos, twos, tyros, +virtuosos.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Alms, Odds, Riches</b> +</p> + +<p> +Many nouns that end in <i>s</i> have a plural appearance, and we are often +perplexed to know whether to use <i>this</i> or <i>these,</i> and whether to +employ a singular or a plural verb when the noun is used as a substantive. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Amends</i> is singular. <i>Assets, dregs, eaves, bees, pincers, riches, +scissors, sheers, tongs, vitals,</i> are plural. When we +<a name="Page146"></a> +say <i>a</i> <i>pair of pincers,</i> or <i>scissors</i>, or <i>shears,</i> or +<i>tongs,</i> the verb should be singular. <i>Tidings,</i> in +Shakespeare’s time, was used indiscriminately with a singular or plural +verb, but is now generally regarded as plural. +</p> + +<p> +<i>Alms</i> and <i>headquarters</i> are usually made plural, but are +occasionally found with a singular verb. <i>Pains</i> is usually singular. +<i>Means, odds,</i> and <i>species</i> are singular or plural, according to the +meaning. +</p> + +<p> +“By <i>this means</i> he accomplished his purpose.” “What +other <i>means is </i>left to us?” “Your <i>means are</i> very +slender, and your waste is great.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Proper Names</b> +</p> + +<p> +These are usually pluralized by adding <i>s</i>; as, <i>the Stuarts, the +Caesars, the Beechers, the Brownings.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Titles with Proper Names</b> +</p> + +<p> +Shall we say <i>the Miss Browns, the Misses Brown,</i> or <i>the Misses +Browns?</i> Great diversity of opinion prevails. Gould Brown says: “The +name and not the title is varied to form the plural; as, <i>the Miss Howards, +the two Mr. Clarks.”</i> +</p> + +<p> +Alexander Bain, LL. D., says: “We may say <i>the Misses Brown,</i> or +<i>the Miss Browns,</i> or even <i>the Misses Browns.”</i> +</p> + +<p> +The chief objection to the last two forms is found when the proper name ends +with <i>s</i>, as when we say, <i>the Miss Brookses, the Miss Joneses, the Miss +Pottses, the</i> +<a name="Page147"></a> +<i>Miss Blisses.</i> The form <i>the Misses Brooks</i> is objected to by some +on the ground that it sounds affected. On the whole the rule given by Gould +Brown is the best, and is quite generally observed. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Knight Templar</b> +</p> + +<p> +Both words are made plural, <i>Knights Templars,</i> a very unusual way of +forming the plural. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Plural Compounds</b> +</p> + +<p> +The plural sign of a compound word is affixed to the principal part of the +word, to the part that conveys the predominant idea; as, <i>fathers-in-law, +man-servants, outpourings, ingatherings.</i> In such words as <i>handfuls, +cupfuls, mouthfuls,</i> the plural ending is added to the subordinate part +because the ideas are so closely associated as to blend into one. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Beaus, Beaux</b> +</p> + +<p> +Some words ending in <i>eau</i> have only the English plurals, as <i>bureaus, +portmanteaus;</i> others take both the English and the French plurals, as +<i>beaus, beaux; flambeaus, flambeaux; plateaus, plateaux;</i> and still others +take only the foreign plural; as, <i>bateaux, chateaux, tableaux.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Pair, Couple, Brace</b> +</p> + +<p> +After numerals, the singular form of such words as these is generally employed; +as, five <i>pair</i> of gloves, eight <i>couple</i> of dancers, three +<i>brace</i> of pigeons, five +<a name="Page148"></a> +<i>dozen</i> of eggs, four <i>score</i> years, twenty <i>sail</i> of ships, +fifty <i>head</i> of cattle, six <i>hundred</i> of these men, two <i>thousand +</i>of these cattle, etc. +</p> + +<p> +After such indefinite adjectives as <i>few, many, several,</i> some of the +above words take the plural form; as, several <i>hundreds,</i> many +<i>thousands.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Index, Appendix</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Indexes</i> of books; <i>indices,</i> if applied to mathematical signs in +algebra. <i>Appendixes</i> or <i>appendices.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Fish, Fly</b> +</p> + +<p> +The plural of <i>fish</i> is <i>fishes</i> when considered individually, and +<i>fish</i> when considered collectively. “My three pet <i>fishes</i> +feed out of my hand.” “Six barrels of <i>fish</i> were landed from +the schooner.” +</p> + +<p> +Most words ending in <i>y</i> change this termination into <i>ies,</i> as +<i>duties, cities,</i> etc. The plural of <i>fly,</i> the insect, is formed in +the usual manner, but fly, a light carriage, adds <i>s</i>; as, “Six +<i>flys </i>carried the guests to their homes.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Animalcule</b> +</p> + +<p> +The plural of this word is <i>animalcules.</i> There is no plural +<i>animalculae.</i> The plural of the Latin <i>animalculum</i> is +<i>animalcula.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Bandit</b> +</p> + +<p> +This word has two plural forms, <i>bandits</i> and <i>banditti.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page149"></a> +<b>Brother</b> +</p> + +<p> +Plural <i>brothers,</i> when referring to members of the same family; +<i>brethren,</i> when applied to members of the same church or society. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Die</b> +</p> + +<p> +Plural <i>dies,</i> when the stamp with which seals are impressed is meant; +<i>dice,</i> the cubes used in playing backgammon. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Herring</b> +</p> + +<p> +The plural is <i>herrings,</i> but <i>shad, trout, bass, pike, pickerel, +grayling,</i> have no plural form. “I caught three <i>bass</i> and seven +fine <i>pickerel</i> this morning.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Grouse</b> +</p> + +<p> +The names of game birds, as <i>grouse, quail, snipe, woodcock,</i> usually take +no plural form. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Pea</b> +</p> + +<p> +Considered individually the plural is <i>peas;</i> when referring to the crop +the proper form is <i>pease.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Penny</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He gave me twelve bright new <i>pennies,”</i> referring to the +individual coins. “I paid him twelve <i>pence,”</i> meaning a +<i>shilling.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Wharf</b> +</p> + +<p> +Plural, generally <i>wharves</i> in America; <i>wharfs</i> in England. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="Page150"></a><a name="chap07"></a>CHAPTER VII<br/> +Adverbs</h2> + +<p> +The clearness of the sentence is often dependent upon the proper placing of the +adverb. No absolute rule can be laid down, but it should generally be placed +before the word it qualifies. It is sometimes necessary to place it after the +verb, and occasionally between the auxiliary and the verb, but it should never +come between <i>to</i> and the <i>infinitive.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“I have thought of marrying <i>often.”</i> As the adverb relates to +the thinking, and not to the marrying, the sentence should read, “I have +<i>often </i>thought of marrying.” +</p> + +<p> +“We have <i>often</i> occasion to speak of health.” This should be, +“We <i>often</i> have occasion,” etc, +</p> + +<p> +“It remains then <i>undecided</i> whether we shall go to Newport or +Saratoga.” Place <i>undecided</i> before <i>then.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Adjective or Adverb?</b> +</p> + +<p> +There is often a doubt in the mind of the speaker whether to use the adjective +or the adverb, and too frequently he reaches a wrong decision. When the +limiting word expresses a quality or state of the +<a name="Page"></a> +subject or of the object of a verb, the adjective must be employed; but if the +manner of the action is to be expressed, the adverb must be used. The verbs +<i>be, seem, look, taste, smell,</i> and <i>feel</i> furnish many +stumbling-blocks. +</p> + +<p> +“This rose smells <i>sweetly.”</i> As the property or quality of +the rose is here referred to, and not the manner of smelling, the adjective +<i>sweet </i>should be employed, and not the adverb <i>sweetly.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“Thomas feels quite <i>badly</i> about it.” Here, again, it is the +condition of Thomas’s mind, and not the manner of feeling, that is to be +expressed; hence, <i>badly</i> should be <i>bad</i> or <i>uncomfortable.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“Didn’t she look <i>beautifully</i> upon the occasion of her +wedding?” No; she looked <i>beautiful.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“The sun shines brightly.” <i>Bright</i> is the better word. +</p> + +<p> +“The child looks <i>cold,”</i> refers to the condition of the +child. “The lady looked <i>coldly</i> upon her suitor,” refers to +the manner of looking. +</p> + +<p> +“The boy feels warm” is correct. “The boy feels <i>warmly</i> +the rebuke of his teacher” is equally correct. +</p> + +<p> +While license is granted to the poets to use the adjective for the adverb, as +in the line +</p> + +<p class="poem"> +“They fall <i>successive</i> and <i>successive</i> rise,” +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +in prose the one must never be substituted for the other. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page152"></a> +<i>“Agreeably</i> to my promise, I now write,” not +<i>“Agreeable</i> to my promise.” +</p> + +<p> +“An <i>awful</i> solemn funeral,” should be “An +<i>awfully</i> solemn funeral.” +</p> + +<p> +“He acts <i>bolder</i> than was expected,” should be “He acts +<i>more boldly.”</i> +</p> + +<p> +“Helen has been <i>awful</i> sick, but she is now <i>considerable +</i>better.” “Helen has been very ill, but she is now +<i>considerably </i>better.” +</p> + +<p> +Do not use <i>coarser</i> for more coarsely, <i>finer</i> for more finely, +<i>harsher</i> for more harshly, <i>conformable</i> for conformably, <i>decided +</i>for decidedly, <i>distinct</i> for distinctly, <i>fearful</i> for +fearfully, <i>fluent</i> for fluently. +</p> + +<p> +Do not say “This melon is <i>uncommon</i> good,” but “This +melon is <i>uncommonly</i> good.” +</p> + +<p> +The word <i>ill</i> is both an adjective and an adverb. Do not say “He +can illy afford to live in such a house,” but “He can <i>ill</i> +afford.” +</p> + +<p> +“That was a <i>dreadful</i> solemn sermon.” To say “That was +a <i>dreadfully </i>solemn sermon” would more grammatically express what +the speaker intended, but <i>very</i> or <i>exceedingly</i> would better +express the meaning. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Such, So</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Such</i> is often improperly used for the adverb <i>so.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“In <i>such</i> a mild and healthful climate.” This should be, +“In <i>so</i> mild and healthful a climate.” +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page153"></a> +“With all due deference to <i>such</i> a high authority on <i>such</i> a +very important matter.” Change to, “With all due deference to +<i>so</i> high an authority on <i>so</i> very important a matter.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Good, Well</b> +</p> + +<p> +Many intelligent persons carelessly use the adjective <i>good</i> in the sense +of the adverb <i>well;</i> as, “I feel <i>good</i> to-day.” +“Did you sleep <i>good</i> last night?” “Does this coat look +<i>good</i> enough to wear on the street?” “I can do it as +<i>good</i> as he can.” The frequent indulgence in such errors dulls the +sense of taste and weakens the power of discrimination. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Very much of</b> +</p> + +<p> +“She is <i>very much of</i> a lady.” Say, “She is very +ladylike.” “He is <i>very much of</i> a gentleman.” Say, +“He is very gentlemanly.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Quite</b> +</p> + +<p> +This adverb is often incorrectly used in the sense of <i>very</i> or +<i>rather.</i> It should be employed only in the sense of <i>wholly</i> or +<i>entirely.</i> These sentences are therefore incorrect: +</p> + +<p> +“He was wounded <i>quite</i> severely.” +</p> + +<p> +“James was <i>quite</i> tired of doing nothing.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page154"></a> +<b>How</b> +</p> + +<p> +This word is sometimes used when another would be more appropriate. +</p> + +<p> +“He said <i>how</i> he would quit farming.” Use <i>that.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“Ye see <i>how</i> that not many wise men are called.” We must read +the Bible as we find it, but in modern English the sentence would be corrected +by omitting <i>how.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“Be careful <i>how</i> you offend him.” If the manner of offending +is the thought to be expressed, the sentence is correct. But the true meaning +is doubtless better expressed by, “Be careful <i>lest</i> you offend +him.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>No, Not</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I cannot tell whether he will come or <i>no.”</i> “Whether +he be a sinner or <i>no</i> I know not.” In such cases <i>not</i> should +be used instead of <i>no.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>This much</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>“This much</i> can be said in his favor.” Change <i>this +much</i> to <i>so</i> <i>much</i> or<i> thus much.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>That far</b> +</p> + +<p> +The expressions <i>this far</i> and <i>that far,</i> although they are very +common, are, nevertheless, incorrect. <i>Thus</i> <i>far</i> or <i>so far +</i>should be used instead. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page155"></a> +<b>Over, More than</b> +</p> + +<p> +“There were not <i>over</i> thirty persons present.” <i>Over</i> is +incorrect; <i>above</i> has some sanction; but <i>more than,</i> is the best, +and should be used. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Real good</b> +</p> + +<p> +This is one of those good-natured expressions that insinuate themselves into +the speech of even cultured people. <i>Very good</i> is just as short, and much +more correct. <i>Really good</i> scarcely conveys the thought intended. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>So nice</b> +</p> + +<p> +“This basket of flowers is <i>so</i> <i>nice.” So nice</i> does not +tell <i>how</i> <i>nice. So</i> requires a correlative to complete its meaning. +Use <i>very nice</i> or <i>very pretty.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Pell-mell</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He rushes <i>pell-mell</i> down the street.” One bird cannot flock +by itself, nor can one man rush <i>pell-mell.</i> It will require at least +several men to produce the intermixing and confusion which the word is intended +to convey. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="Page156"></a><a name="chap08"></a>CHAPTER VIII<br/> +Conjunctions</h2> + +<p> +As a general rule, sentences should not begin with conjunctions. <i>And, +or,</i> and <i>nor</i> are often needlessly employed to introduce a sentence. +The disjunctive <i>but</i> may sometimes be used to advantage in this position, +and in animated and easy speech or writing the coordinate conjunction +<i>and</i> may be serviceable, but these and all other conjunctions, when made +to introduce sentences, should be used sparingly. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Reason, Because</b> +</p> + +<p> +“The <i>reason</i> I ask you to tell the story is <i>because</i> you can +do it better than I.” <i>Because</i> means <i>“for the +reason</i>.” This makes the sentence equivalent to “The +<i>reason</i> I ask you to tell the story is <i>for the reason</i> that you can +do it better than I.” Use <i>that </i>instead of because. +</p> + +<p> +<i>“Because</i> William studied law is no <i>reason</i> why his brother +should not do so.” The following is better: <i>“That</i> William +studied law is no <i>reason</i> why his brother should not do so.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page157"></a> +<b>Only, Except, But</b> +</p> + +<p> +“The house was as convenient as his, <i>only</i> that it was a trifle +smaller.” Use <i>except</i> for <i>only.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“The field was as large as his, <i>only</i> the soil was less +fertile.” Use <i>but</i> for <i>only.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>But, Except</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Being the eldest of the brothers <i>but</i> Philip, who was an invalid, +he assumed charge of his father’s estate.” <i>Except</i> is better +than <i>but.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>But what, But that</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Think no man so perfect <i>but what</i> he may err.” Say, +<i>“but that</i> he may err.” +</p> + +<p> +“I could not think <i>but what</i> he was insane.” Use <i>but +that.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>But, If</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I should not wonder <i>but</i> the assembly would adjourn to-day.” +Use <i>if</i> instead of <i>but.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>But, That</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I have no doubt <i>but</i> he will serve you well.” Say, +“<i>that </i>he will serve you well.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>That, That</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I wished to show, by your own writings, <i>that</i> so far were you from +being competent to teach others English composition, <i>that</i> you had need +yourself to study its first principles.”—<i>Moon, Dean’s +English.</i> +</p> + +<p> +The second <i>that</i> is superfluous. This fault is very +<a name="Page158"></a> +common with writers who use long sentences. The intervention of details between +the first <i>that</i> and the clause which it is intended to introduce causes +the writer to forget that he has used the introductory word, and prompts him to +repeat it unconsciously. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>But</b> +</p> + +<p> +“There is no doubt <i>but</i> that he is the greatest painter of the +age.” The word <i>but</i> is superfluous. “He never doubted +<i>but</i> that he was the best fisherman on the coast.” Omit <i>but.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>That</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He told me he would write as soon as he reached London.” Say, +“He told me <i>that</i> he would write,” etc. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Than</b> +</p> + +<p> +“The Romans loved war better <i>than</i> the Greeks.” Such +ambiguous forms should be avoided. As it is not probable that the speaker +intended to say that the Romans loved war better than they loved the Greeks, he +should have framed his sentence thus: “The Romans loved war better than +the Greeks did.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>But that</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He suffered no inconvenience <i>but that</i> arising from the +dust.” <i>But that,</i> or <i>except that,</i> is correct. Some persons +improperly use <i>than that</i> after <i>no.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“I don’t know <i>but</i> <i>that</i> I shall go to Europe.” +Omit <i>that. “</i>I don’t know <i>but</i> I shall go,” etc. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page159"></a> +<b>Other than</b> +</p> + +<p> +“We suffered no <i>other</i> inconvenience <i>but</i> that arising from +the dust.” This is incorrect. After <i>other</i> we should use <i>than. +</i>Therefore, “We suffered no <i>other</i> inconvenience <i>than</i> +that arising from the dust.” +</p> + +<p> +After <i>else, other, rather,</i> and all comparatives, the latter term of +comparison should be introduced by the conjunction <i>than.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Either the</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Passengers are requested not to converse with <i>either</i> conductor or +driver.” This is one of those business notices that are often more +concise than correct. It implies that there are two conductors and two drivers. +The sentence should read, “Passengers are requested not to converse with +<i>either the </i>conductor <i>or the</i> driver.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Lest, That</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I feared <i>lest</i> I should be left behind.” Use the copulative +<i>that, </i>and not the disjunctive <i>lest.</i> “I feared <i>that</i> I +should be left behind.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Otherwise than</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He cannot do <i>otherwise but</i> follow your direction.” Use +<i>than, </i>not <i>but,</i> after <i>otherwise.</i> Hence, “He cannot do +<i>otherwise than</i> follow,” etc. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>After that</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>“After that</i> I have attended to the business I will call upon +you.” The word <i>that</i> is superfluous. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page160"></a> +<b>But what</b> +</p> + +<p> +“His parents will never believe <i>but what</i> he was enticed away by +his uncle.” Omit <i>what.</i> The use of <i>but that</i> would be equally +objectionable. <i>But</i> is sufficient. +</p> + +<p> +A reconstruction of the sentence would improve it. “His parents will +always believe,” or “Will never cease to believe that,” etc. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Doubt not but</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I <i>doubt not but</i> your friend will return.” Say, “I +<i>doubt not that</i> your friend will return.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Not impossible but</b> +</p> + +<p> +“It is <i>not impossible but</i> he may call to-day.” Use <i>that +</i>instead of <i>but.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Whether, Whether</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Ginevra has not decided <i>whether</i> she will study history or +<i>whether</i> she will study philosophy.” As there is nothing gained in +clearness or in emphasis by the repetition of <i>“whether she +will,”</i> this shorter sentence would be better: “Ginevra has not +decided whether she will study history or philosophy.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>As though</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He spoke <i>as</i> <i>though,</i> he had a customer for his +house.” Say, “<i>as</i> <i>if</i> he had a <i>purchaser,”</i> +etc. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page161"></a> +<b>Except</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I will not let thee go <i>except</i> thou bless me.” This use of +the word <i>except</i> occurs frequently in the Scriptures, but it is now +regarded as obsolete. The word <i>unless</i> should be used instead. +</p> + +<p> +“Few speakers <i>except</i> Burke could have held their attention.” +In this sentence, <i>besides</i> should take the place of <i>except.</i> +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="Page162"></a><a name="chap09"></a>CHAPTER IX<br/> +Correlatives</h2> + +<p> +Certain adverbs and conjunctions, in comparison or antithesis, require the use +of corresponding adverbs and conjunctions. Such corresponding words are called +correlatives. The following are the principal ones in use: +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +as, as.<br /> +as, so.<br /> +both, and.<br /> +if, then.<br /> +either, or.<br /> +neither, nor.<br /> +not only, but.<br /> +not only, but also.<br /> +not only, but even.<br /> +not merely, but.<br /> +not merely, but also.<br /> +not merely, but even.<br /> +so, as.<br /> +so, that.<br /> +such, as.<br /> +such, that.<br /> +though, yet.<br /> +when, then.<br /> +where, there.<br /> +whether, or. +</p> + +<p> +The improper grouping of these correlatives is the cause of many errors in +speech and writing. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>As... as</b> +</p> + +<p> +“She is <i>as</i> wise <i>as</i> she is good.” “Mary is +<i>as</i> clever <i>as </i>her brother.” The correlatives <i>as... as</i> +are +<a name="Page163"></a> +employed in expressing equality. Their use in any other connection is +considered inelegant. <i>“As</i> far <i>as</i> I am able to judge, he +would make a very worthy officer.” This is a very common error. The +sentence should be, <i>“So</i> far <i>as</i> I am able,” etc. +</p> + +<p> +<i>As</i> is often followed by <i>so. “As</i> thy days, <i>so</i> shall +thy strength be.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>So... as</b> +</p> + +<p> +In such negative assertions as, “This is not <i>as</i> fine a tree +<i>as</i> that,” the first <i>as</i> should be changed to <i>so</i>. Say, +“She is not <i>so</i> handsome <i>as</i> she once was.” “This +edition of Tennyson is not <i>so</i> fine <i>as</i> that.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Either, Neither</b> +</p> + +<p> +The correlatives <i>either, or,</i> and <i>neither, nor,</i> are employed when +two objects are mentioned; as, <i>“Either</i> you <i>or</i> I must go to +town to-day,” “<i>Neither</i> James <i>nor</i> Henry was proficient +in history.” +</p> + +<p> +“He <i>neither</i> bought, sold, <i>or</i> exchanged stocks and +bonds.” The sentence should be, “He <i>neither</i> bought, sold, +<i>nor</i> exchanged stocks and bonds.” +</p> + +<p> +“That is not true, <i>neither.”</i> As we already have one negative +in the word <i>not,</i> the word <i>neither</i> should be changed <i>to +either,</i> to avoid the double negation. +</p> + +<p> +A negative other than <i>neither</i> may take either <i>or</i> or <i>nor </i>as +its correlative, “She was <i>not</i> so handsome as her mother, <i>or +</i>so brilliant as her father.” “He was <i>never</i> happy <i>nor +</i>contented afterward.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page164"></a> +<b>Position of correlatives</b> +</p> + +<p> +The placing of correlatives requires care. “He <i>not only</i> gave me +advice, <i>but also</i> money.” This is a faulty construction because the +first member of the correlative, <i>not only,</i> being placed before the verb +<i>gave</i> leads us to expect that the action of <i>giving</i> is to be +contrasted with some other action. The close of the sentence reveals the fact +that the words <i>advice</i> and <i>money</i> represent the ideas intended for +contrast. The first correlative should, therefore, have been placed before +<i>advice,</i> and the sentence should read, “He gave me <i>not only</i> +advice, <i>but also </i>money.” +</p> + +<p> +“I remember that I am not here as a censor <i>either</i> of manners <i>or +</i>morals.” This sentence from Richard Grant White will be improved by +changing the position of the first member of the correlative. “I remember +that I am not here as a censor of <i>either</i> manners <i>or</i> +morals.” +</p> + +<p> +“I <i>neither</i> estimated myself highly <i>nor</i> lowly.” It +should be, “I estimated myself <i>neither</i> highly <i>nor</i> +lowly.” +</p> + +<p> +“He <i>neither</i> attempted to excite anger, <i>nor</i> ridicule, <i>nor +</i>admiration.” The sentence should be, “He attempted to excite +<i>neither </i>anger, <i>nor</i> ridicule, <i>nor</i> admiration.” But +here we have the correlative <i>neither, nor,</i> used with more than two +objects, which is a violation of a principle previously stated. The +<a name="Page165"></a> +sentence is purposely introduced to call attention to the fact that many +respectable writers not only use <i>neither, nor,</i> with three or more +objects, but also defend it. This usage may be avoided by a reconstruction of +the sentence; as, “He did not attempt to excite anger, nor ridicule, nor +admiration.” +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="Page166"></a><a name="chap10"></a>CHAPTER X<br/> +The Infinitive</h2> + +<p> +Many errors arise from not knowing how to use the infinitive mood. Perhaps the +most common fault is to interpose an adverb between the preposition <i>to</i> +and the infinitive verb; as, “It is not necessary <i>to accurately +relate</i> all that he said.” “You must not expect <i>to always +find</i> people agreeable.” Whether we shall place the adverb before the +verb or after it must often be determined by considerations of emphasis and +smoothness as well as of clearness and correctness. In the foregoing sentences +it is better to place <i>accurately</i> after the verb, and <i>always</i> +before the preposition <i>to.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Supply “to”</b> +</p> + +<p> +The preposition <i>to</i> as the sign of the infinitive is often improperly +omitted. +</p> + +<p> +“Please <i>write</i> clearly, so that we may understand,” +“Your efforts will tend to hinder rather than <i>hasten</i> the +work,” “Strive so to criticise as not to embarrass +<a name="Page167"></a> +nor <i>discourage</i> your pupil.” These sentences will be corrected by +inserting <i>to</i> before the italicized words. +</p> + +<p> +In such expressions as “Please <i>excuse</i> my son’s +absence,” “Please <i>write</i> me a letter,” “Please +<i>hand</i> me the book,” many authorities insist upon the use of +<i>to</i> before the verb. The sentences may, however, be regarded as softened +forms of the imperative; as, <i>“Hand</i> me the book, if you +please.” Transposed, “If you please, hand me the book.” +Contracted, “Please, hand me the book.” From this, the comma may +have slipped out and left the sentence as first written. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Omit “to”</b> +</p> + +<p> +When a series of infinitives relate to the same object, the word <i>to</i> +should be used before the first verb and omitted before the others; as, +“He taught me <i>to read, write,</i> and <i>cipher.”</i> “The +most accomplished way of using books at present is to serve them as some do +lords—<i>learn</i> their titles and then <i>brag</i> of their +acquaintance.” +</p> + +<p> +The active verbs <i>bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, see,</i> and their +participles, usually take the infinitive after them, without the preposition +<i>to.</i> Such expressions, as “He bade me <i>to depart,” +“</i>I dare <i>to say</i> he is a villain,” “I had difficulty +in making him <i>to see</i> his error,” are, therefore, wrong, and are +corrected by omitting <i>to.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page168"></a> +<b>Incomplete Infinitive</b> +</p> + +<p> +Such incomplete expressions as the following are very common: “He has not +gone to Europe, nor is he likely <i>to.” “</i>She has not written +her essay, nor does she intend <i>to.” “</i>Can a man arrive at +excellence who has no desire <i>to?”</i> The addition of the word +<i>go</i> to the first sentence, and of <i>write it,</i> to the second would +make them complete. In the case of the third sentence it would be awkward to +say, “Can a man arrive at excellence who has no desire <i>to arrive at +excellence.”</i> We therefore substitute the more convenient expression +“<i>to do so.”</i> +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="Page169"></a><a name="chap11"></a>CHAPTER XI<br/> +Participles</h2> + +<p> +Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, or else are governed by prepositions. +Those ending in <i>ing</i> should not be made the subjects or objects of verbs +while they retain the government and adjuncts of participles. They may often be +converted into nouns or take the form of the infinitive. +</p> + +<p> +“Not <i>attending</i> to this rule is the cause of a very common +error.” Better, <i>“Inattention</i> to this rule,” etc. +“He abhorred <i>being</i> in debt.” Better, “He abhorred +<i>debt,” “Cavilling</i> and <i>objecting</i> upon any subject is +much easier than <i>clearing</i> up difficulties.” Say, “<i>To +cavil</i> and <i>object</i> upon any subject is much easier than <i>to clear +</i>up difficulties.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Omit “of”</b> +</p> + +<p> +Active participles have the same government as the verbs from which they are +derived. The preposition <i>of,</i> therefore, should not be used after the +participle, when the verb would not require it. Omit <i>of</i> in such +expressions as these: “Keeping <i>of</i> one day +<a name="Page170"></a> +in seven,” “By preaching <i>of</i> repentance,” “They +left beating <i>of </i>Paul,” “From calling <i>of</i> names they +came to blows,” “They set about repairing <i>of</i> the +walls.” +</p> + +<p> +If the article <i>the</i> occurs before the participle, the preposition <i>of +</i>must be retained; as, “They strictly observed <i>the keeping of</i> +one day in seven.” +</p> + +<p> +When a transitive participle is converted into a noun, <i>of</i> must be +inserted to govern the object following. “He was very exact in <i>forming +</i>his sentences,” “He was very exact in <i>the formation of</i> +his sentences.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Omit the possessive</b> +</p> + +<p> +The possessive case should not be prefixed to a participle that is not taken in +all respects as a noun. It should, therefore, be expunged in the following +sentences: “By <i>our</i> offending others, we expose ourselves.” +“She rewarded the boy for <i>his</i> studying so diligently.” +“He errs in <i>his</i> giving the word a double construction.” +</p> + +<p> +The possessives in such cases as the following should be avoided: “I have +some recollection of his <i>father’s</i> being a judge.” “To +prevent <i>its </i>being a dry detail of terms.” These sentences may be +improved by recasting them. “I have some recollection that his father was +a judge.” “To prevent it from being a dry detail of terms.” +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page171"></a> +When the noun or pronoun to which the participle relates is a passive subject, +it should not have the possessive form; as, “The daily instances of +<i>men’s </i>dying around us remind us of the brevity of human +life.” “We do not speak of a <i>monosyllable’s</i> having a +primary accent.” Change <i>men’s</i> to <i>men,</i> and +<i>monosyllable’s</i> to <i>monosyllable.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>After verbs</b> +</p> + +<p> +Verbs do not govern participles. “I intend <i>doing</i> it,” +“I remember <i>meeting</i> Longfellow,” and similar expressions +should be changed by the substitution of the infinitive for the participle; as, +“I intend <i>to do it,” </i>“I remember <i>to have met</i> +Longfellow.” +</p> + +<p> +After verbs signifying <i>to persevere, to desist,</i> the participle ending in +<i>ing</i> is permitted; as, “So when they <i>continued asking</i> him, +he lifted up himself, and said unto them.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Place</b> +</p> + +<p> +In the use of participles and of verbal nouns, the leading word in sense should +always be made the leading word, and not the adjunct, in the construction. +</p> + +<p> +“They did not give notice of the <i>pupil</i> leaving.” Here, the +leading idea is <i>leaving. Pupil</i> should, therefore, be subordinate by +changing its form to the possessive; as, “They did not give notice of the +<i>pupil’s </i>leaving.” Better still, “They did not give +notice that the pupil had left.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page172"></a> +<b>Clearness</b> +</p> + +<p> +The word to which the participle relates should stand out clearly. “By +giving way to sin, trouble is encountered.” This implies that trouble +gives way to sin. The relation of the participle is made clear by saying, +“By giving way to sin, we encounter trouble.” +</p> + +<p> +“By yielding to temptation, our peace is sacrificed.” This should +be, “By yielding to temptation we sacrifice our peace.” +</p> + +<p> +“A poor child was found in the streets by a wealthy and benevolent +gentleman, suffering from cold and hunger.” Say, “A poor child, +suffering from cold and hunger, was found,” etc. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Awkward Construction</b> +</p> + +<p> +Such awkward sentences as the following should be avoided. In most cases they +will require to be recast. +</p> + +<p> +“But as soon as the whole body <i>is attempted to be carved,</i> a +disproportion between its various parts results.” +</p> + +<p> +“The offence <i>attempted to be charged</i> should be alleged under +another section of the statute.” The following is a better arrangement: +</p> + +<p> +“But as soon as an attempt is made to carve the whole body,” etc. +“The offence which it is attempted to charge,” etc. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page173"></a> +<b>Is building</b> +</p> + +<p> +The active participle in a passive sense is employed by many excellent writers +and is condemned by others. +</p> + +<p> +“Corn <i>is selling</i> for fifty cents a bushel.” +</p> + +<p> +“Corn <i>is</i> <i>being sold</i> for fifty cents a bushel.” +</p> + +<p> +The commercial world evidently prefers the former sentence. There is a +breeziness and an energy in it that is lacking in the latter. It must, however, +be used with caution. In the following examples the passive form is decidedly +better than the active: “The foundation <i>was</i> <i>being +laid,”</i> “They <i>are being educated,” “</i>While the +speech <i>was being delivered,” </i>etc. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="Page174"></a><a name="chap12"></a>CHAPTER XII<br/> +Prepositions</h2> + +<p> +Clearness and elegance of style are, in no small degree, dependent upon the +choice and right use of prepositions. Many rules have been formulated, some of +which are deserving of consideration, while others are nearly or quite useless. +Among the latter may be mentioned, by way of illustration, the oft-repeated +rule that <i>between</i> or <i>betwixt</i> must invariably be used when only +two things are referred to, and that <i>among</i> must be employed when more +than two are named. While it is true that the order could not be reversed, that +<i>among,</i> when used, must be employed in reference to three or more persons +or things, and that <i>between</i> may always be employed in speaking of two +objects, yet the practice of many of the best writers does not limit the use of +<i>between</i> to two objects. In fact, there are cases in which <i>among</i> +will not take the place of <i>between;</i> as, “I set out eighty trees +with ample space <i>between</i> them.” “The stones on his farm were +so plentiful that the grass could not grow up <i>between</i> them.” +</p> + + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page175"></a> +<b>Between, Among</b> +</p> + +<p> +“The seven children divided the apples <i>between</i> them.” Two +children may divide apples <i>between,</i> them, but in this case it is better +to say, “The seven children divided the apples <i>among</i> them.” +</p> + +<p> +George Eliot, in <i>Middlemarch,</i> says: “The fight lay entirely +<i>between </i>Pinkerton, the old Tory member; Bagster, the new Whig member; +and Brook, the Independent member.” In this case, <i>between</i> or +<i>with</i> is more satisfactory than <i>among,</i> although three persons are +referred to. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Choice</b> +</p> + +<p> +Many sentences betoken ignorance and others indicate extreme carelessness on +the part of the writers by the inapt choice of their prepositions, which often +express relations so delicate in their distinctions that nothing short of an +extended study of the best writers will confer the desired skill. We present +some examples. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>By, In</b> +</p> + +<p> +“We do not accept the proposition referred to <i>by</i> your +letter.” The writer should have employed the preposition <i>in.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Differ with, From</b> +</p> + +<p> +We differ <i>with</i> a person in opinion or belief; we differ <i>from</i> him +in appearance, in attainments, in wealth, in rank, etc. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page176"></a> +<b>Different from, To, Than</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Your story is very plausible, but Henry’s is different <i>to +</i>that.” “My book is quite different <i>than</i> his.” The +adjective <i>different</i> must not be followed by the preposition <i>to</i> or +<i>than. </i>The sentences will be correct when <i>from</i> is substituted. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>At, To</b> +</p> + +<p> +Never use the vulgar expression, “He is <i>to</i> home.” Say <i>at +home.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Preferred before, To</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He was <i>preferred before</i> me.” Say <i>preferred to me.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>With, Of</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He died <i>with</i> consumption.” <i>Of</i> is the proper +preposition to employ. But we say, He is afflicted <i>with</i> rheumatism, or +bronchitis, or other disease. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>In respect of, To</b> +</p> + +<p> +“In respect <i>of</i> this matter, he is at fault.” Better, +<i>“to</i> this matter.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Of, From</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He was acquitted <i>from</i> the charge of larceny.” Acquitted +<i>of </i>the charge. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>In, Into</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>Into</i> implies direction or motion. “They walked <i>into</i> the +church,” means that they entered it from the outside. “They walked +<i>in</i> the church,” means that they walked back and forth within the +church. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page177"></a> +“The vessel is <i>in</i> port.” “She came <i>into</i> port +yesterday.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Of, In</b> +</p> + +<p> +“There was no use <i>of</i> asking his permission, for he would not grant +it.” <i>In</i> asking. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>In, On</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He is a person <i>in</i> whom you can rely.” “That is a man +<i>in</i> whose statements you can depend.” Use <i>on</i> for <i>in.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>To, With</b> +</p> + +<p> +Two persons are reconciled <i>to</i> each other; two doctrines or measures are +reconciled <i>with</i> each other when they are made to agree. +</p> + +<p> +“This noun is in apposition <i>to</i> that.” Use <i>with.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>With, By</b> +</p> + +<p> +These two prepositions are often confounded. They have a similarity of +signification with a difference of use. Both imply a connection between some +instrument or means and the agent by whom it is used. <i>With</i> signifies the +closer relation and <i>by</i> the more remote one. +</p> + +<p> +It is said that an ancient king of Scotland once asked his nobles by what +tenure they held their lands. The chiefs drew their swords, saying, +<i>“By </i>these we acquired our lands, and <i>with</i> these we will +defend them.” +</p> + +<p> +<i>By</i> often relates to the person; <i>with</i> to the instrument. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page178"></a> +“He lay on the ground half concealed <i>with</i> a clump of +bushes.” “That speech was characterized <i>with</i> +eloquence.” Use <i>by</i> in the last two sentences. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>With, To</b> +</p> + +<p> +We <i>correspond with</i> a person when we exchange letters. In speaking of the +adaptation of one object to another, the preposition <i>to </i>should be used +after the verb correspond; as, “This picture corresponds <i>to</i> +that.” <i>With</i> is often incorrectly used in such cases instead of +<i>to.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Position</b> +</p> + +<p> +The old grammarian gave a very good rule when he said, “A preposition is +a very bad word to end a sentence with;” but it is sometimes easier to +follow his example than his precept. In general, the strength of a sentence is +improved by not placing small particles at the end. +</p> + +<p> +“Which house do you live <i>in?”</i> Better, “In which house +do you live?” +</p> + +<p> +“Avarice is a vice which most men are guilty <i>of.”</i> Say, +“of which most men are guilty.” +</p> + +<p> +“He is a man that you should be acquainted <i>with.”</i> Say, +<i>“with </i>whom you should be acquainted.” +</p> + +<p> +“Is this the man that you spoke <i>of?”</i> Better, +<i>“of</i> whom you spoke.” +</p> + +<p> +“These are principles that our forefathers died <i>for.”</i> +Rather, <i>“for </i>which our forefathers died.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page179"></a> +<b>Omission</b> +</p> + +<p> +Prepositions are often omitted when their use is necessary to the correct +grammatical construction of the sentence. +</p> + +<p> +“They now live on this side the river.” Say, “on this side +<i>of</i> the river.” +</p> + +<p> +“Esther and Helen sit opposite each other.” It is more correct to +say, “sit opposite <i>to</i> each other.” +</p> + +<p> +“John is worthy our help.” Better, “<i>of</i> our +help.” +</p> + +<p> +“What use is this to us?” <i>Of</i> what use, etc. +</p> + +<p> +“This law was passed the same year that I was born.” Say, “In +the same year,” etc. +</p> + +<p> +“Washington was inaugurated President April 30, 1789.” Some critics +insist upon the insertion of <i>on</i> before a date, as <i>“on</i> April +30,” but general usage justifies its omission. With equal force they +might urge the use of <i>in</i> before 1789. The entire expression of day, +month, and year is elliptical. +</p> + +<p> +If the same preposition be required by several nouns or pronouns, it must be +repeated in every case if it be repeated at all. “He is interested <i>in +</i>philosophy, history, and <i>in</i> science.” This sentence may be +corrected by placing <i>in</i> before history or by omitting it before science. +The several subjects are individualized more strongly by the use of <i>in +</i>before each noun. This is shown in the greater obscurity given to +<i>history</i> by the omission of the preposition in the foregoing sentence. