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diff --git a/49467-8.txt b/49467-0.txt index 0ac8498..2f1bd8e 100644 --- a/49467-8.txt +++ b/49467-0.txt @@ -1,36 +1,4 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Radiation, by P. Phillips - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Radiation - -Author: P. Phillips - -Release Date: July 17, 2015 [EBook #49467] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK RADIATION *** - - - - -Produced by Al Haines - - - - - - - - +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 49467 *** RADIATION @@ -768,8 +736,8 @@ of that period and therefore absorb their energy. +Spectrum of the Sun.+--One of the most interesting examples of the absorption by incandescent gases of their own characteristic lines is provided by the sun. The spectrum of the sun is crossed by a large -number of fine dark lines which were mapped out by Fraunhöfer and are -therefore called Fraunhöfer lines. These lines are found to be in the +number of fine dark lines which were mapped out by Fraunhöfer and are +therefore called Fraunhöfer lines. These lines are found to be in the position of the characteristic lines of a number of known elements, {36} and therefore we assume that these elements are present in the sun. The interior of the sun is liquid or solid owing to the pressure @@ -781,8 +749,8 @@ so produce the dark lines in the spectrum. The spectra of stars show similar characters to those of the sun, and therefore we assume them to be in the same condition as the sun. -The spectra of nebulæ consist only of bright lines, and we therefore -assume that nebulæ consist of incandescent masses of gas which have not +The spectra of nebulæ consist only of bright lines, and we therefore +assume that nebulæ consist of incandescent masses of gas which have not yet cooled enough to have liquid or solid nuclei. @@ -958,7 +926,7 @@ Since the absorbing power of tourmaline is different for the two components, the emissive power should also be different, and that component which was most absorbed should be radiated most strongly. This was found to be true by Kirchoff himself, who detected and roughly -measured the polarised light emitted. Subsequently in 1902, Pflüger +measured the polarised light emitted. Subsequently in 1902, Pflüger carried out exact experiments which gave a beautiful confirmation of the law. @@ -997,7 +965,7 @@ scattered together make 100 per cent. One form in which such radiators have been used is shown in section in Fig. 22. A double walled cylindrical vessel of brass has a small hole, _a_, in one end. Steam can be passed through the space between the -double walls, thus keeping the temperature of the inner surface at 100° +double walls, thus keeping the temperature of the inner surface at 100° C. A screen with a hole in it just opposite to the hole in the vessel, or rather several such screens, are placed in front of the vessel in order to shield any measuring instrument from any radiation except that @@ -1036,7 +1004,7 @@ temperature between the thermometer and its surroundings, and as early as 1740 Martine had found that it was only true for a very limited range of temperature. -+Prévost's Theory of Exchanges.+--In 1792, Prévost of Geneva, when ++Prévost's Theory of Exchanges.+--In 1792, Prévost of Geneva, when endeavouring to explain the supposed radiation of cold, introduced the line of thought, that any body is not to be regarded as radiating heat only when its temperature is falling, or absorbing heat only when its @@ -1046,7 +1014,7 @@ the temperature and character of the body itself, while the amount absorbed will depend upon the condition of the surroundings as well as upon the nature {47} of the body. If the amount of heat radiated is greater than the amount absorbed the body will fall in temperature, and -_vice-versa_. This view of Prévost's is called the Theory of +_vice-versa_. This view of Prévost's is called the Theory of Exchanges, and we can see that it is a necessary consequence of our ideas as to the production of heat and light waves by the agitation of electrons in the radiating body. @@ -1089,7 +1057,7 @@ the rate