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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Great Intendant, by Thomas Chapais
+#6 in our series "Chronicles of Canada"
+
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+Title: The Great Intendant
+       A Chronicle of Jean Talon in Canada 1665-1672
+
+Author: Thomas Chapais
+        Edited by George M. Wrong and H. H. Langton
+
+Release Date: January, 2004 [EBook #4971]
+[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule]
+[This file was first posted on April 8, 2002]
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+Edition: 10
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+Language: English
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+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GREAT INTENDANT ***
+
+
+
+
+This etext was produced by Gardner Buchanan.
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+
+CHRONICLES OF CANADA
+Edited by George M. Wrong and H. H. Langton
+In thirty-two volumes
+
+Volume 6
+
+THE GREAT INTENDANT
+A Chronicle of Jean Talon in Canada 1665-1672
+
+By THOMAS CHAPAIS
+
+TORONTO, 1914
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+TO THE RESCUE OF NEW FRANCE
+
+When the year 1665 began, the French colony on the shores
+of the St Lawrence, founded by the valour and devotion
+of Champlain, had been in existence for more than half
+a century. Yet it was still in a pitiable state of weakness
+and destitution. The care and maintenance of the settlement
+had devolved upon trading companies, and their narrow-minded
+mercantile selfishness had stifled its progress. From
+other causes, also, there had been but little growth.
+Cardinal Richelieu, the great French minister, had tried
+at one time to infuse new life into the colony; [Footnote:
+For the earlier history of New France the reader is
+referred to three other volumes in this Series--The
+Founder of New France, The Seigneurs of Old Canada, and
+The Jesuit Missions.] but his first attempts had been
+unlucky, and later on his powerful mind was diverted to
+other plans and achievements and he became absorbed in
+the wider field of European politics. To the shackles of
+commercial greed, to forgetfulness on the part of the
+mother country, had been added the curse of Indian wars.
+During twenty-five years the daring and ferocious Iroquois
+had been the constant scourge of the handful of settlers,
+traders, and missionaries. Champlain's successors in the
+office of governor, Montmagny, Ailleboust, Lauzon,
+Argenson, Avaugour, had no military force adequate to
+the task of meeting and crushing these formidable foes.
+Year after year the wretched colony maintained its struggle
+for existence amidst deadly perils, receiving almost no
+help from France, and to all appearance doomed to
+destruction. To make things worse, internal strife
+exercised its disintegrating influence; there was contention
+among the leaders in New France over the vexed question
+of the liquor traffic. In the face of so many adverse
+circumstances--complete lack of means, cessation of
+immigration from the mother country, the perpetual menace
+of the bloody Iroquois incursions, a dying trade, and a
+stillborn agriculture--how could the colony be kept alive
+at all? Spiritual and civil authorities, the governor
+and the bishop, the Jesuits and the traders, all united
+in petitioning for assistance. But the motherland was
+far away, and European wars and rivalries were engrossing
+all her attention.
+
+Fortunately a change was at hand. The prolonged struggle
+of the Thirty Years' War and of the war against Spain
+had been ended by the treaty of Munster and Osnabruck in
+1648 and by that of the Pyrenees in 1659. The civil
+dissensions of the Fronde were over, thanks to the skilful
+policy of Cardinal Mazarin, Richelieu's successor. After
+the death of Mazarin in 1661, Louis XIV had taken into
+his own hands the reins of administration. He was young,
+painstaking, and ambitious; and he wanted to be not only
+king but the real ruler of his kingdom. In Jean Baptiste
+Colbert, the man who had been Mazarin's right hand, he
+had the good fortune to find one of the best administrators
+in all French history. Colbert soon won the king's
+confidence. He was instrumental in detecting the
+maladministration of Fouquet as superintendent of Finance,
+and became a member of the council appointed to investigate
+and report on all financial questions. Of this body he
+was the leading spirit from the beginning. Although at
+first without the title of minister, he was promptly
+invested with a wide authority over the finances, trade,
+agriculture, industry, and marine affairs. Within two
+years he had shown his worth and had justified the king's
+choice. Great and beneficial reforms had been accomplished
+in almost every branch of the administration. The exhausted
+treasury had been replenished, trade and industry were
+encouraged, agriculture was protected, and a navy created.
+Under a progressive government France seemed to awake to
+new life.
+
+The hour was auspicious for the entreaties of New France.
+Petitions and statements were addressed to the king by
+Mgr de Laval, the head of ecclesiastical affairs in the
+colony, by the governor Avaugour, and by the Jesuit
+fathers; and Pierre Boucher, governor of the district of
+Three Rivers, was sent to France as a delegate to present
+them. Louis and his minister studied the conditions of
+the colony on the St Lawrence and decided in 1663 to give
+it a new constitution. The charter of the One Hundred
+Associates was cancelled and the old Council of
+Quebec--formed in 1647--was reorganized under the name
+of the Sovereign Council. This new governing body was to
+be composed of the governor, the bishop, the intendant,
+an attorney-general, a secretary, and five councillors.
+It was invested with a general jurisdiction for the
+administration of justice in civil and criminal matters.
+It had also to deal with the questions of police, roads,
+finance, and trade.
+
+To establish a new and improved system of administration
+was a good thing, but this alone would hardly avail if
+powerful help were not forthcoming to rescue New France
+from ruin, despondency, and actual extermination. The
+colony was dying for lack of soldiers, settlers, and
+labourers, as well as stores of food and munitions of
+war for defence and maintenance. Louis XIV made up his
+mind that help should be given. In 1664 three hundred
+labourers were conveyed to Quebec at the king's expense,
+and in the following year the colonists received the
+welcome information that the king was also about to send
+them a regiment of trained soldiers, a viceroy, a new
+governor, a new intendant, settlers and labourers, and
+all kinds of supplies. This royal pledge was adequately
+fulfilled. On June 19, 1665, the Marquis de Tracy,
+lieutenant-general of all the French dominions in America,
+arrived from the West Indies, where he had successfully
+discharged the first part of the mission entrusted to
+him by his royal master. With him came four companies of
+soldiers. During the whole summer ships were disembarking
+their passengers and unloading their cargoes of ammunition
+and provisions at Quebec in quick succession. It is easy
+to imagine the rapture of the colonists at such a sight,
+and the enthusiastic shouts that welcomed the first
+detachment of the splendid regiment of Carignan-Salieres.
+At length, on September 12, the cup of public joy was
+filled to overflowing by the arrival of the ship Saint
+Sebastien with two high officials on board, David de
+Remy, Sieur de Courcelle, the governor appointed to
+succeed the governor Mezy, who had died earlier in the
+year, and Jean Talon, the intendant of justice, police,
+and finance. The latter had been selected to replace the
+Sieur Robert, who had been made intendant in 1663, but,
+for some unknown reason, had never come to Canada to
+perform the duties of his office. The triumvirate on whom
+was imposed the noble task of saving and reviving New
+France was thus complete. The Marquis de Tracy was an
+able and clear-sighted commander, the Sieur de Courcelle
+a fearless, straightforward official. But the part of
+Jean Talon in the common task, though apparently less
+brilliant, was to be in many respects the most important,
+and his influence the most far-reaching in the destinies
+of the colony.
+
+Talon was born at Chalons-sur-Marne, in the province of
+Champagne, about the year 1625. His family were kinsfolk
+of the Parisian Talons, Omer and Denis, the celebrated
+jurists and lawyers, who held in succession the high
+office of attorney-general of France. Several of Jean
+Talon's brothers were serving in the administration or
+the army, and, after a course of study at the Jesuits'
+College of Clermont, Jean was employed under one of them
+in the commissariat. The young man's abilities soon became
+apparent and attracted Mazarin's attention. In 1654 he
+was appointed military commissary at Le Quesnoy in
+connection with the operations of the army commanded by
+the great Turenne. A year later, at the age of thirty,
+he was promoted to be intendant for the province of
+Hainault. For ten years he filled that office and won
+the reputation of an administrator of the first rank.
+Thus it came about that, when an intendant was needed to
+infuse new blood into the veins of the feeble colony on
+the St Lawrence, Colbert, always a good judge of men,
+thought immediately of Jean Talon and recommended to the
+king his appointment as intendant of New France. Talon's
+commission is dated March 23, 1665.
+
+The minister drafted for the intendant's guidance a long
+letter of instructions. It dealt with the mutual relations
+of Church and State, and set forth the Gallican principles
+of the day; it discussed the question of assistance to
+the recently created West India Company; the contemplated
+war against the Iroquois and how it might successfully
+be carried on; the Sovereign Council and the administration
+of justice; the settlement of the colony and the
+advisability of concentrating the population; the
+importance of fostering trade and industry; the question
+of tithes for the maintenance of the Church; the
+establishment of shipbuilding yards and the encouragement
+of agriculture. This document was signed by Louis XIV
+at Paris on March 27, 1665.
+
+On receiving his commission and his instructions, Talon
+took leave of the king and the minister, and proceeded
+to make preparations for his arduous mission and for the
+long journey which it involved. By April 22 he was at La
+Rochelle, to arrange for the embarkation of settlers,
+working men, and supplies. He attended the review of the
+troops that were bound for New France, and reported to
+Colbert that the companies were at their full strength,
+well equipped and in the best of spirits. During this
+time he spared no pains to acquire information about the
+new country where he was to work and live. Finally, by
+May 24, everything was in readiness, and he wrote to
+Colbert:
+
+   Since apparently I shall not have the honour of writing
+   you another letter from this place, for our ship awaits
+   only a favourable wind to sail, allow me to assure
+   you that I am leaving full of gratitude for all the
+   kindness and favours bestowed on me by the king and
+   yourself. Knowing that the best way to show my gratitude
+   is to do good service to His Majesty, and that the
+   best title to future benevolence lies in strenuous
+   effort for the successful execution of his wishes, I
+   shall do my utmost to attain that end in the charge
+   I am going to fill. I pray for your protection and
+   help, which will surely be needed, and if my endeavours
+   should not be crowned with success, at least it will
+   not be for want of zeal and fidelity.
+
+A few hours after having written these farewell lines,
+Talon, in company with M. de Courcelle, set sail on the
+Saint Sebastien for Canada, where he was to make for
+himself an imperishable name.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+NEW FRANCE IN 1665
+
+Let us take a glance over the colony at the time when
+Courcelle and Talon landed at Quebec after an ocean
+journey--there were no fast lines then--of one hundred
+and seventeen days.
+
+In 1665 Canada had only three settled districts: Quebec,
+Three Rivers, and Ville-Marie or Montreal. Quebec, the
+chief town, bore the proud title of the capital of New
+France. Yet it contained barely seventy houses with about
+five hundred and fifty inhabitants. Then, as now, it
+consisted of a lower and an upper town. In the lower town
+were to be found the king's stores and the merchants'
+shops and residences. The public officials and the clergy
+and members of the religious orders lived in the upper
+town, where stood the principal buildings of the
+capital--the Chateau Saint-Louis, the Bishop's Palace,
+the Cathedral, the Jesuits' College and Chapel, and the
+monasteries of the Ursulines and of the Hotel-Dieu sisters.
+
+Francois de Laval de Montmorency, bishop of Petraea and
+vicar apostolic for Canada, was the spiritual head of
+the colony. He had arrived from France six years earlier,
+in 1659, and was destined to spend the remainder of his
+life, nearly half a century, in the service of the Church
+in Canada. Because of his noble character and many virtues,
+his strong intellect, and his devotion to the public
+weal, he will ever rank as one of the greatest figures
+in Canadian history. His vicar-general was Henri de
+Bernieres, who was also parish priest of Quebec and
+superior of the seminary founded by the bishop in 1663.
+The superior of the Jesuits was Father Le Mercier. The
+saintly Marie de l'Incarnation was mother superior of
+the Ursulines, and Mother Saint Bonaventure of the
+Hotel-Dieu.
+
+It may be interesting to recall the names of some of the
+notable citizens of Quebec at that time, other than the
+high officials. There were Michel Filion and Pierre
+Duquet, notaries; Jean Madry, surgeon to the king's
+majesty; Jean Le Mire, the future syndic des habitants;
+Madame d'Ailleboust, widow of a former governor; Madame
+Couillard, widow of Guillaume Couillard and daughter of
+Louis Hebert, the first tiller of the soil; Madame de
+Repentigny, widow of 'Admiral' de Repentigny, to use the
+grandiloquent expression of old chroniclers; Nicolas
+Marsollet, Louis Couillard de l'Espinay, Charles Roger
+de Colombiers, Francois Bissot, Charles Amiot, Le Gardeur
+de Repentigny, Dupont de Neuville, Pierre Denis de la
+Ronde, all men of high standing. The chief merchants were
+Charles Basire, Jacques Loyer de Latour, Claude Charron,
+Jean Maheut, Eustache Lambert, Bertrand Chesnay de la
+Garenne, Guillaume Feniou. Charles Aubert de la Chesnaye,
+the stalwart Quebec trader of the day, was then in France.
+
+In the neighbourhood of Quebec were a few settlements.
+According to the census of the following year there were
+452 persons on the Island of Orleans, 533 at the Cote
+Beaupre, 185 at Beauport, 140 at Sillery, and 112 at
+Charlesbourg and Notre-Dame-des-Anges on the St Charles
+river.
+
+Three Rivers was a small port with a population of 455,
+including that of the adjoining settlements. The governor
+in charge of the local administration was Pierre Boucher,
+already mentioned as a delegate to France in 1661. The
+Jesuits had a residence there and a chapel which was the
+only place of public worship, for the colonists had not
+as yet the means to erect a parish church. In the vicinity
+there were the beginnings of settlement at Cap-de-la-
+Magdeleine, Batiscan, and Champlain. Among the important
+families of Three Rivers were those of Godefroy, Hertel,
+Le Neuf, Crevier, Boucher, Poulin, Volant, Lemaitre,
+Rivard, and Ameau. Michel Le Neuf du Herisson was juge
+royal, and Severin Ameau was notary and registrar of the
+court.
+
+Montreal or Ville-Marie was scarcely more important than
+Three Rivers. The population of the whole district numbered
+only 625. A fort built by Maisonneuve and Ailleboust at
+Pointe-a-Callieres; the house of the Sulpicians at the
+foot of the present Saint-Sulpice Street; the Hotel-Dieu
+on the other side of that street; the convent of the
+Congregation sisters facing the Hotel-Dieu; a few houses
+scattered along the road called 'de la Commune,' now
+Saint-Paul Street; and on the rising ground towards the
+Place d'Armes of later years a few more dwellings--these
+constituted the Montreal of primitive days. On the top
+of the hill called 'Coteau Saint-Louis' was erected an
+intrenched mill--'Moulin du Coteau'--which could be used
+as a redoubt to protect the inhabitants. The Sulpicians'
+house, the Hotel-Dieu, the convent of the Congregation,
+and the houses of the Place d'Armes and of 'la Commune'
+were connected with the fort by footpaths. Before 1672
+there were no streets laid out. The only place of public
+worship was the Hotel-Dieu chapel, fifty feet in length
+by thirty in width. The superior of the Sulpicians was
+Abbe Souart. Mother Mace was superioress of the Hotel-Dieu,
+but the mainstay of the institution was the well-known
+Mademoiselle Mance, who, by the aid of Madame de Bullion's
+benefactions, had founded it in 1643. The illustrious
+Sister Marguerite Bourgeoys was at the head of the
+Congregation, which owed its existence to her pious zeal
+and devotion to the education of the young. Among the
+'Montrealistes' of note the following should be specially
+mentioned: Zacharie Dupuy, major of the island; Charles
+d'Ailleboust, seigneurial judge; J. B. Migeon de Bransac,
+fiscal attorney; Louis Artus Sailly, who had been for
+some time juge royal; Benigne Basset, at once registrar
+of the seigneurial court, notary, and surveyor; Charles
+Le Moyne, king's treasurer, interpreter, soldier, settler,
+who was later to be ennobled and receive the title of
+Baron de Longueuil; Etienne Bouchard, surgeon; Pierre
+Picote de Belestre, a valiant militia officer; Claude de
+Robutel, Sieur de Saint-Andre; Jacques Leber, a merchant
+who controlled almost the whole trade of Ville-Marie.
+
+Altogether the white population of Canada, including the
+settlers and labourers arriving during the summer of
+1665, numbered only 3215. Yet the colony had been in
+existence for fifty-seven years! It was certainly time
+for a new effort on the part of the mother country to
+infuse life into her feeble offspring. This was a task
+calling for the earnest care and the most energetic
+activity of Tracy, Courcelle, and Talon.