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page180"></a> +“We may have a feeling of innocence or of guilt, of merit or +demerit.” Insert <i>of</i> before demerit. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Needless Prepositions</b> +</p> + +<p> +Prepositions, like other parts of speech that contribute nothing to the +meaning, should not be suffered to cumber the sentence. +</p> + +<p> +Where am I <i>at?</i> Where is my book <i>at?</i> I went there <i>at</i> about +noon. In what latitude is Chicago <i>in?</i> Where are you going <i>to? +</i>Take your hat off <i>of</i> the table. Where has James been <i>to?</i> They +offered <i>to</i> Caesar a crown. This is a subject <i>of</i> which I intended +to speak <i>about</i> (omit <i>of</i> or <i>about,</i> but not both). She has a +sister <i>of</i> ten years old. Leap <i>in</i> with me into this angry flood. +</p> + +<p> +The older writers employed the useless <i>for</i> in such expressions as, What +went ye out <i>for</i> to see? The apostles and elders came together <i>for +</i>to consider <i>of</i> this matter. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>All of</b> +</p> + +<p> +A very common error is the unnecessary use of the preposition <i>of</i> after +<i>all;</i> as, “during <i>all of</i> this period,” “in +<i>all of</i> these cases,” “for <i>all of</i> the +conditions,” etc. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Up above</b> +</p> + +<p> +In most cases one of these prepositions will be found useless. “The +ladder reached <i>up above</i> the chimney.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>From hence</b> +</p> + +<p> +The adverbs <i>hence, thence, whence,</i> include the idea of <i>from.</i> The +preposition should, therefore, be omitted. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="Page181"></a><a name="chap13"></a>CHAPTER XIII<br/> +The Article</h2> + +<p> +<i>A,</i> which is a shortened form of <i>an,</i> signifies <i>one, </i>or +<i>any. An</i> was formerly used before nouns beginning with either a consonant +or a vowel sound, but now <i>an</i> is used before a vowel sound and <i>a</i> +before a consonant sound; as, <i>a</i> book, <i>a</i> hat, <i>an </i>apple, +<i>an</i> eagle. +</p> + +<p> +It will be observed that <i>an</i> heiress, <i>an</i> herb, <i>an</i> honest +man, <i>an</i> honorable career, <i>an</i> hourly visit, <i>a</i> euchre party, +<i>a</i> euphemism, <i>a</i> eulogy, <i>a</i> union, etc., are not exceptions +to the foregoing rule, for the <i>h</i> being silent in <i>heiress, herb, +</i>etc., the article <i>an</i> precedes a vowel sound, and in <i>euphemism, +eulogy, union,</i> the article <i>a</i> precedes the consonant sound of <i>y. +</i>Compare <i>u-nit</i> with <i>you knit.</i> +</p> + +<p> +In like manner some persons have felt disposed to say <i>many an one +</i>instead of <i>many a one</i> because of the presence of the vowel <i>o</i>. +But the sound is the consonant sound of <i>w</i> as in <i>won</i>, and the +article should be <i>a</i> and not <i>an.</i> +</p> + +<p> +There is a difference of opinion among writers concerning the use of <i>a</i> +and <i>an,</i> before words +<a name="Page182"></a> +beginning with <i>h,</i> when not silent, especially when the accent falls on +the second syllable; as, <i>a</i> harpoon, <i>a</i> hegira, <i>a</i> herbarium, +<i>a</i> herculean effort, <i>a</i> hiatus, <i>a</i> hidalgo, <i>a</i> +hydraulic engine, <i>a</i> hyena, <i>a</i> historian. The absence of the accent +weakens the <i>h </i>sound, and makes it seem as if the article <i>a</i> was +made to precede a vowel. The use of <i>an</i> is certainly more euphonious and +is supported by <i>Webster’s Dictionary</i> and other high authority. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>The Honorable, The Reverend</b> +</p> + +<p> +Such titles as <i>Honorable</i> and <i>Reverend</i> require the article +<i>the;</i> as, “The Honorable William R. Gladstone is often styled +‘The Grand Old Man,’” “The Reverend Henry Ward Beecher +was an eloquent orator,” not <i>Honorable William, E. Gladstone,</i> or +<i>Reverend Henry Ward Beecher.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Article omitted</b> +</p> + +<p> +“A clergyman and philosopher entered the hall together.” +<i>“A </i>clergyman and philosopher” means one person who is both +clergyman and philosopher. The article should be repeated. <i>“A</i> +clergyman and <i>a</i> philosopher entered the hall together.” +</p> + +<p> +<i>“A</i> red and white flag” means one flag of two colors. +<i>“A</i> red and <i>a</i> white flag” means two flags, a red flag +and a white flag. <i>“A </i>great and <i>a</i> good man has +departed.” The verb <i>has</i> implies that only +<a name="Page183"></a> +one man has departed, hence the sentence should be, “A great and good man +has departed.” +</p> + +<p> +“They sang the first and second verse,” should be, “They sang +<i>the</i> first and <i>the</i> second verse.” “The literal and +figurative meaning of words” should be, <i>“The</i> literal and +<i>the</i> figurative meaning of words.” +</p> + +<p> +“In framing of his sentences he was very exact,” should be, +“In <i>the </i>framing,” etc., or, “In framing his sentences +he was very exact.” “The masculine and feminine gender,” +should be, “<i>The</i> masculine and <i>the </i>feminine gender.” +</p> + +<p> +“After singing a hymn, Miss Willard made a stirring address.” If +Miss Willard alone sang the hymn the sentence is correct. If the congregation +sang the hymn the sentence should be, “After <i>the</i> singing of a +hymn, Miss Willard made a stirring address.” +</p> + +<p> +“He is but a poor writer at best.” Say, “at <i>the</i> +best.” “He received but a thousand votes at most.” Say, +“at <i>the</i> most.” +</p> + +<p> +“John came day before yesterday.” Say, <i>“the</i> day before +yesterday.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Article redundant</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Shakespeare was a greater writer than <i>an</i> actor,” should be, +“Shakespeare was a greater writer than actor.” +</p> + +<p> +“This is the kind of <i>a</i> tree of which he was +<a name="Page184"></a> +speaking,” should be, “This is the kind of tree,” etc. +“What kind of <i>a</i> bird is this?” should be, “What kind +of bird.” +</p> + +<p> +“The one styled <i>the</i> Provost is the head of the University,” +should be, “The one styled Provost.” +</p> + +<p> +“The nominative and <i>the</i> objective cases,” should be +“The nominative and objective cases.” +</p> + +<p> +“He made a mistake in <i>the</i> giving out the text.” Say +“in giving out the text,” or, “in <i>the</i> giving out of +the text.” In the latter instance, the participle becomes a noun and may +take the article before it. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Articles interchanged</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>“An</i> elephant is the emblem of Siam,” should be, “The +elephant is the emblem,” etc. “A digraph is <i>the</i> union of two +letters to represent one sound.” Should be, “A digraph is <i>a</i> +union,” etc. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="Page185"></a><a name="chap14"></a>CHAPTER XIV<br/> +Redundancy</h2> + +<p> +We are all creatures of habit. Our sayings, as well as our doings, are largely +a series of habits. In some instances we are unconscious of our peculiarities +and find it almost impossible to shake them off. +</p> + +<p> +The following are verbatim expressions as they dropped from the lips of a young +clergyman in the pulpit. They show a deeply-seated habit of repetition of +thought. As he was a graduate of one of the first colleges in the land, we are +the more surprised that the habit was not checked before he passed through his +college and seminary courses. The expressions are here given as a caution to +others to be on their guard: “Supremest and highest,” +“separate and sever us,” “derision, sarcasm, and +contempt,” “disobedient and disloyal and sinful,” “hold +aloof from iniquity, from sin,” “necessity of being reclaimed and +brought back,” “their beautiful and their elegant city,” +“so abandoned and given up to evil and iniquity,” “soaked and +stained with human gore and blood,” “beautiful and +resplendent,” “hardened and solidified into stone and +adamant,” “this +<a name="Page186"></a> +arctic splendor and brilliancy,” “were being slaughtered and cut +down,” “in the rapidity and the swiftness of the train,” +“with all the mightiness and the splendor of his genius,” +“the force and the pressure it brings to bear,” “has and +possesses the power,” “lights flashed and gleamed.” +</p> + +<p> +The above were all taken from a single discourse. Another peculiarity of the +same speaker was his use of the preposition <i>between.</i> Instead of saying, +“Between him and his father there was a perfect understanding of the +matter,” he would say, “Between him and <i>between</i> his father +there was a perfect understanding of the matter.” +</p> + +<p> +Young writers will find it a valuable exercise to go through a letter, essay, +or other composition which they have written, with the view of ascertaining how +many words they can eliminate without diminishing the force of what has been +written. An article or two from the daily paper, and an occasional page from +some recent work of fiction will afford further opportunity for profitable +practice in pruning. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Widow woman</b> +</p> + +<p> +“And Jeroboam the son of Nebat, an Ephrathite of Zereda, Solomon’s +servant, whose mother’s name was Zeruah, a <i>widow woman,</i> even he +lifted up his hand against the king.”—I Kings xi, 26. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page187"></a> +The expression is now regarded as an archaism, and not to be used in modern +speech or writing. Omit <i>woman.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Why</b> +</p> + +<p> +Many persons have a foolish habit of beginning their answer to a question with +the word <i>why</i>. In some cases it doubtless has its origin in the desire to +gain time while the mind is preparing the answer, but in most instances it is +merely a habit. +</p> + +<p> +Some persons prefix the word <i>why</i> to the statement of a fact or to the +asking of a question. This is even worse than to employ it to introduce the +answer. Restrict it to its legitimate use. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Look at here</b> +</p> + +<p> +This is one of the numerous expressions designed to call the attention of the +person addressed to the speaker. It is both ungrammatical and vulgar. The +omission of <i>at</i> will render it grammatical. “<i>See here”</i> +is still better. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Look and see</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>“Look and see</i> if the teacher is coming.” The words +<i>“look and” </i>are superfluous. “See whether the teacher +is coming” is a better expression. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Recollect of</b> +</p> + +<p> +The word <i>of</i> is superfluous in such expressions; as, “I +<i>recollect of </i>crossing Lake Champlain on the ice,” “Do you +<i>recollect of</i> his paying you a compliment?” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page188"></a> +<b>Settle up, down</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He has <i>settled up</i> his father’s affairs.” “He +has <i>settled down </i>upon the old farm.” <i>Up</i> and <i>down</i> may +be omitted. +</p> + +<p> +“He has <i>settled down</i> to business” is a colloquial expression +which may be improved by recasting the sentence. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>In so far</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He is not to blame <i>in so far</i> as I understand the +circumstances.” <i>“In so</i> <i>far</i> as I know he is a +thoroughly honest man.” <i>“In so far</i> as I have influence it +shall be exerted in your favor.” Omit <i>in.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Pocket-handkerchief</b> +</p> + +<p> +The word <i>handkerchief</i> conveys the full meaning. <i>Pocket </i>is +therefore superfluous and should be omitted. If a cloth or tie for the neck is +meant, call it a <i>neck tie</i> or a <i>neckerchief,</i> but not a +<i>neck-handkerchief.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Have got</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I <i>have got</i> a fine farm.” “He <i>has got</i> four sons +and three daughters.” “James <i>has</i> <i>got</i> a rare +collection of butterflies.” In such expressions <i>got</i> is +superfluous. But, if the idea of gaining or acquiring is to be conveyed, the +word <i>got</i> may be retained; as, “I <i>have got</i> my +license,” “I <i>have got</i> my degree,” “I <i>have +got</i> my reward.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page189"></a> +<b>Off of</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Can I borrow a pencil <i>off</i> <i>of</i> you?” “I bought a +knife <i>off</i> <i>of</i> him yesterday.” Such faulty expressions are +very common among school children, and should be promptly checked by the +teacher. The <i>off</i> is superfluous. +</p> + +<p> +“He jumped <i>off</i> <i>of</i> the boat.” Say, “He jumped +<i>off</i> the boat.” +</p> + +<p> +The young lady appointed to sell articles at a church fair entreated her +friends to “buy something <i>off of</i> me.” She should say, +“Please buy something from me,” or “Make your purchases at my +table.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>For to see</b> +</p> + +<p> +“But what went ye out <i>for</i> to see? A man clothed in soft +raiment?” Matt. xi, 8. “I will try <i>for</i> to do what you +wish.” This form of expression, once very common, is now obsolete. Omit +<i>for.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Appreciate highly</b> +</p> + +<p> +To <i>appreciate</i> is to set a full value upon a thing. We may <i>value +highly,</i> or <i>prize highly,</i> or <i>esteem</i> <i>highly,</i> but the +word <i>highly</i> when used with <i>appreciate</i> is superfluous. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Ascend up</b> +</p> + +<p> +“With great difficulty they <i>ascended up</i> the hill.” As they +could not <i>ascend down</i> the hill it is evident that the word <i>up</i> is +superfluous. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page190"></a> +<b>Been to</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Where has he <i>been to?”</i> The sentence is not only more +concise, but more elegant without the terminal <i>to.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Both</b> +</p> + +<p> +The sentence, “The two children <i>both</i> resembled each other,” +will be greatly improved by omitting the word <i>both.</i> So also in +“These baskets are <i>both</i> alike,” “William and I +<i>both</i> went to Cuba.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>But that</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I do not doubt <i>but that</i> my uncle will come.” The sentence +is shorter and more clear without the word <i>but. “</i>I have no idea +<i>but that</i> the crew was drowned.” Here <i>but</i> is necessary. +Without it the opposite meaning would be conveyed. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Equally as well</b> +</p> + +<p> +“James did it well, but Henry did it <i>equally as</i> <i>well.” As +well</i> or <i>equally well</i> should be used instead of <i>equally as well. +</i>“This method will be equally <i>as</i> efficacious.” Omit +<i>as</i>. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Everywheres</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I have looked <i>everywheres</i> for the book, and I cannot find +it.” This is a vulgarism that should be avoided. Say <i>everywhere.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Feel like</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I feel <i>like</i> as if I should be sick.” The word <i>like +</i>is unnecessary. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page191"></a> +<b>Few</b> +</p> + +<p> +“There are a few persons who read well.” This sentence will be +improved by saying, “Few persons read well.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Help but be</b> +</p> + +<p> +This is an awkward expression which is improved by being reduced to the two +words <i>help being;</i> as, “I could not help being moved by his +appeal.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Kind of a</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He jumped into a <i>kind of a</i> chaise, and hurried off to the +station.” <i>A</i> <i>kind of chaise</i> would be better. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>New beginner</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Mary plays on the piano very well for a <i>new beginner.”</i> If +she is a <i>beginner</i> she must of necessity be <i>new</i> to it. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Opens up</b> +</p> + +<p> +“This story <i>opens up</i> beautifully.” The <i>up</i> is +superfluous. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Seeming paradox</b> +</p> + +<p> +The word <i>paradox</i> alone implies all that the word <i>seeming </i>is +intended to convey, hence <i>seeming</i> is superfluous. “This was once a +paradox but time now gives it proof.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Different</b> +</p> + +<p> +“There were ten <i>different</i> men ready to accept the offer.” As +no reference to the appearance or characteristics of the men is intended, the +word <i>different</i> is unnecessary. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page192"></a> +<b>Rise up</b> +</p> + +<p> +“They <i>rose up</i> early and started on their journey.” <i>Up</i> +is superfluous and should be omitted. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Sink down</b> +</p> + +<p> +“The multitude <i>sank down</i> upon the ground.” As they could not +<i>sink up </i>or in any other direction than <i>down,</i> the latter word +should be omitted. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Smell of</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Did you <i>smell of</i> the roses?” “No; but I +<i>smelled</i> them and found them very fragrant.” “The gardener +<i>smelt of</i> them for he has been culling them all morning and his clothing +is perfumed with them.” The <i>of</i> is superfluous in such expressions +as <i>taste of, feel of,</i> and usually in <i>smell of.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Think for</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He is taller than you <i>think for.” For</i> is unnecessary. +“He is taller than you think” is the contracted form of “He +is taller than you think he is.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Differ among themselves</b> +</p> + +<p> +“The authorities <i>differed among</i> themselves.” The words +<i>among themselves</i> may be omitted. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>End up</b> +</p> + +<p> +“That <i>ends up</i> the business.” Say “that <i>ends</i> (or +<i>closes</i>) the business.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Had have</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Had I <i>have</i> known that he was a lawyer I should have consulted +him.” Omit <i>have.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page193"></a> +<b>Had ought to</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I had ought to have gone to school to-day; I hadn’t ought to have +gone fishing.” Incorrect. Say, “I ought to have gone (or <i>I +should have gone) </i>to school to-day; I ought not to have gone +fishing.” If the second clause is not an after-thought the sentence can +be still further improved by condensing it; as, “I should have gone to +school to-day, and not to have gone fishing.” +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="Page194"></a><a name="chap15"></a>CHAPTER XV<br/> +Two Negatives</h2> + +<p> +The use of two negatives in a sentence is much more common than is generally +supposed. To assume that only those who are grossly ignorant of grammatical +rules and constructions employ them, is an error. Writers whose names are as +bright stars in the constellation of literature have slipped on this +treacherous ground. +</p> + +<p> +A negation, in English, admits of only one negative word. The use of a single +negative carries the meaning halfway around the circle. The meaning is +therefore diametrically opposed to that which would be expressed without the +negative. The use of a second negative would carry the meaning the remaining +distance around the circle, thus bringing it to the starting point, and making +it equivalent to the affirmative. The second negative destroys the effect of +the first. The two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Double Negatives</b> +</p> + +<p> +While two negatives in the same sentence destroy each other, a double negative +has the effect of a more +<a name="Page195"></a> +exact and guarded affirmative; as, “It is <i>not im</i>probable that +Congress will convene in special session before the end of the summer.” +“It is <i>not un</i>important that, he attend to the matter at +once.” “His story was <i>not in</i>credible.” “The fund +was <i>not in</i>exhaustible.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Redundant Negatives</b> +</p> + +<p> +<i>“No</i> one <i>else</i> but the workmen had any business at the +meeting.” Omit <i>else.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“Let us see whether <i>or not</i> there was <i>not</i> a mistake in the +record.” Omit either <i>or not</i> or the second <i>not.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“The boat will <i>not</i> stop <i>only</i> when the signal flag is +raised.” Omit <i>not</i> or change <i>only</i> to <i>except.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“He will <i>never</i> return, I <i>don’t believe.”</i> Say, +“He will never return,” or, if that statement is two emphatic, say, +“I don’t believe he will ever return.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Don’t want none</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I <i>don’t want none,” “</i>I <i>ain’t got +nothing,” “</i>He <i>can’t do no more,”</i> are +inelegant expressions that convey a meaning opposed to that intended. +</p> + +<p> +“I don’t want any,” or, “I do not want any,” or, +“I want none,” are correct equivalents for the first sentence; +“I haven’t anything,” or, “I have nothing,” +should take the place of the second; and, “He can’t do any +more,” or, “He can do no more,” or “He cannot do +more,” will serve for the third. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page196"></a> +<b>Not—Hardly</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I <i>cannot</i> stop to tell you <i>hardly</i> any of the adventures +that befell Theseus.” Change <i>cannot</i> to <i>can</i>. “I have +<i>not </i>had a moment’s time to read <i>hardly</i> since I left +school.” Say, “I have hardly a moment’s time,” etc. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>No—no</b> +</p> + +<p> +“The faculties are called into <i>no</i> exercise by doing a thing merely +because others do it, <i>no</i> more than by believing a thing only because +others believe it,” says George P. Marsh. He should have used <i>any +</i>instead of the second <i>no.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Nothing—nor</b> +</p> + +<p> +“There was <i>nothing</i> at the Columbian Exposition more beautiful, +<i>nor</i> more suggestive of the progress of American art, than +Tiffany’s display.” Change <i>nor</i> to <i>or.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Can’t do nothing</b> +</p> + +<p> +“He says he <i>can’t do nothing</i> for me.” Use “He +can do nothing,” or “He can’t do anything for me.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Cannot by no means</b> +</p> + +<p> +This double negative should be avoided. “I <i>cannot by no means +</i>permit you to go.” Say, “I <i>cannot possibly,”</i> or +“I <i>cannot, under any consideration,</i> permit you to go.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page197"></a> +<b>Nor—no</b> +</p> + +<p> +“Give not me counsel, <i>nor</i> let <i>no</i> comforter delight mine +ear,” says Shakespeare. +</p> + +<p> +“There can be no rules laid down, <i>nor no</i> manner +recommended,” says Sheridan. +</p> + +<p> +“No skill could obviate, <i>nor no</i> remedy dispel the terrible +infection.” +</p> + +<p> +The foregoing sentences may be corrected by changing <i>nor</i> to <i>and.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Not—no</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I pray you bear with me; I <i>cannot</i> go <i>no</i> further,” +says Shakespeare. “I can go <i>no</i> further,” or “I cannot +go <i>any</i> further,” will make the sentence correct. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Nor—not</b> +</p> + +<p> +“I never did repent for doing good, <i>nor</i> shall <i>not</i> +now.” +</p> + +<p> +“We need not, <i>nor</i> do <i>not,</i> confine the purposes of +God.” +</p> + +<p> +“Which do not continue, <i>nor</i> are <i>not</i> binding.” +</p> + +<p> +“For my part I love him <i>not, nor</i> hate him <i>not.”</i> +</p> + +<p> +In these sentences, change <i>nor</i> to <i>and.</i> +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2><a name="Page198"></a><a name="chap16"></a>CHAPTER XVI<br/> +Accordance of Verb with Subject</h2> + +<p> +No rule of grammar is more familiar to the schoolboy than that which relates to +the agreement of the verb with its subject, or nominative, and none that is +more frequently violated. It would be a mistake, however, to assume that the +schoolboy is the only transgressor. Ladies and gentlemen of culture and +refinement, writers and speakers of experience and renown, have alike been +caught in the quicksands of verb constructions. +</p> + +<p> +“This painting is one of the finest masterpieces that ever <i>was</i> +given to the world.” A transposition of the sentence will show that the +verb should be <i>were,</i> and not <i>was. “</i>Of the finest +masterpieces that ever <i>were </i>given to the world, this painting is +one.” +</p> + +<p> +“His essay on ‘Capital and Labor’ is one of the best that +<i>has</i> ever been written on the subject.” The verb should be +<i>have.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“The steamer, with all her passengers and crew, <i>were</i> lost.” +The subject is <i>steamer,</i> and the verb should be <i>was.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page199"></a> +<b>Interrogative sentences</b> +</p> + +<p> +“What <i>signifies</i> his good resolutions, when he does not possess +strength of purpose sufficient to put them into practice?” +<i>Resolutions</i> is the subject, and the verb should be <i>signify.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“Of what profit is his prayers, while his practices are the abomination +of the neighborhood?” <i>Prayers</i> being plural, the verb should be +<i>are.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“What <i>avails</i> good sentiments with a bad life?” Use +<i>avail.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Subject after the Verb</b> +</p> + +<p> +“In virtue and piety <i>consist</i> the happiness of man.” +<i>Happiness, </i>the subject, being singular, the verb should be +<i>consists,</i> to agree with its nominative. +</p> + +<p> +“To these recommendations <i>were</i> appended a copy of the minority +report.” A transposition of the sentence will show that the verb should +be <i>was</i>, and not <i>were.</i> “A copy of the minority report +<i>was</i> appended to these recommendations.” +</p> + +<p> +Whenever the sentence is introduced by a phrase consisting in part of a noun in +the plural, or several nouns in the singular or plural, and, especially, where +the subject follows the verb; care must be taken to keep the nominative well in +mind, so that the verb may be in strict accord with it. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page200"></a> +<b>Compound Subjects</b> +</p> + +<p> +When a verb has two or more nominatives it must be plural. These nominatives +may or may not be connected by <i>and</i> or other connecting particle. The +nominatives may consist of nouns or pronouns, either singular or plural, or +they may be phrases. +</p> + +<p> +“Washington and Lincoln <i>were</i> chosen instruments of +government.” +</p> + +<p> +“Judges and senates <i>have</i> been bought for gold, +</p> + +<p> +Esteem and love <i>were</i> never to be sold.”—<i>Pope.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“Art, empire, earth itself, to change <i>are </i>doomed.”— +<i>Beattie.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“You and he <i>resemble</i> each other.” +</p> + +<p> +“To read and to sing <i>are</i> desirable accomplishments.” +</p> + +<p> +“To be wise in our own eyes, to be wise in the opinion of the world, and +to be wise in the sight of our Creator, <i>are</i> three things so very +different as rarely to coincide.”—<i>Blair.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Singular in Meaning</b> +</p> + +<p> +Nominatives are sometimes plural in form but singular in meaning. Such +nominatives require a verb in the singular. +</p> + +<p> +“The philosopher and poet <i>was</i> banished from his country.” +<i>Was</i> is correct, because philosopher and poet are the same person. +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page201"></a> +“Ambition, and not the safety of the state, <i>was</i> concerned.” +<i>Was</i> is correct, because <i>ambition</i> is the subject. The words, +<i>“and not the safety of the state,”</i> simply emphasize the +subject, but do not give it a plural meaning. +</p> + +<p> +“Truth, and truth only, <i>is</i> worth seeking for its own sake.” +Another case of emphasis. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Each, Every, No, Not</b> +</p> + +<p> +When two or more nominatives are qualified by one of the foregoing words the +verb must be singular. +</p> + +<p> +“Every limb and feature <i>appears</i> with its respective +grace.”—<i>Steele.</i> +</p> + +<p> +“Not a bird, not a beast, not a tree, not a shrub <i>were</i> to be +seen.” Use <i>was</i> instead of <i>were.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Poetical Construction</b> +</p> + +<p> +When the verb separates its nominatives, it agrees with that which precedes it. +</p> + +<p> +“Forth in the pleasing spring, Thy beauty <i>walks,</i> thy tenderness, +and love.”—<i>Thomson.</i> <i></i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Or, Nor, As well as, But, Save</b> +</p> + +<p> +When two or more nominatives in the singular are separated by such words as the +preceding, the verb must be singular. +</p> + +<p> +“Veracity, as well as justice, <i>is</i> to be our rule of +life.”—<i>Butler.</i> +</p> + +<p> +<a name="Page202"></a> +“Not a weed nor a blade of grass <i>were</i> to be seen.” Change +<i>were </i>to <i>was</i>. +</p> + +<p> +“Nothing but wailings <i>were</i> heard.” Transpose. “Nothing +<i>was</i> heard but wailings.” The verb should be <i>was</i>. +</p> + +<p> +“Either one or the other of them <i>are</i> in the wrong.” The verb +should be <i>is.</i> +</p> + +<p> +If, however, one or more of the nominatives are plural, the verb must be +plural. +</p> + +<p> +“It is not his wealth, or gifts, or culture that <i>gives</i> him this +distinction.” <i>Gifts</i> being plural, the verb should be <i>give.</i> +</p> + +<p> +Some authorities say that the verb should agree in number with the subject +which is placed next before it, and be understood (or silent) to the rest; as, +“Neither he nor his brothers <i>were</i> there,” “Neither his +brothers nor he was there,” “Neither you nor I <i>am</i> +concerned.” +</p> + +<p> +Prof. Genung, author of <i>Outlines of Rhetoric,</i> says: “When a clash +of concord arises, either choose subjects that have the same number, or choose +a verb that has the same form for both numbers.” He gives this sentence +to show the change of verb: “Fame or the emoluments of valor <i>were</i> +(<i>was</i>) never to be his.” “Fame or the emoluments of valor +could never be his.” And this sentence to show the change of one of the +subjects: “Neither the halter nor +<a name="Page203"></a> +bayonets <i>are</i> (<i>is</i>) sufficient to prevent us from obtaining our +rights.” “Neither the halter nor the bayonet <i>is</i> sufficient +to prevent us from obtaining our rights.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Collective Nouns</b> +</p> + +<p> +Collective nouns, like <i>army, committee, class, peasantry, nobility, </i>are, +grammatically, singular, but they are often so modified by their surroundings +as to convey a plural idea, and when so modified the verb must be plural. When +the collective noun conveys the idea of unity, the verb must be singular. +</p> + +<p> +“The army <i>was</i> disbanded.” +</p> + +<p> +“The council <i>were</i> divided.” +</p> + +<p> +“A number of men and women <i>were</i> present.” +</p> + +<p> +“The people <i>rejoice</i> in their freedom.” +</p> + +<p> +“The peasantry <i>go</i> barefoot, and the middle sort <i>make</i> use of +wooden shoes.” +</p> + +<p> +“The world <i>stands</i> in awe of your majesty.” +</p> + +<p> +“All the world <i>are</i> spectators of your conduct.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Weights, Measures, and Values</b> +</p> + +<p> +The names of weights, measures, and values, when considered as wholes, require +singular verbs, and when considered as units require verbs in the plural. +</p> + +<p> +“There <i>is</i> twenty shillings in my purse,” meaning one pound +in value. “There <i>are</i> twenty shillings in my purse,” meaning +twenty separate coins, each being a shilling. “Sixty-three gallons +<i>equals</i> a hogshead.” “Ten tons of coal <i>are</i> consumed +daily.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a name="Page204"></a> +<b>Titles of Books</b> +</p> + +<p> +Whether the form be singular or plural, the title is considered a unit, and +requires a verb in the singular; as, “‘The Merry Wives of +Windsor’ <i>was</i> written by Shakespeare.” “Dr. +Holmes’s <i>American Annals was</i> published in 1805.” +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Whereabouts</b> +</p> + +<p> +“The whereabouts of his cousins <i>were</i> not known to him.” The +plural form of this word is misleading. The verb should be <i>was.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>Phenomena, Effluvia</b> +</p> + +<p> +“A strange phenomena,” “A disagreeable effluvia” are +incorrect forms not infrequently met with. Both words are plural, and require +plural verbs and also the omission of the article <i>a.</i> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>You was</b> +</p> + +<p> +This very incorrect form is often employed by those who know better, and who +use it, seemingly, out of courtesy to the uneducated people with whom they are +brought in contact. If it be a courtesy, it is one that is “more honored +in the breach than in the observance.” +</p> + +<p> +Those who use the expression ignorantly are not likely to read this book, or +any other of a similar character, and need scarcely be told that <i>was</i> +should be <i>were</i>. +</p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<h2> +<a name="Page209"></a><a name="chap17"></a>INDEX</h2> + +<p class="noindent"> +A, An, 181.<br/> Aberration of intellect, 87.<br/> A 1,83.<br/> A hundred +others’ woes—Pronouns, 126.<br/> Ability, Capacity, 27.<br/> +About, Almost, 28.<br/> About, Around, 95.<br/> Above, More than, Preceding, +111.<br/> Above, Foregoing, 87.<br/> Above up, 180.<br/> Acceptance, +Acceptation, 28.<br/> Access, Accession, 28.<br/> Accident, Injury, 28.<br/> +Accord, Give, 86.<br/> Accordance of Verb with Subject, 198.<br/> Collective +Nouns, 203.<br/> Compound Subjects, 200.<br/> Each, Every, No, Not, 201.<br/> +Interrogative sentences, 199.<br/> Or, Nor, As well as, But, Save, 201.<br/> +Phenomena, Effluvia, 204.<br/> Poetical Construction, 201.<br/> Singular in +Meaning, 200.<br/> Subject after the Verb, 199.<br/> Titles of Books, 204.<br/> +Weights, Measures, and Values, 203.<br/> Whereabouts, 204.<br/> You was, +204.<br/> Acoustics, Ethics, Politics, 143.<br/> Act, Action, 86.<br/> +Adherence, Adhesion, 36.<br/> Adjective or Adverb, 150.<br/> Adopt, Take, +37.<br/> Adverbs, 150.<br/> Adverbs for Relative Pronouns, 140.<br/> Advise, +Persuade, 52.<br/> Affect, Effect, 37.<br/> After <i>of—</i>Possessive +case, 127.<br/> After <i>than</i> and as—Pronouns, 132.<br/> After that, +159.<br/> After the Imperative—Pronouns, 132.<br/> After verbs— +Participles, 171.<br/> After the verb To be—Pronouns, 131.<br/> After +verbs and prepositions—Pronouns, 130.<br/> Again, Against, 115.<br/> +Aggravate, Exasperate, 37.<br/> Agreeably disappointed, 77.<br/> Agreement with +Antecedent—Pronouns, 133.<br/> Ain’t, 119.<br/> Alex. Melville +Bell, 24.<br/> Alienate, Antagonize, Oppose, 32.<br/> Alighted, Lit, Lighted, +88.<br/> All, Is that all? 108.<br/> All of, 180.<br/> All, Whole, 41, 51.<br/> +Alleviate, Relieve, 37.<br/> Allow, Guess, Reckon, Calculate, 56.<br/> Allowed, +Said, 87.<br/> Allude to, Refer to, 77.<br/> Almost, About, 28.<br/> Almost, +Most, Very, 30.<br/> Alms, Odds, Riches, 145.<br/> Alone, Only, 113.<br/> +Alternative, 87.<br/> Alternation, 87.<br/> Alumna, Formula, 144,<br/> Alumnus, +Terminus, Cactus, 143.<br/> Ambiguity—Pronouns, 135.<br/> Among the +rest, 78.<br/> Among, Between, 175.<br/> Amount, Number, 32.<br/> Analysis, +Crises, 143.<br/> And, To—Try and, 117.<br/> Anglicized Words, 20.<br/> +Angry, Mad, 30.<br/> Animalcules, not Animalculae, 148.<br/> Anniversary, +87.<br/> Answer, Reply, 32.<br/> Antagonize, Alienate, Oppose, 32.<br/> +Anticipate, Expect, 32.<br/> Any, At all, 32.<br/> Anyhow, 81.<br/> Anyways, +Somewheres, Thereabouts, 78.<br/> Apart, Aside, 78.<br/> Apparent, Evident, +33.<br/> Appendix, Index, 148.<br/> Appointed you and <i>I—</i>after +verbs and prepositions, 130.<br/> Appreciate highly, 189.<br/> Apprehend, +Comprehend, 105.<br/> Archimedes’ Screw, 125.<br/> Argue, Augur, 98.<br/> +Around, About, 95.<br/> Articles, 181.<br/> A, An, 181.<br/> Interchanged, +184.<br/> Omitted, 182.<br/> Redundant, 183.<br/> Titles—The Reverend, +182.<br/> <i>As</i> after <i>Equally,</i> 190.<br/> As... as, 162.<br/> As, +Like, 88.<br/> As... so, 163.<br/> As soon as, Directly, Immediately, 77.<br/> +As, That, 70.<br/> As though, As if, 160.<br/> As well as, Or, Nor, But, Save, +201.<br/> Ascend up, 189.<br/> Aside, Apart, 78.<br/> Asparagus, Sparrowgrass, +34.<br/> Assets, Alms, Scissors, 145.<br/> Assure, Promise, 34.<br/> At all, +Any, 32.<br/> At, To, 176.<br/> At you, 114.<br/> Attacked, Burst, Drowned, +108.<br/> Aware, Conscious, 39.<br/> Away, Way, 41.<br/> Awful, 81.<br/> +Awkward construction—Participles, 172. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Back up, Support, 82.<br/> Badly, Greatly, 114.<br/> Bad toothache, 70.<br/> +Balance, Remainder, 60.<br/> Bandits, Banditti, 148.<br/> Barbaric, Barbarous, +98.<br/> Barbarisms, 20.<br/> Beaus, Tableaux, Chateaux, 147.<br/> Beautifully, +Beautiful, 70.<br/> Because, Reason, 156. <br/> Been to, 190.<br/> Beg, Beg +leave, 71.<br/> Beg pardon, Which? 26.<br/> Begin, Commence, 38.<br/> Behave, +60.<br/> Bell, Alex. Melville, 24.<br/> Besides, 49.<br/> Beside, Besides, +108.<br/> Better, Best, 61.<br/> Between, Among, 175.<br/> Between you and +<i>I—</i>After verbs and prepositions, 130.<br/> Black Oxide of +Manganese, 36.<br/> Bombastic Language, 18.<br/> Both, 190.<br/> Both, Both of, +72.<br/> Both, Each, 72.<br/> Bound, 61.<br/> Bountiful, Plentiful, 108.<br/> +Brace, Pair, Couple, 147.<br/> Bravery, Courage, 116.<br/> Bring, Fetch, Carry, +44.<br/> Brooks’s Arithmetics, 125.<br/> Brothers, Brethren, 149.<br/> +Bryant’s list, 16.<br/> Bulk, 82.<br/> Burglarize, 82.<br/> Burst, +Attacked, Drowned, 108.<br/> But, Except, 157.<br/> But, If, 157.<br/> But, +Only, Except, 157.<br/> But, Or, Nor, Save—As well as, 201.<br/> +<i>But</i> superfluous, 158.<br/> But that, 158, 190.<br/> But that, But what, +82, 157.<br/> But that, 157.<br/> But that, Than that, 158.<br/> But what, +160.<br/> But what, But that, 82, 157.<br/> By, In, 175.<br/> By, With, 177. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Calculate, 83.<br/> Calculate, Guess, Reckon, Allow, 56.<br/> Calculated, +Liable, 83.<br/> Calligraphy, 68.<br/> Came across, Met with, 109.<br/> +Campbell’s law, 20.<br/> Can, Could, Will, 115.<br/> Can but, Cannot but, +68.<br/> Cannot by no means, 196.<br/> Can’t and Couldn’t, +120.<br/> Can’t do nothing, 196.<br/> Cantos, Heroes, 145.<br/> Capacity, +Ability, 27.<br/> Carry, Bring, Fetch, 44.<br/> Case forms—Pronouns, +129.<br/> Casualty, Casuality, 68.<br/> Character, Reputation, 44.<br/> +Chauncey Depew and Eli Perkins, 65.<br/> Cheap, Low-priced, 30.<br/> Cherubim, +Seraphim, 142.<br/> Choice of prepositions, 175.<br/> Choice of +relatives—Pronouns, 138.<br/> Choice of words, 15.<br/> Chrysalis, +Analysis, 143.<br/> Chuck-full, 74.<br/> Clearness—Participles, +172.<br/> Clever, Smart, 85.<br/> Climax, 112.<br/> Climb down, 103.<br/> +Collective nouns, 203.<br/> Collective nouns—Pronouns, 135.<br/> +Commence, Begin, 38.<br/> Commenced to write, 107.<br/> Commercial slang, +23.<br/> Commodious, Convenient, 26.<br/> Common, Mutual, 28.<br/> Common +slang, 23.<br/> Complected, 69.<br/> Complete, Finished, Through, 39, 99.<br/> +Compound subject, 200.<br/> Comprehend, Apprehend, 105.<br/> Conclusion, End, +39.<br/> Conjunctions, 156.<br/> Conscious, Aware, 39.<br/> Contemplate, +Propose, 75.<br/> Contemptible, Contemptuous, 52.<br/> Continual, Continuous, +39.<br/> Continually, Perpetually, 52.<br/> Contractions, 118.<br/> Convenient, +Commodious, 26.<br/> Convict, Convince, 40.<br/> Correlatives, 162.<br/> Could, +Can, Will, 115.<br/> Couldn’t, Can’t, 120.<br/> Couple, Pair, +Brace, 147.<br/> Couple, Several, 76.<br/> Courage, Bravery, 116.<br/> +Criterion, Datum, 144.<br/> Crowd, 74.<br/> Cunning, 59.<br/> Cupfuls— +Plural compounds, 147.<br/> Curious, 59.<br/> Custom, Habit, 40.<br/> Customer, +Patron, 93.<br/> Cute, 59.<br/> Cut in half, 98. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Daren’t, Dursen’t, 123.<br/> Data, Strata, 144.<br/> Datum, +Phenomenon, 144, 204.<br/> Deface, Disfigure, 43.<br/> Defect, Fault, 45.<br/> +Degrade, Demean, 43.<br/> Depot, Station, 43.<br/> Description, Kind, 44.<br/> +Didn’t, Don’t, 120.<br/> Dies, Dice, 149.<br/> Differ among +themselves, 192.<br/> Different, 191.<br/> Differ with, From, 175.<br/> +Different from, to, than, 75, 176.<br/> Directly, Immediately, As soon as, +77.<br/> Disfigure, Deface, 43.<br/> Disremember, 69.<br/> Dispense, Dispense +with, 75.<br/> Dock, Wharf, 52.<br/> Don’t and Didn’t, 120.<br/> +Don’t want none, 195.<br/> Double negatives, 194.<br/> Double +possessives, 126.<br/> Doubt not but, 160.<br/> Dreadful solemn— +Adjective or adverb? 152.<br/> Drive, Ride, 76.<br/> Drowned, Attacked, Burst, +108.<br/> Dry, Thirsty, 75.<br/> Due, Owing, 71.<br/> Dursent, Daren’t, +123.<br/> Dutch, German, 75. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Each, Both, 72.<br/> Each, Every, 71.<br/> Each, Every, No, Not, 201.<br/> Each +other, One another, 46.<br/> Each other’s eyes—Pronouns, 126.<br/> +Each... <i>their—</i>Agreement with antecedent, 134.<br/> Effect, +Affect, 37.<br/> Effluvia, Phenomena, 144, 204.<br/> Either, Neither, 47, +163.<br/> Either the... or the, 159.<br/> Elder, Older, 91.<br/> Eli Perkins +and Chauncey Depew, 65.<br/> Ellipsis, Analysis, 143.<br/> Else ...besides, +49.<br/> Else than, Other than, 159.<br/> Emigrants, Immigrants, 78.<br/> +Empty, 86.<br/> End, Conclusion, 39.<br/> Endorse, Indorse, 84.<br/> End up, +192.<br/> Enjoy, 86.<br/> Enjoyed poor health, 36.<br/> Equally as well, +190.<br/> Evacuate, Vacate, 75.<br/> Ever, Never, 72.<br/> Every confidence, +67.<br/> Every, Each, 71.<br/> Every, Each, No, Not, 201.<br/> Everybody +else’s, 128.<br/> Everybody... <i>they—</i>Agreement with +antecedent, 134.<br/> Every once in awhile, 73.<br/> Everywheres, 190.<br/> +Evident, Apparent, 33.<br/> Exasperate, Aggravate, 37.<br/> Except, But, +157.<br/> Except, But, Only, 157.<br/> Except, Unless, Besides, 161.<br/> +Exceptionable, Exceptional, 73.<br/> Excuse me—Which? 26.<br/> Expect, +Anticipate, 32.<br/> Expect, Suspect, Suppose, 110. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Factor, 112.<br/> Farther, Further, 45.<br/> Fathers-in-law—Plural +compounds, 147.<br/> Fault, Defect, 45.<br/> Favor, Resemble, 59.<br/> Feel +like, 190.<br/> Feels badly—Adjective or adverb? 151.<br/> Female, +Woman, 73.<br/> Fetch, Bring, Carry, 44.<br/> Few, 191.<br/> Few, Little, +46.<br/> Fewer, Less, 73.<br/> Fictitious writer, 62.<br/> Fine writing, +8.<br/> Finished, Complete, Through, 39, 99.<br/> Fire, Throw, 78.<br/> First, +Firstly, 62.<br/> First, Former, 61.<br/> First-rate, 62.<br/> First two, +79.<br/> Fish, Fly, 148.<br/> Fix, In a, 53.<br/> Fix, Mend, Repair, 62.<br/> +Fly, Flee, 53.<br/> Flys, Fishes, 148.<br/> Foregoing, Above, 87.<br/> Foreign +words, 9.<br/> Former, First, 61.<br/> Formulas, Larvas, Stigmas, 144.<br/> For +to see, 189.<br/> Frederick the Great’s Kindness—Nouns in +apposition, 127.<br/> From hence, thence, whence, 180.<br/> From, Of, 104, +176.<br/> Funny, 56.<br/> Further, Farther, 45.<br/> Future, Subsequent, 79. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Gent’s pants, 79.<br/> German, Dutch, 75.<br/> Get, Got, 54.<br/> Give, +Accord, 36.<br/> Good deal, Great deal, 57.<br/> Good piece, Long distance, +110.<br/> Good usage, 19.<br/> Good, Well, 158.<br/> Got to, Must, 115.<br/> +Governor, the old man, 97.<br/> Great big, 98.<br/> Great deal, Good deal, +57.<br/> Greatly, Badly, 114.<br/> Grouse, Quail, Snipe, 149.<br/> Grow, Raise, +Rear, 113.<br/> Guess, Reckon, Calculate, Allow, 56.<br/> Gums, Overshoes, 56. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Habit, Custom, 40.<br/> Had better, Would better, 57.<br/> Had have, 192.<br/> +Had ought to, 193.<br/> Hadn’t, Haven’t, Hasn’t, 121.<br/> +Haint, Taint, 121.<br/> Hangs on, Continues, 115.<br/> Have got, 188.<br/> Have +saw, Has went, 114.<br/> Haven’t, Hasn’t, Hadn’t, 121.<br/> +Haply, Happily, 114.<br/> Happen, Transpire, 65.<br/> Has went, Have saw, +114.<br/> Hate, Dislike, 116.<br/> Healthy, Wholesome, 52.<br/> Healthy, +Healthful, 112.<br/> Hearty meal, 98.<br/> He is no better than <i>me— +</i>After <i>than</i> and as, 133.<br/> Help but be, 191.<br/> Heroes, Cantos, +Stuccoes, 145.<br/> Herrings, Trout, Pike, 149.<br/> He’s, She’s, +It’s, 123.<br/> Hey? Which? 25.<br/> Hire, Lease, Let, Rent, 88.<br/> +His, One’s, 50.<br/> His or her—Needless pronouns, 136.<br/> Hope, +Wish, 99.<br/> House, Residence, 43.<br/> <i>How</i> for <i>by which— +</i>Adverbs for relative pronouns, 140<br/> How, That, 154.