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          <pre class="pre tei tei-div" style=
          "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">
Title: Studies in Judaism, First Series

Author: Solomon Schechter

Release Date: May 6, 2015 [Ebook #48890]

Language: English

Character set encoding: UTF-8


***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STUDIES IN JUDAISM, FIRST SERIES***
</pre>
        </div>
      </div>

      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
      "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"></div>
      <hr class="page" />

      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
      "margin-top: 5.00em; margin-bottom: 5.00em">
        <p class="tei tei-p" style=
        "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.73em"><span style=
        "font-size: 173%">Studies in Judaism</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.20em; text-align: center"><span style=
        "font-size: 120%">First Series</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.20em; text-align: center"><span style=
        "font-size: 120%">by</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style=
        "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.44em"><span style=
        "font-size: 144%">Solomon Schechter, M.A., Litt.D.</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; text-align: center">Philadelphia</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; text-align: center">The Jewish Publication
        Society of America</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style=
        "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">1911</p>
      </div>
      <hr class="page" />

      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
      "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
        <h1 class="tei tei-head" style=
        "margin-top: 3.46em; text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em">
        <span style="font-size: 173%">Contents</span></h1>

        <ul class="tei tei-index tei-index-toc">
          <li><a href="#toc1">Preface</a></li>

          <li><a href="#toc3">Introduction</a></li>

          <li><a href="#toc5">I. The Chassidim</a></li>

          <li><a href="#toc7">II. Nachman Krochmal and the “Perplexities Of
          The Time”</a></li>

          <li><a href="#toc9">III. Rabbi Elijah Wilna, Gaon</a></li>

          <li><a href="#toc11">IV. Nachmanides</a></li>

          <li><a href="#toc13">V. A Jewish Boswell</a></li>

          <li><a href="#toc15">VI. The Dogmas Of Judaism</a></li>

          <li><a href="#toc17">VII. The History of Jewish Tradition</a></li>

          <li><a href="#toc19">VIII. The Doctrine of Divine Retribution in
          Rabbinical Literature</a></li>

          <li><a href="#toc21">IX. The Law And Recent Criticism</a></li>

          <li><a href="#toc23">X. The Hebrew Collection of the British
          Museum</a></li>

          <li><a href="#toc25">XI. Titles of Jewish Books</a></li>

          <li><a href="#toc27">XII. The Child in Jewish Literature</a></li>

          <li><a href="#toc29">XIII. Woman in Temple and Synagogue</a></li>

          <li><a href="#toc31">XIV. The Earliest Jewish Community in
          Europe</a></li>

          <li><a href="#toc33">Index</a></li>

          <li><a href="#toc35">Footnotes</a></li>
        </ul>
      </div>
    </div>

    <div class="tei tei-body" style=
    "margin-bottom: 6.00em; margin-top: 6.00em">
      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
      "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
        <p class="tei tei-p" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; text-align: center"></p>

        <div class="tei tei-figure" style="text-align: center; width: 30%">
          <a href="images/cover.jpg"><img src="images/cover.jpg" alt=
          "Cover Art" /></a>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">[Transcriber's
        Note: The above cover image was produced by the submitter at
        Distributed Proofreaders, and is being placed into the public
        domain.]</p>
      </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagev">[pg v]</span><a name="Pgv"
      id="Pgv" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
      "margin-top: 5.00em; margin-bottom: 5.00em">
        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">TO</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">THE EVER-CHERISHED
        MEMORY</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">OF</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">THE LATE DR. P. F.
        FRANKL, RABBI IN BERLIN</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">THESE STUDIES ARE
        REVERENTLY</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">DEDICATED</p>
      </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagevii">[pg vii]</span><a name=
      "Pgvi" id="Pgvi" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
      <hr class="page" />

      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
      "margin-top: 5.00em; margin-bottom: 5.00em">
        <a name="toc1" id="toc1"></a> <a name="pdf2" id="pdf2"></a>

        <h1 class="tei tei-head" style=
        "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em">
        <span style="font-size: 173%">Preface</span></h1>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These studies
        appeared originally in their first form in <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Jewish
        Quarterly</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">The Jewish Chronicle</span></span>. To the
        Editors of these periodicals my best thanks are due for their
        readiness in placing the articles at my disposal for the purposes of
        the present volume. The Introductory Essay is new. I desire to
        express my sincere gratitude to Mr. J. G. Frazer, Fellow of Trinity
        College, Cambridge, and Dr. J. Sutherland Black, of London, for their
        great kindness in revising the proofs, and for many a valuable
        suggestion. To Mr. Claude G. Montefiore I am indebted for the English
        version of the Essay on <span class="tei tei-q">“Chassidim”</span>—my
        first literary effort in this country, written at his own
        suggestion.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the
        transliteration of Hebrew names, I have given the familiar English
        forms of the authorised version. As regards post-Biblical names, I
        have with few exceptions followed Zedner's <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Catalogue of the Hebrew
        Books in the Library of the British Museum</span></span>. A Hebrew
        word will be found here and there in the text; I have purposely
        avoided bewildering devices for representing the actual sound of the
        word, contenting myself with the ordinary Roman alphabet, in spite of
        its shortcomings.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="pageviii">[pg
        viii]</span><a name="Pgviii" id="Pgviii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The authorities
        used for the various Essays will be found indicated in the Notes at
        the end of the volume, where the reader will also find short
        biographical and bibliographical notices, together with brief
        explanations of technical terms for which no exact equivalent exists
        in English. The index will, it is hoped, facilitate reference.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">S. S.</span></span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-variant: small-caps">Cambridge</span></span>, <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">February
        1896</span></span>.</p>
      </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexi">[pg xi]</span><a name="Pgxi"
      id="Pgxi" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
      <hr class="page" />

      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
      "margin-top: 5.00em; margin-bottom: 5.00em">
        <a name="toc3" id="toc3"></a> <a name="pdf4" id="pdf4"></a>

        <h1 class="tei tei-head" style=
        "margin-top: 3.46em; text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em">
        <span style="font-size: 173%">Introduction</span></h1>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The essays
        published in this volume under the title of <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Studies in
        Judaism</span></span> have been written on various occasions and at
        long intervals. There is thus no necessary connection between them.
        If some sort of unity may be detected in the book, it can only be
        between the first three essays—on the Chassidim, Krochmal, and the
        Gaon—in which there is a certain unity of purpose. The purpose in
        view was, as may easily be gathered from the essays themselves, to
        bring under the notice of the English public a type of men produced
        by the Synagogue of the Eastern Jews. That Synagogue is widely
        different from ours. Its places of worship have no claims to
        <span class="tei tei-q">“beauty of holiness,”</span> being in their
        outward appearance rather bare and bald, if not repulsive; whilst
        those who frequent them are a noisy, excitable people, who actually
        dance on the <span class="tei tei-q">“Season of Rejoicing”</span> and
        cry bitterly on the <span class="tei tei-q">“Days of
        Mourning.”</span> But among all these vagaries—or perhaps because of
        them—this Synagogue has had its moments of grace, when enthusiasm
        wedded to inspiration gave birth to such beautiful souls as Baalshem,
        such fine sceptics as Krochmal, and such saintly scholars as Elijah
        Wilna. The Synagogue of the West is certainly of a more presentable
        character, and free from excesses; though it is not devoid of an
        enthusiasm of its own which <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexii">[pg
        xii]</span><a name="Pgxii" id="Pgxii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        finds its outlet in an ardent and self-sacrificing philanthropic
        activity. But owing to its practical tendency there is too little
        room in it for that play of intellectual forces which finds its
        extravagant expression in the saint on the one hand, and the learned
        heretic on the other.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Eight of these
        essays are more or less of a theological nature. But in reading the
        proofs I have been struck by the fact that there is assumed in them a
        certain conception of the Synagogue which, familiar though it be to
        the Jewish student, may appear obscure and even strange to the
        general English reader. For brevity's sake I will call it the High
        Synagogue, though it does not correspond in all details to what one
        is accustomed to understand under the term of High Church. The High
        Synagogue has a history which is not altogether without its points of
        interest.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Some years ago
        when the waves of the Higher Criticism of the Old Testament reached
        the shores of this country, and such questions as the heterogeneous
        composition of the Pentateuch, the comparatively late date of the
        Levitical Legislation, and the post-exilic origin of certain
        Prophecies as well as of the Psalms began to be freely discussed by
        the press and even in the pulpit, the invidious remark was often
        made: What will now become of Judaism when its last stronghold, the
        Law, is being shaken to its very foundations?</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Such a remark
        shows a very superficial acquaintance with the nature of an old
        historical religion like Judaism, and the richness of the resources
        it has to fall back upon in cases of emergency.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As a fact, the
        emergency did not quite surprise Judaism. The alarm signal was given
        some 150 years ago by an <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexiii">[pg
        xiii]</span><a name="Pgxiii" id="Pgxiii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        Italian Rabbi, Abiad Sar Shalom Bazilai, in his pamphlet <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Faith of the
        Sages</span></span>. The pamphlet is, as the title indicates, of a
        polemical character, reviewing the work of the Jewish rationalistic
        schools; and after warming up in his attacks against their heterodox
        views, Bazilai exclaims: <span class="tei tei-q">“Nature and simple
        meaning, they are our misfortune.”</span> By <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“nature and simple meaning”</span> Bazilai, who wrote in
        Hebrew, understood what we would call Natural Science and Philology.
        With the right instinct of faith, Bazilai hit on the real sore
        points. For though he mostly argues against the philosophical systems
        of Aristotle and his commentators, he felt that it is not speculation
        that will ever seriously endanger religion. There is hardly any
        metaphysical system, old or new, which has not in course of time been
        adapted by able dialecticians to the creed which they happened to
        hold. In our own time we have seen the glorious, though not entirely
        novel spectacle, of Agnosticism itself becoming the rightful handmaid
        of Queen Theology. The real danger lies in <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“nature”</span> (or Natural Science) with its stern
        demand of law and regularity in all phenomena, and in the
        <span class="tei tei-q">“simple meaning”</span> (or Philology) with
        its inconsiderate insistence on truth. Of the two, the <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“simple meaning”</span> is the more objectionable. Not
        only is it very often at variance with Tradition, which has its own
        code of interpretation, but it is constantly increasing the
        difficulties raised by science. For if words could only have more
        than one meaning, there would be no objection to reading the first
        words of Genesis, <span class="tei tei-q">“In <em class=
        "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></em>
        beginning God <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">evolved</span></em>.”</span> The difficulties of
        science would then be disposed of easily enough. Maimonides, who was
        as bold an interpreter as he was a deep metaphysician, hinted plainly
        enough that were he as convinced <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "pagexiv">[pg xiv]</span><a name="Pgxiv" id="Pgxiv" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> of the eternity of matter as he was satisfied
        of the impossibility of any corporeal quality in the deity, he would
        feel as little compunction in explaining (figuratively) the contents
        of the first chapter of Genesis as he did in allegorising the
        anthropomorphic passages of the Bible. Thus in the end all the
        difficulties resolve themselves into the one great difficulty of the
        <span class="tei tei-q">“simple meaning.”</span> The best way to meet
        this difficulty was found to be to shift the centre of gravity in
        Judaism and to place it in the secondary meaning, thus making
        religion independent of philology and all its dangerous
        consequences.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This shifting work
        was chiefly done, perhaps not quite consciously, by the historical
        school which followed upon that of Mendelssohn and his first
        successors. The historical school, which is still in the ascendant,
        comprises many of the best Jewish writers who either by their
        learning or by their ecclesiastical profession as Rabbis and
        preachers in great communities have acquired some important position
        among their brethren. The men who have inaugurated this movement were
        Krochmal (1785-1841), Rapoport (1790-1867), and Zunz (1794-1886).</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is not a mere
        coincidence that the first representatives of the historical school
        were also the first Jewish scholars who proved themselves more or
        less ready to join the modern school of Bible Criticism, and even to
        contribute their share to it. The first two, Krochmal and Rapoport,
        early in the second quarter of this century accepted and defended the
        modern view about a second Isaiah, the post-exilic origin of many
        Psalms, and the late date of Ecclesiastes; whilst Zunz, who began (in
        1832) with denying the authenticity of Ezekiel, concluded his
        literary career (1873) with a study on the Bible (<span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gesammelte</span>
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexv">[pg xv]</span><a name="Pgxv" id=
        "Pgxv" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Schriften</span></span>, i. pp. 217-290), in
        which he expressed his view <span class="tei tei-q">“that the Book of
        Leviticus dates from a later period than the Book of Deuteronomy,
        later even than Ezekiel, having been composed during the age of the
        Second Temple, when there already existed a well-established
        priesthood which superintended the sacrificial worship.”</span> But
        when Revelation or the Written Word is reduced to the level of
        history, there is no difficulty in elevating history in its aspect of
        Tradition to the rank of Scripture, for both have then the same human
        or divine origin (according to the student's predilection for the one
        or the other adjective), and emanate from the same authority.
        Tradition becomes thus the means whereby the modern divine seeks to
        compensate himself for the loss of the Bible, and the theological
        balance is to the satisfaction of all parties happily readjusted.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Jewish Tradition,
        or, as it is commonly called, the Oral Law, or, as we may term it (in
        consideration of its claims to represent an interpretation of the
        Bible), the Secondary Meaning of the Scriptures, is mainly embodied
        in the works of the Rabbis and their subsequent followers during the
        Middle Ages. Hence the zeal and energy with which the historical
        school applied itself to the Jewish post-biblical literature, not
        only elucidating its texts by means of new critical editions,
        dictionaries, and commentaries, but also trying to trace its origins
        and to pursue its history through its gradual development. To the
        work of Krochmal in this direction a special essay is devoted in this
        volume. The labours of Rapoport are more of a biographical and
        bibliographical nature, being occupied mostly with the minor details
        in the lives and writings of various famous Jewish Rabbis in the
        Middle Ages; thus <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexvi">[pg
        xvi]</span><a name="Pgxvi" id="Pgxvi" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        they offer but little opportunity for general theological comment. Of
        more importance in this respect are the hints thrown out in his
        various works by Zunz, who was just as emphatic in asserting the
        claims of Tradition as he was advanced in his views on Bible
        criticism. Zunz's greatest work is <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Gottesdienstlichen
        Vorträge</span></span>—an awkward title, which in fact means
        <span class="tei tei-q">“The History of the Interpretation of the
        Scriptures as forming a part of the divine service.”</span> Now if a
        work displaying such wide learning and critical acumen, and written
        in such an impartial spirit can be said to have a bias, it was
        towards bridging over the seemingly wide gap between the Written Word
        (the Scriptures) and the Spoken Word (the Oral Law or Tradition),
        which was the more deeply felt, as most of Zunz's older
        contemporaries were men, grown up in the habits of thought of the
        eighteenth century—a century distinguished both for its ignorance of,
        and its power of ignoring, the teachings of history. Indeed it would
        seem that ages employed in making history have no time for studying
        it.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Zunz accomplished
        the task he set himself, by showing, as already indicated, the late
        date of certain portions of the Bible, which by setting the early
        history of Israel in an ideal light betray the moralising tendency of
        their authors, and are, in fact, little more than a traditional
        interpretation of older portions of Scripture, adapted to the
        religious needs of the time. Placing thus the origin of Tradition in
        the Bible itself, it was a comparatively easy matter for Zunz to
        prove its further continuity. Prophecy and Interpretation are with
        him the natural expressions of the religious life of the nation; and
        though by the loss of Israel's political independence the voice of
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexvii">[pg xvii]</span><a name=
        "Pgxvii" id="Pgxvii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the prophets
        gradually died away, the voice of God was still heard. Israel
        continues to consult God through the medium of the Scriptures, and He
        answers His people by the mouth of the Scribes, the Sages, the
        Interpreters of the Law; whilst the liturgy of the Synagogue,
        springing up at the time when Psalms were still being composed,
        expands in its later stages through the work of the Poets of the
        Synagogue into such a rich luxuriance <span class="tei tei-q">“that
        it forms in itself a treasure of history, poetry, philosophy; and
        prophecy and psalms are again revived in the hymnology of the Middle
        Ages.”</span> This is in brief the lesson to be learned from Zunz's
        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Gottesdienstliche Vorträge</span></span> as far
        as it deals with the significance of Tradition; and it is in the
        introduction to this work that Zunz expresses himself to the
        following effect: Indispensable is the free Spoken Word. Mankind has
        acquired all its ideal treasures only by Word of Mouth; an education
        continuing through all stages of life. In Israel, too, the Word of
        Instruction transmitted from mouth to mouth was never silenced.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The historical
        school has never, to my knowledge, offered to the world a theological
        programme of its own. By the nature of its task, its labours are
        mostly conducted in the field of philology and archæology, and it
        pays but little attention to purely dogmatic questions. On the whole,
        its attitude towards religion may be defined as an enlightened
        Scepticism combined with a staunch conservatism which is not even
        wholly devoid of a certain mystical touch. As far as we may gather
        from vague remarks and hints thrown out now and then, its theological
        position may perhaps be thus defined:—It is not the mere revealed
        Bible that is of first importance to the Jew, but the Bible as it
        repeats itself in history, in other words, as it is <span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="pagexviii">[pg xviii]</span><a name="Pgxviii" id=
        "Pgxviii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> interpreted by Tradition. The
        Talmud, that wonderful mine of religious ideas from which it would be
        just as easy to draw up a manual for the most orthodox as to extract
        a vade-mecum for the most sceptical, lends some countenance to this
        view by certain controversial passages—not to be taken seriously—in
        which <span class="tei tei-q">“the words of the scribes”</span> are
        placed almost above the words of the Torah. Since then the
        interpretation of Scripture or the Secondary Meaning is mainly a
        product of changing historical influences, it follows that the centre
        of authority is actually removed from the Bible and placed in some
        <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">living
        body</span></em>, which, by reason of its being in touch with the
        ideal aspirations and the religious needs of the age, is best able to
        determine the nature of the Secondary Meaning. This living body,
        however, is not represented by any section of the nation, or any
        corporate priesthood, or Rabbihood, but by the collective conscience
        of Catholic Israel as embodied in the Universal Synagogue. The
        Synagogue <span class="tei tei-q">“with its long, continuous cry
        after God for more than twenty-three centuries,”</span> with its
        unremittent activity in teaching and developing the word of God, with
        its uninterrupted succession of prophets, Psalmists, Scribes,
        Assideans, Rabbis, Patriarchs, Interpreters, Elucidators, Eminences,
        and Teachers, with its glorious record of Saints, martyrs, sages,
        philosophers, scholars, and mystics; this Synagogue, the only true
        witness to the past, and forming in all ages the sublimest expression
        of Israel's religious life, must also retain its authority as the
        sole true guide for the present and the future. And being in
        communion with this Synagogue, we may also look hopefully for a safe
        and rational solution of our present theological troubles. For was it
        not the Synagogue which even in <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "pagexix">[pg xix]</span><a name="Pgxix" id="Pgxix" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> antiquity determined the fate of Scripture? On
        the one hand, for example, books like Ezekiel, the Song of Songs, and
        Ecclesiastes, were only declared to be Holy Writ in virtue of the
        interpretation put upon them by the Rabbis: and, on the other hand,
        it was the veto of the Rabbis which excluded from the canon the works
        that now pass under the name of Apocrypha. We may, therefore, safely
        trust that the Synagogue will again assert its divine right in
        passing judgment upon the Bible when it feels called upon to exercise
        that holy office. It is <span class="tei tei-q">“God who has chosen
        the Torah, and Moses His servant, and Israel His people.”</span> But
        indeed God's choice invariably coincides with the wishes of Israel;
        He <span class="tei tei-q">“performeth all things”</span> upon which
        the councils of Israel, meeting under promise of the Divine presence
        and communion, have previously agreed. As the Talmud somewhere
        expresses itself with regard to the Book of Esther, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“They have confirmed above what Israel has accepted
        below.”</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another
        consequence of this conception of Tradition is that it is neither
        Scripture nor primitive Judaism, but general custom which forms the
        real rule of practice. Holy Writ as well as history, Zunz tells us,
        teaches that the law of Moses was never fully and absolutely put in
        practice. Liberty was always given to the great teachers of every
        generation to make modifications and innovations in harmony with the
        spirit of existing institutions. Hence a return to Mosaism would be
        illegal, pernicious, and indeed impossible. The norm as well as the
        sanction of Judaism is the practice actually in vogue. Its
        consecration is the consecration of general use,—or, in other words,
        of Catholic Israel. It was probably with a view to this communion
        that the later mystics introduced a short prayer to <span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="pagexx">[pg xx]</span><a name="Pgxx" id="Pgxx"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> be said before the performance of any
        religious ceremony, in which, among other things, the speaker
        professes his readiness to act <span class="tei tei-q">“in the name
        of all Israel.”</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It would be out of
        place in an introductory essay to pursue any further this interesting
        subject with its far-reaching consequences upon Jewish life and
        Jewish thought. But the foregoing remarks may suffice to show that
        Judaism did not remain quite inactive at the approach of the great
        religious crisis which our generation has witnessed. Like so many
        other religious communities, it reviewed its forces, entrenched
        itself on the field of history, and what it lost of its old devotion
        to the Bible, it has sought to make up by a renewed reverence for
        institutions.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In this
        connection, a mere mention may suffice of the ultra-Orthodox party,
        led by the late Dr. S. R. Hirsch of Frankfort (1808-1889) whose
        defiance of reason and criticism even a Ward might have envied, and
        whose saintliness and sublimity even a Keble might have admired. And,
        to take an example from the opposite school, we must at least record
        the name of that devout Jew, Osias Schorr (1816-1895), in whom we
        have profound learning combined with an uncompromising disposition of
        mind productive of a typical champion of Radicalism in things
        religious. These men are, however, representative of two extremes,
        and their followers constitute mere minorities; the majority is with
        the historical school.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">How long the
        position of this school will prove tenable is another question. Being
        brought up in the old Low Synagogue, where, with all attachment to
        tradition, the Bible was looked upon as the crown and the climax of
        Judaism, the old Adam still asserts itself in me, and in <span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="pagexxi">[pg xxi]</span><a name="Pgxxi" id="Pgxxi"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> unguarded moments makes me rebel against
        this new rival of revelation in the shape of history. At times this
        now fashionable exaltation of Tradition at the expense of Scripture
        even impresses me as a sort of religious bimetallism in which bold
        speculators in theology try to keep up the market value of an
        inferior currency by denouncing loudly the bright shining gold which,
        they would have us believe, is less fitted to circulate in the vulgar
        use of daily life than the small cash of historical interpretation.
        Nor can I quite reconcile myself to this alliance of religion with
        history, which seems to me both unworthy and unnatural. The Jew, some
        writer aptly remarked, was the first and the fiercest Nonconformist
        of the East, and so Judaism was always a protesting religion. To
        break the idols, whether of the past or of the present, has always
        been a sacred mission of Judaism, and has indeed been esteemed by it
        as a necessary preliminary to the advent of the kingdom of God on
        earth. One of its daily prayers was and still is: <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“We therefore hope in Thee, O Lord our God, that we may
        speedily behold the glory of Thy might, when ... the idols will be
        cut off, when the world will be perfected under the kingdom of the
        Almighty.”</span> It bowed before truth, but it had never made a
        covenant with facts only because they were facts. History had to be
        re-made and to sanctify itself before it found its way into its
        sacred annals. Nor did Judaism make a virtue of swallowing down
        institutions. Such institutions as crept into it in course of time
        had, when the Synagogue was conscious of their claims to form part of
        religion, to submit to the laborious process of a thorough adaptation
        to prophetic notions before they were formally sanctioned. But when
        this process was deemed impossible or impracticable, <span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="pagexxii">[pg xxii]</span><a name="Pgxxii" id=
        "Pgxxii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Judaism boldly denounced the
        past in such fierce language as the prophets used and as still finds
        its echo in such passages of the liturgy as <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“First our ancestors were worshippers of idols and now
        God has brought us near to His service”</span>; or <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“But of a truth, we and our ancestors have
        sinned.”</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">However, it would
        be unfair to argue any further against a theological system which, as
        already said, was never avowed distinctly by the historical school—a
        school, moreover, with which speculation is a matter of minor
        importance. The main strength of this school lies in its scientific
        work, for which Judaism will always be under a sense of deep
        gratitude. And living as we do in an age in which history reigns
        supreme in all departments of human thought, we may hope that even
        its theology, as far as it goes, will <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“do”</span> for us, though I neither hope nor believe
        that it will do for those who come after us. I may, however, humbly
        confess that the sixth essay in this volume was written in a spirit
        of rebellion against this all-absorbing Catholic Israel, with its
        decently veiled scepticism on the one hand, and its unfortunate
        tendency with many people to degenerate into a soulless conformity on
        the other hand. There is, I am afraid, not much to be said in favour
        of this essay. It is deficient both in matter and in style. It proved
        to be a futile attempt to bring within the compass of an essay what a
        whole book could hardly do justice to. The Hebrew documents bearing
        upon the question of dogma which I have collected from various
        manuscripts and rare printed books, would alone make a fair-sized
        volume. I only venture to offer it to the public in the absence of
        anything better; since, so far as I know, no other attempt has ever
        been made to treat <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexxiii">[pg
        xxiii]</span><a name="Pgxxxiii" id="Pgxxxiii" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> the subject even in its meagrest outlines. I
        even venture to hope that, with all its shortcomings, it will
        contribute something towards destroying the illusion, in which so
        many theologians indulge, that Judaism is a religion without dogmas.
        To declare that a religion has no dogmas is tantamount to saying that
        it was wise enough not to commit itself to any vital principles. But
        prudence, useful as it may be in worldly affairs, is quite unworthy
        of a great spiritual power.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Jewish mysticism
        in the Middle Ages and in modern times is represented in this volume
        by two essays (<span class="tei tei-q">“The Chassidim”</span> and
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Nachmanides”</span>). But in order to avoid
        mistakes which might be implied by my silence, I think it desirable
        to state that there are also to be found many mystical elements in
        the old Rabbinic literature. Mysticism, not as a theosophic system or
        as an occult science, but as a manifestation of the spiritual and as
        an expression of man's agonies in his struggle after communion with
        God, as well as of his ineffable joy when he receives the assurance
        that he has found it, is not, as some maintain, foreign to the spirit
        of old Rabbinic Judaism. There was no need for the mediæval Rabbi to
        borrow the elements of such a mysticism from non-Jewish sources. The
        perusal of the old Homilies on the Song of Songs, and on the Lessons
        from the Prophets, or even a fair acquaintance with the Jewish
        liturgy would, in itself, suffice to refute such baseless assertions.
        Those who are at all familiar with old Rabbinic literature hardly
        need to be told that <span class="tei tei-q">“the sea of the
        Talmud”</span> has also its gulf stream of mysticism which, taking
        its origin in the moralising portions of the Bible, runs through the
        wide ocean of Jewish thought, constantly commingling with the icy
        waters of legalism, and <span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagexxiv">[pg
        xxiv]</span><a name="Pgxxiv" id="Pgxxiv" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        unceasingly washing the desolate shores of an apparently meaningless
        ceremonialism, communicating to it life, warmth, and spirituality. To
        draw attention to this fact a humble attempt has been made in the
        ninth essay, <span class="tei tei-q">“The Law and Recent
        Criticism,”</span> a subject which I have essayed to expound in a
        series of essays on <span class="tei tei-q">“Some Aspects of Rabbinic
        Theology,”</span> now appearing in <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Jewish Quarterly
        Review</span></span>.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The last five
        essays touch rather on certain social and familiar aspects of
        Judaism, and need no further comment. They are mere <em class=
        "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">causeries</span></em>
        and hardly deserve the name of studies. Perhaps it may be useful for
        those who judge of the heaviness of a work by its bulk to know that
        there is also a lighter side of Rabbinic literature.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But I shall be
        better pleased if the more serious side of this volume—Jewish
        mysticism and Rabbinic theology—should attract the attention of
        students, and so draw some fellow-workers into a field which is
        utterly neglected. Notwithstanding the numerous Manuals and
        Introductions which all more or less touch on the subject of Rabbinic
        theology, there is, after nearly 250 years, not a single work among
        them which, either in knowledge of facts or in their interpretation,
        is a single step in advance of the Cambridge Platonist, John Smith,
        in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Select Discourses</span></span>. But those who
        try so hard to determine the miraculous distance of Christianity by
        the eclipses in Rabbinism, should, if they wish to be just or prove
        themselves worthy scholars, also endeavour to make themselves
        acquainted with the numberless bright stars that move in the wide
        universe of Jewish thought. We are often told that no creed or
        theological system which has come down to us from antiquity can
        afford to be judged by any other standard <span class="tei tei-pb"
        id="pagexxv">[pg xxv]</span><a name="Pgxxv" id="Pgxxv" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> than by its spiritual and poetic <em class=
        "tei tei-emph"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">possibilities</span></em>: this indulgence
        Judaism is as justly entitled to claim as any other religion. The
        great and saintly Franz Delitzsch who, born with an intellect of
        admirable temper, was also endowed by Heaven with a soul—and a
        beautiful soul it was—was one of the few theologians who, partly at
        least, admitted this claim, and sought earnestly and diligently after
        these spiritual and poetic possibilities, and was amply rewarded for
        his labours.</p>
      </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page001">[pg 001]</span><a name=
      "Pg001" id="Pg001" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
      <hr class="page" />