+
+One of the first matters to receive their attention was
+the reorganization of the Canadian administration. We
+have seen that in 1663 the Sovereign Council had been
+created, to consist of the high officials of the colony
+and five councillors. At this time, September 1665, the
+five councillors were Mathieu Damours, Le Gardeur de
+Tilly, and three others who had been irregularly appointed
+by Mezy, the preceding governor, to take the places of
+three councillors whom he had arbitrarily dismissed--Rouer
+de Villeray, Juchereau de la Ferte, and Ruette d'Auteuil.
+The same governor had also dismissed Jean Bourdon, the
+attorney-general, and had replaced him by Chartier de
+Lotbiniere. These summary dismissals and appointments
+had arisen out of a quarrel between the governor and the
+bishop, in which the former appears to have been influenced
+by petty motives. At any rate Mezy had been recalled by
+the king; and Tracy, Courcelle, and Talon had been
+instructed to try him for improper conduct in office.
+But before their arrival at Quebec, Mezy had obeyed the
+summons of another King than the king of France. He had
+been taken ill in the spring of the year and had died on
+May 6. Mezy being dead, it was wisely thought unnecessary
+to recall unhappy memories of his errors and misdeeds.
+Sufficient would be done if the grievances due to his
+rashness were redressed. Accordingly the dismissed
+officials were reinstated, and on September 23, 1665, a
+solemn sitting of the Sovereign Council was held, at
+which Tracy, Courcelle, Laval, and Talon were present,
+together with the Sieur Le Barroys, general agent of the
+West India Company, and the Sieurs de Villeray, de la
+Ferte, d'Auteuil, de Tilly, Damours--all the councillors
+in office before Mezy's dismissals--Jean Bourdon, the
+attorney-general, and J. B. Peuvret, secretary of the
+council. The letters patent of Courcelle and Talon as
+well as the commission and credentials of the Sieur Le
+Barroys were duly read and registered; the letters patent
+of the Marquis de Tracy had been registered previously.
+With these formalities the new administration of Canada
+was inaugurated.
+
+The next proceeding of the rulers of New France was to
+prepare for a decisive blow against the daring Iroquois.
+Tracy and the soldiers, as we have seen, had arrived in
+June and three forts were in course of building on the
+Richelieu river, or 'riviere des Iroquois,' so called
+because for a long period it had been the most direct
+highway leading from the villages of these bloody warriors
+to the heart of the colony. During the summer and autumn
+of 1665 the Carignan soldiers were kept busy with the
+construction of these necessary defensive works. The
+first fort was erected at the mouth of the river, under
+the direction of Captain de Sorel; the second fifty miles
+higher, under Captain de Chambly; and the third about
+nine miles farther up, under Colonel de Salieres. The
+first two retained the names of the officers in charge
+of their construction, and the third received the name
+of Sainte-Therese because it was finished on the day
+dedicated to that saint. During the following year two
+other forts were built--St John, a few miles distant from
+Sainte-Therese, and Sainte-Anne, on an island at the head
+of Lake Champlain. Both Tracy and Courcelle went to
+inspect the work personally and encourage the garrisons.
+
+In the meantime Talon was in no way idle. He had to
+organize the means of conveying provisions, ammunition,
+tools, and supplies of every description for the maintenance
+of the troops and the furtherance of the work. Under his
+supervision a flotilla of over fifty boats plied between
+Quebec and the river Richelieu. It was also his business
+to take care of the incoming soldiers and labourers and
+to see that those who had contracted disease during their
+journey across the ocean received proper nursing and
+medical attendance.
+
+From the moment of his arrival he had lost no opportunity
+of acquiring information on the situation in the colony.
+There is a curious anecdote that illustrates the manner
+in which he sometimes contrived to gain knowledge by
+concealing his identity. On the very day of his landing
+he went alone to the Hotel-Dieu, and asking for the
+superioress, introduced himself as the valet de chambre
+of the intendant, pretending to be sent by his master to
+assure the good ladies of the hospital of M. Talon's
+kindly disposition and desire to bestow on them every
+favour in his gift. One of the sisters present at the
+interview--Mere de la Nativite, a very bright and clever
+woman--was struck by the extreme distinction of manner
+and speech of the so-called valet, and, with a meaning
+glance at the superioress, told the visitor that unless
+she was mistaken he was more than he pretended to be. On
+his asking what could convey to her that impression, she
+replied that by his bearing and language she could not
+but feel that the intendant himself was honouring the
+Hotel-Dieu with a visit. Talon could do no less than
+confess that she was right, showing at the same time that
+he appreciated the delicate compliment thus paid to him.
+From that day he was a devoted and most generous friend
+to the Hotel-Dieu of Quebec.
+
+One of the first problems with which the intendant had
+to deal in discharging the duties of his office was the
+dualism of administrative authority. It has been mentioned
+that Colbert had founded a new trading company, known as
+the West India Company. This corporation had been granted
+wide privileges over all the French possessions in America,
+including feudal ownership and authority to administer
+justice and levy war. The company was thus invested with
+the right of appointing judicial officers, magistrates,
+and sovereign councils, and of naming, subject to the
+king's sanction governors and other functionaries; it
+had full power to sell the land or make grants in feudal
+tenure, to receive all seigneurial dues, to build forts,
+raise troops, and equip war-ships. The company's charter
+had been granted in 1664, and of course Canada, as well
+as the other French colonies in the New World, was included
+in its jurisdiction. The situation of this colony was
+therefore very peculiar. In 1663 the king had cancelled
+the charter of the One Hundred Associates and had taken
+back the fief of Canada; but a year later he had granted
+it again to a new company. At the same time he showed
+clearly that he intended to keep the administration in
+his own hands. Thus Canada seemed to have two masters.
+In accordance with its charter, the company held the
+ownership and government of the country de jure. But in
+point of fact the king wielded the government, thus taking
+back with one hand what he had given with the other. By
+right the company controlled the administration of justice;
+it could, and actually did, establish courts. But, in
+fact, the king appointed the intendant supreme judge in
+civil cases, and made the Sovereign Council a tribunal
+of superior jurisdiction. By right, to the company belonged
+the power of granting land and seigneuries. In fact, the
+governor or the intendant, the king's officers, made the
+grants at their pleasure. This strange situation, which
+lasted ten years--until the West India Company's charter
+was revoked in 1674--is often confusing to the student
+of the period.
+
+Talon saw at a glance the anomaly of the situation; but,
+being a practical man, he was less displeased with the
+falsity of the principle than apprehensive of the evil
+that was likely to result. In a letter to Colbert, dated
+October 4, 1665, he discussed the subject at length,
+putting it in plain terms. If, when the grant was made,
+it was the king's intention to benefit only the company--to
+increase its profits and develop its trade--with no
+ulterior consideration for the development of the colony,
+then it would be well to leave to the company the sole
+ownership of the country. But if His Majesty had thought
+of making Canada one of the prosperous parts of his
+kingdom, it was very doubtful whether he could attain
+that end without keeping in his own hands the control of
+lands and trade. The real aim of the West India Company,
+as he had learned, was to enforce its commercial monopoly
+to the utmost; and become the only trading medium between
+the colony and the mother country. Such a policy could
+have but one result; it would put an end to private
+enterprise and discourage immigration.
+
+In spite of the company's apparent overlordship, Talon
+thought that, as the king's agent, he was bound to exercise
+the powers appertaining to his office for the good of
+the colony. By the end of the year 1665 he had planned
+a new settlement in the vicinity of Quebec on lands
+included in the limits of the seigneury of Notre-Dame-
+des-Anges at Charlesbourg, which he had withdrawn from
+the grant to the Jesuits, under the king's authority.
+This was the occasion of some friction between the Jesuits
+and the intendant. Talon gave the necessary orders for
+the erection of about forty dwellings which should be
+ready to receive new settlers during the following year.
+These were to be grouped in three adjacent villages named
+Bourg-Royal, Bourg-la-Reine, and Bourg-Talon. We shall
+learn more of them in a following chapter.
+
+Another enterprise of the intendant was numbering the
+people. Under his personal supervision, during the winter
+of 1666-67, a general census of the colony was taken--the
+first Canadian census of which we have any record. The
+count showed, as we have already said, a total population
+of 3215 in Canada at that time--2034 males and 1181
+females. The married people numbered 1109, and there were
+528 families. Elderly people were but few in number, 95
+only being from fifty-one to sixty years old, 43 from
+sixty-one to seventy, 10 from seventy-one to eighty, and
+4 from eighty-one to ninety. In regard to professions
+and occupations, there were then in New France 3 notaries,
+5 surgeons, 18 merchants, 4 bailiffs, 3 schoolmasters,
+36 carpenters, 27 joiners, 30 tailors, 8 coopers, 5
+bakers, 9 millers, 3 locksmiths. The census did not
+include the king's troops, which formed a body of 1200
+men. The clergy consisted of the bishop, 18 Priests and
+aspirants to the priesthood, and 35 Jesuit fathers. There
+were also 19 Ursulines, 23 Hospitalieres, and 4 Sisters
+of the Congregation. The original record of this, the
+first Canadian census, has been preserved and is without
+question a most important historical document. It is
+likewise full of living interest, for in it are recorded
+the names of many families whose descendants are now to
+be found all over Canada.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE IROQUOIS SUBDUED
+
+It was the special task of Tracy and Courcelle to rid
+the colony of the Iroquois scourge. The Five Nations
+[Footnote: The Iroquois league consisted of five tribes
+or nations--the Mohawks, the Cayugas, the Senecas, the
+Onondagas, and the Oneidas.] had heard with some disquietude
+of the body of trained soldiers sent by the French king
+to check their incursions and crush their confederacy.
+At the beginning of December 1665, the Marquis de Tracy
+received an embassy from the Onondagas. They desired to
+enter into a peace negotiation, and one of the most noted
+chiefs, Garakonthie, delivered on that occasion a long
+and eloquent address to the viceroy. A treaty was signed
+by them on behalf of their own and two of the other
+tribes, the Senecas and the Oneidas. But meanwhile the
+Oneidas did not cease from hostilities, and the Mohawks
+also continued their bloody raids against the French
+settlements. Courcelle therefore decided to march at once
+against their villages beyond Lake Champlain, in what is
+now New York state and to teach them a lesson. But he
+did not know the nature of a winter expedition in this
+northern climate. Leaving Quebec on January 9, he reached
+Three Rivers on the 16th, and proceeded to Fort Saint-Louis
+on the Richelieu, where he had fixed the rendezvous of
+the troops. The cold was very severe, and many soldiers
+were frozen at the outset. On January 29 the little band,
+five or six hundred French and Canadians, left Fort
+Saint-Louis, unfortunately without waiting for a party
+of Algonquins who should have acted as scouts. It was a
+distressing march. The soldiers had to walk through deep
+snow, and the unfamiliar use of snowshoes was a great
+trial to the Europeans. At night, no shelter! They had
+to sleep in the open air, under the canopy of the sky
+and the cold light of the glimmering stars. Having no
+guides, Courcelle and his men lost their way in that
+unknown country. After seventeen days of extreme toil
+they found that, instead of reaching the Mohawk district,
+they were near Corlaer in the New Netherlands, sixty
+miles distant. The vanguard had a brush with two hundred
+Iroquois, who slipped away after killing six French
+soldiers and leaving four of their own number dead. The
+governor could go no farther with his exhausted troops
+and was forced to retrace his steps. The retreat was
+worse than the forward march. The supply of provisions
+failed, and to the suffering from cold was soon added
+hunger. Many soldiers died of exposure and starvation.
+In reading the account of the ill-fated expedition, one
+is reminded of the disastrous retreat of Napoleon's army
+in 1812 through the icy solitudes of Russia. By this sad
+experience the military commanders of New France found
+that they had something to learn of the art of making
+war in North America, and must respect the peculiarities
+of the climate and country. Nevertheless Courcelle's
+winter expedition had made an impression on the minds of
+the Iroquois and had even surprised the Dutch and the
+English. The author of a narrative entitled Relation of
+the March of the Governor of Canada into New York wrote:
+'Surely so bold and hardy an attempt hath not happened
+in any age.'
+
+Apparently the Five Nations were somewhat uneasy, for in
+March the Senecas sent ambassadors to the Marquis de
+Tracy to ratify the treaty signed in December. In July
+delegates came from the Oneida tribe; they presented a
+letter written by the English authorities at Orange which
+assured the viceroy that the Mohawks were well disposed
+and wished for peace. A new treaty of ratification was
+accordingly signed. But the lieutenant-general wanted
+something more complete and decisive. He demanded of the
+delegates a general treaty to include the whole of the
+Five Nations, and stated that he would allow forty days
+for all the Iroquois tribes to send their ambassadors to
+Quebec. Moreover, he instructed Father Beschefer to go
+to Orange with some of the Oneida delegates for the
+purpose of meeting the ambassadors and escorting them to
+Quebec. Unfortunately, a few days after the priest's
+departure, news came that four Frenchmen on a hunting
+expedition had been killed near Fort Sainte-Anne by a
+party of Mohawks, and that three others had been taken
+prisoners. One of the slain was a cousin of Tracy, and
+one of the captives his nephew. Father Beschefer was at
+once recalled and Captain de Sorel was ordered to march
+with some two hundred Frenchmen and ninety Indians to
+strike a blow at the raiders. Sorel lost no time and had
+nearly reached the enemy's villages when he met Tracy's
+nephew and the other prisoners under escort of an Iroquois
+chief and three warriors, who were bound for Quebec to
+make amends for the treacherous murder recently perpetrated
+and to sue for peace. Under these circumstances Captain
+de Sorel did not think it necessary to proceed farther,
+and marched his men home again with the Iroquois and the
+rescued prisoners. On August 31 a great meeting was held
+at Quebec in the Jesuits' garden. The delegates of the
+Five Nations were present, and speeches were made enlarging
+on the desirability of peace. But it soon became apparent
+that no peace could be lasting except after a successful
+expedition against the Mohawks. Tracy, Courcelle, and
+Talon held a consultation, and the intendant submitted
+a well-prepared document in which he reviewed the reasons
+for and against a continuance of the war. In Talon's mind
+the arguments in favour of it had undoubtedly the greater
+weight. Tracy and Courcelle concurred in this opinion.
+Thirteen hundred men were drafted for an expedition--six
+hundred regular soldiers, six hundred Canadians, and a
+hundred Indians. All was soon ready, and on September
+14, the day of the Exaltation of the Cross, Tracy and
+Courcelle left Quebec, at the head of their troops. It
+was a spectacle that did not fail to impress the Iroquois
+chiefs detained in Quebec. One of them, deeply moved,
+said to the viceroy: 'I see that we are lost, but you
+will pay dearly for your victory; my nation will be
+exterminated, but I tell you that many of your young men
+will not return, for our young warriors will fight
+desperately. I beg of you to save my wife and children.'
+Many who witnessed that martial exit of Tracy and Courcelle
+from the Chateau Saint-Louis, surrounded by a staff of
+noble officers, must have realized that this was a
+memorable day in the history of New France. At last a
+crushing blow was to be struck at the ferocious foe who
+for twenty-five years had been the curse and terror of
+the wretched colony. What mighty cheers were shouted on
+that day by the eager and enthusiastic spectators who
+lined the streets of Quebec!
+
+On September 28, the troops taking part in the expedition
+were assembled at Fort Sainte-Anne. [Footnote: On isle
+La Mothe at the northern end of Lake Champlain.] Charles
+Le Moyne commanded the Montreal contingent, one hundred
+and ten strong; the Quebec contingent marched under Le
+Gardeur de Repentigny. Father Albanel and Father Raffeix,
+Jesuit priests, the Abbe Dollier de Casson, a Sulpician,
+and the Abbe Dubois, chaplain of the Carignan regiment,
+accompanied the army. Three hundred light boats had been
+launched for the crossing of Lakes Champlain and
+Saint-Sacrement. Courcelle, always impetuous, was the
+first to leave the fort; he led a vanguard of four hundred
+men which included those from Montreal. The main body of
+the army under Tracy set out on October 3. Captains
+Chambly and Berthier were to follow four days later with
+the rear-guard.
+
+The journey by water was uneventful; but the portage
+between the two lakes was hard and trying. Yet it was
+nothing compared with the difficulties of the march beyond
+Lake Saint-Sacrement. One hundred miles of forest,
+mountains, rivers, and swamps lay between the troops and
+the Iroquois villages. No roads existed, only narrow
+footpaths interrupted by quagmires, bristling with stumps,
+obstructed by the entanglement of fallen trees, or abruptly
+cut by the foaming waters of swollen streams. Heavily
+laden, with arms, provisions, and ammunition strapped on
+their backs, French and Canadians slowly proceeded through
+the great woods, whose autumnal glories were vanishing
+fast under the influence of the chill winds of October.