<br/> Hung, Hanged, +112. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +I am <i>him</i>-Case forms, 129.<br/> Idea, Opinion, 113.<br/> If, But, +157.<br/> If, Whether, 58.<br/> Ill, Sick, 107.<br/> Illy, Ill, 58.<br/> +Immediately, Directly, As soon as, 77.<br/> Immigrants, Emigrants, 78.<br/> +Implicit, 58.<br/> I’m, You’re, He’s, She’s, +It’s, We’re, They’re, 123.<br/> In a fix, 53.<br/> In, By, +175.<br/> In, Into, 85, 176.<br/> In, Of, 177.<br/> In, On, 177.<br/> In our +midst, 84.<br/> In respect of, To, 176.<br/> In so far, 188.<br/> Inaugurate, +109.<br/> Incomplete Infinitive, 168.<br/> Index, Appendix, 148.<br/> +Individual, 58.<br/> Indorse, Endorse, 84.<br/> Infinitive, 166.<br/> +Infinitive, Incomplete, 168.<br/> Infinitive needed—Supply <i>To,</i> +166.<br/> Infinitive unnecessary—Omit “To,” 167.<br/> +Informed, Posted, 86.<br/> Injury, Accident, 28.<br/> Interchanged Articles, +184.<br/> Interrogatives—Pronouns, 130.<br/> Interrogative sentences, +199.<br/> Into, In, 85, 176.<br/> Introduce, Present, 105.<br/> “Is +building,” 173.<br/> Isn’t, 121.<br/> It’s, He’s, +She’s, 123.<br/> It is <i>me—</i>Case forms, 129. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +John and Mary’s sled—Double possessives, 126.<br/> Journal, +68.<br/> Junius’s letters, 125.<br/> Juntos, Heroes, Virtuosos, 145.<br/> +Just going to, 85. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Kind, Description, 44.<br/> Kind of, 85.<br/> Kind of a, 191.<br/> Knights +Templars, 147.<br/> Know as, Know that, 58.<br/> Knowing, 85. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Last, Latest, 59.<br/> Lay, Lie, 69.<br/> Lead a dance, 117.<br/> Learn, Teach, +88.<br/> Lease, Let, Rent, Hire, 88.<br/> Leave, Quit, 83.<br/> Lend, Loan, +88.<br/> Less, Fewer, 73.<br/> Lest, That, 159.<br/> Let it alone, Leave it +alone, 83.<br/> Let, Lease, Rent, Hire, 88.<br/> Let you and <i>I</i> try +it—After the Imperative, 132.<br/> Let’s, 123.<br/> Liable, +Calculated, 83.<br/> Lie, Lay, 69.<br/> Lighted, Lit, Alighted, 88.<br/> Like, +As, 88.<br/> Like, Love, 29.<br/> List of Principal Correlatives, 162.<br/> +Lit, Lighted, 88.<br/> Little, Few, 46.<br/> Little piece, Short distance, +67.<br/> Little bit, 74.<br/> Loan, Lend, 88.<br/> Look and see, 187.<br/> Look +at here, 187.<br/> Lot, Number, 116. Love, Like, 29.<br/> Low-priced, Cheap, +30.<br/> Luck, 84. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Mad, Angry, 30.<br/> Make, Manufacture, 65.<br/> Make way with, 84.<br/> +Mayn’t, Mustn’t, Mightn’t, Oughtn’t, 122.<br/> Mayst, +Mightest, 123.<br/> Means, Alms, Headquarters, 146.<br/> Measures, Weights, +Values, 203.<br/> Memorandum, Datum, 144.<br/> Mend, Fix, Repair, 62.<br/> +Mention, Allude to, Refer to, 77.<br/> Men’s and boys’ shoes, +124.<br/> Men, women, and children’s shoes—Double possessives, +126.<br/> Met with, Came across, 109.<br/> Mightn’t, Mustn’t, +Mayn’t, Oughtn’t, 122.<br/> Mightst, Mayst, 123.<br/> Mighty, Very, +104.<br/> Misplaced relatives—Pronouns, 141.<br/> Mixed pronouns, +136.<br/> More than, Above, Preceding, 111.<br/> More than, Over, 155.<br/> +More, Worse, 42.<br/> Mosquitoes, Heroes, Halos, 145.<br/> Most, Almost, Very, +30.<br/> Musselmans, Dragomans, 145.<br/> Mustn’t, Mayn’t, +Mightn’t, and Oughtn’t, 122.<br/> Mutual, Common, 28.<br/> Myself, +29. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Nasty, Nice, 89.<br/> Near, Nearly, 89.<br/> Need, Want, 40.<br/> Needless +Articles, 183.<br/> Needless Prepositions, 180.<br/> Needless Pronouns, +136.<br/> Negatives, 194.<br/> Negligence, Neglect, 29.<br/> Neighborhood, +Region, 42.<br/> Neither, Either, 47, 163.<br/> Neither... nor, Either, +163.<br/> Never, Ever, 72.<br/> Never... nor (or or), Either, 163.<br/> Never, +Not, 29.<br/> News, 142.<br/> New beginner, 191.<br/> New Words, 21.<br/> Nice, +Nasty, 89.<br/> Nicely, 89.<br/> No, Each, Every, Not, 201.<br/> No... no, 154, +196.<br/> No, Not, 154.<br/> No good, No use, 89.<br/> No more than I could +help, 111.<br/> No use, No good, 89.<br/> Nor... no, 197.<br/> Nor, Or— +Pronouns, 135.<br/> Nor, Or, As well as, But, Save, 201.<br/> Nor... not, +197.<br/> None, Singular or plural, 51.<br/> Not... hardly, 196.<br/> Not +impossible but, 160.<br/> Not... neither, Either, 163.<br/> Not, Never, +29.<br/> Not... or (or <i>nor),</i> Either, 163.<br/> Not... no, 197.<br/> +Noted, Notorious, 94.<br/> Nothing like, 94.<br/> Nothing... nor, 196.<br/> +Notorious, Noted, 94.<br/> Nouns in Apposition—Possessive Case 126.<br/> +Nouns, Plural-Possessive Case, 125.<br/> Nouns, Singular—Possessive +Case, 125.<br/> Nowhere near so, 94.<br/> Nucleus, Terminus, Fungus, 143.<br/> +Number, 142.<br/> Number, Amount, 32.<br/> Number, Lot, 116.<br/> Number, +Quantity, 38. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +O, Oh, 90.<br/> Observe, Say, 90.<br/> Obsolete Words, 20.<br/> Odds, Alms, +Riches, 145.<br/> Of any, Of all, 90.<br/> Of, From, 104,176.<br/> Of, In, +177.<br/> “Of” redundant, 169.<br/> Of, With, 176.<br/> Off of, +189.<br/> Older, Elder, 91.<br/> Omission of Article, 182.<br/> Omit the +Possessive, 170.<br/> Omission of Preposition, 179.<br/> Omit “Of,” +169.<br/> Omit “To,” 167.<br/> Omitted Relatives—Pronouns, +141.<br/> On, Over, Upon, 104.<br/> One another, Each other, 46.<br/> One... +they—Agreement with Antecedent, 134.<br/> One’s, His, 50.<br/> +Only, 91.<br/> Only, Alone, 113.<br/> Only, Except, But, 157.<br/> Onto, Upon, +92.<br/> Opens up, 191.<br/> Opinion, Idea, 113.<br/> Oppose, antagonize, +Alienate, 32.<br/> Or. Nor, As well as, But, Save, 201.<br/> Or, Nor— +Pronouns, 135.<br/> Other, 49.<br/> Other... besides, 49.<br/> Other than, +159.<br/> Other than, Otherwise than, 48.<br/> Otherwise than, Otherwise but, +159.<br/> Ottomans, Mussulmans, 145.<br/> Ought, Should, Would, 102.<br/> +Oughtn’t, Mustn’t, Mayn’t, Mightn’t, 122.<br/> +Outstart, 92.<br/> Over and Above, More than, 92.<br/> Over, More than, +155.<br/> Over, On, Upon, 104.<br/> Over with, 110.<br/> Overflown, Overflowed, +110.<br/> Overlook, Oversee, 95.<br/> Overshoes, Gums, 56.<br/> Overworked +Expressions, 13.<br/> Owing, Due, 71.<br/> Oxide of Manganese, Black, 36. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Pair, Couple, Brace, 147.<br/> Pants, Gent’s, 79.<br/> Pappy, the Old +Man, 97.<br/> Parenthetical Expressions—Pronouns, 133.<br/> Part, +Portion, 30.<br/> Partake, Ate, 105.<br/> Participles, 169,<br/> After Verbs, +171.<br/> Awkward Construction, 172.<br/> Clearness, 172.<br/> “Is +building,” 173.<br/> “Of” redundant, 169.<br/> Omit the +Possessive, 170.<br/> Place of, 171.<br/> Party, Person, 93.<br/> Patron, +Customer, 93.<br/> Peas, Pease, 149.<br/> Pell-mell, 155.<br/> Pennies, Pence, +149.<br/> Per, 93.<br/> Peradventure, Perchance, 93.<br/> Performers, 93. <br/> +Period, Point, 94.<br/> Perpetually, Continually, 52.<br/> Person, Party, +93.<br/> Perspire, Sweat, 86.<br/> Persuade, Advise, 52.<br/> Peruse, 78.<br/> +Pet Words, 12.<br/> Phenomena, Data, Effluvia, 144, 204.<br/> Place of +Participles, 171.<br/> Plead, Pleaded, 94.<br/> Plenty, Plentiful, 95.<br/> +Plural Compounds, 147.<br/> Plural Nouns, 125.<br/> Pocket-handkerchief, +188.<br/> Poet, Poetess, 73.<br/> Poetic Terms, 9.<br/> Poetical Construction, +201.<br/> Point, Period, 94.<br/> Politics, Acoustics, Ethics, 143.<br/> +Portion, Part, 30.<br/> Position of Correlatives, 164.<br/> Position of +Preposition, 178.<br/> Possessive Case, 124.<br/> After of, 127.<br/> Double +possessives, 126.<br/> Nouns, Singular, 125.<br/> ” Plural, 125.<br/> +” in apposition, 126.<br/> Pronouns, 126.<br/> Somebody else’s, +127.<br/> Postal, 31.<br/> Posted, Informed, 86.<br/> Powerful sight, 105.<br/> +Practical, Practicable, 31.<br/> Preceding, Above, More than, 111.<br/> +Predicate, 31.<br/> Prefer than, 31.<br/> Preferred before, to, 176.<br/> +Prejudice, 33.<br/> Prepositions, 174.<br/> All of, 180.<br/> At, To, 176.<br/> +Between, Among, 175.<br/> By, In, 175.<br/> Choice, 175.<br/> Differ with, +from, 175.<br/> Different from, to, than, 176.<br/> From hence, 180.<br/> In, +Into, 176.<br/> In, On, 177.<br/> In respect of, to, 176.<br/> Needless +prepositions, 180.<br/> Of, In, 177.<br/> Of, From, 176.<br/> Omission of +prepositions, 179.<br/> Position, 178.<br/> Preferred before, to, 176.<br/> To, +With, 177.<br/> Up above, 180.<br/> With, By, 177.<br/> With, Of, 176.<br/> +With, To, 178.<br/> Present, Introduce, 105.<br/> Presume, Think, Believe, +33.<br/> Pretend, Profess, 33.<br/> Pretty, Very, 116.<br/> Preventative, +Preventive, 33.<br/> Previous, Previously, 33.<br/> Profess, Pretend, 33.<br/> +Promise, Assure, 34.<br/> Pronouns, 129.<br/> Adverbs for Relative Pronouns, +140.<br/> After <i>than</i> and as, 132.<br/> ” the Imperative, +132.<br/> ” To be, 131.<br/> ” Verbs and Prepositions, 130.<br/> +Agreement with Antecedent, 133.<br/> Ambiguity, 135.<br/> Case Forms, 129.<br/> +Choice of Relatives, 138.<br/> Collective Nouns, 135.<br/> Interrogatives, +130.<br/> Misplaced Relatives, 141.<br/> Mixed, 136.<br/> Needless, 136.<br/> +Omitted Relatives, 141.<br/> Or, Nor, 135.<br/> Parenthetical expressions, +133.<br/> Silent Predicate, 132.<br/> The one, the other, 141.<br/> Uniform +Relatives, 137.<br/> <i> Which</i> and who after and, 140.<br/> +Pronouns—Possessive Case, 126.<br/> Pronouns—Personal and +Relative, 129.<br/> Proper Names—Plurals, 146.<br/> Propose, Purpose, +34.<br/> Proposal, Proposition, 37.<br/> Propose, Contemplate, 75.<br/> +Prospectus, Terminus, Apparatus, 148.<br/> Proved, Proven, 38.<br/> Providing, +Provided, 37.<br/> Provincialisms, 24.<br/> Pupil, Scholar, 107.<br/> Purity of +Diction, 19.<br/> Purpose, Propose, 34. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Quail, Grouse, Woodcock, 149.<br/> Quantity, Number, 38.<br/> Quite, Very, +Rather, 153.<br/> Quite a few, 38.<br/> Quit, Leave, 83. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Raise, Grow, Rear, 113.<br/> Rarely, Rare, 42.<br/> Rather than, Other than, +159.<br/> Real, Really, 42.<br/> Real good, 155.<br/> Rear, Raise, Grow, +113.<br/> Reason, Because, 156.<br/> Receipt, Recipe, 42.<br/> Reckon, Guess, +Calculate, Allow, 56.<br/> Recollect of, 187.<br/> Redundancy, 185.<br/> +Redundant Article, 183.<br/> Redundant Negatives, 195.<br/> Refer to, Allude +to, 77.<br/> Region, Neighborhood, 42.<br/> Relieve, Alleviate, 37.<br/> +Remainder, Balance, 60.<br/> Remit, Send, 43.<br/> Rent, Lease, Let, Hire, +88.<br/> Repair, Fix, Mend, 62.<br/> Reply, Answer, 32.<br/> Reputation, +Character, 44.<br/> Requisite, Requisition, Requirement, 106.<br/> Resemble, +Favor, 59.<br/> Residence, House, 43.<br/> Restaurant French, 10.<br/> +Revolting, 96.<br/> Reverend, 182.<br/> Riches, Alms, Odds, 145.<br/> Ride, +Drive, 76.<br/> Right, Right here, Just here, 99.<br/> Right smart, 73.<br/> +Rise up, 192.<br/> Round, Square, 63. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Said, Allowed, 87.<br/> Same as, Same that, 105.<br/> Save, But, Or, Nor, As +well as, 201.<br/> Say, Observe, 90.<br/> Says, States, 63.<br/> Scholar, +Pupil, 107.<br/> Section, Region, 106.<br/> Seeming Paradox, 191.<br/> Seldom +or ever, 106.<br/> Send, Remit, 43.<br/> Seraphim, Cherubim, 142.<br/> Set, +Sit, 80.<br/> Settle up, down, 188.<br/> Several, Couple, 76.<br/> Sewage, +Sewerage, 106.<br/> Shall, Will, Should, Would, 100.<br/> Shall you? Will you? +102.<br/> She’s, He’s, It’s, 123.<br/> Should, Would, Ought, +102.<br/> Should, Would, Shall, Will, 100.<br/> Shouldn’t and +Wouldn’t, 122.<br/> Sick, Ill, 107.<br/> Sight, Many, 74.<br/> Silent +Predicate—Pronouns, 132.<br/> Single, The first, 79.<br/> Singular +Nouns, 125.<br/> Singular in Meaning, 201.<br/> Sink down, 192.<br/> Sit, Set, +80.<br/> Slang, 22.<br/> Slang, Commercial, Common, and Society, 23.<br/> +Smart, Clever, 85.<br/> Smell of, 192.<br/> Smells sweetly—Adjective or +Adverb? 151.<br/> Sociable, Social, 106.<br/> Society Slang, 23.<br/> So... as, +163.<br/> So far, That far, 154.<br/> So nice, 155.<br/> So, Such, 152.<br/> +Solos, Heroes, Octavos, 145.<br/> Some better, 98.<br/> Some means or another, +48.<br/> Somebody else’s, 127.<br/> Somewheres, Anyways, Thereabouts, +78.<br/> Sparrowgrass, Asparagus, 34.<br/> Specialty, Speciality, 106.<br/> +Square, Round, 63.<br/> Stand a chance, 110.<br/> States, Says, 63.<br/> +Station, Depot, 43.<br/> Stay, Stop, 63.<br/> Stilts, 18.<br/> Stop, Stay, +63.<br/> Strata, Data, 144.<br/> Subject after the verb, 199.<br/> Subsequent, +Future, 79.<br/> Subtile, Subtle, 63.<br/> Such as you and <i>me— +</i>After than and as, 133.<br/> Such, So, 152.<br/> Summerish, Winterish, +99.<br/> Summons, 64.<br/> Supply “To,” 166.<br/> Support, Back up, +82.<br/> Sweat, Perspire, 86. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Tableaux, Beaus, Plateaus, 147.<br/> Tactics, Acoustics, 143.<br/> Taint, +Haint, 121.<br/> Take, Adopt, 37.<br/> Talented, 103.<br/> Taste, 7.<br/> +Tasty, Tasteful, 64.<br/> Team, 64.<br/> Teach, Learn, 88.<br/> Terminus, +Radius, Focus, 143.<br/> Than, 48.<br/> <i>Than</i> ambiguous, 158.<br/> +Thanks, I thank you, 115.<br/> That, As, 70.<br/> That, But, 157.<br/> That +far, Thus far, 154.<br/> That, Lest, 159.<br/> That omitted, 158.<br/> That, +that, 157.<br/> The father he died—Needless pronouns, 136.<br/> The +first, Single, 79.<br/> The Honorable, the Reverend, 182.<br/> The Infinitive, +166.<br/> The Miss Browns—Titles, 146.<br/> The Old Man, 97.<br/> The +one, the other—Pronouns, 141.<br/> Them books, 137.<br/> Thereabouts, +Somewheres, Any ways, 78.<br/> These kind, Those kind, 47.<br/> These sort, +Those kind, 64.<br/> These, Those, 62.<br/> They’re, We’re, +You’re, 123.<br/> Think for, 192.<br/> Thirsty, Dry, 75.<br/> This much, +154.<br/> This twenty years, These kind, 47.<br/> Those kind, These sort, +64.<br/> Through, Finished, Complete, 39, 99.<br/> Throw, Fire, 78.<br/> Titles +of Books, 204.<br/> Titles—The Reverend, the Honorable, 182.<br/> Titles +with Proper Names, 146.<br/> To always find—The Infinitive, 166.<br/> +To, With, 177, 178.<br/> To, At, 176.<br/> Transpire, Happen, 65.<br/> Trite +Expressions, 12.<br/> Truth, Veracity, 67.<br/> Try and, Try to, 117.<br/> Try +the experiment, 67.<br/> Two foot, These kind, 48.<br/> Two Negatives, 194. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Ugly, 67.<br/> Unbeknown, 68.<br/> Underhanded, 68.<br/> Under the weather, +Ill, 115.<br/> Unexampled, 96.<br/> Uniform Relatives—Pronouns, +137.<br/> Unless, Without, 41.<br/> Up above, 180.<br/> Upon, On, Over, +104.<br/> Utter, Express, 96. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Vacate, Evacuate, 75.<br/> Valuable, Valued, 97.<br/> Values, Weights, +Measures, 203.<br/> Veracity, Truth, 67.<br/> Very, Most, Almost, 30.<br/> Very +much of, 153.<br/> Very pleased, 97.<br/> Very, Pretty, 116.<br/> Very Vulgar +Vulgarisms, 13.<br/> Vicinity, Neighborhood, 97.<br/> Vulgarisms, 13. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Want, Need, 40.<br/> Wasn’t, 122.<br/> Way, Away, 41.<br/> Ways, way, +41.<br/> Weights, Measures, and Values, 203.<br/> Well, Good, 153.<br/> +Weren’t, 122.<br/> We’re, They’re, You’re, 123.<br/> +Wharf, Dock, 52.<br/> Wharf, Wharves, 149.<br/> What for <i>that,</i> 137.<br/> +What? Which? Hey? 25.<br/> Whereabouts, 204.<br/> <i>Where</i> for <i>in +which—</i>Adverbs for Relative Pronouns, 140.<br/> Whether, If, 58.<br/> +Whether... Whether, 160.<br/> Which? 25.<br/> Which? Beg pardon, 25.<br/> Which +for <i>who,</i> 137.<br/> Which? What? 25.<br/> Which and <i>who</i> after +<i>and—</i>Pronouns, 140.<br/> Who should I see—Interrogatives, +131.<br/> Whole, All, 41, 51.<br/> Wholesome, Healthy, 52.<br/> <i>Whom</i> do +you think he is—Interrogatives, 131.<br/> Why, 187.<br/> Widow woman, +186.<br/> Will, Could, Can, 115.<br/> Will, Shall, Should, Would, 100.<br/> +Will you? Shall you? 102.<br/> Winterish, Summerish, 99.<br/> Wish, Hope, +99.<br/> With, By, 177.<br/> With, Of, 176.<br/> With, To, 177, 178.<br/> +Without, Unless, 41.<br/> Woman, Female, 73.<br/> Words, Anglicized, 20.<br/> +Words Improperly Used, 26.<br/> Words, New, 21.<br/> Words, Obsolete. 20.<br/> +Words to be avoided, 18.<br/> Worse, More, 42.<br/> Would better, Had better, +57.<br/> Would Should, Ought, 102.<br/> Would, Should, Shall, Will, 100.<br/> +Wouldn’t, Shouldn’t, 122. +</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +You are <i>him—</i>Case Forms, 129.<br/> You’re, We’re, +They’re, 123.<br/> You was, 204. +</p> + +<hr /> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + +<p class="center"> +<i>Popular Handbooks</i> +</p> + +<hr /> + +<p> +Some books are designed for entertainment, others for information. This series +combines both features. The information is not only complete and reliable, it +is compact and readable. In this busy, bustling age it is required that the +information which books contain shall be ready to hand and presented in the +clearest and briefest manner possible. These volumes are replete with valuable +information, compact in form and unequalled in point of merit and cheapness. +They are the latest as well as the best books on the subjects of which they +treat. No one wishing to have a fund of general information or who has the +desire for self-improvement can afford to be without them. +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b><i>Cloth, each, 50 Cents</i></b> +</p> + +<hr /> + +<p> +<b><i>The Penn Publishing Company</i></b> +</p> + +<p> +<b><i>923 ARCH STREET PHILADELPHIA</i></b> +</p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="center"> +<b>ETIQUETTE</b> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>By Agnes H. Morton</b> +</p> + +<p> +There is no passport to good society like good manners. Even though a person +possess wealth and intelligence, his success in life may be marred by ignorance +of social customs. A perusal of this book will prevent such blunders. It is a +book for everybody, for the select sets as well as for the less ambitious. The +subject is presented in a bright and interesting manner, and represents the +latest vogue. +</p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="center"> +<b>LETTER WRITING</b> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>By Agnes H. Morton</b> +</p> + +<p> +Why do most persons dislike letter writing? Is it not because they cannot say +the right thing in the right place? This admirable book not only shows by +numerous examples just what kind of letters to write, but by directions and +suggestions enables the reader to become an accomplished original letter +writer. There are forms for all kinds of business and social letters, including +invitations, acceptances, letters of sympathy, congratulations, and love +letters. +</p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="center"> +<b>QUOTATIONS</b> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>By Agnes H. Morton</b> +</p> + +<p> +A clever compilation of pithy quotations, selected from a great variety of +sources, and alphabetically arranged according to the sentiment. In addition to +all the popular quotations in current use, it contains many rare bits of prose +and verse not generally found in similar collections. An important feature of +the book is the characteristic lines from well known authors, in which the +familiar sayings are credited to their original sources. +</p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="center"> +<b>THINGS WORTH KNOWING</b> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>By John H. Bechtel</b> +</p> + +<p> +It is a comparatively easy task to fill a book with a mass of uninteresting +statistical matter. It is quite another thing to get together a vast +accumulation of valuable material on all conceivable subjects. This book is +thoroughly up to date, and embraces many subjects not usually found in works of +this kind. It contains information for everybody, whether it pertains to +health, household, business, affairs of state, foreign countries, or the +planets, and all most conveniently indexed. +</p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="center"> +<b>A DICTIONARY OF MYTHOLOGY</b> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>By John H. Bechtel</b> +</p> + +<p> +The average person dislikes to look up a mythological subject because of the +time occupied. This book remedies that difficulty because in it can be found at +a glance just what is wanted. It is comprehensive, convenient, condensed, and +the information is presented in such an interesting manner as when once read to +be always remembered. A distinctive feature of the book is the pronunciation of +the proper names, something found in few other works. +</p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="center"> +<b>SLIPS OF SPEECH</b> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>By John H. Bechtel</b> +</p> + +<p> +Who does not make them? The best of us do. Why not avoid them? Any one inspired +with the spirit of self-improvement can readily do so. No necessity for +studying rules of grammar or rhetoric when this book can be had. It teaches +both without the study of either. It is a counsellor, a critic, a companion, +and a guide, and is written in a most entertaining and chatty style. +</p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="center"> +<b>HANDBOOK OF PRONUNCIATION</b> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>By John H. Bechtel</b> +</p> + +<p> +What is more disagreeable than a faulty pronunciation? No other defect so +clearly shows a lack of culture. This book contains over 5,000 words on which +most of us are apt to trip. They are here pronounced in the clearest and +simplest manner, and according to the best authority. It is more readily +consulted than a dictionary, and is just as reliable. +</p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="center"> +<b>PRACTICAL SYNONYMS</b> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>By John H. Bechtel</b> +</p> + +<p> +Any one with the least desire to add to his vocabulary or to improve his choice +of words should have a copy of this book. It is designed mainly to meet the +wants of busy merchants or lawyers, thoughtful clergymen or teachers, and +wide-awake school-boys or girls who are ambitious to express the thoughts of +the mind in more fitting phrases than they are at present capable of doing. +</p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="center"> +<b>TOASTS</b> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>By William Pittenger</b> +</p> + +<p> +Most men dread being called upon to respond to a toast or to make an address. +What would you not give for the ability to be rid of this embarrassment? No +need to give much when you can learn the art from this little book. It will +tell you how to do it; not only that, but by example it will show the way. It +is valuable not alone to the novice, but the experienced speaker will gather +from it many suggestions. +</p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="center"> +<b>THE DEBATER’S TREASURY</b> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>By William Pittenger</b> +</p> + +<p> +There is no greater ability than the power of skillful and forcible debate, and +no accomplishment more readily acquired if the person is properly directed. In +this little volume are directions for organizing and conducting debating +societies and practical suggestions for all who desire to discuss questions in +public. There is also a list of over 200 questions for debate, with arguments +both affirmative and negative. +</p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="center"> +<b>PUNCTUATION</b> +</p> + +<p class="center"> +<b>By Paul Allardyce</b> +</p> + +<p> +Few persons can punctuate properly; to avoid mistakes, many do not punctuate at +all. A perusal of this book will remove all difficulties and make all points +clear. The rules are clearly stated and freely illustrated, thus furnishing a +most useful volume. The author is everywhere recognized as the leading +authority upon the subject, and what he has to say is practical, concise, and +comprehensive. +</p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="center"> +<b>ORATORY</b> +</p> + + +<p class="center"> +<b>By Henry Ward Beecher</b> +</p> + +<p> +It must be conceded that few men ever enjoyed a wider experience or achieved a +higher reputation in the realm of public oratory than Mr. Beecher. What he had +to say on this subject was born of experience, and his own inimitable style was +at once both statement and illustration of his theme. 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Do not change or edit the +header without written permission. + +Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the +eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** + + +Title: Slips of Speech + +Author: John H. Bechtel + +Release Date: January, 2004 [EBook #4983] +[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule] +[This file was first posted on April 7, 2002] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK, SLIPS OF SPEECH *** + + + + +This eBook was produced by Jim Weiler, xooqi.com. + + + + Slips of Speech + + A helpful book for everyone who aspires to correct the everyday + errors of speaking and writing. + __________________________________________ + + By + +JOHN H. BECHTEL + + Author of "Practical Synonyms," "Pronunciation," etc. + + Philadelphia + + The Penn Publishing Company + + 1901 + ______________ + + COPYRIGHT 1895 BY THE PENN PUBLISHING COMPANY + ______________ + + CONTENTS + +CHAP. PAGE + INTRODUCTION, . . . . . . . . . . . 3 +I. TASTE, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 + II. CHOICE OF WORDS, . . . . . . . . . . 15 + III. CONTRACTIONS, . . . . . . . . . . . 118 + IV. POSSESSIVE CASE, . . . . . . . . . . 124 +V. PRONOUNS, . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 + VI. NUMBER, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 + VII. ADVERBS, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 +VIII. CONJUNCTIONS, . . . . . . . . . . . 156 + IX. CORRELATIVES, . . . . . . . . . . . 162 +X. THE INFINITIVE, . . . . . . . . . . 166 + XI. PARTICIPLES, . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 + XII. PREPOSITIONS, . . . . . . . . . . . 174 +XIII. THE ARTICLE, . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 + XIV. REDUNDANCY, . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 + XV. TWO NEGATIVES, . . . . . . . . . . . 194 + XVI. ACCORDANCE OF VERB WITH SUBJECT, . . 198 + _________________________________________________________________ + +3 + + INTRODUCTION + _______ + +Homer, in all probability, knew no rules of rhetoric, and was not +tortured with the consideration of grammatical construction, and yet +his verse will endure through time. If everybody possessed the genius +of Homer, rules and cautions in writing would be unnecessary. + +To-day all men speak, and most men write, but it is observed that +those who most closely follow Homer's method of writing without rules +are most unlike Homer in the results. The ancient bard was a law unto +himself; we need rules for our guidance. + +Rules of writing are the outgrowth of the study of the characteristics +and qualities of style which distinguish the best writers from those +of inferior skill and ability. Grammarians and rhetoricians, according +to their several lines of investigation, set forth the laws and +principles governing speech, and formulate rules whereby we may follow +the true, and avoid the false. + +Grammar and rhetoric, as too often presented in the schools, are such +uninviting studies that when + _________________________________________________________________ + +4 + +school-days are ended, the books are laid aside, and are rarely +consulted afterward. The custom of formally burning the text-books +after the final examinations-- a custom that prevails in some +institutions-- is but an emphatic method of showing how the students +regard the subjects treated in the books. + +If all the rules and principles had been thoroughly mastered, the huge +bonfire of text-books in grammar and rhetoric might be regarded a +fitting celebration of the students' victory over the difficulties of +"English undefiled." But too often these rules are merely memorized by +the student for the purpose of recitation, and are not engrafted upon +his everyday habit of speech. They are, therefore, soon forgotten, and +the principles involved are subject to daily violation. + +Hence arises the need of books like SLIPS OF SPEECH, in which the +common faults of speakers and writers are pointed out, and the correct +use of words shown. Brief and informal in treatment, they will be read +and consulted when the more voluminous text-books will be left +untouched. + +The copious index appended to this volume will afford a ready +reference to the many subjects discussed, and will contribute greatly +to the convenience and permanent value of the book. + _________________________________________________________________ + +5 + _________________________________________________________________ + +6 + _________________________________________________________________ + +7 + +SLIPS OF SPEECH + + "We should be as careful of our words as of our actions."-- CICERO. + + CHAPTER I + + Taste + +Taste is a universal gift. It has been found in some degree in all +nations, races, and ages. It is shown by the savage in his love of +personal decoration; by the civilized man in his love of art. + +But while it is thus universal, it is as different among men as their +faces, complexions, characters, or languages. Even among people of the +same nation, it is as different as the degrees of society. The same +individual at different periods of life, shows this variableness of +taste. + +These diversities of taste imply a susceptibility to improvement. Good +taste in writing forms no exception to the rule. While it seems to +require some basis in nature, no degree of inborn aptitude will +compensate for the lack of careful training. + +To give his natural taste firmness and fineness a writer needs to read +the best literature, not merely so + _________________________________________________________________ + +8 + +as to know it, but so as to feel the beauty, the fitness, the charm, +the strength, the delicacy of a well-chosen word. + +The study of the proper arrangement and the most effective expression +of our thoughts prompts us to think more accurately. So close is the +connection between the thought and its expression that looseness of +style in speaking and writing may nearly always be traced to +indistinctness and feebleness in the grasp of the subject. No degree +of polish in expression will compensate for inadequacy of knowledge. +But with the fullest information upon any subject, there is still room +for the highest exercise of judgment and good sense in the proper +choice and arrangement of the thoughts, and of the words with which to +express them. + +The concurrent testimony of those best qualified to render a decision, +has determined what authors reflect the finest literary taste, and +these writers should be carefully studied by all who aspire to +elegance, accuracy, and strength in literary expression. + + Fine Writing + +Never hesitate to call a spade a spade. One of the most frequent +violations of good taste consists in the effort to dress a common +subject in high-sounding language. The ass in the fable showed his +stupidity + _________________________________________________________________ + +9 + +when he put on the lion's skin and expected the other animals to +declare him to be the king of beasts. The distinction of a subject +lies in its own inherent character, and no pompous parade of words +will serve to exalt a commonplace theme. + + Poetic Terms + +In the expression of homely ideas and the discussion of affairs of +every-day life, avoid such poetic forms as o'er for over, ne'er for +never, 'mid for amid, e'en for even, 'gan for began, 'twixt for +betwixt, 'neath for beneath, list for listen, oft for often, morn for +morning, eve for evening, e'er for ever, ere for before, 'tis for it +is, 'twas for it was. + +In all prose composition, avoid such poetic forms as swain, wight, +mead, brake, dingle, dell, zephyr. + + Foreign Words + +The unrestrained use of foreign words, whether from the ancient or +from the modern languages, savors of pedantry and affectation. The +ripest scholars, in speaking and writing English, make least use of +foreign words or phrases. Persons who indulge in their use incur the +risk of being charged with a desire to exhibit their linguistic +attainments. + +On the other hand, occasions arise when the use of words from a +foreign tongue by one who is thoroughly + _________________________________________________________________ + +10 + +familiar with them, will add both grace and exactness to his style. + +Rarely use a foreign term when your meaning can be as well expressed +in English. Instead of blase, use surfeited, or wearied; for cortege +use procession for couleur de rose, rose-color; for dejeuner, +breakfast; for employe, employee; for en route, on the way; for entre +nous, between ourselves; for fait accompli, an accomplished fact; for +in toto, wholly, entirely; for penchant, inclination; for raison +d'etre, reason for existence; for recherche, choice, refined; for +role, part; for soiree dansante, an evening dancing party; for sub +rosa, secretly, etc. + +The following incident from the Detroit Free Press is in point: + +The gentleman from the West pulled his chair up to the hotel table, +tucked his napkin under his chin, picked up the bill-of-fare and began +to study it intently. Everything was in restaurant French, and he +didn't like it. + +"Here, waiter," he said, sternly, "there's nothing on this I want." + +"Ain't there nothin' else you would like for dinner, sir?" inquired +the waiter, politely. + +"Have you got any sine qua non?" + +The waiter gasped. + +"No, sir," he replied. + _________________________________________________________________ + +11 + +"Got any bon mots?" + +"N-- no, sir." + +"Got any semper idem?" + +"No, sir, we hain't." + +"Got any jeu d'esprits?" + +"No, sir; not a one." + +"Got any tempus fugit?" + +"I reckon not, sir." + +"Got any soiree dansante?" + +"No, sir." + +The waiter was edging off. + +"Got any sine die?" + +"We hain't, sir." + +"Got any e pluribus unum?" + +The waiter's face showed some sign of intelligence. + +"Seems like I heard ob dat, sir," and he rushed out to the kitchen, +only to return empty-handed. + +"We ain't got none, sir," he said, in a tone of disappointment. + +"Got any mal de mer?" + +"N-- no, sir." + +The waiter was going to pieces fast. + +The gentleman from the West, was as serene as a May morning. + +"Got any vice versa?" he inquired again. + +The waiter could only shake his head. + _________________________________________________________________ + +12 + +"No? Well, maybe you've got some bacon and cabbage, and a corn +dodger?" + +"'Deed we have, sir," exclaimed the waiter, in a tone of the utmost +relief, and he fairly flew out to the kitchen. + + Trite Expressions + +Words and phrases which may once have been striking and effective, or +witty and felicitous, but which have become worn out by oft-repeated +use, should be avoided. The following hackneyed phrases will serve to +illustrate: "The staff of life," "gave up the ship," "counterfeit +presentment," "the hymeneal altar," "bold as a lion," "throw cold +water upon," "the rose upon the cheek," "lords of creation," "the +weaker sex," "the better half," "the rising generation," "tripping the +light fantastic toe," "the cup that cheers but does not inebriate," +"in the arms of Morpheus," "the debt of nature," "the bourne whence no +traveler returns," "to shuffle off this mortal coil," "the devouring +element," "a brow of alabaster." + + Pet Words + +Avoid pet words, whether individual, provincial, or national in their +use. Few persons are entirely free from the overuse of certain words. +Young people largely employ such words as delightful, delicious, + _________________________________________________________________ + +13 + +exquisite, and other expressive adjectives, which constitute a kind of +society slang. + + Overworked Expressions + +Words and phrases are often taken up by writers and speakers, +repeated, and again taken up by others, and thus their use enlarges in +ever-widening circles until the expressions become threadbare. Drop +them before they have reached that state. Function, environment, +trend, the masses, to be in touch with, to voice the sentiments of-- +these are enough to illustrate the kind of words referred to. + + Very Vulgar Vulgarisms + +No one who has any regard for purity of diction and the proprieties of +cultivated society will be guilty of the use of such expressions as +yaller for yellow, feller for fellow, kittle for kettle, kiver for +cover, ingons for onions, cowcumbers for cucumbers, sparrowgrass for +asparagus, yarbs for herbs, taters for potatoes, tomats for tomatoes, +bile for boil, hain't for ain't or isn't, het for heated, kned for +kneaded, sot for sat or set, teeny for tiny, fooling you for deceiving +you, them for those, shut up for be quiet, or be still, or cease +speaking, went back on me for deceived me or took advantage of me, a +power of people for a great many + _________________________________________________________________ + +14 + +people, a power of money for great wealth, a heap of houses for many +houses, lots of books for many books, lots of corn for much corn or +large quantities of corn, gents for gentlemen, and many others of a +similar character. + _________________________________________________________________ + +15 + + CHAPTER II + + Choice of Words + +Our American writers evince much variety in their graces of diction, +but in the accurate choice of words James Russell Lowell and William +Cullen Bryant stand out conspicuous above the rest. So careful and +persistent was the latter, that during the time that he was editor of +The Evening Post, of New York City, he required the various writers +upon that paper to avoid the use of a long list of words and +expressions which he had prepared for them, and which were commonly +employed by other papers. This list was not only used, but enlarged by +his successors. + +Strive to cultivate the habit of observing words; trace their delicate +shades of meaning as employed by the most polished writers; note their +suggestiveness; mark the accuracy with which they are chosen. In this +way your mind will be kept on the alert to discover the beauties as +well as the blemishes of all the thought pictures that are presented, +and your vocabulary will be greatly enlarged and enriched. + _________________________________________________________________ + +16 + + BRYANT'S LIST OF OBJECTIONABLE EXPRESSIONS + +Above, and over, use more than. +Artiste, use artist. +Aspirant. +Authoress +Beat, use defeat. +Bagging, use capturing. +Balance, use remainder. +Banquet, use dinner or supper. +Bogus. +Casket, use coffin. +Claimed, use asserted. +Collided. +Commence, use begin. +Compete. +Cortege, use procession. +Cotemporary, use contemporary. +Couple, use two. +Darkey, use negro. +Day before yesterday, use the day before yesterday. +Debut. +Decease, as a verb. +Democracy, applied to a political party. +Develop, use expose. +Devouring element, use fire. +Donate. +Employe. +Enacted, use acted. +Endorse, use approve. +En route. +Esq. +Graduate, use is graduated. +Gents, use gentlemen. +Hon. +House, use House of Representatives. +Humbug. +Inaugurate, use begin. +In our midst. +Item, use particle, extract, or paragraph. +Is being done, and all similar passive forms. +Jeopardize. +Jubilant, use rejoicing. + _________________________________________________________________ + +17 + +Juvenile, use boy. +Lady, use wife. +Last, use latest. +Lengthy, use long. +Leniency, use lenity. +Loafer. +Loan, or loaned, use lend or lent. +Located. +Majority, use most. +Mrs. President. +Mrs. Governor. +Mrs. General. +Mutual, use common. +Official, use officer. +Ovation. +On yesterday. +Over his signature. +Pants, use pantaloons. +Parties, use persons. +Partially, use partly. +Past two weeks, use last two weeks. +Poetess. +Portion, use part. +Posted, use informed. +Progress, use advance. +Quite, when prefixed to good, large, etc. +Raid, use attack. +Realized, use obtained. +Reliable, use trustworthy. +Rendition, use performance. +Repudiate, use reject or disown. +Retire, as an active verb.v Rev., use the Rev. +Role, use part. +Roughs. +Rowdies. +Secesh. +Sensation, use noteworthy event. +Standpoint, use point of view. +Start, in the sense of setting out. +State, use say. +Taboo. +Talent, use talents or ability. +Talented. +Tapis. +The deceased. +War, use dispute or disagreement. + _________________________________________________________________ + +18 + + STILTS + +Avoid bombastic language. Work for plain expressions rather than for +the unusual. Use the simplest words that the subject will bear. + +The following clipping, giving an account of the commencement +exercises of a noted female college, strikingly illustrates what to +avoid: + +"Like some beacon-light upon a rock-bound coast against which the +surges of the ocean unceasingly roll, and casting its beams far across +the waters warning the mariner from the danger near, the college, like +a Gibraltar, stands upon the high plains of learning, shedding its +rays of knowledge, from the murmurings of the Atlantic to the +whirlwinds of the Pacific, guiding womankind from the dark valley of +ignorance, and wooing her with wisdom's lore, leads creation's +fairest, purest, best into flowery dells where she can pluck the +richest food of knowledge, and crowns her brow with a coronet of gems +whose brilliancy can never grow dim: for they glisten with the purest +thought, that seems as a spark struck from the mind of Deity. There is +no need for the daughters of this community to seek colleges of +distant climes whereat to be educated, for right here in their own +city, God's paradise on earth, is situated a noble college, the bright +diadem of that paradise, that has done more for the higher education +of woman than any institution in our land." + _________________________________________________________________ + +19 + + PURITY + +An author's diction is pure when he uses such words only as belong to +the idiom of the language. The only standard of purity is the practice +of the best writers and speakers. A violation of purity is called a +barbarism. + +Unlike the Latin, Greek, or Hebrew, the English is a living language, +and, like all living organisms, manifests its life by taking in new +material and casting off old waste continually. Science, art, and +philosophy give rise to new ideas which, in turn, demand new words for +their expression. Of these, some gain a permanent foothold, while +others float awhile upon the currents of conversation and newspaper +literature and then disappear. + +Good usage is the only real authority in the choice of reputable +words; and to determine, in every case, what good usage dictates, is +not an easy matter. Authors, like words, must be tested by time before +their forms of expression may become a law for others. Pope, in his +Essay on Criticism, laid down a rule which, for point and brevity, has +never been excelled: + + "In words, as fashions, the same rule will hold; + Alike fantastic, if too new or old; + Be not the first by whom the new are tried, + Nor yet the last to lay the old aside." + _________________________________________________________________ + +20 + + BARBARISMS + +Campbell, in his Philosophy of Rhetoric, says that a word to be +legitimate must have these three signs of authority: + 1. It must be reputable, or that of educated people, as opposed to + that of the ignorant or vulgar. + 2. It must be national, as opposed to what is either local or + technical. + 3. It must be present, as opposed to what is obsolete. + +Any word that does not have these three qualities may, in general, be +styled a barbarism. + + ANGLICIZED WORDS + +Many foreign words, in process of time, become so thoroughly +domesticated that their translation, or the use of an awkward +equivalent, would be a greater mark of pedantry than the use of the +foreign words. The proper use of such terms as fiat, palladium, cabal, +quorum, omnibus, antique, artiste, coquette, ennui, physique, regime, +tableau, amateur, cannot be censured on the ground of their foreign +character. + + OBSOLETE WORDS + +Some writers affect an antiquated style by the introduction of such +words as peradventure, perchance, + _________________________________________________________________ + +21 + +anon, behest, quoth, erewhile. The use of such words gives a strange +sound to the sentence, and generally indicates that the writer is not +thoroughly in earnest. The expression is lowered in tone and is made +to sound fantastic. + + NEW WORDS + +A word should not be condemned because it is new. If it is really +needed it will be welcomed, and soon find a permanent place. +Shakespeare, Addison, and Johnson introduced many new words, to which +their names afterward gave a sanction. Carlyle, Coleridge, Tennyson, +and Browning have introduced or given currency to new words, and made +strange ones familiar. + +New words are objectionable when they are employed without proper +authority. The chief sources of supply of the objectionable kind are +the current slang of the street and the sensational newspaper. They +are often the result of a desire to say things in such a manner as to +reflect smartness upon the speaker, or to present things in a humorous +or picturesque way. That they are frequently very effective cannot be +gainsaid. Sometimes they are coined in the heat of political or social +discussion, and, for a time, express what everybody is talking about; +but it is impossible to tell whether they will live beyond + _________________________________________________________________ + +22 + +the occasion that produced them. So long as their usage is doubtful it +is safer not to employ them. + + SLANG + +Slang is somewhat like chicken-pox or measles, very catching, and just +as inevitable in its run; and very few of us escape it. It is +severest, too, where the sanitary conditions are most favorable to its +development. Where there is least thought and culture to counteract +its influence slang words crowd out those of a more serious character, +until, in time, the young and inexperienced speaker or writer is +unable to distinguish between the counterfeit and the genuine. + +While most persons condemn slang, there are very few who are entirely +free from its use. It varies greatly in its degrees of coarseness or +refinement, and adapts itself to all classes and conditions. Many know +no other language, and we are unwillingly compelled to admit that +while their speech is often ungrammatical and unrhetorical, it