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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/4890.txt b/4890.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3c37621 --- /dev/null +++ b/4890.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2213 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook The Life of John of Barneveld, 1609-14 +#90 in our series by John Lothrop Motley + +Copyright laws are changing all over the world. Be sure to check the +copyright laws for your country before downloading or redistributing +this or any other Project Gutenberg eBook. + +This header should be the first thing seen when viewing this Project +Gutenberg file. Please do not remove it. Do not change or edit the +header without written permission. + +Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the +eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**EBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These EBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers***** + + +Title: The Life of John of Barneveld, 1609-14 + +Author: John Lothrop Motley + +Release Date: January, 2004 [EBook #4890] +[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule] +[This file was first posted on April 22, 2002] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + + + + + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LIFE OF JOHN OF BARNEVELD, 1609-14 *** + + + +This eBook was produced by David Widger + + +[NOTE: There is a short list of bookmarks, or pointers, at the end of the +file for those who may wish to sample the author's ideas before making an +entire meal of them. D.W.] + + + + + +THE LIFE AND DEATH of JOHN OF BARNEVELD, ADVOCATE OF HOLLAND + +WITH A VIEW OF THE PRIMARY CAUSES AND MOVEMENTS OF THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR + +By John Lothrop Motley, D.C.L., LL.D. + + + +MOTLEY'S HISTORY OF THE NETHERLANDS, Project Gutenberg Edition, Volume 90 + +The Life of John of Barneveld, v5, 1609-14 + + +CHAPTER VI. + + Establishment of the Condominium in the Duchies--Dissensions between + the Neuburgers and Brandenburgers--Occupation of Julich by the + Brandenburgers assisted by the States-General--Indignation in Spain + and at the Court of the Archdukes--Subsidy despatched to Brussels + Spinola descends upon Aix-la-Chapelle and takes possession of Orsoy + and other places--Surrender of Wesel--Conference at Xanten--Treaty + permanently dividing the Territory between Brandenburg and Neuburg-- + Prohibition from Spain--Delays and Disagreements. + +Thus the 'Condominium' had been peaceably established. + +Three or four years passed away in the course of which the evils of a +joint and undivided sovereignty of two rival houses over the same +territory could not fail to manifest themselves. Brandenburg, Calvinist +in religion, and for other reasons more intimately connected with and +more favoured by the States' government than his rival, gained ground in +the duchies. The Palatine of Neuburg, originally of Lutheran faith like +his father, soon manifested Catholic tendencies, which excited suspicion +in the Netherlands. These suspicions grew into certainties at the moment +when he espoused the sister of Maximilian of Bavaria and of the Elector +of Cologne. That this close connection with the very heads of the +Catholic League could bode no good to the cause of which the States- +General were the great promoters was self-evident. Very soon afterwards +the Palatine, a man of mature age and of considerable talents, openly +announced his conversion to the ancient church. Obviously the sympathies +of the States could not thenceforth fail to be on the side of +Brandenburg. The Elector's brother died and was succeeded in the +governorship of the Condeminium by the Elector's brother, a youth of +eighteen. He took up his abode in Cleve, leaving Dusseldorf to be the +sole residence of his co-stadholder. + +Rivalry growing warmer, on account of this difference of religion, +between the respective partisans of Neuburg and Brandenburg, an attempt +was made in Dusseldorf by a sudden entirely unsuspected rising of the +Brandenburgers to drive their antagonist colleagues and their portion of +the garrison out of the city. It failed, but excited great anger. A +more successful effort was soon afterwards made in Julich; the Neuburgers +were driven out, and the Brandenburgers remained in sole possession of +the town and citadel, far the most important stronghold in the whole +territory. This was partly avenged by the Neuburgers, who gained +absolute control of Dusseldorf. Here were however no important +fortifications, the place being merely an agreeable palatial residence +and a thriving mart. The States-General, not concealing their +predilection for Brandenburg, but under pretext of guarding the peace +which they had done so much to establish, placed a garrison of 1400 +infantry and a troop or two of horse in the citadel of Julich. + +Dire was the anger not unjustly excited in Spain when the news of this +violation of neutrality reached that government. Julich, placed midway +between Liege and Cologne, and commanding those fertile plains which make +up the opulent duchy, seemed virtually converted into a province of the +detested heretical republic. The German gate of the Spanish Netherlands +was literally in the hands of its most formidable foe. + +The Spaniards about the court of the Archduke did not dissemble their +rage. The seizure of Julich was a stain upon his reputation, they cried. +Was it not enough, they asked, for the United Provinces to have made a +truce to the manifest detriment and discredit of Spain, and to have +treated her during all the negotiation with such insolence? Were they +now to be permitted to invade neutral territory, to violate public faith, +to act under no responsibility save to their own will? What was left for +them to do except to set up a tribunal in Holland for giving laws to the +whole of Northern Europe? Arrogating to themselves absolute power over +the controverted states of Cleve, Julich, and the dependencies, they now +pretended to dispose of them at their pleasure in order at the end +insolently to take possession of them for themselves. + +These were the egregious fruits of the truce, they said tauntingly to the +discomfited Archduke. It had caused a loss of reputation, the very soul +of empires, to the crown of Spain. And now, to conclude her abasement, +the troops in Flanders had been shaven down with such parsimony as to +make the monarch seem a shopkeeper, not a king. One would suppose the +obedient Netherlands to be in the heart of Spain rather than outlying +provinces surrounded by their deadliest enemies. The heretics had gained +possession of the government at Aix-la-Chapelle; they had converted the +insignificant town of Mulheim into a thriving and fortified town in +defiance of Cologne and to its manifest detriment, and in various other +ways they had insulted the Catholics throughout those regions. And who +could wonder at such insolence, seeing that the army in Flanders, +formerly the terror of heretics, had become since the truce so weak as to +be the laughing-stock of the United Provinces? If it was expensive to +maintain these armies in the obedient Netherlands, let there be economy +elsewhere, they urged. + +From India came gold and jewels. From other kingdoms came ostentation +and a long series of vain titles for the crown of Spain. Flanders was +its place of arms, its nursery of soldiers, its bulwark in Europe, and so +it should be preserved. + +There was ground for these complaints. The army at the disposition of +the Archduke had been reduced to 8000 infantry and a handful of cavalry. +The peace establishment of the Republic amounted to 20,000 foot, 3000 +horse, besides the French and English regiments. + +So soon as the news of the occupation of Julich was officially +communicated to the Spanish cabinet, a subsidy of 400,000 crowns was at +once despatched to Brussels. Levies of Walloons and Germans were made +without delay by order of Archduke Albert and under guidance of Spinola, +so that by midsummer the army was swollen to 18,000 foot and 3000 horse. +With these the great Genoese captain took the field in the middle of +August. On the 22nd of that month the army was encamped on some plains +mid-way between Maestricht and Aachen. There was profound mystery both +at Brussels and at the Hague as to the objective point of these military +movements. Anticipating an attack upon Julich, the States had meantime +strengthened the garrison of that important place with 3000 infantry and +a regiment of horse. It seemed scarcely probable therefore that Spinola +would venture a foolhardy blow at a citadel so well fortified and +defended. Moreover, there was not only no declaration of war, but strict +orders had been given by each of the apparent belligerents to their +military commanders to abstain from all offensive movements against the +adversary. And now began one of the strangest series of warlike +evolution's that were ever recorded. Maurice at the head of an army of +14,000 foot and 3000 horse manoeuvred in the neighbourhood of his great +antagonist and professional rival without exchanging a blow. It was a +phantom campaign, the prophetic rehearsal of dreadful marches and tragic +histories yet to be, and which were to be enacted on that very stage and +on still wider ones during a whole generation of mankind. That cynical +commerce in human lives which was to become one of the chief branches of +human industry in the century had already begun. + +Spinola, after hovering for a few days in the neighbourhood, descended +upon the Imperial city of Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle). This had been one of +the earliest towns in Germany to embrace the Reformed religion, and up to +the close of the sixteenth century the control of the magistracy had been +in the hands of the votaries of that creed. Subsequently the Catholics +had contrived to acquire and keep the municipal ascendency, secretly +supported by Archduke Albert, and much oppressing the Protestants with +imprisonments, fines, and banishment, until a new revolution which had +occurred in the year 1610, and which aroused the wrath of Spinola. +Certainly, according to the ideas of that day, it did not seem unnatural +in a city where a very large majority of the population were Protestants +that Protestants should have a majority in the town council. It seemed, +however, to those who surrounded the Archduke an outrage which could no +longer be tolerated, especially as a garrison of 600 Germans, supposed to +have formed part of the States' army, had recently been introduced into +the town. Aachen, lying mostly on an extended plain, had but very slight +fortifications, and it was commanded by a neighbouring range of hills. +It had no garrison but the 600 Germans. Spinola placed a battery or +two on the hills, and within three days the town surrendered. The +inhabitants expected a scene of carnage and pillage, but not a life was +lost. No injury whatever was inflicted on person or property, according +to the strict injunctions of the Archduke. The 600 Germans were driven +out, and 1200 other Germans then serving under Catholic banners were put +in their places to protect the Catholic minority, to whose keeping the +municipal government was now confided. + +Spinola, then entering the territory of Cleve, took session of Orsoy, an +important place on the Rhine, besides Duren, Duisburg, Kaster, +Greevenbroek and Berchem. Leaving garrisons in these places, he razed +the fortifications of Mulheim, much to the joy of the Archbishop and his +faithful subjects of Cologne, then crossed the Rhine at Rheinberg, and +swooped down upon Wesel. This flourishing and prosperous city had +formerly belonged to the Duchy of Cleve. Placed at the junction of the +Rhine and Lippe and commanding both rivers, it had become both powerful +and Protestant, and had set itself up as a free Imperial city, +recognising its dukes no longer as sovereigns, but only as protectors. +So fervent was it in the practice of the Reformed religion that it was +called the Rhenish Geneva, the cradle of German Calvinism. So important +was its preservation considered to the cause of Protestantism that the +States-General had urged its authorities to accept from them a garrison. +They refused. Had they complied, the city would have been saved, because +it was the rule in this extraordinary campaign that the belligerents made +war not upon each other, nor in each others territory, but against +neutrals and upon neutral soil. The Catholic forces under Spinola or his +lieutenants, meeting occasionally and accidentally with the Protestants +under Maurice or his generals, exchanged no cannon shots or buffets, but +only acts of courtesy; falling away each before the other, and each +ceding to the other with extreme politeness the possession of towns which +one had preceded the other in besieging. + +The citizens of Wesel were amazed at being attacked, considering +themselves as Imperial burghers. They regretted too late that they had +refused a garrison from Maurice, which would have prevented Spinola from +assailing them. They had now nothing for it but to surrender, which they +did within three days. The principal condition of the capitulation was +that when Julich should be given up by the States Wesel should be +restored to its former position. Spinola then took and garrisoned the +city of Xanten, but went no further. Having weakened his army +sufficiently by the garrisons taken from it for the cities captured by +him, he declined to make any demonstration upon the neighbouring and +important towns of Emmerich and Rees. The Catholic commander falling +back, the Protestant moved forward. Maurice seized both Emmerich and +Rees, and placed garrisons within them, besides occupying Goch, +Kranenburg, Gennip, and various places in the County of Mark. This +closed the amicable campaign. + +Spinola established