ET(sup)4. Stefan's fourth power law has been verified by a number of good -experiments, notably those of Lummer and Pringsheim (_Congrés +experiments, notably those of Lummer and Pringsheim (_Congrés International de Physique_, Vol. II. p. 78), so that although some experiments do not agree with it, we are probably justified in taking it as correct. @@ -1109,7 +1077,7 @@ may be readily observed by the eye. {49} As the temperature of a full radiator rises it first gives out only -invisible heat waves; as soon as its temperature exceeds about 500° C. +invisible heat waves; as soon as its temperature exceeds about 500° C. it begins to emit some of the longest visible rays; and as the temperature rises further, more and more of the visible rays in the spectrum are emitted until, when the radiator is white hot, the whole @@ -1172,7 +1140,7 @@ the most striking manner by experiments carried out by Rubens and Kurlbaum (_Ann. der Physik_, 4, p. 649, 1901). They measured the energy in a particular wave-length (.0051 cms., _i.e._ nearly 100 times the wave-length of red light) in the radiation of a full radiator from -a temperature of 85° up to 1773° absolute, and their results are given +a temperature of 85° up to 1773° absolute, and their results are given in the following table: @@ -1249,8 +1217,8 @@ temperature, and therefore its temperature would be the fourth root of radiating or absorbing power of the earth's surface be taken as 9/10, which is somewhere near the mark, {54} the calculation gives the number 21.5 instead of 20.8. The average temperature of the earth's surface -is probably about 17° C. or 290° absolute, and therefore the -temperature of the sun is 290 x 21.5, _i.e._ about 6200° absolute. +is probably about 17° C. or 290° absolute, and therefore the +temperature of the sun is 290 x 21.5, _i.e._ about 6200° absolute. It is easy to see that if we had known the temperature of the sun and not of the earth, we could have calculated that of the earth by @@ -1268,28 +1236,28 @@ from the sun. The temperatures calculated in this way are-- Average Absolute Temperature - Mercury . . . . . . . . . 467° - Venus . . . . . . . . . . 342° - Earth . . . . . . . . . . 290° - Mars . . . . . . . . . . 235° + Mercury . . . . . . . . . 467° + Venus . . . . . . . . . . 342° + Earth . . . . . . . . . . 290° + Mars . . . . . . . . . . 235° -Since the freezing point of water is 273° absolute, we see that the -average temperature of Mars is 38° C. below freezing, and it is almost +Since the freezing point of water is 273° absolute, we see that the +average temperature of Mars is 38° C. below freezing, and it is almost certain that no part of Mars ever gets above freezing point. In a very similar way we may find the temperature to which a non-conducting surface reaches when it is exposed to full sunlight by equating the heat absorbed to the heat radiated, and the result comes -{55} to 412° absolute, _i.e._ 139° C., or considerably above boiling +{55} to 412° absolute, _i.e._ 139° C., or considerably above boiling point. This would be the upper limit to the temperature of the surface of the moon at a point where the sun is at its zenith. On the surface of the earth the sunlight has had to pass through the atmosphere, and in perfectly bright sunshine it is estimated that only three-fifths of the heat is transmitted. Any surface is also radiating -out into surroundings which are at about 300° absolute. Taking into +out into surroundings which are at about 300° absolute. Taking into account these two facts, we find that the upper limit to a -non-conducting surface in full sunshine on the earth is about 365° +non-conducting surface in full sunshine on the earth is about 365° absolute, or only a few degrees less than the boiling point of water. +Effective Temperature of Space.