+Slipping over moist logs, sinking into unsuspected swamps,
+climbing painfully over steep rocks, they went forward
+with undaunted determination. At night they had to sleep
+in the open on a bed of damp leaves. The crossing of
+rivers was sometimes dangerous. Tracy, who unfortunately
+had been seized with an attack of gout, was nearly drowned
+in one rapid stream. A Swiss soldier had undertaken to
+carry him across on his shoulders, but his strength
+failed, and if a rock had not stood near, the viceroy's
+career might have ended there. A Huron came to the rescue
+and carried the helpless viceroy to the other side. The
+sufferings of the army were increased by a scarcity of
+food. The troops were famishing. Luckily they came upon
+some chestnut-trees and stayed their hunger with the nuts.
+
+At last, on October 15, the scouts reported that the
+Mohawk settlements were near at hand. It was late in the
+day, darkness was setting in, and a storm of wind and
+rain was raging. But Tracy decided to push on. They
+marched all night, and in the morning, emerging from the
+woods, saw before them the first of the Mohawk towns or
+villages. Without allowing a moment's pause, the viceroy
+ordered an advance. The roll of the drums seemed to give
+the troops new strength and ardour; French, Canadians,
+and Indians ran forward to the assault. The Mohawks,
+apprised of the coming attack, had determined beforehand
+to make a stand and had sent their women and children to
+another village. But, at the sight of the advancing army,
+whose numbers appeared to them three times as great as
+they really were, and at the sound of the drums, like
+the voice of demons, they fled panic-stricken. The first
+village was taken without striking a blow. The viceroy
+immediately ordered a march against the second, which
+was also found abandoned. Evidently the Iroquois were
+terrified, for a third village was taken in the same way,
+without a show of defence. It was thought that the
+invaders' task was finished, when an Algonquin squaw,
+once a captive of the Iroquois, informed Courcelle that
+there were two other villages. The soldiers pushed forward,
+and the fourth settlement of the ever-vanishing enemy
+fell undefended into the hands of the French. The sun
+was setting; the exertions of the day and of the night
+before had been arduous, and it seemed impossible to go
+farther. But the squaw, seizing a pistol and grasping
+Courcelle's hand, said, 'Come on, I will show you the
+straight path.' And she led the way to the town and fort
+of Andaraque, the most important stronghold of the Mohawks.
+It was surrounded with a triple palisade twenty feet high
+and flanked by four bastions. Vessels of bark full of
+water were distributed on the platforms behind the palisade
+ready for use against fire. The Iroquois might have made
+a desperate stand there, and such had been their intention.
+But their courage failed them at the fearful beating of
+the drums and the appearance of that mighty army, and
+they sought safety in flight.
+
+The victory was now complete, and the army could go to
+rest after nearly twenty-four hours of continuous exertion.
+Next morning the French were astonished at the sight of
+Andaraque in the light of the rising sun. instead of a
+collection of miserable wigwams, they saw a fine Indian
+town, with wooden houses, some of them a hundred and
+twenty feet long and with lodging for eight or nine
+families. These houses were well supplied with provisions,
+tools, and utensils. An immense quantity of Indian corn
+and other necessaries was stored in Andaraque-'food enough
+to feed Canada for ten years'--and in the surrounding
+fields a plentiful crop was ready for harvest. All this
+was to be destroyed; but first an impressive ceremony
+had to be performed. The army was drawn up in battle
+array. A French officer, Jean-Baptiste Dubois, commander
+of the artillery, advanced, sword in hand, to the front,
+and in the presence of Tracy and Courcelle, declared that
+he was directed by M. Jean Talon, king's counsellor and
+intendant of justice, police, and finance for New France,
+to take possession of Andaraque, and of all the country
+of the Mohawks, in the name of the king. A cross was
+solemnly planted alongside a post bearing the king's coat
+of arms. Mass was celebrated and the Te Deum sung. Then
+the work of destruction began. The palisades, the dwellings,
+the bastions, the stores of grain and provisions, except
+what was needed by the invaders, the standing crops-all
+were set on fire; and when night fell the glaring
+illumination of that tremendous blaze told the savages
+that at last New France had asserted her power, and that
+the soldiers of the great king had come far enough through
+forest and over mountain and stream to chastise in their
+own country the bloodthirsty tribes who for a quarter of
+a century had been the terror of the growing settlements
+on the St Lawrence.
+
+On their return march the troops suffered great hardships.
+A storm on Lake Champlain upset two boats and eight men
+were drowned. Tracy reached Quebec on November 5. The
+expedition had lasted seven weeks, during which time he
+had covered nine hundred miles. The news of his success
+had been received with joy. Since the first days of
+October the whole colony had been praying for victory.
+As soon as the destruction of the Iroquois towns was
+known, prayers were changed to thanksgiving. The Te Deum
+was solemnly chanted, and on November 14 a mass was said
+in the church of Notre-Dame-de-Quebec, followed by a
+procession in gratiarum actionem. New France might well
+rejoice. A great result had been attained. True it was
+that the Mohawks, panic-stricken, had not been met and
+crushed. in a set encounter. None the less they had had
+their lesson. They had learned that distance and natural
+impediments were no protection against the French. Their
+towns were a heap of ashes, their fields were despoiled,
+their country was ruined. The fruit of that expedition
+was to be eighteen years of peace for New France. Eighteen
+years of peace after twenty-five years of murderous
+incursions! Was not that worth a Te Deum?
+
+After his return Tracy ordered one of the Iroquois detained
+at Quebec to be hanged as a penalty for his share in the
+murder of the French hunters. He then directed three
+other prisoners, the Flemish Batard [Footnote: A half-breed
+Mohawk leader.] and two Oneida chiefs, to go and inform
+their respective tribes that he would give them four
+months to send hostages and make peace; otherwise he
+would lead against them another expedition more calamitous
+for their country than the first one. At length, in the
+month of July of the following year, ambassadors of the
+Iroquois nations arrived at Quebec with a number of
+Iroquois families who were to remain as hostages in the
+colony. The chiefs asked that missionaries be sent to
+reside among their tribes. This petition was granted.
+New France could now breathe freely. The hatchet was
+buried.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+A COLONIAL COLBERT
+
+Tracy had led a successful expedition against the Iroquois
+and coerced them into a lasting peace. He had seen order
+and harmony restored in the government of the colony.
+His mission was over and he left Canada on August 28,
+1667, Courcelle remaining as governor and Talon as
+intendant. From that moment the latter, though second in
+rank, became really the first official of New France, if
+we consider his work in its relation to the future welfare
+of the colony.
+
+We have already seen something of his views for the
+administration of New France. He would have it emancipated
+from the jurisdiction of the West India Company; he tried
+also to impress on the king and his minister the
+advisability of augmenting the population in order to
+develop the resources of the colony--in a word, he sought
+to lay the foundations of a flourishing state. Undoubtedly
+Colbert wished to help and strengthen New France, but he
+seemed to think that Talon's aim was too ambitious. In
+one of his letters the intendant had gone the length of
+submitting a plan f or the acquisition of New Netherlands,
+which had been conquered by the English in 1664. He
+suggested that, in the negotiations for peace between
+France, England, and Holland, Louis XIV might stipulate
+for the restoration to Holland of its colony, and in the
+meantime come to an understanding with the States-General
+for its cession to France. Annexation to Canada would
+follow. But Colbert thought that Talon was too bold. The
+intendant had spoken of New France as likely to become
+a great kingdom. In answer, the minister said that the
+king saw many obstacles to the fulfilment of these
+expectations. To create on the shores of the St Lawrence
+an important state would require much emigration from
+France, and it would not be wise to draw so many people
+from the kingdom--to 'unpeople France for the purpose of
+peopling Canada.' Moreover if too many colonists came to
+Canada in one season, the area already under cultivation
+would not produce enough to feed the increased population,
+and great hardship would follow. Evidently Colbert did
+not here display his usual insight. Talon never had in
+mind the unpeopling of France. He meant simply that if
+the home government would undertake to send out a few
+hundred settlers every year, the result would be the
+creation of a strong and prosperous nation on the shores
+of the St Lawrence. The addition of five hundred immigrants
+annually during the whole period of Louis XIV's reign
+would have given Canada in 1700 a population of five
+hundred thousand. It was thought that the mother country
+could not spare so many; and yet the cost in men to France
+of a single battle, the bloody victory of Senef in 1674,
+was eight thousand French soldiers. The wars of Louis
+XIV killed ten times more men than the systematic
+colonization of Canada would have taken from the mother
+country. The second objection raised by Colbert was no
+better founded than the first. Talon did not ask for the
+immigration of more colonists than the country could
+feed. But he rightly thought that with peace assured the
+colony could produce food enough for a very numerous
+population, and that increase in production would speedily
+follow increase in numbers.
+
+It must not be supposed that Colbert was indifferent to
+the development of New France. No other minister of the
+French king did more for Canada. It was under his
+administration that the strength which enabled the colony
+so long to survive its subsequent trials was acquired.
+But Colbert was entangled in the intricacies of European
+politics. Obliged to co-operate in ventures which in his
+heart he condemned, and which disturbed him in his work
+of financial and administrative reform, he yielded
+sometimes to the fear of weakening the trunk of the old
+tree by encouraging the growth of the young shoots.
+
+Talon had to give in. But he did so in such a way as to
+gain his point in part. He wrote that he would speak no
+more of the great establishment he had thought possible,
+since the minister was of opinion that France had no
+excess of population which could be used for the peopling
+of Canada. At the same time he insisted on the necessity
+of helping the colony, and assured Colbert that, could
+he himself see Canada, he would be disposed to do his
+utmost for it, knowing that a new country cannot make
+its own way without being helped effectively at the
+outset. Talon's tact and firmness of purpose had their
+reward, for the next year Colbert gave ample proof that
+he understood Canada's situation and requirements.
+
+On the question of the West India Company also there was
+some divergence of view between the minister and the
+intendant. As we have seen in a preceding chapter, Talon
+had expressed his apprehension of the evils likely to
+spring from the wide privileges exercised by the company.
+But this trading association was Colbert's creation. He
+had contended that the failure of the One Hundred Associates
+was due to inherent weakness. The new one was stronger
+and could do better. Perhaps difficulties might arise in
+the beginning on account of the inexperience and greed
+of some of the company's agents, but with time the
+situation would improve. It was not surprising that
+Colbert should defend the company he had organized.
+Nevertheless, on that point as on the other, Colbert
+contrived to meet Talon half-way. The Indian trade, he
+said, would be opened to the colonists, and for one year
+the company would grant freedom of trade generally to
+all the people of New France.
+
+In connection with the rights of this company another
+question, affecting the finances, was soon to arise. By
+its charter the company was entitled to collect the
+revenues of the colony; that is to say, the taxes levied
+on the sale of beaver and moose skins. The tax on beaver
+skins was twenty-five per cent, called le droit du quart;
+the tax on moose skins was two sous per pound, le droit
+du dixieme. There was also the revenue obtained from the
+sale or farming out of the trading privileges at Tadoussac,
+la traite de Tadoussac. All these formed what was called
+le fonds du pays, the public fund, out of which were paid
+the emoluments of the governor and the public officers,
+the costs of the garrisons at Quebec, Montreal, and Three
+Rivers, the grants to religious communities, and other
+permanent yearly disbursements. The company had the right
+to collect the taxes, but was obliged to pay the public
+charges.
+
+Writing to Colbert, Talon said he would have been greatly
+pleased if, in addition to these rights, the king had
+retained the fiscal powers of the crown. He declared that
+the taxes were productive, yet the company's agent seemed
+very reluctant to pay the public charges. Colbert, of
+course, decided that the company, in accordance with its
+charter, was entitled to enjoy the fiscal rights upon
+condition of defraying annually the ordinary public
+expenditure of the country, as the company which preceded
+it had done. Immediately another point was raised. What
+should be the amount of the public expenditure, or rather,
+to what figure should the company be allowed to reduce
+it? Talon maintained that the public charges defrayed by
+the former company amounted to 48,950 livres. [Footnote:
+The livre was equivalent to the later franc, about twenty
+cents of modern Canadian currency.] The company's agent
+contended that they amounted only to 29,200 livres and
+that the sum of 48,950 livres was exorbitant, as it
+exceeded by 4000 livres the highest sum ever received
+from farming out the revenue. [Footnote: It was the
+custom in New France to sell or farm out the revenues.
+Instead of collecting direct the fur taxes and the proceeds
+of the Tadoussac trade, the government granted the rights
+to a corporation or a private individual in return for
+a fixed sum annually.] To this the intendant replied by
+submitting evidence that the rights were farmed out for
+50,000 livres in 1660 and in 1663; moreover, the rights
+were more valuable now, for with the conclusion of peace
+trade would prosper. In the end Colbert decided that the
+sum payable by the company should be 36,000 livres
+annually. The ordinary revenue of New France was thus
+fixed, and remained at that sum for many years.
+
+It must not be supposed that this revenue was sufficient
+to meet all the expenses connected with the defence and
+development of the colony. There was an extraordinary
+fund provided by the king's treasury and devoted to the
+movement and maintenance of the troops, the payment of
+certain special emoluments, the transport of new settlers,
+horses, and sheep, the construction of forts, the purchase
+and shipment of supplies. In 1665 this extraordinary
+budget amounted to 358,000 livres.
+
+Talon's energetic action on the question of the revenue
+was inspired by his knowledge of the public needs. He
+knew that many things requiring money had to be done. A
+new country like Canada could not be opened up for
+settlement without expense, and he thought that the
+traders who reaped the benefit of their monopoly should
+pay their due share of the outlay.
+
+We have already seen that Talon had begun the establishment
+of three villages in the vicinity of Quebec. Let us
+briefly enumerate the principles which guided him in
+erecting these settlements. First of all, in deference
+to the king's instructions relative to concentration, he
+contrived to plant the new villages as near as possible
+to the capital, and evolved a plan which would group the
+settlers about a central point and thus provide for their
+mutual help and defence. In pursuance of this plan he
+made all his Charlesbourg land grants triangular, narrow
+at the head, wide at the base, so that the houses erected
+at the head were near each other and formed a square in
+the centre of the settlement. In this arrangement there
+was originality and good sense. After more than two
+centuries, Talon's idea remains stamped on the soil; and
+the plans of the Charlesbourg villages as surveyed in
+our own days show distinctly the form of settlement
+adopted by the intendant.
+
+Proper dwellings were made ready to receive the new-comers.
+Then Talon proceeded with the establishment of settlers.
+To his great joy some soldiers applied for grants. He
+made point of having skilled workmen, some, if possible,
+in each village--carpenters, shoemakers, masons, or other
+artisans, whose services would be useful to all. He tried
+also to induce habitants of earlier date to join the new
+settlements, where their experience would be a guide and
+their methods an object-lesson to beginners.
+
+The grants were made on very generous terms, The soldiers
+and habitants, on taking possession of their land, received
+a substantial supply of food and the tools necessary for
+their work. They were to be paid for clearing and tilling
+the first two acres. In return each was bound by his deed
+to clear and prepare for cultivation during the three or
+four following years another two acres, which could
+afterwards be allotted to an incoming settler. Talon
+proposed also that they should be bound to military
+service. For each new-comer the king assumed the total
+expense of clearing two acres, erecting a house, preparing
+and sowing the ground, and providing flour until a crop
+was reaped--all on condition that the occupant should
+clear and cultivate two additional acres within three or
+four years, presumably for allotment to the next new-comer.
+
+Such were the broad lines of Talon's colonization policy.
+But to his mind it was not enough that he should make
+regulations and issue orders; he would set up a model
+farm himself and thus be an example in his own person.
+He bought land in the neighbourhood of the St Charles
+river and had the ground cleared at his own expense. He
+erected thereon a large house, a barn, and other buildings;
+and, in course of time, his fine property, comprising
+cultivated fields, meadows, and gardens, and well stocked
+with domestic animals, became a source of pride to him.
+
+Under Talon's wise direction and encouragement, the
+settlement of the country progressed rapidly. Now that
+they could work in safety, the colonists set themselves
+to the task of clearing new farms. In his Relation of
+1668 Father Le Mercier wrote: 'It is fine to see new
+settlements on each side of the St Lawrence for a distance
+of eighty leagues... The fear of aggression no longer
+prevents our farmers from encroaching on the forest and
+harvesting all kinds of grain, which the soil here grows
+as well as in France.' In the district of Montreal there
+was great activity. It was during this period that the
+lands of Longue-Pointe, of Pointe-aux-Trembles, and of
+Lachine were first cultivated. At the same time, along
+the river Richelieu, in the vicinity of Forts Chambly
+and Sorel, officers and soldiers of the Carignan-Salieres
+regiment were beginning to settle. 'These worthy gentlemen,'
+wrote Mother Marie de l'Incarnation, 'are at work, with
+the king's permission, establishing new French colonies.