himself and his forces near Wesel. The Prince +encamped near Rees. The two armies were within two hours' march of each +other. The Duke of Neuburg--for the Palatine had now succeeded on his +father's death to the ancestral dukedom and to his share of the +Condominium of the debateable provinces--now joined Spinola with an army +of 4000 foot and 400 horse. The young Prince of Brandenburg came to +Maurice with 800 cavalry and an infantry regiment of the Elector- +Palatine. + +Negotiations destined to be as spectral and fleeting as the campaign had +been illusory now began. The whole Protestant world was aflame with +indignation at the loss of Wesel. The States' government had already +proposed to deposit Julich in the hands of a neutral power if the +Archduke would abstain from military movements. But Albert, proud of +his achievements in Aachen, refused to pause in his career. Let them +make the deposit first, he said. + +Both belligerents, being now satiated with such military glory as could +flow from the capture of defenceless cities belonging to neutrals, agreed +to hold conferences at Xanten. To this town, in the Duchy of Cleve, and +midway between the rival camps, came Sir Henry Wotton and Sir Dudley +Carleton, ambassadors of Great Britain; de Refuge and de Russy, the +special and the resident ambassador of France at the Hague; Chancellor +Peter Pecquius and Counsellor Visser, to represent the Archdukes; seven +deputies from the United Provinces, three from the Elector of Cologne, +three from Brandenburg, three from Neuburg, and two from the Elector- +Palatine, as representative of the Protestant League. + +In the earlier conferences the envoys of the Archduke and of the Elector +of Cologne were left out, but they were informed daily of each step in +the negotiation. The most important point at starting was thought to be +to get rid of the 'Condominium.' There could be no harmony nor peace in +joint possession. The whole territory should be cut provisionally in +halves, and each possessory prince rule exclusively within the portion +assigned to him. There might also be an exchange of domain between the +two every six months. As for Wesel and Julich, they could remain +respectively in the hands then holding them, or the fortifications of +Julich might be dismantled and Wesel restored to the status quo. The +latter alternative would have best suited the States, who were growing +daily more irritated at seeing Wesel, that Protestant stronghold, with an +exclusively Calvinistic population, in the hands of Catholics. + +The Spanish ambassador at Brussels remonstrated, however, at the thought +of restoring his precious conquest, obtained without loss of time, money, +or blood, into the hands of heretics, at least before consultation with +the government at Madrid and without full consent of the King. + +"How important to your Majesty's affairs in Flanders," wrote Guadaleste +to Philip, "is the acquisition of Wesel may be seen by the manifest grief +of your enemies. They see with immense displeasure your royal ensigns +planted on the most important place on the Rhine, and one which would +become the chief military station for all the armies of Flanders to +assemble in at any moment. + +"As no acquisition could therefore be greater, so your Majesty should +never be deprived of it without thorough consideration of the case. The +Archduke fears, and so do his ministers, that if we refuse to restore +Wesel, the United Provinces would break the truce. For my part I +believe, and there are many who agree with me, that they would on the +contrary be more inclined to stand by the truce, hoping to obtain by +negotiation that which it must be obvious to them they cannot hope to +capture by force. But let Wesel be at once restored. Let that be done +which is so much desired by the United Provinces and other great enemies +and rivals of your Majesty, and what security will there be that the same +Provinces will not again attempt the same invasion? Is not the example +of Julich fresh? And how much more important is Wesel! Julich was after +all not situate on their frontiers, while Wesel lies at their principal +gates. Your Majesty now sees the good and upright intentions of those +Provinces and their friends. They have made a settlement between +Brandenburg and Neuburg, not in order to breed concord but confusion +between those two, not tranquillity for the country, but greater +turbulence than ever before. Nor have they done this with any other +thought than that the United Provinces might find new opportunities to +derive the same profit from fresh tumults as they have already done so +shamelessly from those which are past. After all I don't say that Wesel +should never be restored, if circumstances require it, and if your +Majesty, approving the Treaty of Xanten, should sanction the measure. +But such a result should be reached only after full consultation with +your Majesty, to whose glorious military exploits these splendid results +are chiefly owing." + +The treaty finally decided upon rejected the principle of alternate +possession, and established a permanent division of the territory in +dispute between Brandenburg and Neuburg. + +The two portions were to be made as equal as possible, and lots were to +be thrown or drawn by the two princes for the first choice. To the one +side were assigned the Duchy of Cleve, the County of Mark, and the +Seigniories of Ravensberg and Ravenstein, with some other baronies and +feuds in Brabant and Flanders; to the other the Duchies of Julich and +Berg with their dependencies. Each prince was to reside exclusively +within the territory assigned to him by lot. The troops introduced by +either party were to be withdrawn, fortifications made since the +preceding month of May to be razed, and all persons who had been +expelled, or who had emigrated, to be restored to their offices, +property, or benefices. It was also stipulated that no place within the +whole debateable territory should be put in the hands of a third power. + +These articles were signed by the ambassadors of France and England, by +the deputies of the Elector-Palatine and of the United Provinces, all +binding their superiors to the execution of the treaty. The arrangement +was supposed to refer to the previous conventions between those two +crowns, with the Republic, and the Protestant princes and powers. Count +Zollern, whom we have seen bearing himself so arrogantly as envoy from +the Emperor Rudolph to Henry IV., was now despatched by Matthias on as +fruitless a mission to the congress at Xanten, and did his best to +prevent the signature of the treaty, except with full concurrence of the +Imperial government. He likewise renewed the frivolous proposition that +the Emperor should hold all the provinces in sequestration until the +question of rightful sovereignty should be decided. The "proud and +haggard" ambassador was not more successful in this than in the +diplomatic task previously entrusted to him, and he then went to +Brussels, there to renew his remonstrances, menaces, and intrigues. + +For the treaty thus elaborately constructed, and in appearance a +triumphant settlement of questions so complicated and so burning as to +threaten to set Christendom at any moment in a blaze, was destined to an +impotent and most unsatisfactory conclusion. + +The signatures were more easily obtained than the ratifications. +Execution was surrounded with insurmountable difficulties which in +negotiation had been lightly skipped over at the stroke of a pen. +At the very first step, that of military evacuation, there was a stumble. +Maurice and Spinola were expected to withdraw their forces, and to +undertake to bring in no troops in the future, and to make no invasion of +the disputed territory. + +But Spinola construed this undertaking as absolute; the Prince as only +binding in consequence of, with reference to, and for the duration of; +the Treaty of Xanten. The ambassadors and other commissioners, disgusted +with the long controversy which ensued, were making up their minds to +depart when a courier arrived from Spain, bringing not a ratification but +strict prohibition of the treaty. The articles were not to be executed, +no change whatever was to be made, and, above all, Wesel was not to be +restored without fresh negotiations with Philip, followed by his explicit +concurrence. + +Thus the whole great negotiation began to dissolve into a shadowy, +unsatisfactory pageant. The solid barriers which were to imprison the +vast threatening elements of religious animosity and dynastic hatreds, +and to secure a peaceful future for Christendom, melted into films of +gossamer, and the great war of demons, no longer to be quelled by the +commonplaces of diplomatic exorcism, revealed its close approach. The +prospects of Europe grew blacker than ever. + +The ambassadors, thoroughly disheartened and disgusted, all took their +departure from Xanten, and the treaty remained rather a by-word than a +solution or even a suggestion. + +"The accord could not be prevented," wrote Archduke Albert to Philip, +"because it depended alone on the will of the signers. Nor can the +promise to restore Wesel be violated, should Julich be restored. Who can +doubt that such contravention would arouse great jealousies in France, +England, the United Provinces, and all the members of the heretic League +of Germany? Who can dispute that those interested ought to procure the +execution of the treaty? Suspicions will not remain suspicions, but they +light up the flames of public evil and disturbance. Either your Majesty +wishes to maintain the truce, in which case Wesel must be restored, or to +break the truce, a result which is certain if Wesel be retained. But the +reasons which induced your Majesty to lay down your arms remain the same +as ever. Our affairs are not looking better, nor is the requisition of +Wesel of so great importance as to justify our involving Flanders in a +new and more atrocious war than that which has so lately been suspended. +The restitution is due to the tribunal of public faith. It is a great +advantage when actions done for the sole end of justice are united to +that of utility. Consider the great successes we have had. How well the +affairs of Aachen and Mulbeim have been arranged; those of the Duke of +Neuburg how completely re-established. The Catholic cause, always +identical with that of the House of Austria, remains in great superiority +to the cause of the heretics. We should use these advantages well, and +to do so we should not immaturely pursue greater ones. Fortune changes, +flies when we most depend on her, and delights in making her chief sport +of the highest quality of mortals." + +Thus wrote the Archduke sensibly, honourably from his point of view, and +with an intelligent regard to the interests of Spain and the Catholic +cause. After months of delay came conditional consent from Madrid to the +conventions, but with express condition that there should be absolute +undertaking on the part of the United Provinces never to send or maintain +troops in the duchies. Tedious and futile correspondence followed +between Brussels, the Hague, London, Paris. But the difficulties grew +every moment. It was a Penelope's web of negotiation, said one of the +envoys. Amid pertinacious and wire-drawn subtleties, every trace of +practical business vanished. Neuburg departed to look after his +patrimonial estates; leaving his interests in the duchies to be watched +over by the Archduke. Even Count Zollern, after six months of wrangling +in Brussels, took his departure. Prince Maurice distributed his army in +various places within the debateable land, and Spinola did the same, +leaving a garrison of 3000 foot and 300 horse in the important city of +Wesel. The town and citadel of Julich were as firmly held by Maurice for +the Protestant cause. Thus the duchies were jointly occupied by the +forces of Catholicism and Protestantism, while nominally possessed and +administered by the princes of Brandenburg and Neuburg. And so they +were destined to remain until that Thirty Years' War, now so near its +outbreak, should sweep over the earth, and bring its fiery solution at +last to all these great debates. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + + Proud Position of the Republic--France obeys her--Hatred of Carleton + --Position and Character of Aerssens--Claim for the "Third"--Recall + of Aerssens--Rivalry between Maurice and Barneveld, who always + sustains the separate Sovereignties of the Provinces--Conflict + between Church and State added to other Elements of Discord in the + Commonwealth--Religion a necessary Element in the Life of all + Classes. + +Thus the Republic had placed itself in as proud a position as it was +possible for commonwealth or kingdom to occupy. It had dictated the +policy and directed the combined military movements of Protestantism. +It had gathered into a solid mass the various elements out of which +the great Germanic mutiny against Rome, Spain, and Austria had been +compounded. A breathing space of uncertain duration had come to +interrupt and postpone the general and inevitable conflict. +Meantime the Republic was encamped upon the enemy's soil. + +France, which had hitherto commanded, now obeyed. England, vacillating +and discontented, now threatening and now cajoling, saw for the time at +least its influence over the councils of the Netherlands neutralized by +the genius of the great statesman who still governed the Provinces, +supreme in all but name. The hatred of the British government towards +the Republic, while in reality more malignant than at any previous +period, could now only find vent in tremendous, theological pamphlets, +composed by the King in the form of diplomatic instructions, and hurled +almost weekly at the heads of the States-General, by his ambassador, +Dudley Carleton. + +Few men hated Barneveld more bitterly than did Carleton. I wish to +describe as rapidly, but as faithfully, as I can the outline at least of +the events by which one of the saddest and most superfluous catastrophes +in modern history was brought about. The web was a complex one, wrought +apparently of many materials; but the more completely it is unravelled +the more clearly we shall detect the presence of the few simple but +elemental fibres which make up the tissue of most human destinies, +whether illustrious or obscure, and out of which the most moving +pictures of human history are composed. + +The religious element, which seems at first view to be the all pervading +and controlling one, is in reality rather the atmosphere which surrounds +and colours than the essence which constitutes the tragedy to be +delineated. + +Personal, sometimes even paltry, jealousy; love of power, of money, of +place; rivalry between civil and military ambition for predominance in a +free state; struggles between Church and State to control and oppress +each other; conflict between the cautious and healthy, but provincial and +centrifugal, spirit on the one side, and the ardent centralizing, +imperial, but dangerous, instinct on the other, for ascendancy in a +federation; mortal combat between aristocracy disguised in the plebeian +form of trading and political corporations and democracy sheltering +itself under a famous sword and an ancient and illustrious name;--all +these principles and passions will be found hotly at work in the +melancholy five years with which we are now to be occupied, as they have +entered, and will always enter, into every political combination in the +great tragi-comedy which we call human history. As a study, a lesson, +and a warning, perhaps the fate of Barneveld is as deserving of serious +attention as most political tragedies of the last few centuries. + +Francis Aerssens, as we have seen, continued to be the Dutch ambassador +after the murder of Henry IV. Many of the preceding pages of this volume +have been occupied with his opinions, his pictures, his conversations, +and his political intrigues during a memorable epoch in the history of +the Netherlands and of France. He was beyond all doubt one of the ablest +diplomatists in Europe. Versed in many languages, a classical student, +familiar with history and international law, a man of the world and +familiar with its usages, accustomed to associate with dignity and tact +on friendliest terms with sovereigns, eminent statesmen, and men of +letters; endowed with a facile tongue, a fluent pen, and an eye and ear +of singular acuteness and delicacy; distinguished for unflagging industry +and singular aptitude for secret and intricate affairs;--he had by the +exercise of these various qualities during a period of nearly twenty +years at the court of Henry the Great been able to render inestimable +services to the Republic which he represented. Of respectable but not +distinguished lineage, not a Hollander, but a Belgian by birth, son of +Cornelis Aerssens, Grefter of the States-General, long employed in that +important post, he had been brought forward from a youth by Barneveld and +early placed by him in the diplomatic career, of which through his favour +and his own eminent talents he had now achieved the highest honours. + +He had enjoyed the intimacy and even the confidence of Henry IV., so far +as any man could be said to possess that monarch's confidence, and his +friendly relations and familiar access to the King gave him political +advantages superior to those of any of his colleagues at the same court. + +Acting entirely and faithfully according to the instructions of the +Advocate of Holland, he always gratefully and copiously acknowledged the +privilege of being guided and sustained in the difficult paths he had to +traverse by so powerful and active an intellect. I have seldom alluded +in terms to the instructions and despatches of the chief, but every +position, negotiation, and opinion of the envoy--and the reader has seen +many of them--is pervaded by their spirit. Certainly the correspondence +of Aerssens is full to overflowing of gratitude, respect, fervent +attachment to the person and exalted appreciation of the intellect and +high character of the Advocate. + +There can be no question of Aerssen's consummate abilities. Whether his +heart were as sound as his head, whether his protestations of devotion +had the ring of true gold or not, time would show. Hitherto Barneveld +had not doubted him, nor had he found cause to murmur at Barneveld. + +But the France of Henry IV., where the Dutch envoy was so all-powerful, +had ceased to exist. A duller eye than that of Aerssens could have seen +at a glance that the potent kingdom and firm ally of the Republic had +been converted, for a long time to come at least, into a Spanish +province. The double Spanish marriages (that of the young Louis XIII. +with the Infanta Anna, and of his sister with the Infante, one day to be +Philip IV.), were now certain, for it was to make them certain that the +knife of Ravaillac had been employed. The condition precedent to those +marriages had long been known. It was the renunciation of the alliance +between France and Holland. It was the condemnation to death, so far as +France had the power to condemn her to death, of the young Republic. Had +not Don Pedro de Toledo pompously announced this condition a year and a +half before? Had not Henry spurned the bribe with scorn? And now had +not Francis Aerssens been the first to communicate to his masters the +fruit which had already ripened upon Henry's grave? As we have seen, +he had revealed these intrigues long before they were known to the world, +and the French court knew that he had revealed them. His position had +become untenable. His friendship for Henry could not be of use to him +with the delicate-featured, double-chinned, smooth and sluggish +Florentine, who had passively authorized and actively profited by her +husband's murder. + +It was time for the Envoy to be gone. The Queen-Regent and Concini +thought so. And so did Villeroy and Sillery and the rest of the old +servants of the King, now become pensionaries of Spain. But Aerssens did +not think so. He liked his position, changed as it was. He was deep in +the plottings of Bouillon and Conde and the other malcontents against the +Queen-Regent. These schemes, being entirely personal, the rank growth of +the corruption and apparent disintegration of France, were perpetually +changing, and could be reduced to no principle. It was a mere struggle +of the great lords of France to wrest places, money, governments, +military commands from the Queen-Regent, and frantic attempts on her part +to save as much as possible of the general wreck for her lord and master +Concini. + +It was ridiculous to ascribe any intense desire on the part of the Duc de +Bouillon to aid the Protestant cause against Spain at that moment, acting +as he was in combination with Conde, whom we have just seen employed by +Spain as the chief instrument to effect the destruction of France and the +bastardy of the Queen's children. Nor did the sincere and devout +Protestants who had clung to the cause through good and bad report, men +like Duplessis-Mornay, for example, and those who usually acted with him, +believe in any of these schemes for partitioning France on pretence of +saving Protestantism. But Bouillon, greatest of all French fishermen in +troubled waters, was brother-in-law of Prince Maurice of Nassau, and +Aerssens instinctively felt that the time had come when he should anchor +himself to firm holding ground at home. + +The Ambassador had also a personal grievance. Many of his most secret +despatches to the States-General in which he expressed himself very +freely, forcibly, and accurately on the general situation in France, +especially in regard to the Spanish marriages and the Treaty of Hampton +Court, had been transcribed at the Hague and copies of them sent to the +French government. No baser act of treachery to an envoy could be +imagined. It was not surprising that Aerssens complained bitterly of the +deed. He secretly suspected Barneveld, but with injustice, of having +played him this evil turn, and the incident first planted the seeds of +the deadly hatred which was to bear such fatal fruit. + +"A notable treason has been played upon me," he wrote to Jacques de +Maldere, "which has outraged my heart. All the despatches which I have +been sending for several months to M. de Barneveld have been communicated +by copy in whole or in extracts to this court. Villeroy quoted from them +at our interview to-day, and I was left as it were without power of +reply. The despatches were long, solid, omitting no particularity for +giving means to form the best judgment of the designs and intrigues of +this court. No greater damage could be done to me and my usefulness. +All those from whom I have hitherto derived information, princes and +great personages, will shut themselves up from me . . . . What can be +more ticklish than to pass judgment on the tricks of those who are +governing this state? This single blow has knocked me down completely. +For I was moving about among all of them, making my profit of all, +without any reserve. M. de Barneveld knew by this means the condition of +this kingdom as well as I do. Certainly in a well-ordered republic it +would cost the life of a man who had thus trifled with the reputation of +an ambassador. I believe M. de Barneveld will be sorry, but this will +never restore to me the confidence which I have lost. If one was jealous +of my position at this court, certainly I deserved rather pity from those +who should contemplate it closely. If one wished to procure my downfall +in order to raise oneself above me, there was no need of these tricks. +I have been offering to resign my embassy this long time, which will now +produce nothing but thorns for me. How can I negotiate after my private +despatches have been read? L'Hoste, the clerk of Villeroy, was not so +great a criminal as the man who revealed my despatches; and L'Hoste was +torn by four horses after his death. Four months long I have been +complaining of this to M. de Barneveld. . . . Patience! I am +groaning without being able to hope for justice. I console myself, for +my term of office will soon arrive. Would that my embassy could have +finished under the agreeable and friendly circumstances with which it +began. The man who may succeed me will not find that this vile trick +will help him much . . . . Pray find out whence and from whom this +intrigue has come." + +Certainly an envoy's position could hardly be more utterly compromised. +Most unquestionably Aerssens had reason to be indignant, believing as he +did that his conscientious efforts in the service of his government had +been made use of by his chief to undermine his credit and blast his +character. There was an intrigue between the newly appointed French +minister, de Russy, at the Hague and the enemies of Aerssens to represent +him to his own government as mischievous, passionate, unreasonably +vehement in supporting the claims and dignity of his own country at the +court to which he was accredited. Not often in diplomatic history has +an ambassador of a free state been censured or removed for believing and +maintaining in controversy that his own government is in the right. It +was natural that the French government should be disturbed by the vivid +light which he had flashed upon their pernicious intrigues with Spain to +the detriment of the Republic, and at the pertinacity with which he +resisted their preposterous claim to be reimbursed for one-third of the +money which the late king had advanced as a free subsidy towards the war +of the Netherlands for independence. But no injustice could be more +outrageous than for the Envoy's own government to unite with the foreign +State in damaging the character of its own agent for the crime of +fidelity to itself. + +Of such cruel perfidy Aerssens had been the victim, and he most +wrongfully suspected his chief as its real perpetrator. + +The claim for what was called the "Third" had been invented after the +death of Henry. As already explained, the "Third" was not a gift from +England to the Netherlands. It was a loan from England to France, or +more properly a consent to abstain from pressing for payment for this +proportion of an old debt. James, who was always needy, had often +desired, but never obtained, the payment of this sum from Henry. Now +that the King was dead, he applied to the Regent's government, and the +Regent's government called upon the Netherlands, to pay the money. + +Aerssens, as the agent of the Republic, protested firmly against such +claim. The money had been advanced by the King as a free gift, as his +contribution to a war in which he was deeply interested, although he was +nominally at peace with Spain. As to the private arrangements between +France and England, the Republic, said the Dutch envoy, was in no sense +bound by them. He was no party to the Treaty of Hampton Court, and knew +nothing of its stipulations. + +Courtiers and politicians in plenty at the French court, now that Henry +was dead, were quite sure that they had heard him say over and over again +that the Netherlands had bound themselves to pay the Third. They +persuaded Mary de' Medici that she likewise had often heard him say so, +and induced her to take high ground on the subject in her interviews with +Aerssens. The luckless queen, who was always in want of money to satisfy +the insatiable greed of her favourites, and to buy off the enmity of the +great princes, was very vehement--although she knew as much of those +transactions as of the finances of Prester John or the Lama of Thibet +--in maintaining this claim of her government upon the States. + +"After talking with the ministers," said Aerssens, "I had an interview +with the Queen. I knew that she had been taught her lesson, to insist on +the payment of the Third. So I did not speak at all of the matter, but +talked exclusively and at length of the French regiments in the States' +service. She was embarrassed, and did not know exactly what to say. +At last, without replying a single word to what I had been saying, she +became very red in the face, and asked me if I were not instructed to +speak of the money due to England. Whereupon I spoke in the sense +already indicated. She interrupted me by saying she had a perfect +recollection that the late king intended and understood that we were to +pay the Third to England, and had talked with her very seriously on the +subject. If he were living, he would think it very strange, she said, +that we refused; and so on. + +"Soissons, too, pretends to remember perfectly that such were the King's +intentions. 