      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
      "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
        <a name="toc5" id="toc5"></a> <a name="pdf6" id="pdf6"></a>

        <h1 class="tei tei-head" style=
        "margin-bottom: 3.46em; text-align: left; margin-top: 3.46em">
        <span style="font-size: 173%">I. The Chassidim</span><a id=
        "noteref_1" name="noteref_1" href="#note_1"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref" style="text-align: left"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1</span></span></a></h1>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Throughout the
        whole of that interesting field of Theological Literature which deals
        with the genesis and course of religious movements, there is probably
        none whose history, even whose name, is so little known to English
        students, as that of the Chassidim. And yet it would be difficult to
        point, in comparatively recent times, to a Dissenting movement more
        strikingly complete in its development, more suggestive of analogy,
        more full of interest in its original purpose, more pregnant of
        warning in its decay.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Hebrew word
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Chassidim”</span><a id="noteref_2" name=
        "noteref_2" href="#note_2"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">2</span></span></a> merely
        means <span class="tei tei-q">“the Pious,”</span> and appears to have
        been complacently adopted by the early apostles of the sect. But the
        thing—Chassidism—was, in its inception at all events, a revolt among
        the Jews of Eastern Europe against the excessive casuistry of the
        contemporary Rabbis. It was in fact one more manifestation of the
        yearning of the human heart towards the Divine idea, and of its
        ceaseless craving for direct communion with God. It was the protest
        of an emotional but uneducated people against a one-sided expression
        of Judaism, presented to them in cold and over-subtle disquisitions
        which not only did they not understand, but which shut out the play
        of the feelings <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page002">[pg
        002]</span><a name="Pg002" id="Pg002" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and
        the affections, so that religion was made almost impossible to
        them.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Some account of
        the sect is the more necessary because, although the Chassidim have
        not been wholly ignored by historians or novelists, the references to
        them have generally, for perfectly intelligible reasons, been either
        biassed or inaccurate. The historians who have treated of them have
        been almost exclusively men saturated with Western culture and
        rationalism. To them the rude and uncouth manifestations of an
        undisciplined religious spirit could not be other than repellent; to
        them Chassidism was a movement to be dismissed as unæsthetic and
        irrational.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To the purposes of
        fiction the romantic side of Chassidism lends itself readily, but the
        novelists who have used this material have confined themselves to its
        externals. Indeed, to have done more would have involved a tedious
        and unremunerative study of difficult Hebrew texts, an undertaking
        not to be expected from the most conscientious writers of this class.
        Thus Franzos in his references to the Jews of Barnow describes
        faithfully the outer signs of the man, his long coat and tangled
        curls, but the inner life, the world in which the Chassid moved and
        had his being, was unknown to him and is therefore unrecorded.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As to my treatment
        of the subject, I confess that there was a time when I loved the
        Chassidim as there was a time when I hated them. And even now I am
        not able to suppress these feelings. I have rather tried to guide my
        feelings in such a way as to love in Chassidism what is ideal and
        noble, and to hate in it what turned out bad and pernicious for
        Judaism. How far I have been successful is another question. At least
        I have endeavoured to write this paper in such a spirit. But of one
        thing I <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page003">[pg 003]</span><a name=
        "Pg003" id="Pg003" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> must warn the
        reader—the desire to give some clear notion of the leading ideas of
        Chassidism has compelled me to quote some passages in which the
        Chassidim have spoken in very offensive terms of their opponents. In
        justice to these I must remark that unfortunately religious struggles
        are usually conducted on the most irreligious principles. Thus the
        Chassidim imputed to their antagonists, the contemporary Rabbis, many
        vices from which they were free. Certainly, there was, as one can
        read in every history of Jewish religion, something wrong in the
        state of Judaism. But I know people who maintain that there is
        something very wrong in the present state of Judaism, and who despair
        of a regeneration. But surely this is a silly exaggeration. The
        Chassidim also exaggerated. It would be better to take but little
        notice of their accusations and dwell more on that which was spoken
        in a kind and loving spirit.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As to the
        literature of the subject, I can only say here that I have made use
        of every book I could consult, both in English and in foreign
        libraries. But I cannot pledge myself to be what early Jewish writers
        called <span class="tei tei-q">“a donkey which carries books.”</span>
        I exercise my own choice and my own judgment on many points.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As an active force
        for good, Chassidism was short-lived. For, as I propose to show,
        there lurked among its central tenets the germs of the degeneracy
        which so speedily came upon it. But its early purposes were high, its
        doctrines fairly pure, its aspirations ideal and sublime.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The founder of the
        sect was one Israel Baalshem,<a id="noteref_3" name="noteref_3" href=
        "#note_3"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">3</span></span></a> and the
        story of his parentage, birth, and childhood, and the current
        anecdotes of his subsequent career play a considerable part in
        Chassidic literature. But the authentic <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page004">[pg 004]</span><a name="Pg004" id="Pg004" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> materials for his biography are everywhere
        interwoven with much that is pure legend and with much more that is
        miraculous. This was, perhaps, inevitable, and is certainly not an
        unfamiliar feature in the personal histories of religious reformers
        as presented by their followers and devotees.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The sayings and
        doings of Baalshem are an essential—perhaps the most
        essential—portion of any account of the sect. For Baalshem is the
        centre of the Chassidic world, and Chassidism is so intimately bound
        up with the personality of its founder that any separation between
        them is well nigh impossible. To the Chassidim Baalshem is not a man
        who established a theory or set forth a system; he himself was the
        incarnation of a theory and his whole life the revelation of a
        system.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Even those
        portions of his history which are plainly legendary have their uses
        in indicating the ideals and in illustrating the aspirations of the
        early Chassidim; while their circulation and the ready credence they
        received are valuable evidence of the real power and influence of
        Baalshem's personality.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the tale as
        told by the sect little is omitted of those biographical accessories
        which are proper to an Avatar. There is all the conventional
        heralding of a pre-ordained advent; all the usual signs and portents
        of a new dispensation may be recognised in the almost preternatural
        virtues of Baalshem's parents, in the miraculous annunciation and
        exceptional circumstances of his nativity, and in the early
        indication of a strong and fearless individuality. Everywhere it
        seems to be suggested that Baalshem from his infancy was conscious of
        a lofty mission. It is already in tender years that he is made
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page005">[pg 005]</span><a name="Pg005"
        id="Pg005" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to give evidence of an
        indifference to conventional restraints and accepted ideals.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Rabbi Eliezer and
        his wife, the parents of Baalshem, dwelt, as the story goes, in
        Moldavia. They are described as a pious and God-fearing couple, who,
        when they had already reached old age, were still childless. They are
        accredited with a spotless rectitude, which was unimpaired by a long
        series of strange vicissitudes and misfortunes.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Ultimately, an
        angel of God appeared to Eliezer and announced that, as he had
        successfully withstood all the temptations and sufferings by which he
        had been tried, God was about to reward him with a son, who was
        destined to enlighten the eyes of all Israel. Therefore his name
        should be Israel, for in him the words of Scripture were to be
        fulfilled, <span class="tei tei-q">“Thou art my servant, Israel, in
        whom I will be glorified.”</span> In due course the promise was
        fulfilled, and to the aged couple a son was born, who was named
        Israel according to the angel's word. The date of Baalshem's birth is
        about 1700; his birthplace, in Bukowina, in a hitherto unidentified
        village which the authorities call Ukop, then still belonging to
        Roumania. The child's mother died soon after he was weaned, and his
        father did not long survive her. But before Eliezer died he took his
        child in his arms, and blessing him, bade him fear naught, for God
        would always be with him.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As Eliezer had
        been greatly honoured in the community in which he lived, his orphan
        son was carefully tended and educated. He was early supplied with an
        instructor in the Holy Law. But though he learned with rare facility,
        he rejected the customary methods of instruction. One day, while
        still quite young, his teacher missed him, <span class="tei tei-pb"
        id="page006">[pg 006]</span><a name="Pg006" id="Pg006" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> and on seeking found him sitting alone in the
        forest that skirted his native village, in happy and fearless
        solitude. He repeated this escapade so often that it was thought best
        to leave him to follow his own bent. A little later we find him
        engaged as assistant to a schoolmaster. His duty was not to teach,
        but to take the children from their homes to the synagogue and thence
        on to the school. It was his wont while accompanying the children to
        the synagogue to teach them solemn hymns which he sang with them. In
        the synagogue he encouraged them to sing the responses, so that the
        voices of the children penetrated through the heavens and moved the
        Divine father to compassion. Satan, fearing lest his power on earth
        should thereby be diminished, assumed the shape of a werewolf, and,
        appearing before the procession of children on their way to the
        synagogue, put them to flight. In consequence of this alarming
        incident the children's services were suspended. But Israel,
        recollecting his father's counsel to fear naught, besought the
        parents to be allowed to lead the children once more in the old way.
        His request was granted, and when the werewolf appeared a second time
        Israel attacked him with a club and routed him.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In his fourteenth
        year Israel became a beadle at the Beth Hammidrash.<a id="noteref_4"
        name="noteref_4" href="#note_4"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">4</span></span></a> Here he
        assiduously but secretly pursued the study of the Law. Yet, being
        anxious that none should know his design, he read and worked only at
        night, when the schoolroom was empty and the usual scholars had
        retired. During the daytime he slept, so that he was popularly
        believed to be both ignorant and lazy. Despite these precautions,
        however, his true character was revealed to one person. A certain
        holy <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page007">[pg 007]</span><a name=
        "Pg007" id="Pg007" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> man, the father of a
        young student at the college, had discovered some old manuscripts
        which contained the deepest secrets. Before his death he bade his son
        repair to Ukop, Israel's birthplace, telling him that he would find
        one Israel, son of Eliezer, to whom the precious documents were to be
        entrusted. They possessed, so the old man declared, a certain mystic
        and heavenly affinity with Israel's soul. The student carried out his
        father's instructions, and at last discovered the object of his
        search in the beadle of the Beth Hammidrash. Israel admitted him to
        his friendship and confidence on the condition of secrecy as to his
        real character. The student, however, paid dearly for this
        acquaintance with Israel. Contrary to Baalshem's advice, he entered
        upon a dangerous incantation in the course of which he made a mistake
        so serious that it cost him his life.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Upon the death of
        his friend, Baalshem left his native village and settled as a teacher
        in a small town near Brody. Here, although his true mission and
        character were still unknown, he became much respected for his rigid
        probity, and was frequently chosen as umpire in disputes among Jews.
        On one of these occasions he arbitrated with so much learning and
        impartiality that not only did he satisfy both parties, but one of
        them, a learned man of Brody, named Abraham, offered him his own
        daughter in marriage. Israel, to whom it had been revealed that
        Abraham's daughter was his predestined wife, immediately accepted the
        offer and the act of betrothal was drawn up. But wishing his true
        character to remain unknown he stipulated that Abraham, although a
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Talmid Chacham”</span> (student)<a id=
        "noteref_5" name="noteref_5" href="#note_5"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">5</span></span></a> himself
        and therefore presumably desirous that his daughter should marry a
        scholar, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page008">[pg
        008]</span><a name="Pg008" id="Pg008" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        should omit from the betrothal-deed all the titles of honour usually
        appended to the name of a learned bridegroom. While returning to
        Brody, Abraham died, and Gershon his son, a scholar still greater and
        more celebrated than his father, was surprised and shocked to find a
        deed of betrothal among his father's papers, from which it appeared
        that his sister was to wed a man with apparently no claim to
        scholarship or learning. He protested to his sister, but she declined
        to entertain any objections to a marriage which her father had
        arranged. When the time for the wedding was at hand, Israel gave up
        his post as teacher, and repaired to Brody. Disguised as a peasant he
        presented himself before his future brother-in-law, who was then
        fulfilling some high judicial function. Gershon taking him for a
        beggar offered him alms, but Israel, refusing the money, asked for a
        private interview, stating that he had an important secret to reveal.
        He then, to Gershon's surprise and disgust, explained who he was and
        that he had come to claim his bride. As the girl was determined to
        obey her father's will the affair was settled and the day fixed. On
        the morning of the wedding Israel revealed to his bride his real
        character and mission, at the same time enjoining secrecy. Evil
        fortunes would befall them, he said, but a better time would
        eventually follow.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">After the wedding,
        Gershon, having in vain attempted to instruct his seemingly ignorant
        brother-in-law, decided to rid himself of his presence. He gave his
        sister the choice of being separated from her husband, or of leaving
        the town in his company. She chose the latter, and thereupon the two
        left Brody and began a life of hardship and suffering. Israel chose
        for his new home a spot on one of the spurs of the Carpathian
        Mountains. No Jews lived <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page009">[pg
        009]</span><a name="Pg009" id="Pg009" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        there, and Israel and his wife were thus separated from the society
        of their fellows in a life of complete and unchanging solitude.
        Israel dug lime in the ravines among the mountains, and his wife
        conveyed it for sale to the nearest town. Their life at this period
        seems to have been one of great privation, but the harder Israel's
        outward lot, the more he increased in spiritual greatness. In his
        solitude he gave himself up entirely to devotion and religious
        contemplation. His habit was to climb to the summit of the mountains
        and wander about rapt in spiritual ecstasies. He fasted, prayed, made
        continual ablutions, and observed all the customary outward and
        inward exercises of piety and devotion.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">After seven years,
        Gershon, who was well aware of the bitter poverty which his sister
        endured, relented and brought her and her husband back to Brody. At
        first he employed Baalshem as his coachman, but as he proved wholly
        unfit for this work Gershon rented a small inn in a remote village,
        and there established his sister and her husband. The business of the
        inn was managed by the wife, while Baalshem passed most of his time
        in a hut in a neighbouring forest. Here he once more gave himself up
        to meditation and preparation for his future work, and here, a little
        later, when nearly forty-two years of age, to a few chosen spirits,
        afterwards his most fervent disciples, he first revealed his true
        character and mission.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From this point
        unfortunately the materials for a continuous biography are wanting;
        we next hear of Baalshem discharging the functions of an ordinary
        Rabbi at Miedziboz in Podolia, but for the remainder of his personal
        history we have to be content with detached anecdotes <span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="page010">[pg 010]</span><a name="Pg010" id="Pg010"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and fragmentary passages in his life, the
        sum total of which goes to show that he resided in Podolia and
        Wallachia, teaching his doctrines to his disciples and <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“working Wonders.”</span> He does not seem to have
        figured as a public preacher, nor has he left behind him any written
        work. He appears rather to have used the method, familiar to students
        of Greek philosophy, of teaching by conversations with his friends
        and disciples. These conversations, and the parables with which they
        were largely interspersed, were remembered and stored up by his
        hearers. By his neighbours the country folk, Baalshem was regarded
        simply as <span class="tei tei-q">“a man of God.”</span> He was
        allowed to pursue his course undisturbed by persecution of the
        serious character which his more aggressive successors provoked. Such
        of the Rabbis as were aware of his existence despised him and his
        ways, but the Rabbinical world was at that time too much occupied in
        the controversy between Eybeschütz and Emden to concern itself with
        the vagaries of an obscure and apparently <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“unlearned”</span> eccentric. Baalshem also took part in
        the disputes which were held in Lemberg, the capital of Galicia
        (1757?), between the Rabbis and the Frankists,<a id="noteref_6" name=
        "noteref_6" href="#note_6"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">6</span></span></a> who
        denounced the Talmud to the Polish Government and wanted to have all
        the Rabbinical books destroyed. Baalshem suffered from this
        excitement in a most terrible way. The abrogation of the Oral Law
        meant for him the ruin of Judaism.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Baalshem, in
        forming the little band of devoted followers who were destined to
        spread a knowledge of his creed, travelled considerably about
        Wallachia. He at one time decided to make a pilgrimage to Palestine,
        but when he reached Constantinople he felt himself inspired
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page011">[pg 011]</span><a name="Pg011"
        id="Pg011" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to return and continue his
        work at home. He died at Miedziboz on the eve of Pentecost, 1761.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">After his death
        his disciples, of whom one Beer of Mizriez was the most prominent,
        undertook the proselytising mission for which Baalshem had prepared
        them, but from which he himself appears to have abstained. They
        preached and taught in all the provinces of Russia where Jews may
        reside, and in Roumania, and Galicia. The number of the sect at the
        present day is probably about half a million.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Returning now to
        Baalshem the founder, it may be noted that his appearance as a
        teacher and reformer was accompanied and justified by a customary and
        adequate number of miracles. To one disciple he revealed secrets
        which could have become known to him only by divine revelation; to
        another he appeared with a nimbus round his head. On the evidence of
        the Chassidim we learn that Baalshem performed all the recognised
        signs and marvels which have ever been the customary minor
        characteristics of men of similar type in similar environment. When
        Baalshem desired to cross a stream, he spread forth his mantle upon
        the waters, and standing thereupon passed safely to the other side.
        Ghosts evacuated haunted houses at the mere mention of his name. Was
        he alone in the forest on a wintry night, he had but to touch a tree
        with his finger tips and flames burst forth. When his spirit wandered
        through the angelic spheres, as was frequently the case, he obtained
        access to Paradise for millions of pining souls who had vainly waited
        without through long thousands of mournful years. These and other
        miracles need not be examined. Here, as in the case of other such
        blissful seasons of grace, they were the <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page012">[pg 012]</span><a name="Pg012" id="Pg012" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> ephemeral though important accessories in
        establishing the inspired character of his utterances and the
        authority of his injunctions. It is not as a worker of miracles, but
        as a religious teacher and reformer, that Baalshem is
        interesting.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Properly to
        understand the nature and special direction of his teaching, it is
        necessary in some measure to realise the character of the field in
        which he worked; to consider, in other words, the moral and religious
        condition of the Jews in those districts where Chassidism first took
        root.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In a Hebrew Hymn,
        written about 1000 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-variant: small-caps">a.c.</span></span>, and still recited in
        the synagogue on the Day of Atonement, the poet expresses the strange
        and bitter fortunes of his race in touching words of mingled sorrow
        and exultation.</p>