is +generally clear, concise, and forcible. + +Strive to acquire a vocabulary so large and to cultivate a taste so +fine that when a slang expression rises to your mind you can use it if +you think it best fits the occasion, or substitute something better in +its place. Purity of diction is a garden of slow growth even under the +most favorable conditions, and the + _________________________________________________________________ + +23 + +unrestrained indulgence in slang is like scattering seeds of the +vilest plants among the choicest flowers. + + SOCIETY SLANG + +"This is an elegant day," "that is an elegant view," "Mary is awfully +nice," "Jennie is dreadfully sweet," "Gertrude is delicious," and "Tom +is perfectly splendid." The use of such extravagant phrases tends to +weaken the significance of the words when legitimately employed. + + COMMERCIAL SLANG + +Commercial terms are employed in the common language of everyday life +to such an extent as to constitute a form of commercial slang. The +following will serve for illustration; "The balance of the journey" +for remainder, "he was well posted." for well informed, "I calculate +he will come to-morrow" for believe or think, "I reckon he is your +friend" for I suppose. + + COMMON SLANG + +To materialize, to burglarize, to enthuse, to suicide, to wire, to +jump upon, to sit upon, to take in, are a few of the many examples of +slang that should be avoided. + _________________________________________________________________ + +24 + + PROVINCIALISMS + +A word that is used only in a limited part of the country is called a +provincialism. It must be known and recognized for what it is worth, +but not obtruded where it does not belong. + +Whatever may be said of the faults of speech of the American people, +it is doubtful if any other nation, whether it covers a large +territory or is limited in area, speaks the language native to the +country with the uniformity that we do. Yet, there are peculiarities +that mark the expression of most of our people, even among the best +informed. The words calculate, reckon, and guess are not the only +words that betray the locality of the speaker. Any person who has been +five hundred miles from home cannot fail to have observed words that +were used differently from the way in which he had been accustomed to +use them, and he probably heard terms of expression that seemed +strange to him. In like manner, his own expressions sounded strange to +those who heard him. That which distinguished his speech from theirs +and theirs from his would, in large part, be covered by the word +"provincialism." + +Not only do we have local and sectional peculiarities of speech, but +we may be said to have national mannerisms. Mr. Alexander Melville +Bell, the eminent + _________________________________________________________________ + +25 + +elocutionist, relates that some years ago when residing in Edinburgh, +a stranger called to make some inquiries in regard to professional +matters. + +"I have called on you, sir, for the purpose of," etc. + +"When did you cross the Atlantic?" I asked. + +The stranger looked up with surprise amounting almost to +consternation. + +"How do you know that I have crossed the Atlantic?" + +"Your manner of using the little word 'sir' is not heard in England or +Scotland." + +This gentleman, Mr. Bell says, was one of the most eminent teachers of +elocution in America, and his speech was perfectly free from ordinary +local coloring, in all but the one little element which had escaped +observation. + + WHICH? + +Much diversity of usage exists and some difference of opinion prevails +concerning the proper expression to use when you are addressed, and +fail to understand just what has been said. Such interrogative +rejoinders as "What?" "How?" "Which?" "Hey?" are plainly +objectionable. "Sir?" and "Madam!" once common, are no longer +tolerated in society. The English expression "Beg pardon" has found +favor, but it is not wholly acceptable. "Excuse me" + _________________________________________________________________ + +26 + +is suggested by a writer on the subject. It has no more syllables than +"Beg pardon," and is nearly equivalent in signification, but it is +also subject to the objection that it is often used to imply a +difference of opinion, as when a person makes a statement to which you +take exception, you begin your reply with the expression, "Excuse me." + +Whatever is adopted will doubtless be a convenient contraction, like +"Beg pardon," which is a short way of saying, "I beg your pardon for +failing to understand what you said;" or "Excuse me," which is a +condensation of "Excuse me for not fully grasping your meaning." + + WORDS IMPROPERLY USED + +Commodious--Convenient + +A word of caution in the use of the smaller dictionaries is necessary. +The most elaborate definition often fails to give an adequate idea of +the signification of a term unless it is accompanied with one or more +quotations illustrating its use. The small dictionaries give only the +briefest definitions, without illustration, and therefore should be +interpreted with caution. + +Some years ago a young man of moderate attainments was very desirous +of enlarging his vocabulary + _________________________________________________________________ + +27 + +and of using words beyond the ordinary vernacular of his neighborhood. +To this end, he made a small vest-pocket lexicon his constant +companion. + +Having consulted it in the course of a conversation with a friend, he +remarked, as he was about to return it to his pocket, "What a +commodious book this is." His friend suggested that he again consult +the "commodious" volume. With a look of the utmost confidence he +turned to the word, and exclaimed: "There! I knew I was right. +Commodious means convenient, and that is just what this little book +is." + +It was useless to explain that smallness sometimes renders a thing +inconvenient, and this young man, doubtless, still felicitates himself +upon his intimate acquaintance with that commodious pocket dictionary. + + Ability, Capacity + +A fond mother was told by the principal of a boarding-school that her +daughter would not be graduated, as she lacked capacity. "Get her a +capacity. Her father don't stand on the matter of expense. Get her +anything she wants. He'll foot the bill." But for once the indulgent +mother was obliged to learn that there are some things money will not +purchase. The father had the financial ability, but the daughter +lacked the necessary intellectual capacity. + _________________________________________________________________ + +28 + +But we may have literary as well as financial ability. Ability implies +the power of doing; capacity the faculty of receiving. + + About, Almost + +"This work is about done." Use "almost done." + + Acceptance, Acceptation + +These words cannot be used interchangeably. "He wrote signifying his +acceptance of the office." "According to the common acceptation of +this term, he is a knave." + + Access, Accession + +"He gained access to the fort." "The only accession, which the Roman +empire received was the province of Britain." + + Accident, Injury + +Accident is sometimes used incorrectly for injury. as "His accident +was very painful." + + Mutual, Common + +Some men seek to be great by copying great men's faults. Dickens may +say "Our Mutual Friend," but Dickens's strong point was not grammar. +If you have a friend in common with Smith, in speaking of him to +Smith, say our common friend. The word mutual should always convey a +sense of reciprocity, as "Happy in our mutual help and mutual love." + _________________________________________________________________ + +29 + + Myself + +This word is generally used for emphasis, as "I myself will do it," "I +wrote it myself." It should not be used for the unemphatic pronouns I +and me, as in "James and myself are going to town," "He gave the books +to James and myself." It is properly used with a reflexive verb +without emphasis, as "I will defend myself." + + Negligence, Neglect + +Negligence is the habit, neglect the act, of leaving things undone. +The adjectives negligent and neglectful should, in like manner, be +discriminated. + + Never, Not + +The word never is sometimes colloquially used for not, as "I never +remember to have seen Lincoln." Say "I do not remember," etc. Never +should not be used in reference to events that can take place but +once, as "Warren never died at Lexington." + + Love, Like + +We may love our parents, our children, our country, the truth; and we +may like roast turkey and cranberry sauce. "I love cherries," "I adore +strawberries," are school-girl expressions that should be avoided. +Love is an emotion of the heart, and not of the palate. + _________________________________________________________________ + +30 + + Cheap, Low-priced + +These words are often used synonymously. A picture purchased for ten +thousand dollars may be cheap; another, for which ten dollars was +paid, although low-priced, may be dear. + + Mad, Angry + +The frequent use of mad in the sense of angry should be avoided. A +person who is insane is mad. A dog that has hydrophobia is mad. +Figuratively we say mad, with rage, mad with terror, mad with pain; +but to be vexed, or angry, or out of patience, does not justify the +use of so strong a term as mad. + + Most, Almost, Very + +Sometimes incorrectly used for almost, as "He writes to me most every +week." + +It is often loosely used in the sense of very, as "This is a most +interesting book." Aim to use most only as the superlative of much, or +many. Do not use the indefinite article before it, as "This is a most +beautiful picture." We may say "This is the most beautiful picture," +for here comparison is implied. + + Portion, Part + +"Give me the portion of goods that falleth to me." "We traveled a part +of the distance on foot." Portion is applied to that which is set +aside for a special + _________________________________________________________________ + +31 + +purpose, often as the share or allotment of an individual, as the +wife's portion, the portion of the oldest son, etc. Part is a more +general term. + + Postal + +Bryant would not have said, "I will send you a postal by to-morrow's +mail." Postal card or post card would be better. + + Practical, Practicable + +These words are sometimes confounded. Practicable means "that may be +done or accomplished," and implies that the means or resources are +available; as, a practicable road, a practicable aim. Practical means +"capable of being turned to use or account;" as, "The practical man +begins by doing; the theorist often ends by thinking." + + Predicate + +This word is sometimes incorrectly used in the sense of form or base; +as, "He predicated his statement on the information he had just +received." Neither should it be used in the sense of predict; as, "The +sky is overcast, and I predicate a storm tomorrow." + + Prefer--than + +"I prefer to walk than to ride." Say "I prefer walking to riding;" or, +"I would rather walk than + _________________________________________________________________ + +32 + +ride." "To skate is preferable than to coast." Say "Skating is +preferable to coasting." + + Amount, Number + +Amount applies to what is thought of in the mass or bulk, as money, +wheat, coal. Number is used when we think of the individuals composing +the mass, as men, books, horses, vessels. + + Answer, Reply + +An answer implies a question. We may reply to a remark or assertion. A +reply is more formal than an answer. + + Antagonize, Alienate, Oppose + +The word antagonize should not be used in the sense of alienate; as, +"Your proposition will antagonize many supporters of the measure." +"The Senate opposed the bill which passed the House" is better than +"antagonized the bill." + + Anticipate, Expect + +"The arrival of the President was hourly anticipated" is pompous. Use +expected. + + Any, At all + +"He was so far from the speaker's platform that he could not hear +any." Better "that he could not hear," or "hear at all," or "hear what +was said." + _________________________________________________________________ + +33 + + Apparent, Evident + +These words are often used interchangeably. That which is apparent may +be what it appears to be, or it may be very different; that which is +evident admits of no doubt. The same is true of apparently and +evidently. + + Prejudice + +"He is not the best person for the position, but his many kindnesses +to me prejudice me in his favor." We may be prejudiced against a +person or thing, but cannot be prejudiced in favor. Use predispose. + + Presume + +This word is often employed when think, believe, or daresay would be +better. + + Pretend, Profess + +"I do not pretend to be an orator." Pretend means to feign, to sham; +as, "He pretends to be asleep," and should not be used when claim or +profess would better suit the purpose. + + Preventative + +The correct form of the word is preventive, not preventative. + + Previous, Previously + +The adjective previous is often incorrectly used for the adverb +previously; as, "Previous to his imprisonment he made a confession of +his crime." + _________________________________________________________________ + +34 + + Promise, Assure + +"I promise you we had a good time yesterday." Promise relates to the +future, hence "I assure you," etc., would be better. + + Propose, Purpose + +To propose is to set before the mind for consideration; to purpose is +to intend. "I propose sending my son to college" should be "I +purpose," etc. "I propose that you go to college, my son." "Thank you, +father, I accept the proposal." + + Sparrowgrass, Asparagus + +The word sparrowgrass, which is a corruption of the word asparagus, +illustrates how readily the uneducated mind associates an unusual term +with another that is familiar, and as the mental impression is +received through the ear, and lacks that definiteness which the +printed form would give, the new idea, when repeated, often assumes a +picturesque, if not a ludicrous, form. Many of Mrs. Partington's +quaint sayings furnish further illustration. + +The following incident, from a Western paper, shows the successive +stages in the farmer's mental operations from the familiar terms skin, +hide, oxhide, up to the unfamiliar chemical term oxide, through which +he was obliged to pass before he succeeded in making known his wants: + _________________________________________________________________ + +35 + +The man was in a brown study when he went into the drug store. + +"What can we do for you?" inquired the clerk. + +"I want black-- something of something," he said; "have you got any?" + +"Probably we have," replied the clerk, "but you'll have to be more +definite than that to get it." + +The farmer thought for a moment. + +"Got any black sheepskin of something?" he asked. + +"No; we don't keep sheepskins. We have chamois-skins, though." + +"That ain't it, I know," said the customer. "Got any other kind of +skins?" + +"No." + +"Skins-- skins-- skins!" slowly repeated the man, struggling with his +slippery memory. "Calfskin seems to be something like it. Got any +black calfskins of anything?" + +"No, not one," and the clerk laughed. + +The customer grew red in the face. + +"Confound it!" he said, "if it ain't a skin, what in thunder is it?" + +"Possibly it's a hide?" suggested the clerk. + +"That's it! That's it!" exclaimed the man. + +"Have you got any black hides of something or anything?" + _________________________________________________________________ + +36 + +The clerk shook his head sadly as the man tramped up and down the +store. + +"Got any black cowhide of anything?" he asked, after a moment's +thought. + +The clerk's face showed a gleam of intelligence, and then broke into a +smile. + +"Possibly it's black oxide of manganese you want?" he said, quietly. + +"Of course, that's it!" he exclaimed, as he threw his arms around the +clerk's neck. "I knowed blamed well there was a skin or hide or +something somewhere about the thing," and he calmed down quietly and +waited for what he wanted. + + Accord, Give + +"They accorded him due praise." "They gave him the desired +information." + + Act, Action + +"The best portion of a good man's life is his little, nameless, +unremembered acts of kindness and of love." "Suit the action to the +word." Action suggests the operation; act, the accomplished result. + + Adherence, Adhesion + +These words were once interchangeable, but are now distinct. Adhesion +relates to physical bodies; adherence to mental states. + _________________________________________________________________ + +37 + + Adopt, Take + +"What course will you take?" is better than "What course will you +adopt?" + + Affect, Effect + +These words are sometimes confounded. "The climate affected their +health." "They sailed away without effecting their purpose." + + Aggravate, Exasperate + +To aggravate means to intensify, to make worse; to exasperate means to +provoke, to irritate. "To aggravate the horrors of the scene." "His +remarks exasperated me." "His conduct aggravates me" should be "His +conduct annoys (or displeases, or irritates, or exasperates) me." + + Alleviate, Relieve + +These words differ chiefly in degree. The latter is the stronger word. + + Proposal, Proposition + +A proposition implies consideration or discussion; a proposal +contemplates acceptance or rejection. "Your proposition to build our +new warehouse has received favorable consideration, and we are ready +to receive your proposals." + + Providing, Provided + +"You may go to skate, providing you first finish your task." +Incorrect. You should say provided. + _________________________________________________________________ + +38 + + Proved, Proven + +Proven is sometimes incorrectly used for proved. "The evidence was +complete and his guilt was fully proved." Not proven is a legal term +used in England to denote that the guilt of the accused is not made +out, though not disproved. + + Quantity, Number + +Quantity refers to the how much; number to the how many. "He purchased +a large quantity of wheat, corn, apples, lime, and sand, and a number +of houses, stores, chairs, and books." It is, therefore, incorrect to +say, "There was a large quantity of bicycles in the yard," "He sold a +large quantity of books at auction." + + Quite a few + +In some parts of the country this expression is in common use in the +sense of many, a large number, etc. "How many people were at church +to-day?" "Quite a few," meaning a considerable number. + + Commence, Begin + +Some persons always commence, but never begin. The tendency toward +pomp and parade in speech prompts many persons to avoid the use of our +strong, rugged Anglo-Saxon words, and to substitute their +high-sounding Latin equivalents, until, in time, the preferable native +forms come to be regarded as + _________________________________________________________________ + +39 + +commonplace and objectionable. American usage is more faulty than +English in this regard. Use begin and beginning more, and commence +and, commencement less. + + Complete, Finished + +There is a distinction in the use of these words that is not always +observed. Complete signifies nothing lacking, every element and part +being supplied. That which is finished has had all done to it that was +intended. A vessel may be finished and yet be incomplete. + + Conclusion, End + +The more pretentious word conclusion is often used where the simple +Anglo-Saxon word end would be preferable. + + Conscious, Aware + +"He was aware of the enemy's designs." "Conscious of his fate, he +boldly approached the furious beast." Conscious relates to what is +within our own mind; aware to what is without. + + Continual, Continuous + +Continuous implies uninterrupted, unbroken. Continual relates to acts +that are frequently repeated. "The continuous ride is often finished +in five hours, but owing to continual delays we were eight hours on +the way." + _________________________________________________________________ + +40 + + Convict, Convince + +The Irishman who brandished his club and, exclaimed that he was open +to conviction, but he would like to see the man that could convince +him, used a form of argument that was most convincing, but failed in +his discrimination of language. Convict refers to the outer condition, +and generally applies to something wrong; convince, which may be used +of either right or wrong, refers to the judgment. + + Custom, Habit + +Habit is a tendency which leads us to do easily; custom grows out of +the habitual doing or frequent repetition of the same act. Custom +refers to the usages of society, or of the individual; habit refers +more frequently to the individual acts. "Ill habits gather by unseen +degrees." + + "Man yields to custom as he bows to fate, + In all things ruled-- mind, body, and estate." + + Want, Need + +These words are often used interchangeably, but should be +discriminated. Need implies the lack; want also implies the lack, but +couples with it the wish to supply the lack. "Some men need help, but +will not ask for it; others want help (that is, they need help, or +think they do, and ask for it) and get it, too." + _________________________________________________________________ + +41 + + Way, Away + +"He is way down in Florida," is incorrect. "He is away down in +Florida" is better grammar. "He is in Florida" is still better. Down +indicates the direction, and away magnifies the distance. As most +persons know the direction, and as modern railway travel shortens long +distances, the abbreviated sentence is sufficiently full. + + Ways, Way + +"He is a long ways from home" is a very common, but faulty expression. +Say "Uncle Charles is now a long way on his journey." "The boat is a +good way off the shore." + + Whole, All + +"The whole of the scholars went to the fair to-day." "All of the +school went to the fair to-day." The sentences will be improved by +transposing whole and all. "All of the scholars went to the fair +to-day," not half of them. "The whole school went to the fair to-day," +not a part of it. All refers to the individual scholars; whole to the +school as a unit. + + Without, Unless + +"He cannot miss the way without he forgets my instructions." "I will +not dig the potatoes without Tom comes to help." Use unless instead of +without. + _________________________________________________________________ + +42 + + Worse, More + +"He dislikes arithmetic worse than grammar." Use more instead of +worse. + + Rarely, Rare + +"It is rarely that you hear of a prodigal youth growing into an +economical man." Rarely should be rare to form the adjective attribute +of the verb. + + Real, Really + +Real is often incorrectly used as an adverb, especially by +schoolgirls; as, "I think he is real mean." The grammar will be +improved by substituting really for real, but the expression, as a +whole, being applied to all kinds and degrees of offenses, has become +meaningless. + +Real is often carelessly used in the sense of very; as real pretty, +real bright, real kind. + + Recipe, Receipt + +A recipe is a formula for making some mixture or preparation of +materials; a receipt is an acknowledgment of that which has been +received. + + Region, Neighborhood + +Region is a broader and more comprehensive term, and should not be +applied to the narrow limits of a neighborhood. + _________________________________________________________________ + +43 + + Remit, Send + +The word remit is often used when send would be better. Remit means to +send back, to forgive, to relax. In its commercial sense it means to +transmit or send money in payment of a demand; as, "He remitted the +amount by mail." + + Residence, House + +This pretentious word is often used when house or home would be in +better taste. + + Deface, Disfigure + +"The walls of many public buildings are defaced by persons who desire +that their names shall remain when they are gone." "They disfigure +their faces that they may appear unto men to fast." Disfigure applies +more generally to persons; deface, to things. + + Demean, Degrade + +The word demean is often incorrectly used in the sense of degrade, +lower. It should be used in the sense of behave, conduct, deport, and +not in the sense of degrade. + + Depot, Station + +For many years the word depot was largely employed in the sense of a +railway station. Its primary meaning is a warehouse or storehouse or +military station. As applied to a stopping place for railroad trains +the + _________________________________________________________________ + +44 + +English word station is greatly to be preferred to the French word +depot, and is rapidly coming into general use in this country. + + Description, Kind + +"Flowers of every description were found in his garden." In the above +sense the word kind or variety would be more appropriate. + + Bring, Fetch, Carry + +Bring implies motion from the object toward the person who issues the +command or makes the request. Fetch implies two motions, first, toward +the object; second, toward the person who wishes it. The gardener, who +is in the garden, calls to his servant, who is at the barn, "John, +bring me the rake. You will find it in the barn." And if John is with +him in the garden, he would say, "John, fetch me the rake from the +barn." + +The use of fetch is more common among English writers than with us. In +fact, many speakers and writers in America rarely use the word. + +Carry is a more general term, and means to convey, without thought of +the direction. + + Character, Reputation + +These words are often confounded. "Character," says Abbott, "is what a +person is; reputation is what he is supposed to be. Character is in +himself, + _________________________________________________________________ + +45 + +reputation is in the minds of others. Character is injured by +temptations and by wrong-doing; reputation by slanders and libels. +Character endures throughout defamation in every form, but perishes +where there is a voluntary transgression; reputation may last through +numerous transgressions, but be destroyed by a single, and even an +unfounded, accusation or aspersion." + + Farther, Further + +Although these words are often used interchangeably even by good +writers, yet a finer taste and a keener power of discrimination is +shown in the use of farther when referring to literal distance, and of +further in reference to quantity or degree; as, "Each day's journey +removes them farther from home," "He concluded his speech by remarking +that he had nothing further to say." Farther is the comparative of +far; further is the comparative of forth. + + Fault, Defect + +Speakers and writers often fail to discriminate in the use of these +words. A defect implies a deficiency, a lack, a falling short, while a +fault signifies that there is something wrong. + + "Men still had faults, and men will have them still, + He that hath none, and lives as angels do + Must be an angel." + _________________________________________________________________ + +46 + +"It is in general more profitable to reckon up our defects than to +boast of our attainments." + + Few, Little + +These words and their comparatives, fewer, less, are often confounded. +Few relates to number, or to what may be counted; little refers to +quantity, or to what may be measured. A man may have few books and +little money; he may have fewer friends and less influence than his +neighbor. But do not say "The man has less friends than his neighbor." + + Each other, One another + +While some excellent authorities use these expressions +interchangeably, most grammarians and authors employ each other in +referring to two persons or things, and one another when more than two +are considered; as, "Both contestants speak kindly of each other." +"Gentlemen are always polite to one another." + +Those who prefer to have wide latitude in speech will be glad to know +that Murray, in one of the rules in his grammar, says, "Two negatives +in English destroy one another." + +Shakespeare says, "It is a good divine that follows his own +instructions. I can easier teach twenty what were good to be done, +than be one of + _________________________________________________________________ + +47 + +the twenty to follow mine own teaching." This is as true of expression +as of morals. + + Either, Neither + +"Palms and beautiful flowers lined the hall on either side," is a +common but faulty form of expression. Either refers to one of two +things. In the foregoing sentence the thought is that both sides of +the hall were lined, hence the word both should have been used. If, +however, each side of the hall is thought of separately, then each, +would be the proper word to employ. + +"Either of the two books will please you." "Any of the three books +will prove satisfactory." "Any one of the five men would make a good +candidate." "Neither of the two men will serve." "None of the ten men +were present." "Not one of all the houses was left standing." These +sentences represent the best usage with regard to either, neither, and +also of any, none, any one, not one. + + These kind + +Adjectives implying number must agree with the nouns which they +qualify. This and that qualify nouns in the singular; these and those +belong to nouns in the plural. + +"These kind of potatoes grow well in this soil." Use this. "This +twenty years have I known him." + _________________________________________________________________ + +48 + +Use these. "The beam was two foot above my head," Use feet. "For this, +among other reasons, I abandoned the profession." Say "For this +reason, among others, I abandoned the profession." "He rides the +bicycle daily, and by this means he preserves his health." "The +partners were all honest, courteous, and industrious, and by these +means acquired wealth." The word means being either singular or +plural, the two preceding sentences are both correct. + + Some means or another + +"By some means or another he always gets the better part of the +bargain." This sentence may be corrected by saying "one means or +another," or "some means or other." + + Than + +After other, otherwise, else, or an adjective in the comparative +degree, than should be used, and not but or except. + +"No other way but this was open to him." Use than. + +"History and philosophy cannot otherwise affect the mind but for its +enlargement and benefit." Use than. + +"Flowers are often nothing else but cultivated weeds." Use than. + +"He no sooner entered the bridge but he met an infuriated bull coming +toward him." Use than. + _________________________________________________________________ + +49 + +"He offered no other objection except the one already mentioned." Use +than. + +"He read five other books on 'Crime and Its Causes' in addition to +those you named." Use than. + +With equal propriety we may say, "He offered no objection except the +one already mentioned," or "He read five books on 'Crime and Its +Causes' in addition to those you named." It is the use of the word +other, or otherwise, or else, that makes necessary the correlative +term than. + + Besides + +After else and other the preposition besides is sometimes employed. + +"Other boys besides these are mischievous." + +"Other arts besides music are elevating and inspiring." + +"We must have recourse to something else besides punishment." + +It will be observed that the use of besides in this section differs +from the use of than in the preceding discussion. "Other... than" is +exclusive of those mentioned; whereas, "other... besides" includes +those mentioned. + + Other + +"Iron is more useful than all the metals." The faultiness of this +sentence becomes apparent when + _________________________________________________________________ + +50 + +we remember that iron itself is a metal and is included in the word +metals, which forms one side of the comparison. In short, "Iron is +more useful than iron together with all the other metals." This +statement is absurd. The sentence should, therefore, read, "Iron is +more useful than all the other metals." + +"The Washington monument is higher than any monument in America." +Since it is in America, and as it cannot be higher than itself, the +sentence is made correct by adding the word other; as, "The Washington +monument is higher than any other monument in America." + +"This book, which I have just finished, is superior to any work on the +subject that I have yet seen." Say "to any other work." + +"Of all other creatures, man is the most highly endowed." Say "of all +creatures," etc. + +"No general was ever so beloved by his soldiers." Say "No other +general," etc. + +"Nothing delights him so much as a storm at sea." "Nothing else +delights him," etc. + + One's, His + +Whether we should say "One ought to know one's own mind," or "One +ought to know his own mind," is a question that the critics have +earnestly discussed, but have never settled, except as each settles it +for + _________________________________________________________________ + +51 + +himself. The masculine pronoun is often used with an antecedent whose +gender is not known. There can, therefore, be no objection to the use +of his on the question of gender. As a matter of euphony, his is +preferable to one's. Both have the sanction of good usage. + + None + +Although literally signifying no one, the word none may be used with a +plural verb, having the force of a collective noun. + + "None but the brave deserves the fair."-- Dryden. + "None knew thee but to love thee, + None named thee but to praise."-- Halleck. + "I look for ghosts; but none will force + Their way to me."-- Wordsworth. + "Of all the girls that e'er were seen, + There's none so fine as Nelly."-- Swift. + + All, Whole + +The word all is often incorrectly used for the whole. + +"The river rose and spread over all the valley." This should be "over +the whole valley." + +"The day being stormy, the members of Class A were all the children at +school to-day." Correct by saying "were the only children at school +to-day." + _________________________________________________________________ + +52 + + Perpetually, Continually + +Perpetually is not synonymous with continually. Perpetually means +never-ceasing. That which is done continually may be subject to +interruptions. + + Persuade, Advise + +"Almost thou persuadest me to be a Christian." Paul had advised many +persons to become Christians, some of whom, like Agrippa, were almost +persuaded. + + Wharf, Dock + +These words are sometimes confounded. The wharf is the pier, or +landing, upon which the vessel unloads her cargo. The dock is the +artificial waterway, or basin, formed by the wharves. "The vessel came +into the dock and was made fast to the wharf." + + Contemptible, Contemptuous + +Contemptible is sometimes incorrectly used for contemptuous. A story +is told of Richard Parson, an English scholar and critic. A gentleman +being in dispute with him, angrily exclaimed, "My opinion of you is +most contemptible, sir," upon which Parson quickly retorted, "I never +knew an opinion of yours that was not contemptible." + + Healthy, Wholesome + +These terms are not synonymous. Toadstools may be healthy, but they +would not be regarded as wholesome. + _________________________________________________________________ + +53 + +Plants and animals are healthy when the conditions of their growth are +favorable. They are wholesome when, as food, they promote the health +of those persons who eat them. + + In a fix + +Many persons instead of saying "He is in trouble," or "He is in an +awkward position," or "He is perplexed," or embarrassed, employ the +vulgarism, "He is in a fix." Although Shakespeare may say, "This was +the most unkindest cut of all," and De Quincey may write, "Poor Aroar +cannot live and cannot die-- so that he is in an almighty fix," we +lesser mortals are forbidden such expressions. + + Fly, Flee + +In a general sense fly is applied to winged creatures and flee to +persons. "What exile from himself can flee?" "When the swallows +homeward fly." The past tense forms are sometimes confused, as, "The +inhabitants flew to the fort for safety," "The wild geese have all +fled to the South." The principal parts of the verbs are: + Present. Past. Perf. part. + fly, flew, flown. + flee, fled, fled. + +The verbs flew and fled in the foregoing sentences should be +transposed. Fly implies motion either + _________________________________________________________________ + +54 + +from or toward. Flee implies motion from. Fly may be used, in a +figurative sense, of persons, to indicate great speed as of wings. "I +flew to his rescue." "He flew to my rescue." "Resist the devil and he +will flee from you." + +The word flown is sometimes used erroneously as the past tense or +perfect participle of the verb flow. The parts of this verb are flow, +flowed, flowed. "The river has overflowed (not overflown) its banks." + + Get, Got + +Because a horse is willing is no reason why he should be ridden to +death. The verb get and its past-tense form got admit of many +meanings, as the following, from an old English publication, fully +proves: "I got on horseback within ten minutes after I got your +letter. When I got to Canterbury I got a chaise for town; but I got +wet through before I got to Canterbury, and I have got such a cold as +I shall not be able to get rid of in a hurry. I got to the Treasury +about noon, but, first of all, I got shaved and dressed. I soon got +into the secret of getting a memorial before the Board, but I could +not get an answer then. However, I got intelligence from the messenger +that I should most likely get an answer the next morning. As soon as I +got back to my inn I got my supper and got to bed. It was not long +before I got to sleep. + _________________________________________________________________ + +55 + +When I got up in the morning I got myself dressed, and then got my +breakfast, that I might get out in time to get an answer to my +memorial. As soon as I got it I got into the chaise and got to +Canterbury by three, and about teatime I got home. I have got nothing +more to say." + +Those who are disposed to overwork the words get and got will find it +interesting and profitable to read the foregoing exercise, +substituting other words for those in italics. + +With have the word got is generally superfluous; as, "I have got a +cold," "I have got to go to Boston this evening," "Have you got +Hires's root-beer on draught?" For "I did not get to meet your +cousin," say "I had no opportunity," or "I was prevented," etc. + +Another very faulty use of got is heard in such expressions as "He got +killed," "They got beaten," "She got cured," etc. Was or were would be +more appropriate. + +Since to get means to obtain, to procure, to gain, the use of the word +is justified in such expressions as "I have got a larger farm than you +have, because I have worked harder for it." "I have got a better +knowledge of the Pacific coast than he has, because I traveled +extensively through that region." And yet, when we have been +overworked, the physician usually prescribes a period of absolute +rest; so, in + _________________________________________________________________ + +56 + +view of the multifarious uses to which get has been applied, would it +not be well to permit it to retire for a time, in order that it may +the more quickly be rejuvenated. + + Guess, Reckon, Calculate, Allow + +"I guess he is not going to vote to-day." "I reckon we are going to +have fair weather now." "I calculate this ground would grow good +potatoes." "I allow she's the prettiest girl that ever visited these +parts." The foregoing sentences may be improved by recasting them. "I +think he is not going to (or will not) vote to-day." "I believe we +shall now have fair weather." "I suppose this ground would yield fine +potatoes." "I regard her as the handsomest lady that has ever visited +this place (or neighborhood, or locality). + + Gums, Overshoes + +"Tom is outside, cleaning his gums on the mat." While a mat will do +very well for overshoes, a tooth-brush and sozodont would be better +for the gums. + + Funny + +"Isn't it funny that Smith, who resided in Chicago, should have died +the same day that his father died in Boston?" "Isn't it funny that the +murderer who escaped hanging on a mere technicality of the law + _________________________________________________________________ + +57 + +should have been killed the next day in a railroad accident?" "How +funny that these maples should grow so tall on this mountain top!" "It +is funny to think that James, who now pays his addresses to me, should +once have been in love with my youngest sister." The foregoing +illustrations are not more incongruous than those we daily hear. Odd, +strange, peculiar, unusual, represent some of the ideas intended to be +conveyed by that much-abused word. + + Good deal, Great deal + +This idiom is defended by some authorities as being in perfectly good +use, and by others it is denounced as being incorrect. Both good deal +and greet deal are somewhat colloquial, and should be used sparingly +in writing. + + Had better, Would better + +Like a good deal and some other idioms, this expression is denounced +by some writers and defended by others. Grammatical construction +supports more strongly the forms would better, would rather, etc. "I +had rather be a doorkeeper in the house of my God, than to dwell in +the tents of wickedness." "I would rather read than drive to-day." "I +would rather not go." Omit rather and the superiority of would over +had becomes apparent. + _________________________________________________________________ + +58 + + If, Whether + +"I do not know if he sold his farm or exchanged it for city property." +Use whether. + + Illy, Ill + +Do not use illy for ill. The former is becoming obsolete, and the +latter, as an adverb, is taking its place. Say "An ill-ventilated +room," not "an illy-ventilated room." + + Implicit + +This word means tacitly understood, resting on the word or authority +of another. It should not be used in the sense of unbounded, +unlimited. + + Individual + +This word should not be used broadly in the sense of a person, but +should always convey some thought of a single thing or person, as +opposed to many. + + Journal + +As this word is from the French, jour, day, it should not be applied +to a monthly or quarterly magazine. + + Know as + +"I do not know as I can see you to-day." Say know that. + _________________________________________________________________ + +59 + + Last, Latest + +"Did you receive my last letter?" + +"I hope not. I enjoy your letters very much, and I trust you may live +to write many more." + + Cunning + +This word is much used by young ladies in speaking of what is small, +or dainty, or pleasing, as "A cunning little bonnet," "A cunning +little watch," etc. While the word properly embodies the idea of skill +or dexterity on the part of the workman, and while the appreciation of +such skill, in speaking of the artist or artisan, might be expressed +by cunning, it is better not to use the word in referring to the +product of the workmanship. + + Curious + +Curious means inquisitive, rare. In the sense of strange or +remarkable, its use should be guarded. + + Cute + +This word is often used colloquially in the sense of clever, sharp, +shrewd, ingenious, cunning. It is doubtless an abbreviation of acute. +It is not found in good literary usage. + + Favor, Resemble + +The use of the word favor in the sense of resemble is a provincialism +that should be avoided. "The + _________________________________________________________________ + +60 + +son favors the father" is correct if the meaning be that the son shows +favor or kindness to the father; but if reference to their similarity +of appearance is intended, the verb resemble should be employed. + + Balance, Remainder + +This word, like numerous others, has been borrowed from the commercial +world, and has had such a wide use that its faultiness is not noticed +even by many who regard themselves as careful speakers and writers. "I +cut down part of the timber this year, and expect to cut the balance +next spring." "My cousin will remain with us the balance of this +week." "James ate half of the melon to-day, and will eat the balance +to-morrow." In these and all similar cases the word remainder should +be used. Balance is a term that applies to accounts, and signifies the +amount necessary to be added to one side of the account in order to +make it equal the other. + + Behave + +"Now, my children, you must behave while I am gone." The mother +intended to ask her children to behave well, but as behave is a +neutral word, and may be followed by well or ill, her form of +expression permits the children to supply whichever adverb suits them +the better. Behave requires a qualifying word to make the meaning +clear. + _________________________________________________________________ + +61 + + Bound + +"He was determined to study medicine," not "He was bound," etc. Bound +implies that he was under a bond or obligation to another, rather than +impelled by the action of his own mind. + + Better, Best + +While some good writers violate the rule, yet the best authorities +restrict the use of the comparative degree to two objects. + +"Mary is the better scholar of the two." + +"Although both are young, Susan is the younger." + +"Of two evils, choose the lesser," not the least. + + Former, First + +Former and latter being adjectives of the comparative degree, should +be used in speaking of two objects. When more than two objects are +named, use first and last. + +"My sons, John and Luther, are both at college. The first expects to +study law, and the last to study medicine." Use former and latter. + +"New York, Philadelphia, and Chicago are the most populous cities in +the United States. The former has long been at the front; the latter +has only recently entered the race." Use first and last instead of +former and latter. + _________________________________________________________________ + +62 + + These, Those + +When objects near and remote are referred to, this and its plural +these are applied to the objects near at hand, that and its plural +those to objects at a distance. + +When reference is made to contrasted antecedent terms, this and these +are applied to the latter; that and those to the former, as + + "Farewell my friends! farewell my foes! + My peace with these, my love with those!" + -- Burns. + + Fictitious Writer + +Do not say a fictitious writer when you mean a writer of fiction. + + Firstly + +First is an adverb as well as an adjective. We should, therefore, say +first, secondly, thirdly, and not firstly, secondly, etc. + + First-rate + +An article may be rated in quality as first, or second, or third. If +it rates first, it may be called