'Tis a very strange thing, Sir. Every one knows now the +secrets of the late king, if you are willing to listen. Yet he was not +in the habit of taking all the world into his confidence. The Queen +takes her opinions as they give them to her. 'Tis a very good princess, +but I am sorry she is so ignorant of affairs. As she says she remembers, +one is obliged to say one believes her. But I, who knew the King so +intimately, and saw him so constantly, know that he could only have said +that the Third was paid in acquittal of his debts to and for account of +the King of England, and not that we were to make restitution thereof. +The Chancellor tells me my refusal has been taken as an affront by the +Queen, and Puysieux says it is a contempt which she can't swallow." + +Aerssens on his part remained firm; his pertinacity being the greater +as he thoroughly understood the subject which he was talking about, an +advantage which was rarely shared in by those with whom he conversed. +The Queen, highly scandalized by his demeanour, became from that time +forth his bitter enemy, and, as already stated, was resolved to be rid +of him. + +Nor was the Envoy at first desirous of remaining. He had felt after +Henry's death and Sully's disgrace, and the complete transformation of +the France which he had known, that his power of usefulness was gone. +"Our enemies," he said, "have got the advantage which I used to have in +times past, and I recognize a great coldness towards us, which is +increasing every day." Nevertheless, he yielded reluctantly to +Barneveld's request that he should for the time at least remain at his +post. Later on, as the intrigues against him began to unfold themselves, +and his faithful services were made use of at home to blacken his +character and procure his removal, he refused to resign, as to do so +would be to play into the hands of his enemies, and by inference at +least to accuse himself of infidelity to his trust. + +But his concealed rage and his rancor grew more deadly every day. He was +fully aware of the plots against him, although he found it difficult to +trace them to their source. + +"I doubt not," he wrote to Jacques de Maldere, the distinguished +diplomatist and senator, who had recently returned from his embassy to +England, "that this beautiful proposition of de Russy has been sent to +your Province of Zealand. Does it not seem to you a plot well woven as +well in Holland as at this court to remove me from my post with +disreputation? What have I done that should cause the Queen to +disapprove my proceedings? Since the death of the late king I have +always opposed the Third, which they have been trying to fix upon the +treasury, on the ground that Henry never spoke to me of restitution, that +the receipts given were simple ones, and that the money given was spent +for the common benefit of France and the States under direction of the +King's government. But I am expected here to obey M. de Villeroy, who +says that it was the intention of the late king to oblige us to make the +payment. I am not accustomed to obey authority if it be not supported by +reason. It is for my masters to reply and to defend me. The Queen has +no reason to complain. I have maintained the interests of my superiors. +But this is not the cause of the complaints. My misfortune is that all +my despatches have been sent from Holland in copy to this court. Most of +them contained free pictures of the condition and dealings of those who +govern here. M. de Villeroy has found himself depicted often, and now +under pretext of a public negotiation he has found an opportunity of +revenging himself . . . . Besides this cause which Villeroy has found +for combing my head, Russy has given notice here that I have kept my +masters in the hopes of being honourably exempted from the claims of this +government. The long letter which I wrote to M. de Barneveld justifies +my proceedings." + +It is no wonder that the Ambassador was galled to the quick by the +outrage which those concerned in the government were seeking to put +upon him. How could an honest man fail to be overwhelmed with rage +and anguish at being dishonoured before the world by his masters for +scrupulously doing his duty, and for maintaining the rights and dignity +of his own country? He knew that the charges were but pretexts, that the +motives of his enemies were as base as the intrigues themselves, but he +also knew that the world usually sides with the government against the +individual, and that a man's reputation is rarely strong enough to +maintain itself unsullied in a foreign land when his own government +stretches forth its hand not to, shield, but to stab him. + + [See the similarity of Aerssens position to that of Motley 250 years + later, in the biographical sketch of Motley by Oliver Wendell + Holmes. D.W.] + +"I know," he said, "that this plot has been woven partly in Holland and +partly here by good correspondence, in order to drive me from my post +with disreputation. To this has tended the communication of my +despatches to make me lose my best friends. This too was the object of +the particular imparting to de Russy of all my propositions, in order to +draw a complaint against me from this court. + +"But as I have discovered this accurately, I have resolved to offer to my +masters the continuance of my very humble service for such time and under +such conditions as they may think good to prescribe. I prefer forcing my +natural and private inclinations to giving an opportunity for the +ministers of this kingdom to discredit us, and to my enemies to succeed +in injuring me, and by fraud and malice to force me from my post . . . +I am truly sorry, being ready to retire, wishing to have an honourable +testimony in recompense of my labours, that one is in such hurry to take +advantage of my fall. I cannot believe that my masters wish to suffer +this. They are too prudent, and cannot be ignorant of the treachery +which has been practised on me. I have maintained their cause. If they +have chosen to throw down the fruits of my industry, the blame should be +imputed to those who consider their own ambition more than the interests +of the public . . . . What envoy will ever dare to speak with vigour +if he is not sustained by the government at home? . . . . . . +My enemies have misrepresented my actions, and my language as passionate, +exaggerated, mischievous, but I have no passion except for the service of +my superiors. They say that I have a dark and distrustful disposition, +but I have been alarmed at the alliance now forming here with the King of +Spain, through the policy of M. de Villeroy. I was the first to discover +this intrigue, which they thought buried in the bosom of the Triumvirate. +I gave notice of it to My Lords the States as in duty bound. It all came +back to the government in the copies furnished of my secret despatches. +This is the real source of the complaints against me. The rest of the +charges, relating to the Third and other matters, are but pretexts. +To parry the blow, they pretend that all that is said and done with the +Spaniard is but feigning. Who is going to believe that? Has not the +Pope intervened in the affair? . . . I tell you they are furious here +because I have my eyes open. I see too far into their affairs to suit +their purposes. A new man would suit them better." + +His position was hopelessly compromised. He remained in Paris, however, +month after month, and even year after year, defying his enemies both at +the Queen's court and in Holland, feeding fat the grudge he bore to +Barneveld as the supposed author of the intrigue against him, and drawing +closer the personal bands which united him to Bouillon and through him to +Prince Maurice. + +The wrath of the Ambassador flamed forth without disguise against +Barneveld and all his adherents when his removal, as will be related on +a subsequent page, was at last effected. And his hatred was likely to +be deadly. A man with a shrewd, vivid face, cleanly cut features and a +restless eye; wearing a close-fitting skull cap, which gave him something +the lock of a monk, but with the thoroughbred and facile demeanour of +one familiar with the world; stealthy, smooth, and cruel, a man coldly +intellectual, who feared no one, loved but few, and never forgot or +forgave; Francis d'Aerssens, devoured by ambition and burning with +revenge, was a dangerous enemy. + +Time was soon to show whether it was safe to injure him. Barneveld, from +well-considered motives of public policy, was favouring his honourable +recall. But he allowed a decorous interval of more than three years to +elapse in which to terminate his affairs, and to take a deliberate +departure from that French embassy to which the Advocate had originally +promoted him, and in which there had been so many years of mutual benefit +and confidence between the two statesmen. He used no underhand means. +He did not abuse the power of the States-General which he wielded to cast +him suddenly and brutally from the distinguished post which he occupied, +and so to attempt to dishonour him before the world. Nothing could be +more respectful and conciliatory than the attitude of the government from +first to last towards this distinguished functionary. The Republic +respected itself too much to deal with honourable agents whose services +it felt obliged to dispense with as with vulgar malefactors who had been +detected in crime. But Aerssens believed that it was the Advocate who +had caused copies of his despatches to be sent to the French court, and +that he had deliberately and for a fixed purpose been undermining his +influence at home and abroad and blackening his character. All his +ancient feelings of devotion, if they had ever genuinely existed towards +his former friend and patron, turned to gall. He was almost ready to +deny that he had ever respected Barneveld, appreciated his public +services, admired his intellect, or felt gratitude for his guidance. + +A fierce controversy--to which at a later period it will be necessary to +call the reader's attention, because it is intimately connected with dark +scenes afterwards to be enacted--took place between the late ambassador +and Cornelis van der Myle. Meantime Barneveld pursued the policy which +he had marked out for the States-General in regard to France. + +Certainly it was a difficult problem. There could be no doubt that +metamorphosed France could only be a dangerous ally for the Republic. +It was in reality impossible that she should be her ally at all. +And this Barneveld knew. Still it was better, so he thought, for the +Netherlands that France should exist than that it should fall into utter +decomposition. France, though under the influence of Spain, and doubly +allied by marriage contracts to Spain, was better than Spain itself in +the place of France. This seemed to be the only choice between two +evils. Should the whole weight of the States-General be thrown into the +scale of the malcontent and mutinous princes against the established but +tottering government of France, it was difficult to say how soon Spain +might literally, as well as inferentially, reign in Paris. + +Between the rebellion and the legitimate government, therefore, Barneveld +did not hesitate. France, corporate France, with which the Republic had +bean so long in close and mutually advantageous alliance, and from whose +late monarch she had received such constant and valuable benefits, was in +the Advocate's opinion the only power to be recognised, Papal and Spanish +though it was. The advantage of an alliance with the fickle, self- +seeking, and ever changing mutiny, that was seeking to make use of +Protestantism to effect its own ends, was in his eyes rather specious +than real. + +By this policy, while making the breach irreparable with Aerssens and as +many leading politicians as Aerssens could influence, he first brought on +himself the stupid accusation of swerving towards Spain. Dull murmurs +like these, which were now but faintly making themselves heard against +the reputation of the Advocate, were destined ere long to swell into a +mighty roar; but he hardly listened now to insinuations which seemed +infinitely below his contempt. He still effectually ruled the nation +through his influence in the States of Holland, where he reigned supreme. +Thus far Barneveld and My Lords the States-General were one personage. + +But there was another great man in the State who had at last grown +impatient of the Advocate's power, and was secretly resolved to brook it +no longer. Maurice of Nassau had felt himself too long rebuked by the +genius of the Advocate. The Prince had perhaps never forgiven him for +the political guardianship which he had exercised over him ever since the +death of William the Silent. He resented the leading strings by which +his youthful footstep had been sustained, and which he seemed always to +feel about his limbs so long as Barneveld existed. He had never +forgotten the unpalatable advice given to him by the Advocate through the +Princess-Dowager. + +The brief campaign in Cleve and Julich was the last great political +operation in which the two were likely to act in even apparent