        <div class="block tei tei-quote" style=
        "margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em">
            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Destroyed lies Zion and
              profaned,</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Of splendour and renown
              bereft,</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Her ancient glories wholly
              waned,</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">One deathless treasure only
              left;</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style=
            "text-align: left; margin-left: 3.60em">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Still ours, O Lord,</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style=
            "margin-left: 3.60em; text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Thy Holy Word.</span>
            </div>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And this Divine
        Word it was, which a persecuted religion has sought to preserve
        intact through so many centuries of persecution, and for the sake of
        which no labour seemed too severe, no sacrifice too large.
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Bethink Thee, O God,”</span> exclaimed one
        of our Jewish sages who flourished about the same period,
        <span class="tei tei-q">“bethink Thee of Thy faithful children who,
        amid their poverty and want, are busy in the study of Thy Law.
        Bethink Thee of the poor in Israel who are willing to suffer hunger
        and destitution if only they can secure for their children the
        knowledge of Thy Law.”</span> And so indeed it was. Old and
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page013">[pg 013]</span><a name="Pg013"
        id="Pg013" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> young, weak and strong, rich
        and poor, all pursued that single study, the Torah. The product of
        this prolonged study is that gigantic literature which, as a long
        unbroken chain of spiritual activity, connects together the various
        periods of the Jews' chequered and eventful history. All ages and all
        lands have contributed to the development of this supreme study. For
        under the word Torah was comprised not only the Law, but also the
        contributions of later times expressing either the thoughts or the
        emotions of holy and sincere men; and even their honest scepticism
        was not entirely excluded. As in the canon of the Bible, Ecclesiastes
        and the Song of Solomon found place in the same volume that contains
        the Law and the Prophets, so at a later time people did not object to
        put the philosophical works of Maimonides and the songs of Judah
        Hallevi on the same level with the Code of the Law compiled by R.
        Isaac Alfasi, and the commentaries on the Bible by R. Solomon b.
        Isaac.<a id="noteref_7" name="noteref_7" href="#note_7"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">7</span></span></a> None of
        them was declared infallible, but also to none of them, as soon as
        people were convinced of the author's sincerity, was denied the
        homage due to seekers after truth. Almost every author was called
        Rabbi (<span class="tei tei-q">“my master”</span>) or Rabbenu
        (<span class="tei tei-q">“our master”</span>),<a id="noteref_8" name=
        "noteref_8" href="#note_8"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">8</span></span></a> and
        nearly every book was regarded more or less as a contribution to the
        great bulk of the Torah. It was called Writ,<a id="noteref_9" name=
        "noteref_9" href="#note_9"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">9</span></span></a> and was
        treated with a certain kind of piety. But, by a series of accidents
        too long to be related here, sincerity ceased and sport took its
        place. I refer to the casuistic schools commonly known by the name of
        Pilpulists<a id="noteref_10" name="noteref_10" href=
        "#note_10"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">10</span></span></a> (the
        <span class="tei tei-q">“seasoned”</span> or the <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“sharp”</span> ones), who flourished in the last two
        centuries preceding ours. To the authors of this unhappy period, a
        few glorious exceptions always allowed, the preceding <span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="page014">[pg 014]</span><a name="Pg014" id="Pg014"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Jewish literature did not mean a
        <span class="tei tei-q">“fountain of living waters,”</span> supplying
        men with truth and religious inspiration, but rather a kind of
        armoury providing them with juristic cases over which to fight, and
        to out-do each other in sophistry and subtlety. As a consequence they
        cared little or nothing for that part of the Jewish literature that
        appeals less to the intellect than to the feelings of men. In short,
        religion consisted only of complicated cases and innumerable
        ordinances, in which the wit of these men found delight. But the
        emotional part of it, whose root is the Faith and Love of men, was
        almost entirely neglected.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But it was
        precisely these higher religious emotions that were Baalshem's
        peculiar province, and it was to them that he assigned in his
        religious system a place befitting their importance and their
        dignity. And the locality where his ministration lay was curiously
        adapted for such propaganda. To that universal study of the Law of
        which I have just spoken there was one exception. That exception was
        amongst the Jews in the territories which bordered on the Carpathian
        Mountains, and comprise the principalities of Moldavia, and
        Wallachia, Bukowina, and the Ukraine.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is historically
        certain that the first arrival of the Jews in Roumania was at a very
        early date, but there is no trace of any intellectual productivity
        among the immigrants until recent times, and it is admitted that the
        study of the Law was almost entirely neglected. It was in these
        districts of mental, and perhaps we might add of even spiritual,
        darkness that Chassidism took its rise and achieved its first
        success. <span class="tei tei-q">“The sect of the Chassidim,”</span>
        says one of the bitterest but most trustworthy of their opponents,
        <span class="tei tei-q">“first gained ground in the most uncivilised
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page015">[pg 015]</span><a name="Pg015"
        id="Pg015" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> provinces; in the wild ravines
        of Wallachia and the dreary steppes of the Ukraine.”</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Apart from the
        genius of its founder, Chassidism owed its rapid growth to the
        intellectual barrenness of these districts as compared with the
        intellectual fertility of the other regions where Jews most thickly
        congregated. The Roumanian Jews were to some extent under the
        jurisdiction of the Rabbis of Poland. Now the Poles were celebrated
        even in Germany for the elaboration of their casuistry. These
        over-subtle Rabbis, delighting in the quibbles of their sophistry,
        and reducing religion to an unending number of juristic calculations
        and all sorts of possibilities and impossibilities, were but too apt
        to forget the claims of feeling in their eager desire to question and
        to settle everything. They may have been satisfactory guides in
        matters spiritual to the men of their own stamp, but they were of no
        avail to their Roumanian brethren who failed to recognise religion in
        the garb of casuistry. It was, therefore, not surprising that a
        revolt against the excess of intellectualism should have sprung up
        and flourished in those districts where the inhabitants were
        constitutionally incapable of appreciating the delights of argument.
        The field was ready, and in the fulness of time came the sower in the
        person of Baalshem.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the above
        estimate of the Polish Rabbis there undoubtedly lurks a touch of
        exaggeration. But it represents the view which the Chassidim took of
        their opponents. The whole life of Baalshem is a protest against the
        typical Rabbi thus conceived. The essential difference in the ideals
        of the two parties is perhaps best illustrated in those portions of
        their biographical literature where legend treads most closely upon
        the heels of fact.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page016">[pg
        016]</span><a name="Pg016" id="Pg016" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The hero of Polish
        Rabbinic biography at five years of age can recite by heart the most
        difficult tractates of the Talmud; at eight he is the disciple of the
        most celebrated teacher of the time, and perplexes him by the
        penetrative subtlety of his questions; while at thirteen he appears
        before the world as a full-fledged Doctor of the Law.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The hero of the
        Chassidim has a totally different education, and his distinctive
        glory is of another kind. The legendary stories about Baalshem's
        youth tell us little of his proficiency in Talmudic studies; instead
        of sitting in the Beth Hammidrash with the folios of some casuistic
        treatise spread out before him, Baalshem passes his time singing
        hymns out of doors, or under the green trees of the forest with the
        children. Satan, however, says the Chassid, is more afraid of these
        innocent exercises than of all the controversies in the Meheram
        Shiff.<a id="noteref_11" name="noteref_11" href=
        "#note_11"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">11</span></span></a> It was
        through external nature, the woods of his childhood, the hills and
        wild ravines of the Carpathians where he passed many of his maturer
        years, that Baalshem, according to his disciples, reached his
        spiritual confirmation. The Chassidic hero had no celebrated Rabbi
        for his master. He was his own teacher. If not self-taught, it was
        from angelic lips, or even the Divine voice itself, that he learned
        the higher knowledge. From the source whence the Torah flowed
        Baalshem received heavenly lore. His method of self-education, his
        ways of life, his choice of associates were all instances of revolt;
        not only did he teach a wholly different theory and practice, but he
        and his disciples seem to have missed no opportunity of denouncing
        the old teachers as misleading and ungodly. Among the many anecdotes
        illustrating this feature, it is told how once, on the evening before
        the great Day of Atonement, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page017">[pg
        017]</span><a name="Pg017" id="Pg017" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        Baalshem was noticed by his disciples to be, contrary to his usual
        custom, depressed and ill at ease. The whole subsequent day he passed
        in violent weeping and lamentations. At its close he once more
        resumed his wonted cheerfulness of manner. When asked for the
        explanation of his behaviour, he replied that the Holy Spirit had
        revealed to him that heavy accusations were being made against the
        Jewish people, and a heavy punishment had been ordained upon them.
        The anger of heaven was caused by the Rabbis, whose sole occupation
        was to invent lying premisses and to draw from them false
        conclusions. All the truly wise Rabbis of the olden time (such as the
        Tannaim, the Amoraim<a id="noteref_12" name="noteref_12" href=
        "#note_12"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">12</span></span></a> and
        their followers, whom Baalshem regarded as so many saints and
        prophets) had now stood forth as the accusers of their modern
        successors by whom their words were so grossly perverted from their
        original meaning. On this account Baalshem's tears had been shed, and
        his prayers as usual had been successful. The impending judgment was
        annulled. On another occasion, when he overheard the sounds of eager,
        loud discussion issuing from a Rabbinical college, Baalshem, closing
        his ears with his hands, declared that it was such disputants who
        delayed the redemption of Israel from captivity. Satan, he said,
        incites the Rabbis to study those portions of Jewish literature only
        on which they can whet the sharpness of their intellects, but from
        all writings of which the reading would promote piety and the fear of
        God he keeps them away. <span class="tei tei-q">“Where there is much
        study,”</span> says a disciple of Baalshem, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“there is little piety.”</span> <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Jewish Devils”</span><a id="noteref_13" name=
        "noteref_13" href="#note_13"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">13</span></span></a> is one
        of the numerous polite epithets applied to the Rabbis by the friends
        of Baalshem. <span class="tei tei-q">“Even the worst sinners are
        better than they; so blind are they in <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page018">[pg 018]</span><a name="Pg018" id="Pg018" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> the arrogance of their self-conceit that their
        very devotion to the Law becomes a vehicle for their sin.”</span> It
        will be found when we deal with the most positive side of Baalshem's
        teaching that this antagonism to the attitude and methods of the
        contemporary Rabbis is further emphasised, and it will readily be
        seen that his whole scheme of religion and of conduct in relation to
        God and man rendered this acknowledged hostility inevitable. In
        approaching this part of our subject it should be remembered that, as
        stated above, Baalshem himself wrote nothing. For a knowledge of his
        sayings we are therefore dependent on the reports of his friends and
        disciples. And it is not unfrequently necessary to supplement these
        by the teaching of his followers, whom we may suppose in large
        measure to have caught the spirit of their master. Unfortunately the
        original authorities are in a difficult Hebrew patois which often
        obscures the precise meaning of whole passages.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The originality of
        Baalshem's teaching has been frequently impugned, chiefly by the
        suggestion that he drew largely from the Zohar (Book of
        Brightness).<a id="noteref_14" name="noteref_14" href=
        "#note_14"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">14</span></span></a> This
        mystical book, <span class="tei tei-q">“the Bible of the
        Cabbalists,”</span> whether we regard its subject-matter or its
        history and influence, is unique in literature. Its pretended author
        is Simeon ben Yochai, a great Rabbi of the second century, but the
        real writer is probably one Moses de Leon, a Spanish Jew, who lived
        eleven centuries later. The book is one of the most interesting
        literary forgeries, and is a marvellous mixture of good and evil. A
        passage of delicate religious fancy is succeeded by another of gross
        obscenity in illustration and suggestion; true piety and wild
        blasphemy are strangely mingled together. Baalshem undoubtedly had
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page019">[pg 019]</span><a name="Pg019"
        id="Pg019" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> studied the Zohar, and he even
        is reported to have said that the reading of the Zohar had enabled
        him to see into the whole universe of things. But, for all that,
        Baalshem was no copyist; and the Zohar, although it may have
        suggested a hint to him here and there, was not the source whence his
        inspiration was drawn.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Its attraction for
        Baalshem is sufficiently explained by the fantastic, imaginative, and
        emotional nature of its contents. It lent itself more easily than the
        older Rabbinical literature to new explanations unthought of by its
        author. But even the Talmud and its early commentaries became
        apocalyptic to the heroes of Chassidism. Nay, the driest and most
        legal disquisitions about <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">meum</span></span> and <span class=
        "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">tuum</span></span>
        could be translated into parables and allegories and symbols full of
        the most exalted meanings. Baalshem, like every other religious
        reformer, was partially the product of his age. The influences of the
        past, the history and literature of his own people, helped to make
        him what he was. But they do not rob him of his originality. He was a
        religious revivalist in the best sense; full of burning faith in his
        God and his cause; convinced utterly of the value of his work and the
        truth of his teaching.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Although there can
        be no real doubt of Baalshem's claim to originality, it should be
        borne in mind that his teaching is not only distinctively Jewish, but
        that for every part of it parallels and analogies could be found in
        the older Hebrew literature. Indeed it is not wonderful that in a
        literature, extending over 2000 years, of a people whose chief
        thoughts have been religion, and who have come in contact with so
        many external religious and philosophic influences, the germs can be
        discovered <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page020">[pg
        020]</span><a name="Pg020" id="Pg020" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of
        almost every conceivable system, and the outline of almost every
        imaginable doctrine.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The keynote of all
        Baalshem's teachings is the Omnipresence, or more strictly the
        Immanence, of God. This is the source from which flows naturally
        every article of his creed; the universality of the Divinity is the
        foundation of the entire Chassidic fabric. The idea of the constant
        living presence of God in all existence permeates the whole of
        Baalshem's scheme; it is insisted on in every relation; from it is
        deduced every important proposition and every rule in conduct of his
        school.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">All created things
        and every product of human intelligence owe their being to God. All
        generation and all existence spring from the thought and will of God.
        It is incumbent upon man to believe that all things are pervaded by
        the divine life, and when he speaks he should remember that it is
        this divine life which is speaking through him. There is nothing
        which is void of God. If we imagine for a moment such a thing to be,
        it would instantly fall into nothingness. In every human thought God
        is present. If the thought be gross or evil, we should seek to raise
        and ennoble it by carrying it back to its origin. So, if a man be
        suddenly overwhelmed by the aspect of a beautiful woman, he should
        remember that this splendour of beauty is owing to the all-pervading
        emanation from the divine. When he remembers that the source of
        corporeal beauty is God, he will not be content to let his thought
        abide with the body when he can rise to the inward contemplation of
        the infinite soul of beauty, which is God. A disciple of Baalshem has
        said: Even as in the jewels <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page021">[pg
        021]</span><a name="Pg021" id="Pg021" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of
        his beloved the lover sees only the beauty of her he loves, so does
        the true lover of God see in all the appearances of this world, the
        vitalising and generative power of his divine master. If you do not
        see the world in the light of God you separate the creation from its
        Creator. He who does not fully believe in this universality of God's
        presence has never properly acknowledged God's Sovereignty, for he
        excludes God from an existing portion of the actual world. The word
        of God (to Baalshem, a synonym for God himself), which <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“is settled in heaven”</span> and <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“established on earth,”</span> is still and always
        speaking, acting, and generating throughout heaven and earth in
        endless gradations and varieties. If the vitalising word were to
        cease, chaos would come again. The belief in a single creation after
        which the Master withdrew from his completed work, is erroneous and
        heretical. The vivifying power is never withdrawn from the world
        which it animates. Creation is continuous; an unending manifestation
        of the goodness of God. All things are an affluence from the two
        divine attributes of Power and Love, which express themselves in
        various images and reflections.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This is the
        doctrine of universality in Chassidism. God, the father of Israel,
        God the Merciful, God the All-powerful, the God of Love, not only
        created everything but is embodied in everything. The necessity of
        believing this doctrine is the cardinal Dogma. But as creation is
        continuous so also is revelation. This revelation is only to be
        grasped by faith. Faith, therefore, is more efficacious than
        learning. Thus it is that in times of persecution, the wise and the
        foolish, the sinner and the saint, are wont alike to give up their
        life for their faith. They who could <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page022">[pg 022]</span><a name="Pg022" id="Pg022" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> render no answer to the questions of the
        casuist are yet willing to die the most cruel of deaths rather than
        deny their faith in the One and Supreme God. Their strength to face
        danger and death is owing to that divine illumination of the soul
        which is more exalted than knowledge.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We should thus
        regard all things in the light of so many manifestations of the
        Divinity. God is present in all things; therefore there is good,
        actual or potential, in all things. It is our duty everywhere to seek
        out and to honour the good, and not to arrogate to ourselves the
        right to judge that which may seem to be evil. In thinking therefore
        of a fellow-man, we should above all things realise in him the
        presence of the spirit of good. Whence we have the Doctrine that each
        of us, while thinking humbly of himself, should always be ready to
        think well, and always slow to think evil, of another. This explains
        the Chassidic attitude towards erring humanity. Baalshem viewed human
        sin and infirmity in a very different light from that of the ordinary
        Rabbi. Ever conscious of the Divine side of Humanity, he vigorously
        combated the gratuitous assumption of sinfulness in man which was a
        fertile subject with contemporary preachers. They, among the
        Roumanian Jews as in other communities, delighted chiefly to dwell on
        the dark side of things, and found their favourite theme in elaborate
        descriptions of the infernal punishments that were awaiting the
        sinner after death. It is related how on one occasion Baalshem
        rebuked one of these. The preacher had been denouncing woe to an
        audience of whom he knew nothing whether for evil or for good.
        Baalshem, indignant at this indiscriminative abuse and conceited
        arrogation of the divine office of judgment, turned on him in the
        following words: <span class="tei tei-q">“Woe <span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="page023">[pg 023]</span><a name="Pg023" id="Pg023"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> upon thee who darest to speak evil of