+They live on their farm produce, for they have oxen,
+cows, and poultry.' A census taken in 1668 gave very
+satisfactory figures. A year before there had been 11,448
+acres under cultivation. That year there were 15,649,
+and wheat production amounted to 130,979 bushels. Such
+results were encouraging. What a change in three years!
+
+One of the commodities most needed in the colony was
+hemp, for making coarse cloth. Talon accordingly caused
+several acres to be sown with hemp. The seed was gathered
+and distributed among a number of farmers, on the
+understanding that they would bring back an equal quantity
+of seed next year. Then he took a very energetic step.
+He seized all the thread in the shops and gave notice
+that nobody could procure thread except in exchange for
+hemp. In a word, he created a monopoly of thread to
+promote the production of hemp; and the policy was
+successful. In many other ways the intendant's activity
+and zeal for the public good manifested themselves. He
+favoured the development of the St Lawrence fisheries
+and encouraged some of the colonists to devote their
+labour to them. Cod-fishing was attempted with good
+results. Shipbuilding was another industry of his
+introduction. In 1666, always desirous of setting an
+example, he built a small craft of one hundred and twenty
+tons. Later, he had the gratification of informing Colbert
+that a Canadian merchant was building a vessel for the
+purpose of fishing in the lower St Lawrence. During the
+following year six or seven ships were built at Quebec.
+The Relation of 1667 states that Talon 'took pains to
+find wood fit for shipbuilding, which has been begun by
+the construction of a barge found very useful and of a
+big ship ready to float.'
+
+In building and causing ships to be built the intendant
+had in view the extension of the colony's trade. One of
+his schemes was to establish regular commercial intercourse
+between Canada, the West Indies, and France. The ships
+of La Rochelle, Dieppe, and Havre, after unloading at
+Quebec, would carry Canadian products to the French West
+Indies, where they would load cargoes of sugar for France.
+The intendant, always ready to show the way, entered into
+partnership with a merchant and shipped to the West Indies
+salmon, eels, salt and dried cod, peas, staves, fish-oil,
+planks, and small masts much needed in the islands. The
+establishment of commercial relations between Canada and
+the West Indies was an event of no small moment. During
+the following years this trade proved important. In 1670
+three ships built at Quebec were sent to the islands with
+cargoes of fish, oil, peas, planks, barley, and flour.
+In 1672 two ships made the same voyage; and in 1681
+Talon's successor, the intendant Duchesneau, wrote to
+the minister that every year since his arrival two vessels
+at least (in one year four) had left Quebec for the West
+Indies with Canadian products.
+
+The intendant was a busy man. The scope of his activity
+included the discovery and development of mines. There
+had been reports of finding lead at Gaspe, and the West
+India Company had made an unsuccessful search there. At
+Baie Saint-Paul below Quebec iron ore was discovered,
+and it was thought that copper and silver also would be
+found at the same place. In 1667 Father Allouez returned
+from the upper Ottawa, bringing fragments of copper which
+he had detached from stones on the shores of Lake Huron.
+Engineers sent by the intendant reported favourably of
+the coal-mines in Cape Breton; the specimens tested were
+deemed to be of very good quality. In this connection
+may be mentioned a mysterious allusion in Talon's
+correspondence to the existence of coal where none is
+now to be found. In 1667 he wrote to Colbert that a
+coal-mine had been discovered at the foot of the Quebec
+rock. 'This coal,' he said, 'is good enough for the forge.
+If the test is satisfactory, I shall see that our vessels
+take loads of it to serve as ballast. It would be a great
+help in our naval construction; we could then do without
+the English coal.' Next year the intendant wrote again:
+'The coal-mine opened at Quebec, which originated in the
+cellar of a lower-town resident and is continued through
+the cape under the Chateau Saint-Louis, could not be
+worked, I fear, without imperilling the stability of the
+chateau. However, I shall try to follow another direction;
+for, notwithstanding the excellent mine at Cape Breton,
+it would be a capital thing for the ships landing at
+Quebec to find coal here.' Is there actually a coal-mine
+at Quebec hidden in the depth of the rock which bears
+now on its summit Dufferin Terrace and the Chateau
+Frontenac? We have before us Talon's official report. He
+asserts positively that coal was found there--coal which
+was tested, which burned well in the forge. What has
+become of the mine, and where is that coal? Nobody at
+the present day has ever heard of a coal-mine at Quebec,
+and the story seems incredible. But Talon's letter is
+explicit. No satisfactory explanation has yet been
+suggested, and we confess inability to offer one here.
+
+While reviewing the great intendant's activities, we must
+not fail to mention the brewing industry in which he took
+the lead. In 1668 he erected a brewery near the river St
+Charles, on the spot at the foot of the hill where stood
+in later years the intendant's palace. He meant in this
+way to help the grain-growers by taking part of their
+surplus product, and also to do something to check the
+increasing importation of spirits which caused so much
+trouble and disorder. However questionable the efficacy
+of beer in promoting temperance, Talon's object is worthy
+of applause. Three years later the intendant wrote that
+his brewery was capable of turning out two thousand
+hogsheads of beer for exportation to the West Indies and
+two thousand more for home consumption. To do this it
+would require over twelve thousand bushels of grain
+annually, and would be a great support to the farmers.
+In the mean-time he had planted hops on his farm and was
+raising good crops.
+
+Talon's buoyant reports and his incessant entreaties for
+a strong and active colonial policy could not fail to
+enlist the sympathy of two such statesmen as Louis XIV
+and Colbert. This is perhaps the only period in earlier
+Canadian history during which the home government steadily
+followed a wise and energetic policy of developing and
+strengthening the colony. We have seen that Colbert
+hesitated at first to encourage emigration, but he had
+yielded somewhat before Talon's urgent representations,
+and from 1665 to 1671 there was an uninterrupted influx
+of Canadian settlers. It is recorded in a document written
+by Talon himself that in 1665 the West India Company
+brought to Canada for the king's account 429 men and 100
+young women, and 184 men and 92 women in 1667. During
+these seven years there were in all 1828 state-aided
+immigrants to Canada. The young women were carefully
+selected, and it was the king's wish that they should
+marry promptly, in order that the greatest possible number
+of new families should be founded. As a matter of fact,
+the event was in accordance with the king's wish. In 1665
+Mother Marie de l'Incarnation wrote that the hundred
+girls arrived that year were nearly all provided with
+husbands. In 1667 she wrote again: 'This pear ninety-two
+girls came from France and they are already married to
+soldiers and labourers.' In 1670 one hundred and fifty
+girls arrived, and Talon wrote on November 10: 'All the
+girls who came this year are married, except fifteen whom
+I have placed in well-known families to await the time
+when the soldiers who sought them for their wives are
+established and able to maintain them.' It was indeed a
+matrimonial period, and it is not surprising that marriage
+was the order of the day. Every incentive to that end
+was brought to bear. The intendant gave fifty livres in
+household supplies and some provisions to each young
+woman who contracted marriage. According to the king's
+decree, each youth who married at or before the age of
+twenty was entitled to a gift of twenty livres, called
+'the king's gift.' The same decree imposed a penalty upon
+all fathers who had not married their sons at twenty and
+their daughters at sixteen. In the same spirit, it enacted
+also that all Canadians having ten children living should
+be entitled to a pension of three hundred livres annually;
+four hundred livres was the reward for twelve. 'Marry
+early' was the royal mandate. Colbert, writing to Talon
+in 1668, says: 'I pray you to commend it to the
+consideration of the whole people, that their prosperity,
+their subsistence, and all that is dear to them, depend
+on a general resolution, never to be departed from, to
+marry youths at eighteen or nineteen years and girls at
+fourteen or fifteen; since abundance can never come to
+them except through the abundance of men.' And this was
+not enough; Colbert went on: 'Those who may seem to have
+absolutely renounced marriage should be made to bear
+additional burdens, and be excluded from all honours; it
+would be well even to add some mark of infamy.' The
+unfortunate bachelor seems to have been treated somewhat
+as a public malefactor. Talon issued an order forbidding
+unmarried volontaires to hunt with the Indians or go into
+the woods, if they did not marry fifteen days after the
+arrival of the ships from France. And a case is recorded
+of one Francois Lenoir, of Montreal, who was brought
+before the judge because, being unmarried, he had gone
+to trade with the Indians. He pleaded guilty, and pledged
+himself to marry next year after the arrival of the ships,
+or failing that, to give one hundred and fifty livres to
+the church of Montreal and a like sum to the hospital.
+He kept his money and married within the term.
+
+The matrimonial zeal of Colbert and Talon did not slight
+the noblemen and officers. Captain de la Mothe, marrying
+and taking up his abode in the country, received sixteen
+hundred livres. During the years 1665-68 six thousand
+livres were expended to aid the marriage of young
+gentlewomen without means, and six thousand to enable
+four captains, three lieutenants, five ensigns, and a
+few minor officers to settle and marry in the colony.
+
+A word must be said as to the character of the young
+women. Some writers have cast unfair aspersions upon the
+girls sent out from France to marry in Canada. After a
+serious study of the question, we are in a position to
+state that these girls were most carefully selected. Some
+of them were orphans reared in charitable institutions
+under the king's protection; they were called les filles
+du roi. The rest belonged to honest families, and their
+parents, overburdened with children, were willing to send
+them to a new country where they would be well provided
+for. In 1670 Colbert wrote to the archbishop of Rouen:
+'As in the parishes about Rouen fifty or sixty girls
+might be found who would be very glad to go to Canada to
+be married, I beg you to employ your credit and authority
+with the cures of thirty or forty of these parishes, to
+try to find in each of them one or two girls disposed to
+go voluntarily for the sake of settlement in life.' Such
+was the quality of the female emigration to Canada. The
+girls were drawn from reputable institutions, or from
+good peasant families, under the auspices of the cures.
+During their journey to Canada they were under the care
+and direction of persons highly respected for their
+virtues and piety, such as Madame Bourdon, widow of the
+late attorney-general of New France, or Mademoiselle
+Etienne, who was appointed governess of the girls leaving
+for Canada by the directors of the general hospital of
+Paris. When young women arrived in Canada, they were
+either immediately married or placed for a time in good
+families.
+
+The paternal policy of the minister and the intendant
+was favoured by the disbanding of the Carignan companies.
+In 1668 the regiment was recalled to France; four companies
+only were left in Canada to garrison the forts. The
+officers and soldiers of the companies withdrawn were
+entreated to remain as settlers, and about four hundred
+decided to make their home in Canada. They were generously
+subsidized. Each soldier electing to settle in the colony
+received one hundred livres, or fifty livres with provisions
+for one year, at his choice. Each sergeant received one
+hundred and fifty livres, or one hundred livres with one
+year's provisions. The officers also were given liberal
+endowments. Among them were: Captains de Contrecoeur, de
+Saint-Ours, de Sorel, Dugue de Boisbriant, Lieutenants
+Gaultier de Varennes and Margane de la Valtrie; Ensigns
+Paul Dupuis, Becard de Grandville, Pierre Monet de Moras,
+Francois Jarret de Vercheres.
+
+The strenuous efforts of Colbert and Talon could not but
+give a great impulse to population. The increase was
+noticeable. In November 1671 Talon wrote:
+
+   His Majesty will see by the extracts of the registers
+   of baptisms that the number of children this year is
+   six or seven hundred; and in the coming years we may
+   hope for a substantial increase. There is some reason
+   to believe that, without any further female immigration,
+   the country will see more than one hundred marriages
+   next year. I consider it unnecessary to send girls
+   next year; the better to give the habitants a chance
+   to marry their own girls to soldiers desirous of
+   settling. Neither will it be necessary to send young
+   ladies, as we received last year fifteen, instead of
+   the four who were needed for wives of officers and
+   notables.
+
+In a former chapter the population of Canada in 1665 was
+given as 3215 souls, and the number of families 533. In
+1668 the number of families was 1139 and the population
+6282. In three years the population had nearly doubled
+and the number of families had more than doubled.
+
+Other statistics may fittingly be given here. During the
+period under consideration, the West India Company sent
+to Canada for the king's account many horses and sheep.
+These were badly needed in the colony. Since its first
+settlement there had been seen in New France only a single
+horse, one which had been presented by the Company of
+One Hundred Associates to M. de Montmagny, the governor
+who succeeded Champlain. But from 1665 to 1668 forty-one
+mares and stallions and eighty sheep were brought from
+France. Domestic animals continued to be introduced until
+1672. Fourteen horses and fifty sheep were sent in 1669,
+thirteen horses in 1670, the same number of horses and
+a few asses in 1671. So that during these seven years
+Canada received from France about eighty horses. Twenty
+years afterwards, in 1692, there were four hundred horses
+in the colony. In 1698 there were six hundred and
+eighty-four; and in 1709 the number had so increased that
+the intendant Raudot issued an ordinance to restrain the
+multiplication of these animals.
+
+From what has been said it will be seen that this period
+of Canadian history was one of great progress. What
+Colbert was to France Talon was to New France. While the
+great minister, in the full light of European publicity,
+was gaining fame as a financial reformer and the reviver
+of trade and industry, the sagacious and painstaking
+intendant in his remote corner of the globe was laying
+the foundations of an economic and political system, and
+opening to the young country the road of commercial,
+industrial, and maritime progress. Talon was a colonial
+Colbert. What the latter did in a wide sphere and with
+ample means, the former was trying to do on a small scale
+and with limited resources. Both have deserved a place
+of honour in Canadian annals.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+THE INTENDANT AND THE SOVEREIGN COUNCIL
+
+In the preceding chapter a sketch has been given of
+Talon's endeavours to promote colonization, agriculture,
+shipbuilding, and commerce, to increase the population,
+and to foster generally the prosperity of New France.
+Let us now see how he provided for the good administration
+and internal order of the colony.
+
+In 1666 he had prepared and submitted to Tracy and
+Courcelle a series of rules and enactments relating to
+various important matters, one of which was the
+administration of justice. Talon wished to simplify the
+procedure; to make justice speedy, accessible to all,
+and inexpensive. In each parish he proposed to establish
+judges having the power to hear and decide in the first
+instance all civil cases involving not more than ten
+livres. In addition, there would be four judges at Quebec,
+and appeals might be taken before three of them from all
+decisions given by the local judges--'unless,' Talon
+added, 'it be thought more advisable to maintain the
+Sieur Chartier in his charge of lieutenant-general, to
+which he has been appointed by the West India Company.'
+It was decided that M. Chartier (de Lotbiniere) should
+be so maintained, and he was duly confirmed as lieutenant
+civil et criminel on January 10, 1667. He had jurisdiction
+in the first instance over all cases civil and criminal
+in the Quebec district and in appeal from the judgments
+of the local or seigneurial judges. The Sovereign Council
+acted as a court of appeal in the last resort, except in
+cases where the parties made a supreme appeal to the
+King's Council of State in France. In 1669 Talon wrote
+a memorandum in which we find these words: 'Justice is
+administered in the first instance by judges in the
+seigneuries; then by a lieutenant civil and criminal
+appointed by the company in each of the jurisdictions of
+Quebec and Three Rivers; and above all by the Sovereign
+Council, which in the last instance decides all cases
+where an appeal lies.' At Montreal there was a lieutenant
+civil and criminal appointed by the Sulpicians, seigneurs
+of the island. In 1667 there were seigneurial judges in
+the seigneuries of Beaupre, Beauport, Notre-Dame-des-Anges,
+Cap-de-la-Magdeleine.
+
+It is interesting to find that Talon attempted to establish
+a method of settlement out of court, the principle of
+which was accepted by the legislature of the province of
+Quebec more than two centuries later. What was called
+the amiable composition of the French intendant may be
+regarded as a first edition of the law passed at Quebec
+in 1899, which provides for conciliation or arbitration
+proceedings before a lawsuit is begun. [Footnote: 62
+Vict. cap. 54, p. 271.] Talon also introduced an equitable
+system of land registration.
+
+In the proceedings of the Sovereign Council, of which
+Talon at this time was the inspiring mind, we may see
+reflected the condition and internal life of the colony.
+Decrees for the regulation of trade were frequent.