harmony. +But the rivalry between the two had already pronounced itself +emphatically during the negotiations for the truce. The Advocate had +felt it absolutely necessary for the Republic to suspend the war at the +first moment when she could treat with her ancient sovereign on a footing +of equality. Spain, exhausted with the conflict, had at last consented +to what she considered the humiliation of treating with her rebellious +provinces as with free states over which she claimed no authority. The +peace party, led by Barneveld, had triumphed, notwithstanding the steady +opposition of Prince Maurice and his adherents. + +Why had Maurice opposed the treaty? Because his vocation was over, +because he was the greatest captain of the age, because his emoluments, +his consideration, his dignity before the world, his personal power, were +all vastly greater in war than in his opinion they could possibly be in +peace. It was easy for him to persuade himself that what was manifestly +for his individual interest was likewise essential to the prosperity of +the country. + +The diminution in his revenues consequent on the return to peace was made +good to him, his brother, and his cousin, by most munificent endowments +and pensions. And it was owing to the strenuous exertions of the +Advocate that these large sums were voted. A hollow friendship was +kept up between the two during the first few years of the truce, +but resentment and jealousy lay deep in Maurice's heart. + +At about the period of the return of Aerssens from his French embassy, +the suppressed fire was ready to flame forth at the first fanning by that +artful hand. It was impossible, so Aerssens thought and whispered, that +two heads could remain on one body politic. There was no room in the +Netherlands for both the Advocate and the Prince. Barneveld was in all +civil affairs dictator, chief magistrate, supreme judge; but he occupied +this high station by the force of intellect, will, and experience, not +through any constitutional provision. In time of war the Prince was +generalissimo, commander-in-chief of all the armies of the Republic. +Yet constitutionally he was not captain-general at all. He was only +stadholder of five out of seven provinces. + +Barneveld suspected him of still wishing to make himself sovereign of the +country. Perhaps his suspicions were incorrect. Yet there was every +reason why Maurice should be ambitious of that position. It would have +been in accordance with the openly expressed desire of Henry IV. and +other powerful allies of the Netherlands. His father's assassination had +alone prevented his elevation to the rank of sovereign Count of Holland. +The federal policy of the Provinces had drifted into a republican form +after their renunciation of their Spanish sovereign, not because the +people, or the States as representing the people, had deliberately chosen +a republican system, but because they could get no powerful monarch to +accept the sovereignty. They had offered to become subjects of +Protestant England and of Catholic France. Both powers had refused the +offer, and refused it with something like contumely. However deep the +subsequent regret on the part of both, there was no doubt of the fact. +But the internal policy in all the provinces, and in all the towns, was +republican. Local self-government existed everywhere. Each city +magistracy was a little republic in itself. The death of William the +Silent, before he had been invested with the sovereign power of all seven +provinces, again left that sovereignty in abeyance. Was the supreme +power of the Union, created at Utrecht in 1579, vested in the States- +General? + +They were beginning theoretically to claim it, but Barneveld denied the +existence of any such power either in law or fact. It was a league of +sovereignties, he maintained; a confederacy of seven independent states, +united for certain purposes by a treaty made some thirty years before. +Nothing could be more imbecile, judging by the light of subsequent events +and the experience of centuries, than such an organization. The +independent and sovereign republic of Zealand or of Groningen, for +example, would have made a poor figure campaigning, or negotiating, or +exhibiting itself on its own account before the world. Yet it was +difficult to show any charter, precedent, or prescription for the +sovereignty of the States-General. Necessary as such an incorporation +was for the very existence of the Union, no constitutional union had ever +been enacted. Practically the Province of Holland, representing more +than half the population, wealth, strength, and intellect of the whole +confederation, had achieved an irregular supremacy in the States-General. +But its undeniable superiority was now causing a rank growth of envy, +hatred, and jealousy throughout the country, and the great Advocate of +Holland, who was identified with the province, and had so long wielded +its power, was beginning to reap the full harvest of that malice. + +Thus while there was so much of vagueness in theory and practice as to +the sovereignty, there was nothing criminal on the part of Maurice if he +was ambitious of obtaining the sovereignty himself. He was not seeking +to compass it by base artifice or by intrigue of any kind. It was very +natural that he should be restive under the dictatorship of the Advocate. +If a single burgher and lawyer could make himself despot of the +Netherlands, how much more reasonable that he--with the noblest blood of +Europe in his veins, whose direct ancestor three centuries before had +been emperor not only of those provinces, but of all Germany and half +Christendom besides, whose immortal father had under God been the creator +and saviour of the new commonwealth, had made sacrifices such as man +never made for a people, and had at last laid down his life in its +defence; who had himself fought daily from boyhood upwards in the great +cause, who had led national armies from victory to victory till he had +placed his country as a military school and a belligerent power foremost +among the nations, and had at last so exhausted and humbled the great +adversary and former tyrant that he had been glad of a truce while the +rebel chief would have preferred to continue the war--should aspire to +rule by hereditary right a land with which his name and his race were +indelibly associated by countless sacrifices and heroic achievements. + +It was no crime in Maurice to desire the sovereignty. It was still less +a crime in Barneveld to believe that he desired it. There was no special +reason why the Prince should love the republican form of government +provided that an hereditary one could be legally substituted for it. +He had sworn allegiance to the statutes, customs, and privileges of each +of the provinces of which he had been elected stadholder, but there would +have been no treason on his part if the name and dignity of stadholder +should be changed by the States themselves for those of King or sovereign +Prince. + +Yet it was a chief grievance against the Advocate on the part of the +Prince that Barneveld believed him capable of this ambition. + +The Republic existed as a fact, but it had not long existed, nor had it +ever received a formal baptism. So undefined was its constitution, and +so conflicting were the various opinions in regard to it of eminent men, +that it would be difficult to say how high-treason could be committed +against it. Great lawyers of highest intellect and learning believed the +sovereign power to reside in the separate states, others found that +sovereignty in the city magistracies, while during a feverish period of +war and tumult the supreme function had without any written constitution, +any organic law, practically devolved upon the States-General, who had +now begun to claim it as a right. The Republic was neither venerable by +age nor impregnable in law. It was an improvised aristocracy of lawyers, +manufacturers, bankers, and corporations which had done immense work and +exhibited astonishing sagacity and courage, but which might never have +achieved the independence of the Provinces unaided by the sword of +Orange-Nassau and the magic spell which belonged to that name. + +Thus a bitter conflict was rapidly developing itself in the heart of the +Commonwealth. There was the civil element struggling with the military +for predominance; sword against gown; states' rights against central +authority; peace against war; above all the rivalry of one prominent +personage against another, whose mutual hatred was now artfully inflamed +by partisans. + +And now another element of discord had come, more potent than all the +rest: the terrible, never ending, struggle of Church against State. +Theological hatred which forty years long had found vent in the exchange +of acrimony between the ancient and the Reformed churches was now +assuming other shapes. Religion in that age and country was more than +has often been the case in history the atmosphere of men's daily lives. +But during the great war for independence, although the hostility between +the two religious forces was always intense, it was modified especially +towards the close of the struggle by other controlling influences. The +love of independence and the passion for nationality, the devotion to +ancient political privileges, was often as fervid and genuine in Catholic +bosoms as in those of Protestants, and sincere adherents of the ancient +church had fought to the death against Spain in defence of chartered +rights. + +At that very moment it is probable that half the population of the United +Provinces was Catholic. Yet it would be ridiculous to deny that the +aggressive, uncompromising; self-sacrificing, intensely believing, +perfectly fearless spirit of Calvinism had been the animating soul, the +motive power of the great revolt. For the Provinces to have encountered +Spain and Rome without Calvinism, and relying upon municipal enthusiasm +only, would have been to throw away the sword and fight with the +scabbard. + +But it is equally certain that those hot gospellers who had suffered so +much martyrdom and achieved so many miracles were fully aware of their +power and despotic in its exercise. Against the oligarchy of commercial +and juridical corporations they stood there the most terrible aristocracy +of all: the aristocracy of God's elect, predestined from all time and to +all eternity to take precedence of and to look down upon their inferior +and lost fellow creatures. It was inevitable that this aristocracy, +which had done so much, which had breathed into a new-born commonwealth +the breath of its life, should be intolerant, haughty, dogmatic. + +The Church of Rome, which had been dethroned after inflicting such +exquisite tortures during its period of power, was not to raise its head. +Although so large a proportion of the inhabitants of the country were +secretly or openly attached to that faith, it was a penal offence to +participate openly in its rites and ceremonies. Religious equality, +except in the minds of a few individuals, was an unimaginable idea. +There was still one Church which arrogated to itself the sole possession +of truth, the Church of Geneva. Those who admitted the possibility of +other forms and creeds were either Atheists or, what was deemed worse +than Atheists, Papists, because Papists were assumed to be traitors also, +and desirous of selling the country to Spain. An undevout man in that +land and at that epoch was an almost unknown phenomenon. Religion was +as much a recognized necessity of existence as food or drink. It were +as easy to find people about without clothes as without religious +convictions. + +The Advocate, who had always adhered to the humble spirit of his +ancestral device, "Nil scire tutissima fedes," and almost alone among +his fellow citizens (save those immediate apostles and pupils of his who +became involved in his fate) in favour of religious toleration, began to +be suspected of treason and Papacy because, had he been able to give the +law, it was thought he would have permitted such horrors as the public +exercise of the Roman Catholic religion. + +The hissings and screamings of the vulgar against him as he moved forward +on his stedfast course he heeded less than those of geese on a common. +But there was coming a time when this proud and scornful statesman, +conscious of the superiority conferred by great talents and unparalleled +experience, would find it less easy to treat the voice of slanderers, +whether idiots or powerful and intellectual enemies, with contempt. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + + Schism in the Church a Public Fact--Struggle for Power between the + Sacerdotal and Political Orders--Dispute between Arminius and + Gomarus--Rage of James I. at the Appointment of Voratius--Arminians + called Remonstrants--Hague Conference--Contra-Remonstrance by + Gomarites of Seven Points to the Remonstrants' Five--Fierce + Theological Disputes throughout the Country--Ryswyk Secession-- + Maurice wishes to remain neutral, but finds himself the Chieftain of + the Contra-Remonstrant Party--The States of Holland Remonstrant by a + large Majority--The States-General Contra-Remonstrant--Sir Ralph + Winwood leaves the Hague--Three Armies to take the Field against + Protestantism. + +Schism in the Church had become a public fact, and theological hatred was +in full blaze throughout the country. + +The great practical question in the Church had been as to the appointment +of preachers, wardens, schoolmasters, and other officers. By the +ecclesiastical arrangements of 1591 great power was conceded to the civil +authority in church matters, especially in regard to such appointments, +which were made by a commission consisting of four members named by the +churches and four by the magistrates in each district. + +Barneveld, who above all things desired peace in the Church, had wished +to revive this ordinance, and in 1612 it had been resolved by the States +of Holland that each city or village should, if the magistracy approved, +provisionally conform to it. The States of Utrecht made at the same time +a similar arrangement. + +It was the controversy which has been going on since the beginning of +history and is likely to be prolonged to the end of time--the struggle +for power between the sacerdotal and political orders; the controversy +whether priests shall control the state or the state govern the priests. + +This was the practical question involved in the fierce dispute as to +dogma. The famous duel between Arminius and Gomarus; the splendid +theological tournaments which succeeded; six champions on a side armed in +full theological panoply and swinging the sharpest curtal axes which +learning, passion, and acute intellect could devise, had as yet produced +no beneficent result. Nobody had been convinced by the shock of +argument, by the exchange of those desperate blows. The High Council +of the Hague had declared that no difference of opinion in the Church +existed sufficient to prevent fraternal harmony and happiness. But +Gomarus loudly declared that, if there were no means of putting down the +heresy of Arminius, there would before long be a struggle such as would +set province against province, village against village, family against +family, throughout the land. He should be afraid to die in such +doctrine. He shuddered that any one should dare to come before God's +tribunal with such blasphemies. Meantime his great adversary, the +learned and eloquent, the musical, frolicsome, hospitable heresiarch was +no more. Worn out with controversy, but peaceful and happy in the +convictions which were so bitterly denounced by Gomarus and a large +proportion of both preachers and laymen in the Netherlands, and convinced +that the schism which in his view had been created by those who called +themselves the orthodox would weaken the cause of Protestantism +throughout Europe, Arminius died at the age of forty-nine. + +The magistrates throughout Holland, with the exception of a few cities, +were Arminian, the preachers Gomarian; for Arminius ascribed to the +civil authority the right to decide upon church matters, while Gomarus +maintained that ecclesiastical affairs should be regulated in +ecclesiastical assemblies. The overseers of Leyden University appointed +Conrad Vorstius to be professor of theology in place of Arminius. The +selection filled to the brim the cup of bitterness, for no man was more +audaciously latitudinarian than he. He was even suspected of +Socinianism. There came a shriek from King James, fierce and shrill +enough to rouse Arminius from his grave. James foamed to the mouth at +the insolence of the overseers in appointing such a monster of infidelity +to the professorship. He ordered his books to be publicly burned in St. +Paul's Churchyard and at both Universities, and would have burned the +Professor himself with as much delight as Torquemada or Peter Titelman +ever felt in roasting their victims, had not the day for such festivities +gone by. He ordered the States of Holland on pain of for ever forfeiting +his friendship to exclude Vorstius at once from the theological chair and +to forbid him from "nestling anywhere in the country." + +He declared his amazement that they should tolerate such a pest as Conrad +Vorstius. Had they not had enough of the seed sown by that foe of God, +Arminius? He ordered the States-General to chase the blasphemous monster +from the land, or else he would cut off all connection with their false +and heretic churches and make the other Reformed churches of Europe do +the same, nor should the youth of England ever be allowed to frequent the +University of Leyden. + +In point of fact the Professor was never allowed to qualify, to preach, +or to teach; so tremendous was the outcry of Peter Plancius and many +orthodox preachers, echoing the wrath of the King. He lived at Gouda +in a private capacity for several years, until the Synod of Dordrecht +at last publicly condemned his opinions and deprived him of his +professorship. + +Meantime, the preachers who were disciples of Arminius had in a private +assembly drawn up what was called a Remonstrance, addressed to the States +of Holland, and defending themselves from the reproach that they were +seeking change in the Divine service and desirous of creating tumult and +schism. + +This Remonstrance, set forth by the pen of the famous Uytenbogaert, whom +Gomarus called the Court Trumpeter, because for a long time he had been +Prince Maurice's favourite preacher, was placed in the hands of +Barneveld, for delivery to the States of Holland. Thenceforth the +Arminians were called Remonstrants. + +The Hague Conference followed, six preachers on a side, and the States of +Holland exhorted to fraternal compromise. Until further notice, they +decreed that no man should be required to believe more than had been laid +down in the Five Points: + +I. God has from eternity resolved to choose to eternal life those who +through his grace believe in Jesus Christ, and in faith and obedience so +continue to the end, and to condemn the unbelieving and unconverted to +eternal damnation. + +II. Jesus Christ died for all; so, nevertheless, that no one actually +except believers is redeemed by His death. + +III. Man has not the saving belief from himself, nor out of his free +will, but he needs thereto God's grace in Christ. + +IV. This grace is the beginning, continuation, and completion of man's +salvation; all good deeds must be ascribed to it, but it does not work +irresistibly. + +V. God's grace gives sufficient strength to the true believers to +overcome evil; but whether they cannot lose grace should be more closely +examined before it should be taught in full security. + +Afterwards they expressed themselves more distinctly on this point, and +declared that a true believer, through his own fault, can fall away from +God and lose faith. + + +Before the conference, however, the Gomarite preachers had drawn up a +Contra-Remonstrance of Seven Points in opposition to the Remonstrants' +five. + +They demanded the holding of a National Synod to settle the difference +between these Five and Seven Points, or the sending of them to foreign +universities for arbitration, a mutual promise being given by the +contending parties to abide by the decision. + +Thus much it has been necessary to state concerning what in the +seventeenth century was called the platform of the two great parties: +a term which has been perpetuated in our own country, and is familiar +to all the world in the nineteenth. + +These were the Seven Points: + +I. God has chosen from eternity certain persons out of the human race, +which in and with Adam fell into sin and has no more power to believe and +Convert itself than a dead man to restore himself to life, in order to +make them blessed through Christ; while He passes by the rest through His +righteous judgment, and leaves them lying in their sins. + +II. Children of believing parents, as well as full-grown believers, are +to be considered as elect so long as they with action do not prove the +contrary. + +III. God in His election has not looked at the belief and the repentance +of the elect; but, on the contrary, in His eternal and unchangeable +design, has resolved to give to the elect faith and stedfastness, and +thus to make them blessed. + +IV. He, to this end, in the first place, presented to them His only +begotten Son, whose sufferings, although sufficient for the expiation of +all men's sins, nevertheless, according to God's decree, serves alone to +the reconciliation of the elect. + +V. God causest he Gospel to be preached to them, making the same through +the Holy Ghost, of strength upon their minds; so that they not merely +obtain power to repent and to believe, but also actually and voluntarily +do repent and believe. + +VI. Such elect, through the same power of the Holy Ghost through which +they have once become repentant and believing, are kept in such wise that +they indeed through weakness fall into heavy sins; but can never wholly +and for always lose the true faith. + +VII. True believers from this, however, draw no reason for fleshly +quiet, it being impossible that they who through a true faith were +planted in Christ should bring forth no fruits of thankfulness; the +promises of God's help and the warnings of Scripture tending to make +their salvation work in them in fear and trembling, and to cause them +more earnestly to desire help from that spirit without which they can +do nothing. + + +There shall be no more setting forth of these subtle and finely wrought +abstractions in our pages. We aspire not to the lofty heights of +theological and supernatural contemplation, where the atmosphere becomes +too rarefied for ordinary constitutions. Rather we attempt an objective +and level survey of remarkable phenomena manifesting themselves on the +earth; direct or secondary emanations from those distant spheres. + +For in those days, and in that land especially, theology and politics +were one. It may be questioned at least whether this practical fusion +of elements, which may with more safety to the Commonwealth be kept +separate, did not tend quite as much to lower and contaminate the +religious sentiments as to elevate the political idea. To mix habitually +the solemn phraseology which men love to reserve for their highest and +most sacred needs with the familiar slang of politics and trade seems +to our generation not a very desirable proceeding. + +The aroma of doubly distilled and highly sublimated dogma is more +difficult to catch than to comprehend the broader and more practical +distinctions of every-day party strife. + +King James was furious at the thought that common men--the vulgar, the +people in short--should dare to discuss deep problems of divinity which, +as he confessed, had puzzled even his royal mind. Barneveld modestly +disclaimed the power of seeing with absolute clearness into things beyond +the reach of the human intellect. But the honest Netherlanders were not +abashed by thunder from the royal pulpit, nor perplexed by hesitations +which darkened the soul of the great Advocate. + +In burghers' mansions, peasants' cottages, mechanics' back-parlours, on +board herring smacks, canal boats, and East Indiamen; in shops, counting- +rooms, farmyards, guard-rooms, ale-houses; on the exchange, in the +tennis-court, on the mall; at banquets, at burials, christenings, or +bridals; wherever and whenever human creatures met each other, there +was ever to be found the fierce wrangle of Remonstrant and Contra- +Remonstrant, the hissing of red-hot theological rhetoric, the pelting of +hostile texts. The blacksmith's iron cooled on the anvil, the tinker +dropped a kettle half mended, the broker left a bargain unclinched, the +Scheveningen fisherman in his wooden shoes forgot the cracks in his +pinkie, while each paused to hold high converse with friend or foe on +fate, free will, or absolute foreknowledge; losing himself in wandering +mazes whence there was no issue. Province against province, city against +city, family against family; it was one vast scene of bickering, +denunciation, heart-burnings, mutual excommunication and hatred. + +Alas! a generation of mankind before, men had stood banded together to +resist, with all the might that comes from union, the fell spirit of the +Holy Inquisition, which was dooming all who had wandered from the ancient +fold or resisted foreign tyranny to the axe, the faggot, the living +grave. There had been small leisure then for men who fought for +Fatherland, and for comparative liberty of conscience, to tear each +others' characters in pieces, and to indulge in mutual hatreds and +loathing on the question of predestination. + +As a rule the population, especially of the humbler classes, and a great +majority of the preachers were Contra-Remonstrant; the magistrates, the +burgher patricians, were Remonstrant. In Holland the controlling +influence was Remonstrant; but Amsterdam and four or five other cities of +that province held to the opposite doctrine. These cities formed +therefore a small minority in the States Assembly of Holland sustained by +a large majority in the States-General. The Province of Utrecht was +almost unanimously Remonstrant. The five other provinces were decidedly +Contra-Remonstrant. + +It is obvious therefore that the influence of Barneveld, hitherto so all- +controlling in the States-General, and which rested on the complete +submission of the States of Holland to his will, was tottering. The +battle-line between Church and State was now drawn up; and it was at the +same time a battle between the union and the principles of state +sovereignty. + +It had long since been declared through the mouth of the Advocate, but +in a solemn state manifesto, that My Lords the States-General were the +foster-fathers and the natural protectors of the Church, to whom supreme +authority in church matters belonged. + +The Contra-Remonstrants, on the other hand, maintained that all the +various churches made up one indivisible church, seated above the States, +whether Provincial or General, and governed by the Holy Ghost acting +directly upon the congregations. + +As the schism grew deeper and the States-General receded from the +position which they had taken up under the lead of the Advocate, the +scene was changed. A majority of the Provinces being Contra-Remonstrant, +and therefore in favour of a National Synod, the States-General as a body +were of necessity for the Synod. + +It was felt by the clergy that, if many churches existed, they would all +remain subject to the civil authority. The power of the priesthood would +thus sink before that of the burgher aristocracy. There must be one +church--the Church of Geneva and Heidelberg--if that theocracy which the +Gomarites meant to establish was not to vanish as a dream. It was +founded on Divine Right, and