        Israel! Dost not know that every Jew, when he utters ever so short a
        prayer at the close of day, is performing a great work before which
        the angels in heaven bow down?”</span> Great, as it would seem, was
        the value set by Baalshem upon the smallest evidence of the higher
        nature in man, and few there were, as he believed, who, if their
        spirit was not darkened by pride, did not now and again give proof of
        the divine stamp in which God had created them. No sin so separates
        us from God that we need despair of return. From every rung of the
        moral ladder, no matter how low, let man seek God. If he but fully
        believe that nothing is void of God, and that God is concealed in the
        midst of apparent ruin and degradation, he will not fear lest God be
        far from him. God is regained in a moment of repentance, for
        repentance <span class="tei tei-q">“transcends the limits of space
        and time.”</span> And he who leads the sinner to repentance causes a
        divine joy; it is as though a king's son had been in captivity and
        were now brought back to his father's gaze.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Baalshem refused
        to regard any one as wholly irredeemable. His was an optimistic
        faith. God was to be praised in gladness by the dwellers in this
        glorious world. The true believer, recognising the reflection of God
        in every man, should hopefully strive, when that reflection was
        obscured by sin, to restore the likeness of God in man. The peculiar
        detestability of sin lies in this, that man rejects the earthly
        manifestations of the Divinity and pollutes them. One of Baalshem's
        disciples delighted in the saying that the most hardened sinners were
        not to be despaired of, but prayed for. None knows the heart of man,
        and none should judge his neighbour. Let him who burns with zeal for
        God's sake, exercise his zeal on himself, <span class="tei tei-pb"
        id="page024">[pg 024]</span><a name="Pg024" id="Pg024" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> not others. Baalshem said, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Let no one think himself better than his neighbour, for
        all serve God; each according to the measure of understanding which
        God has given him.”</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From this position
        it is a natural step to Baalshem's view of prayer. He is reputed to
        have said that all the greatness he had achieved was the issue not of
        study but of prayer. But true prayer <span class="tei tei-q">“must
        move,”</span> as Baalshem phrased it, <span class="tei tei-q">“in the
        realms above,”</span> and not be concerned with affairs sublunary.
        Your prayer should not be taken up with your wishes and needs, but
        should be the means to bring you nigh to God. In prayer man must lay
        aside his own individuality, and not even be conscious of his
        existence; for if, when he prays, Self is not absolutely quiescent,
        the object of prayer is unattainable. Indeed it is only through God's
        grace that after true prayer man is yet alive; to such a point has
        the annihilation of self proceeded.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It may be
        necessary to caution the reader against ascribing to Baalshem any
        modern rationalistic notions on the subject of prayer. The power of
        prayer, in the old-fashioned sense, to produce an answer from God was
        never doubted by Baalshem for a moment. Baalshem's deity is not
        restricted towards any side by any philosophic considerations. All
        Baalshem meant was that any reference or regard to earthly
        requirements was unworthy and destructive of this communion of man
        with God. The wise man, says Baalshem, does not trouble the king with
        innumerable petitions about trifles. His desire is merely to gain
        admission into the king's presence and to speak with him without a
        go-between. To be with the king whom he loves so dearly is for him
        the highest good. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page025">[pg
        025]</span><a name="Pg025" id="Pg025" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> But
        his love for the king has its reward; for the king loves him.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It has already
        been implied that, with regard to our duty towards our fellow-man, we
        must not only honour him for the good, and abstain from judging the
        evil that may be in him, but must pray for him. Furthermore we must
        work for his spiritual and moral reclamation. In giving practical
        effect in his own life to this doctrine, Baalshem's conduct was in
        striking contrast to that of his contemporaries. He habitually
        consorted with outcasts and sinners, with the poor and uneducated of
        both sexes, whom the other teachers ignored. He thus won for his
        doctrines a way to the heart of the people by adapting his life and
        language to their understanding and sympathies. In illustration of
        this, as well as of his hatred of vanity and display, it is told how,
        on the occasion of his being accorded a public reception by the Jews
        on his arrival at Brody, instead of addressing to them in the
        conventional fashion some subtle discourse upon a Talmudical
        difficulty, he contented himself with conversing upon trivial topics
        in the local dialect with some of the less important persons in the
        crowd.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This incident is
        perhaps the more noteworthy because it occurred in Brody, which was
        at that time a seat of learning and Rabbinic culture,—a place where,
        for that very reason, Chassidism was never able to gain a foothold.
        It is probable enough that Baalshem in his visits to this town kept
        aloof from the learned and the wise, and sought to gather round him
        the neglected and humbler elements of Jewish society. It is well
        known that Baalshem consorted a good deal with the innkeepers of the
        district, who were held in very low repute among their brethren. The
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page026">[pg 026]</span><a name="Pg026"
        id="Pg026" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> following remark by one of his
        followers is very suggestive in this respect. Just as only
        superficial minds attach a certain holiness to special places, whilst
        with the deeper ones all places are alike holy, so that to them it
        makes no difference whether prayers be said in the synagogue or in
        the forest; so the latter believe that not only prophecies and
        visions come from heaven, but that every utterance of man, if
        properly understood, contains a message of God. Those who are
        absorbed in God will easily find the divine element in everything
        which they hear, even though the speaker himself be quite ignorant of
        it.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This line of
        conduct gave a fair opening for attack to his opponents, an
        opportunity of which they were not slow to avail themselves. Baalshem
        was pointed at as the associate of the lowest classes. They avenged
        themselves for his neglect of and hostility to the learned by
        imputing the worst motives to his indifference to appearances. He was
        accused of idling about the streets with disreputable characters, and
        one polemical treatise draws the vilest inferences from his apparent
        familiarity with women. To this charge Baalshem's conduct, innocent
        in itself, gave some colour; for his views and habits in relation to
        women marked a strong divergence from current customs. The position
        of women in contemporary circles was neither debased nor inevitably
        unhappy, but it was distinctly subordinate. Their education was
        almost entirely neglected, and their very existence was practically
        ignored. According to the Chassidic doctrine of Universality, woman
        was necessarily to be honoured. <span class="tei tei-q">“All
        Jews,”</span> says one Chassid, <span class="tei tei-q">“even the
        uneducated and the women, believe in God.”</span> Baalshem frequently
        associated <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page027">[pg
        027]</span><a name="Pg027" id="Pg027" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        with women, assigning to them not only social equality, but a high
        degree of religious importance.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">His own wife he
        reverenced as a saint; when she died he abandoned the hope of rising
        to heaven while yet alive, like Elijah of old, saying mournfully that
        undivided such translation might have happened, but for him alone it
        was impossible. Then again in a form of religion utilising so largely
        the emotions of Faith and Love there was a strong appeal to the
        female mind. The effect of this was soon evident, and Baalshem did
        not neglect to profit by it. Among the most devoted of his early
        adherents were women. One of them was the heroine of a favourite
        anecdote concerning Baalshem's work of Love and Rescue. It is related
        that in a certain village there dwelt a woman whose life was so
        disgraceful that her brothers at last determined to kill her. With
        this object they enticed her into a neighbouring wood, but guided by
        the Holy Spirit Baalshem intervened at the critical moment, and
        dissuading the men from their purpose rescued the sinner. The woman
        afterwards became a sort of Magdalen in the new community.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Above I have
        endeavoured to throw together in some order of sequence the doctrines
        and practical rules of conduct which Baalshem and his early disciples
        seem to have deduced from their central idea of the omnipresence of
        God. This was necessary in order to give a connected idea of their
        creed, but it is right to say that nowhere in Chassidic literature
        have these deductions been logically co-ordinated. Perhaps their
        solitary attempt to formulate and condense their distinctive views is
        confined to a statement of their idea of piety or service of God, and
        an examination of three cardinal virtues, Humility, Cheerfulness,
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page028">[pg 028]</span><a name="Pg028"
        id="Pg028" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and Enthusiasm. What the
        Chassidim held as to true service brings into relief Baalshem's
        characteristic manner of regarding the Law.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">By the service of
        God was generally understood a life which fulfilled the precepts of
        the written and oral law. Baalshem understood by it a certain
        attitude towards life as a whole. For, as God is realised in life,
        each activity of life when rightly conceived and executed is at once
        a manifestation and a service of the Divine. All things have been
        created for the glory and service of God. The smallest worm serves
        Him with all its power. Thus, while eating, drinking, sleeping, and
        the other ordinary functions of the body are regarded by the old
        Jewish moralists as mere means to an end, to Baalshem they are
        already a service of God in themselves. All pleasures are
        manifestations of God's attribute of love; and, so regarded, they are
        at once spiritualised and ennobled. Man should seek to reach a higher
        level of purity and holiness before partaking of food and drink, than
        even before the study of the Law. For when the Torah had once been
        given by God the whole world became instinct with its grace. He who
        speaks of worldly matters and religious matters as if they were
        separate and distinct, is a heretic.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Upon the continual
        and uninterrupted study of the Law, Baalshem lays but little stress.
        He accepted the ordinary belief that the Law (under which term are
        included not only the Pentateuch, but the whole Old Testament and the
        major portion of the old Rabbinic literature) was a revelation of
        God. But, as the world itself is equally a divine revelation, the
        Torah becomes little more than a part of a larger whole. To
        understand it aright one needs to penetrate to the inward reality—to
        the infinite <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page029">[pg
        029]</span><a name="Pg029" id="Pg029" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        light which is revealed in it. We should study the Law not as we
        study a science for the sake of acquiring knowledge (he who studies
        it so has in truth been concerning himself with its mere outward
        form), but we should learn from it the true service of God. Thus the
        study of the law is no end in itself. It is studied because, as the
        word of God, God is more easily discerned and absorbed in this
        revelation of Him than in any other. The Torah is eternal, but its
        explanation is to be made by the spiritual leaders of Judaism. It is
        to be interpreted by them in accordance with the Attribute of the
        age. For he regarded the world as governed in every age by a
        different Attribute of God—one age by the Attribute of Love, another
        by that of Power, a third again, by Beauty, and so on—and the
        explanation of the Torah must be brought into agreement with it. The
        object of the whole Torah is that man should become a Torah himself.
        Every man being a Torah in himself, said a disciple of Baalshem, has
        got not only his Abraham and Moses, but also his Balaam and Haman: he
        should try to expel the Balaam and develop the Abraham within him.
        Every action of man should be a pure manifestation of God.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The reason why we
        should do what the Law commands is not to gain grace thereby in the
        eyes of God, but to learn how to love God and to be united to Him.
        The important thing is not how many separate injunctions are obeyed,
        but how and in what spirit we obey them. The object of fulfilling
        these various ordinances is to put oneself, as it were, on the same
        plane with God, and thus, in the ordinary phrase of the religious
        mystic, to become one with Him, or to be absorbed in Him. People
        should get to know, says Baalshem, what the unity of God really
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page030">[pg 030]</span><a name="Pg030"
        id="Pg030" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> means. To attain a part of
        this indivisible unity is to attain the whole. The Torah and all its
        ordinances are from God. If I therefore fulfil but one commandment in
        and through the love of God, it is as though I have fulfilled them
        all.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I have now briefly
        to refer to the three virtues to which the Chassidim assigned the
        highest place of honour. Of these the first is called in Hebrew
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Shiphluth,”</span><a id="noteref_15" name=
        "noteref_15" href="#note_15"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">15</span></span></a> and is
        best rendered by our word <span class="tei tei-q">“Humility,”</span>
        but in Chassidic usage it includes the ideas of modesty,
        considerateness, and sympathy. The prominence given to these
        qualities is in sharp contrast to the faults of conceit, vanity, and
        self-satisfaction, against which Baalshem was never weary of
        protesting. He regarded these as the most seductive of all forms of
        sin. But a few minutes before his death he was heard to murmur,
        <span class="tei tei-q">“O vanity, vanity! even in this hour of death
        thou darest to approach me with thy temptations: <span class=
        "tei tei-q">‘Bethink thee, Israel, what a grand funeral procession
        will be thine because thou hast been so wise and good.’</span> O
        vanity, vanity! beshrew thee.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“It
        should be indifferent to man,”</span> says the master, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“whether he be praised or blamed, loved or hated, reputed
        to be the wisest of mankind or the greatest of fools. The test of the
        real service of God is that it leaves behind it the feeling of
        humility. If a man after prayer be conscious of the least pride or
        self-satisfaction, if he think, for instance, that he has earned a
        reward by the ardour of his spiritual exercises, then let him know
        that he has prayed not to God but to himself. And what is this but
        disguised idolatry? Before you can find God you must lose
        yourself.”</span> The Chassidim treated Shiphluth from two sides: a
        negative side in thinking humbly of oneself, a positive in thinking
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page031">[pg 031]</span><a name="Pg031"
        id="Pg031" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> highly of one's neighbour, in
        other words the love for our fellow-man.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He who loves the
        father will also love his children. The true lover of God is also a
        lover of man. It is ignorance of one's own errors that makes one
        ready to see the errors of others. <span class="tei tei-q">“There is
        no sphere in heaven where the soul remains a shorter time than in the
        sphere of merit, there is none where it abides longer than in the
        sphere of Love.”</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The second
        Cardinal Virtue is <span class="tei tei-q">“Cheerfulness,”</span> in
        Hebrew <span class="tei tei-q">“Simchah.”</span><a id="noteref_16"
        name="noteref_16" href="#note_16"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">16</span></span></a> Baalshem
        insisted on cheerfulness of heart as a necessary attitude for the due
        service of God. Once believe that you are really the servant and the
        child of God and how can you fall again into a gloomy condition of
        mind? Nor should the inevitable sins which we all must commit disturb
        our glad serenity of soul. For is not repentance ready at hand by
        which we may climb back to God? Every penitent thought is a voice of
        God. Man should detect that voice in all the evidence of his senses,
        in every sight and sound of external nature. It is through his want
        of faith in the universality of God's presence that he is deaf to
        these subtle influences and can read only the lessons which are
        inscribed in books.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The reader will be
        prepared to learn that Baalshem, taking this cheerful view of things,
        was opposed to every kind of asceticism. Judaism, or rather
        Israelitism, it is true, was not originally much of an ascetic
        religion. But there can be little doubt that in the course of history
        there came in many ascetic doctrines and practices, quite enough at
        least to encourage such tender souls the bent of whose minds lay in
        this direction. To one of these, a former disciple, Baalshem wrote:
        <span class="tei tei-q">“I hear that you think yourself <span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="page032">[pg 032]</span><a name="Pg032" id="Pg032"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> compelled from religious motives to enter
        upon a course of fasts and penances. My soul is outraged at your
        determination. By the counsel of God I order you to abandon such
        dangerous practices, which are but the outcome of a disordered brain.
        Is it not written <span class="tei tei-q">‘Thou shalt not hide
        thyself from thine own flesh?’</span> Fast then no more than is
        prescribed. Follow my command and God shall be with you.”</span> On
        another occasion Baalshem was heard to observe that it is a
        machination of Satan to drive us into a condition of gloom and
        despondency in which the smallest error is regarded as a deadly sin.
        Satan's object is to keep us away from the true service of God, and
        God can only be truly served from a happy and confident disposition.
        Anxious scrupulosity in details is therefore to be avoided. It is the
        counsel of the Devil to persuade us that we never have done and shall
        never do our duty fully, and that moral progress is impossible. Such
        ideas beget melancholy and despair, which are of evil.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The third virtue
        is called in the Hebrew Chassidic literature <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Hithlahabuth,”</span><a id="noteref_17" name=
        "noteref_17" href="#note_17"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">17</span></span></a> and is
        derived from a verb meaning <span class="tei tei-q">“to
        kindle”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“set on fire.”</span> The
        substantive <span class="tei tei-q">“Hithlahabuth,”</span> so far as
        I am aware, was first coined by Baalshem's followers. It is best
        rendered by our word <span class="tei tei-q">“Enthusiasm.”</span>
        Every religious action, to be of any avail, must be done with
        enthusiasm. A mere mechanical and lifeless performance of an
        ordinance is valueless. A man is no step nearer the goal if he
        thinks, forsooth, that he has done his duty when he has gone through
        the whole round of laws in every section of the code. This essential
        enthusiasm is only begotten of Love. The service of fear, if not
        wholly useless, is yet necessarily accompanied by a certain repulsion
        and heaviness, which effectually <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page033">[pg 033]</span><a name="Pg033" id="Pg033" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> prevent the rush and ardour of enthusiasm. The
        inspiration of true service is its own end. There is no thought of
        this world, and there is none of the world to come. In the Talmud
        there is frequent reference to one Rabbi Elisha ben Abuyah, an
        apostate from Judaism, who, when urged to repent, replied that
        repentance was useless, and that for this mournful belief he had
        direct divine authority. For he had been told by a voice from heaven
        that even though he repented he would be excluded from sharing the
        happiness of the world to come. Of him it was said by one of the
        Chassidim, <span class="tei tei-q">“This man indeed missed a golden
        opportunity. How purely could he have served God, knowing that for
        his service there could never be a reward!”</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From the
        conception of Enthusiasm springs the quality of mobility, suggesting
        spiritual progress, and commonly opposed by Baalshem and his
        followers to the dull religious stagnation of self-satisfied
        contemporaries. Man should not imagine himself to have attained the
        level of the righteous; let him rather regard himself as a penitent
        who should make progress every day. Always to remain on the same
        religious plane, merely repeating to-day the religious routine of
        yesterday, is not true service. There must be a daily advance in the
        knowledge and love of the Divine Master. Mere freedom from active sin
        is not sufficient; such negative virtue may be but another word for
        the chance absence of temptation. What boots it never to have
        committed a sin if sin lies concealed in the heart? It is only the
        uninterrupted communion with God which will raise and ennoble your
        thoughts and designs, and cause the roots of sin to die. The
        patriarch Abraham, without any command from God, fulfilled the whole
        Torah, because he perceived that the Law was the <span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="page034">[pg 034]</span><a name="Pg034" id="Pg034"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> life of all created things. In the
        Messianic age the law will no longer seem to man as something
        ordained for him from without; but the law will be within the hearts