+Commercial freedom was unknown. Under the administration
+of the governor Avaugour (1661-63) a tariff of prices
+had been published, which the merchants were compelled
+to observe. Again, in 1664 the council had decided that
+the merchants might charge fifty-five per cent above cost
+price on dry goods, one hundred per cent on the more
+expensive wines and spirits, and one hundred and twenty
+per cent on the cheaper, the cost price in France being
+determined by the invoice-bills. In 1666 a new tariff
+was enacted by the council, in which the price of one
+hogshead of Bordeaux wine was fixed at eighty livres,
+and that of Brazil tobacco at forty sous a pound. In 1667
+again changes took place: on dry goods the merchants were
+allowed seventy per cent above cost; on spirits and wines,
+one hundred or one hundred and twenty per cent as in
+1664. The merchants did not accept these rulings without
+protest. In 1664 the most important Quebec trader, Charles
+Aubert de la Chesnaye, was prosecuted for contravention,
+and made this bold declaration in favour of commercial
+freedom: 'I have always deemed that I had a right to the
+free disposal of my own, especially when I consider that
+I spend in the colony what I earn therein.' Prosecutions
+for violating the law were frequent. During the month of
+June 1667, at a sitting of the Sovereign Council, Tracy,
+Courcelle, Talon, and Laval being present, the attorney-
+general Bourdon made out a case against Jacques de la
+Mothe, a merchant, for having sold wines and tobacco at
+higher prices than those of the tariff. The defendant
+acknowledged that he had sold his wine at one hundred
+livres and his tobacco at sixty sous, but alleged that
+his wine was the best Bordeaux, that his hogsheads had
+a capacity of fully one hundred and twenty pots, that
+care, risk, and leakage should be taken into consideration,
+that two hogsheads had been spoiled, and that the price
+of those remaining should be higher to compensate him
+for their loss. As to the tobacco, it was of the Maragnan
+quality, and he had always deemed it impossible to sell
+it for less than sixty sous. After hearing the case, the
+council decided that two of its members, Messieurs Damours
+and de la Tesserie, should make an inspection at La
+Mothe's store, in order to taste his wine and tobacco
+and gauge his hogsheads. Away they went; and afterwards
+they made their report. Finally La Mothe was condemned
+to a fine of twenty-two livres, payable to the Hotel-Dieu.
+It may be remarked here that very often the fines had a
+similar destination; in that way justice helped charity.
+
+The magistrates were vigilant, but the merchants were
+cunning and often succeeded in evading the tariff. In
+July 1667, the habitants' syndic appeared before the
+council to complain of the various devices resorted to
+by merchants to extort higher prices from the settlers
+than were allowed by law. So the council made a ruling
+that all merchandise should be stamped, in the presence
+of the syndic, according to the prices of each kind and
+quality, and ordered samples duly stamped in this way to
+be delivered to commissioners specially appointed for
+the purpose. It will be seen that these regulations were
+minute and severe. Trade was thus submitted to stern
+restrictions which would seem strange and unbearable in
+these days of freedom. What an outcry there would be if
+parliament should attempt now to dictate to our merchants
+the selling price of their merchandise! But in the
+seventeenth century such a thing was common enough. It
+was a time of extreme official interference in private
+affairs and transactions.
+
+We have mentioned the syndic of the inhabitants--syndic
+des habitants. A word about this officer will be in place
+here. He was the spokesman of the community when complaints
+had to be made or petitions presented to the governor or
+the Sovereign Council. At that time in Canada there was
+no municipal government. True, an unlucky experiment had
+been made in 1663, under the governor Mezy, when a mayor
+and two aldermen were elected at Quebec. But their
+enjoyment of office was of brief duration; in a few weeks
+the election was declared void, It was then determined
+to nominate a syndic to represent the inhabitants, and
+on August 3 Claude Charron, a merchant, was elected to
+the office; but, as the habitants often had difficulties
+to settle with members of the commercial class, objection
+was taken to him on the ground that he was a tradesman,
+and he retired. On September 17 a new election took place,
+and Jean Le Mire, a carpenter, was elected. Later on,
+during the troubles of the Mezy regime, the office seems
+to have been practically abolished; but when the government
+was reorganized, it was thought advisable to revive it.
+The council decreed another election, and on March 20,
+1667, Jean Le Mire was again chosen as syndic. Le Mire
+continued to hold the office for many years.
+
+To the colony of that day the Sovereign Council was,
+broadly speaking, what the legislatures, the executives,
+the courts of justice, and the various commissions--all
+combined--are to modern Canada. But, as we have seen, it
+had arbitrary powers that these modern bodies are not
+permitted to exercise. Its long arm reached into every
+concern of the inhabitants. In 1667, for example, the
+habitants asked for a regulation to fix the millers'
+fee--the amount of the toll to which they would be entitled
+for grinding the grain. The owners of the flour-mills
+represented that the construction, repair, and maintenance
+of their mills were two or three times more costly in
+Canada than in France, and that they should have a
+proportionate fee; still, they would be willing to accept
+the bare remuneration usually allowed in the kingdom.
+The toll was fixed at one-fourteenth of the grain. Highways
+were also under the care of the council. When the residents
+of a locality presented a petition for opening a road,
+the council named two of its members to make an inspection
+and report. On receipt of the report, an order would be
+issued for opening a road along certain lines and of a
+specified width (it was often eighteen feet), and for
+pulling stumps and filling up hollows. There was an
+official called the grand-voyer, or general overseer of
+roads. The office had been established in 1657, when Rene
+Robineau de Becancourt was appointed grand-voyer by the
+Company of One Hundred Associates. But in the wretched
+state of the colony at that time M. de Becancourt had
+not much work to do. In later years, however, the usefulness
+of a grand-voyer had become more apparent, and Becancourt
+asked for a confirmation of his appointment. On the
+suggestion of Talon, the council reinstated him and
+ordered that his commission be registered. During the
+whole French regime there were but five general overseers
+of roads or grands-voyers: Rene Robineau de Becancourt
+(1657-99); Pierre Robineau de Becancourt (1699-1729); E.
+Lanoullier de Boisclerc (1731-51); M. de la Gorgendiere
+(1751-59); M. de Lino (1759-60).
+
+Guardianship of public morality and the maintenance of
+public order were the chief cares of the council. It was
+ever intent on the suppression of vice. On August 20,
+1667, in the presence of Tracy, Courcelle, Talon, and
+Laval, the attorney-general submitted information of
+scandalous conduct on the part of some women and girls,
+and represented that a severe punishment would be a
+wholesome warning to all evil-doers; he also suggested
+that the wife of Sebastien Langelier, being one of the
+most disorderly, should be singled out for an exemplary
+penalty. A councillor was immediately appointed to
+investigate the case. What was done in this particular
+instance is not recorded, but there is evidence to show
+that licentious conduct was often severely dealt with.
+Crimes and misdemeanours were ruthlessly pursued. For a
+theft committed at night in the Hotel-Dieu garden, the
+intendant condemned a man to be marked with the
+fleur-de-lis, to be exposed for four hours in the pillory,
+and to serve three years in the galleys. Another culprit
+convicted of larceny was sentenced to be publicly whipped
+and to serve three years in the galleys. Both these
+prisoners escaped and returned to their former practices.
+They were recaptured and sentenced, the first to be
+hanged, the second to be whipped, marked with the
+fleur-de-lis, and kept in irons until further order. Rape
+in the colony was unhappily frequent. A man convicted of
+this crime was condemned to death and executed two days
+later. Another was whipped till the blood flowed and
+condemned to serve nine years in the galleys.
+
+Let us now turn to activities of another order. One of
+the most important ordinances enacted by the Sovereign
+Council under Talon's direction was that which concerned
+the importation of spirits and the establishment in the
+colony of the brewing industry. It was stated in this
+decree that the great quantity of brandies and wines
+imported from France was a cause of debauchery. Many were
+diverted from productive work, their health was ruined,
+they were induced to squander their money, and prevented
+from buying necessaries and supplies useful for the
+development of the colony. Talon, as we have read in
+another chapter, thought that one of the best means of
+combating the immoderate use of spirits was the setting
+up of breweries; at the same time he intended that this
+industry should help agriculture. The Sovereign Council
+entered into these views and enacted that as soon as
+breweries should be in operation in Canada all importation
+of wines and spirits should be prohibited, except by
+special permission and subject to a tax of five hundred
+livres, payable one-third to the seigneurs of the country,
+one-third to the Hotel-Dieu, and one-third to the person
+who had set up the first brewery after the date of the
+enactment. Under no circumstances should the yearly
+importation exceed eight hundred hogsheads of wine and
+four hundred of brandy. When this amount had been reached,
+no further licences to import would be issued. The council
+begged Talon to take the necessary steps for the
+construction and equipment of one or more breweries. The
+owners of these were to have, during ten years, the
+exclusive privilege of brewing for trading purposes. The
+price of beer was fixed beforehand at twenty livres per
+hogshead and six sous per pot so long as barley was priced
+at three livres per bushel or less; if the price of barley
+went higher, the price of beer should be raised
+proportionately.
+
+In 1667 the Sovereign Council--inspired by Talon--had to
+discuss a very important question. This was the formation
+of a company of Canadians to secure the exclusive privilege
+of trading. By its charter, the West India Company had
+been granted the commercial monopoly. Under pressure from
+Talon it had somewhat abated its pretensions and had
+allowed freedom of trade for a time. But again it was
+urging its rights. The council asked the intendant to
+support with his influence at court the plan for a Canadian
+company, which he did. Colbert did not say no; neither
+did he seem in a hurry to grant the request. In 1668 the
+council sent the minister a letter praying for freedom
+of trade. This year the company had enforced its monopoly
+and the people had suffered from the lack of necessaries,
+which could not be found in the company's stores; moreover,
+prices were exceedingly high. Such a state of things was
+detrimental to the colony. The council begged that, if
+Colbert were not disposed to grant freedom of trade, he
+would favourably consider the scheme for a trading company
+composed of Canadians, which had been submitted to him
+the year before. We shall see, later on, what came of
+this agitation against the West India Company.
+
+The good understanding between the intendant and the
+Sovereign Council was absolute. The council had shown
+unequivocal confidence in Talon's ability and respect
+for his person and authority. A few days before the
+Marquis de Tracy had left the colony the council had
+ordered that all petitions to enter lawsuits should be
+presented to the intendant, who should assign them to
+the council or to the lieutenant civil and criminal, or
+try them himself, at his discretion. This was treating
+Talon as the supreme magistrate and acknowledging him as
+the dispenser of justice. M. de Courcelle, who was
+beginning to feel some uneasiness at Talon's great
+authority and prestige, refused to sign the proceedings
+of that day, inscribing these lines in the council's
+register: 'This decree being against the governor's
+authority and the public good, I did not wish to sign
+it.' At the beginning of the following year Talon, whose
+attention perhaps had not been called to Courcelle's
+written protest, requested the adoption of a similar
+decree; and the council did not hesitate to confirm its
+previous decision, notwithstanding the governor's former
+opposition, which he reiterated in the same terms.
+Courcelle was certainly mistaken in supposing that the
+council's decision was an encroachment on his authority.
+The superior jurisdiction in judicial matters belonged
+to the intendant. Under his commission he had the right
+to 'judge alone and with full jurisdiction in civil
+matters,' to 'hear all cases of crimes and misdemeanours,
+abuse and malversation, by whomsoever committed,' to
+'proceed against all persons guilty of any crime, whatever
+might be their quality or condition, to pursue the
+proceedings until final completion, judgment and execution
+thereof.' Nevertheless, in practice and with due regard
+to the good administration of justice, the council's
+decree went perhaps too far. The question remained in
+abeyance and was not settled until four years afterwards,
+at the end of Talon's second term in Canada. He had
+written to Colbert on the subject stating that he would
+be glad to be discharged of the judicial responsibility,
+and to see the question of initiating lawsuits referred
+to the Sovereign Council.
+
+   As a matter of fact [he said], receiving the petitions
+   for entering lawsuits does not mean retaining them
+   before myself. I have not judged twenty cases, civil
+   or criminal, since I came here, having always tried
+   as much as I could to conciliate the opposing parties.
+   The reason why I speak now of this matter is that very
+   often, for twenty or thirty livres of principal, a
+   plaintiff goes before the judge of first instance--which
+   diverts the parties from the proper cultivation of
+   their farms--and later on, by way of an appeal, before
+   the Sovereign Council which likes to hear and judge
+   cases.
+
+Colbert did not deem the decision of the council advisable.
+
+   It is contrary [he wrote] to the order of justice, in
+   virtue of which, leaving in their own sphere the
+   superior judges, the judges of first instance are
+   empowered to hear all cases within their jurisdiction,
+   and their judgments can be appealed from to the
+   Sovereign Council. Moreover it would be a burden for
+   the king's subjects living far from Quebec to go there
+   unnecessarily in order to ascertain before what tribunal
+   they should be heard.
+
+We must now speak of a most important matter--the brandy
+traffic. The sale of intoxicating liquor to the Indians
+had always been prohibited in the colony. In 1657 a decree
+of the King's State Council had ratified and renewed this
+prohibition under pain of corporal punishment. Yet,
+notwithstanding the decree, greedy traders broke the law
+and, for the purpose of getting furs at a low price,
+supplied the Indians with eau-de-feu, or firewater, which
+made them like wild beasts. The most frightful disorders
+were prevalent, the most heinous crimes committed, and
+scandalous demoralization followed. In 1660 the evil was
+so great that Mgr de Laval, exercising his pastoral
+functions, decreed excommunication against all those
+pursuing the brandy traffic in defiance of ordinances.
+This might have stopped the progress of the evil had not
+the governor Avaugour opened the door to renewed disorder
+two years later by a most unfortunate policy. Thereupon
+Laval crossed the ocean to France, obtained the governor's
+recall, and succeeded, though with some difficulty, in
+maintaining the former prohibition. In 1663 the Sovereign
+Council enacted an ordinance strictly forbidding the
+selling or giving of brandy to Indians directly or
+indirectly, for any reason or pretence whatsoever. The
+penalty for the offence was a fine of three hundred
+livres, payable one-third to the informers, one-third to
+the Hotel-Dieu, and one-third to the public treasury.
+And for a second offence the punishment was whipping or
+banishment. In 1667, after the Sovereign Council had been
+finally reorganized, the prohibition was renewed, on a
+motion of attorney-general Bourdon, under the same
+penalties as before, and it devolved many times upon the
+council to condemn transgressors of this ordinance to
+fines, imprisonment, or corporal punishment. Talon was
+present and concurred in these condemnations. But gradually
+his mind changed. He was becoming daily more impressed
+with the material benefits of the brandy traffic and less
+convinced of its moral danger. He was besides displeased
+with the bishop's excommunication. In his view it was an
+encroachment of the spiritual upon the civil power. Under
+the influence of these feelings he came to consider
+prohibition of the liquor traffic as a mistake, damaging
+to the trade and progress of the colony and to French
+influence over the Indian tribes. These were the arguments
+put forward by the supporters of the traffic. According
+to them, to refuse brandy to the Indians was to let the
+English monopolize the profitable fur trade, and therefore
+to check the development of New France. The fur trade
+provided an abundance of beaver skins, which formed a
+most convenient medium of exchange. The possession of
+these gave an impetus to trade, and brought to Canada a
+number of merchants and others who were consumers of
+natural products and money spenders. Moreover, in Canada
+furs were the main article of exportation. Their abundance
+swelled the public revenue and increased the number of
+ships employed in the Canadian trade. And last, to use
+an argument of a higher order, the brandy traffic, in
+fostering trade with the Indian tribes, kept them in the
+bonds of an alliance and strengthened the political
+situation of France in North America.
+
+The above fairly, we think, represents the substance of
+the plea made by the supporters of the liquor traffic.
+Such indeed were the arguments used by the traders,
+finally accepted by Talon, developed in after years by
+Frontenac, approved by Colbert on many occasions; such
+was the political and commercial wisdom of those who
+thought mainly of the material progress of New France.
+To those arguments Laval, the clergy, and many enlightened
+persons interested in the public welfare had a double
+answer. First, there was at stake a question of principle
+important enough to be the sole ground of a decision.
+Was it right, for the sake of a material benefit, to
+outrage natural and Christian morality? Was it morally
+lawful, for the purpose of loading with furs the Quebec
+stores and the Rochelle ships, to instil into the Indian
+veins the accursed poison which inflamed them to theft,
+rape, incest, murder, suicide--all the frightful frenzy
+of bestial passion. As it was practised, the liquor
+traffic could have no other result. A powerful consensus
+of evidence established this truth above all discussion.
+For the Indians brandy was then, as it is now, a murderous
+poison. It is for this reason that at the present day
+the government of Canada prohibits absolutely the sale
+of intoxicating liquor in the territories where the
+wretched remnants of the aborigines are gathered. The
+strictness of the modern laws is a striking vindication
+of Laval and those who stood by him.
+
+Moreover the prohibition of the brandy traffic was not
+as detrimental to the material development of the colony
+as was contended. It was possible to trade with the
+Outaouais, the Algonquins, the Iroquois, without the
+allurement of brandy. The Indians themselves acknowledged
+that strong liquor ruined them. The Abbe Dollier de
+Casson, superior of the Montreal Sulpicians, was perfectly
+right when he made the following statement:
+
+   We should have had all the Iroquois, if they had not
+   seen that there is as much disorder here as in their
+   country, and that we are even worse than the heretics.