knew no chief magistrate but the Holy Ghost. +A few years before the States-General had agreed to a National Synod, but +with a condition that there should be revision of the Netherland +Confession and the Heidelberg Catechism. + +Against this the orthodox infallibilists had protested and thundered, +because it was an admission that the vile Arminian heresy might perhaps +be declared correct. It was now however a matter of certainty that the +States-General would cease to oppose the unconditional Synod, because the +majority sided with the priesthood. + +The magistrates of Leyden had not long before opposed the demand for a +Synod on the ground that the war against Spain was not undertaken to +maintain one sect; that men of various sects and creeds had fought with +equal valour against the common foe; that religious compulsion was +hateful, and that no synod had a right to claim Netherlanders as slaves. + +To thoughtful politicians like Barneveld, Hugo Grotius, and men who acted +with them, fraught with danger to the state, that seemed a doctrine by +which mankind were not regarded as saved or doomed according to belief +or deeds, but as individuals divided from all eternity into two classes +which could never be united, but must ever mutually regard each other as +enemies. + +And like enemies Netherlanders were indeed beginning to regard each +other. The man who, banded like brothers, had so heroically fought for +two generations long for liberty against an almost superhuman despotism, +now howling and jeering against each other like demons, seemed determined +to bring the very name of liberty into contempt. + +Where the Remonstrants were in the ascendant, they excited the hatred and +disgust of the orthodox by their overbearing determination to carry their +Five Points. A broker in Rotterdam of the Contra-Remonstrant persuasion, +being about to take a wife, swore he had rather be married by a pig than +a parson. For this sparkling epigram he was punished by the Remonstrant +magistracy with loss of his citizenship for a year and the right to +practise his trade for life. A casuistical tinker, expressing himself +violently in the same city against the Five Points, and disrespectfully +towards the magistrates for tolerating them, was banished from the town. +A printer in the neighbourhood, disgusted with these and similar efforts +of tyranny on the part of the dominant party, thrust a couple of lines of +doggrel into the lottery: + + "In name of the Prince of Orange, I ask once and again, + What difference between the Inquisition of Rotterdam and Spain?" + +For this poetical effort the printer was sentenced to forfeit the prize +that he had drawn in the lottery, and to be kept in prison on bread and +water for a fortnight. + +Certainly such punishments were hardly as severe as being beheaded or +burned or buried alive, as would have been the lot of tinkers and +printers and brokers who opposed the established church in the days of +Alva, but the demon of intolerance, although its fangs were drawn, still +survived, and had taken possession of both parties in the Reformed +Church. For it was the Remonstrants who had possession of the churches +at Rotterdam, and the printer's distich is valuable as pointing out that +the name of Orange was beginning to identify itself with the Contra- +Remonstrant faction. At this time, on the other hand, the gabble that +Barneveld had been bought by Spanish gold, and was about to sell his +country to Spain, became louder than a whisper. Men were not ashamed, +from theological hatred, to utter such senseless calumnies against a +venerable statesman whose long life had been devoted to the cause of his +country's independence and to the death struggle with Spain. + +As if because a man admitted the possibility of all his fellow-creatures +being saved from damnation through repentance and the grace of God, he +must inevitably be a traitor to his country and a pensionary of her +deadliest foe. + +And where the Contra-Remonstrants held possession of the churches and the +city governments, acts of tyranny which did not then seem ridiculous were +of everyday occurrence. Clergymen, suspected of the Five Points, were +driven out of the pulpits with bludgeons or assailed with brickbats at +the church door. At Amsterdam, Simon Goulart, for preaching the doctrine +of universal salvation and for disputing the eternal damnation of young +children, was forbidden thenceforth to preach at all. + +But it was at the Hague that the schism in religion and politics first +fatally widened itself. Henry Rosaeus, an eloquent divine, disgusted +with his colleague Uytenbogaert, refused all communion with him, and was +in consequence suspended. Excluded from the Great Church, where he had +formerly ministered, he preached every Sunday at Ryswyk, two or three +miles distant. Seven hundred Contra-Remonstrants of the Hague followed +their beloved pastor, and, as the roads to Ryswyk were muddy and sloppy +in winter, acquired the unsavoury nickname of the "Mud Beggars." The +vulgarity of heart which suggested the appellation does not inspire +to-day great sympathy with the Remonstrant party, even if one were +inclined to admit, what is not the fact, that they represented the cause +of religious equality. For even the illustrious Grotius was at that very +moment repudiating the notion that there could be two religions in one +state. "Difference in public worship," he said, "was in kingdoms +pernicious, but in free commonwealths in the highest degree destructive." + +It was the struggle between Church and State for supremacy over the whole +body politic. "The Reformation," said Grotius, "was not brought about by +synods, but by kings, princes, and magistrates." It was the same eternal +story, the same terrible two-edged weapon, "Cujus reggio ejus religio," +found in the arsenal of the first Reformers, and in every politico- +religious arsenal of history. + +"By an eternal decree of God," said Gomarus in accordance with Calvin, +"it has been fixed who are to be saved and who damned. By His decree +some are drawn to faith and godliness, and, being drawn, can never fall +away. God leaves all the rest in the general corruption of human nature +and their own misdeeds." + +"God has from eternity made this distinction in the fallen human race," +said Arminius, "that He pardons those who desist from their sins and put +their faith in Christ, and will give them eternal life, but will punish +those who remain impenitent. Moreover, it is pleasanter to God that all +men should repent, and, coming to knowledge of truth, remain therein, but +He compels none." + +This was the vital difference of dogma. And it was because they could +hold no communion with those who believed in the efficacy of repentance +that Rosaeus and his followers had seceded to Ryswyk, and the Reformed +Church had been torn into two very unequal parts. But it is difficult to +believe that out of this arid field of controversy so plentiful a harvest +of hatred and civil convulsion could have ripened. More practical than +the insoluble problems, whether repentance could effect salvation, and +whether dead infants were hopelessly damned, was the question who should +rule both Church and State. + +There could be but one church. On that Remonstrants and Contra- +Remonstrants were agreed. But should the five Points or the Seven +Points obtain the mastery? Should that framework of hammered iron, the +Confession and Catechism, be maintained in all its rigidity around the +sheepfold, or should the disciples of the arch-heretic Arminius, the +salvation-mongers, be permitted to prowl within it? + +Was Barneveld, who hated the Reformed religion (so men told each other), +and who believed in nothing, to continue dictator of the whole Republic +through his influence over one province, prescribing its religious dogmas +and laying down its laws; or had not the time come for the States-General +to vindicate the rights of the Church, and to crush for ever the +pernicious principle of State sovereignty and burgher oligarchy? + +The abyss was wide and deep, and the wild waves were raging more madly +every hour. The Advocate, anxious and troubled, but undismayed, did his +best in the terrible emergency. He conferred with Prince Maurice on the +subject of the Ryswyk secession, and men said that he sought to impress +upon him, as chief of the military forces, the necessity of putting down +religious schism with the armed hand. + +The Prince had not yet taken a decided position. He was still under the +influence of John Uytenbogaert, who with Arminius and the Advocate made +up the fateful three from whom deadly disasters were deemed to have come +upon the Commonwealth. He wished to remain neutral. But no man can be +neutral in civil contentions threatening the life of the body politic any +more than the heart can be indifferent if the human frame is sawn in two. + +"I am a soldier," said Maurice, "not a divine. These are matters of +theology which I don't understand, and about which I don't trouble +myself." + +On another occasion he is reported to have said, "I know nothing of +predestination, whether it is green or whether it is blue; but I do know +that the Advocate's pipe and mine will never play the same tune." + +It was not long before he fully comprehended the part which he must +necessarily play. To say that he was indifferent to religious matters +was as ridiculous as to make a like charge against Barneveld. Both +were religious men. It would have been almost impossible to find an +irreligious character in that country, certainly not among its highest- +placed and leading minds. Maurice had strong intellectual powers. He +was a regular attendant on divine worship, and was accustomed to hear +daily religious discussions. To avoid them indeed, he would have been +obliged not only to fly his country, but to leave Europe. He had a +profound reverence for the memory of his father, Calbo y Calbanista, as +William the Silent had called himself. But the great prince had died +before these fierce disputes had torn the bosom of the Reformed Church, +and while Reformers still were brethren. But if Maurice were a religious +man, he was also a keen politician; a less capable politician, however, +than a soldier, for he was confessedly the first captain of his age. +He was not rapid in his conceptions, but he was sure in the end to +comprehend his opportunity. + +The Church, the people, the Union--the sacerdotal, the democratic, +and the national element--united under a name so potent to conjure +with as the name of Orange-Nassau, was stronger than any other possible +combination. Instinctively and logically therefore the Stadholder found +himself the chieftain of the Contra-Remonstrant party, and without the +necessity of an apostasy such as had been required of his great +contemporary to make himself master of France. + +The power of Barneveld and his partisans was now put to a severe strain. +His efforts to bring back the Hague seceders were powerless. The +influence of Uytenbogaert over the Stadholder steadily diminished. He +prayed to be relieved from his post in the Great Church of the Hague, +especially objecting to serve with a Contra-Remonstrant preacher whom +Maurice wished to officiate there in place of the seceding Rosaeus. But +the Stadholder refused to let him go, fearing his influence in other +places. "There is stuff in him," said Maurice, "to outweigh half a dozen +Contra-Remonstrant preachers." Everywhere in Holland the opponents of +the Five Points refused to go to the churches, and set up tabernacles for +themselves in barns, outhouses, canal-boats. And the authorities in town +and village nailed up the barn-doors, and dispersed the canal boat +congregations, while the populace pelted them with stones. The seceders +appealed to the Stadholder, pleading that at least they ought to be +allowed to hear the word of God as they understood it without being +forced into churches where they were obliged to hear Arminian blasphemy. +At least their barns might be left them. "Barns," said Maurice, "barns +and outhouses! Are we to preach in barns? The churches belong to us, +and we mean to have them too." + +Not long afterwards the Stadholder, clapping his hand on his sword hilt, +observed that these differences could only be settled by force of arms. +An ominous remark and a dreary comment on the forty years' war against +the Inquisition. + +And the same scenes that were enacting in Holland were going on in +Overyssel and Friesland and Groningen; but with a difference. Here it +was the Five Points men who were driven into secession, whose barns were +nailed up, and whose preachers were mobbed. A lugubrious spectacle, but +less painful certainly than the hangings and drownings and burnings alive +in the previous century to prevent secession from the indivisible church. + +It is certain that stadholders and all other magistrates ever since the +establishment of independence were sworn to maintain the Reformed +religion and to prevent a public divine worship under any other form. It +is equally certain that by the 13th Article of the Act of Union--the +organic law of the confederation made at Utrecht in 1579--each province +reserved for itself full control of religious questions. It would indeed +seem almost unimaginable in a country where not only every province, but +every city, every municipal board, was so jealous of its local privileges +and traditional rights that the absolute disposition over the highest, +gravest, and most difficult questions that can inspire and perplex +humanity should be left to a general government, and one moreover which +had scarcely come into existence. + +Yet into this entirely illogical position the Commonwealth was steadily +drifting. The cause was simple enough. The States of Holland, as +already observed, were Remonstrant by a large majority. The States- +General were Contra-Remonstrant by a still greater majority. The Church, +rigidly