        of men; it will seem natural and self-evident to them, because they
        will realise that God and life are manifested through the law.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Baalshem, who
        dealt largely in parable, has left the following, which we may fitly
        add to our somewhat inadequate presentation of his doctrine.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There was once a
        king who built himself a glorious palace. By means of magical
        illusion it seemed as if the palace were full of devious corridors
        and mazes, preventing the approach to the royal presence. But as
        there was much gold and silver heaped up in the entrance halls, most
        people were content to go no further, but take their fill of
        treasure. The king himself they did not notice. At last the king's
        intimate had compassion upon them and exclaimed to them, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“All these walls and mazes which you see before you do
        not in truth exist at all. They are mere illusions. Push forward
        bravely, and you shall find no obstacle.”</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We must not
        interpret the parable to mean that Baalshem denied the reality or
        even the importance of the actual phenomenal world. The very contrary
        is the truth. The world is for him full of God, penetrated through
        and through by the divine, and therefore as real as God himself. It
        was quite in Baalshem's manner when one of his disciples declared
        that only fools could speak of the world as vanity or emptiness.
        <span class="tei tei-q">“It is in truth a glorious world. We must
        only learn how rightly to make use of it. Call nothing common or
        profane: by God's presence all things are
        holy.”</span></p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page035">[pg
        035]</span><a name="Pg035" id="Pg035" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Above we have
        reviewed the essential doctrines of Baalshem and his immediate
        followers; we have now to see how they fared at the hands of the sect
        which he founded. This is a sad part of our task, for the subsequent
        history of Chassidism is almost entirely a record of decay. As
        formulated by its founder the new creed amounted to a genuine
        Reformation, pure and lofty in ideal. After his death unhappily it
        was rapidly corrupted and perverted. This was due almost exclusively
        to the dangerous and exaggerated development of a single point in his
        teaching. That point, the honour due to the divine in man, was
        relatively a minor article in the original creed. But the later
        Chassidism has given it a distorted and almost exclusive importance
        wholly out of proportion to the grander and more essential features
        of Baalshem's teaching, until the distinctive feature of the
        Chassidism of to-day is an almost idolatrous service of their living
        leaders. What little there is to say of the history of the sect after
        Baalshem's death would be unintelligible without some explanation of
        the origin and growth of this unfortunate perversion.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It has been
        explained that Baalshem laid but little stress upon the study of the
        Law or the observance of its precepts in themselves, but regarded
        them only as means to an end. The end is union with God. Man has to
        discover the presence of God in the Divine word and will. Now this
        mystical service of God, although perhaps sufficing to sensitive and
        enthusiastic natures, is scarcely plain or definite enough for
        ordinary men. Few can realise abstractions: and yet fewer can delight
        in them and find in their contemplation sufficient nurture for their
        religious needs. What then had Chassidism to offer to the ordinary
        majority <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page036">[pg
        036]</span><a name="Pg036" id="Pg036" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> who
        could not recognise God in all the plenitude of His disguise? The
        want of something tangible whereon to fix the minds of the people,
        which has confronted the teachers of so many creeds, was also
        encountered by the Chassidim, and they unfortunately found their way
        out of the difficulty by relying on and developing their doctrine of
        man's position in the Universe. Man's ideal is to be a law himself;
        himself a clear and full manifestation of God. Now, not only is he
        God's servant and child, but in highest development he becomes
        himself a part of God, albeit in human shape, so that he may become
        wholly one with his divine Father. But if man may reach this highest
        level of holiness, he is virtually a kind of God-man, whom his
        fellow-men of lower levels perceive by reason of his manhood, but his
        essential office consists in raising them up to God by reason of his
        Divinity.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The few chosen
        spirits who through the successful persistency with which they have
        sought God in all things have become, though yet on earth, absorbed
        in Him, are known in Chassidic literature by the name of the
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Zaddikim.”</span> The Hebrew word
        Zaddik<a id="noteref_18" name="noteref_18" href=
        "#note_18"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">18</span></span></a> means
        <span class="tei tei-q">“just”</span> or <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“righteous,”</span> and the term was probably chosen in
        conscious opposition to the title of Rabbinic heroes, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“disciples of the wise.”</span> For the Zaddik is not so
        much the product of learning as of intuition: his final consummation
        is reached by a sudden and direct illumination from God. The Zaddik
        not only resembles Moses, but, in virtue of his long communion with
        the Divine, he is also the true child of God. He is, moreover, a
        vivifying power in creation, for he is the connecting bond between
        God and his creatures. He is the source of blessing and the fount of
        grace. Man must therefore learn to love the Zaddik, <span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="page037">[pg 037]</span><a name="Pg037" id="Pg037"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> so that through the Zaddik he may win
        God's grace. He who does not believe in the Zaddik is an apostate
        from God. Here then we have the fatal exaggeration to which I have
        alluded, and here its logical consequence. The step to man-worship is
        short.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This peculiar
        doctrine of the Intermediary soon became the distinguishing feature
        of Chassidism. By a Chassid was understood not a man who held such
        and such opinions in theology and religion, but a believer in the
        Zaddik, and one who sought to attain salvation through the worship of
        the Zaddik. Every other doctrine of Chassidism was rapidly pushed
        into the background and overlooked. Even the grand and fundamental
        doctrine of Omnipresence in the Creation was veiled by the special
        presence in the Zaddik. Chassidism became mere Zaddikism, and its
        subsequent history is identical with the downward development of that
        cult.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Whether Baalshem
        named his successor is doubtful. But the lead after his death was
        assumed by his disciple Beer of Mizriez. This man's conversion to
        Chassidism was an important event for the new community; his piety
        and learning were beyond dispute, and, whereas during Baalshem's life
        Chassidism had found its chief adherents among the lower classes of
        society, Beer managed to gather round him many of the most learned
        among his contemporaries. It was to these new and ardent disciples of
        Beer that the expansion of Chassidism was chiefly due. They came
        together from many quarters, and after Beer's death separated and
        preached the new doctrine far and wide. Many even went forth during
        the lifetime of their master, and at his command, to found fresh
        branches of the new sect. Like Beer himself, they directed their
        efforts <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page038">[pg 038]</span><a name=
        "Pg038" id="Pg038" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> mainly to winning over
        the educated sections of the Jews. The elder men paid little heed to
        their word, but the youths, just fresh from their casuistic studies,
        which had sharpened their wits and starved their souls, lent a ready
        ear and an eager heart to the new doctrine. The uneducated were by no
        means excluded; to them Chassidism held out a deeper consolation and
        a grander hope than the current Rabbinism of the age; they therefore
        joined the young community in large numbers without any special
        effort being necessary to gain them over.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In their methods
        of Prayer the Chassidim most conspicuously differed from the older
        communities. Laying as they did supreme stress on the importance and
        efficacy of prayer, they soon found it necessary to secede from the
        existing synagogues and erect separate buildings for themselves. The
        usual salaried Reader <span class="tei tei-q">“with the beautiful
        voice and empty head,”</span> who naturally regarded his function as
        a matter of business, was done away with and his place taken either
        by the Zaddik himself or by some other distinguished person in the
        community. The Chassidim also effected many changes in the liturgy.
        Instead of the German they adopted the Spanish ritual. They excised
        many prayers which, lacking the authority of antiquity, were cumbrous
        in form or objectionable in matter. They inserted new prayers and
        hymns of their own. They paid little regard to the prescribed hours
        at which public worship should be held. Prayer began when they had
        got themselves into the proper devotional frame of mind. Frequent
        ablutions, perusal of mystical writings, introspective meditation
        were the means by which they sought to gain the befitting mood. The
        prayers themselves were <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page039">[pg
        039]</span><a name="Pg039" id="Pg039" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        accompanied by the usual phenomena of religious excitement. Some in
        the zeal of their devotion began to dance; others were rapt in a
        motionless ecstasy; some prayed aloud; others in solemn silence. They
        justified their abrogation of fixed hours for prayer by saying that
        you cannot order a child when to speak with its father: such
        restraint were fit only for slaves.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As a rule the
        larger number of the younger Chassidim were able to devote their
        whole time to religious exercises. It was the custom among the Jews
        in Eastern Europe for the young men to live at the expense of their
        own or their wives' parents, in order that they might give themselves
        up entirely to religious study. According to the old notions, this
        meant the study of the Talmud and its Commentaries; the Chassidim who
        cared little for the legal side of Jewish literature betook
        themselves to the literature of edification and mysticism. No small
        part of their time was taken up with endless conversations about the
        Zaddik, his piety, goodness, and self-sacrifice and the wonderful
        miracles which he had wrought. If a Zaddik was living in his own
        town, the youthful Chassid spent as many hours as he could in the
        Zaddik's company, in order to observe and study this embodied Torah
        as constantly as possible. Where no Zaddik was at hand, periodical
        pilgrimages were made to the town in which he lived, and endless were
        the tales which were afterwards repeated, to those who were obliged
        to stay at home, of the Zaddik's marvellous wisdom and extraordinary
        deeds. The last hours of the Sabbath day were looked upon as a
        special season of grace, and the Chassidim were therefore in the
        habit of collecting together in the waning of the Sabbath and
        celebrating the so-called <span class="tei tei-q">“Supper of the Holy
        Queen.”</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page040">[pg
        040]</span><a name="Pg040" id="Pg040" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> The
        meal was accompanied by the usual conversations as well as by hymns
        and prayers.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Chassidim were
        second to no other sect in their loyalty and affection for each
        other. No sacrifice for a brother Chassid was too great. They knew no
        difference of rich and poor, old and young, wise and ignorant; for
        they all, with one accord, worshipped one common ideal, the Zaddik,
        who in his exalted position was equally raised above them all. Before
        him all minor differences of rank disappeared. When a Chassid
        travelled, he had no scruple in asking for lodging or entertainment
        in the house of any Chassid who could afford to give them. If he was
        in money difficulties the purse of his host was at his disposal. If
        that was not sufficient, it was supplemented by a grant from the fund
        of the community. These gifts were not looked upon in the light of
        charity either by giver or receiver; they were made to the Zaddik, to
        whom all Chassidim alike were debtors. It sometimes even happened
        that a Zaddik said that the son of some rich merchant was to marry
        the daughter of a poor schoolmaster, and both parties were equally
        delighted to fulfil the wish of their beloved chief.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It may easily be
        imagined that the innovations of the Chassidim provoked the wrath of
        the orthodox communities. But in their detestation of the Rabbis the
        Chassidim returned in full measure all the hatred they received. The
        Zaddik is the Moses of his age: the Rabbis its Korah and Abiram.
        Where the Chassidic party in any community gained the upper hand, the
        Rabbi was deposed and a Zaddik, if that was possible, elected in his
        place. The issue of these bitter attacks upon the old nobility of the
        Jewish race was a rigorous persecution. In many places <span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="page041">[pg 041]</span><a name="Pg041" id="Pg041"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the Chassidim were excommunicated, in
        others their leaders were publicly scourged and put into the stocks.
        Their books were burnt and their synagogues forcibly closed. But
        persecution produced only the usual result of increasing the
        popularity and the numbers of the sect. The devotion of the Chassidim
        to each other and to their common cause was increased a hundred-fold
        by suffering. In one case a distinguished Zaddik was accused of
        treason, before the Russian authorities, and was thrown into prison.
        In Russia, however, the power of money is considerable, and on
        payment of a large ransom not only was the beloved Zaddik released
        but as an obvious consequence his reputation greatly profited: the
        day of his release was celebrated as a yearly festival, while his
        sufferings were regarded by his followers as a sin-offering that
        atoned for the iniquities of his age. From this time the government
        maintained a purely neutral attitude towards the new sect, and ere
        long the persecution by the orthodox ceased.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The cessation of
        persecution may possibly be accounted for by the fact that Chassidism
        as a secession soon ceased to be formidable. There were early
        divisions within the sect. Even Beer's disciples began to quarrel
        over theological differences and to found separate communities. When
        once the course of corruption and spiritual decay had begun, it was
        the interest of the false Zaddikim to accentuate these differences.
        Each Zaddik sought to have a whole little sect to himself, from which
        to draw an undivided revenue. And each deluded little sect as it
        arose boasted of the exclusive possession of the true Zaddik.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It must not be
        supposed that these strictures apply to the whole class of Zaddikim.
        The greater number of Baalshem's leading disciples as well as Beer's
        were beyond <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page042">[pg
        042]</span><a name="Pg042" id="Pg042" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        question men of pure, unalloyed piety, who would have rejected with
        scorn any idea of making a trade of their sacred profession. Their
        motives and their zeal were alike ideal. Many gave up highly paid
        posts as Rabbis when they joined the new sect. Some emigrated to
        Palestine to lead a holy life on holy ground, others sought to become
        religious specialists, following out practically, although with some
        exaggeration, a favourite doctrine of the Founder, that he who
        observes but one commandment devotedly and lovingly, may reach the
        goal desired: the union with God. Thus one Zaddik made it his
        business never to tell the smallest falsehood, whatever the cost or
        the inconvenience of truth might be. It is related that the Russian
        Government, suspecting the Jews of his town of smuggling, consented
        to withdraw the charge if he declared his brethren innocent. Having
        no alternative but either to bring misfortune on his brethren or to
        tell an untruth, he prayed to God to save him from this dilemma by
        sending death upon him. And lo! when the officials came to fetch him
        before the law court they found him dead. Another, thinking that the
        commandment in Exodus xxiii. 3, relating to the help that should be
        given to a neighbour or enemy when <span class="tei tei-q">“his ass
        is lying under its burden,”</span> was practically unobserved,
        devoted himself to its fulfilment. He was continually to be seen in
        the streets, helping one man to load his waggon, and another to drag
        his cart out of the mire. A third made the service of the oppressed
        his religious specialty. It is said that one day his wife, having had
        a quarrel with her maid, was setting out to the magistrate of the
        town to obtain satisfaction. Noticing that her husband was about to
        accompany her, she asked him whither he was bound. He replied,
        <span class="tei tei-q">“to the magistrate.”</span> <span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="page043">[pg 043]</span><a name="Pg043" id="Pg043"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> His wife declared that it was below his
        dignity to take any part in a quarrel with a servant. She could deal
        with the matter herself. The Zaddik replied, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“That may be, but I intend to represent your maid, who
        when accused by my wife will find no one willing to take her
        part.”</span> And then, bursting into a passion of tears, he quoted
        Job xxxi. 13: <span class="tei tei-q">“If I did despise the cause of
        my man-servant or of my maid-servant, when they contended with me,
        what shall I do when God riseth up?”</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Several Zaddikim
        were learned men and thinkers of no ordinary kind. The works of
        Solomon Ladier or of Mendel Witipsker, read with attention and
        without Western preconceptions, certainly give the impression of both
        originality and depth of thought. But most characteristic of all is
        the passionate yearning of authors such as these towards the Divine.
        The reader is astonished and moved by the intense sincerity and
        ardour of their longing after God. But, despite the adherence of
        these worthy men, the fate of Chassidism, as a regenerative force,
        was sealed from the day when Zaddikism replaced the original
        doctrines of the sect.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For, apart from
        the obvious theological considerations already suggested, there are
        two points of inherent weakness in the cult of the Zaddik which
        naturally doomed it to perversion and failure. The necessary
        qualifications for <span class="tei tei-q">“Zaddikship”</span> are
        wholly undefined. We hear a great deal about what a Zaddik actually
        is, but we hear very little about what he should be. The Zaddik has
        many virtues, but we are nowhere told what are his indispensable
        qualifications. Moreover, the Zaddik is a being who can be
        comprehended by the understanding as little as an angel, or as God
        Himself. He is realised by faith, <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page044">[pg 044]</span><a name="Pg044" id="Pg044" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> not conceived by thought. Hence there is no
        human test of a true Zaddik except the test of miracles; and every
        student of religious history knows the deceitful character of that
        test.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The second source
        of danger arose from the Chassidim holding it to be their sacred duty
        to provide for the Zaddik a life of comfort and ease. The Zaddik must
        pursue his divine avocations undisturbed by grosser cares. But what
        were the consequences? The Chassidim believed they could win the
        grace and blessing of the Zaddik by the richness and variety of their
        gifts. A Zaddik's career became a very profitable concern. The result
        of both defects was that not only was the opportunity given for every
        scheming charlatan to become a Zaddik, but inducements were offered
        to make the deception lucrative. Hence the anxiety of the false
        Zaddikim, already noticed, to found separate communities.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among the
        Chassidim of to-day there is not one in ten thousand who has the
        faintest conception of those sublime ideas which inspired Baalshem
        and his immediate disciples. It is still the interest of the wretched
        ringleaders of a widely spread delusion to crush and keep down every
        trace of reflection and thought so that they may play at will with
        the conscience and purses of their adherents. The new scientific
        movement, inaugurated by such men as Krochmal, Zunz, and others who
        came under the influence of the German critical spirit, found in them
        its hottest and most fanatical opponents. That the cult of the
        Zaddikim has not led to still more disastrous consequences is solely
        due to the fact that the Chassidim in general have remained faithful
        to the Law. It is the Law, against the excessive study of which the
        original <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page045">[pg
        045]</span><a name="Pg045" id="Pg045" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        Chassidim protested, that has put limits to the license of its modern
        false prophets.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Amid much that is
        bad, the Chassidim have preserved through the whole movement a warm
        heart, and an ardent, sincere faith. There is a certain openness of
        character and a ready friendliness about even the modern Chassidim
        which are very attractive. Religion is still to them a matter of life
        and death. Their faith is still real enough to satisfy the demands of
        a Luther, but it is diverted and wasted upon unworthy objects. If
        Chassidism is to be reformed, its worship must no longer be of man;
        it must be brought back again to the source of all Beauty, all
        Wisdom, and all Goodness; it must be restored to God.</p>
      </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page046">[pg 046]</span><a name=
      "Pg046" id="Pg046" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
      <hr class="page" />