+   The Indian drunkard does not resist the drinking craze
+   when brandy is at hand. But afterwards, when he sees
+   himself naked and disarmed, his nose gnawed, his body
+   maimed and bruised, he becomes mad with rage against
+   those who caused him to fall into such a state.
+
+Some years later the governor Denonville answered those
+who enlarged on the danger of throwing the Indians on
+the friendship of the Dutch and English if they were
+refused brandy. 'Those who maintain,' he said, 'that if
+we refuse liquor to the Indians they will go to the
+English, are not trustworthy, for the Indians are not
+anxious to drink when they do not see the liquor; and
+the most sensible of them wish that brandy had never
+existed, because they ruin themselves in giving away
+their furs and even their clothes for drink: Denonville's
+opinion was the more justified in that at one time the
+New England authorities proposed to the French a joint
+prohibition of the sale of brandy to Indians, and actually
+passed an ordinance to that effect.
+
+There were many other articles besides brandy that were
+needed by the Indians, and for which they were obliged
+to exchange their furs. But even had the prohibition
+caused a decrease in the fur trade, would the evil have
+been so great? Fewer colonists would have been diverted
+from agriculture. As it was, the exodus from the settlements
+of bushrangers in search of furs was a source of weakness,
+and the flower of Canadian youth disappeared every year
+in the wilderness. Had this drain of national vitality
+been avoided, the settlement of Canada would have been
+more rapid. Even from the material point of view it can
+be maintained that the opponents of the brandy traffic
+understood better than its supporters the true interests
+of New France.
+
+For a long while this important question divided and
+agitated the Canadian people. The religious authorities,
+knowing the evil and crimes that resulted from the sale
+of intoxicating liquor to the Indians, made strenuous
+efforts to secure the most severe restriction if not the
+prohibition of the deadly traffic. They spoke in the name
+of public morality and national honour, of humanity and
+divine love. The civil authorities, more interested in
+the financial and political advantages than in the question
+of principle, favoured toleration and even authorization
+of the trade. Hence the conflicts and misunderstandings
+which have enlivened, or rather saddened, the pages of
+Canadian history.
+
+It is to be regretted that the intendant Talon sided with
+the supporters of free traffic in brandy. We have said
+that at first he wavered. The rulings of the Sovereign
+Council in 1667 seem to show it. But his earnest desire
+for the prosperity of the colony--the development of her
+trade, the increase of her population, the improvement
+of her finances--his ambition for the economic progress
+of New France, misled him and perverted his judgment.
+This is the only excuse that can be offered for the
+greatest error of his life. For he must be held responsible
+for the ordinance passed by the Sovereign Council on
+November 10, 1668. This ordinance, after setting forth
+that in order to protect the Indians against the curse
+of drunkenness it was better to have recourse to freedom
+than to leave them a prey to the wily devices of
+unscrupulous men, enacted that thereafter, with the king's
+permission, all the residents of New France might sell
+and deliver intoxicating liquor to the Indians willing
+to trade with them. The gate was opened. It was in vain
+that the ordinance went on to forbid the Indians to get
+drunk under a penalty of two beavers and exposure in the
+pillory. A fearful punishment indeed!
+
+Talon's good faith was undeniable. On this occasion he
+doubtless thought that he was still serving the cause of
+public welfare. But, without questioning his intentions,
+we cannot but admit that his life's record contains pages
+more admirable than this one.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+TALON AND THE CLERGY
+
+In the instructions which Talon had received from Louis
+XIV on his departure from France in 1665 it was stated
+that Mgr de Laval and the Jesuits exercised too strong
+an authority and that the superiority of the civil power
+should be cautiously asserted. The intendant was quite
+ready to follow these directions. He had been reared in
+the principles of the old parliamentarian school and was
+thoroughly imbued with Gallican ideas. But at the same
+time he was a sincere believer and faithful in the
+performance of his religious duties. It is not surprising,
+therefore, that he should be found ever earnest in his
+endeavours to promote the extension of Christianity and
+ready to protect the missionaries, as well as the charitable
+and educational institutions, in their work. Neither is
+it surprising that he should sometimes seem jealous of
+ecclesiastical influence in matters where Church and
+State were both concerned.
+
+The following incident will show to what lengths he was
+prepared to go when he thought that there was an
+encroachment of the spiritual on the civil power. The
+winter of 1667 was very gay at Quebec. Peace had been
+secured, confidence in the future of the colony was
+restored, and there manifested itself a general disposition
+to indulge in social festivities. Indeed the first ball
+ever given in Canada took place in February of this year
+at M. Chartier de Lotbiniere's house, as is recorded in
+the Journal des Jesuites. Now there was at this time in
+Quebec a religious association for women called the
+Association of the Holy Family. Laval himself had framed
+their rules, one of which directed the members to abstain
+from frivolous entertainments and to lead a pious and
+edifying life amidst the distractions and dissipations
+of the world. Seeing that many members of the association
+had departed from the rules by taking part in these
+pleasures, Laval threatened to suspend their meetings.
+Naturally a strong impression was made on the public
+mind. Talon resented what he deemed an undue interference.
+He laid a complaint against the bishop's action before
+the Sovereign Council and asked that two of their number
+be directed to report on the social entertainments held
+during the last carnival, in order to show that nothing
+improper had taken place. When the report was made, it
+declared that nothing deserving of condemnation had
+occurred in these festivities, and that there was no
+occasion to censure them. Evidently, if there was
+encroachment upon this occasion, it was encroachment of
+the civil on the spiritual power. The special rules of
+a pious association in no way affected the safety of the
+state or public order. If a number of ladies wished to
+join its ranks and accept its discipline in order to
+follow the path of Christian perfection and lead a more
+exemplary life in the world, they should be free to do
+so, and their directors should be free to remonstrate
+with them if they were not faithful to their pledge. In
+this incident the intendant was not at his best. He seems
+to have sought an occasion of checking the bishop's
+authority, and the occasion was not well chosen. It is
+likely that M. de Tracy, still in the colony at the time,
+intervened in the interests of peace, for the entry in
+regard to Talon's complaint was erased from the register
+of the Sovereign Council.
+
+In a state paper by Talon for Colbert's information, in
+1669, the intendant's Gallican views reveal themselves
+fully. He complains of the excessive zeal of the bishop
+and clergy which led them to interfere in matters of
+police, thus trespassing upon the province of the civil
+magistrate. He went on to say that too strict a moral
+discipline of confessors and spiritual directors put a
+constraint on consciences, and that, in order to
+counterbalance the excessive claims to obedience of the
+clergy then in charge, other priests should be sent to
+Canada with full powers for administration of the
+sacraments. It is more than probable that in writing
+these lines Talon was thinking of the vexed question of
+the liquor traffic, always a source of strife between
+the civil and the spiritual authorities.
+
+Talon and his colleagues, Tracy and Courcelle, had to
+deal with the question of tithes. In 1663 tithes had been
+fixed by royal edict at one-thirteenth of all that is
+produced from the soil either naturally or by man's
+labour. This edict was prompted by the erection of the
+Quebec Seminary by Laval, and established in Canada the
+tithes system for the benefit of the new clerical
+institution, to which was entrusted the spiritual care
+of the colonists. The latter, who previously had paid
+nothing for the maintenance of the clergy, protested
+against the charge, notwithstanding that it was in
+conformity with the common practice of Christian nations.
+Laval, taking into consideration the poverty of the colony
+at the time, freely granted delays and exemptions, so
+that in 1667 the question was still practically in
+abeyance. In that year the bishop presented to Tracy a
+petition for the publication of a decree in respect to
+the tithes. The lieutenant-general, the governor, and
+the intendant gave the matter their attention, and after
+discussion an ordinance was passed for payment of tithes,
+consisting of the twenty-sixth part of all that the soil
+grows, naturally or by man's labour, for the benefit of
+the priests who ministered to the spiritual wants of the
+people. There was a proviso stating that the words 'by
+man's labour' did not include manufactures or fisheries,
+but only the products of the soil when cultivated and
+fertilized by human industry. The assessment of
+one-twenty-sixth was to be levied for a term of twenty
+years only, after which the tithes were to be fixed
+according to the needs of the time and the state of the
+country. Later on, in 1679, a royal edict made perpetual
+the rate of one-twenty-sixth. For years the practice
+prevailed of levying tithes only on grain. But in 1705
+two parish priests maintained that they should be levied
+also on hemp, flax, tobacco, pumpkins, hay--on all that
+is grown on cultivated land. A heated discussion in the
+Sovereign Council took place, led by the attorney-general
+Auteuil. The two priests contended that the ordinance of
+Tracy, Courcelle, and Talon did not limit the tithes to
+grain; it stated that they should be levied on all that
+the soil grows naturally or by man's labour. Unfortunately
+they had only a copy of the ordinance of 1667 to file in
+support of their contention. The attorney-general maintained
+that the original ordinance of 1663 limited the tithes
+to grain, and that the constant practice was a confirmation
+and an evidence of the rule. But, strange to say, he
+could not put the original ordinance on record. It had
+been lost. However, the practice was held to decide the
+case, and the priests' contention was not sustained. From
+that time the question was settled, definitely and for
+ever; the tithes were levied only on grain, as they are
+still levied in the province of Quebec, on all lands
+owned by Catholics. But it is interesting to know as a
+matter of history that the two litigant priests were
+right. Had the original ordinance been before the council,
+it would have been found to enact the levying of tithes
+not on grain alone but on 'all that the soil grows
+naturally or by man's labour.' An authentic copy of this
+ordinance was discovered in our day, nearly two centuries
+after the lawsuit of 1705, and it bears out the plea of
+the two priests.
+
+Another feature of Talon's relations with the clergy and
+religious communities--and a pleasant one this time--was
+his strong interest in the francisation (Frenchification)
+of the Indians. It was Colbert's wish that efforts be
+made to bring the Algonquins, Hurons, and other Indians
+more closely within the fold of European civilization--to
+make them alter their manners, learn the French tongue,
+and become less Indian and more European in their way of
+life. Talon was of the same mind and lost no opportunity
+of impressing the idea on those who could best do the
+work. Laval had already been active in the same direction,
+and had founded the Quebec Seminary partly with this end
+in view. The great bishop thought that one of the best
+means of civilizing the Indians would be to bring up
+Indian and French children together. So he withdrew from
+the Jesuits' College a number of pupils whom he had
+previously placed there and established them, with a few
+young Indians, in a house bought for the purpose. Such
+were the beginnings of the Quebec Seminary, opened on
+October 9, 1663. The first class consisted of eight French
+and six Indian children. The seminary trained them in
+the practice of piety and morality. For ordinary instruction
+they went to the Jesuits. The Jesuits' College had been
+founded in 1635 and was of great service to the colony.
+It was pronounced by Laval in 1661 almost equal in
+educational advantages and standing to the Jesuits'
+establishments in France; and according to a trustworthy
+author it 'was a reproduction on a small scale of the
+French colleges: classes in letters and arts, literary
+and theatrical entertainments, were found there.' Some
+of the public performances given at the Jesuits' College
+were memorable, such as the reception to the Vicomte
+d'Argenson when he entered upon the government of New
+France, and the philosophical debate of July 2, 1666,
+which was graced with the presence of Tracy, Courcelle,
+and Talon. Two promising youths, Louis Jolliet and Pierre
+de Francheville, won universal praise on that occasion;
+and Talon himself, who had been accustomed in France to
+such scholastic exercises, took part in it very pertinently,
+to the great delight of all present.
+
+To return to the francisation of Indians: the Ursulines
+were also enlisted in the cause. Since their arrival in
+Canada in 1639 it had been for them a labour of love. In
+the convent and school founded by Mother Marie de
+l'Incarnation and Madame de la Peltrie, both French and
+Indian girls received instruction in various subjects.
+Seven nuns attended daily to the classes. The Indian
+girls had special classes and teachers, but they were
+lodged and boarded along with the French children. Some
+of these Indian pupils of the Ursulines afterwards married
+Frenchmen and became excellent wives and mothers. Special
+mention. is made of one of the girls as being able to
+read and write both French and Huron remarkably well.
+From her speech it was hard to believe that she was born
+an Indian. Talon was so delighted with this instance of
+successful francisation that he asked her to write
+something in Huron and French that he might send it to
+France. This, however, was but an exceptional case. Mother
+Mary declared in one of her letters that it was very
+difficult, if not impossible, to civilize the Indian
+girls.
+
+During this period the Ursulines had on an average from
+twenty to thirty resident pupils. The French girls were
+supposed to pay one hundred and twenty livres. Indian
+girls paid nothing. The Ursuline sisters and Mother Mary,
+their head, did a noble work for Canada; the same must
+be said of the venerable Mother Marguerite Bourgeoys and
+the ladies of the Congregation of Notre-Dame founded in
+1659 at Montreal. At first this school was open to both
+boys and girls. But in 1668 M. Souart, a Sulpician, took
+the boys under his care, and thenceforth the education
+of the male portion of the youth of Ville-Marie was in
+the hands of the priests of Saint-Sulpice. At this time
+the Sulpicians of Montreal were receiving welcome accessions
+to their number; the Abbes Trouve and de Fenelon arrived
+in 1667, and the Abbes Queylus, d'Allet, de Galinee, and
+d'Urfe in 1668. In the latter year Fenelon and Trouve
+were authorized by Laval to establish a new missionary
+station. for a tribe of Cayugas as far west as the bay
+of Quinte on the north shore of Lake Ontario. The progress
+of mission work was now most encouraging. Peace prevailed
+and the Iroquois country was open to the heralds of the
+Gospel. Fathers Fremin and Pierron were living among the
+Mohawks; Father Bruyas with the Oneidas. In 1668 Father
+Fremin was sent to the Senecas, Father Milet to the
+Onondagas, and Father de Carheil to the Cayugas. The
+bloody Iroquois, who had tortured and slain so many
+missionaries, were now asking for preachers of the
+Christian faith, and receiving them with due honour. It
+is true that the hard task of conversion remained, and
+that Indian vices and superstitions were not easily
+overcome. But at least the savages were ready to listen
+to Christian teaching. Some of them had courage enough
+to reform their lives. Children and women were baptized.
+Many received when dying the sacraments of the Church.
+Moreover, the sublime courage and self-devotion of the
+missionaries inspired the Indian mind with a profound
+respect for Christianity and added very greatly to the
+influence and prestige of the French name among the
+tribes.
+
+On the whole the situation in Canada at the end of 1668,
+three years after Talon's arrival, was most satisfactory.
+Peace and security were restored; hope had replaced
+despondency; colonization, agriculture, and trade were
+making progress; population was increasing yearly. In
+this short space of time New France had been saved from
+destruction and was now full of new vigour. Every one in
+the colony knew that the great intendant had been the
+soul of the revival, the leader in all this progress. It
+may therefore be easily imagined what was the state of
+popular feeling when the news came that Talon was to
+leave Canada. He had twice asked for his recall. The
+climate was severe, his health was not good, and family
+matters called for his presence in France; moreover, he
+was worried by his difficulties with the governor and
+the spiritual authorities. Louis XIV gave him leave to
+return to France and appointed Claude de Bouteroue in
+his stead.
+
+Talon left Quebec in November 1668. Expressions of deep
+regret were heard on all sides. Mother Marie de
+l'Incarnation wrote: 'M. Talon is leaving us and goes
+back to France. It is a great loss to Canada and a great
+sorrow for all. For, during his term here as intendant,
+this country has developed more and progressed more than
+it had done before from the time of the first settlement
+by the French.' The annalist of the Hotel-Dieu was not
+less sympathetic, but there was hope in her utterance:
+'M. Talon,' she said, 'left for France this year. He
+comforted us in our grief by leading us to expect his
+return.' Perhaps these last words show that Talon even
+then intended to come back to Canada if such should be
+the wish of the king and his minister.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+TALON'S EVENTFUL JOURNEY
+
+Talon returned to France in an auspicious hour. It was
+perhaps the happiest and brightest period of the reign
+of Louis XIV. France had emerged victorious from two
+campaigns, and the king had just signed a treaty which
+added to his realm a part of the province of Flanders.
+The kingdom enjoyed peace, and its prosperity had never
+been so great. Thanks to Colbert, the exchequer was full.
+In all departments the French government was displaying
+intelligent activity. Trade and commerce, agriculture
+and manufacture, were encouraged and protected. With
+ample means at their disposal and perfect freedom of
+action, Louis XIV and Colbert could not but be in a
+favourable mood to receive Talon's reports and proposals.