+--The last problem we will attack by @@ -1305,8 +1273,8 @@ hemisphere would be five million times 94,000 times starlight, _i.e._ 470,000,000,000 times. The temperature of the sun is therefore the fourth root of this quantity times the effective temperature of space, _i.e._ about 700 times. Since the temperature of the sun is about -6200°, the temperature of space is a little under 10° absolute; _i.e._ -lower than -263° C. +6200°, the temperature of space is a little under 10° absolute; _i.e._ +lower than -263° C. {56} @@ -1314,12 +1282,12 @@ lower than -263° C. has its temperature raised or lowered while its pressure is kept uniform, for every one degree centigrade rise or fall its volume is increased or decreased by one two hundred and seventy-third of its -volume at freezing point, _i.e._ at 0° centigrade. If therefore it -continued in the same way right down to -273° centigrade, its volume +volume at freezing point, _i.e._ at 0° centigrade. If therefore it +continued in the same way right down to -273° centigrade, its volume would be reduced to zero at this temperature. This temperature is therefore called the absolute zero of temperature, and temperatures reckoned from it are called absolute temperatures. To get absolute -temperatures from centigrade temperatures we evidently need to add 273°. +temperatures from centigrade temperatures we evidently need to add 273°. @@ -1342,7 +1310,7 @@ is for the absorbing body to be at a lower temperature than the radiating one, the waves given out by the absorber are longer than those given out by the radiator, and so the net result is the transformation of shorter waves into longer ones. But we have seen by -Prévost's theory of exchanges that radiator and absorber are +Prévost's theory of exchanges that radiator and absorber are interchangeable, and therefore we see that those waves which are emitted by the absorber and absorbed by the radiator are re-emitted by the latter as shorter waves. @@ -1372,7 +1340,7 @@ then show up a brilliant blue. A water solution of sulphate of quinine, made acid by a few drops of sulphuric acid, also exhibits a blue fluorescence, while a water -solution of æsculin (made by pouring hot water over some scraps of +solution of æsculin (made by pouring hot water over some scraps of horse-chestnut bark) shines with a brilliant blue light. Some lubricating oils fluoresce with a green light, as does also a @@ -2122,14 +2090,14 @@ sparking in the detector, although the distance was such that no sparking was produced without the reflectors. +Refraction.+--The refraction of the waves was {88} shown by means of a -large prism made of pitch. This had an angle of 30° and was about 1.5 +large prism made of pitch. This had an angle of 30° and was about 1.5 metres high and 1.2 metres broad. [Illustration: FIG. 32.] Setting it up as shown in plan in Fig. 32, strong sparking was produced in the detector, thus showing that the rays of electric waves were -deflected by 22° on passing through the prism. +deflected by 22° on passing through the prism. Moving the mirror and detector in either direction from the line LM, made the sparks decrease rapidly in intensity, so that the exact @@ -2272,7 +2240,7 @@ INDEX -- theory of, 60 Foucault, speed of light in different media, 17 Fourier's series of waves, 26, 30 - Fraunhöfer lines, 35 + Fraunhöfer lines, 35 Full radiator and absorber, 44, 45 @@ -2311,7 +2279,7 @@ INDEX Nicholls and Hull, pressure of light, 64, 68 - PFLÜGER, emission from tourmaline, 43 + PFLÃœGER, emission from tourmaline, 43 Phase, 22 Phosphorescence, 59 -- chemical theory of, 61 @@ -2325,7 +2293,7 @@ INDEX -- on fine dust, 69 -- on comets' tails, 69 -- three effects of in astronomy, 70 - Prévost, Theory of Exchanges, 46 + Prévost, Theory of Exchanges, 46 RADIATING power, 38 @@ -2355,7 +2323,7 @@ INDEX -- analysis, 34 -- emission and absorption, 34 -- sun, 35 - -- stars and nebulæ, 36 + -- stars and nebulæ, 36 -- and temperature, 48 Stationary waves, 88 Stefan, law of radiation, 47 @@ -2414,7 +2382,7 @@ fuller knowledge of plant life."--_Notes and Queries_. 10. +HEREDITY+. By J. A. S. WATSON, B.Sc. "Accurate, and written in a simple manner which will stimulate those -who are interested to wider reading."--_Athenæum_. +who are interested to wider reading."--_Athenæum_. 12. +ORGANIC CHEMISTRY+. @@ -2438,7 +2406,7 @@ Royal Observatory, Greenwich. "Will convey to the attentive reader an enormous amount of information in a small space, being clear and abreast of current knowledge."