a first-rate article. The word is +properly used as an adjective, but should not be employed as an +adverb, as in the sentence, "He sings first-rate." + + Fix, Mend, Repair + +Fix means to make fast, but its incorrect use in the sense of mend, +repair, arrange, is so common that the + _________________________________________________________________ + +63 + +word when properly used sounds strange, if not strained. "To fix up +the room," "to fix up the accounts," "to fix up matters with my +creditors," "to fix the rascals who betrayed me," are examples +illustrating the looseness with which the word is used. + + Round, Square + +When a thing is round or square it cannot be rounder or squarer. These +adjectives do not admit of comparative and superlative forms. But we +may say more nearly round or less nearly square. + + States, Says + +"He states he is going fishing to-morrow." States is too formal a +word, and should be used only of some important assertion. "He says he +is going," etc. + + Stop, Stay + +To stop is to cease moving. "At what hotel do you stop" should be "At +what hotel do you stay." "When you come to the city stay with me," not +stop with me. + + Subtile, Subtle + +Subtile means thin, fine, rare, delicate; subtle means sly, artful, +cunning, elusive. "More subtile web Arachne cannot spin." "He had to +contend with a subtle foe." + _________________________________________________________________ + +64 + + Summons + +He was summonsed to appear before the judge" should be "He was +summoned to appear," etc. + + Tasty + +Often used in colloquial speech when tasteful would be better. Tastily +for tastefully is still worse. + + Team + +Properly this word relates only to the horses, and does not include +the carriage. + + Those kind, These sort + +"It is unpleasant to have to associate with those kind of people." +"These sort of sheep are the most profitable." Kind and sort are nouns +of the singular number; these and those are plural, and, according to +the laws of grammar, the adjective and noun must agree in number. The +corrected sentences will read: "It is unpleasant to have to associate +with this kind of people." "This sort of sheep is the most +profitable." The fault arises by associating in the mind the +adjectives these and those with the nouns sheep and people, which +nouns are more prominent in the mind than the nouns kind and sort. If +the ear is not satisfied, the sentences may readily be recast; as, "It +is unpleasant to have to associate with people of that kind." "Sheep +of this sort are the most profitable." + _________________________________________________________________ + +65 + + Transpire, Happen + +This word, from trans, across, through, and spirare, to breathe, +means, physiologically, to pass off in the form of vapor or insensible +perspiration, or, botanically, to evaporate from living cells. Its +general meaning is to become known, to escape from secrecy. + +It is frequently employed in the sense of to occur, to come to pass, +but this use is condemned by the best critics in England and America. +"The proceedings of the secret session of the council soon +transpired." This sentence illustrates the true meaning of the word. + + Make, Manufacture + +These words may, in some cases, be used interchangeably, but make has +much the wider range of meanings. The following story, related by Eli +Perkins, will illustrate this fact: + +I was talking one day with Mr. Depew, President of the New York +Central Railroad, about demand and supply. I said the price of any +commodity is always controlled by the demand and supply. + +"Not always, Eli," said Depew; "demand and supply don't always govern +prices. Business tact sometimes governs them." + +"When," I asked, "did an instance ever occur when the price did not +depend on demand and supply?" + _________________________________________________________________ + +66 + +"Well," said Mr. Depew, "the other day I stepped up to a German +butcher, and, out of curiosity, asked: + +"'What's the price of sausages?' + +"'Dwenty cends a bound,' he said. + +"'You asked twenty-five this morning,' I replied. + +"'Yah; dot vas ven I had some. Now I ain't got none, I sell him for +dwenty cents. Dot makes a repudation for selling cheab, und I don't +lose noddings.' + +"You see," said Mr. Depew, laughing, "I didn't want any sausage and +the man didn't have any; no demand and no supply, and still the price +of sausage went down five cents." + +"Well, there are strange things in this world," I said. "Now, take the +words manufacture and make. I always thought that both words meant the +same thing." + +"Why, they do, Eli," said Mr. Depew. + +"Not always," I said. + +"Now, when could they have a different meaning?" + +"Why, this morning I came down from Albany on a Central car +manufactured to carry fifty passengers, but it was made to carry +seventy-two people." + +"Yes, I dare say; but we'll now talk about the Behring Sea question." + _________________________________________________________________ + +67 + + Truth, Veracity + +"The veracity of his statement is doubted." The sentence should be, +"The truth of his statement is doubted," or "In making that statement +his veracity is doubted." Veracity is applied to the person; truth to +the thing. + + Try the experiment + +"They are trying the experiment of running railroad trains by +electricity." This should be, "They are making the experiment," etc. +The word experiment contains the idea of trial, hence, to try the +experiment is to try the trial. + + Little piece + +"I will go with you a little piece." A short distance or a part of the +way would be more appropriate. + + Every confidence + +"I have every confidence in his ability to succeed." Confidence is a +unit; every implies several units considered separately. "I have the +greatest confidence in his ability to succeed" is correct. + + Ugly + +This word properly applies to the appearance of a person or thing, +hence such expressions as "He has an ugly temper," "This is an ugly +customer," "That was an ugly rumor," etc., although common in +colloquial discourse, should be avoided in dignified address. + _________________________________________________________________ + +68 + + Unbeknown + +This is a provincialism that should be avoided. Use unknown. + + Underhanded + +Often incorrectly used for underhand; as "That was a contemptible and +underhanded trick." + + Calligraphy + +This word means not writing, simply, but beautiful writing; hence, to +say, "His calligraphy is wretched" is equivalent to saying, "His +excellent writing is poor," which is a contradiction of terms. + + Can but, Cannot but + +These expressions are sometimes confounded. "If I perish, I can but +perish," means "I can only perish," or "I can do no more than perish." +"I cannot but speak of the things I have heard" means that I am under +a moral necessity to speak of these things. The past tense forms could +but and could not but should be, in like manner, discriminated. + + Casualty, Casuality + +The latter word is sometimes used in place of the former. The first is +legitimate; the second is without authority. The words specialty and +speciality have a termination similar to the above. They may generally +be used interchangeably and are both legitimate. + _________________________________________________________________ + +69 + + Complected. + +"The lady is light complected, has blue eyes, and auburn hair." +Complected is a provincialism without sanction. "The lady is of light +complexion, has blue eyes," etc. + + Disremember + +This word is obsolete. Use forget, or "I do not remember." + + Lie, Lay + +The verbs lie and lay are often confounded, even by intelligent +persons. Lie does not take an object. We cannot lie a thing. It is +therefore intransitive. + +Lay, which means to place in position, requires an object. We lay a +book on a table, or bricks on the wall. It is therefore transitive. + +The principal parts of the first verb are lie, lay, lain; and of the +second, lay, laid, laid. The word lay is found in both, and this is, +in part, accountable for the confusion. The most frequent errors +result from using laid, the past tense form of the transitive verb, +when the word lay, the past tense form of the intransitive verb, +should be used. The ear naturally expects the usual past tense ending +of the d or t sound, and as that is absent in the past tense of lie, +the past tense form of the other verb is substituted. For the same +reason the participle form laid is often incorrectly used for lain. + _________________________________________________________________ + +70 + +"He told me to lie down, and I lay down," not laid down. "I told him +to lay the book down, and he laid it down." "The ship lay at anchor." +"They lay by during the storm." "The book is lying on the shelf." "He +lay on the ground and took cold." "They lay in ambush." "Lie low or he +will discover you." "The goods are still lying on his hands." "Time +lay heavily on their hands." "We must lie over at the next station." +"A motion was made that the resolution lie on the table." "Now I lie +down to sleep." "Now I lay me down to sleep." + +The foregoing sentences illustrate the correct usage of these +confusing verbs. + + As, That + +"Did your cousin go to town yesterday?" "Not as I know." Better, "Not +that I know." Better still, "I do not know." "I do not know as I shall +go." Use that for as. + + Bad toothache + +As it is a rare thing to have a good toothache, we scarcely need the +adjective bad to distinguish between the two kinds of toothache. Say +severe. + + Beautifully, Beautiful + +After verbs of seeing, feeling, tasting, and smelling, the adverb is +often incorrectly used for the adjective. + _________________________________________________________________ + +71 + +"The colonel looked handsomely in his military dress," "I feel +splendidly to-day," "This peach tastes badly," "The rose smells +sweetly," are incorrect. Use handsome for handsomely, very well or in +good spirits for splendidly, tastes bad or has a disagreeable taste +for badly, and sweet for sweetly. + + Beg, Beg leave + +"I beg to announce the sale of a collection of rare and costly rugs." +"I beg to acknowledge your kindness in sending me this handsome +present." In each case say "I beg leave to," etc. + + Due, Owing + +His success was due to his honesty and energy." That is due which +should be paid as a debt; that is owing which is referred to as a +cause or source. + +"The bill is now due and payable at the gas office." "His success was +owing to his honesty and energy." + + Each, Every + +"I see him at his office each day of the week." In this sentence the +word every would be better. Each refers to single days particularized. +Here reference is made to what occurs on all days without exception. + +Both words refer to nouns in the singular, hence such expressions as +the following are incorrect: + _________________________________________________________________ + +72 + +"Every soldier and sailor stood at their post." "The prisoners were +discharged and went each their several ways." Correct by saying, "The +prisoners were discharged and went each his several way," "Every +soldier and sailor stood at his post." + + Each, Both + +"Both parties maintained their original positions." As the parties are +thought of separately, the sentence should be: "Each party maintained +its original position." "Both parties strove to place their best +candidates upon the ticket" is correct, because the parties are +thought of collectively. + + Both, Both of + +Both is used alone before nouns and both of before pronouns. "Both men +have studied the currency question." "Both of them are well informed +in matters relating to the currency." + + Ever, Never + +"Let him be ever so rich," says Emerson. "You spend ever so much money +in entertaining your equals and betters," says Thackeray. "Though he +run ever so fast, he cannot win the race." Writers and grammarians +differ, some preferring ever, others never. + _________________________________________________________________ + +73 + + Every once in a while + +This is a cumbersome, awkward expression that should be avoided. +Occasionally, frequently, at intervals, are among the expressions that +may be used in its place. + + Exceptionable, Exceptional + +"He enjoyed exceptionable opportunities for acquiring the Greek +language." Say exceptional opportunities. + + Female, Woman + +The word female is often employed when woman would be better. Female +applies to all of the feminine gender, including the brute creation. + + Poet, Poetess + +The tendency to increase the number of nouns with the feminine ending +ess should be checked. Avoid poetess, authoress, doctress, and other +newly-invented words of this kind. + + Fewer, Less + +Fewer refers to number, less to quantity. "He had less friends than I, +and yet he was elected." Say "He had fewer friends." "There were no +less than fifty cows in the field." Use fewer. + + Right smart + +In some portions of the South the expression right smart is employed +in colloquial discourse to convey + _________________________________________________________________ + +74 + +the idea of a large quantity or in large measure; as, "We have right +smart of peaches this summer," meaning "We have a large crop of +peaches;" "He knows right smart of Latin" for "He knows considerable +Latin" or "He is well versed in Latin." + + Little bit + +"Will you have some of this pudding?" + +"If you please. Give me a little bit." + +"Did you injure yourself when you fell?" + +"No; but I soiled my clothing a little bit." + +A small portion or piece, in the first sentence, and slightly, in the +second, would serve as good equivalents for a little bit. + + Sight + +"There was a sight of people at the fair to-day." In the sense of a +large number, this word, like the word lot, should be avoided. + + Crowd + +A dozen persons may constitute a crowd if they push and jostle one +another by reason of insufficient space. A thousand men will not form +a crowd if all have ample room to sit or stand or move about. + + Chuck-full + +This word is not authorized. Chock-full and choke-full may be used, +but are not elegant. + _________________________________________________________________ + +75 + + Contemplate, Propose + +Contemplate is often incorrectly used for propose; as, "I contemplate +going to the country." + + Dispense, Dispense with + +These expressions are not synonymous. To dispense is to give; to +dispense with is to do without. The pharmacist dispenses medicines; we +should be pleased if we could dispense with them. + + Dry, Thirsty + +Dry is often incorrectly used in the sense of thirsty; as, "I am dry; +let me have a glass of water." To say, "I am dry; my waterproof and +umbrella kept out the rain," is correct. + + Dutch, German + +Do not call a German a Dutchman. A Dutchman comes from Holland, a +German from Germany. + + Evacuate, Vacate + +Evacuate means to make empty, and should not be used in the sense of +to go away, to vacate. + + Different than, Different to + +"The school is conducted in a very different manner than it used to +be." "This basket of roses is different to yours." The above and +similar expressions are decided vulgarisms, and should be avoided. + _________________________________________________________________ + +76 + +"The school is conducted in a very different manner from what it used +to be." "This basket of roses is different from yours." + + Drive, Ride + +Some confusion exists in the use of the words drive and ride. In +England the distinction is made of applying ride to going on horseback +and drive to going in a carriage, whether you ride or drive. That +usage is not closely followed in this country. He who guides the horse +drives; the rest of the company ride. The noun and participial forms +are more excusable than the verb. "Jones asked me to drive with him +this afternoon." But as Jones expects to do the driving himself, the +speaker should have said, "Jones asked me to take a ride," or "go +driving," or "take a drive," etc. + + Couple, Several + +The word couple is often incorrectly used in the sense of several; as, +a couple of horses, mules, birds, trees, houses, etc. The use of the +word couple is not only limited to two, but to two that may be coupled +or yoked together. A man and wife are spoken of as a couple. We speak +of a span of horses, a yoke of oxen, a brace of ducks, a pair of +gloves. + _________________________________________________________________ + +77 + + Directly, Immediately, As soon as + +A faulty English use of the above words has found some favor in the +United States. "Directly the whistle blew the workmen left the shop." +Say "As soon as the whistle blew," etc. "Immediately he closed his +speech his opponent rose to reply." Say "When" or "As soon as he +closed his speech," etc. + +Directly denotes without any delay; immediately implies without any +interposition of other occupation. + + Agreeably disappointed + +When our hopes are blasted, our plans balked, our expectations +defeated, our intentions thwarted, we are disappointed. We prefer the +agreeable to the disagreeable, and plan and labor to secure it. When +our plans fail we are disappointed, but not agreeably disappointed. If +the new conditions, which are not of our seeking, prove agreeable, it +is only after the sense of disappointment has vanished. + + Allude to, Refer to, Mention + +The word allude is often incorrectly used. Allusion is the by-play of +language. It means to hint at by remote suggestions, to speak of +figuratively or sportively. + +Whatever is directly mentioned, or spoken of, or described, cannot be +said to be alluded to. The terms + _________________________________________________________________ + +78 + +differ in degree, the first being the weakest. An allusion is an +indirect reference. + + Among the rest + +"Mary sat on the beach among the rest." Say "with the rest." + + Peruse + +This is one of those high-sounding terms too often employed when read +would be much better. + + Emigrants, Immigrants + +These words are sometimes confounded. "Did you see the emigrants on +the 'Indiana,' which arrived this morning?" "Did the immigrants go +directly to Italy?" Exchange the italicized words in the two sentences +and they will be correctly used. + + Somewheres + +The terminal s should be omitted in such words as anywheres, +somewheres, nowheres, anyways, hereabouts, thereabouts, whereabouts. +In such cases as "Whereabouts did you find him?" and "We knew his +whereabouts," the s is properly retained. + + Apart, Aside + +"May I see you apart from the others?" It should be, "May I see you +privately" or "aside"? + + Fire, Throw + +We fire a gun, but throw a stone. To fire a stone, fire him out of the +house, fire him out of our employ, may + _________________________________________________________________ + +79 + +be graphic ways of presenting the thought, but good writers never use +them and good speakers should avoid them. + + The First, Single + +"I have not found the first objection to his candidacy." Say "a single +objection," or "no objection." + + First two + +Such has been the strong desire to continue to use forms of expression +that we have long used that not a little time and effort have been +expended in the endeavor to make the wrong appear right. It is an +accepted fact, however, that a large majority of the best speakers and +writers now say the first two, the last five, etc., rather than the +two first, the five last. + + Future, Subsequent + +The word future is sometimes used instead of subsequent; as, "Until he +was eighteen years old his conduct was marked by cruelty and malice, +but his future life was characterized by kindness and generosity." +Future looks forward from the present, and not from some point of time +in the past. + + Gent's pants + +"Gent's pants scoured and pressed." Business signs and business +advertisements are responsible for many vulgarisms. Never say gent's +nor pants. Even pantaloons is not so good a word as trousers. + _________________________________________________________________ + +80 + + Sit, Set + +Few words afford a more fertile field for grammatical blundering than +the verbs sit and set. The important fact to remember in the use of +the words is that sit, in modern usage, is an intransitive verb, and +does not take an object, while set, which means to place in position, +is transitive, and requires an object to complete its meaning. You +cannot sit a thing, but you do set or place a thing. + +The verb sit undergoes a slight change with the change of tense or +time. "I sit at the window today." "I sat at the window yesterday." "I +have sat at the window daily for many years." "Sitting at the window, +I saw the storm arise." "Having sat at his table, I can testify to his +hospitality." + +The transitive verb set undergoes no tense changes. "See me set this +vase on the table." "He set his seal to the paper yesterday." "Jones +will not set the world on fire with his writings." "Having set my +affairs in order, I returned home." "I sit down." "I sat down." "I set +him down." + +There are many intransitive uses of the verb set; as, "The sun sets," +"The tide sets toward the south," "The fruit has set," "He set out for +Boston." + +There is a difference of opinion as to whether we should say "The coat +sets well" or "The coat sits well," with the greater weight in favor +of sits. "The + _________________________________________________________________ + +81 + +hen sits on her eggs." "She is a sitting hen." When the verb is used +reflexively use set and not sat; as, "I set me down beside her," not +"I sat me down beside her." + + Anyhow + +This word can scarcely be regarded as elegant, and should not be used +except in colloquial style. + + Awful + +Few words among the many that go to make up the vocabulary of American +slang have been in longer use and have a wider range than the word +awful. From the loftiest and most awe-inspiring themes to the +commonest trifle, this much-abused word has been employed. A correct +speaker or writer almost fears to use the word lest he should suggest +the idea of slang, and thus detract from the subject to which the word +might most fitly be applied. + +Even the grammatical form of the word is often violated in such +expressions as "Isn't he awful nice?" "That hat of hers is awful +pretty." To say awfully nice and awfully pretty would improve the +grammar, but the gross vulgarism remains. + +The word, when properly used, means "inspiring with awe or dread" +often accompanied with reverence, as when Milton says: + _________________________________________________________________ + +82 + + "The trumpet spake not to the armed throng; + And kings sat still with awful eye, + As if they surely knew their sovran Lord was by." + + Back up + +In the sense of support, this, and the shorter expression back, are +doubtless borrowed from the commercial world. While they may be +tolerated in conversation, they must be regarded as slang. + + Bulk + +This word is often incorrectly used for most or the greater part; as, +"The bulk of the people opposed the measure." Bulk refers to size, not +to numbers. + + Burglarize + +This word is often used by the more sensational reporters in their +reports of crime. It should be avoided. + + But what, But that + +"I don't know but what I shall have to punish him." The sentence +should read, "I don't know but that I shall have to punish him." It is +equivalent to, "I think that I shall have to punish him." The omission +of but will convey the opposite meaning. "I don't know that I shall +have to punish him" is equivalent to "I think that I shall not have to +punish him." + _________________________________________________________________ + +83 + + Calculate + +A provincialism often used in the sense of think, deem, suppose, +believe; as, "I calculate the train will be here in ten minutes." + + Calculated, Liable + +This word is often incorrectly used in the sense of likely, liable, +apt; as, "His utterances are calculated to injure his cause." In the +proper use of the word there is present the idea of purpose or intent. + + Leave, Quit + +Leave is often incorrectly used for quit; as, "That eminent actor +expects soon to leave the stage." It would be a misfortune if he +should take the stage with him. Say "quit the stage." + +"Henry has quit smoking." Here left off or stopped would be better. + +"The President gave me lief to speak with him." Say "gave me leave." + +Let it alone and let me be are preferable to leave it alone and leave +me be. + + A 1 + +"I have just read an A 1 article on the currency, question in the last +issue of the North American Review!" This is an expression from the +vocabulary of business converted into the slang of the street. + _________________________________________________________________ + +84 + + Luck + +Luck, like behavior, may be either good or bad. "The carpenter has met +with luck; he fell and broke his leg." "The manager has met with luck; +his salary has been doubled." The adjective lucky and the adverb +luckily are used only in a favorable sense. + + Make way with + +This expression is often incorrectly used for make away with; as, "The +Judge gave the boot-blacks a Christmas dinner, and the begrimed +urchins quickly made way with the turkey and cranberry sauce." Say +"made away with," etc. + +To make way is to make room, to provide a way, to dispatch. + + In our midst + +"The doctor settled in our midst." Say "among us," or "in our +neighborhood." + + Indorse, Endorse + +From the Latin dorsum, the back, these words have come to mean the +writing of one's name across the back of a check or draft or other +commercial paper to signify its transfer to another or to secure its +payment. To indorse a man's arguments or opinions is an incorrect use +of the word. + +While both forms of spelling the word are in good usage, indorse seems +to be coming into more general favor. + _________________________________________________________________ + +85 + + In, Into + +In is often incorrectly used for into; as, "He hurried up the street +and rushed in the store." We walk in a room when the walking is wholly +within the apartment; we walk into a room when we enter it from some +other room or from the outside. + + Just going to + +"I was just going to write you a letter." Say "I was just about to +write you a letter." + + Kind of + +"James swallowed the dose, and now feels kind of sick." Use slightly +or somewhat, or some other modifier, instead of kind of. + + Knowing + +Do not use knowing for skilful or intelligent. "He is a knowing +artist." "See him prick up his ears; he is a knowing cur." + + Clever, Smart + +In England the word clever is applied to one who is bright, +intelligent, ready, apt; in the United States it is often misapplied +to one who is good-natured, kind, or accommodating. + +"Do you believe in corporal punishment for stupid school-children?" + +"Yes; a spanking always makes them smart." + _________________________________________________________________ + +86 + +To express cleverness, brightness, intelligence, aptness, the +adjectives clever, bright, intelligent, apt, are better than the word +smart. + + Posted, Informed + +"He is well posted on all matters relating to cattle-breeding." Say +informed. + + Perspire, Sweat + +While all mankind belongs to the animal kingdom, and no person can +feel offended at being called an animal, yet society observes certain +distinctions in speaking of men and of beasts. To sweat and to feed +are expressions that apply to the latter; to perspire and to eat to +the former. + + Empty + +The Mississippi river flows, or discharges its water into the Gulf of +Mexico, but it can not empty so long as any water remains in the +river. + + Enjoyed poor health + + "Gold that buys health can never be ill spent, + Nor hours laid out in harmless merriment." + +The negative form of expression, "I have not enjoyed good health," is +not only correct, but is, at the same time, a polite way of modestly +stating a fact. To say "I have enjoyed poor health for the past year" +is to express a kind of enjoyment not generally appreciated. It is +like being agreeably disappointed. + _________________________________________________________________ + +87 + + Aberration of intellect + +"He is afflicted with a slight aberration of intellect." Simplicity +would suggest, "He is slightly insane." + + Above, Foregoing + +"Let me call your attention to the above passage." The highest +authority does not sanction the use of above as an adjective. Say "the +foregoing passage." + + Allowed, Said + +"He allowed this was the best speech he had heard." This is a +provincialism that should be avoided. Use said, or declared, or +admitted, according to the meaning. + + Alternation + +This word is sometimes used in the sense of an unbroken series. It +properly signifies a reciprocal succession, as "The alternation of +summer and winter produces an ever-changing scene." + + Alternative + +Etymologically and by general use, this word refers to a choice +between two; as, "If this demand is refused the alternative is war." +But Gladstone is quoted as saying, "My decided preference is for the +fourth and last of these alternatives." + + Anniversary + +From annus, a year, means recurring every year. Centennial means once +in a hundred years. What then does centennial anniversary mean? Use +centenary. + _________________________________________________________________ + +88 + + Learn, Teach + +"I taught him grammar," not "I learned him grammar." "He taught us +history." + + Lease, Let, Rent, Hire + +We may lease to or from. "I leased the farm to my neighbor." "I leased +this house from Brown." We let to another; as, "I let my house to my +cousin." We may rent to or from another. We may hire from another," +as, "I hired a servant;" "he hired a boat." With out and reflexively +we may hire to another; as," I hired out my horses;" "he hired himself +to the miller." + + Like, As + +Avoid the use of like in the sense of as. "He thinks just as (not +like) his father does." That Anthony Trollope, Hugh Conway and other +writers are chargeable with this offence does not justify the use of +like for as, but rather proves the need of constant vigilance in order +to avoid such errors. + + Lit, Lighted, Alighted + +"He lighted the candle." "The crow alighted on the top of the tree." +Avoid the use of lit in such cases, and also that slang form, as, "I +lit on a beautiful passage in Browning," in the sense of met with. + + Lend, Loan + +"Will you lend me your book," is better than "Will you loan me your +book." + _________________________________________________________________ + +89 + + Near, Nearly + +"James is not near so good a scholar as his brother is." Use nearly. + + Nasty, Nice + +Nasty is a strong adjective, and should be used only in reference to +what is offensively filthy, foul, or defiled. Such expressions as a +nasty day, a nasty rain, mark a loose and careless use of the word. + +The word nice once meant foolish, ignorant, weak, effeminate. It has +now come to mean exact, fine, finished, exciting admiration on account +of skill or exactness; as nice proportions, nice workmanship, a nice +distinction in philosophy. It is loosely and colloquially used in +application to what is pleasing, agreeable, delightful, good. + +A bright young lady was once asked, "Don't you think nice is a nasty +word?" She replied, "And do you think nasty is a nice word." The +subject was abruptly changed. + + Nicely + +"How do you feel this morning?" "Nicely, thank you." The foregoing use +of the word is as incorrect as it is common. Use very well instead. + + No good, No use + +"How does that new machine work?" "It's no good." "Shall I try again?" +"No; it's no use." The answers should have been, "It is of no good, it +is of no use." + _________________________________________________________________ + +90 + + O, Oh + +While good usage is far from uniform, many excellent authors employ O +only in cases of direct address and oh when strong and sudden emotion +is to be expressed. O is always written with a capital letter, and +should be followed by the name of the person or thing addressed, and +the exclamation or interrogation point placed at the end of the +sentence; as, "O Death, where is thy sting? O Grave, where is thy +victory?" "O the cold and cruel winter!" + +Oh in the body of a sentence may begin with a small letter, and is +immediately followed by the exclamation point; as, "Oh! how terrible +was his fate!" "The sad intelligence was gently given, but oh! the +shock was almost unbearable." + + Observe, Say + +"He observed that the orphan pines while the oppressor feeds." To +observe is to notice carefully, to attend closely to what one sees. In +the above sentence said or remarked should be used instead of +observed. + + Of any, Of all + +"This is the largest tree of any I have seen." The meaning clearly is, +that of all the trees I have seen this is the largest. Hence, of any +should be changed to of all. + _________________________________________________________________ + +91 + + Older, Elder + +Elder and eldest are terms applied chiefly to persons, generally in +speaking of members of the same family, while older and oldest are +applied to persons of different families, and also to things. + +"His elder brother died yesterday." "His eldest sister has gone to +Italy on her wedding trip." "Our oldest neighbor was born in 1825." +"This oak is older than that pine." The foregoing sentences illustrate +the best usage as applied to the comparatives older and elder and the +superlatives oldest and eldest. + +When the direct comparison is made the word older is used, followed by +the conjunction than; as, "My father is older than my mother." But +when the comparison is assumed the word elder should be employed; as, +"My father is the elder of my parents." + + Only + +Perhaps no other word in the language is so often misplaced as the +word only. The only general rule is to place it as near as possible to +the word which it modifies. "He only lent me a dollar" means that he +did not make me a present of the dollar, but expects me to return it. +"He lent me only a dollar" means that the sum lent was neither greater +nor less than one dollar. The former expression is often used when the +latter should be. + _________________________________________________________________ + +92 + +"Only the man walked to the post-office to-day." The woman did not +walk with him. + +"The man only walked to the post-office to-day." He did not ride or +drive. + +"The man walked only to the post-office to-day." He did not go so far +as the store. + +"The man walked to the post-once only to-day." Yesterday he rode and +the day before he drove. Today is the only day that he walked. + +George Eliot, in Middlemarch, says: "I only know two gentlemen who +sing at all well," and in another place, "I have only seen her once +before." The word only should be placed before two in the first +sentence, and before once in the second. + + Onto + +There is a growing tendency to write the words on and to as one word. +"Although nearly drowned he yet had strength enough to climb onto the +rock." The use of upon or on is generally better. When neither of +these can be used write on and to as separate words. + + Outstart + +This word is sometimes used when outset should be employed. + + Over and Above + +"He earned twenty dollars over and above his expenses." Use more than +or above. + _________________________________________________________________ + +93 + + Party, Person + +"Is she the party of whom you spoke?" "No; she is the person." + +One man may be a party to a contract or agreement. Several men may +form a party. When no contract is implied, one man or woman must be +spoken of as a person, not as a party. + + Patron, Customer + +Unless there is a sense of obligation or condescension, use the term +customer and not patron. In like manner, use custom instead of +patronage. + + Per + +Per is a Latin preposition and should be used only with Latin nouns. +We should say per annum, but not per year; per diem, and not per day; +per capita, and not per head. "He received a thousand dollars a year +is shorter and better than "he received a thousand dollars per year." + + Perchance, Peradventure + +These are poetic and archaic forms that should be avoided in ordinary +prose. + + Performers + +"The entertainment consisted of reading, recitations, and singing, and +the performers acquitted themselves well." Readers, reciters, and +singers are not + _________________________________________________________________ + +94 + +performers. The term is applied to the stage, and to those who play on +musical instruments. Even in the latter application, "he plays well on +the piano," is better than "he performs well on the piano." + + Period, Point + +Do not use period for a point of time. Period implies extended time. + + Nothing like + +"James is nothing like so successful as his brother" illustrates a +colloquialism that should be avoided. Use not nearly so, etc. + + Notorious, Noted + +"He was elected to Congress, then Governor, and we now think of +sending him to the United States Senate. He is becoming quite +notorious." The word notorious implies some bad or doubtful quality or +characteristic, and must not be used in the sense of noted or famous. + + Nowhere near so + +"He trapped nowhere near so many rabbits as his cousin." This +vulgarism should be avoided. Use not nearly. + + Plead + +The past tense of read is read, but the past tense of plead is +pleaded, not plead. "The prisoner pleaded for mercy." + _________________________________________________________________ + +95 + + Plenty, Plentiful + +"Money is plenty this summer." Plenty is a noun and should not be used +as an adjective. Therefore "money is plentiful this summer." +Shakespeare says, "If reasons were as plenty as blackberries," etc., +but words have settled into more definite grooves since Shakespeare's +time. "This house is plenty large enough." Neither is plenty an +adverb. Say, "This house is quite large enough," or, simply, large +enough. + + About, around + +"She was pleased with the conversation about her." Use "around her." + +"She was pained by the conversation about her." Use "concerning her." + + Overlook, Oversee + +This word means to look down upon from a place that is over or above; +as, "From the top of the Washington monument you can readily overlook +the city." But it also means to look over and beyond an object in +order to see a second object, thus missing the view of the first +object; hence, to refrain from bestowing notice upon, to neglect. The +confounding of these two ideas begets ambiguity, as "Brown's business +was to overlook the workmen in the shop." His business was to oversee +or superintend them, and not to neglect or overlook them. + _________________________________________________________________ + +96 + + Revolting + +To revolt is to rebel, to renounce allegiance, but the participial +form revolting also means repugnant, loathsome. In the sentence, "A +band of revolting Huns has just passed down the street," we should be +in doubt whether the speaker referred to their acts against the +government or to their appearance. The use of the word rebellious in +the former sense, and of disagreeable or disgusting, or the stronger +adjectives given above, for the latter meaning, would make the +sentence clear. + + Unexampled + +Such adjectives as unexampled, unparalleled, unprecedented, do not +admit of comparison, hence such expressions as the most unexampled +bravery, the most unparalleled heroism, etc., should be avoided. + + Utter + +This verb should be distinguished from express or say. Utter carries +with it the idea of articulate expression, except in the sense of +uttering false coins or forged notes. + +As an adjective it is defined by complete, perfect, absolute, etc., +but it can be applied only to what is unpleasant or unfavorable. "I +enjoyed utter happiness" would be an absurd expression, but "I was +doomed to utter misery" illustrates a proper use of the word. + _________________________________________________________________ + +97 + + Valuable, Valued + +These words are not synonymous; valuable means precious, costly, +having value; valued refers to our estimation of the worth. "He is one +of our most valued contributors," not valuable, unless you are +thinking of the value of his contributions and the smallness of the +compensation. + + Very pleased + +A few participles used as adjectives may be directly modified by too +or very; as, "I was very tired," "He was too fatigued to go farther." + +We sometimes hear the expression, "I was very pleased," but the +critics insist upon "I was very much pleased," or "greatly pleased," +or "very greatly pleased." + + Vicinity + +Often too high-sounding a word for the thought; neighborhood is less +pretentious. + + The old man + +The use of such words as dad, daddy, mam, mammy, the old man, the old +woman, when applied to parents, not only indicates a lack of +refinement, but shows positive disrespect. The words pap, pappy, +governor, etc., are also objectionable. After the first lispings of +childhood the words papa and mamma, properly accented, should be +insisted upon by parents, and at + _________________________________________________________________ + +98 + +the age of twelve or fifteen the words father and mother should be +substituted and ever after used, as showing a proper respect on the +part of children. + + Great big + +"He gave me a great big apple." This is a colloquialism that should be +avoided. Use large. + + Argue, Augur + +"The hollow whistling of the wind among the trees argues an +approaching storm." Use augurs. + + Barbaric, Barbarous + +Barbaric refers to a people; barbarous to their low state of life and +their habits of cruelty. + + Cut in half + +A colloquialism in very frequent use. "I will cut this melon in half +and share it with you." Say, cut in two, or cut in halves, or cut in +two parts. + + Hearty meal + +"He ate a hearty meal before starting on his journey." Hearty applies +to the eater rather than to the meal. "He ate heartily," etc. + + Some better + +"John has been right sick, but is now some better." Somewhat, rather, +or slightly may take the place of some. The sentence may be otherwise +improved. "John has been quite ill, but is now somewhat better." + _________________________________________________________________ + +99 + + Through, Finished + +Unless you have fallen through a trap door and finished your career, +do not say, "I am through," when you mean "I have finished." The +school-boy says, "I am through with, that lesson," when he should say, +"I have finished that lesson." The farmer asks the man in his employ, +"Are you through with that field?" when he should have asked, "Have +you finished ploughing that field?" You ask your friend, "Are you +through, with Trilby?" when you should ask, "Have you finished reading +Trilby." + + Winterish + +Do not say summerish and winterish, but summery, or summerlike, and +wintry. + + Wish + +The word hope should be employed instead of wish in such cases as, "I +wish you may succeed in your undertaking." + + Right + +This little word has many meanings and is put to many uses. In the +following senses it should be avoided: + +"Stand right here." In most instances the briefer expression, "Stand +here," is sufficient. If it is necessary to locate the place more +definitely or to emphasize the position, "Stand just here," or "Stand +on this very spot," may be better. + _________________________________________________________________ + +100 + +"The train came to a standstill right here." Better, "The train +stopped just here." + +"Do it right away." This is a colloquialism that should be avoided. +Immediately, instantly, at once, without delay, are expressions that +may safely be substituted for right away. + +"I heard of your misfortune, and came to you right away." "John, post +this letter for me right off." Directly or immediately, in the place +of right away and right off, is better English. + +"James is right sick, and the doctor comes to see him right often." +The use of right as an intensive with adjectives and adverbs is very +common in many quarters. Quite ill or very ill is better than right +sick, and often or frequently is better than right often. + +"We have a right good crop of wheat this year." Use very instead of +right. + +"You have as good a right to be punished as I have." The person +addressed would gladly relinquish his right. "You merit punishment as +well as I," or "You deserve to be punished," etc. + + Shall, Will, Should, Would + +Few persons can claim to be entirely free from slips of speech in the +use of these auxiliaries. Simply to express a future action or event, +shall is used with the first person and will with the second and +third; as, + _________________________________________________________________ + +101 +I shall read, We shall read, +You will read, You will read, +He will read, They will read. + +But when I desire to show determination on my part to do a certain +thing, or when I exercise my authority over another, or express +promise, command, or threat, will is used in the first person and +shall in the second and third; as, +I will read, We will read, +You shall read, You shall read, +He shall read, They shall read. + +Shall primarily implies obligation; will implies intention or purpose. +Will and would should be used whenever the subject names the one whose +will controls the action; shall and should must be employed whenever +the one named by the subject is under the control of another. + +The difference between should and would is, in general, about the same +as that between shall and will. + +The foregoing suggestions cover the ordinary uses of these +auxiliaries, but there are some special cases deserving attention. + +Will, in the first person, expresses assent or promise, as well as +determination; as, + +"I will read this poem for you since you have requested it." + _________________________________________________________________ + +102 + +"I will meet you to-morrow at the time appointed." + +Will, in the second person, may express a command; as, + +"You will take the places assigned you." + +"You will report immediately at my office." + +Will is sometimes employed to express a general fact, without +conveying the idea of futurity; as, "Accidents will happen." +"Differences will arise." + +Will is sometimes incorrectly used instead of shall; as, "Will I go?" +for "Shall I go?" This fault is common in Scotland, and prevails to +some extent in this country. + +Will is also used where may would be more appropriate; as, "Be that as +it will." + + Shall you? Will you? + +The distinction