+Talon acted as if he were still the intendant of New
+France; and though for the time being he was not, he was
+surely the most powerful agent or advocate that the colony
+could have. The king and his minister readily acquiesced
+in his schemes for strengthening the Canadian colony. It
+was decided to dispatch six companies of soldiers to
+reinforce the four already there, and ultimately, upon
+being disbanded, to aid in settling the country. Many
+hundred labourers and unmarried women and a new stock of
+domestic animals were also to be sent. Colbert had never
+been so much in earnest concerning New France. He attended
+personally to details, gave orders for the levy of troops
+and for the shipping of the men and supplies, and urged
+on the officials in charge so that everything should be
+ready early in the spring. To M. de Courcelle he wrote
+these welcome tidings:
+
+   His Majesty has appropriated over 200,000 livres to
+   do what he deems necessary for the colony. One hundred
+   and fifty girls are going thither to be married; six
+   companies complete with fifty good men in each and
+   thirty officers or noblemen, who wish to settle there,
+   and more than two hundred other persons are also going.
+   Such an effort shows how greatly interested in Canada
+   His Majesty feels, and to what extent he will appreciate
+   all that may be done to help its progress.
+
+That the minister was not actuated merely by a passing
+mood, but by a set purpose, may be seen from a passage
+of a letter to Terron, the intendant at Rochefort: 'I am
+very glad,' Colbert wrote, 'that you have not gone beyond
+the funds appropriated for the passage of the men and
+girls to Canada. You know how important it is to keep
+within the limits, especially in an outlay which will
+have to be repeated every year.'
+
+In the meantime Talon was pleading the cause of Canada
+in another direction. Always intent on freeing New France
+from the commercial monopoly of the West India Company,
+he renewed his assault against that corporation, and at
+last he was successful. This signal victory showed plainly
+his great influence with the minister. Colbert conveyed
+the gratifying information to Courcelle:
+
+   His Majesty has granted freedom of trade to Canada,
+   so that the colony may hereafter receive more easily
+   the provisions and supplies needed. It will now be
+   necessary to inform the colonists that they must
+   provide cargoes agreeable to the French, who will
+   supply them with necessities, and so make a profitable
+   exchange of goods. For there is now a great supply
+   of furs in this kingdom, and if there were no other
+   goods available as a return cargo perhaps the French
+   ships would not go there.
+
+The spring of 1669 was memorable for Canada. Nearly all
+that Talon asked for New France was granted. But one
+thing which he did not ask was desired by Louis and
+Colbert. It is probable that Talon intended to go back
+to Canada, but he did not expect or wish to return
+immediately. Yet this was what the king and the minister
+deemed advisable and even essential. It was very well to
+send troops, labourers, women, settlers, and supplies;
+but, in order that all should yield their maximum of
+efficiency, it was necessary that the business affairs
+of the colony should again be placed in the hands of the
+intendant, who had already worked wonders by his sagacity
+and skilful management. There was no man who knew so well
+the weak and strong points, the requirements and
+possibilities of Canada. True, only a few months had
+elapsed since the king had given him permission to leave
+Canada, and had appointed in his stead another intendant
+who, naturally enough, would expect to be in charge for
+at least two years. But, on the other hand, the king's
+service and the public good demanded his reappointment.
+Talon had to acquiesce. He had reached Paris at the end
+of December. Three months later he was again intendant
+of New France, and on April Louis XIV wrote to the
+intendant Bouteroue at Quebec informing him of Talon's
+reinstatement. To leave France so soon must have been
+for Talon a great sacrifice, but it was a high compliment
+that Louis and Colbert were paying to his talents and
+administrative abilities. On May 10, 1669, the king signed
+his new commission, and on the 17th he received his
+instructions, a document much shorter than the one framed
+for his direction in 1665. No minute advice was needed
+this time, for Talon was himself the best authority on
+all matters relating to Canada.
+
+Talon sailed from La Rochelle on July 15. He was accompanied
+by Captain Francois Marie Perrot, one of the six commanders
+of the companies sent to Canada; by Fathers Romuald
+Papillion, Hilarion Guesnin, Cesaire Herveau, and Brother
+Cosme Graveran. Perrot was married to the niece of the
+intendant. The friars belonged to the Franciscan order
+and to the particular branch of it known under the name
+of Recollets. It had been thought good to reintroduce
+into Canada the religious society whose priests had been
+the first to preach the Gospel there. The intendant's
+former voyage from France to Canada had lasted one hundred
+and seventeen days, so that, allowing for all probable
+delays, he might expect to reach Quebec by the end of
+October at the latest. But it was decreed that he was
+not to see New France this year. His ship was assailed
+by a series of storms and hurricanes and driven far from
+her right course. After three months of exertion and
+suffering the captain was obliged to make for the port
+of Lisbon. There the ship was revictualled; but, having
+sailed again, she struck upon a rocky shoal at a distance
+of three leagues from Lisbon and was totally wrecked.
+Talon and his companions were fortunately saved, and
+found themselves back in France at the beginning of the
+year 1670.
+
+In the meantime what was going on in Canada? Talon's
+successor, M. de Bouteroue, was upright and intelligent,
+but without Talon's masterly gifts and activity. He
+attended principally to the administration of justice.
+At the judicial sittings of the Sovereign Council he was
+almost always present; he himself heard many cases, and
+often acted as judge-advocate. On his advice the council
+gave out an ordinance fixing the price of wheat. There
+had been complaints that sometimes creditors refused to
+accept wheat in payment, or accepted it only at a price
+unreasonably low. So it was enacted that for three months
+after the promulgation of the decree debtors should be
+at liberty to pay their creditors in wheat of good quality
+at the price of four livres per bushel.
+
+The evil consequences of the previous action of the
+council in freeing the brandy traffic were already
+manifest. The scourge of the coureurs de bois, later to
+prove so damaging to the colony, was beginning to be
+felt. A new ordinance now prohibited the practice of
+going into the woods with liquor to meet the Indians and
+trade with them. This ordinance also enjoined sobriety
+upon the Indians and held them responsible for the
+drunkenness of their squaws, while the French were
+forbidden to drink with them. Hunting in the forest was
+only allowed by leave of the commandant of the district
+or the nearest judge, to whose inspection all luggage
+and goods for trade must be submitted. Brandy might be
+taken on these expeditions, but no more than one pot per
+man for eight days. The penalty for violating any of
+these provisions of the law was confiscation, with a fine
+of fifty livres for a first offence and corporal punishment
+for a second. Thus, but in vain, did the leaders of New
+France attempt to stay the progress of Indian debauchery.
+
+During the summer of 1669 a renewal of the war between
+the French and the Iroquois was threatened. Three French
+soldiers had killed six Oneidas, after making them drunk
+for the purpose of stealing their furs; three other
+soldiers had treacherously murdered a Seneca chief for
+the same purpose. The Outaouais also, who were in alliance
+with the French, attacked a party of Iroquois, killing
+and capturing many. Incensed at these acts of hostility,
+the Iroquois threatened to unbury the tomahawk. Courcelle
+at once set himself to the task of averting the danger.
+He went to Montreal, where many hundred Indians had
+gathered for the annual fair, to which they always came
+in great numbers for the purpose of exchanging their furs
+for goods. He convened a large meeting and made an address
+of great vigour and cleverness, his speech being accompanied
+by appropriate gifts. He then proceeded to carry out the
+sentence of the law upon the murderers of the Seneca
+chief, who were shot on the spot in the presence of the
+assembly. The Iroquois were placated; three men killed
+for the death of one convinced them that French justice
+was neither slow nor faltering. In the meantime the
+Outaouais had brought back three of their prisoners and
+pledged themselves for the surrender of twelve others.
+in this way war was averted and peace maintained.
+
+The first ships coming from France that summer brought
+letters from Colbert to Courcelle and Bouteroue intimating
+that Talon was returning to resume his charge. Bouteroue
+was probably surprised to learn that he was to be superseded
+so soon, and the governor may have been disappointed to
+hear of the early arrival of a man whose authority and
+prestige made him somewhat uneasy. But in the colony the
+rejoicing was general. Mother Marie de l'Incarnation
+wrote: 'We expect daily M. Talon whom the king sends back
+to settle everything according to His Majesty's views.
+He brings with him five hundred men. ...If God favours
+his journey and brings him happily to port he will find
+new means of increasing the country's wealth.' Several
+weeks elapsed, and Talon's ship did not appear. Some
+anxiety was felt. Mother Marie wrote again: 'M. Talon
+has not arrived; in his ship alone there were five hundred
+men. We are greatly concerned at the delay. They may have
+landed again in France, or have been lost in the storms
+which have proved to be so dreadful.' The autumn of 1669
+had been a stormy season. Fearful hurricanes swept over
+Quebec. The lower town was flooded to an incredible
+height, many buildings were destroyed, and the havoc
+amounted to 100,000 livres. All this was painfully
+disquieting. To quote Mother Marie again: 'If M. Talon
+has been wrecked, it will be an irretrievable loss to
+the colony, for, the king having given him a free hand,
+he could undertake great things without minding the
+outlay.' In the meantime M. Patoulet, Talon's secretary,
+who had left France on another ship and had reached Quebec
+safely, wrote to Colbert: 'If he is dead, His Majesty
+will have lost a good subject, yourself, Monseigneur, a
+faithful servant, Canada an affectionate father, and
+myself a good master.'
+
+Fortunately, as we have already seen, Talon was not lost.
+At the very time when these letters were written he was
+on his way back to France, where he spent the winter hard
+at work with Colbert--preparing for the dispatch of
+settlers and soldiers in the spring. The minister displayed
+the same zeal as the year before. He appropriated ample
+funds, gave urgent orders, and seemed to make the Canadian
+reinforcements his personal affair. Talon sailed from La
+Rochelle about the middle of May 1670. He was accompanied
+by Perrot again, and also by six Recollets, four fathers
+and two brothers. After three months at sea he was nearly
+shipwrecked once more, this time near Tadoussac, almost
+at the end of his journey. On August 18, after an absence
+from Canada of one year and nine months, he landed once
+more at Quebec.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+RENEWED EFFORTS AND PROGRESS
+
+When Talon arrived at Quebec, New France had again just
+escaped an Indian war. A party of Iroquois hunting near
+the country of the Outaouais met two men of their nation
+who had been prisoners of the Outaouais and had succeeded
+in escaping. These informed their fellow-tribesmen that
+the Outaouais village was undefended, almost every warrior
+being absent. The Iroquois then attacked the village,
+destroyed it, and brought with them as prisoners about
+one hundred women and children. The Outaouais warriors,
+when apprised of the raid, started in pursuit, but did
+not succeed in overtaking the raiders. However, receiving
+a reinforcement of another party of allied Indians, they
+invaded the Senecas' territory. These hostilities aroused
+the temper of the Iroquois, and a general Indian war
+threatened, into which the French would unavoidably be
+drawn. At that moment Garakonthie, the Iroquois chief
+who had always been friendly to the French, advised the
+Five Nations to send an embassy to the governor of Canada
+asking him to compose these differences. The Five Nations
+agreed, and Iroquois and Outaouais delegates, many hundreds
+in number, came to Quebec. A great council was held
+lasting three days, and Courcelle succeeded in bringing
+about an understanding between the rival tribes. After
+the meetings Garakonthie asked to be baptized, and Laval
+himself performed the ceremony.
+
+It was but a few days after these events that Talon
+arrived, and, notwithstanding the improvement in the
+situation, he does not seem to have deemed peace perfectly
+secure, for he wrote to the king that it would be advisable
+to send two hundred more soldiers. He added that the
+Iroquois caused great injury to the trade of the colony
+by hunting the beaver in the territories of the tribes
+allied with the French, and selling the skins to Dutch
+and English traders. In another letter Talon set forth
+that these traders drew from the Iroquois 1,000,000
+livres' worth of the best beaver, and he suggested the
+construction of a small ship of the galley type to cruise
+on Lake Ontario, and that two posts manned by one hundred
+picked soldiers should be established, one on the north,
+the other on the south shore of that lake. These measures
+would ensure safe communication between the colony and
+the Outaouais country, keep the Iroquois aloof, and favour
+the opening of new roads to the south. It was a broad
+and bold scheme. But could it be executed over the head
+of M. de Courcelle? Talon had foreseen this objection
+and had begged that the governor should be instructed to
+give support and assistance. But once more the intendant
+was going beyond his authority. Such an undertaking was
+clearly within the governor's province. Talon was told
+that he should lay his scheme before M. de Courcelle, so
+that the governor might attend to its execution.
+
+This incident sheds light upon the relations that existed
+between Courcelle and Talon. The former was valiant,
+energetic, and intelligent; but he felt that he was
+outshone by the latter's promptness, celerity in design,
+superior activity, wider and keener penetration, and he
+could not conceal his displeasure.
+
+After the great councils held at Quebec, the Senecas
+again assumed a somewhat disquieting attitude. The
+governor, they said, had been too hard on them. He had
+threatened to chastise them in their own country if they
+did not bring back their prisoners. Perhaps his arm was
+not long enough to strike so far. Evidently they had
+forgotten the expedition against the Mohawks five years
+ago. They were convinced that distance and natural
+impediments, such as rapids and torrents, protected them
+from invasion in their remote country south of Lake
+Ontario. Courcelle resolved to shake their confidence.
+Early in the spring he went to Montreal and ordered the
+construction of a flat-boat. In this he set out from
+Lachine (June 3, 1671) with Perrot, governor of Montreal,
+Captain de Laubia, Varennes, Le Moyne, La Valliere,
+Normanville, Abbe Dollier de Casson, and about fifty good
+men. Thirteen canoes accompanied the flat-boat. After
+considerable exertion, the governor and his party passed
+the rapids and continued up the St Lawrence; nine days
+later they entered Lake Ontario, to the amazement of a
+party of Iroquois whom they met there. The governor gave
+these Indians a message for the Senecas and the other
+nations, stating that he wished to keep the peace, but
+that, if necessary, he could come and devastate their
+country. The demonstration had the desired effect and
+there was no further talk of war.
+
+It will be inferred from Talon's proposals and schemes
+already mentioned that his thoughts were now occupied
+with the external affairs of the colony. This indeed was
+to be the characteristic feature of his second
+administration. When in Canada before he had concentrated
+his attention chiefly upon judicial and political
+organization, and had directed his efforts to promote
+colonization, agriculture, industry, and trade--in a
+word, the internal economy of New France. But now, without
+neglecting any part of his duty, he seemed desirous of
+widening his sphere of action by the extension of French
+influence to the north, south, and west. On October 10,
+1670, he wrote to the king: 'Since my arrival, I have
+sent resolute men to explore farther than has ever been
+done in Canada, some to the west and north-west, others
+to the south-west and south. They will all on their return
+write accounts of their expeditions and frame their
+reports according to the instructions I have given them.
+Everywhere they will take possession of the country,
+erect posts bearing the king's arms, and draw up memoranda
+of these proceedings to serve as title-deeds.'
+
+Of these explorers one of the most noted was Cavelier de
+la Salle. He had been born in 1643. After pursuing his
+studies in a Jesuit college he came to Canada in 1666
+and obtained from the Sulpicians a grant of land near
+Montreal, named by him Saint-Sulpice, but ultimately
+known under the name of Lachine. In 1669 Courcelle gave
+him letters patent for an exploring journey towards the
+Ohio and the Meschacebe, or Mississippi. By way of these
+rivers he hoped to reach the Vermilion Sea, or Gulf of
+California, and thus open a new road to China via the
+Pacific ocean. At the same time the Abbes Dollier and de
+Galinee, Sulpicians, had prepared for a remote mission
+to the Outaouais. It was thought advisable to combine
+the two expeditions. Thus it happened that La Salle and
+the Sulpicians left Montreal in 1669 and journeyed together
+as far as the western end of Lake Ontario. There they
+parted. The Sulpicians wintered on the shores of Lake
+Erie, and next spring passed the strait between Lakes
+Erie and Huron, reached the Sault Sainte-Marie, and then
+returned to Montreal by French river, Lake Nipissing,
+and the Ottawa river. Their journey lasted from July 4,
+1669, to June 18, 1670. In the meantime La Salle had
+reached the Ohio and had followed it to the falls at
+Louisville. He also returned in the summer of 1670. The
+itinerary of his next expedition, undertaken in the same
+year, is not very well known. According to an account of
+doubtful authority, he went through Lakes Erie and Huron,
+entered Lake Michigan, reached the Illinois river, and
+even the Mississippi. But a careful study of contemporaneous
+documents and evidence leads to the conclusion that the
+Mississippi must be omitted from this itinerary. In our
+opinion La Salle did not reach that river in 1671, as
+has been asserted; he probably went as far as the Illinois
+country.