--_The -Athenæum_. +Athenæum_. 26. +HENRI BERGSON: THE PHILOSOPHY OF CHANGE+. By H. WILDON CARR. @@ -2511,7 +2479,7 @@ THE SECOND DOZEN VOLUMES (Ready) 54. +FRANCIS BACON+. By Professor A. R. SKEMP, M.A. -55. +THE BRONTËS+. By Miss FLORA MASSON. +55. +THE BRONTËS+. By Miss FLORA MASSON. 60. +A DICTIONARY OF SYNONYMS+. By AUSTIN K. GRAY, B.A. @@ -2536,363 +2504,4 @@ _List of other Volumes in Preparation may be had_. End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Radiation, by P. 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Phillips @@ -128,42 +128,7 @@ img.imgcenter { margin-left: auto; </head> <body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Radiation, by P. Phillips - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Radiation - -Author: P. Phillips - -Release Date: July 17, 2015 [EBook #49467] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK RADIATION *** - - - - -Produced by Al Haines - - - - - -</pre> - +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 49467 ***</div> <h1> <br /><br /><br /> @@ -1397,7 +1362,7 @@ examples of the absorption by incandescent gases of their own characteristic lines is provided by the sun. The spectrum of the sun is crossed by a large number of fine dark lines which were mapped out by -Fraunhöfer and are therefore called Fraunhöfer lines. +Fraunhöfer and are therefore called Fraunhöfer lines. These lines are found to be in the position of the characteristic lines of a number of known elements, <span class="pagenum">{<a id="P36"></a>36}</span> @@ -1418,8 +1383,8 @@ in the same condition as the sun. </p> <p> -The spectra of nebulæ consist only of bright lines, -and we therefore assume that nebulæ consist of +The spectra of nebulæ consist only of bright lines, +and we therefore assume that nebulæ consist of incandescent masses of gas which have not yet cooled enough to have liquid or solid nuclei. </p> @@ -1692,7 +1657,7 @@ also be different, and that component which was most absorbed should be radiated most strongly. This was found to be true by Kirchoff himself, who detected and roughly measured the polarised light -emitted. Subsequently in 1902, Pflüger carried out +emitted. Subsequently in 1902, Pflüger carried out exact experiments which gave a beautiful confirmation of the law. </p> @@ -1752,7 +1717,7 @@ is shown in section in Fig. 22. A double walled cylindrical vessel of brass has a small hole, <i>a</i>, in one end. Steam can be passed through the space between the double walls, thus keeping the temperature -of the inner surface at 100° C. +of the inner surface at 100° C. A screen with a hole in it just opposite to the hole in the vessel, or rather several @@ -1814,7 +1779,7 @@ true for a very limited range of temperature. </p> <p> -<b>Prévost's Theory of Exchanges.</b>—In 1792, Prévost +<b>Prévost's Theory of Exchanges.</b>—In 1792, Prévost of Geneva, when endeavouring to explain the supposed radiation of cold, introduced the line of thought, that any body is not to be regarded as radiating heat only @@ -1828,7 +1793,7 @@ condition of the surroundings as well as upon the nature <span class="pagenum">{<a id="P47"></a>47}</span> of the body. If the amount of heat radiated is greater than the amount absorbed the body will fall in -temperature, and <i>vice-versa</i>. This view of Prévost's is +temperature, and <i>vice-versa</i>. This view of Prévost's is called the Theory of Exchanges, and we can see that it is a necessary consequence of our ideas as to the production of heat and light waves by the agitation @@ -1895,7 +1860,7 @@ radiate it at the rate ET<sup>4</sup>. <p> Stefan's fourth power law has been verified by a number of good experiments, notably those of -Lummer and Pringsheim (<i>Congrés International de +Lummer and Pringsheim (<i>Congrés International de Physique</i>, Vol. II. p. 78), so that although some experiments do not agree with it, we are probably justified in taking it as correct. @@ -1927,7 +1892,7 @@ change may be readily observed by the eye. <p> As the temperature of a full radiator rises it first gives out only invisible heat waves; as soon as its -temperature exceeds about 500° C. it begins to emit +temperature exceeds about 500° C. it begins to emit some of the longest visible rays; and as the temperature rises further, more and more of the visible rays in the spectrum are emitted @@ -2042,7 +2007,7 @@ Kurlbaum (<i>Ann. der Physik</i>, 4, p. 649, 1901). They measured the energy in a particular wave-length (.0051 cms., <i>i.e.