between shall and will in the interrogative forms of +the second person are not very clearly defined. Many writers and +speakers use them interchangeably. The answer should have the same +auxiliary as the question. + +"Shall you go to town to-morrow?" "I shall." + +"Will you attend to this matter promptly?" "I will." + + Should, Would, Ought + +Should is often used in the sense of ought; as, "Mary should remain at +home to-day and wait upon her sick mother." + _________________________________________________________________ + +103 + +Should and would are employed to express a conditional assertion; as, +"I should go to college, if I could secure the necessary means." "He +would have gone fishing, if his father had been willing." + +Would is often used to express a custom, a determination, or a wish; +as, "He would sit all day and moan." "Would to God we had died in the +land of Egypt." "He would go, and his parents could not prevent him." + + Talented + +Certain authors and critics, including Coleridge, have objected +strongly to the use of talented. One writer argues that since there is +no such verb as to talent, the formation of such a participle as +talented cannot be defended, and he further declares that no good +writer is known to use it, Webster (The International Dictionary) +states that, as a formative, talented is just as analogical and +legitimate as gifted, bigoted, moneyed, lauded, lilied, honeyed, and +numerous other adjectives having a participial form, but derived +directly from nouns and not from verbs. + +We must therefore conclude that the use of talented as an adjective is +entirely legitimate. + + Climb down + +The critics generally oppose the use of the expression climb down. +When the verb is employed without + _________________________________________________________________ + +104 + +its adverbial modifier, the upward direction is always understood. In +figurative language, as "Black vapors climb aloft, and cloud the day," +"The general climbed the heights of fame," the upward direction is +also understood. + +But in a specific sense climb is defined "to mount laboriously, +especially by the use of hands and feet." Here the manner seems to be +as important as the direction. When the same manner must be employed +in descending, as a tree, a mast, or a steep, rocky cliff, the general +term descend fails to convey the meaning, and to use slip, slide, +drop, tumble, fall, would be incorrect. We are then left to choose +between the short and clear, but objectionable, expression climb down +and some long and cumbersome equivalent. + + Mighty + +Never use mighty in the sense of very, or exceedingly. It is not only +inappropriate but inelegant. + + Of, From + +"She had consumption and died from the disease." Say, "died of the +disease." + + On, Over, Upon + +"Mary called upon her friend." Say, "called on her friend." "The +Senator prevailed over his friends to support his bill." Say, +"prevailed upon his + _________________________________________________________________ + +105 + +friends." "The candidate prevailed over his enemies." + + Partake + +This word means to take a part of, to share with another. It is often +incorrectly used for ate, as "He partook sparingly of the food." + + Powerful sight + +This is a Westernism to be avoided. It is used indiscriminately for a +large number, a great quantity, a vast amount, etc. + + Apprehend, Comprehend + +To apprehend is to take into the mind; to comprehend is to understand +fully what is already there. We may apprehend many truths which we do +not comprehend. + + Introduce, Present + +Present implies more formality than introduce. We introduce one friend +to another. An envoy is presented to the King. Foreign ministers are +presented to the President of the United States. + + Same as + +"This is the same story as I read last week." Use same that. + _________________________________________________________________ + +106 + + Section + +"We raise finer horses in our section." This is an Americanism that +should be avoided. Neighborhood, vicinity, region, part of the country +or State, may be substituted for section. + + Seldom or ever + +This incorrect expression is sometimes used instead of seldom or never +or seldom if ever. "I have seldom if ever heard so eloquent an +oration." "I have seldom or never seen the man." + + Sewage, Sewerage + +These words have distinct meanings. Sewage refers to the contents of +the sewer; sewerage to the system of sewers. + + Sociable, Social + +"He is one of the most sociable men I have met. He is fond of society, +and is very ready in conversation." Sociable means companionable; +social applies to the relations of men in society; as social duties, +social pleasures, social interests. + + Specialty, Speciality + +These words are interchangeable, but the former is the better word. + + Requirement, Requisition, Requisite + +While these words have something in common, each has a meaning +peculiar to itself. Requirement + _________________________________________________________________ + +107 + +means that which is required as an essential condition, or as +something necessary; requisition, that which is required as of right, +a demand or application made as by authority; requisite, that which is +required by the nature of things, or by circumstances, that which +cannot be dispensed with. "She understood the nature of the child and +of its requirements." "The officer made a requisition for more +troops." "This is as much a requisite as food and clothing." + + Sick, Ill + +There is a growing tendency to discriminate between sickness and +illness, limiting the words sick and sickness to some slight +disturbance of the physical system, as nausea, and applying the words +ill and illness to protracted disease and disordered health. + + Scholar, Pupil + +Although these words are often used synonymously and with good +authority, it would be better to limit the former to learned persons +and to apply the latter to persons under instruction. + + Commenced to write + +"I commenced to write at a very early age." After the verb commence +the best writers use the verbal + _________________________________________________________________ + +108 + +noun instead of the infinitive with to; as, "I commenced writing at a +very early age." + + Beside, Besides + +These words were formerly used interchangeably, but the best writers +of to-day make a distinction. Beside means by the side of. Besides +means in addition to. Besides is sometimes incorrectly used for +except; as, "No trees will grow here besides the pine." + + Bountiful, Plentiful + +Bountiful applies to the giver; plentiful to the things furnished. +"The bountiful Giver of all good furnishes a plentiful supply of all +things needful for our comfort and happiness." Do not say a bountiful +repast, a bountiful harvest. + + Attacked, Burst, Drowned + +The incorrect past tense forms attackted, bursted, drownded, are +sometimes heard; as, "The cashier was attackted by three of the +ruffians," "The cannon bursted and killed the gunners,"" The fishermen +were drownded off the bar." Use attacked, burst, drowned. + + All + +This little word is used in a great many ways, some of which are quite +colloquial, and in some cases provincial. When the grocer's clerk has +taken your order he is prompted to say, "Is that all?" Or if + _________________________________________________________________ + +109 + +he should say, "Is there anything else that you wish?" you are likely +to reply, "No; that is all." Whether used in the question or in the +reply, the word all should be avoided, or else the expression should +be expanded so as to make a clear sentence. + +A friend calls to see you, and, finding you alone when he expected to +meet others with you, he says, "Good morning; I see you are all +alone." All is not a good equivalent for quite or entirely, either of +which words would be better than all. In truth, the sentence is as +clear and as strong and more concise without the use of a modifier. "I +see you are alone." + + Inaugurate + +To inaugurate means to induct into office or to set in motion with +formality and serious ceremony. Pompous writers too often employ the +word in referring to commonplace events. A new business is +established. A new hall or library is opened. A new pastor is +installed. A new order of procedure is adopted. In general, the word +begin or commence would be more appropriate than inaugurate. + + Came across, Met with + +"I came across the passage quite unexpectedly." Better, "I chanced +upon," or "happened upon,," or "met with the passage quite +unexpectedly." + _________________________________________________________________ + +110 + + Expect + +Few words are more frequently incorrectly used than expect. "I expect +you went to town yesterday," "I expect you will hear from me +to-morrow," "I expect the train has arrived," represent some of the +uses to which this word is often put. Expect refers wholly to the +future, and should not refer to present or past events; as, "I expect +you to write me from Liverpool." "John expects to see his father +to-morrow." Among the expressions that can most readily and +appropriately be substituted for expect are suspect, suppose, think, +believe, presume, daresay. + + Over with + +"After the supper was over with the guests departed." Omit with. + + Overflown + +"The lowlands along the river are overflown." Use overflowed. The +perfect participle of overflow is overflowed, not overflown. + + Good piece + +"I have come a good piece to see you." Say "I have come a long +distance to see you." + + Stand a chance + +"He does not stand any chance of an election." Say, "It is not +probable that he will be elected." + _________________________________________________________________ + +111 + + No more than I could help + +"As I was not in sympathy with the cause, I gave no more than I could +help." So accustomed are we to hearing this awkward, blundering +expression that we readily understand the meaning it is intended to +convey, and should be sorely puzzled to interpret the correct form. +Let us analyze it. I gave five dollars. That much I could not help +(giving). I gave no more. Hence, "I gave no more than I could not +help." This last form appears to be correct. By changing the +phraseology the sentence can be greatly improved. "I gave no more than +I felt compelled to give." "I made my contribution as small as +possible." "My gift was limited to the measure of my sense of +obligation." + + Above, More than, Preceding + +"It is above a week since I heard from my brother." We may say "above +the earth," "above the housetops," but in the preceding sentence it is +better to say, "It is more than a week since I heard from my brother." + +"In the above paragraph he quotes from Horace." Say, "In the preceding +or foregoing paragraph," etc. The awkwardness of the use of the word +above becomes very apparent when the line in which it occurs is found +at the top of a page, and the passage + _________________________________________________________________ + +112 + +to which reference is made appears at the bottom of the previous page. + + Climax + +The Greek word climax means literally a ladder, and implies ascent, +upward movement. The best authors use it only in this sense, and not +to denote the highest point. + + Factor + +This word, from the Latin factor, a doer, an agent, signifies working, +doing, effecting. Its frequent use in the sense of source or part +should be avoided. + + "All are but factors of one stupendous whole, + Whose body Nature is, and God the soul." + +Pope employs the better word parts. + + Hung, Hanged + +Pictures, signs, bells, and other inanimate objects are hung; men are +hanged. While some writers ignore this distinction, the best +authorities observe it. + + Healthy, Healthful + +A lady wrote to a paper asking, "Are plants in a sleeping-room +unhealthy?" The answer came, "Not necessarily; we have seen some very +healthy plants growing in sleeping-rooms." + +Persons are healthy or unhealthy. A plant or tree is + _________________________________________________________________ + +113 + +healthy or unhealthy according as it possesses vigor. Food, +surroundings and conditions are healthful or unhealthful according as +they promote or destroy health. + + Idea, Opinion + +"Many persons think that the interior of the earth is a mass of fire; +what is your idea?" Say, "What is your opinion?" + + Alone, Only + +"An only child" is one that has neither brother nor sister. "A child +alone" is one that is left to itself. "Virtue alone makes us happy" +means that virtue unaccompanied by any other advantages is sufficient +to make us happy. "Virtue only makes us happy" means that nothing else +can do it. + + Grow, Raise, Rear + +"We grow wheat, corn, oats, and potatoes on our farm." "We raise +wheat," etc., would be better. With the same propriety we might use +sleep for lodge, and eat for feed, or supply with food; as, "We can +eat and sleep fifty persons at one time." + +The word raise is often incorrectly used in the sense of rear; as, +"She raised a family of nine children." It is sometimes employed in +the sense of increase, as, "The landlord raised my rent." Increased +would be better. + _________________________________________________________________ + +114 + + Has went + +"He goes to school," "He went to school yesterday," "He has gone to +the West." Avoid such ungrammatical forms as "He has went," "I have +saw." + + Badly, Greatly + +Badly is often incorrectly used for greatly or very much, as, "I need +it badly," "He was badly hurt." + +"That fence wants painting badly, I think I'll do it myself," said the +economical husband. + +"Yes," said his wife, "you had better do it yourself if you think it +wants to be done badly." + + At you + +"If you don't stop teasing me I will do something at you," meaning "I +will punish you." That form of expression is very common in some +localities, and it is even more inelegant than common. The use of the +preposition to instead of at would be a slight improvement, but the +sentence should be entirely recast. + + Haply, Happily + +In the reading of the Scriptures the word happily is sometimes used +where the archaic word haply should be employed. In like manner the +word thoroughly is substituted for the old form throughly. Both words +should be pronounced as they are spelled. + _________________________________________________________________ + +115 + + Thanks + +To say "I thank you" requires but little more effort than to say +"Thanks," and it will be received as a more sincere token of +thankfulness. + + Got to + +This inelegant expression is often employed where must would serve the +purpose better. "This work has got to be done." Say, "Must be done." + + Hangs on + +"The cold weather hangs on." Better, "The cold weather continues." + + Under the Weather + +"Are you well?" "No; I have been quite under the weather." Substitute +sick or ill, for the colloquial expression under the weather. + + Again, Against + +Again is often erroneously used for against; as, "He leaned again the +tree for support." Say, "He leaned against the tree for support." + + Could, Can, Will + +Could is often incorrectly employed where can or will would be more +appropriate. + +"Could you lend me a dollar this morning?" If the thought of the +inquirer is, "Are you willing to lend," etc., he should have used will +instead of could; + _________________________________________________________________ + +116 + +but if his thought was, "Are you able to lend," or "Do you have a +dollar to spare this morning," he should have used can. + + Bravery, Courage + +Bravery is inborn; courage is the result of reason and determination. +The brave are often reckless; the courageous are always cautious. + + Hate + +Avoid the use of hate for dislike, and all other intensive words when +the thought is more correctly expressed by a milder word. + + Pretty, Very + +Pretty is often incorrectly used in the sense of very or moderately, +as "He was pretty badly hurt," "He is a pretty good scholar," "She is +pretty wealthy," "Thomas is pretty ugly." So common is this +provincialism in some localities that the incongruity of such an +expression as the last would pass undiscovered. + + Lot, Number + +The use of lot for number or many is a colloquialism that should be +avoided. "He collected a lot (large number) of books on the subject." +"A lot of policemen were gathered there" "I ate lots of oranges while +I was in Florida." + _________________________________________________________________ + +117 + + Lead a dance + +"He led his companion a fine dance." This expression, as generally +used, is ironical, and implies that the leader conducts those who are +led through experiences unfamiliar to them and usually to their +disadvantage. To lead astray, to deceive, to corrupt the morals of, +may be substituted for the foregoing inelegant expression. + + Try and + +"Have you been to the country this summer?" "No; but I will try and go +next week.". The second speaker intends to convey the idea that it is +his purpose to go if nothing occurs to prevent, but his going is still +a matter of uncertainty. His statement, however, when properly +interpreted means that he not only will try, but that he positively +will go. + +"Try and finish that work to-day." Here the purpose is not to command +that the work shall be finished, but that the trial shall be made. As +the sentence stands two distinct commands are given, first, that the +trial shall be made, and, second, that the work must be completed. The +sentence should read, "Try to finish that work to-day." + +Use to instead of and in such expressions as "Try and make it +convenient to come," "Try and do your work properly," "Try and think +of your lessons," "Try and go and see our sick neighbor." + _________________________________________________________________ + +118 + + CHAPTER III + + Contractions + +Whatever may be said against employing contractions in dignified +discourse, their use in colloquial speech is too firmly established to +justify our censure. But, in their use, as, indeed, in the use of all +words, proper discrimination must be shown. + +Just why haven't, hasn't, doesn't, isn't, wasn't, are regarded as +being in good repute, and ain't, weren't, mightn't, oughtn't, are +regarded with less favor, and why shalln't, willn't are absolutely +excluded, it would be difficult to explain. + +Use determines the law of language, whether for single words, +grammatical forms, or grammatical constructions. Wherever a people, by +common consent, employ a particular word to mean a certain thing, that +word becomes an inherent part of the language of that people, whether +it has any basis in etymology or not. We must not wrest this law to +our own convenience, however, by assuming that such words and phrases +as are introduced and employed by the illiterate, or even by the +educated, within a circumscribed territory, are, therefore, to be +regarded as + _________________________________________________________________ + +119 + +reputable words. The sanction of all classes, the educated as well as +the uneducated, throughout the entire country in which the language is +spoken, is necessary and preliminary to the proper introduction of a +new word into the language. + + Ain't + +This word is a contraction of am not or are not, and can, therefore, +be used only with the singular pronouns I and you, and with the plural +pronouns we, you, and they, and with nouns in the plural. + +I am not pleased. I ain't pleased. + +You are not kind. You ain't kind. + +They are not gentlemen. They ain't gentlemen. + +These sentences will serve to illustrate the proper use of ain't, if +it is ever proper to use such an inelegant word as that. "James ain't +a good student," "Mary ain't a skillful musician," or "This orange +ain't sweet," are expressions frequently heard, yet those who use them +would be shocked to hear the same expressions with the proper +equivalent am not or are not substituted for the misleading ain't. + +The expression ain't is compounded of the verb am or are and the +adverb not, and by the contraction the three vocal impulses I-am-not, +or you-are-not, or they-are-not, are reduced to two. By compounding +the pronoun with the verb and preserving the full adverb, + _________________________________________________________________ + +120 + +as in "I'm not," "You're not," "They're not," we also reduce the three +vocal impulses to two, thus securing as short a contraction in sound +and one that is as fully adapted to colloquial speech, and that is, at +the same time, in much better taste. + +The old form for ain't was an't, but this has now become obsolete. It +will be a blessing to the English-speaking people when the descendant +shall sleep with his father. + +Are not is sometimes contracted into aren't, but this form has not +found much favor. + + Can't and Couldn't + +As cannot and could not may be used with pronouns of the first, +second, or third person, in either number, and with nouns in both +numbers, no error is likely to follow the use of their contracted +forms. + +Why cannot is properly written as one word, and could not requires +two, is not founded upon any principle of philosophy. The concurrent +sanction of all classes in all parts of the English-speaking world +establishes it as law. + +Observe that the a in the verb can't is broader in sound than the +short a in the noun cant. + + Don't and Didn't + +Don't is a contraction of do not. It is in very general use and in +good repute. It may be employed + _________________________________________________________________ + +121 + +wherever the expanded expression do not could be applied, and only +there. + +"One swallow don't make a spring" is equivalent to saying, "One +swallow do not make a spring." We may say "I don't," "You don't," "We +don't," "They don't," "The men (or birds, or trees) don't," but we +must use doesn't with he, or she, or it, or the man, the grove, the +cloud, etc. + +Unlike the verb do, its past tense form did undergoes no change in +conjugation, hence the contraction didn't is also uniform. + + Haven't, Hasn't, and Hadn't + +The verb have, like the verb do, has a distinct form for the third +person singular. The same change affects the contraction. I haven't, +you haven't, he hasn't. The construction hadn't undergoes no change. + + Haint, Taint + +Haint is used indiscriminately for haven't and hasn't. Taint is used +for tisn't. Their use is indicative of an entire lack of culture. + + Isn't + +No one need hesitate to use this word. It is smooth in utterance and +contributes much to the freedom and ease of social intercourse. Its +equivalent is too stately for colloquial forms of speech, and is often + _________________________________________________________________ + +122 + +suggestive of pedantry. Compare "Isn't he an eloquent speaker?" "Isn't +this a beautiful flower?" with "Is not he an eloquent speaker?" "Is +this not a beautiful flower?" + + Wasn't + +Although not so elegant as the present tense form isn't, yet the +contraction wasn't is in excellent repute. It is properly used only in +the first and third persons singular. No one who makes any pretension +to culture would be guilty of saying" You was my neighbor, but you +wasn't my friend," "We was engaged in trade, and they wasn't of any +use to us." Say we were or were not, but never wasn't or wa'nt. + + Weren't + +The forms aren't, and weren't do not have the sanction of the best +speakers and writers, and should be used sparingly, if at all. + + Shouldn't and Wouldn't + +These are frequently used in speech, but are not so common in writing. + + Mustn't, Mayn't, Mightn't, and Oughtn't + +Mustn't may be used in light conversation, but not in writing. The +others should be avoided in speech and writing. + _________________________________________________________________ + +123 + + I'm, You're, He's, She's, It's, We're, They're + +The contractions formed by compounding the pronoun with the verb are +very common, and tend to preserve conversation from becoming stiff and +formal. Nouns in the singular are sometimes compounded in like manner; +as, "John's going by the early train," "Mary's caught a bird." Not +many verbs beside is and has are thus compounded, and the practice +should be discouraged. + + Mayst, Mightst + +Although mayst, canst, mightst, couldst, wouldst, and shouldst are +contracted forms, the apostrophe is not employed to indicate the +contraction. + + Daren't, Dursent + +Dare not is sometimes contracted to daren't and durst not to dursent, +but the practice should not be encouraged. + + Let's + +While verbs are often contracted when compounded with pronouns, as +it's, he's, I'm, you're, etc., the pronoun must not be contracted to +form a combination with the verb. It may be a poor rule, but it will +not work both ways. Let's should therefore be let us. + _________________________________________________________________ + +124 + + CHAPTER IV + + Possessive Case + +Some time ago a shoe merchant called upon the writer to know how to +arrange the points in the wording of a new sign that he was preparing +to place over his door. He made a specialty of shoes for men and boys. +He presented a paper containing the lines: + + Men's and Boy's Shoes. + Mens' and Boys' Shoes. + +He was politely informed that both were incorrect; that the two words +form their plurals differently, and that the possessive case is, +therefore, formed in a different manner. The plural of man is men,; +the plural of boy is boys. The possessive of man is man's; of men is +men's. The possessive of boy is boy's; of boys is boys'. In the latter +case we are obliged to place the apostrophe after the s in order to +distinguish the possessive plural from the possessive singular. All +nouns that form their plurals by adding s to the singular, form their +possessive case as the word boy does. The sign should therefore read: + + Men's and Boys' Shoes. + _________________________________________________________________ + +125 + + Singular Nouns + +All nouns in the singular form their possessive case by adding the +apostrophe and the letter s; as, child's, girl's, woman's, bird's, +brother's, sister's, judge's, sailor's. + +When the noun ends in s, sh, ch, ce, se, or x, the additional s makes +another syllable in pronouncing the word; as, James's, Charles's, +witness's, duchess's, countess's, Rush's, March's, prince's, horse's, +fox's. In poetry the terminal s is sometimes omitted for the sake of +the meter. + +While writers differ, the tendency in modern usage is toward the +additional s in such expressions as Mrs. Hemans's Poems, Junius's +Letters, Knowles's "Virginius," Knox's Sermons, Brooks's Arithmetics, +Rogers's Essays. + +By long-established usage such expressions as for conscience' sake, +for righteousness' sake, for qoodness' sake, for Jesus' sake, have +become idioms. Some authorities justify the omission of the possessive +s when the next word begins with s, as in Archimedes' screw, Achilles' +sword. + + Plural Nouns + +Most nouns form their plurals by adding s or es to the singular. These +plurals form their possessive by adding the apostrophe; as, horses', +countesses', foxes', churches', princes'. Nouns whose plurals are +formed otherwise than by adding s or es, form their possessive + _________________________________________________________________ + +126 + +case by adding the apostrophe and s, just as nouns in the singular do; +as, men's, women's, children's, seraphim's. + + Pronouns + +Sometimes the mistake is made of using the apostrophe with the +possessive personal pronouns; as, her's, our's, it's. The personal and +relative pronouns do not require the apostrophe, but the indefinite +pronouns one and other form their possessives in the same manner as +nouns; as, "each other's eyes," "a hundred others' woes." + + Double Possessives + +"John and Mary's sled," means one sled belonging jointly to John and +Mary. "John's and Mary's sleds" means that one sled belongs to John, +the other to Mary. + +"Men, women, and children's shoes for sale here." When several +possessives connected by and refer to the same noun, the sign of the +possessive is applied to the last one only. + +When a disjunctive word or words are used, the sign must be annexed to +each word; as, "These are Charles's or James's books." + + Possessive of Nouns in Apposition + +When two nouns are in apposition, or constitute a title, the +possessive sign is affixed to the last, as + _________________________________________________________________ + +127 + +"For David my servant's sake," "Give me here John the Baptist's head +in a charger," "The Prince of Wales's yacht," "Frederick the Great's +kindness." + + After "of" + +By a peculiarity of idiom the possessive sign is used with a noun in +the objective; as, "This is a story of Lincoln's," "That is a letter +of the President's," "A patient of Dr. Butler's," "A pupil of +Professor Ludlam's." + +In ordinary prose the custom of the best writers is to limit the use +of the possessive chiefly to persons and personified objects; to time +expressions, as, an hour's delay, a moment's thought; and to such +idioms as for brevity's sake. + +Avoid such expressions as, "America's champion baseball player," +"Chicago's best five-cent cigar," "Lake Michigan's swiftest steamer." + + Somebody else's + +The question whether we should say "This is somebody's else pencil," +or "This is somebody else's pencil," has been warmly argued by the +grammarians, the newspapers, and the schools. If some leading journal +or magazine were to write somebody else as one word, others would, +doubtless, follow, and the question of the possessive would settle +itself. The word notwithstanding is composed of three separate words, + _________________________________________________________________ + +128 + +which are no more closely united in thought than are the three words +some, body, and else. Two of the latter are already united, and the +close mental union of the third with the first and second would +justify the innovation. + +But the words are at present disunited. A majority of the best writers +still conform to the old custom of placing the possessive with else. + +"People were so ridiculous with their illusions, carrying their fool's +caps unawares, thinking their own lies opaque, while everybody else's +were transparent."-- George Eliot. + +Some make a distinction by placing the possessive with else when the +noun follows, and with somebody when the noun precedes; as, "This is +somebody else's pencil," and "This pencil is somebody's else." This +distinction is not generally followed. + _________________________________________________________________ + +129 + + CHAPTER V + + Pronouns + +The correct use of the pronouns, personal and relative, involves a +degree of skill which many speakers and writers fail to possess. The +choice of the appropriate pronoun, the agreement with its antecedent, +the proper case form, are matters that require careful consideration. + + Case Forms + +Following am, are, is, was, and other forms of the verb to be, the +pronoun must be in the nominative case. + +"Are you the person that called?" "Yes; I am him." The answer should +have been, "I am he." + +"I saw a man trespassing on my grounds, and I think you are him." Say, +"You are he." + +"It is only me; don't be afraid." "It is only I" is the correct form. + +"It was him that struck you, not me." Change him, to he, and me to I. + +"It might have been him that sent you the present." Use he, not him. + _________________________________________________________________ + +130 + +"It is him whom you said it was." The sentence should be, "It is he +who you said it was." + +"That was but a picture of him and not him himself." Say, "and not he +himself." + + After Verbs and Prepositions + +When a pronoun depends upon a verb or a preposition the pronoun must +be in the objective case. + +"Between you and I, that picture is very faulty." The pronouns you and +I depend upon the preposition between. The pronoun I should therefore +be in the objective case, and the sentence should be, "Between you and +me, that picture is very faulty." + +"The president of the meeting appointed you and I upon the committee." +As both pronouns are objects of the transitive verb appointed, both +should be in the objective case. You having the same form in the +objective as in the nominative is, therefore, correct, but I should be +changed to me. + +"The teacher selected he and I to represent the class." The pronouns +are the objects of the verb selected, and should be changed to him and +me. The infinitive to represent, like other infinitives, can have no +subject, and, therefore, does not control the case of the pronouns. + + Interrogatives + +When a question is asked, the subject is usually placed after the +verb, or between the auxiliary and + _________________________________________________________________ + +131 + +the verb; as, "Did you go to town?" "Will he sail to-day?" "Has your +uncle arrived?" "Hearest thou thy mother's call?" + +The object or attribute of the verb, when a pronoun, is often used to +introduce the sentence. "Who should I see coming toward me but my old +friend?" Who should be whom, for it is the object, and not the +subject, of the verb should see. + +"Whom do you think that tall gentleman is?" Whom should be who, as it +is the attribute of the verb is. + +"Who do you take me for?" Being the object of the preposition for, who +should be whom. + + After "To be" + +"I knew it was him" is incorrect, because the word which forms the +pronoun attribute of the verb was must be in the nominative case. But +the infinitive of the neuter verb requires the objective case. +Therefore we must say, "I knew it to be him," not "I knew it to be +he." The latter faulty form is very frequently employed. + +"Who did you suppose it to be?" Incorrect. Say, "whom." + +"Whom did you suppose it was?" Incorrect. Say, "who." + _________________________________________________________________ + +132 + + After the Imperative + +The imperative mood requires the objective case after it. "Let you and +I try it." It should be, "Let you and me try it." + +"Let he who made thee answer that."-- Byron. He should have said, "Let +him who made thee answer that." + +"Let him be whom, he may." Him is the objective after the imperative +let, and is correct. Whom should be who, as pronoun attribute of the +verb may be. "Who he may be, I cannot tell," is correct. "Who he may +be, let him be," is also correct. By transposing, and by omitting be, +we have "Let him be who he may." + +"Let the sea roar, and the fullness thereof; the world, and they that +dwell therein." When, as in this case, the verb is widely separated +from its object, we need to give particular care to the case of the +pronoun which constitutes the object. They should be them. + + Silent Predicate + +"Who will go with us to the woods? Me." The complete answer would be," +Me will go with you to the woods," the faultiness of which is evident. +The answer should be "I." + + After "Than" and "As" + +The objective pronoun is often incorrectly used for the nominative +after than or as. + _________________________________________________________________ + +133 + +"He can swim better than me." The complete sentence would be, "He can +swim better than I can swim." The omission of the verb can swim +affords no reason for changing I to me. + +"He is no better than me." Say, "He is no better than I," meaning, I +am. + +"They are common people, such as you and me." Such people "as you and +I are." The pronoun should be I, not me. + + Parenthetical Expressions + +When a parenthetical expression comes between a pronoun in the +nominative case and its verb, the objective is often incorrectly used +instead of the nominative. + +"She sang for the benefit of those whom she thought might be +interested." The explanatory parenthesis "she thought" comes between +the pronominal subject and its verb might be interested. Omit the +explanatory clause and the case of the pronoun becomes clear. "She +sang for the benefit of those who might be interested." + + Agreement with Antecedent + +A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender, person, and +number. The gender and person usually take care of themselves, but the +number of pronouns is a serious obstacle to correct speech. + _________________________________________________________________ + +134 + +"One tells the quality of their minds when they try to talk well"-- +George Eliot, in Middlemarch. The pronouns their and they should be +singular. + +"Everybody has something to say which they think is worthy of being +heard." Everybody refers to persons singly, and not collectively. They +think should be he thinks, he being the proper pronoun to employ when +the gender is not indicated. + +"Every nation has laws and customs of their own." The use of the word +every necessitates a pronoun in the singular, hence their should be +its. + +"Every one is accountable for their own acts." Use his. + +"She studied his countenance like an inscription, and deciphered each +rapt expression that crossed it, and stored them in her memory." +Change them to it. + +"Each of them, in their turn, received the reward to which they were +entitled." This should be "Each of them in his turn received the +reward to which he was entitled." + +No and not, like each and every, when they qualify a plural +antecedent, or one consisting of two or more nouns, require a pronoun +in the singular. + +"No policeman, no employee, no citizen dared to lift their hand" Say, +his hand. + _________________________________________________________________ + +135 + + Or, Nor + +When the antecedent consists of two or more nouns separated by or, +nor, as well as, or any other disjunctive, the pronoun must be +singular. + +"Neither spelling nor parsing receive the attention they once +received." Verb and pronoun should be singular, receives and it. + + Collective Noun + +When a noun of multitude or collective noun is the antecedent, the +pronoun, like the verb, must be plural or singular according to the +sense intended to be conveyed. + + Ambiguity + +Never leave the antecedent of your pronoun in doubt. + +"John tried to see his father in the crowd, but could not, because he +was so short." If the father was short, repeat the noun and omit the +pronoun, as "John tried to see his father in the crowd but could not +because his father was so short." If John was short, recast the +sentence: "John, being short of stature, tried in vain to see his +father in the crowd." + +"He said to his friend that, if he did not feel better soon, he +thought he had better go home." This sentence is susceptible of four +interpretations. We shall omit the first part of the sentence in the +last + _________________________________________________________________ + +136 + +three interpretations, as it is the same in all. "He said to his +friend: 'If I do not feel better soon, I think I had better go home.'" +"If I do not feel better soon, I think you had better go home." "If +you do not feel better soon, I think I had better go home." "If you do +not feel better soon, I think you had better go home." + +"The lad cannot leave his father; for, if he should leave him, he +would die." To avoid ambiguity substitute his father for the +italicised pronouns. The repetition is not pleasant, but it is the +lesser of two evils. + + Needless Pronouns + +Avoid all pronouns and other words that are not essential to the +meaning. + +"The father he died, the mother she soon followed after, and the +children they were all taken down sick." + +"Let every one turn from his or her evil ways." Unless there is +special reason for emphasizing the feminine pronoun, avoid the awkward +expression his or her. The pronoun his includes the other. + + Mixed Pronouns + +Do not use two styles of the pronoun in the same Sentence. "Enter thou +into the joy of your Lord." "Love thyself last, and others will love +you." + _________________________________________________________________ + +137 + + Them, Those + +It should not be necessary to caution the reader against the use of +them for those. + +"Fetch me them books." "Did you see them, fat oxen?" "Them's good; +I'll take another dish." + + Which, Who + +"Those which say so are mistaken." Who is applied to persons; which, +to the lower animals and to inanimate things. + +"He has some friends which I know." Whom, the objective case form of +the pronoun who, should here be used. + +"The dog, who was called Rover, went mad." Use which. + + What, That + +That is applied to persons, animals, and things. What is applied to +things. The antecedent of what should not be expressed. What is both +antecedent and relative. + +"All what he saw he described." Say, "What he saw," or "All that he +saw," etc. + + Uniform Relatives + +When several relative clauses relate to the same antecedent, they +should have the same relative pronoun. + +"It was Joseph that was sold into Egypt, who became + _________________________________________________________________ + +138 + +governor of the land, and which saved his father and brothers from +famine." Change that and which to who. + + Choice of Relatives + +Since who and that are both applied to persons, and which and that are +both applied to animals and things, it often becomes a serious +question which relative we shall employ. Much has been written upon +the subject, but the critics still differ in theory and in practice. +The following is probably as simple a statement of the general rule as +can be found: + +If the relative clause is of such a nature that it could be introduced +by and he, and she, and it, and they, etc., the relative who (for +persons) and which (for animals or things) should be used in +preference to the relative that. + +"Man that is born of a woman is of few days, and full of trouble." The +language of the Bible and of Shakespeare must stand, although the +forms of expression differ greatly from those employed at the present +day. According to modern standards, that should be who. + +"The earth is enveloped by an ocean of air that is a compound of +oxygen and nitrogen!" Change that to which. + +The relative that should be used in preference to who or which: + _________________________________________________________________ + +139 + + (1) When the antecedent names both persons and things; + (2) When it would prevent ambiguity; + (3) After the words same, very, all; + (4) After the interrogative pronoun who; + (5) After adjectives expressing quality in the highest degree. + +"The wisest men who ever lived made mistakes." Use that. See (5). + +"He lived near a stagnant pool which was a nuisance." Use that. See +(2). + +"All who knew him loved him." Say that. See (3). + +"Who who saw him did not pity him." See (4). + +"He spake of the men and things which he had seen." See (1). + +"These are my pupils which I have brought to see you." Use whom, as +which is not applied to persons. + +"This is the window whose panes were broken by the rude boys." Use +"the panes of which." Because of its convenience, perhaps, the faulty +whose is very largely used; as, "The eagle whose wings," "The house +whose gables," "The ocean whose waves," "The vessel whose sails," "The +play whose chief merit," "Music whose chief attraction," etc. + _________________________________________________________________ + +140 + + Which and Who after "And" + +Which and who cannot follow and unless there has been a preceding +which or who in the same sentence and in the same construction. + +"The more important rules, definitions and observations, and which are +therefore the most proper to be committed to memory, are printed with +a large type."-- Murray's Grammar. In Moore's Bad English the sentence +is corrected thus: "The rules, definitions, and observations which are +the more important, and which are therefore the most proper to be +committed to memory, are printed in larger type." + + Adverbs for Relative Pronouns + +Adverbs are often employed where a preposition with a relative pronoun +would better express the sense. + +"There is no method known how his safety may be assured." Use by which +instead of how. + +"He wrote me a letter where he repeated his instructions." "Letter in +which he repeated," etc. + +"And curse the country where their fathers dwelt." "In which their +fathers dwelt." + +"This is a case where large interests are involved." The preposition +and relative will better express the meaning; as, "This is a case in +which large interests are involved." + _________________________________________________________________ + +141 + + Misplaced Relative + +The relative should be so placed as to prevent ambiguity, and as near +as possible to its antecedent. + +"Mr. Smith needs a surgeon, who has broken his arm." Say, "Mr. Smith, +who has broken," etc. + +"The figs were in small wooden boxes, which we ate." "The figs which +we ate," etc. + +"He needs no boots that cannot walk." "He that cannot walk," etc. + + Omitted Relatives + +The relative pronoun is often omitted when it should be expressed. + +"The next falsehood he told was the worst of all." Say, "The next +falsehood that he told," etc. + +"It is little we know of the divine perfections." Say, "Little that we +know." + +"Almost all the irregularities in the construction of any language +have arisen from the ellipsis of some words which were originally +inserted in the sentence and made it regular."