      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
      "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
        <a name="toc7" id="toc7"></a> <a name="pdf8" id="pdf8"></a>

        <h1 class="tei tei-head" style=
        "margin-top: 3.46em; text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em">
        <span style="font-size: 173%">II. Nachman Krochmal and the</span>
        <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style=
        "font-size: 173%">“</span><span style="font-size: 173%">Perplexities
        Of The Time</span><span style="font-size: 173%">”</span></span></h1>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In her
        good-natured panegyric of mediocrity which is known under the title
        of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Scenes
        of Clerical Life</span></span>, George Eliot remarked: <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Let us hope that there is a saving
        ignorance.”</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Strange as this
        demand may sound, the wish of the great novelist to see her favoured
        mediocrities <span class="tei tei-q">“saved,”</span> has been shared
        by the great majority of mankind. I know that I, at least, echo that
        desire with all my heart. And I am afraid that I am prompted by some
        rather selfish reasons. It would be somewhat hard, when one is born
        with small abilities, but a great desire for being saved, to be
        deprived of the hope held out by the author of <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Adam
        Bede</span></span>.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But there are
        some, I am afraid, who are not satisfied with this dictum of George
        Eliot. They show a strong tendency to make salvation a monopoly of
        ignorance. This is a little too selfish. With all due respect to
        every form of ignorance, sacred as well as profane, we ought, I
        think, to believe that there is also such a thing as a saving
        knowledge. Nay, we might go even farther. There may be certain epochs
        in history when there is hardly any <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page047">[pg 047]</span><a name="Pg047" id="Pg047" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> other path to salvation than knowledge, and the
        deep search after truth.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We all know the
        words of the Psalmist, <span class="tei tei-q">“The Lord preserveth
        the simple.”</span> But as there are periods in the life of the
        individual when naïveté has to give way to sagacity and reflection,
        so there are times in history at which Providence does not choose to
        leave men in simplicity. At such times doubts arise, as though of
        themselves; questions suddenly become open when they had been
        supposed solved for centuries; and the human mind is stirred by a
        sceptical breeze of which no man can tell whence it came. One may
        under those circumstances be indifferent, but one can be simple no
        more.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Even in such
        cases, however, man has no cause to despair. When our dearest beliefs
        are shaken by all kinds of doubts, Providence sends us also great
        thinkers, earnest lovers of truth, who devote their lives to
        enlightening our puzzled minds. Not that these men try to answer all
        the questions by which we feel perplexed. They endeavour to satisfy
        us, partly by showing that many of our difficulties are not
        difficulties at all, but merely arise from superficiality, and partly
        by proving that the great cause about which we feel so much anxiety
        does not exactly depend on the solution of the questions that are
        troubling us. They give to the things which are dearer to us than our
        life a fresh aspect, which enables us to remain attached to them with
        the same devotion and love as before. To speak again in the words of
        the Psalmist: <span class="tei tei-q">“Thou sendest forth Thy Spirit,
        and they are created, and Thou renewest the face of the
        earth.”</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This spirit that
        renews the face of things is what I understand by <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“saving knowledge.”</span> As men of that <span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="page048">[pg 048]</span><a name="Pg048" id="Pg048"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> saving knowledge we may regard Rabban
        Johanan ben Zaccai<a id="noteref_19" name="noteref_19" href=
        "#note_19"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">19</span></span></a> and his
        disciples, who made it possible for Judaism to survive the
        destruction of the Temple, which some believed to involve the end of
        the religion. As such men we may look upon R. Saadiah Gaon and his
        followers, who worked at a time when Judaism was menaced in its inner
        life, namely in the tradition, by the attempts of the narrow-minded
        Caraites to convert it into a bookish religion.<a id="noteref_20"
        name="noteref_20" href="#note_20"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">20</span></span></a> Such men
        were Maimonides and his successors, who came to the aid of religion
        when it had got into dogmatic troubles by reason of its coming into
        contact with various philosophical systems. And in order to approach
        the subject of the present essay, I venture to say that a man of such
        saving knowledge was also Nachman Krochmal, who lived and laboured in
        the first half of the present century, when Judaism had been terribly
        shaken by the scepticism of Voltaire, and the platitudes of the
        so-called Mendelssohnian school.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Nachman Krochmal
        was born on the 17th of February in the year 1785. His father,
        Solomon Krochmal, was a merchant of Brody, a commercial frontier town
        in the north-east of Galicia in Austria. In his early years Solomon
        often used to visit Berlin for business purposes. He is said to have
        seen Mendelssohn there on one occasion, and to have learned greatly
        to revere the Jewish sage. And it is not unlikely that Nachman's
        subsequent admiration for Mendelssohn was partly due to his father's
        influence.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Solomon was a man
        of considerable wealth, and he, therefore, endeavoured to give his
        son the best possible education. But as a respectable member of a
        Polish community a hundred years ago, Solomon had to follow the
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page049">[pg 049]</span><a name="Pg049"
        id="Pg049" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> fashion adopted by his
        neighbours, and the best possible education consisted in affording
        the child an opportunity to study the Talmud and other Rabbinical
        works. All other languages and their literatures were sealed books to
        the child—a very absurd and regrettable fashion indeed. But let us
        not be too hard on Polish Jews. I have been told that there are
        countries on our globe where people have been driven by the force of
        fashion into the opposite extreme; where, with few exceptions, they
        think that the Talmud, as well as the whole Hebrew literature, must
        needs be excluded from the programme of a gentleman's education.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Happily, or the
        reverse, Krochmal's childhood did not last long, for in the year 1798
        we find that Nachman, a boy of fourteen, was already married to a
        Miss Haberman in Zolkiew. As a result of this foolish custom of
        marrying at so very early an age, Nachman was hardly ever a boy; we
        have at once to deal with him as a man.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was then
        customary in Poland, and perhaps is so still, for the father of the
        bride to provide for the support of the young couple for some years
        after their marriage. In order to reduce the expense of this
        arrangement, the bridegroom had to reside in the same house as his
        father-in-law. Thus we see Krochmal removing from Brody to Zolkiew,
        the native town of his wife. Here Krochmal lived in the house of her
        father for many years, entirely devoted to his studies; and he
        certainly needed all his time for them. For he now began to expand
        the sphere of his education, to embrace subjects quite new to him. By
        his marriage Nachman seems to have gained a certain amount of
        independence, and the first use he made of it was to study the
        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Guide of
        the Perplexed</span></span><a id="noteref_21" name="noteref_21" href=
        "#note_21"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">21</span></span></a> of
        Maimonides, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page050">[pg
        050]</span><a name="Pg050" id="Pg050" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the
        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Commentaries</span></span> of Ibn Ezra on the
        Bible,<a id="noteref_22" name="noteref_22" href=
        "#note_22"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">22</span></span></a> and
        other more or less philosophical works written in the Hebrew
        language. His next step was to learn German; but, as his biographers
        inform us, he was not able to follow this course without undergoing
        many struggles, and overcoming many obstacles.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It would lead us
        too far to give a full account of the difficulties which the young
        scholar had to conquer while pursuing his new studies. They will be
        sufficiently characterised by the following extract from a Hebrew
        letter of his disciple, Solomon Leb Rapoport, who, writing in 1841
        concerning his master and friend, remarks: <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Consider this, ye inhabitants of Germany”</span>—and, I
        may add, ye inhabitants of England—<span class="tei tei-q">“and you
        will be astounded. It is easy for you to avoid being one-sided, and
        to study different sciences, for you possess many schools and
        teachers from every branch of learning. It is not so in Poland and
        Russia even at present, much less was it so forty years ago. There is
        no teacher, no guide, no supporter, for the Jew who desires any sort
        of improvement. The Jew who wishes to enter on a new path of learning
        has to prepare the road for himself. And when he has entered on it,
        his friend will come to him and ask, <span class="tei tei-q">‘Is it
        true that you have got scientific books in your house? Mind you do
        not mention it to any one. There are enough bigots in the town to
        persecute you and all your family if they get scent of
        it.’</span> ”</span> It was under these conditions that Krochmal
        pursued his studies, which were by no means few or easy, for he was
        not content with a knowledge of only the lighter portions of German
        literature. He soon began to read the works of Lessing, Mendelssohn,
        and more especially of Kant, who always <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page051">[pg 051]</span><a name="Pg051" id="Pg051" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> remained his favourite philosopher. In his
        later years he also became acquainted with the writings of Fichte,
        Schelling, and Hegel. But to the last he could not console himself
        for having missed the advantages of a systematic university
        education.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">After having
        learned German, Krochmal proceeded to acquire a knowledge of Latin
        and French, and to read the best books written in those languages. To
        deepen his knowledge of Hebrew, he studied Arabic and Syraic, but we
        are unable to say how far he succeeded in mastering these languages.
        With these studies, which appear to have occupied our philosopher for
        an interval of ten years after his marriage, the first period of his
        life seems also to end. But the hard work of ten years did not pass
        over the delicate youth without undermining his health for ever. At
        the age of twenty-four, Krochmal fell sick of an illness which
        compelled him to interrupt his work. He was forced to go to Lemberg
        to consult the doctors of that town, and he had to remain there for a
        long time. And now began Krochmal's career as a teacher. For during
        his stay at Lemberg there gathered round him a band of young scholars
        whom Krochmal's fame had already reached. It is useless to enumerate
        the names of all these students. Among them figured Isaac Erter,
        Samson Bloch, A. Bodek, and many others. The most gifted of them was
        undoubtedly Rapoport, who afterwards became even more famous than his
        master Krochmal. It is not easy to define accurately the relation
        that subsisted between these two men. Graetz, in his history, calls
        Rapoport a disciple of Krochmal. Rapoport himself, in his memoir of
        Krochmal, describes the latter as a dear friend with whom he was wont
        to discuss literary topics. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page052">[pg
        052]</span><a name="Pg052" id="Pg052" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        Zunz does not mention Rapoport at all in his account of our author.
        It seems to me that this relation may be most aptly defined by the
        Talmudic term <span class="tei tei-q">“Talmid-Chaber,”</span><a id=
        "noteref_23" name="noteref_23" href="#note_23"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">23</span></span></a>
        <span class="tei tei-q">“disciple-colleague.”</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Indeed, Krochmal's
        whole method of teaching was rather that of a companion than of a
        professor. He gave no set lectures on particular subjects, but
        conveyed his instruction rather by means of suggestive conversations
        with his younger friends. His usual habit was to walk with his pupils
        in the neighbourhood of the town, and to try to influence their minds
        each in accordance with its bent. If any of his disciples showed an
        inclination for poetry, Krochmal sought to refine his taste by
        directing his attention to the best works in Hebrew and German
        literature. To another, whose fancy strayed into mysticism, he
        recommended the writings of Philo and Ibn Ezra, at the same time
        suggesting how the works of the latter should be interpreted. A third
        who, like Rapoport, was interested in historical researches, Krochmal
        instructed in the methods of critical inquiry.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There must have
        been some fascinating charm in Nachman's personality, which made him
        irresistible to all who came into contact with him. Rapoport has
        described his first interview with Krochmal. <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“It is more than thirty years since I first made his
        acquaintance, and beheld the glory of his presence. Though he was in
        weak health, still his soul was strong; and as soon as I conversed
        with him there came over me a spirit of judgment and knowledge. I
        felt almost transformed into another man.”</span> Elsewhere the same
        writer says: <span class="tei tei-q">“Oh, how sweet to me were these
        walks with Krochmal—sweeter than all the pleasures of this world. I
        could never have enough <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page053">[pg
        053]</span><a name="Pg053" id="Pg053" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of
        his wisdom; with his every word he conveyed a new lesson.”</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">After a lengthy
        stay at Lemberg, Krochmal partially, though not entirely, recovered
        from his severe illness; he remained weak and pale for the rest of
        his days. His antagonists, the Chassidim, believed him to be
        possessed by a demon who could find no better dwelling-place than in
        the person of this arch-heretic. Had it been in their power they
        would probably have dragged him to some exorcist for the purpose of
        driving out his German, French, Latin, and other symptoms of
        demoniacal heresy. Happily the orthodox were powerless to do this, so
        Krochmal was left unmolested, and was allowed to resume his walks and
        studies. It may be here remarked that Krochmal in general avoided
        giving the Chassidim any cause for reasonable complaint. Rapoport
        asserts that his master was <span class="tei tei-q">“deeply religious
        and a strict observer of the law. He was zealously anxious to perform
        every ordinance, Biblical or Rabbinical.”</span> The only liberty
        that Krochmal claimed for himself and his disciples was the right to
        study what they thought best and in the way they thought best. When
        this liberty was attacked, he showed a firmness and resolution which
        would hardly have been expected from this quiet and gentle man. To
        one of his pupils, who made concessions to the Chassidim and their
        Zaddikim worship, Krochmal wrote: <span class="tei tei-q">“Be firm in
        this matter unless you wish to earn the contempt of every honest man.
        One who is afraid of these people, and debases himself before them
        bears a mean soul that was born to slavery. The man that wishes to
        rise above the mob, with its confused notions and corrupt morality,
        must be courageous as a lion in conquering the obstacles that beset
        his path. Consideration <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page054">[pg
        054]</span><a name="Pg054" id="Pg054" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of
        what people will say, what bigots will whisper, what crafty enemies
        will scheme—questions such as these can have but one effect,—to
        darken the intellect and confuse the faculty of judgment.”</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">So Krochmal
        continued his studies without interruption till 1814, when the death
        of his wife's mother brought his period of ease and comfort to an
        end. His father-in-law seems to have died some time before, and
        Krochmal was forced to seek his own living. He became a merchant, but
        it is to be regretted that he did not prove as successful a man of
        business as he was a man of letters. He found it a hard struggle to
        earn a living. But the severest trial which he had to undergo was the
        death of his wife in 1826. In a letter, dating from about this time,
        to a friend who had asked him for assistance in his philosophical
        inquiries, Krochmal wrote—<span class="tei tei-q">“How can I help you
        now? I am already an old man; my head is gray, and my health is
        broken. In the last three years I have met with many misfortunes. My
        beloved wife died after a long illness. My daughter will soon leave
        me to get married, my elder son will depart to seek his livelihood,
        and I shall be left alone with only a child of ten years, the son of
        my old age. I will lift up mine eyes unto the hills: From whence
        shall my help come?”</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Nachman was
        evidently in very low spirits at this time, but he was in too true a
        sense a philosopher to despair. He turned for comfort to his studies,
        and at this dark epoch of his life he first became acquainted with
        the Philosophy of Hegel, whose system he was wont to call the
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Philosophy of Philosophies.”</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For the next ten
        years the works of Hegel and inquiries into Jewish history appear to
        have absorbed all the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page055">[pg
        055]</span><a name="Pg055" id="Pg055" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        leisure that his mercantile occupation left him. We shall presently
        see what the result of these studies was. No fresh subjects were
        undertaken by Krochmal in the last years of his life; he had already
        acquired a fund of knowledge vast enough to engage all his thoughts.
        There are, however, some remaining points in his private
        circumstances which it may not be uninteresting to mention.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Krochmal, as has
        been already related, was not prosperous in his business. Things went
        from bad to worse, and he was compelled in 1836 to seek a situation.
        <span class="tei tei-q">“There ought to be literary men poor,”</span>
        some writer has maintained, <span class="tei tei-q">“to show whether
        they are genuine or not.”</span> This test Krochmal successfully
        passed through. Even as a young man Nachman's strength of character
        was admired by his contemporaries not less than his rare learning. In
        his subsequent distress, he gave evidence of the truth of this
        judgment. Despite his poverty, his friends could not prevail upon him
        to accept the post of Rabbi in any Jewish community. <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“I am unwilling,”</span> he wrote to a friend,
        <span class="tei tei-q">“to be the cause of dissensions in any Jewish
        congregation. I should prefer to die of hunger rather than become a
        Rabbi under present circumstances.”</span> He expressed his views on
        this subject even more decidedly on a later occasion when the Berlin
        congregation offered him the post of Chief Rabbi in that town. In a
        letter, conveying his refusal of this honourable office, he says:
        <span class="tei tei-q">“I never thought of becoming the
        Conscience-counsellor (<span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign"
        xml:lang="de"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Gewissensrath</span></span>) of men. My line of
        studies was not directed to that end, nor would it accord with my
        disposition and sentiments. The only post that I should care to
        accept would be that of teacher in the Jewish Theological Seminary,
        which, as I was informed, you were thinking of establishing in
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page056">[pg 056]</span><a name="Pg056"
        id="Pg056" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Berlin.”</span> The plan to
        found such an institution was not realised till forty years later,
        and in the interval Nachman had to look for his living in other
        regions than Jewish theology. Being in poor circumstances, and as his
        children and friends had left him, he felt very lonely at Zolkiew.
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Nobody cares for me here,”</span> he writes,
        <span class="tei tei-q">“and I am equally indifferent.”</span> His
        one desire was to obtain a situation at Brody, possibly as
        book-keeper with a salary of some thirty pounds a year, on condition
        that he would be expected to devote only half the day to his business
        duties, thus securing for himself leisure for philosophical
        studies.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">His terms were
        accepted, and he obtained the humble post he sought. He remained in
        Brody for the next two years, 1836-8, but at the end of 1838 he fell
        so dangerously ill that he could no longer resist the pressing
        request of his daughter to live with her at Tarnopol. She had urged
        him to take this step even previous to his removal to Brody, but he
        had declined on the plea that he preferred to live by the labour of
        his hands. Now, however, he yielded to her wish, and betook himself
        to Tarnopol, where for two years longer he lived affectionately
        tended by his children and respected by all who knew him. In May
        1840, Krochmal's illness began to develop fatal symptoms, and he died
        in the arms of his daughter on the 31st of July (the first of Ab), at
        the age of fifty-five. As Zunz happily remarked: <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“This great man was born on the 7th of Adar, the birthday
        of Moses (according to Jewish tradition), and died on the first of
        Ab, the anniversary of the death of Aaron, the High
        Priest.”</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I have tried in
        the foregoing remarks to give a short sketch of our Rabbi's life
        according to the accounts of Zunz, Rapoport, and Letteris. There is
        one other point <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page057">[pg
        057]</span><a name="Pg057" id="Pg057" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to
        which I must allude, as it involves a consideration on which Letteris
        seems to lay much stress. This biographer appears to think that
        Krochmal was in his youth greatly influenced by the society in which
        he moved, consisting as it did of many learned and enlightened men.
        There is, too, the oft-quoted saying of Goethe:—</p>