</i> nearly 100 times the wave-length of red light) in the radiation of a full radiator from -a temperature of 85° up to 1773° absolute, and their +a temperature of 85° up to 1773° absolute, and their results are given in the following table: </p> @@ -2148,9 +2113,9 @@ be taken as 9/10, which is somewhere near the mark, <span class="pagenum">{<a id="P54"></a>54}</span> the calculation gives the number 21.5 instead of 20.8. The average temperature of the earth's surface is -probably about 17° C. or 290° absolute, and therefore +probably about 17° C. or 290° absolute, and therefore the temperature of the sun is 290 x 21.5, <i>i.e.</i> about -6200° absolute. +6200° absolute. </p> <p> @@ -2177,15 +2142,15 @@ The temperatures calculated in this way are— Average Absolute Temperature - Mercury . . . . . . . . . 467° - Venus . . . . . . . . . . 342° - Earth . . . . . . . . . . 290° - Mars . . . . . . . . . . 235° + Mercury . . . . . . . . . 467° + Venus . . . . . . . . . . 342° + Earth . . . . . . . . . . 290° + Mars . . . . . . . . . . 235° </pre> <p> -Since the freezing point of water is 273° absolute, -we see that the average temperature of Mars is 38° C. below +Since the freezing point of water is 273° absolute, +we see that the average temperature of Mars is 38° C. below freezing, and it is almost certain that no part of Mars ever gets above freezing point. </p> @@ -2196,7 +2161,7 @@ to which a non-conducting surface reaches when it is exposed to full sunlight by equating the heat absorbed to the heat radiated, and the result comes <span class="pagenum">{<a id="P55"></a>55}</span> -to 412° absolute, <i>i.e.</i> 139° C., or considerably above +to 412° absolute, <i>i.e.</i> 139° C., or considerably above boiling point. This would be the upper limit to the temperature of the surface of the moon at a point where the sun is at its zenith. @@ -2207,10 +2172,10 @@ On the surface of the earth the sunlight has had to pass through the atmosphere, and in perfectly bright sunshine it is estimated that only three-fifths of the heat is transmitted. Any surface is also radiating -out into surroundings which are at about 300° +out into surroundings which are at about 300° absolute. Taking into account these two facts, we find that the upper limit to a non-conducting surface -in full sunshine on the earth is about 365° absolute, +in full sunshine on the earth is about 365° absolute, or only a few degrees less than the boiling point of water. </p> @@ -2234,9 +2199,9 @@ five million times 94,000 times starlight, <i>i.e.</i> 470,000,000,000 times. The temperature of the sun is therefore the fourth root of this quantity times the effective temperature of space, <i>i.e.</i> about 700 times. -Since the temperature of the sun is about 6200°, the -temperature of space is a little under 10° absolute; -<i>i.e.</i> lower than -263° C. +Since the temperature of the sun is about 6200°, the +temperature of space is a little under 10° absolute; +<i>i.e.</i> lower than -263° C. </p> <p> @@ -2249,14 +2214,14 @@ if a gas such as air has its temperature raised or lowered while its pressure is kept uniform, for every one degree centigrade rise or fall its volume is increased or decreased by one two hundred and seventy-third -of its volume at freezing point, <i>i.e.</i> at 0° centigrade. +of its volume at freezing point, <i>i.e.