-- Murray's Grammar. The +sentence should end with "and which made it regular." + + The one, the other + +When the one and the other refer to things previously mentioned, the +one applies to the first mentioned, and the other to the last +mentioned. + +"Homer was a genius, Virgil an artist: in the one we most admire the +man; in the other, the work." + _________________________________________________________________ + +142 + + CHAPTER VI + + Number + +Many persons of moderate education regard nouns that do not end with s +or es as singular. Even the gifted pen of Addison once slipped so far +as to betray him into using the word seraphim, in the singular. + + Cherubim, Seraphim + +The words cherub and seraph, are singular. Cherub, as applied to a +little child, takes the English plural, cherubs. As applied to an +order of angels, it takes the Hebrew plural, cherubim. The singular, +seraph, has an English plural, seraphs, as well as the Hebrew plural, +seraphs. The double plurals, cherubims and seraphims, although found +in the King James version of the Bible, are regarded as faulty in +modern writing, and should be avoided. + + News + +Although plural in form, the word news is singular in meaning; as, +"The news from Europe this morning is quite interesting." + _________________________________________________________________ + +143 + + Acoustics + +Names of sciences ending in ics, are generally regarded as singular. +"Acoustics is a very considerable branch of physics." Do not say, "The +acoustics of this hall are good," but "The acoustic properties of this +hall are good." + +Dialectics, dynamics, economics, mathematics, ethics, politics, +tactics, when used as substantives, require a verb in the singular. + + Analysis + +Many words like analysis, crisis, ellipsis, emphasis, hypothesis, +oasis, parenthesis, synopsis, form their plurals by changing the +termination is into es; as, analyses, crises, etc. The word iris takes +the English plural irises; Latin plural is irides. Chrysalis has only +the Latin plural, chrysalides; but chrysalid, which means the same as +chrysalis, takes the English plural, chrysalids. + + Terminus + +Terminus, radius, alumnus, and some other words ending in us, form +their plurals by changing the termination us into i; as termini, +radii, etc. + +Many words ending in us that formerly were written with only the Latin +plural, are now given an English plural also; as, focuses, foci; +cactuses, cacti; sarcophaguses, sarcophagi; convolvuluses, convolvuli +; funguses, fungi; nucleuses, nuclei. + _________________________________________________________________ + +144 + +Isthmus, prospectus, rebus, take only the English plural. + +Apparatus has no plural. Avoid apparatuses. + +The plural of genius, as applied to a man of unusual vigor of mind, is +geniuses. When applied to a good or bad spirit, the plural is genii. + + Formula + +Formulas, larvas, stigmas, are regular English plurals; formulae, +larvae, and stigmata are the classical plurals. Nebulae and alumnae +are the proper plurals, the latter being the feminine noun +corresponding to the masculine plural alumni. + + Datum, Phenomenon + +Datum, erratum, candelabrum, and memorandum form their plurals by +changing um to a; as, data, errata, etc. The last two also take the +English plurals, memorandums, candelabrums. + +The plural of phenomenon and criterion are phenomena, criteria, +although criterions is sometimes employed. + +The plural forms, data, strata, and phenomena, are so much more +frequently used than their singular forms, datum, stratum, and +phenomenon, that some writers have slipped into the habit of using the +plurals with a singular meaning; as, "The aurora borealis is a very +strange phenomena." "Our data is insufficient to establish a theory." +"The strata is broken and irregular." + _________________________________________________________________ + +145 + + Mussulmans + +While most words ending in man become plural by changing this +termination to men, as gentlemen, noblemen, clergymen, statesmen, the +following simply add s: dragomans, Mussulmans, Ottomnans, talismans "A +dozen dragomans offered their services as guides and interpreters." "A +band of Mussulmans cut off our retreat." "Those fierce Ottomans proved +to be very revengeful." "He purchased five finely upholstered ottomans +for his drawing-room." + + Heroes, Cantos + +Most nouns ending in o add es to form the plural; as, heroes, negroes, +potatoes, stuccoes, manifestoes, mosquitoes. Words ending in io or yo +add s; as, folios, nuncios, olios, ratios, embryos. + +The following words, being less frequently used, often puzzle us to +know whether to add s or es to form the plural: armadillos, cantos, +cuckoos, halos, juntos, octavos, provisos, salvos, solos, twos, tyros, +virtuosos. + + Alms, Odds, Riches + +Many nouns that end in s have a plural appearance, and we are often +perplexed to know whether to use this or these, and whether to employ +a singular or a plural verb when the noun is used as a substantive. + +Amends is singular. Assets, dregs, eaves, bees, pincers, riches, +scissors, sheers, tongs, vitals, are plural. When we + _________________________________________________________________ + +146 + +say a pair of pincers, or scissors, or shears, or tongs, the verb +should be singular. Tidings, in Shakespeare's time, was used +indiscriminately with a singular or plural verb, but is now generally +regarded as plural. + +Alms and headquarters are usually made plural, but are occasionally +found with a singular verb. Pains is usually singular. Means, odds, +and species are singular or plural, according to the meaning. + +"By this means he accomplished his purpose." "What other means is left +to us?" "Your means are very slender, and your waste is great." + + Proper Names + +These are usually pluralized by adding s; as, the Stuarts, the +Caesars, the Beechers, the Brownings. + + Titles with Proper Names + +Shall we say the Miss Browns, the Misses Brown, or the Misses Browns? +Great diversity of opinion prevails. Gould Brown says: "The name and +not the title is varied to form the plural; as, the Miss Howards, the +two Mr. Clarks." + +Alexander Bain, LL. D., says: "We may say the Misses Brown, or the +Miss Browns, or even the Misses Browns." + +The chief objection to the last two forms is found when the proper +name ends with s, as when we say, the Miss Brookses, the Miss Joneses, +the Miss Pottses, the + _________________________________________________________________ + +147 + +Miss Blisses. The form the Misses Brooks is objected to by some on the +ground that it sounds affected. On the whole the rule given by Gould +Brown is the best, and is quite generally observed. + + Knight Templar + +Both words are made plural, Knights Templars, a very unusual way of +forming the plural. + + Plural Compounds + +The plural sign of a compound word is affixed to the principal part of +the word, to the part that conveys the predominant idea; as, +fathers-in-law, man-servants, outpourings, ingatherings. In such words +as handfuls, cupfuls, mouthfuls, the plural ending is added to the +subordinate part because the ideas are so closely associated as to +blend into one. + + Beaus, Beaux + +Some words ending in eau have only the English plurals, as bureaus, +portmanteaus; others take both the English and the French plurals, as +beaus, beaux; flambeaus, flambeaux; plateaus, plateaux; and still +others take only the foreign plural; as, bateaux, chateaux, tableaux. + + Pair, Couple, Brace + +After numerals, the singular form of such words as these is generally +employed; as, five pair of gloves, eight couple of dancers, three +brace of pigeons, five + _________________________________________________________________ + +148 + +dozen of eggs, four score years, twenty sail of ships, fifty head of +cattle, six hundred of these men, two thousand of these cattle, etc. + +After such indefinite adjectives as few, many, several, some of the +above words take the plural form; as, several hundreds, many +thousands. + + Index, Appendix + +Indexes of books; indices, if applied to mathematical signs in +algebra. Appendixes or appendices. + + Fish, Fly + +The plural of fish is fishes when considered individually, and fish +when considered collectively. "My three pet fishes feed out of my +hand." "Six barrels of fish were landed from the schooner." + +Most words ending in y change this termination into ies, as duties, +cities, etc. The plural of fly, the insect, is formed in the usual +manner, but fly, a light carriage, adds s; as, "Six flys carried the +guests to their homes." + + Animalcule + +The plural of this word is animalcules. There is no plural +animalculae. The plural of the Latin animalculum is animalcula. + + Bandit + +This word has two plural forms, bandits and banditti. + _________________________________________________________________ + +149 + + Brother + +Plural brothers, when referring to members of the same family; +brethren, when applied to members of the same church or society. + + Die + +Plural dies, when the stamp with which seals are impressed is meant; +dice, the cubes used in playing backgammon. + + Herring + +The plural is herrings, but shad, trout, bass, pike, pickerel, +grayling, have no plural form. "I caught three bass and seven fine +pickerel this morning." + + Grouse + +The names of game birds, as grouse, quail, snipe, woodcock, usually +take no plural form. + + Pea + +Considered individually the plural is peas; when referring to the crop +the proper form is pease. + + Penny + +"He gave me twelve bright new pennies," referring to the individual +coins. "I paid him twelve pence," meaning a shilling. + + Wharf + +Plural, generally wharves in America; wharfs in England. + _________________________________________________________________ + +150 + + CHAPTER VII + + Adverbs + +The clearness of the sentence is often dependent upon the proper +placing of the adverb. No absolute rule can be laid down, but it +should generally be placed before the word it qualifies. It is +sometimes necessary to place it after the verb, and occasionally +between the auxiliary and the verb, but it should never come between +to and the infinitive. + +"I have thought of marrying often." As the adverb relates to the +thinking, and not to the marrying, the sentence should read, "I have +often thought of marrying." + +"We have often occasion to speak of health." This should be, "We often +have occasion," etc, + +"It remains then undecided whether we shall go to Newport or +Saratoga." Place undecided before then. + + Adjective or Adverb? + +There is often a doubt in the mind of the speaker whether to use the +adjective or the adverb, and too frequently he reaches a wrong +decision. When the limiting word expresses a quality or state of the +subject + _________________________________________________________________ + +151 + +or of the object of a verb, the adjective must be employed; but if the +manner of the action is to be expressed, the adverb must be used. The +verbs be, seem, look, taste, smell, and feel furnish many +stumbling-blocks. + +"This rose smells sweetly." As the property or quality of the rose is +here referred to, and not the manner of smelling, the adjective sweet +should be employed, and not the adverb sweetly. + +"Thomas feels quite badly about it." Here, again, it is the condition +of Thomas's mind, and not the manner of feeling, that is to be +expressed; hence, badly should be bad or uncomfortable. + +"Didn't she look beautifully upon the occasion of her wedding?" No; +she looked beautiful. + +"The sun shines brightly." Bright is the better word. + +"The child looks cold," refers to the condition of the child. "The +lady looked coldly upon her suitor," refers to the manner of looking. + +"The boy feels warm" is correct. "The boy feels warmly the rebuke of +his teacher" is equally correct. + +While license is granted to the poets to use the adjective for the +adverb, as in the line + + "They fall successive and successive rise," + +in prose the one must never be substituted for the other. + _________________________________________________________________ + +152 + +"Agreeably to my promise, I now write," not "Agreeable to my promise." + +"An awful solemn funeral," should be "An awfully solemn funeral." + +"He acts bolder than was expected," should be "He acts more boldly." + +"Helen has been awful sick, but she is now considerable better." +"Helen has been very ill, but she is now considerably better." + +Do not use coarser for more coarsely, finer for more finely, harsher +for more harshly, conformable for conformably, decided for decidedly, +distinct for distinctly, fearful for fearfully, fluent for fluently. + +Do not say "This melon is uncommon good," but "This melon is +uncommonly good." + +The word ill is both an adjective and an adverb. Do not say "He can +illy afford to live in such a house," but "He can ill afford." + +"That was a dreadful solemn sermon." To say "That was a dreadfully +solemn sermon" would more grammatically express what the speaker +intended, but very or exceedingly would better express the meaning. + + Such, So + +Such is often improperly used for the adverb so. + +"In such a mild and healthful climate." This should be, "In so mild +and healthful a climate." + _________________________________________________________________ + +153 + +"With all due deference to such a high authority on such a very +important matter." Change to, "With all due deference to so high an +authority on so very important a matter." + + Good, Well + +Many intelligent persons carelessly use the adjective good in the +sense of the adverb well; as, "I feel good to-day." "Did you sleep +good last night?" "Does this coat look good enough to wear on the +street?" "I can do it as good as he can." The frequent indulgence in +such errors dulls the sense of taste and weakens the power of +discrimination. + + Very much of + +"She is very much of a lady." Say, "She is very ladylike." "He is very +much of a gentleman." Say, "He is very gentlemanly." + + Quite + +This adverb is often incorrectly used in the sense of very or rather. +It should be employed only in the sense of wholly or entirely. These +sentences are therefore incorrect: + +"He was wounded quite severely." + +"James was quite tired of doing nothing." + _________________________________________________________________ + +154 + + How + +This word is sometimes used when another would be more appropriate. + +"He said how he would quit farming." Use that. + +"Ye see how that not many wise men are called." We must read the Bible +as we find it, but in modern English the sentence would be corrected +by omitting how. + +"Be careful how you offend him." If the manner of offending is the +thought to be expressed, the sentence is correct. But the true meaning +is doubtless better expressed by, "Be careful lest you offend him." + + No, Not + +"I cannot tell whether he will come or no." "Whether he be a sinner or +no I know not." In such cases not should be used instead of no. + + This much + +"This much can be said in his favor." Change this much to so much or +thus much. + + That far + +The expressions this far and that far, although they are very common, +are, nevertheless, incorrect. Thus far or so far should be used +instead. + _________________________________________________________________ + +155 + + Over, More than + +"There were not over thirty persons present." Over is incorrect; above +has some sanction; but more than, is the best, and should be used. + + Real good + +This is one of those good-natured expressions that insinuate +themselves into the speech of even cultured people. Very good is just +as short, and much more correct. Really good scarcely conveys the +thought intended. + + So nice + +"This basket of flowers is so nice." So nice does not tell how nice. +So requires a correlative to complete its meaning. Use very nice or +very pretty. + + Pell-mell + +"He rushes pell-mell down the street." One bird cannot flock by +itself, nor can one man rush pell-mell. It will require at least +several men to produce the intermixing and confusion which the word is +intended to convey. + _________________________________________________________________ + +156 + + CHAPTER VIII + + Conjunctions + +As a general rule, sentences should not begin with conjunctions. And, +or, and nor are often needlessly employed to introduce a sentence. The +disjunctive but may sometimes be used to advantage in this position, +and in animated and easy speech or writing the coordinate conjunction +and may be serviceable, but these and all other conjunctions, when +made to introduce sentences, should be used sparingly. + + Reason, Because + +"The reason I ask you to tell the story is because you can do it +better than I." Because means "for the reason." This makes the +sentence equivalent to "The reason I ask you to tell the story is for +the reason that you can do it better than I." Use that instead of +because. + +"Because William studied law is no reason why his brother should not +do so." The following is better: "That William studied law is no +reason why his brother should not do so." + _________________________________________________________________ + +157 + + Only, Except, But + +"The house was as convenient as his, only that it was a trifle +smaller." Use except for only. + +"The field was as large as his, only the soil was less fertile." Use +but for only. + + But, Except + +"Being the eldest of the brothers but Philip, who was an invalid, he +assumed charge of his father's estate." Except is better than but. + + But what, But that + +"Think no man so perfect but what he may err." Say, "but that he may +err." + +"I could not think but what he was insane." Use but that. + + But, If + +"I should not wonder but the assembly would adjourn to-day." Use if +instead of but. + + But, That + +"I have no doubt but he will serve you well." Say, "that he will serve +you well." + + That, That + +"I wished to show, by your own writings, that so far were you from +being competent to teach others English composition, that you had need +yourself to study its first principles."-- Moon, Dean's English. + +The second that is superfluous. This fault is very + _________________________________________________________________ + +158 + +common with writers who use long sentences. The intervention of +details between the first that and the clause which it is intended to +introduce causes the writer to forget that he has used the +introductory word, and prompts him to repeat it unconsciously. + + But + +"There is no doubt but that he is the greatest painter of the age." +The word but is superfluous. "He never doubted but that he was the +best fisherman on the coast." Omit but. + + That + +"He told me he would write as soon as he reached London." Say, "He +told me that he would write," etc. + + Than + +"The Romans loved war better than the Greeks." Such ambiguous forms +should be avoided. As it is not probable that the speaker intended to +say that the Romans loved war better than they loved the Greeks, he +should have framed his sentence thus: "The Romans loved war better +than the Greeks did." + + But that + +"He suffered no inconvenience but that arising from the dust." But +that, or except that, is correct. Some persons improperly use than +that after no. + +"I don't know but that I shall go to Europe." Omit that. "I don't know +but I shall go," etc. + _________________________________________________________________ + +159 + + Other than + +"We suffered no other inconvenience but that arising from the dust." +This is incorrect. After other we should use than. Therefore, "We +suffered no other inconvenience than that arising from the dust." + +After else, other, rather, and all comparatives, the latter term of +comparison should be introduced by the conjunction than. + + Either the + +"Passengers are requested not to converse with either conductor or +driver." This is one of those business notices that are often more +concise than correct. It implies that there are two conductors and two +drivers. The sentence should read, "Passengers are requested not to +converse with either the conductor or the driver." + + Lest, That + +"I feared lest I should be left behind." Use the copulative that, and +not the disjunctive lest. "I feared that I should be left behind." + + Otherwise than + +"He cannot do otherwise but follow your direction." Use than, not but, +after otherwise. Hence, "He cannot do otherwise than follow," etc. + + After that + +"After that I have attended to the business I will call upon you." The +word that is superfluous. + _________________________________________________________________ + +160 + + But what + +"His parents will never believe but what he was enticed away by his +uncle." Omit what. The use of but that would be equally objectionable. +But is sufficient. + +A reconstruction of the sentence would improve it. "His parents will +always believe," or "Will never cease to believe that," etc. + + Doubt not but + +"I doubt not but your friend will return." Say, "I doubt not that your +friend will return." + + Not impossible but + +"It is not impossible but he may call to-day." Use that instead of +but. + + Whether, Whether + +"Ginevra has not decided whether she will study history or whether she +will study philosophy." As there is nothing gained in clearness or in +emphasis by the repetition of "whether she will," this shorter +sentence would be better: "Ginevra has not decided whether she will +study history or philosophy." + + As though + +"He spoke as though, he had a customer for his house." Say, "as if he +had a purchaser," etc. + _________________________________________________________________ + +161 + + Except + +"I will not let thee go except thou bless me." This use of the word +except occurs frequently in the Scriptures, but it is now regarded as +obsolete. The word unless should be used instead. + +"Few speakers except Burke could have held their attention." In this +sentence, besides should take the place of except. + _________________________________________________________________ + +162 + + CHAPTER IX + + Correlatives + +Certain adverbs and conjunctions, in comparison or antithesis, require +the use of corresponding adverbs and conjunctions. Such corresponding +words are called correlatives. The following are the principal ones in +use: + as, as. not merely, but also. + as, so. not merely, but even. + both, and. so, as. + if, then. so, that. + either, or. such, as. + neither, nor. such, that. + not only, but. though, yet. + not only, but also. when, then. + not only, but even. where, there. + not merely, but. whether, or. + +The improper grouping of these correlatives is the cause of many +errors in speech and writing. + + As... as + +"She is as wise as she is good." "Mary is as clever as her brother." +The correlatives as... as are + _________________________________________________________________ + +163 + +employed in expressing equality. Their use in any other connection is +considered inelegant. "As far as I am able to judge, he would make a +very worthy officer." This is a very common error. The sentence should +be, "So far as I am able," etc. + +As is often followed by so. "As thy days, so shall thy strength be." + + So... as + +In such negative assertions as, "This is not as fine a tree as that," +the first as should be changed to so. Say, "She is not so handsome as +she once was." "This edition of Tennyson is not so fine as that." + + Either, Neither + +The correlatives either, or, and neither, nor, are employed when two +objects are mentioned; as, "Either you or I must go to town to-day," +"Neither James nor Henry was proficient in history." + +"He neither bought, sold, or exchanged stocks and bonds." The sentence +should be, "He neither bought, sold, nor exchanged stocks and bonds." + +"That is not true, neither." As we already have one negative in the +word not, the word neither should be changed to either, to avoid the +double negation. + +A negative other than neither may take either or or nor as its +correlative, "She was not so handsome as her mother, or so brilliant +as her father." "He was never happy nor contented afterward." + _________________________________________________________________ + +164 + + Position of correlatives + +The placing of correlatives requires care. "He not only gave me +advice, but also money." This is a faulty construction because the +first member of the correlative, not only, being placed before the +verb gave leads us to expect that the action of giving is to be +contrasted with some other action. The close of the sentence reveals +the fact that the words advice and money represent the ideas intended +for contrast. The first correlative should, therefore, have been +placed before advice, and the sentence should read, "He gave me not +only advice, but also money." + +"I remember that I am not here as a censor either of manners or +morals." This sentence from Richard Grant White will be improved by +changing the position of the first member of the correlative. "I +remember that I am not here as a censor of either manners or morals." + +"I neither estimated myself highly nor lowly." It should be, "I +estimated myself neither highly nor lowly." + +"He neither attempted to excite anger, nor ridicule, nor admiration." +The sentence should be, "He attempted to excite neither anger, nor +ridicule, nor admiration." But here we have the correlative neither, +nor, used with more than two objects, which is a violation of a +principle previously stated. The + _________________________________________________________________ + +165 + +sentence is purposely introduced to call attention to the fact that +many respectable writers not only use neither, nor, with three or more +objects, but also defend it. This usage may be avoided by a +reconstruction of the sentence; as, "He did not attempt to excite +anger, nor ridicule, nor admiration." + _________________________________________________________________ + +166 + + CHAPTER X + + The Infinitive + +Many errors arise from not knowing how to use the infinitive mood. +Perhaps the most common fault is to interpose an adverb between the +preposition to and the infinitive verb; as, "It is not necessary to +accurately relate all that he said." "You must not expect to always +find people agreeable." Whether we shall place the adverb before the +verb or after it must often be determined by considerations of +emphasis and smoothness as well as of clearness and correctness. In +the foregoing sentences it is better to place accurately after the +verb, and always before the preposition to. + + Supply "to" + +The preposition to as the sign of the infinitive is often improperly +omitted. + +"Please write clearly, so that we may understand," "Your efforts will +tend to hinder rather than hasten the work," "Strive so to criticise +as not to embarrass + _________________________________________________________________ + +167 + +nor discourage your pupil." These sentences will be corrected by +inserting to before the italicized words. + +In such expressions as "Please excuse my son's absence," "Please write +me a letter," "Please hand me the book," many authorities insist upon +the use of to before the verb. The sentences may, however, be regarded +as softened forms of the imperative; as, "Hand me the book, if you +please." Transposed, "If you please, hand me the book." Contracted, +"Please, hand me the book." From this, the comma may have slipped out +and left the sentence as first written. + + Omit "to" + +When a series of infinitives relate to the same object, the word to +should be used before the first verb and omitted before the others; +as, "He taught me to read, write, and cipher." "The most accomplished +way of using books at present is to serve them as some do lords-- +learn their titles and then brag of their acquaintance." + +The active verbs bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, see, and +their participles, usually take the infinitive after them, without the +preposition to. Such expressions, as "He bade me to depart," "I dare +to say he is a villain," "I had difficulty in making him to see his +error," are, therefore, wrong, and are corrected by omitting to. + _________________________________________________________________ + +168 + + Incomplete Infinitive + +Such incomplete expressions as the following are very common: "He has +not gone to Europe, nor is he likely to." "She has not written her +essay, nor does she intend to." "Can a man arrive at excellence who +has no desire to?" The addition of the word go to the first sentence, +and of write it, to the second would make them complete. In the case +of the third sentence it would be awkward to say, "Can a man arrive at +excellence who has no desire to arrive at excellence." We therefore +substitute the more convenient expression "to do so." + _________________________________________________________________ + +169 + + CHAPTER XI + + Participles + +Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, or else are governed by +prepositions. Those ending in ing should not be made the subjects or +objects of verbs while they retain the government and adjuncts of +participles. They may often be converted into nouns or take the form +of the infinitive. + +"Not attending to this rule is the cause of a very common error." +Better, "Inattention to this rule," etc. "He abhorred being in debt." +Better, "He abhorred debt," "Cavilling and objecting upon any subject +is much easier than clearing up difficulties." Say, "To cavil and +object upon any subject is much easier than to clear up difficulties." + + Omit "of" + +Active participles have the same government as the verbs from which +they are derived. The preposition of, therefore, should not be used +after the participle, when the verb would not require it. Omit of in +such expressions as these: "Keeping of one day + _________________________________________________________________ + +170 + +in seven," "By preaching of repentance," "They left beating of Paul," +"From calling of names they came to blows," "They set about repairing +of the walls." + +If the article the occurs before the participle, the preposition of +must be retained; as, "They strictly observed the keeping of one day +in seven." + +When a transitive participle is converted into a noun, of must be +inserted to govern the object following. "He was very exact in forming +his sentences," "He was very exact in the formation of his sentences." + + Omit the possessive + +The possessive case should not be prefixed to a participle that is not +taken in all respects as a noun. It should, therefore, be expunged in +the following sentences: "By our offending others, we expose +ourselves." "She rewarded the boy for his studying so diligently." "He +errs in his giving the word a double construction." + +The possessives in such cases as the following should be avoided: "I +have some recollection of his father's being a judge." "To prevent its +being a dry detail of terms." These sentences may be improved by +recasting them. "I have some recollection that his father was a +judge." "To prevent it from being a dry detail of terms." + _________________________________________________________________ + +171 + +When the noun or pronoun to which the participle relates is a passive +subject, it should not have the possessive form; as, "The daily +instances of men's dying around us remind us of the brevity of human +life." "We do not speak of a monosyllable's having a primary accent." +Change men's to men, and monosyllable's to monosyllable. + + After verbs + +Verbs do not govern participles. "I intend doing it," "I remember +meeting Longfellow," and similar expressions should be changed by the +substitution of the infinitive for the participle; as, "I intend to do +it," "I remember to have met Longfellow." + +After verbs signifying to persevere, to desist, the participle ending +in ing is permitted; as, "So when they continued asking him, he lifted +up himself, and said unto them." + + Place + +In the use of participles and of verbal nouns, the leading word in +sense should always be made the leading word, and not the adjunct, in +the construction. + +"They did not give notice of the pupil leaving." Here, the leading +idea is leaving. Pupil should, therefore, be subordinate by changing +its form to the possessive; as, "They did not give notice of the +pupil's leaving." Better still, "They did not give notice that the +pupil had left." + _________________________________________________________________ + +172 + + Clearness + +The word to which the participle relates should stand out clearly. "By +giving way to sin, trouble is encountered." This implies that trouble +gives way to sin. The relation of the participle is made clear by +saying, "By giving way to sin, we encounter trouble." + +"By yielding to temptation, our peace is sacrificed." This should be, +"By yielding to temptation we sacrifice our peace." + +"A poor child was found in the streets by a wealthy and benevolent +gentleman, suffering from cold and hunger." Say, "A poor child, +suffering from cold and hunger, was found," etc. + + Awkward Construction + +Such awkward sentences as the following should be avoided. In most +cases they will require to be recast. + +"But as soon as the whole body is attempted to be carved, a +disproportion between its various parts results." + +"The offence attempted to be charged should be alleged under another +section of the statute." The following is a better arrangement: + +"But as soon as an attempt is made to carve the whole body," etc. "The +offence which it is attempted to charge," etc. + _________________________________________________________________ + +173 + + Is building + +The active participle in a passive sense is employed by many excellent +writers and is condemned by others. + +"Corn is selling for fifty cents a bushel." + +"Corn is being sold for fifty cents a bushel." + +The commercial world evidently prefers the former sentence. There is a +breeziness and an energy in it that is lacking in the latter. It must, +however, be used with caution. In the following examples the passive +form is decidedly better than the active: "The foundation was being +laid," "They are being educated," "While the speech was being +delivered," etc. + _________________________________________________________________ + +174 + + CHAPTER XII + + Prepositions + +Clearness and elegance of style are, in no small degree, dependent +upon the choice and right use of prepositions. Many rules have been +formulated, some of which are deserving of consideration, while others +are nearly or quite useless. Among the latter may be mentioned, by way +of illustration, the oft-repeated rule that between or betwixt must +invariably be used when only two things are referred to, and that +among must be employed when more than two are named. While it is true +that the order could not be reversed, that among, when used, must be +employed in reference to three or more persons or things, and that +between may always be employed in speaking of two objects, yet the +practice of many of the best writers does not limit the use of between +to two objects. In fact, there are cases in which among will not take +the place of between; as, "I set out eighty trees with ample space +between them." "The stones on his farm were so plentiful that the +grass could not grow up between them." + _________________________________________________________________ + +175 + + Between, Among + +"The seven children divided the apples between them." Two children may +divide apples between, them, but in this case it is better to say, +"The seven children divided the apples among them." + +George Eliot, in Middlemarch, says: "The fight lay entirely between +Pinkerton, the old Tory member; Bagster, the new Whig member; and +Brook, the Independent member." In this case, between or with is more +satisfactory than among, although three persons are referred to. + + Choice + +Many sentences betoken ignorance and others indicate extreme +carelessness on the part of the writers by the inapt choice of their +prepositions, which often express relations so delicate in their +distinctions that nothing short of an extended study of the best +writers will confer the desired skill. We present some examples. + + By, In + +"We do not accept the proposition referred to by your letter." The +writer should have employed the preposition in. + + Differ with, From + +We differ with a person in opinion or belief; we differ from him in +appearance, in attainments, in wealth, in rank, etc. + _________________________________________________________________ + +176 + + Different from, To, Than + +"Your story is very plausible, but Henry's is different to that." "My +book is quite different than his." The adjective different must not be +followed by the preposition to or than. The sentences will be correct +when from is substituted. + + At, To + +Never use the vulgar expression, "He is to home." Say at home. + + Preferred before, To + +"He was preferred before me." Say preferred to me. + + With, Of + +"He died with consumption." Of is the proper preposition to employ. +But we say, He is afflicted with rheumatism, or bronchitis, or other +disease. + + In respect of, To + +"In respect of this matter, he is at fault." Better, "to this matter." + + Of, From + +"He was acquitted from the charge of larceny." Acquitted of the +charge. + + In, Into + +Into implies direction or motion. "They walked into the church," means +that they entered it from the outside. "They walked in the church," +means that they walked back and forth within the church. + _________________________________________________________________ + +177 + +"The vessel is in port." "She came into port yesterday." + + Of, In + +"There was no use of asking his permission, for he would not grant +it." In asking. + + In, On + +"He is a person in whom you can rely." "That is a man in whose +statements you can depend." Use on for in. + + To, With + +Two persons are reconciled to each other; two doctrines or measures +are reconciled with each other when they are made to agree. + +"This noun is in apposition to that." Use with. + + With, By + +These two prepositions are often confounded. They have a similarity of +signification with a difference of use. Both imply a connection +between some instrument or means and the agent by whom it is used. +With signifies the closer relation and by the more remote one. + +It is said that an ancient king of Scotland once asked his nobles by +what tenure they held their lands. The chiefs drew their swords, +saying, "By these we acquired our lands, and with these we will defend +them." + +By often relates to the person; with to the instrument. + _________________________________________________________________ + +178 + +"He lay on the ground half concealed with a clump of bushes." "That +speech was characterized with eloquence." Use by in the last two +sentences. + + With, To + +We correspond with a person when we exchange letters. In speaking of +the adaptation of one object to another, the preposition to should be +used after the verb correspond; as, "This picture corresponds to +that." With is often incorrectly used in such cases instead of to. + + Position + +The old grammarian gave a very good rule when he said, "A preposition +is a very bad word to end a sentence with;" but it is sometimes easier +to follow his example than his precept. In general, the strength of a +sentence is improved by not placing small particles at the end. + +"Which house do you live in?" Better, "In which house do you live?" + +"Avarice is a vice which most men are guilty of." Say, "of which most +men are guilty." + +"He is a man that you should be acquainted with." Say, "with whom you +should be acquainted." + +"Is this the man that you spoke of?" Better, "of whom you spoke." + +"These are principles that our forefathers died for." Rather, "for +which our forefathers died." + _________________________________________________________________ + +179 + + Omission + +Prepositions are often omitted when their use is necessary to the +correct grammatical construction of the sentence. + +"They now live on this side the river." Say, "on this side of the +river." + +"Esther and Helen sit opposite each other." It is more correct to say, +"sit opposite to each other." + +"John is worthy our help." Better, "of our help." + +"What use is this to us?" Of what use, etc. + +"This law was passed the same year that I was born." Say, "In the same +year," etc. + +"Washington was inaugurated President April 30, 1789." Some critics +insist upon the insertion of on before a date, as "on April 30," but +general usage justifies its omission. With equal force they might urge +the use of in before 1789. The entire expression of day, month, and +year is elliptical. + +If the same preposition be required by several nouns or pronouns, it +must be repeated in every case if it be repeated at all. "He is +interested in philosophy, history, and in science." This sentence may +be corrected by placing in before history or by omitting it before +science. The several subjects are individualized more strongly by the +use of in before each noun. This is shown in the greater obscurity +given to history by the omission of the preposition in the foregoing +sentence. + _________________________________________________________________ + +180 + +"We may have a feeling of innocence or of guilt, of merit or demerit." +Insert of before demerit. + + Needless Prepositions + +Prepositions, like other parts of speech that contribute nothing to +the meaning, should not be suffered to cumber the sentence. + +Where am I at? Where is my book at? I went there at about noon. In +what latitude is Chicago in? Where are you going to? Take your hat off +of the table. Where has James been to? They offered to Caesar a crown. +This is a subject of which I intended to speak about (omit of or +about, but not both). She has a sister of ten years old. Leap in with +me into this angry flood. + +The older writers employed the useless for in such expressions as, +What went ye out for to see? The apostles and elders came together for +to consider of this matter. + + All of + +A very common error is the unnecessary use of the preposition of after +all; as, "during all of this period," "in all of these cases," "for +all of the conditions," etc. + + Up above + +In most cases one of these prepositions will be found useless. "The +ladder reached up above the chimney." + + From hence + +The adverbs hence, thence, whence, include the idea of from. The +preposition should, therefore, be omitted. + _________________________________________________________________ + +181 + + CHAPTER XIII + + The Article + +A, which is a shortened form of an, signifies one, or any. An was +formerly used before nouns beginning with either a consonant or a +vowel sound, but now an is used before a vowel sound and a before a +consonant sound; as, a book, a hat, an apple, an eagle. + +It will be observed that an heiress, an herb, an honest man, an +honorable career, an hourly visit, a euchre party, a euphemism, a +eulogy, a union, etc., are not exceptions to the foregoing rule, for +the h being silent in heiress, herb, etc., the article an precedes a +vowel sound, and in euphemism, eulogy, union, the article a precedes +the consonant sound of y. Compare u-nit with you knit. + +In like manner some persons have felt disposed to say many an one +instead of many a one because of the presence of the vowel o. But the +sound is the consonant sound of w as in won, and the article should be +a and not an. + +There is a difference of opinion among writers concerning the use of a +and an, before words beginning + _________________________________________________________________ + +182 + +with h, when not silent, especially when the accent falls on the +second syllable; as, a harpoon, a hegira, a herbarium, a herculean +effort, a hiatus, a hidalgo, a hydraulic engine, a hyena, a historian. +The absence of the accent weakens the h sound, and makes it seem as if +the article a was made to precede a vowel. The use of an is certainly +more euphonious and is supported by Webster's Dictionary and other +high authority. + + The Honorable, The Reverend + +Such titles as Honorable and Reverend require the article the; as, +"The Honorable William R. Gladstone is often styled 'The Grand Old +Man,'" "The Reverend Henry Ward Beecher was an eloquent orator," not +Honorable William, E. Gladstone, or Reverend Henry Ward Beecher. + + Article omitted + +"A clergyman and philosopher entered the hall together." "A clergyman +and philosopher" means one person who is both clergyman and +philosopher. The article should be repeated. "A clergyman and a +philosopher entered the hall together." + +"A red and white flag" means one flag of two colors. "A red and a +white flag" means two flags, a red flag and a white flag. "A great and +a good man has departed." The verb has implies that only + _________________________________________________________________ + +183 + +one man has departed, hence the sentence should be, "A great and good +man has departed." + +"They sang the first and second verse," should be, "They sang the +first and the second verse." "The literal and figurative meaning of +words" should be, "The literal and the figurative meaning of words." + +"In framing of his sentences he was very exact," should be, "In the +framing," etc., or, "In framing his sentences he was very exact." "The +masculine and feminine gender," should be, "The masculine and the +feminine gender." + +"After singing a hymn, Miss Willard made a stirring address." If Miss +Willard alone sang the hymn the sentence is correct. If the +congregation sang the hymn the sentence should be, "After the singing +of a hymn, Miss Willard made a stirring address." + +"He is but a poor writer at best." Say, "at the best." "He received +but a thousand votes at most." Say, "at the most." + +"John came day before yesterday." Say, "the day before yesterday." + + Article redundant + +"Shakespeare was a greater writer than an actor," should be, +"Shakespeare was a greater writer than actor." + +"This is the kind of a tree of which he was speaking," + _________________________________________________________________ + +184 + +should be, "This is the kind of tree," etc. "What kind of a bird is +this?" should be, "What kind of bird." + +"The one styled the Provost is the head of the University," should be, +"The one styled Provost." + +"The nominative and the objective cases," should be "The nominative +and objective cases." + +"He made a mistake in the giving out the text." Say "in giving out the +text," or, "in the giving out of the text." In the latter instance, +the participle becomes a noun and may take the article before it. + + Articles interchanged + +"An elephant is the emblem of Siam," should be, "The elephant is the +emblem," etc. "A digraph is the union of two letters to represent one +sound." Should be, "A digraph is a union," etc. + _________________________________________________________________ + +185 + + CHAPTER XIV + + Redundancy + +We are all creatures of habit. Our sayings, as well as our doings, are +largely a series of habits. In some instances we are unconscious of +our peculiarities and find it almost impossible to shake them off. + +The following are verbatim expressions as they dropped from the lips +of a young clergyman in the pulpit. They show a deeply-seated habit of +repetition of thought. As he was a graduate of one of the first +colleges in the land, we are the more surprised that the habit was not +checked before he passed through his college and seminary courses. The +expressions are here given as a caution to others to be on their +guard: "Supremest and highest," "separate and sever us," "derision, +sarcasm, and contempt," "disobedient and disloyal and sinful," "hold +aloof from iniquity, from sin," "necessity of being reclaimed and +brought back," "their beautiful and their elegant city," "so abandoned +and given up to evil and iniquity," "soaked and stained with human +gore and blood," "beautiful and resplendent," "hardened and solidified +into stone and adamant," "this + _________________________________________________________________ + +186 + +arctic splendor and brilliancy," "were being slaughtered and cut +down," "in the rapidity and the swiftness of the train," "with all the +mightiness and the splendor of his genius," "the force and the +pressure it brings to bear," "has and possesses the power," "lights +flashed and gleamed." + +The above were all taken from a single discourse. Another peculiarity +of the same speaker was his use of the preposition between. Instead of +saying, "Between him and his father there was a perfect understanding +of the matter," he would say, "Between him and between his father +there was a perfect understanding of the matter." + +Young writers will find it a valuable exercise to go through a letter, +essay, or other composition which they have written, with the view of +ascertaining how many words they can eliminate without diminishing the +force of what has been written. An article or two from the daily +paper, and an occasional page from some recent work of fiction will +afford further opportunity for profitable practice in pruning. + + Widow woman + +"And Jeroboam the son of Nebat, an Ephrathite of Zereda, Solomon's +servant, whose mother's name was Zeruah, a widow woman, even he lifted +up his hand against the king."