attached to the Confession and Catechism, and refusing all change +except through decree of a synod to be called by the general government +which it controlled, represented the national idea. It thus identified +itself with the Republic, and was in sympathy with a large majority of +the population. + +Logic, law, historical tradition were on the side of the Advocate and +the States' right party. The instinct of national self-preservation, +repudiating the narrow and destructive doctrine of provincial +sovereignty, were on the side of the States-General and the Church. + +Meantime James of Great Britain had written letters both to the States of +Holland and the States-General expressing his satisfaction with the Five +Points, and deciding that there was nothing objectionable in the doctrine +of predestination therein set forth. He had recommended unity and peace +in Church and Assembly, and urged especially that these controverted +points should not be discussed in the pulpit to the irritation and +perplexity of the common people. + +The King's letters had produced much satisfaction in the moderate party. +Barneveld and his followers were then still in the ascendant, and it +seemed possible that the Commonwealth might enjoy a few moments of +tranquillity. That James had given a new exhibition of his astounding +inconsistency was a matter very indifferent to all but himself, and he +was the last man to trouble himself for that reproach. + +It might happen, when be should come to realize how absolutely he had +obeyed the tuition of the Advocate and favoured the party which he had +been so vehemently opposing, that he might regret and prove willing to +retract. But for the time being the course of politics had seemed +running smoother. The acrimony of the relations between the English +government and dominant party at the Hague was sensibly diminished. The +King seemed for an instant to have obtained a true insight into the +nature of the struggle in the States. That it was after all less a +theological than a political question which divided parties had at last +dawned upon him. + +"If you have occasion to write on the subject," said Barneveld, "it is +above all necessary to make it clear that ecclesiastical persons and +their affairs must stand under the direction of the sovereign authority, +for our preachers understand that the disposal of ecclesiastical persons +and affairs belongs to them, so that they alone are to appoint preachers, +elders, deacons, and other clerical persons, and to regulate the whole +ecclesiastical administration according to their pleasure or by a popular +government which they call the community." + +"The Counts of Holland from all ancient times were never willing under +the Papacy to surrender their right of presentation to the churches and +control of all spiritual and ecclesiastical benefices. The Emperor +Charles and King Philip even, as Counts of Holland, kept these rights to +themselves, save that they in enfeoffing more than a hundred gentlemen, +of noble and ancient families with seigniorial manors, enfeoffed them +also with the right of presentation to churches and benefices on their +respective estates. Our preachers pretend to have won this right against +the Countship, the gentlemen, nobles, and others, and that it belongs to +them." + +It is easy to see that this was a grave, constitutional, legal, and +historical problem not to be solved offhand by vehement citations from +Scripture, nor by pragmatical dissertations from the lips of foreign +ambassadors. + +"I believe this point," continued Barneveld, "to be the most difficult +question of all, importing far more than subtle searchings and +conflicting sentiments as to passages of Holy Writ, or disputations +concerning God's eternal predestination and other points thereupon +depending. Of these doctrines the Archbishop of Canterbury well observed +in the Conference of 1604 that one ought to teach them ascendendo and not +descendendo." + +The letters of the King had been very favourably received both in the +States-General and in the Assembly of Holland. "You will present the +replies," wrote Barneveld to the ambassador in London, "at the best +opportunity and with becoming compliments. You may be assured and assure +his Majesty that they have been very agreeable to both assemblies. Our +commissioners over there on the East Indian matter ought to know nothing +of these letters." + +This statement is worthy of notice, as Grotius was one of those +commissioners, and, as will subsequently appear, was accused of being +the author of the letters. + +"I understand from others," continued the Advocate, "that the gentleman +well known to you--[Obviously Francis Aerssens]--is not well pleased +that through other agency than his these letters have been written and +presented. I think too that the other business is much against his +grain, but on the whole since your departure he has accommodated himself +to the situation." + +But if Aerssens for the moment seemed quiet, the orthodox clergy were +restive. + +"I know," said Barneveld, "that some of our ministers are so audacious +that of themselves, or through others, they mean to work by direct or +indirect means against these letters. They mean to show likewise that +there are other and greater differences of doctrine than those already +discussed. You will keep a sharp eye on the sails and provide against +the effect of counter-currents. To maintain the authority of their Great +Mightinesses over ecclesiastical matters is more than necessary for the +conservation of the country's welfare and of the true Christian religion. +As his Majesty would not allow this principle to be controverted in his +own realms, as his books clearly prove, so we trust that he will not find +it good that it should be controverted in our state as sure to lead to a +very disastrous and inequitable sequel." + +And a few weeks later the Advocate and the whole party of toleration +found themselves, as is so apt to be the case, between two fires. The +Catholics became as turbulent as the extreme Calvinists, and already +hopes were entertained by Spanish emissaries and spies that this rapidly +growing schism in the Reformed Church might be dexterously made use of to +bring the Provinces, when they should become fairly distracted, back to +the dominion of Spain. + +"Our precise zealots in the Reformed religion, on the one side," wrote +Barneveld, "and the Jesuits on the other, are vigorously kindling the +fire of discord. Keep a good lookout for the countermine which is now +working against the good advice of his Majesty for mutual toleration. +The publication of the letters was done without order, but I believe with +good intent, in the hope that the vehemence and exorbitance of some +precise Puritans in our State should thereby be checked. That which is +now doing against us in printed libels is the work of the aforesaid +Puritans and a few Jesuits. The pretence in those libels, that there are +other differences in the matter of doctrine, is mere fiction designed to +make trouble and confusion." + +In the course of the autumn, Sir Ralph Winwood departed from the Hague, +to assume soon afterwards in England the position of secretary of state +for foreign affairs. He did not take personal farewell of Barneveld, the +Advocate being absent in North Holland at the moment, and detained there +by indisposition. The leave-taking was therefore by letter. He had done +much to injure the cause which the Dutch statesman held vital to the +Republic, and in so doing he had faithfully carried out the instructions +of his master. Now that James had written these conciliatory letters to +the States, recommending toleration, letters destined to be famous, +Barneveld was anxious that the retiring ambassador should foster the +spirit of moderation, which for a moment prevailed at the British court. +But he was not very hopeful in the matter. + +"Mr. Winwood is doubtless over there now," he wrote to Caron. "He has +promised in public and private to do all good offices. The States- +General made him a present on his departure of the value of L4000. I +fear nevertheless that he, especially in religious matters, will not do +the best offices. For besides that he is himself very hard and precise, +those who in this country are hard and precise have made a dead set at +him, and tried to make him devoted to their cause, through many +fictitious and untruthful means." + +The Advocate, as so often before, sent assurances to the King that "the +States-General, and especially the States of Holland, were resolved to +maintain the genuine Reformed religion, and oppose all novelties and +impurities conflicting with it," and the Ambassador was instructed to see +that the countermine, worked so industriously against his Majesty's +service and the honour and reputation of the Provinces, did not prove +successful. + +"To let the good mob play the master," he said, "and to permit hypocrites +and traitors in the Flemish manner to get possession of the government of +the provinces and cities, and to cause upright patriots whose faith and +truth has so long been proved, to be abandoned, by the blessing of God, +shall never be accomplished. Be of good heart, and cause these Flemish +tricks to be understood on every occasion, and let men know that we mean +to maintain, with unchanging constancy, the authority of the government, +the privileges and laws of the country, as well as the true Reformed +religion." + +The statesman was more than ever anxious for moderate counsels in the +religious questions, for it was now more important than ever that there +should be concord in the Provinces, for the cause of Protestantism, and +with it the existence of the Republic, seemed in greater danger than at +any moment since the truce. It appeared certain that the alliance +between France and Spain had been arranged, and that the Pope, Spain, the +Grand-duke of Tuscany, and their various adherents had organized a strong +combination, and were enrolling large armies to take the field in the +spring, against the Protestant League of the princes and electors in +Germany. The great king was dead. The Queen-Regent was in the hand of +Spain, or dreamed at least of an impossible neutrality, while the priest +who was one day to resume the part of Henry, and to hang upon the sword +of France the scales in which the opposing weights of Protestantism and +Catholicism in Europe were through so many awful years to be balanced, +was still an obscure bishop. + +The premonitory signs of the great religious war in Germany were not to +be mistaken. In truth, the great conflict had already opened in the +duchies, although few men as yet comprehended the full extent of that +movement. The superficial imagined that questions of hereditary +succession, like those involved in the dispute, were easily to be settled +by statutes of descent, expounded by doctors of law, and sustained, if +needful, by a couple of comparatively bloodless campaigns. Those who +looked more deeply into causes felt that the limitations of Imperial +authority, the ambition of a great republic, suddenly starting into +existence out of nothing, and the great issues of the religious +reformation, were matters not so easily arranged. When the scene +shifted, as it was so soon to do, to the heart of Bohemia, when +Protestantism had taken the Holy Roman Empire by the beard in its +ancient palace, and thrown Imperial stadholders out of window, it would +be evident to the blindest that something serious was taking place. + +Meantime Barneveld, ever watchful of passing events, knew that great +forces of Catholicism were marshalling in the south. Three armies were +to take the field against Protestantism at the orders of Spain and the +Pope. One at the door of the Republic, and directed especially against +the Netherlands, was to resume the campaign in the duchies, and to +prevent any aid going to Protestant Germany from Great Britain or from +Holland. Another in the Upper Palatinate was to make the chief movement +against the Evangelical hosts. A third in Austria was to keep down the +Protestant party in Bohemia, Hungary, Austria, Moravia, and Silesia. To +sustain this movement, it was understood that all the troops then in +Italy were to be kept all the winter on a war footing.' + +Was this a time for the great Protestant party in the Netherlands to tear +itself in pieces for a theological subtlety, about which good Christians +might differ without taking each other by the throat? + +"I do not lightly believe or fear," said the Advocate, in communicating a +survey of European affairs at that moment to Carom "but present advices +from abroad make me apprehend dangers." + + + + +ETEXT EDITOR'S BOOKMARKS: + +Aristocracy of God's elect +Determined to bring the very name of liberty into contempt +Disputing the eternal damnation of young children +Fate, free will, or absolute foreknowledge +Louis XIII. +No man can be neutral in civil contentions +No synod had a right to claim Netherlanders as slaves +Philip IV. +Priests shall control the state or the state govern the priests +Schism in the Church had become a public fact +That cynical commerce in human lives +The voice of slanderers +Theological hatred was in full blaze throughout the country +Theology and politics were one +To look down upon their inferior and lost fellow creatures +Whether dead infants were hopelessly damned +Whether repentance could effect salvation +Whose mutual hatred was now artfully inflamed by partisans +Work of the aforesaid Puritans and a few Jesuits + + + + + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LIFE OF JOHN OF BARNEVELD, 1609-14 *** + +************ This file should be named 4890.txt or 4890.zip *********** + +This eBook was produced by David Widger + +Project Gutenberg eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the US +unless a copyright notice is included. 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