</i> at 0° centigrade. If therefore it continued in the same way right down -to -273° centigrade, its volume would be reduced to +to -273° centigrade, its volume would be reduced to zero at this temperature. This temperature is therefore called the absolute zero of temperature, and temperatures reckoned from it are called absolute temperatures. To get absolute temperatures from -centigrade temperatures we evidently need to add 273°. +centigrade temperatures we evidently need to add 273°. </p> <p><br /><br /><br /></p> @@ -2289,7 +2254,7 @@ temperature than the radiating one, the waves given out by the absorber are longer than those given out by the radiator, and so the net result is the transformation of shorter waves into longer ones. But we -have seen by Prévost's theory of exchanges that +have seen by Prévost's theory of exchanges that radiator and absorber are interchangeable, and therefore we see that those waves which are emitted by the absorber and absorbed by the radiator are re-emitted @@ -2334,7 +2299,7 @@ brilliant blue. <p> A water solution of sulphate of quinine, made acid by a few drops of sulphuric acid, also exhibits a blue -fluorescence, while a water solution of æsculin (made +fluorescence, while a water solution of æsculin (made by pouring hot water over some scraps of horse-chestnut bark) shines with a brilliant blue light. </p> @@ -3537,7 +3502,7 @@ sparking was produced without the reflectors. <b>Refraction.</b>—The refraction of the waves was <span class="pagenum">{<a id="P88"></a>88}</span> shown by means of a large prism made of pitch. -This had an angle of 30° and was about 1.5 metres +This had an angle of 30° and was about 1.5 metres high and 1.2 metres broad. </p> @@ -3552,7 +3517,7 @@ FIG. 32. Setting it up as shown in plan in Fig. 32, strong sparking was produced in the detector, thus showing that the rays of electric waves were deflected by -22° on passing through the prism. +22° on passing through the prism. </p> <p> @@ -3763,7 +3728,7 @@ INDEX — theory of, <a href="#P60">60</a> Foucault, speed of light in different media, <a href="#P17">17</a> Fourier's series of waves, <a href="#P26">26</a>, <a href="#P30">30</a> - Fraunhöfer lines, <a href="#P35">35</a> + Fraunhöfer lines, <a href="#P35">35</a> Full radiator and absorber, <a href="#P44">44</a>, <a href="#P45">45</a> @@ -3802,7 +3767,7 @@ INDEX Nicholls and Hull, pressure of light, <a href="#P64">64</a>, <a href="#P68">68</a> - PFLÜGER, emission from tourmaline, <a href="#P43">43</a> + PFLÃœGER, emission from tourmaline, <a href="#P43">43</a> Phase, <a href="#P22">22</a> Phosphorescence, <a href="#P59">59</a> — chemical theory of, <a href="#P61">61</a> @@ -3816,7 +3781,7 @@ INDEX — on fine dust, <a href="#P69">69</a> — on comets' tails, <a href="#P69">69</a> — three effects of in astronomy, <a href="#P70">70</a> - Prévost, Theory of Exchanges, <a href="#P46">46</a> + Prévost, Theory of Exchanges, <a href="#P46">46</a> RADIATING power, <a href="#P38">38</a> @@ -3846,7 +3811,7 @@ INDEX — analysis, <a href="#P34">34</a> — emission and absorption, <a href="#P34">34</a> — sun, <a href="#P35">35</a> - — stars and nebulæ, <a href="#P36">36</a> + — stars and nebulæ, <a href="#P36">36</a> — and temperature, <a href="#P48">48</a> Stationary waves, <a href="#P88">88</a> Stefan, law of radiation, <a href="#P47">47</a> @@ -3932,7 +3897,7 @@ of plant life."—<i>Notes and Queries</i>. <p> "Accurate, and written in a simple manner which will stimulate those -who are interested to wider reading."—<i>Athenæum</i>. +who are interested to wider reading."—<i>Athenæum</i>. </p> <p><br /></p> @@ -3975,7 +3940,7 @@ F.R.A.S., of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. <p> "Will convey to the attentive reader an enormous amount of information in a small space, -being clear and abreast of current knowledge."—<i>The Athenæum</i>. +being clear and abreast of current knowledge."—<i>The Athenæum</i>. </p> <p><br /></p> @@ -4121,7 +4086,7 @@ THE SECOND DOZEN VOLUMES (Ready) </p> <p class="noindent"> -55. <b>THE BRONTËS</b>. By Miss FLORA MASSON. +55. <b>THE BRONTËS</b>. By Miss FLORA MASSON. </p> <p class="noindent"> @@ -4147,385 +4112,7 @@ THE SECOND DOZEN VOLUMES (Ready) <p><br /><br /><br /><br /></p> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Radiation, by P. Phillips - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK RADIATION *** - -***** This file should be named 49467-h.htm or 49467-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/9/4/6/49467/ - -Produced by Al Haines -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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