-- I Kings xi, 26. + _________________________________________________________________ + +187 + +The expression is now regarded as an archaism, and not to be used in +modern speech or writing. Omit woman. + + Why + +Many persons have a foolish habit of beginning their answer to a +question with the word why. In some cases it doubtless has its origin +in the desire to gain time while the mind is preparing the answer, but +in most instances it is merely a habit. + +Some persons prefix the word why to the statement of a fact or to the +asking of a question. This is even worse than to employ it to +introduce the answer. Restrict it to its legitimate use. + + Look at here + +This is one of the numerous expressions designed to call the attention +of the person addressed to the speaker. It is both ungrammatical and +vulgar. The omission of at will render it grammatical. "See here" is +still better. + + Look and see + +"Look and see if the teacher is coming." The words "look and" are +superfluous. "See whether the teacher is coming" is a better +expression. + + Recollect of + +The word of is superfluous in such expressions; as, "I recollect of +crossing Lake Champlain on the ice," "Do you recollect of his paying +you a compliment?" + _________________________________________________________________ + +188 + + Settle up, down + +"He has settled up his father's affairs." "He has settled down upon +the old farm." Up and down may be omitted. + +"He has settled down to business" is a colloquial expression which may +be improved by recasting the sentence. + + In so far + +"He is not to blame in so far as I understand the circumstances." "In +so far as I know he is a thoroughly honest man." "In so far as I have +influence it shall be exerted in your favor." Omit in. + + Pocket-handkerchief + +The word handkerchief conveys the full meaning. Pocket is therefore +superfluous and should be omitted. If a cloth or tie for the neck is +meant, call it a neck tie or a neckerchief, but not a +neck-handkerchief. + + Have got + +"I have got a fine farm." "He has got four sons and three daughters." +"James has got a rare collection of butterflies." In such expressions +got is superfluous. But, if the idea of gaining or acquiring is to be +conveyed, the word got may be retained; as, "I have got my license," +"I have got my degree," "I have got my reward." + _________________________________________________________________ + +189 + + Off of + +"Can I borrow a pencil off of you?" "I bought a knife off of him +yesterday." Such faulty expressions are very common among school +children, and should be promptly checked by the teacher. The off is +superfluous. + +"He jumped off of the boat." Say, "He jumped off the boat." + +The young lady appointed to sell articles at a church fair entreated +her friends to "buy something off of me." She should say, "Please buy +something from me," or "Make your purchases at my table." + + For to see + +"But what went ye out for to see? A man clothed in soft raiment?" +Matt. xi, 8. "I will try for to do what you wish." This form of +expression, once very common, is now obsolete. Omit for. + + Appreciate highly + +To appreciate is to set a full value upon a thing. We may value +highly, or prize highly, or esteem highly, but the word highly when +used with appreciate is superfluous. + + Ascend up + +"With great difficulty they ascended up the hill." As they could not +ascend down the hill it is evident that the word up is superfluous. + _________________________________________________________________ + +190 + + Been to + +"Where has he been to?" The sentence is not only more concise, but +more elegant without the terminal to. + + Both + +The sentence, "The two children both resembled each other," will be +greatly improved by omitting the word both. So also in "These baskets +are both alike," "William and I both went to Cuba." + + But that + +"I do not doubt but that my uncle will come." The sentence is shorter +and more clear without the word but. "I have no idea but that the crew +was drowned." Here but is necessary. Without it the opposite meaning +would be conveyed. + + Equally as well + +"James did it well, but Henry did it equally as well." As well or +equally well should be used instead of equally as well. "This method +will be equally as efficacious." Omit as. + + Everywheres + +"I have looked everywheres for the book, and I cannot find it." This +is a vulgarism that should be avoided. Say everywhere. + + Feel like + +"I feel like as if I should be sick." The word like is unnecessary. + _________________________________________________________________ + +191 + + Few + +"There are a few persons who read well." This sentence will be +improved by saying, "Few persons read well." + + Help but be + +This is an awkward expression which is improved by being reduced to +the two words help being; as, "I could not help being moved by his +appeal." + + Kind of a + +"He jumped into a kind of a chaise, and hurried off to the station." A +kind of chaise would be better. + + New beginner + +"Mary plays on the piano very well for a new beginner." If she is a +beginner she must of necessity be new to it. + + Opens up + +"This story opens up beautifully." The up is superfluous. + + Seeming paradox + +The word paradox alone implies all that the word seeming is intended +to convey, hence seeming is superfluous. "This was once a paradox but +time now gives it proof." + + Different + +"There were ten different men ready to accept the offer." As no +reference to the appearance or characteristics of the men is intended, +the word different is unnecessary. + _________________________________________________________________ + +192 + + Rise up + +"They rose up early and started on their journey." Up is superfluous +and should be omitted. + + Sink down + +"The multitude sank down upon the ground." As they could not sink up +or in any other direction than down, the latter word should be +omitted. + + Smell of + +"Did you smell of the roses?" "No; but I smelled them and found them +very fragrant." "The gardener smelt of them for he has been culling +them all morning and his clothing is perfumed with them." The of is +superfluous in such expressions as taste of, feel of, and usually in +smell of. + + Think for + +"He is taller than you think for." For is unnecessary. "He is taller +than you think" is the contracted form of "He is taller than you think +he is." + + Differ among themselves + +"The authorities differed among themselves." The words among +themselves may be omitted. + + End up + +"That ends up the business." Say "that ends (or closes) the business." + + Had have + +"Had I have known that he was a lawyer I should have consulted him." +Omit have. + _________________________________________________________________ + +193 + + Had ought to + +"I had ought to have gone to school to-day; I hadn't ought to have +gone fishing." Incorrect. Say, "I ought to have gone (or I should have +gone) to school to-day; I ought not to have gone fishing." If the +second clause is not an after-thought the sentence can be still +further improved by condensing it; as, "I should have gone to school +to-day, and not to have gone fishing." + _________________________________________________________________ + +194 + + CHAPTER XV + + Two Negatives + +The use of two negatives in a sentence is much more common than is +generally supposed. To assume that only those who are grossly ignorant +of grammatical rules and constructions employ them, is an error. +Writers whose names are as bright stars in the constellation of +literature have slipped on this treacherous ground. + +A negation, in English, admits of only one negative word. The use of a +single negative carries the meaning halfway around the circle. The +meaning is therefore diametrically opposed to that which would be +expressed without the negative. The use of a second negative would +carry the meaning the remaining distance around the circle, thus +bringing it to the starting point, and making it equivalent to the +affirmative. The second negative destroys the effect of the first. The +two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative. + + Double Negatives + +While two negatives in the same sentence destroy each other, a double +negative has the effect of a more + _________________________________________________________________ + +195 + +exact and guarded affirmative; as, "It is not improbable that Congress +will convene in special session before the end of the summer." "It is +not unimportant that, he attend to the matter at once." "His story was +not incredible." "The fund was not inexhaustible." + + Redundant Negatives + +"No one else but the workmen had any business at the meeting." Omit +else. + +"Let us see whether or not there was not a mistake in the record." +Omit either or not or the second not. + +"The boat will not stop only when the signal flag is raised." Omit not +or change only to except. + +"He will never return, I don't believe." Say, "He will never return," +or, if that statement is two emphatic, say, "I don't believe he will +ever return." + + Don't want none + +"I don't want none," "I ain't got nothing," "He can't do no more," are +inelegant expressions that convey a meaning opposed to that intended. + +"I don't want any," or, "I do not want any," or, "I want none," are +correct equivalents for the first sentence; "I haven't anything," or, +"I have nothing," should take the place of the second; and, "He can't +do any more," or, "He can do no more," or "He cannot do more," will +serve for the third. + _________________________________________________________________ + +196 + + Not--Hardly + +"I cannot stop to tell you hardly any of the adventures that befell +Theseus." Change cannot to can. "I have not had a moment's time to +read hardly since I left school." Say, "I have hardly a moment's +time," etc. + + No--no + +"The faculties are called into no exercise by doing a thing merely +because others do it, no more than by believing a thing only because +others believe it," says George P. Marsh. He should have used any +instead of the second no. + + Nothing--nor + +"There was nothing at the Columbian Exposition more beautiful, nor +more suggestive of the progress of American art, than Tiffany's +display." Change nor to or. + + Can't do nothing + +"He says he can't do nothing for me." Use "He can do nothing," or "He +can't do anything for me." + + Cannot by no means + +This double negative should be avoided. "I cannot by no means permit +you to go." Say, "I cannot possibly," or "I cannot, under any +consideration, permit you to go." + _________________________________________________________________ + +197 + + Nor--no + +"Give not me counsel, nor let no comforter delight mine ear," says +Shakespeare. + +"There can be no rules laid down, nor no manner recommended," says +Sheridan. + +"No skill could obviate, nor no remedy dispel the terrible infection." + +The foregoing sentences may be corrected by changing nor to and. + + Not--no + +"I pray you bear with me; I cannot go no further," says Shakespeare. +"I can go no further," or "I cannot go any further," will make the +sentence correct. + + Nor--not + +"I never did repent for doing good, nor shall not now." + +"We need not, nor do not, confine the purposes of God." + +"Which do not continue, nor are not binding." + +"For my part I love him not, nor hate him not." + +In these sentences, change nor to and. + _________________________________________________________________ + +198 + + CHAPTER XVI + + Accordance of Verb with Subject + +No rule of grammar is more familiar to the schoolboy than that which +relates to the agreement of the verb with its subject, or nominative, +and none that is more frequently violated. It would be a mistake, +however, to assume that the schoolboy is the only transgressor. Ladies +and gentlemen of culture and refinement, writers and speakers of +experience and renown, have alike been caught in the quicksands of +verb constructions. + +"This painting is one of the finest masterpieces that ever was given +to the world." A transposition of the sentence will show that the verb +should be were, and not was. "Of the finest masterpieces that ever +were given to the world, this painting is one." + +"His essay on 'Capital and Labor' is one of the best that has ever +been written on the subject." The verb should be have. + +"The steamer, with all her passengers and crew, were lost." The +subject is steamer, and the verb should be was. + _________________________________________________________________ + +199 + + Interrogative sentences + +"What signifies his good resolutions, when he does not possess +strength of purpose sufficient to put them into practice?" Resolutions +is the subject, and the verb should be signify. + +"Of what profit is his prayers, while his practices are the +abomination of the neighborhood?" Prayers being plural, the verb +should be are. + +"What avails good sentiments with a bad life?" Use avail. + + Subject after the Verb + +"In virtue and piety consist the happiness of man." Happiness, the +subject, being singular, the verb should be consists, to agree with +its nominative. + +"To these recommendations were appended a copy of the minority +report." A transposition of the sentence will show that the verb +should be was, and not were. "A copy of the minority report was +appended to these recommendations." + +Whenever the sentence is introduced by a phrase consisting in part of +a noun in the plural, or several nouns in the singular or plural, and, +especially, where the subject follows the verb; care must be taken to +keep the nominative well in mind, so that the verb may be in strict +accord with it. + _________________________________________________________________ + +200 + + Compound Subjects + +When a verb has two or more nominatives it must be plural. These +nominatives may or may not be connected by and or other connecting +particle. The nominatives may consist of nouns or pronouns, either +singular or plural, or they may be phrases. + +"Washington and Lincoln were chosen instruments of government." + +"Judges and senates have been bought for gold, + +Esteem and love were never to be sold."-- Pope. + +"Art, empire, earth itself, to change are doomed."-- Beattie. + +"You and he resemble each other." + +"To read and to sing are desirable accomplishments." + +"To be wise in our own eyes, to be wise in the opinion of the world, +and to be wise in the sight of our Creator, are three things so very +different as rarely to coincide."-- Blair. + + Singular in Meaning + +Nominatives are sometimes plural in form but singular in meaning. Such +nominatives require a verb in the singular. + +"The philosopher and poet was banished from his country." Was is +correct, because philosopher and poet are the same person. + _________________________________________________________________ + +201 + +"Ambition, and not the safety of the state, was concerned." Was is +correct, because ambition is the subject. The words, "and not the +safety of the state," simply emphasize the subject, but do not give it +a plural meaning. + +"Truth, and truth only, is worth seeking for its own sake." Another +case of emphasis. + + Each, Every, No, Not + +When two or more nominatives are qualified by one of the foregoing +words the verb must be singular. + +"Every limb and feature appears with its respective grace."-- Steele. + +"Not a bird, not a beast, not a tree, not a shrub were to be seen." +Use was instead of were. + + Poetical Construction + +When the verb separates its nominatives, it agrees with that which +precedes it. + +"Forth in the pleasing spring, Thy beauty walks, thy tenderness, and +love."-- Thomson. + + Or, Nor, As well as, But, Save + +When two or more nominatives in the singular are separated by such +words as the preceding, the verb must be singular. + +"Veracity, as well as justice, is to be our rule of life."-- Butler. + _________________________________________________________________ + +202 + +"Not a weed nor a blade of grass were to be seen." Change were to was. + +"Nothing but wailings were heard." Transpose. "Nothing was heard but +wailings." The verb should be was. + +"Either one or the other of them are in the wrong." The verb should be +is. + +If, however, one or more of the nominatives are plural, the verb must +be plural. + +"It is not his wealth, or gifts, or culture that gives him this +distinction." Gifts being plural, the verb should be give. + +Some authorities say that the verb should agree in number with the +subject which is placed next before it, and be understood (or silent) +to the rest; as, "Neither he nor his brothers were there," "Neither +his brothers nor he was there," "Neither you nor I am concerned." + +Prof. Genung, author of Outlines of Rhetoric, says: "When a clash of +concord arises, either choose subjects that have the same number, or +choose a verb that has the same form for both numbers." He gives this +sentence to show the change of verb: "Fame or the emoluments of valor +were (was) never to be his." "Fame or the emoluments of valor could +never be his." And this sentence to show the change of one of the +subjects: "Neither the halter nor bayonets + _________________________________________________________________ + +203 + +are (is) sufficient to prevent us from obtaining our rights." "Neither +the halter nor the bayonet is sufficient to prevent us from obtaining +our rights." + + Collective Nouns + +Collective nouns, like army, committee, class, peasantry, nobility, +are, grammatically, singular, but they are often so modified by their +surroundings as to convey a plural idea, and when so modified the verb +must be plural. When the collective noun conveys the idea of unity, +the verb must be singular. + +"The army was disbanded." + +"The council were divided." + +"A number of men and women were present." + +"The people rejoice in their freedom." + +"The peasantry go barefoot, and the middle sort make use of wooden +shoes." + +"The world stands in awe of your majesty." + +"All the world are spectators of your conduct." + + Weights, Measures, and Values + +The names of weights, measures, and values, when considered as wholes, +require singular verbs, and when considered as units require verbs in +the plural. + +"There is twenty shillings in my purse," meaning one pound in value. +"There are twenty shillings in my purse," meaning twenty separate +coins, each being a shilling. "Sixty-three gallons equals a hogshead." +"Ten tons of coal are consumed daily." + _________________________________________________________________ + +204 + + Titles of Books + +Whether the form be singular or plural, the title is considered a +unit, and requires a verb in the singular; as, "'The Merry Wives of +Windsor' was written by Shakespeare." "Dr. Holmes's American Annals +was published in 1805." + + Whereabouts + +"The whereabouts of his cousins were not known to him." The plural +form of this word is misleading. The verb should be was. + + Phenomena, Effluvia + +"A strange phenomena," "A disagreeable effluvia" are incorrect forms +not infrequently met with. Both words are plural, and require plural +verbs and also the omission of the article a. + + You was + +This very incorrect form is often employed by those who know better, +and who use it, seemingly, out of courtesy to the uneducated people +with whom they are brought in contact. If it be a courtesy, it is one +that is "more honored in the breach than in the observance." + +Those who use the expression ignorantly are not likely to read this +book, or any other of a similar character, and need scarcely be told +that was should be were. + _________________________________________________________________ + + INDEX + _______ + + A, An, 181. + Aberration of intellect, 87. + A 1,83. + A hundred others' woes-- Pronouns, 126. + Ability, Capacity, 27. + About, Almost, 28. + About, Around, 95. + Above, More than, Preceding, 111. + Above, Foregoing, 87. + Above up, 180. + Acceptance, Acceptation, 28. + Access, Accession, 28. + Accident, Injury, 28. + Accord, Give, 86. + Accordance of Verb with Subject, 198. + Collective Nouns, 203. + Compound Subjects, 200. + Each, Every, No, Not, 201. + Interrogative sentences, 199. + Or, Nor, As well as, But, Save, 201. + Phenomena, Effluvia, 204. + Poetical Construction, 201. + Singular in Meaning, 200. + Subject after the Verb, 199. + Titles of Books, 204. + Weights, Measures, and Values, 203. + Whereabouts, 204. + You was, 204. + Acoustics, Ethics, Politics, 143. + Act, Action, 86. + Adherence, Adhesion, 36. + Adjective or Adverb, 150. + Adopt, Take, 37. + Adverbs, 150. + Adverbs for Relative Pronouns, 140. + Advise, Persuade, 52. + Affect, Effect, 37. + After of-- Possessive case, 127. + After than and as-- Pronouns, 132. + After that, 159. + After the Imperative-- Pronouns, 132. + After verbs-- Participles, 171. + After the verb To be-- Pronouns, 131. + After verbs and prepositions-- Pronouns, 130. + Again, Against, 115. + Aggravate, Exasperate, 37. + Agreeably disappointed, 77. + Agreement with Antecedent-- Pronouns, 133. + Ain't, 119. + Alex. Melville Bell, 24. + Alienate, Antagonize, Oppose, 32. + Alighted, Lit, Lighted, 88. + All, Is that all? 108. + All of, 180. + All, Whole, 41, 51. + Alleviate, Relieve, 37. + Allow, Guess, Reckon, Calculate, 56. + Allowed, Said, 87. + Allude to, Refer to, 77. + Almost, About, 28. + Almost, Most, Very, 30. + Alms, Odds, Riches, 145. + Alone, Only, 113. + Alternative, 87. + Alternation, 87. + Alumna, Formula, 144, + Alumnus, Terminus, Cactus, 143. + Ambiguity-- Pronouns, 135. + Among the rest, 78. + Among, Between, 175. + Amount, Number, 32. + Analysis, Crises, 143. + And, To-- Try and, 117. + Anglicized Words, 20. + Angry, Mad, 30. + Animalcules, not Animalculae, 148. + Anniversary, 87. + Answer, Reply, 32. + Antagonize, Alienate, Oppose, 32. + Anticipate, Expect, 32. + Any, At all, 32. + Anyhow, 81. + Anyways, Somewheres, Thereabouts, 78. + Apart, Aside, 78. + Apparent, Evident, 33. + Appendix, Index, 148. + Appointed you and I-- after verbs and prepositions, 130. + Appreciate highly, 189. + Apprehend, Comprehend, 105. + Archimedes' Screw, 125. + Argue, Augur, 98. + Around, About, 95. + Articles, 181. + A, An, 181. + Interchanged, 184. + Omitted, 182. + Redundant, 183. + Titles-- The Reverend, 182. + As after Equally, 190. + As... as, 162. + As, Like, 88. + As... so, 163. + As soon as, Directly, Immediately, 77. + As, That, 70. + As though, As if, 160. + As well as, Or, Nor, But, Save, 201. + Ascend up, 189. + Aside, Apart, 78. + Asparagus, Sparrowgrass, 34. + Assets, Alms, Scissors, 145. + Assure, Promise, 34. + At all, Any, 32. + At, To, 176. + At you, 114. + Attacked, Burst, Drowned, 108. + Aware, Conscious, 39. + Away, Way, 41. + Awful, 81. + Awkward construction-- Participles, 172. + + Back up, Support, 82. + Badly, Greatly, 114. + Bad toothache, 70. + Balance, Remainder, 60. + Bandits, Banditti, 148. + Barbaric, Barbarous, 98. + Barbarisms, 20. + Beaus, Tableaux, Chateaux, 147. + Beautifully, Beautiful, 70. + Because, Reason, 156. + Been to, 190. + Beg, Beg leave, 71. + Beg pardon, Which? 26. + Begin, Commence, 38. + Behave, 60. + Bell, Alex. Melville, 24. + Besides, 49. + Beside, Besides, 108. + Better, Best, 61. + Between, Among, 175. + Between you and I-- After verbs and prepositions, 130. + Black Oxide of Manganese, 36. + Bombastic Language, 18. + Both, 190. + Both, Both of, 72. + Both, Each, 72. + Bound, 61. + Bountiful, Plentiful, 108. + Brace, Pair, Couple, 147. + Bravery, Courage, 116. + Bring, Fetch, Carry, 44. + Brooks's Arithmetics, 125. + Brothers, Brethren, 149. + Bryant's list, 16. + Bulk, 82. + Burglarize, 82. + Burst, Attacked, Drowned, 108. + But, Except, 157. + But, If, 157. + But, Only, Except, 157. + But, Or, Nor, Save-- As well as, 201. + But superfluous, 158. + But that, 158, 190. + But that, But what, 82, 157. + But that, 157. + But that, Than that, 158. + But what, 160. + But what, But that, 82, 157. + By, In, 175. + By, With, 177. + + Calculate, 83. + Calculate, Guess, Reckon, Allow, 56. + Calculated, Liable, 83. + Calligraphy, 68. + Came across, Met with, 109. + Campbell's law, 20. + Can, Could, Will, 115. + Can but, Cannot but, 68. + Cannot by no means, 196. + Can't and Couldn't, 120. + Can't do nothing, 196. + Cantos, Heroes, 145. + Capacity, Ability, 27. + Carry, Bring, Fetch, 44. + Case forms-- Pronouns, 129. + Casualty, Casuality, 68. + Character, Reputation, 44. + Chauncey Depew and Eli Perkins, 65. + Cheap, Low-priced, 30. + Cherubim, Seraphim, 142. + Choice of prepositions, 175. + Choice of relatives-- Pronouns, 138. + Choice of words, 15. + Chrysalis, Analysis, 143. + Chuck-full, 74. + Clearness-- Participles, 172. + Clever, Smart, 85. + Climax, 112. + Climb down, 103. + Collective nouns, 203. + Collective nouns-- Pronouns, 135. + Commence, Begin, 38. + Commenced to write, 107. + Commercial slang, 23. + Commodious, Convenient, 26. + Common, Mutual, 28. + Common slang, 23. + Complected, 69. + Complete, Finished, Through, 39, 99. + Compound subject, 200. + Comprehend, Apprehend, 105. + Conclusion, End, 39. + Conjunctions, 156. + Conscious, Aware, 39. + Contemplate, Propose, 75. + Contemptible, Contemptuous, 52. + Continual, Continuous, 39. + Continually, Perpetually, 52. + Contractions, 118. + Convenient, Commodious, 26. + Convict, Convince, 40. + Correlatives, 162. + Could, Can, Will, 115. + Couldn't, Can't, 120. + Couple, Pair, Brace, 147. + Couple, Several, 76. + Courage, Bravery, 116. + Criterion, Datum, 144. + Crowd, 74. + Cunning, 59. + Cupfuls-- Plural compounds, 147. + Curious, 59. + Custom, Habit, 40. + Customer, Patron, 93. + Cute, 59. + Cut in half, 98. + + Daren't, Dursen't, 123. + Data, Strata, 144. + Datum, Phenomenon, 144, 204. + Deface, Disfigure, 43. + Defect, Fault, 45. + Degrade, Demean, 43. + Depot, Station, 43. + Description, Kind, 44. + Didn't, Don't, 120. + Dies, Dice, 149. + Differ among themselves, 192. + Different, 191. + Differ with, From, 175. + Different from, to, than, 75, 176. + Directly, Immediately, As soon as, 77. + Disfigure, Deface, 43. + Disremember, 69. + Dispense, Dispense with, 75. + Dock, Wharf, 52. + Don't and Didn't, 120. + Don't want none, 195. + Double negatives, 194. + Double possessives, 126. + Doubt not but, 160. + Dreadful solemn-- Adjective or adverb? 152. + Drive, Ride, 76. + Drowned, Attacked, Burst, 108. + Dry, Thirsty, 75. + Due, Owing, 71. + Dursent, Daren't, 123. + Dutch, German, 75. + + Each, Both, 72. + Each, Every, 71. + Each, Every, No, Not, 201. + Each other, One another, 46. + Each other's eyes-- Pronouns, 126. + Each... their-- Agreement with antecedent, 134. + Effect, Affect, 37. + Effluvia, Phenomena, 144, 204. + Either, Neither, 47, 163. + Either the... or the, 159. + Elder, Older, 91. + Eli Perkins and Chauncey Depew, 65. + Ellipsis, Analysis, 143. + Else ...besides, 49. + Else than, Other than, 159. + Emigrants, Immigrants, 78. + Empty, 86. + End, Conclusion, 39. + Endorse, Indorse, 84. + End up, 192. + Enjoy, 86. + Enjoyed poor health, 36. + Equally as well, 190. + Evacuate, Vacate, 75. + Ever, Never, 72. + Every confidence, 67. + Every, Each, 71. + Every, Each, No, Not, 201. + Everybody else's, 128. + Everybody... they-- Agreement with antecedent, 134. + Every once in awhile, 73. + Everywheres, 190. + Evident, Apparent, 33. + Exasperate, Aggravate, 37. + Except, But, 157. + Except, But, Only, 157. + Except, Unless, Besides, 161. + Exceptionable, Exceptional, 73. + Excuse me-- Which? 26. + Expect, Anticipate, 32. + Expect, Suspect, Suppose, 110. + + Factor, 112. + Farther, Further, 45. + Fathers-in-law-- Plural compounds, 147. + Fault, Defect, 45. + Favor, Resemble, 59. + Feel like, 190. + Feels badly-- Adjective or adverb? 151. + Female, Woman, 73. + Fetch, Bring, Carry, 44. + Few, 191. + Few, Little, 46. + Fewer, Less, 73. + Fictitious writer, 62. + Fine writing, 8. + Finished, Complete, Through, 39, 99. + Fire, Throw, 78. + First, Firstly, 62. + First, Former, 61. + First-rate, 62. + First two, 79. + Fish, Fly, 148. + Fix, In a, 53. + Fix, Mend, Repair, 62. + Fly, Flee, 53. + Flys, Fishes, 148. + Foregoing, Above, 87. + Foreign words, 9. + Former, First, 61. + Formulas, Larvas, Stigmas, 144. + For to see, 189. + Frederick the Great's Kindness-- Nouns in apposition, 127. + From hence, thence, whence, 180. + From, Of, 104, 176. + Funny, 56. + Further, Farther, 45. + Future, Subsequent, 79. + + Gent's pants, 79. + German, Dutch, 75. + Get, Got, 54. + Give, Accord, 36. + Good deal, Great deal, 57. + Good piece, Long distance, 110. + Good usage, 19. + Good, Well, 158. + Got to, Must, 115. + Governor, the old man, 97. + Great big, 98. + Great deal, Good deal, 57. + Greatly, Badly, 114. + Grouse, Quail, Snipe, 149. + Grow, Raise, Rear, 113. + Guess, Reckon, Calculate, Allow, 56. + Gums, Overshoes, 56. + + Habit, Custom, 40. + Had better, Would better, 57. + Had have, 192. + Had ought to, 193. + Hadn't, Haven't, Hasn't, 121. + Haint, Taint, 121. + Hangs on, Continues, 115. + Have got, 188. + Have saw, Has went, 114. + Haven't, Hasn't, Hadn't, 121. + Haply, Happily, 114. + Happen, Transpire, 65. + Has went, Have saw, 114. + Hate, Dislike, 116. + Healthy, Wholesome, 52. + Healthy, Healthful, 112. + Hearty meal, 98. + He is no better than me-- After than and as, 133. + Help but be, 191. + Heroes, Cantos, Stuccoes, 145. + Herrings, Trout, Pike, 149. + He's, She's, It's, 123. + Hey? Which? 25. + Hire, Lease, Let, Rent, 88. + His, One's, 50. + His or her-- Needless pronouns, 136. + Hope, Wish, 99. + House, Residence, 43. + How for by which-- Adverbs for relative pronouns, 140 + How, That, 154. + Hung, Hanged, 112. + + I am him-Case forms, 129. + Idea, Opinion, 113. + If, But, 157. + If, Whether, 58. + Ill, Sick, 107. + Illy, Ill, 58. + Immediately, Directly, As soon as, 77. + Immigrants, Emigrants, 78. + Implicit, 58. + I'm, You're, He's, She's, It's, We're, They're, 123. + In a fix, 53. + In, By, 175. + In, Into, 85, 176. + In, Of, 177. + In, On, 177. + In our midst, 84. + In respect of, To, 176. + In so far, 188. + Inaugurate, 109. + Incomplete Infinitive, 168. + Index, Appendix, 148. + Individual, 58. + Indorse, Endorse, 84. + Infinitive, 166. + Infinitive, Incomplete, 168. + Infinitive needed-- Supply To, 166. + Infinitive unnecessary-- Omit "To," 167. + Informed, Posted, 86. + Injury, Accident, 28. + Interchanged Articles, 184. + Interrogatives-- Pronouns, 130. + Interrogative sentences, 199. + Into, In, 85, 176. + Introduce, Present, 105. + "Is building," 173. + Isn't, 121. + It's, He's, She's, 123. + It is me-- Case forms, 129. + + John and Mary's sled-- Double possessives, 126. + Journal, 68. + Junius's letters, 125. + Juntos, Heroes, Virtuosos, 145. + Just going to, 85. + + Kind, Description, 44. + Kind of, 85. + Kind of a, 191. + Knights Templars, 147. + Know as, Know that, 58. + Knowing, 85. + + Last, Latest, 59. + Lay, Lie, 69. + Lead a dance, 117. + Learn, Teach, 88. + Lease, Let, Rent, Hire, 88. + Leave, Quit, 83. + Lend, Loan, 88. + Less, Fewer, 73. + Lest, That, 159. + Let it alone, Leave it alone, 83. + Let, Lease, Rent, Hire, 88. + Let you and I try it-- After the Imperative, 132. + Let's, 123. + Liable, Calculated, 83. + Lie, Lay, 69. + Lighted, Lit, Alighted, 88. + Like, As, 88. + Like, Love, 29. + List of Principal Correlatives, 162. + Lit, Lighted, 88. + Little, Few, 46. + Little piece, Short distance, 67. + Little bit, 74. + Loan, Lend, 88. + Look and see, 187. + Look at here, 187. + Lot, Number, 116. Love, Like, 29. + Low-priced, Cheap, 30. + Luck, 84. + + Mad, Angry, 30. + Make, Manufacture, 65. + Make way with, 84. + Mayn't, Mustn't, Mightn't, Oughtn't, 122. + Mayst, Mightest, 123. + Means, Alms, Headquarters, 146. + Measures, Weights, Values, 203. + Memorandum, Datum, 144. + Mend, Fix, Repair, 62. + Mention, Allude to, Refer to, 77. + Men's and boys' shoes, 124. + Men, women, and children's shoes-- Double possessives, 126. + Met with, Came across, 109. + Mightn't, Mustn't, Mayn't, Oughtn't, 122. + Mightst, Mayst, 123. + Mighty, Very, 104. + Misplaced relatives-- Pronouns, 141. + Mixed pronouns, 136. + More than, Above, Preceding, 111. + More than, Over, 155. + More, Worse, 42. + Mosquitoes, Heroes, Halos, 145. + Most, Almost, Very, 30. + Musselmans, Dragomans, 145. + Mustn't, Mayn't, Mightn't, and Oughtn't, 122. + Mutual, Common, 28. + Myself, 29. + + Nasty, Nice, 89. + Near, Nearly, 89. + Need, Want, 40. + Needless Articles, 183. + Needless Prepositions, 180. + Needless Pronouns, 136. + Negatives, 194. + Negligence, Neglect, 29. + Neighborhood, Region, 42. + Neither, Either, 47, 163. + Neither... nor, Either, 163. + Never, Ever, 72. + Never... nor (or or), Either, 163. + Never, Not, 29. + News, 142. + New beginner, 191. + New Words, 21. + Nice, Nasty, 89. + Nicely, 89. + No, Each, Every, Not, 201. + No... no, 154, 196. + No, Not, 154. + No good, No use, 89. + No more than I could help, 111. + No use, No good, 89. + Nor... no, 197. + Nor, Or-- Pronouns, 135. + Nor, Or, As well as, But, Save, 201. + Nor... not, 197. + None, Singular or plural, 51. + Not... hardly, 196. + Not impossible but, 160. + Not... neither, Either, 163. + Not, Never, 29. + Not... or (or nor), Either, 163. + Not... no, 197. + Noted, Notorious, 94. + Nothing like, 94. + Nothing... nor, 196. + Notorious, Noted, 94. + Nouns in Apposition-- Possessive Case 126. + Nouns, Plural-Possessive Case, 125. + Nouns, Singular-- Possessive Case, 125. + Nowhere near so, 94. + Nucleus, Terminus, Fungus, 143. + Number, 142. + Number, Amount, 32. + Number, Lot, 116. + Number, Quantity, 38. + + O, Oh, 90. + Observe, Say, 90. + Obsolete Words, 20. + Odds, Alms, Riches, 145. + Of any, Of all, 90. + Of, From, 104,176. + Of, In, 177. + "Of" redundant, 169. + Of, With, 176. + Off of, 189. + Older, Elder, 91. + Omission of Article, 182. + Omit the Possessive, 170. + Omission of Preposition, 179. + Omit "Of," 169. + Omit "To," 167. + Omitted Relatives-- Pronouns, 141. + On, Over, Upon, 104. + One another, Each other, 46. + One... they-- Agreement with Antecedent, 134. + One's, His, 50. + Only, 91. + Only, Alone, 113. + Only, Except, But, 157. + Onto, Upon, 92. + Opens up, 191. + Opinion, Idea, 113. + Oppose, antagonize, Alienate, 32. + Or. Nor, As well as, But, Save, 201. + Or, Nor-- Pronouns, 135. + Other, 49. + Other... besides, 49. + Other than, 159. + Other than, Otherwise than, 48. + Otherwise than, Otherwise but, 159. + Ottomans, Mussulmans, 145. + Ought, Should, Would, 102. + Oughtn't, Mustn't, Mayn't, Mightn't, 122. + Outstart, 92. + Over and Above, More than, 92. + Over, More than, 155. + Over, On, Upon, 104. + Over with, 110. + Overflown, Overflowed, 110. + Overlook, Oversee, 95. + Overshoes, Gums, 56. + Overworked Expressions, 13. + Owing, Due, 71. + Oxide of Manganese, Black, 36. + + Pair, Couple, Brace, 147. + Pants, Gent's, 79. + Pappy, the Old Man, 97. + Parenthetical Expressions-- Pronouns, 133. + Part, Portion, 30. + Partake, Ate, 105. + Participles, 169, + After Verbs, 171. + Awkward Construction, 172. + Clearness, 172. + "Is building," 173. + "Of" redundant, 169. + Omit the Possessive, 170. + Place of, 171. + Party, Person, 93. + Patron, Customer, 93. + Peas, Pease, 149. + Pell-mell, 155. + Pennies, Pence, 149. + Per, 93. + Peradventure, Perchance, 93. + Performers, 93. + Period, Point, 94. + Perpetually, Continually, 52. + Person, Party, 93. + Perspire, Sweat, 86. + Persuade, Advise, 52. + Peruse, 78. + Pet Words, 12. + Phenomena, Data, Effluvia, 144, 204. + Place of Participles, 171. + Plead, Pleaded, 94. + Plenty, Plentiful, 95. + Plural Compounds, 147. + Plural Nouns, 125. + Pocket-handkerchief, 188. + Poet, Poetess, 73. + Poetic Terms, 9. + Poetical Construction, 201. + Point, Period, 94. + Politics, Acoustics, Ethics, 143. + Portion, Part, 30. + Position of Correlatives, 164. + Position of Preposition, 178. + Possessive Case, 124. + After of, 127. + Double possessives, 126. + Nouns, Singular, 125. + " Plural, 125. + " in apposition, 126. + Pronouns, 126. + Somebody else's, 127. + Postal, 31. + Posted, Informed, 86. + Powerful sight, 105. + Practical, Practicable, 31. + Preceding, Above, More than, 111. + Predicate, 31. + Prefer than, 31. + Preferred before, to, 176. + Prejudice, 33. + Prepositions, 174. + All of, 180. + At, To, 176. + Between, Among, 175. + By, In, 175. + Choice, 175. + Differ with, from, 175. + Different from, to, than, 176. + From hence, 180. + In, Into, 176. + In, On, 177. + In respect of, to, 176. + Needless prepositions, 180. + Of, In, 177. + Of, From, 176. + Omission of prepositions, 179. + Position, 178. + Preferred before, to, 176. + To, With, 177. + Up above, 180. + With, By, 177. + With, Of, 176. + With, To, 178. + Present, Introduce, 105. + Presume, Think, Believe, 33. + Pretend, Profess, 33. + Pretty, Very, 116. + Preventative, Preventive, 33. + Previous, Previously, 33. + Profess, Pretend, 33. + Promise, Assure, 34. + Pronouns, 129. + Adverbs for Relative Pronouns, 140. + After than and as, 132. + " the Imperative, 132. + " To be, 131. + " Verbs and Prepositions, 130. + Agreement with Antecedent, 133. + Ambiguity, 135. + Case Forms, 129. + Choice of Relatives, 138. + Collective Nouns, 135. + Interrogatives, 130. + Misplaced Relatives, 141. + Mixed, 136. + Needless, 136. + Omitted Relatives, 141. + Or, Nor, 135. + Parenthetical expressions, 133. + Silent Predicate, 132. + The one, the other, 141. + Uniform Relatives, 137. + Which and who after and, 140. + Pronouns-- Possessive Case, 126. + Pronouns-- Personal and Relative, 129. + Proper Names-- Plurals, 146. + Propose, Purpose, 34. + Proposal, Proposition, 37. + Propose, Contemplate, 75. + Prospectus, Terminus, Apparatus, 148. + Proved, Proven, 38. + Providing, Provided, 37. + Provincialisms, 24. + Pupil, Scholar, 107. + Purity of Diction, 19. + Purpose, Propose, 34. + + Quail, Grouse, Woodcock, 149. + Quantity, Number, 38. + Quite, Very, Rather, 153. + Quite a few, 38. + Quit, Leave, 83. + + Raise, Grow, Rear, 113. + Rarely, Rare, 42. + Rather than, Other than, 159. + Real, Really, 42. + Real good, 155. + Rear, Raise, Grow, 113. + Reason, Because, 156. + Receipt, Recipe, 42. + Reckon, Guess, Calculate, Allow, 56. + Recollect of, 187. + Redundancy, 185. + Redundant Article, 183. + Redundant Negatives, 195. + Refer to, Allude to, 77. + Region, Neighborhood, 42. + Relieve, Alleviate, 37. + Remainder, Balance, 60. + Remit, Send, 43. + Rent, Lease, Let, Hire, 88. + Repair, Fix, Mend, 62. + Reply, Answer, 32. + Reputation, Character, 44. + Requisite, Requisition, Requirement, 106. + Resemble, Favor, 59. + Residence, House, 43. + Restaurant French, 10. + Revolting, 96. + Reverend, 182. + Riches, Alms, Odds, 145. + Ride, Drive, 76. + Right, Right here, Just here, 99. + Right smart, 73. + Rise up, 192. + Round, Square, 63. + + Said, Allowed, 87. + Same as, Same that, 105. + Save, But, Or, Nor, As well as, 201. + Say, Observe, 90. + Says, States, 63. + Scholar, Pupil, 107. + Section, Region, 106. + Seeming Paradox, 191. + Seldom or ever, 106. + Send, Remit, 43. + Seraphim, Cherubim, 142. + Set, Sit, 80. + Settle up, down, 188. + Several, Couple, 76. + Sewage, Sewerage, 106. + Shall, Will, Should, Would, 100. + Shall you? Will you? 102. + She's, He's, It's, 123. + Should, Would, Ought, 102. + Should, Would, Shall, Will, 100. + Shouldn't and Wouldn't, 122. + Sick, Ill, 107. + Sight, Many, 74. + Silent Predicate-- Pronouns, 132. + Single, The first, 79. + Singular Nouns, 125. + Singular in Meaning, 201. + Sink down, 192. + Sit, Set, 80. + Slang, 22. + Slang, Commercial, Common, and Society, 23. + Smart, Clever, 85. + Smell of, 192. + Smells sweetly-- Adjective or Adverb? 151. + Sociable, Social, 106. + Society Slang, 23. + So... as, 163. + So far, That far, 154. + So nice, 155. + So, Such, 152. + Solos, Heroes, Octavos, 145. + Some better, 98. + Some means or another, 48. + Somebody else's, 127. + Somewheres, Anyways, Thereabouts, 78. + Sparrowgrass, Asparagus, 34. + Specialty, Speciality, 106. + Square, Round, 63. + Stand a chance, 110. + States, Says, 63. + Station, Depot, 43. + Stay, Stop, 63. + Stilts, 18. + Stop, Stay, 63. + Strata, Data, 144. + Subject after the verb, 199. + Subsequent, Future, 79. + Subtile, Subtle, 63. + Such as you and me-- After than and as, 133. + Such, So, 152. + Summerish, Winterish, 99. + Summons, 64. + Supply "To," 166. + Support, Back up, 82. + Sweat, Perspire, 86. + + Tableaux, Beaus, Plateaus, 147. + Tactics, Acoustics, 143. + Taint, Haint, 121. + Take, Adopt, 37. + Talented, 103. + Taste, 7. + Tasty, Tasteful, 64. + Team, 64. + Teach, Learn, 88. + Terminus, Radius, Focus, 143. + Than, 48. + Than ambiguous, 158. + Thanks, I thank you, 115. + That, As, 70. + That, But, 157. + That far, Thus far, 154. + That, Lest, 159. + That omitted, 158. + That, that, 157. + The father he died-- Needless pronouns, 136. + The first, Single, 79. + The Honorable, the Reverend, 182. + The Infinitive, 166. + The Miss Browns-- Titles, 146. + The Old Man, 97. + The one, the other-- Pronouns, 141. + Them books, 137. + Thereabouts, Somewheres, Any ways, 78. + These kind, Those kind, 47. + These sort, Those kind, 64. + These, Those, 62. + They're, We're, You're, 123. + Think for, 192. + Thirsty, Dry, 75. + This much, 154. + This twenty years, These kind, 47. + Those kind, These sort, 64. + Through, Finished, Complete, 39, 99. + Throw, Fire, 78. + Titles of Books, 204. + Titles-- The Reverend, the Honorable, 182. + Titles with Proper Names, 146. + To always find-- The Infinitive, 166. + To, With, 177, 178. + To, At, 176. + Transpire, Happen, 65. + Trite Expressions, 12. + Truth, Veracity, 67. + Try and, Try to, 117. + Try the experiment, 67. + Two foot, These kind, 48. + Two Negatives, 194. + + Ugly, 67. + Unbeknown, 68. + Underhanded, 68. + Under the weather, Ill, 115. + Unexampled, 96. + Uniform Relatives-- Pronouns, 137. + Unless, Without, 41. + Up above, 180. + Upon, On, Over, 104. + Utter, Express, 96. + + Vacate, Evacuate, 75. + Valuable, Valued, 97. + Values, Weights, Measures, 203. + Veracity, Truth, 67. + Very, Most, Almost, 30. + Very much of, 153. + Very pleased, 97. + Very, Pretty, 116. + Very Vulgar Vulgarisms, 13. + Vicinity, Neighborhood, 97. + Vulgarisms, 13. + + Want, Need, 40. + Wasn't, 122. + Way, Away, 41. + Ways, way, 41. + Weights, Measures, and Values, 203. + Well, Good, 153. + Weren't, 122. + We're, They're, You're, 123. + Wharf, Dock, 52. + Wharf, Wharves, 149. + What for that, 137. + What? Which? Hey? 25. + Whereabouts, 204. + Where for in which-- Adverbs for Relative Pronouns, 140. + Whether, If, 58. + Whether... Whether, 160. + Which? 25. + Which? Beg pardon, 25. + Which for who, 137. + Which? What? 25. + Which and who after and-- Pronouns, 140. + Who should I see-- Interrogatives, 131. + Whole, All, 41, 51. + Wholesome, Healthy, 52. + Whom do you think he is-- Interrogatives, 131. + Why, 187. + Widow woman, 186. + Will, Could, Can, 115. + Will, Shall, Should, Would, 100. + Will you? Shall you? 102. + Winterish, Summerish, 99. + Wish, Hope, 99. + With, By, 177. + With, Of, 176. + With, To, 177, 178. + Without, Unless, 41. + Woman, Female, 73. + Words, Anglicized, 20. + Words Improperly Used, 26. + Words, New, 21. + Words, Obsolete. 20. + Words to be avoided, 18. + Worse, More, 42. + Would better, Had better, 57. + Would Should, Ought, 102. + Would, Should, Shall, Will, 100. + Wouldn't, Shouldn't, 122. + + You are him-- Case Forms, 129. + You're, We're, They're, 123. + You was, 204. + _________________________________________________________________ + + Popular Handbooks + _________________ + +SOME books are designed for entertainment, others for information. +This series combines both features. The information is not only +complete and reliable, it is compact and readable. In this busy, +bustling age it is required that the information which books contain +shall be ready to hand and presented in the clearest and briefest +manner possible. 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Bechtel + +Any one with the least desire to add to his vocabulary or to improve +his choice of words should have a copy of this book. It is designed +mainly to meet the wants of busy merchants or lawyers, thoughtful +clergymen or teachers, and wide-awake school-boys or girls who are +ambitious to express the thoughts of the mind in more fitting phrases +than they are at present capable of doing. + _________________________________________________________________ + + TOASTS + + By William Pittenger + +Most men dread being called upon to respond to a toast or to make an +address. What would you not give for the ability to be rid of this +embarrassment? No need to give much when you can learn the art from +this little book. It will tell you how to do it; not only that, but by +example it will show the way. 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The rules are clearly stated and freely +illustrated, thus furnishing a most useful volume. The author is +everywhere recognized as the leading authority upon the subject, and +what he has to say is practical, concise, and comprehensive. + _________________________________________________________________ + + ORATORY + + By Henry Ward Beecher + +It must be conceded that few men ever enjoyed a wider experience or +achieved a higher reputation in the realm of public oratory than Mr. +Beecher. What he had to say on this subject was born of experience, +and his own inimitable style was at once both statement and +illustration of his theme. 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