        <div class="block tei tei-quote" style=
        "margin-right: 3.60em; margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em">
        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em">
            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Wer den Dichter will
              verstehen</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Muss in Dichters Lande
              gehen.</span>
            </div>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And I am probably
        expected to give some account of the state of society in which
        Nachman grew up. I regret that I must ask to be excused from doing
        so. I cannot consent to take the reader to Krochmal's land. And if I
        might venture to give him my humble advice, I should only say,
        <span class="tei tei-q">“By all means stop at home.”</span> Goethe
        may be right about the poet, but his remark does not apply to the
        case of the scholar. It may be true, as some think, that every great
        man is the product of his time, but it certainly does not follow that
        he is the product of his country. Nor could I name any other country
        of which Krochmal was the product. Many a city no doubt boasted
        itself a town full of <span class="tei tei-q">“<span lang="he" class=
        "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Chakhamim</span></span> and <span lang="he"
        class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Sopherim</span></span>”</span><a id="noteref_24"
        name="noteref_24" href="#note_24"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">24</span></span></a> as the
        Hebrew phrase is, or, as we would express it, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“a seat of learning,”</span> full of scholars of the
        ancient and modern schools. But neither these ancient scholars nor
        the modern were of a kind to produce a real scholar and an
        enlightened thinker like Krochmal. There were many men who knew by
        heart the whole of the Halachic works of Maimonides, the Mishnah, and
        even the whole of the Babylonian Talmud. This is very imposing. But
        if you look a little closer, you will find that with a few
        exceptions—such as the school of R. Elijah Wilna—these men, generally
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page058">[pg 058]</span><a name="Pg058"
        id="Pg058" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> speaking, hardly deserve the
        name of scholars at all. They were rather a sort of studying engines.
        The steam-engine passes over a continent, here through romantic
        scenery, there in the midst of arid deserts, by stream and mountain
        and valley, always with the same monotonous hum and shriek. So these
        scholars went through the Talmud with never changing feelings. They
        did not rejoice at the description which is given in tractate
        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Biccurim</span></span><a id="noteref_25" name=
        "noteref_25" href="#note_25"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">25</span></span></a> of the
        procession formed when the first-fruits were brought into the Holy
        Temple. They were not much saddened when reading in tractate
        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Taanith</span></span><a id="noteref_26" name=
        "noteref_26" href="#note_26"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">26</span></span></a> of the
        unhappy days so recurrent in Jewish history. They were not delighted
        by the wisdom of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Seder Nezikin</span></span>,<a id="noteref_27"
        name="noteref_27" href="#note_27"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">27</span></span></a> which
        deals with civil law; nor were they vexed of <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Seder
        Taharoth</span></span>,<a id="noteref_28" name="noteref_28" href=
        "#note_28"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">28</span></span></a> which
        treats of the laws of cleanliness and uncleanliness, that by their
        exaggeration gave cause to much dissension in the time of the Temple.
        The pre-Talmudic literature, such as the <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Siphra</span></span>,
        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Siphré</span></span>, and <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Mechilta</span></span><a id="noteref_29" name=
        "noteref_29" href="#note_29"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">29</span></span></a>—the only
        existing means of obtaining an insight into the Talmud—were
        altogether neglected. All that these readers cared for was to push on
        to the end, and the prayer recited at the close was of more
        importance to them than the treatise they had perused.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Not less
        melancholy was the spectacle presented by the so-called men of
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Enlightenment”</span> (<span lang="de"
        class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Aufklärung</span></span>). They belonged chiefly
        to the rationalistic school of Mendelssohn, but they equalled their
        master neither in knowledge nor in moral character. It was an
        enlightenment without foundation in real scholarship, and did not
        lead to an ideal life, though again I must add that there were
        exceptions. These men were rather what Germans would term <span lang=
        "de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Schöngeister</span></span>, a set of dilettanti
        who cared to study as little as <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page059">[pg 059]</span><a name="Pg059" id="Pg059" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> possible, and to write as much as possible.
        They wrote bad grammars, superficial commentaries on the Bible, and
        terribly dull poems. Of this literature, with the exception of
        Erter's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Watchman</span></span>,<a id="noteref_30" name=
        "noteref_30" href="#note_30"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">30</span></span></a> there is
        scarcely a work that one would care to read twice. Most of them
        despised Rabbinism, but without understanding its noblest forms as
        they are to be traced in the Talmud and later Hebrew literature. They
        did not dislike Judaism, but the only Judaism they affected was one
        <span class="tei tei-q">“which does not oppose itself to anything in
        particular”</span>; or, as Heine would have described it,
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Eine reinliche Religion.”</span> In one
        respect these little men were great: in mutual admiration, which
        reached such a pitch that such titles as <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Great Luminary,”</span> <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“World-famed Sage,”</span> were considered altogether too
        insignificant and commonplace.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I will now pass to
        the writings of Krochmal. It must be premised that Krochmal was not a
        voluminous author. All his writings, including a few letters which
        were published in various Hebrew periodicals, would scarcely occupy
        four hundred pages. Krochmal used to call himself <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“der ewige Student”</span> (the perpetual pupil). He did
        not read books, nor study philosophical systems, with the object of
        writing books of his own on them. He read and studied in order that
        he might become a better and a wiser man. Besides, he did not think
        himself competent to judge on grave subjects, nor did he consider his
        judgment, even if he formed one, worthy of publication. He counselled
        his friends to be equally slow in publishing their views to the
        world. <span class="tei tei-q">“Be not,”</span> he wrote to a
        correspondent,—<span class="tei tei-q">“be not hasty in forming your
        opinions before you have studied the literature of the subject with
        care and devotion. This is no easy matter, for no man can
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page060">[pg 060]</span><a name="Pg060"
        id="Pg060" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> obtain any real knowledge of
        the Torah and philosophy unless he is prepared to give himself up in
        single-hearted devotion to his studies.”</span> Severe though he was
        to his friends, he was still more severe to himself. Though he had
        been collecting materials on subjects of Jewish history and
        philosophy from his early youth, it was not until he had endured much
        persuasion and pressure from his friends that he began to write down
        his thoughts in a connected form. We thus possess only one work from
        the pen of this author; but that work is the <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Guide of the Perplexed
        of the Time</span></span>,<a id="noteref_31" name="noteref_31" href=
        "#note_31"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">31</span></span></a> a
        posthumous book published in 1851, eleven years after Krochmal's
        death. His work had been much interrupted by illness during the last
        years of his life, and as a necessary consequence many parts of his
        treatise finally remained in an unfinished state. Krochmal
        commissioned his children to hand over his papers to Zunz, who was to
        arrange and edit them as best he might. Zunz, who in his reverence
        for Krochmal went so far as to call him the man of God, gladly
        accepted the task, in which he was aided by Steinschneider.
        Unfortunately, the work was published in Lemberg, a place famous for
        spoiling books. Even the skill of these two great masters did not
        suffice to save Krochmal's work from the fate to which all the books
        printed in Lemberg seem inevitably doomed. Thus Krochmal's work is
        printed on bad paper, and with faint ink; it is full of misprints and
        the text is sometimes confused with the notes. A second edition
        appeared in Lemberg in 1863; but, it is scarcely necessary to add,
        the reprint is even worse than the original issue.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The work occupies
        some 350 pages, and is divided into seventeen chapters. The opening
        six treat of Religion in general. The author first indicates the
        opposite dangers <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page061">[pg
        061]</span><a name="Pg061" id="Pg061" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to
        which men are liable. On the one hand, men are exposed to extravagant
        phantasy (<span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
        "de"><span style="font-style: italic">Schwärmerei</span></span>),
        superstition and ceremonialism (<span lang="de" class=
        "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Werkheiligkeit</span></span>). Some, on the
        other hand, in their endeavour to avoid this danger, fall into the
        opposite extreme, materialism, unbelief, and moral degeneracy as a
        consequence of their neglect of all law. He proceeds to say: Even in
        the ritual part of religion, such as the regulations of the Sabbath,
        the dietary laws and so forth, we find abstract definitions
        necessary, and differences of opinions prevalent. In the dogmatic
        aspects of religion, dealing as they do with the grave subjects of
        metaphysics, the mystery of life and death, the destiny of man, his
        relation to God, reward and punishment, the inner meaning of the
        laws,—in these spiritual matters, the difficulty of accurate
        definition must be far greater and the opportunities for difference
        of opinion more frequent and important. What guide are we to follow,
        seeing that every error involves the most dangerous consequences?
        Shall we abandon altogether the effort of thinking on these grave
        subjects? Such a course is impossible. Do not believe, says Krochmal,
        that there ever was a time when the religious man was entirely
        satisfied by deeds of righteousness, as some people maintain. On the
        contrary, every man, whether an independent thinker or a simple
        believer, always feels the weight of these questions upon him. Every
        man desires to have some ideal basis for his actions which must
        constitute his real life in its noblest moments. Krochmal here quotes
        a famous passage from the Midrash.<a id="noteref_32" name=
        "noteref_32" href="#note_32"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">32</span></span></a> The
        Torah, according to one of our ancient sages, may be compared to two
        paths, the one burning with fire, the other covered with snow. If a
        man enters on the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page062">[pg
        062]</span><a name="Pg062" id="Pg062" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        former path he will die by the heat; if he walks by the latter path
        he will be frozen by the snow. What, then, must he do? He must walk
        in the middle, or, as we should say, he must choose the golden mean.
        But, as Krochmal suggests, the middle way in historical and
        philosophical doubts does not consist, as some idle heads suppose, in
        a kind of compromise between two opposing views. If one of two
        contending parties declares that twice two make six, while his
        opponent asserts that twice two make eight, a sort of compromise
        might be arrived at by conceding that twice two make seven. But such
        a compromise would be as false as either extreme; and the seeker
        after the truth must revert to that mean which is the heart of all
        things, independently of all factions, placing himself above
        them.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Having dealt with
        the arguments relating to the existence of God as elaborated in the
        philosophical systems of his time, Krochmal leads up to his treatment
        of the History of Israel by a chapter on the ideal gifts bestowed
        upon the various ancient nations, which, possessed by them through
        many centuries, were lost when their nationality ceased. We next
        come, in Chapter VII., to the ideal gifts of Israel. These are the
        religious gift and the faculty and desire for seeking the ideal of
        all ideals, namely, God. But Israel, whose mission it was to
        propagate this ideal, was, even as other nations, subject to natural
        laws; and its history presents progress and reaction, rise and
        decline. Krochmal devotes his next three chapters to showing how, in
        the history of Israel, as in other histories, may be detected a
        triple process. These three stages are the budding, the period of
        maturity, and the decay. As the history of Israel is <span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="page063">[pg 063]</span><a name="Pg063" id="Pg063"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> more a history of religion than of
        politics and battles, its rise and decline correspond more or less
        with Israel's attachment to God, and its falling away from Him. The
        decay would be associated with the adoption of either of the
        extremes, the dangerous effects of which have been already mentioned.
        But <span class="tei tei-q">“through progress and backsliding, amid
        infectious contact with idolatry, amid survival of old growths of
        superstition, of the crude practices of the past; amid the
        solicitation of new aspects of life; in material prosperity and in
        material ruin,”</span> Israel was never wholly detached from God. In
        the worst times it had its judges or its prophets, its heroes or its
        sages, its Rabbis or its philosophers, who strove to bring Israel
        back to its mission, and who succeeded in their efforts to do so.
        Even in its decay traces of the Divine spirit made themselves felt,
        and revived the nation, which entered again on a triple course and
        repeated its three phases. The first of these three-fold epochs
        began, according to Krochmal's eighth chapter, with the times of the
        Patriarchs, and ended with the death of Gedaliah after the
        destruction of the first Temple. Next, in the following two chapters,
        Krochmal finds the second triple movement in the interval between the
        prophets of the exile in Babylon and the death of Bar-Cochba about
        135 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-variant: small-caps">a.c.</span></span> The author also hints
        at the existence of a third such epoch beginning with R. Judah the
        Patriarch, the compiler of the Mishnah (220 <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-variant: small-caps">a.c.</span></span>),<a id="noteref_33"
        name="noteref_33" href="#note_33"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">33</span></span></a> and
        ending with the expulsion of the Jews from Spain (1492). This idea is
        not further developed by Krochmal; but it would be interesting to
        ask, by the way, in which phase of the three-fold process—rise,
        maturity, or decay—are we at the present time?</p><span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="page064">[pg 064]</span><a name="Pg064" id="Pg064"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The next five
        chapters may be regarded as an excursus on the preceding two.
        Krochmal discusses the Biblical books which belong to the period of
        the Exile and of the Second Temple, such as the Second Isaiah,
        certain Exilic and Maccabean psalms, Ecclesiastes, certain Apocryphal
        books, and the work of the Men of the Great Synagogue. They contain,
        again, researches on the various sects, such as the Assideans,
        Sadducees, Pharisees, Essenes, the Gnostics, the Cabbalists and their
        relation to the latter, and the Minim,<a id="noteref_34" name=
        "noteref_34" href="#note_34"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">34</span></span></a> who are
        mentioned in the Talmud. In another part of this excursus Krochmal
        describes the systems of the Alexandrian Jewish philosophers, such as
        Philo and Aristobulus, and discusses their relation to certain
        theosophic ideas in various Midrash-collections. The author also
        attempts to prove the necessity of Tradition; he shows its first
        traces in the Bible, and explains the term Sopherim (scribes); and he
        points out the meaning of the phrase <span class="tei tei-q">“A law
        unto Moses from Mount Sinai,”</span><a id="noteref_35" name=
        "noteref_35" href="#note_35"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">35</span></span></a> and
        similar expressions. He gives a summary of the development of the
        Halachah in its different stages, the criteria by which the older
        Halachahs may be discriminated; he seeks to arrive at the origin of
        the Mishnah, and deals with various cognate topics. In another
        discourse Krochmal endeavours to explain the term Agadah,<a id=
        "noteref_36" name="noteref_36" href="#note_36"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">36</span></span></a> its
        origin and development; the different kinds of Agadah and their
        relative value. Chapter XVI. contains the Prolegomena to a philosophy
        of the Jewish religion in accordance with the principles laid down by
        Hegel. In the seventeenth and last chapter the author gives a general
        introduction to the Philosophy of Ibn Ezra, and quotes illustrative
        extracts.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The space of an
        essay does not permit me to give <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page065">[pg 065]</span><a name="Pg065" id="Pg065" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> further details of Krochmal's book. I am
        conscious that the preceding outline is deficient in quality as well
        as in quantity. Yet, even from this meagre abstract, the reader will
        gather that Krochmal reviews many of the great problems which concern
        religion in general and Judaism in particular. Zunz somewhere remarks
        that Krochmal was inspired in his work by the study of Hegel, just as
        Maimonides had been by the study of Aristotle. I give this statement
        solely on the authority of Zunz, as I myself have never made a study
        of the works of the German philosopher, and am therefore unable to
        express an opinion on the question.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now there is no
        doubt that Krochmal's book is not without defects. The materials are
        not always well arranged, there is at times a want of proportion in
        the length at which the various points are treated, and the author
        occasionally seems to wander from the subject in hand. But we shall
        be better able to account for these and similar technical faults, as
        well as to appreciate the real value of the author's work, if we
        consider the following fact. Nachman Krochmal's object was to
        elaborate a philosophy of Jewish history, to trace the leading ideas
        that ran through it, and the ultimate causes that led to its various
        phases. But, unfortunately, at the time when Krochmal began to write,
        there did not exist a Jewish history at all. The labours of Zunz were
        conducted in an altogether different field. Not to mention the names
        of the younger scholars then unborn, Graetz, the author of the
        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of
        the Jews</span></span>, and Weiss, who wrote a history of the
        Tradition, were still studying at college. Frankel's masterly essays
        on the Essenes and the Septuagint, his well-known work, <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Introduction to
        the</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page066">[pg
        066]</span><a name="Pg066" id="Pg066" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Mishnah</span></span>, and the results of
        Geiger's most interesting and suggestive researches on the older and
        later Halachah, and on the Pharisees and Sadducees, had yet to be
        written. Rapoport's great treatise, <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Erech
        Millin</span></span>,<a id="noteref_37" name="noteref_37" href=
        "#note_37"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">37</span></span></a> had not
        been published at that time, and Steinschneider was not yet working
        at his historical sketch of Jewish literature. It was not till six
        years after Krochmal's death (viz. in 1846) that Landauer's memorable
        studies on the Jewish mystics were given to the world. Even the bad
        books of Julius Fürst, such as his <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of the
        Canon</span></span>, and his still worse <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Jewish
        Literature in Babylon</span></span>, were then unwritten. Neither the
        most charlatanic <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">History of the Opinions and Teachings of All the
        Jewish Sects</span></span>, by Peter Beer, the universal provider,
        nor Jost's most honest but narrow-minded and superficial <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of the
        Jews</span></span>, was of much use to Krochmal. Jost's more
        scholarly works were not published till long afterwards. Krochmal was
        thus without the guidance of those authorities to which we are now
        accustomed to turn for information. Excepting the aid that he derived
        from the writings of Azariah de Rossi,<a id="noteref_38" name=
        "noteref_38" href="#note_38"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">38</span></span></a> Krochmal
        was therefore compelled to prosecute all the necessary research for
        himself; he had to establish the facts of Jewish history as well as
        to philosophise upon them. Hence, in the very midst of his
        philosophical analysis, the author was bound to introduce digressions
        on historical subjects, in order to justify as well as to form the
        basis of that analysis. He had to survey the ground and to collect
        the materials, besides constructing the plan of the edifice and
        working at its erection. Nevertheless, it is precisely for these
        historical excursuses that Krochmal has deserved the gratitude of
        posterity. He it was who taught Jewish scholars how to <span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="page067">[pg 067]</span><a name="Pg067" id="Pg067"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> submit the ancient Rabbinic records to
        the test of criticism and the way in which they might be utilised for
        the purpose of historical studies; he it was who enabled them to
        trace the genesis of the tradition, and to watch the inner
        germination of that vast organism. He even indicated to them how they
        might continue to connect their own lives with it, how they might
        derive nourishment from it, and in their turn further its growth. I
        may assert with the utmost confidence that there is scarcely a single
        page in Krochmal's book that did not afterwards give birth to some
        essay or monograph or even elaborate treatise, though their authors
        were not always very careful about mentioning the source of their
        inspiration. Thus Krochmal justly deserves the honourable title
        assigned to him by one of our greatest historians, who terms him the
        Father of Jewish Science.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">So far, I have
        been speaking of the importance of Krochmal's treatise and of its
        significance in the region of Jewish Science. It is necessary, I
        think, to add a few words with regard to the general tendency of his
        whole work. I have already alluded to the characteristic modesty of
        Krochmal; I have pointed out how little he cared for publicity, how
        dearly he loved retirement. The question accordingly presents
        itself—What can have been the real and sufficient causes that
        prevailed upon him to yield to the solicitations of his friends and
        to write upon what the Talmud would term <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“matters standing on the heights of the
        world”</span>?</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The answer to this
        question may, I think, be found in the title of Krochmal's book, the
        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Guide of
        the Perplexed of the Time</span></span>. It is indeed a rather
        unusual coincidence for the title of a Hebrew book to have any
        connection <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page068">[pg
        068]</span><a name="Pg068" id="Pg068" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        with its subject matter. The same merit is possessed by the
        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Guide of
        the Perplexed</span></span> of Maimonides, the title of which
        undoubtedly suggested that of Krochmal's treatise. There is, however,
        one little addition in Krochmal's title that contains a most
        important lesson for us. I mean the words <span class="tei tei-q">“of
        the Time.”</span> By these words Krochmal reminds us that, great as
        are the merits of the immortal work of Maimonides—and it would be
        difficult to exaggerate its value and importance—still it will no
        longer suffice for us. For, as Krochmal himself remarks, every time
        has its own perplexities, and therefore needs its own guide. In order
        to show that these words are no idle phrase, I shall endeavour to
        illustrate them by one example at least. In the <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Guide of the
        Perplexed</span></span> of Maimonides, Part II., Chapter XXVI.,
        occurs a passage which runs thus: <span class="tei tei-q">“In the
        famous chapters known as the <span class="tei tei-q">‘Chapters of R.
        Eliezer the Great,’</span><a id="noteref_39" name="noteref_39" href=
        "#note_39"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">39</span></span></a> I find
        R. Eliezer the Great saying something more extraordinary than I have
        ever seen in the utterances of any believer in the Law of Moses. I
        refer to the following passage: <span class="tei tei-q">‘Whence were
        the heavens created? He (God) took part of the light of His garment,
        He stretched it like a cloth, and thus the heavens were extending
        continually, as it is said (Ps. civ. 2): He covereth Himself with
        light as with a garment, He stretcheth the heavens like a curtain.
        Whence was the earth created? He took of the snow under the throne of
        glory, and threw it; according to the words (in Job xxxvii. 6), He
        said to the snow be thou earth.’</span> These are the words given
        there (in the <span class="tei tei-q">‘Chapters of R. Eliezer the
        Great’</span>), and I, in my surprise, ask, What was the belief of
        this sage? Did he think it impossible <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page069">[pg 069]</span><a name="Pg069" id="Pg069" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> that something be produced from nothing?... If
        the terms <span class="tei tei-q">‘the light of His garment’</span>
        and the <span class="tei tei-q">‘snow of glory’</span> mean something
        eternal (as matter) they <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">must</span></em> be rejected.... In short, it is
        a passage that greatly confuses the notions of all intelligent and
        religious persons. I am unable to explain it
        sufficiently.”</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">So far Maimonides;
        and we are quite able to conceive his perplexity in dealing with this
        passage. On one side, Maimonides himself believed that Judaism is a
        dogmatic religion, and that one of its dogmas is the principle of
        <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Creatio ex nihilo</span></span>. On the other
        side, he found R. Eliezer—one of the greatest authorities of the
        early part of the second century—apparently denying this dogma. The
        perplexity was indeed a serious one for Maimonides, but we find no
        difficulty whatever in extricating ourselves from it. In the first
        place, there are many who cling to the theory which holds that there
        are no dogmas in Judaism at all, and to them Maimonides' difficulty
        would have no relevance. Secondly, those who believe that there are
        dogmas in Judaism may regard such expressions as those quoted above
        from the <span class="tei tei-q">“Chapters of R. Eliezer”</span> in
        the light of mere poetical metaphors, or may call them fairy tales or
        legends, or include them in some other section of literature, known
        under the name of folklore, which is an excuse for every absurdity,
        the fortunate authors of which are responsible neither to philosophy
        nor to religion, and sometimes not even to common sense. But there is
        a third consideration that affords the best solution of the
        difficulty. The <span class="tei tei-q">“Chapters of R.
        Eliezer,”</span> despite their pompous title, are not the work of R.
        Eliezer at all. Criticism has taught us to attach no importance to
        the heading of a chapter or the title-page of a book. We are
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page070">[pg 070]</span><a name="Pg070"
        id="Pg070" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> now in a position to judge
        from the tone, style, and contents of the work, that the <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Chapters of R. Eliezer”</span> is a later compilation of
        the eighth century, and that its author could not have been R.
        Eliezer, the teacher of R. Akiba, in the second century. In this way,
        these particular difficulties of Maimonides solve themselves for us
        in a sufficiently easy way. But it is just these solutions that open
        up new difficulties and perplexities which did not exist for the
        generation of the great Spanish philosopher. Suppose that we accept
        the view that Judaism is not a dogmatic religion. But how are we to
        conceive a religion without dogmas, or, if you prefer the expression,
        without principles or bases of belief? Or is Judaism, as some
        platitudinarians think, a mere national institute with some useful
        dietary and sanitary laws, but with nothing that makes for the
        sanctification of man, with no guidance to offer us in the great
        problems of our life, and in the greatest anxieties of the human
        soul? On the other hand, granted that we may consider certain things
        as mere legend, how are we to discriminate between these and the
        things that must be taken seriously? Does it depend on the nature of
        the subject, or on the position of the book in the canon of Hebrew
        literature? In the thirteenth century symbolical meanings were given
        to certain difficult passages in the Talmud; but the process was
        carried further, and the Biblical narratives were subjected by
        philosophers to a like treatment. R. Solomon ben Adereth and his
        colleagues (in the thirteenth century) settled the question by
        indiscriminately excommunicating all young men who should study
        philosophy; but this method is scarcely one to be commended for
        present use.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The third, or the
        philological solution of difficulties, <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page071">[pg 071]</span><a name="Pg071" id="Pg071" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> leads to fresh troubles. A hundred years ago
        men were in that happy state of mind in which they knew everything.
        They knew the exact author and date of every Psalm; they knew the
        author of each and every ancient Midrash; they knew the originator of
        every law and ordinance; they even knew the writer of the Zohar, and
        of other mystical books. There were certainly a few who did not know
        all these things, among them Ibn Ezra, Azariah de Rossi, and the two
        Delmedigos.<a id="noteref_40" name="noteref_40" href=
        "#note_40"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">40</span></span></a> But they
        were merely a miserable historical blunder, men who had no right to
        be born when they were. But the philological method has swept away
        all this knowingness as by a deluge from heaven, and men find that
        they know nothing. True, there linger on a few who still know all
        these things, but it is they who are now the anachronism. These, and
        such as these, are the perplexities of our time, to the resolution of
        which the labours of Krochmal and of a noble band of scholars have
        been directed in this century.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Have these
        perplexities, we must ask, and these puzzles been solved by Krochmal
        and his coadjutors? We may with all certainty answer: They have only
        pointed out the way, it is for ourselves to proceed by it. It would
        be unreasonable to expect that difficulties which have been
        accumulating during the course of thousands of years should be solved
        by the men of one or two generations. Again, we live in a century in
        which excavations and discoveries in other fields have added at once
        to our knowledge and to our uncertainty. Each country, we might
        almost say, over and above the perplexities that trouble mankind in
        general, has its own special difficulties which are entirely unknown
        to those who dwell outside its frontiers. I am not disposed to
        discuss these difficulties <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page072">[pg
        072]</span><a name="Pg072" id="Pg072" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> in
        this place. Nor have I the ability to do so. But of two things I am
        perfectly certain: the first is, that for a solution of these
        difficulties which, in the language of Maimonides, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“confuse the notions of all intelligent and religious
        persons,”</span> the only hope is in true knowledge and not in
        ignorance; and secondly, this knowledge can only be obtained by a
        combination of the utmost reverence for religion and the deepest
        devotion to truth. The poor old Rabbis who have been so foully
        decried by their calumniators as hedonists, and so foolishly praised
        by sorry apologists as materialistic optimists, strongly insisted
        that when a man woos the truth, his suit can only prosper if he is
        influenced by the purest and most single-hearted affection.
        <span class="tei tei-q">“A man,”</span> says the Siphré, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“must not say: <span class="tei tei-q">‘I will study the
        Torah in order that I may attain the title of Rabbi or savant, or
        that I may become rich by it, or that I may be rewarded for it in the
        world to come.’</span> He must study for love's sake.”</span> Such a
        knowledge, which is free from all taint of worldliness and of
        other-worldliness, a knowledge sought simply and solely for pure love
        of God, who is Truth,—such a knowledge is in the highest sense a
        saving knowledge, and Nachman Krochmal was in possession of it.</p>
      </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page073">[pg 073]</span><a name=
      "Pg073" id="Pg073" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
      <hr class="page" />