+
+Another of Talon's resolute explorers was Simon Francois
+Daumont de Saint-Lusson. Accompanied by Nicolas Perrot,
+the well-known interpreter, he left Quebec in September
+1670, and wintered with an Outaouais tribe near Lake
+Superior. Perrot sent word to the neighbouring nations
+that they should meet next spring at Sault Sainte-Marie
+a delegate of the great French Ononthio. [Footnote: This
+was the name given by the Indians to the king of France;
+the governor was called by them Ononthio, which means
+'great mountain,' because that was the translation of
+Montmagny--mons magnus in Latin--the name of Champlain's
+first successor. From M. de Montmagny the name had passed
+to the other governors, and the king had become the 'great
+Ononthio.'] On June 14 representatives of fourteen nations
+were gathered at the Sault. The Jesuit fathers Dablon,
+Dreuillettes, Allouez, and Andre were present. A great
+council was held on a height. Saint-Lusson had a cross
+erected with a post bearing the king's arms. The Vexilla
+Regis and the Exaudiat were sung. The intendant's delegates
+took possession of the country in the name of their
+monarch. There was firing of guns and shouts of 'Vive le
+roi!' Then Father Allouez and Saint-Lusson made speeches
+suitable to the occasion and the audience. At night the
+blaze of an immense bonfire illuminated with its fitful
+light the dark trees and foaming rapids. The singing of
+the Te Deum crowned that memorable day.
+
+The intendant was pleased with the result of Saint-Lusson's
+expedition. He wrote to the king: 'There is every reason
+to believe that from the point reached by this explorer
+to the Vermilion Sea is a distance of not more than three
+hundred leagues. The Western Sea [the Pacific ocean] does
+not seem more distant. According to calculation based on
+the Indians' reports and on the charts, there should not
+be more than fifteen hundred leagues of navigation to
+reach Tartary, China, and Japan.'
+
+Talon showed his high appreciation of Saint-Lusson's
+services by immediately giving him another mission--this
+time to Acadia, for the purpose of finding and reporting
+as to the best road to that colony. In 1670 Grandfontaine
+had taken possession of Acadia, which had been restored
+to France by the treaty of Breda. He had received from
+Sir Richard Walker the keys of Fort Pentagouet, at the
+mouth of the Penobscot river, and had sent Joybert de
+Soulanges to hoist the French flag over Jemsek and Port
+Royal. It was therefore incumbent on the intendant to
+see to the opening of a road between Quebec and Pentagouet.
+His letters and those of Colbert written in 1671 are full
+of this project. A fund of thirty thousand livres was
+appropriated for the purpose. The intendant's plan was
+to erect about twenty houses well provided with stores
+along the proposed route at intervals of sixty leagues.
+He also had in mind the establishment of settlements
+along the rivers Penobscot and Kennebec, to form a barrier
+between New France and New England. With the object of
+establishing trade relations between Canada and Acadia,
+he sent to the French Bay (Bay of Fundy) a barge loaded
+with clothes and supplies, and was extremely pleased to
+receive in return a cargo of six thousand pounds of salt
+meat. In 1671, for Colbert's information, he drew up a
+census of Acadia. [Footnote: The figures were--Port
+Royal, 359; Poboncoup, 11; Cap Negre, 3; Pentagouet, 6
+and 25 soldiers; Mouskadabouet, 13; Saint-Pierre, 7.
+Total 399, or, including the soldiers, 424. There were
+429 cultivated acres, 866 head of cattle, 407 sheep and
+36 goats.] But, as we shall see, the great intendant was
+not to remain in Canada long enough to bring his Acadian
+undertaking to full fruition.
+
+Let us follow him in another direction. He had tried to
+extend the sphere of French influence towards the west
+and south, and was doing his best to strengthen Canada
+on the New England border by promoting the development
+of Acadia. His next attempt was to bring the northern
+tribes into the French alliance and to open to the colony
+the trade of the wide area extending from Lake St John
+to Lake Mistassini and thence to Hudson Bay. For an
+expedition to Hudson Bay he chose Father Albanel, a
+Jesuit, and M. de Saint-Simon. They left Quebec for
+Tadoussac in August 1671, and ascended the Saguenay to
+Lake St John where they wintered. In June 1672 they
+continued their journey, reaching Lake Mistassini on the
+18th of the same month and James Bay on the 28th. After
+formally taking possession of the country in the name of
+France, they returned by the same route to Quebec, where
+on July 23 they laid their report before the intendant.
+
+One of the last but not the least of the explorations
+made under Talon's auspices was that which he entrusted
+to Louis Jolliet, and which resulted in the discovery of
+the upper Mississippi. Jolliet left Montreal in the autumn
+of 1672 and wintered at Michilimackinac, where he joined
+Father Marquette. Next spring they set out together, and
+by way of Lake Michigan, Green Bay, Fox river, and the
+Wisconsin they reached the giant river, the mighty
+Mississippi, which they followed down as far as latitude
+33 degrees. Thus was discovered the highway through the
+interior of the continent to the Gulf of Mexico. One
+result of the discovery was the birth of Louisiana a few
+years later.
+
+Talon's patriotic enthusiasm was justified when he wrote
+to Louis XIV: 'I am no courtier and it is not to please
+the king or without reason that I say this portion of
+the French monarchy is going to become something great.
+What I see now enables me to make such a prediction. The
+foreign colonies established on the adjoining shores of
+the ocean are already uneasy at what His Majesty has done
+here during the last seven years.' This confidence was
+probably not shared by the king and his minister, for,
+in a letter to Frontenac some time later, Colbert
+remonstrated against long journeys to the upper St Lawrence
+and outlying settlements, and expressed his disapproval
+of discoveries far away in the interior of the continent
+where the French could never settle or remain. Undoubtedly
+it was wise to advise concentration, and Talon himself
+would not have differed on that score from the minister.
+He was too sagacious not to see that Canada with a small
+population should abstain from remote establishments.
+His policy of exploration and discovery did not aim at
+the immediate foundation of new colonies, but was only
+directed towards increasing the prestige of the French
+name, developing trade, and thus preparing the way for
+the future greatness of Canada. It was a far-sighted
+policy, not seeking impossible achievements for to-day,
+but gaining a foot-hold for those of to-morrow. That the
+political fabric of France in America was doomed to fall
+in no way dims the fame of the great intendant. Under
+his powerful direction New France, through her missionaries,
+explorers, and traders, stamped her mark over three-quarters
+of the territory then known as North America. Her moral,
+political, and commercial influence was felt beyond her
+boundaries--west, north, and south. She had hoisted the
+cross and the fleurs-de-lis from the sunny banks of the
+Arkansas to the icy shores of Hudson Bay, and from the
+surges of the Atlantic to the remotest limits of the
+Great Lakes. Her unceasing activity and daring enterprise,
+supplementing inferior numbers and wealth, gave her an
+undisputed superiority over the industrious English
+colonies confined to their narrow strip between the
+Alleghanies and the sea; and her name inspired awe and
+respect in a hundred Indian tribes.
+
+What was Courcelle's attitude towards the extraordinary
+activity displayed by Talon? Evidently the intendant
+often acted the part of the governor; and the real
+governor, out-shone, could not conceal his ill-humour,
+and tried to assert his authority. There were several
+clashes between the two high officials. The governor
+frequently lost his temper, while Talon complained of
+Courcelle's jealousy and harshness. It must be admitted
+that the great intendant, in his fervid zeal for the
+public good and his passion for action, was not always
+careful or tactful in his behaviour to the governor.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+TALON'S ADMINISTRATION ENDS
+
+In the survey of Talon's first term of office mention
+was made of the many enterprises he set on foot for the
+internal progress of the colony. One of these was
+shipbuilding. During his second term a stronger impulse
+was given to this industry. One of the intendant's first
+official acts after his arrival in 1670 was to issue a
+decree for the conservation of the forests suitable for
+shipbuilding purposes--to prohibit the felling of oak,
+elm, beech, and cherry trees until the skilled carpenters
+sent by the king should have inspected them and made
+their choice. It is interesting, too, to find that in
+all grants of land Talon inserted a clause reserving
+these trees. Shipbuilding in Canada was to be encouraged
+and promoted. Had not Colbert given forty thousand livres
+for the purpose? A shipyard was set up on the banks of
+the St Charles river. Many ships were built there; at
+first only small ones, but the industry gradually developed.
+In 1672 a ship of over four hundred tons was launched,
+and preparations had been made for another of eight
+hundred tons. Seven years earlier only nineteen out of
+2378 vessels in the French mercantile marine had exceeded
+four hundred tons. The infant shipyard at Quebec was
+doing well.
+
+Agriculture and industry were flourishing in New France.
+Hemp was being grown successfully, and a larger quantity
+of wool was made available by increasing flocks of sheep.
+The intendant insisted that women and girls should be
+taught to spin. He distributed looms to encourage the
+practice of weaving, and after a time the colony had
+home-made carpets and table-covers of drugget, and serges
+and buntings. The great number of cattle ensured an
+abundance of raw hides. Accordingly the intendant
+established a tannery, and this in turn led to the
+preparation of leather and the making of shoes; so that
+in 1671 Talon could write to the king: 'I am now clothed
+from foot to head with home-made articles.' Tobacco was
+grown to some extent, but Colbert did not wish to encourage
+its cultivation by the Canadian farmers. The minister
+was better pleased when the intendant wrote concerning
+potash and tar. A Sieur Nicolas Follin undertook to make
+potash out of wood ashes, and was granted a privilege
+with a bounty of ten sous per ton and free entry into
+France for his product. The potash proved excellent. In
+the meantime an expert on tar named Arnould Alix came
+from France and found that the Canadian trees were
+eminently fit for the production of that article, so
+necessary in shipbuilding; indeed at this time Colbert
+was doing his best to manufacture it in France so that
+the shipyards of the kingdom might use French tar instead
+of the foreign product. The news that it could be made
+in Canada was very welcome to the minister.
+
+The intendant continued his search for mines, but without
+substantial results. There had been much talk of iron
+ore at Baie Saint-Paul and also in the region of Three
+Rivers. The Sieur de la Potardiere was sent to examine
+these ores; but, although his report was favourable and
+Colbert seemed highly interested and began to speak of
+casting cannon on the shores of the Saint-Maurice, for
+some reason nothing was done, and sixty years were to
+elapse before the establishment of the Saint-Maurice
+forges.
+
+In another chapter we saw that Talon was always ready to
+help the religious institutions and that he was very
+friendly towards the Hotel-Dieu at Quebec. This hospital
+had become too small for the requirements of the growing
+population. At his own expense the intendant had a
+substantial wing erected, superintending the work himself
+and at the same time securing for the institution an
+abundant supply of water. The Ursulines also received
+ample evidence of his goodwill and friendship. He was
+greatly pleased with their Seminaire Sauvage (Indian
+seminary), where they displayed an unceasing zeal for
+the instruction and civilization of the little red-skinned
+girls. The Jesuit Relation of 1671 mentions the baptism
+of an Indian girl with her mother. Talon wished to be
+godfather and asked Madame d'Ailleboust to act as godmother.
+Laval officiated. In 1671 the Ursulines had fifty Indian
+girls in their Seminaire Sauvage, and in Montreal the
+Sulpicians and the Sisters of the Congregation, as already
+narrated, were devoting themselves to the Indian children.
+In this good work the intendant was greatly interested.
+He rejoiced in educational progress, as is shown by the
+following from one of his letters to the king:
+
+   The Canadian youth are improving their knowledge. They
+   take to schools for sciences, arts, handicrafts, and
+   especially navigation; and if the movement is sustained
+   there is every reason to hope that this country will
+   produce mariners, fishermen, seamen, and skilled
+   workmen; for the youth here are naturally inclined to
+   these pursuits. The Sieur de Saint-Martin (a lay
+   brother at the Jesuits), who knows enough mathematics,
+   is going to give lessons at my request.
+
+New France at this time was prosperous and happy. 'Peace
+reigns within as well as without the colony,' wrote Talon
+at the end of the year 1671. There was work and activity
+on all sides. New settlements were opened, new families
+were founded, new industries were born. No wonder that
+Talon, when he reflected on what had been achieved in
+seven years, should have written: 'This portion of the
+French monarchy is going to become something great.'
+
+Unfortunately his activities and service in Canada were
+nearing their end. His health was breaking down. Louis
+XIV had promised that he should be relieved from his
+arduous task in two years. Talon reminded his royal master
+of this promise, and on May 17, 1672, the king was pleased
+to give him permission to come home. Courcelle had asked
+for his own recall; his request was also granted and the
+Comte de Frontenac was named in his stead. No intendant
+was appointed to fill Talon's place. At the beginning of
+September 1672, while Talon had still two months to serve,
+Frontenac arrived in Quebec to take up his duties as the
+sole executive head of the colony. [Footnote: Another
+volume of this Series, The Fighting Governor, tells of
+what happened in New France in Frontenac's time.]
+
+One of Talon's last official acts was the allotment,
+under authority of a decree of the King's Council of
+State, of a large number of seigneuries--a matter of the
+highest importance for the development of the colony. He
+set himself to the task with his usual activity and
+earnestness. From October 10 to November 8 he authorized
+about sixty seigneurial concessions to officers and others
+desirous of forming settlements. In one day alone (November
+3) he made thirty-one grants. The autumn of 1672, during
+which all these seigneuries were created, should be
+remembered in the history of New France. Before Talon,
+it is true, seigneurial grants had been made in Canada,
+but only intermittently and without any preconceived plan
+or well-defined object. Now it was quite different. The
+grants made by Talon, and the way in which they were
+made, show clearly the execution of a well thought-out
+scheme. If Talon was not the founder he was the organizer
+of the seigneurial institution in Canada. The object was
+twofold--to protect and to colonize the country. By his
+concessions to Sorel, Chambly, Varennes, Saint-Ours,
+Contrecoeur--all officers of the Carignan regiment--he
+created so many little military colonies whose population
+would be composed chiefly of disbanded soldiers. These,
+being warriors as well as farmers, would be a strong
+barrier against possible Iroquois incursions. His second
+object, to stimulate colonization in general, was
+anticipated by a provision--inserted in each grant--that
+the seigneurs should live on their domains, and that
+their tenants should do the same; this would mean the
+planting of many new settlements on both shores of the
+St Lawrence. It was a sound policy. For over a century
+the seigneurial system was to Canada a source of strength
+and progress. [Footnote: This view is fully sustained
+by Prof. W. B. Munro of Harvard University, who has made
+an exhaustive study of the subject. The reader is referred
+to the narrative of The Seigneurs of Old Canada in the
+present Series, written by him.] Its organization was
+the crowning work of the intendant Talon in New France.
+
+Talon's task was over. He had happily fulfilled his
+mission. He had set government and justice upon a foundation
+which was to last until the fall of the old regime. He
+had given a mighty impulse to agriculture, colonization,
+trade, industry, naval construction. He had encouraged
+educational and charitable institutions, created new
+centres of population, strengthened the frontiers of
+Canada, and, with admirable forethought, had prepared
+the way for the future extension and growth of the colony.
+He has had his critics. The word paternalism has been
+used to describe the system carried out by him and by
+Colbert. He has been accused of having too willingly
+substituted governmental action for individual activity.
+But, taking into consideration the time and circumstances,
+such criticism is not justified. When Talon came to
+Canada, the colony was dying. A policy of ensuring
+protection, of liberal and continuous subvention, of
+intelligent state initiative, was a necessity of the
+hour. Everywhere ground had to be broken, and the government
+alone could do it. The policy of Colbert and Talon saved
+the colony.
+
+The great intendant left Canada in November 1672. It was
+a mournful day for New France. In recognition of his
+services the king had made a barony of his estate, 'des
+Islets,' and had created him Baron des Islets. Later on
+he became Comte d'Orsainville. He had previously been
+appointed Captain of the Mariemont Castle.
+
+Talon never came back to Canada. Louis XIV and Colbert
+received him with expressions of the greatest satisfaction.
+After a time he became premier valet de la garde-robe du
+roi (first valet of the king's wardrobe), and finally he
+attained the coveted office of secretary of the king's
+cabinet. He died on November 24, 1694, at the age of
+about sixty-nine years, twenty-two years after his
+departure from Canada.
+
+Jean Talon is one of the great names in Canadian
+history--the name of one of the makers of Canada.
+
+
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE
+
+The author's larger work, 'Jean Talon, Intendant de la
+Nouvelle France', is the principal source of information
+for the foregoing narrative. Consult also Parkman, 'The
+Old Regime in Canada'; Colby, 'Canadian Types of the Old
+Regime'; Kingsford, 'The History of Canada', vol. i.;
+the chapters, 'The Colony in its Political Relations'
+and 'The Colony in its Economic Relations,' by Adam Shortt
+and Thomas Chapais, in 'Canada and its Provinces', vol. ii.
+
+
+
+
+
+END
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Great Intendant, by Thomas Chapais
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