      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
      "margin-top: 5.00em; margin-bottom: 5.00em">
        <a name="toc9" id="toc9"></a> <a name="pdf10" id="pdf10"></a>

        <h1 class="tei tei-head" style=
        "margin-top: 3.46em; margin-bottom: 3.46em; text-align: left">
        <span style="font-size: 173%">III. Rabbi Elijah Wilna,
        Gaon</span></h1>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The three great
        stars of German literature are usually characterised by German
        scholars in the following way: Goethe they say represents the
        beautiful, Schiller the ideal, while Lessing represents truth. I
        think that we may apply the same characteristics to the three great
        luminaries, with which the Jewish middle ages ceased—for as Zunz
        somewhere remarked, the Jewish middle ages lasted till the beginning
        of the eighteenth century—and the modern age of Judaism opened. I am
        thinking of Mendelssohn in Germany, Israel Baalshem, the founder of
        the sect of the Chassidim in Podolia, and Elijah Wilna, or as he is
        more frequently called, the Gaon,<a id="noteref_41" name="noteref_41"
        href="#note_41"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">41</span></span></a> the
        Great One, in Lithuania.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As to Mendelssohn,
        enough, and perhaps more than enough, has already been written and
        spoken about his merits in awakening the sense for the beautiful and
        the harmonious which was almost entirely dormant among the Jews of
        his age. In regard to the second, namely, Israel Baalshem, I have
        only to refer the reader to the first essay in this volume. The
        subject of the present essay will be R. Elijah Wilna, who, among the
        Jews, as Lessing among the Germans, represented truth, both by his
        life and by his literary activity.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page074">[pg 074]</span><a name="Pg074" id="Pg074" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I say that the
        Gaon represented truth, but these words must be taken <span lang="la"
        class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">cum grano salis</span></span>. For I do not mean
        at all to say that he was in possession of the whole truth, still
        less in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">exclusive</span></em> possession of it. It is
        true as we shall learn in the course of this essay, that the Gaon was
        a genius of the first order. But there are matters of truth, the
        obtaining of which cannot be accomplished by genius alone. R. Elijah
        Wilna did not know any other language than Hebrew. Truths, therefore,
        which are only to be reached through the medium of other languages,
        remained a secret to him. Again, records of ancient times which are
        buried in the shelves of remote libraries or under the ruins of past
        civilisations are not always a matter of intuition. Even the most
        gifted of men have to wait patiently till these are brought to light
        by the aid of spade and shovel, or the pen of some obscure copyist.
        But R. Elijah lived at a time when excavation had as yet done very
        little for Semitic studies, and when a Jew scarcely got admittance
        into the great libraries of Europe. Thus much truth which we get now
        in a very easy way was beyond this seer's eye.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But even if all
        the libraries on earth had been at his disposal, even if he had read
        all the cuneiform writings which ornament the British Museum, and had
        deciphered all the Hieroglyphics which the Louvre possesses, even in
        that case we should not be justified in terming him a representative
        of the truth, without qualifying our words.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Truth,”</span> said the old Rabbis, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“is the Seal of the Holy One, praised be He.”</span> But
        Heaven has no Lord Chancellor. Neither men nor angels are trusted
        with the great Seal. They are only allowed to catch a glimpse of it,
        or rather to long after this glimpse. However, even the <span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="page075">[pg 075]</span><a name="Pg075" id="Pg075"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> longing and effort for this glimpse will
        bring man into communion with God, and make his life divine. And the
        life of the Gaon was, as we shall see, one long effort and unceasing
        longing after the truth.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Again, if I say
        that the Gaon represented truth, you must not think that he lacked
        the two other qualities. A life entirely devoted to such a great
        cause as that of seeking the truth is, <span lang="la" class=
        "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">ipso
        facto</span></span>, ideal and harmonious. It is only in his
        influence on Judaism—more particularly on the Jews in the North of
        Europe—that this feature in his life becomes more prominent than his
        other admirable qualities.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In what this truth
        consisted, how the Gaon arrived at it, and by what means he conveyed
        it to others, we shall see in the course of this essay.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">R. Elijah was born
        at Wilna in the year 1720. His father, Solomon Wilna, is called by
        his biographers the great Rabbi Solomon, and is said to have been the
        descendant of R. Moses Rivkas, the author of a learned work,
        containing notes to the Code of the Law by R. Joseph Caro.<a id=
        "noteref_42" name="noteref_42" href="#note_42"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">42</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Having quoted the
        biographers, I must point out that there are only two biographies of
        the Gaon: the one by Finn, in his book <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Faithful
        City</span></span>,<a id="noteref_43" name="noteref_43" href=
        "#note_43"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">43</span></span></a> on the
        celebrities of Wilna, the other by Nachman of Horodna, in his book
        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ascension
        of Elijah</span></span>.<a id="noteref_44" name="noteref_44" href=
        "#note_44"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">44</span></span></a> The
        former is a very honest account of the Gaon's life, but a little too
        short. The latter is too long, or rather too much intermixed with
        that sort of absurd legend, the authors of which are incapable of
        marking the line which separates the monster from the hero.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Even in the region
        of imagination we must not for a moment forget the good advice given
        to us by one of our <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page076">[pg
        076]</span><a name="Pg076" id="Pg076" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        greatest scholars who had to deal with a kindred subject:
        <span class="tei tei-q">“He,”</span> says this scholar, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“who banishes the thought of higher and lower from his
        study, degrades it into a mere means of gratifying his curiosity, and
        disqualifies it for the lofty task which it is called upon to perform
        for modern society.”</span> We shall thus cling to the higher and
        stop at the hero.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Our hero was the
        first-born of five brothers. They were all famous men in their little
        world. According to the tradition in Wilna, Elijah was a lovely
        child, with beautiful eyes, and goodly to look at, or as it is
        expressed in another place, <span class="tei tei-q">“as beautiful as
        an angel!”</span> The tradition, or rather the legend, relates that
        as a child of six years he was already the pupil of R. Moses
        Margalith, the famous author of a commentary on the Talmud of
        Jerusalem. At the age of seven years he is said to have already
        perplexed the Chief Rabbi of his native town by his controversial
        skill in Talmudical subjects. At the early age of nine he was
        acquainted with the contents of the Bible, the Mishnah, the Talmud
        and its ancient commentaries; and even the Cabbalistic works of R.
        Isaac Loria were no secret to the youthful scholar.<a id="noteref_45"
        name="noteref_45" href="#note_45"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">45</span></span></a> At the
        age of twelve years he is said to have acquired the seven liberal
        arts, and to have puzzled the scholars of Wilna by his astronomical
        knowledge. At thirteen, when according to Jewish law he attained his
        majority, he was already the accomplished or <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“the great one”</span> (Gaon); so far tradition. I am
        afraid that tradition is here, against all experience, too exact in
        its dates. But we may learn from it that the child Elijah showed many
        signs of the future Gaon, and was therefore considered as the prodigy
        of his age. Again it is likewise pretty certain that no man could
        boast of having been the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page077">[pg
        077]</span><a name="Pg077" id="Pg077" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        master of Elijah. He was not the product of any school, nor was he
        biassed by the many prejudices of his time. He was allowed to walk
        his own way in his struggle after truth.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is rather an
        unfortunate thing that history is so much made up of parallels and
        contrasts that the historian or even the biographer cannot possibly
        point out the greatness of some men without touching, however
        slightly, on the smallness of others. It is only natural that every
        strong shining object should push the minor lights of its
        surroundings into the background and darken them. Thus, when we are
        speaking of the superiority of the Gaon, we cannot escape hinting at
        least at the shortcomings of his contemporaries, as well as of his
        predecessors.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To indicate
        briefly in what this superiority consisted, I will premise here a few
        words from a <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Responsum</span></span> by one of his great
        predecessors, the Gaon Rabbi Hai.<a id="noteref_46" name="noteref_46"
        href="#note_46"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">46</span></span></a>
        Consulted by a student as to the meaning of certain mystical passages
        in the tractate <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Chagigah</span></span>,<a id="noteref_47" name=
        "noteref_47" href="#note_47"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">47</span></span></a> Rabbi
        Hai, in warning his correspondent not to expect from him a long
        philosophical dissertation, writes as follows: <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Know that it never was our business to palliate matters
        and explain them in a way of which the author never could have
        thought. This is fashionable with other people, but our method is to
        explain the words of this or that authority in accordance with his
        own meaning. We do not pledge ourselves that this meaning is
        <span class="tei tei-q">‘right rule’</span> in itself, for there
        <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">do</span></em> exist statements made by the old
        authorities that cannot be accepted as norm.”</span> Thus far the
        words of the Gaon of the tenth century, which speak volumes. The Gaon
        of the eighteenth century followed the same course. All his
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page078">[pg 078]</span><a name="Pg078"
        id="Pg078" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> efforts were directed to this
        point; namely, to find out the true meaning of the Mishnah, the true
        meaning of the Gemara,<a id="noteref_48" name="noteref_48" href=
        "#note_48"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">48</span></span></a> the true
        meaning of the Gaonim, the true meaning of the great codifiers, and
        the true meaning of the commentators on the ancient Rabbinical
        literature. Whether this meaning would be acceptable to us mattered
        very little to him. His only object was to understand the words of
        his predecessors, and this he obtained, as we shall soon see, by the
        best critical means. This was the method of the Gaon; that of other
        scholars (at least of the great majority) was dictated by entirely
        different considerations. They would not suffer the idea that the
        great man could be wrong at times. To them, all that he said was
        <span class="tei tei-q">“right rule.”</span> Now suppose a great
        author like Maimonides had overlooked an important passage in the
        Talmud or any other statement by a great authority, the alternative
        remaining to them was either to explain away the passage of the
        Talmud or to give the words of Maimonides a strange meaning. This led
        originally to the famous method of the <span lang="he" class=
        "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Pilpul</span></span> (casuistry), a kind of
        spiritual gymnastic, which R. Liva of Prague in the sixteenth
        century, and many others condemned as most pernicious to Judaism and
        leading to the decay of the study of the Torah.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now it is beyond
        doubt that the method of the two Gaonim is the only right one. But,
        in justice to the casuistic school, which includes many a great name,
        it is only right to remember that this impartiality towards
        acknowledged authorities as maintained by our hero is not at all such
        an easy matter as we imagine. We quote often with great satisfaction
        the famous saying, <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
        "la"><span style="font-style: italic">Amicus Plato, amicus Socrates,
        sed magis amica veritas</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“Plato
        is our <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page079">[pg 079]</span><a name=
        "Pg079" id="Pg079" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> friend, so is
        Socrates, but Truth is, or rather ought to be, our greatest
        friend.”</span> This sounds very nicely, but let us only realise what
        difficulties it involves. To be a friend of Socrates or Plato means
        to know them, or in other words to have a thorough knowledge of the
        writings of the one and the recorded utterances of the other. But
        such a knowledge can with most men only be obtained by devoting one's
        <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">whole</span></em> life to the study of their
        works, so that there is not left much time for new friendships. And
        the few who are able to save a few years after long wanderings with
        these Greek philosophers, seldom see the necessity of new
        friendships. For what else did those long courtships of Plato or
        Aristotle mean except that those who conducted them thought that
        thereby they would wed Truth?</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This impartiality
        is the more difficult when these friends are invested with a kind of
        religious authority where humility and submission are most important
        factors. The history of Lanfranc, the predecessor of Anselm of
        Canterbury, gives a striking example of what this submission meant in
        the Middle Ages. One day, we are told, when he was still an ordinary
        monk, he was reading at the table and pronounced a word as it ought
        to be pronounced, but not as seemed right to the person presiding,
        who bade him say it differently; <span class="tei tei-q">“as if he
        had said <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
        "la"><span style="font-style: italic">docēre</span></span>, with the
        middle syllable long, as is right, and the other had corrected it
        into <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
        "la"><span style="font-style: italic">docĕre</span></span>, with the
        middle short, which is wrong; for that Prior was not a scholar. But
        the wise man, knowing that he owed obedience rather to Christ than to
        Donatus, the grammarian, gave up his pronunciation, and said what he
        was wrongly told to say; for to make a short syllable long, or a long
        one short, he knew <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page080">[pg
        080]</span><a name="Pg080" id="Pg080" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to
        be no deadly sin, but not to obey one set over him in God's behalf
        was no light transgression.”</span><a id="noteref_49" name=
        "noteref_49" href="#note_49"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">49</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But this
        admiration—and here we turn again to the Gaon—must not prevent us
        from believing that Providence is not confined to such ungrammatical
        Priors, and that the men who are really working on behalf of God are
        those who teach us to pronounce rightly, and to think rightly, and to
        take matters as they are, not as we desire them to be on account of
        our friends.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As for the
        critical means to which I have alluded, the Gaon himself said
        somewhere that simplicity is the best criterion of truth, and this is
        the most characteristic feature of all his literary career. The Gaon
        studied Hebrew grammar in order to obtain a clear notion of the
        language in which the Scriptures are written. He tried to attain to
        the knowledge of the Bible by reading the Bible itself; and was not
        satisfied to become acquainted with its contents from the numerous
        quotations which are made from it in Rabbinical literature. Again, he
        studied mathematics, astronomy, and philosophy, as far as they could
        be found in Hebrew books. Certainly the Gaon did not study these
        subjects for their own sake, and they were considered by him only as
        a means to the end, or as the phrase goes, as the <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“hand-maidens”</span> of Theology, the queen of all
        sciences. But it may be looked upon as a mark of great progress in an
        age when Queen Theology had become rather sulky, continually finding
        fault with her hand-maidens, and stigmatising every attention paid to
        them as conducive to disloyalty. To these accusations the Gaon
        answered that Queen Theology does not study her own interests.
        Knowledge of all arts and sciences, the Gaon maintained, is necessary
        for the real <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page081">[pg
        081]</span><a name="Pg081" id="Pg081" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        understanding of the Torah which embraces the whole of them. From his
        own writings it is evident that he himself was familiar with Euclid,
        and his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Ayil Meshulash</span></span> contains several
        original developments of Euclid. It was at his suggestion that a
        certain Baruch of Sclow translated Euclid into the Hebrew
        language.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another way which
        led the Gaon to the discovery of many truths was his study of the
        pre-Talmudic literature, and of the Jerusalem Talmud. By some
        accident or other it came to pass that only the Babylonian Talmud was
        recognised as a guide <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">in the practices of religious life</span></em>.
        As the great teachers and their pupils cared more for satisfying the
        religious wants of their flocks than for theoretic researches, the
        consequence was that a most important part of the ancient Rabbinic
        literature was almost entirely neglected by them for many centuries.
        And it was certainly no exaggeration, when R. Elijah said that even
        the Gaonim and Maimonides, occupied as they were with the practical
        part of the law, did not pay sufficient attention to the Talmud of
        Jerusalem and the Tosephta.<a id="noteref_50" name="noteref_50" href=
        "#note_50"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">50</span></span></a> The Gaon
        was no official head of any Jewish community, and was but little
        troubled by decisions of questions which concern daily life. He was
        thus in a position to leave for a little while the Babylonian Talmud
        and to become acquainted with the guides of the guide. I refer to
        Siphra, Siphré, Mechilta, Tosephta, the Seder Olam,<a id="noteref_51"
        name="noteref_51" href="#note_51"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">51</span></span></a> the
        Minor Tractates,<a id="noteref_52" name="noteref_52" href=
        "#note_52"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">52</span></span></a> and
        above all the Talmud of Jerusalem, which, regarded from an historical
        and critical point of view, is even of more importance than its
        Babylonian twin-brother. But by this means there came a new light
        upon the whole of ancient Rabbinic literature. The words of the
        Torah, the Midrash <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page082">[pg
        082]</span><a name="Pg082" id="Pg082" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        says, are poor in one place, but we shall find them rich in another
        place. The Gaon by his acquaintance with the <em class=
        "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">whole</span></em> of
        the Torah had no difficulty whatever in discovering the rich places.
        If there was a difficult passage in this or that Tractate, he showed,
        by giving a reference to some other place, that it was wanting in
        some words or lines. Obscure passages in the Mishnah he tried to
        elucidate by parallel passages in the Tosephta. The too complicated
        controversies of the Babylonian Talmud he tried to explain by
        comparing them with the more ancient and more simple Talmud of
        Jerusalem.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There is little to
        be told of the Gaon's private affairs. Even the date of his marriage
        with a certain Miss Anna of Kaidon is not mentioned by his
        biographers. But it may be taken for granted that, in accordance with
        the custom in Poland, he married at a very early age, say about
        eighteen years. It was also when a young man that he travelled for
        some years through Poland and Germany. It is rather difficult to say
        what his object may have been in making these travels—for the Gaon
        was not the man to travel for pleasure's sake. Perhaps it was to
        become acquainted with the great Rabbis of these countries. It is
        also possible, as others maintain, that the Gaon considered the many
        privations which a traveller had to endure a hundred and fifty years
        ago, as an atonement for his imaginary sins. Indeed we find in many
        ascetic books that travelling, or as they term it <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“receiving upon oneself to be banished into the
        exile,”</span><a id="noteref_53" name="noteref_53" href=
        "#note_53"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">53</span></span></a> is
        recommended as a very successful substitute for penance. At least it
        seems that the coachmen whom the Gaon employed on his journeys looked
        at it from this point of view. One of them went so far in adding to
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page083">[pg 083]</span><a name="Pg083"
        id="Pg083" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the privations of the Gaon as
        to run away with his carriage when the Rabbi alighted from it in
        order to read his prayers. But the reading of the Eighteen
        Benedictions<a id="noteref_54" name="noteref_54" href=
        "#note_54"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">54</span></span></a> must not
        be interrupted excepting in the case of danger; and the Gaon did not
        consider it very dangerous to be left without money and without
        luggage.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These travels
        ended in the year 1745. The Gaon left Wilna again at a later date
        with the purpose of going to Palestine and settling there. But he
        found so many obstacles on his way that he was soon compelled to give
        up his favourite plan and to return to his native town. It is not
        known whether he left Wilna again.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The position which
        the Gaon occupied in Wilna was, as already hinted, that of a private
        man. He could never be prevailed upon to accept the post of Rabbi or
        any other office in a Jewish community. I am unable to give the
        reason for his declining all the offers made to him in this
        direction. But it may be suggested here that it was in the time of
        the Gaon that there arose a bitter struggle between the Rabbi and the
        Jewish wardens of his native town, which ended in the abolition of
        the office of Rabbi. The history of the struggle is the more
        irritating, as it arose from the pettiest reasons imaginable. People
        actually discovered that there was no light in the house of the Rabbi
        after the middle of the night, which fact might lead to the
        conclusion that he did not study later than 12 o'clock <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-variant: small-caps">p.m.</span></span> What an idle man! And
        this idleness was the less pardonable in the eyes of the community,
        as the Rabbi's wife was so unfortunate as not to have been polite
        enough to some Mrs. Warden. Under such circumstances we must not
        wonder if the Gaon did not find it very desirable to meddle with
        congregational affairs in an <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page084">[pg 084]</span><a name="Pg084" id="Pg084" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> official capacity. The relation of the Gaon to
        his contemporaries resembles rather the position in the olden times
        of a Tanna or Amora,<a id="noteref_55" name="noteref_55" href=
        "#note_55"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">55</span></span></a> who
        neither enjoyed the title of Nasin or that of Ab Beth Din.<a id=
        "noteref_56" name="noteref_56" href="#note_56"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">56</span></span></a> Like R.
        Akiba, or Mar Samuel, the Gaon became influential among his
        contemporaries only by his teaching and his exemplary life.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It must be said in
        praise of the Jews of Wilna that, notwithstanding their petty
        behaviour towards their ecclesiastical chief, they willingly
        submitted to the authority of the Gaon (who was devoid of all
        official authority). They revered him as a saint. To converse with
        the Gaon was considered as a happy event in the life of a Jew in
        Wilna, to be of any use to him as the greatest distinction a man
        could attain on earth. But what is remarkable is the readiness with
        which even scholars acknowledged the authority of the Gaon. Scholars
        are usually more slow in recognising greatness than simple mortals.
        Every new luminary does not only outshine their minor lights and thus
        hurt their personal vanity, but it threatens also sometimes to
        obscure certain traditions which they wish to keep prominently in
        view. But the literary genius of the Gaon was too great to be opposed
        with success, and his piety and devotion to religion far above
        suspicion. Thus the Gaon was very soon recognised by his
        contemporaries as their master and guide; not only in literary
        questions, but also in matters of belief and conduct.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It would lead me
        too far to name here all the Gaon's disciples. It seems as if all the
        great scholars in his country considered themselves to be more or
        less his pupils. The Gaon used to give in the Beth Hammidrash, which
        he founded, public lectures on various subjects, and the students who
        attended these lectures also claimed the honour <span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="page085">[pg 085]</span><a name="Pg085" id="Pg085"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of being called his pupils. I shall
        mention here only his greatest disciple, R. Chayim Walosin, who,
        after the Gaon, influenced his countrymen more than any other scholar
        of that time. This R. Chayim also did not occupy any official post
        among his brethren. He was a cloth manufacturer by profession, and
        was very prosperous in his business. But it did not prevent him from
        being devoted to Hebrew literature, and he enjoyed a wide-spread fame
        as a great scholar. But as soon as the fame of the Gaon reached him,
        he left cloth manufactory and scholarship behind, and went to Wilna
        to <span class="tei tei-q">“learn Torah”</span> from the mouth of the
        great master. It must be noticed that even the giving up of his claim
        to scholarship was no little sacrifice. All our learning, said some
        scholar in Wilna, disappeared as soon as we crossed the threshold of
        the Gaon's house. He made every disciple who came into close contact
        with him begin at the beginning. He taught them Hebrew grammar,
        Bible, Mishnah, and many other subjects, which were, as already
        mentioned, very often neglected by the Talmudists of that time. R.
        Chayim had also to go through all this course. Some would have
        considered such treatment a degradation. R. Chayim, however, became
        the more attached to his master for it.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In such a way the
        life of the Gaon was spent, studying by himself or teaching his
        pupils. It must be understood that to learn Torah meant for the Gaon
        more than mere brain work for the purpose of gaining knowledge. To
        him it was a kind of service to God. Contemporaries who watched him
        when he was studying the Torah observed that the effect wrought on
        the personality of the Gaon was the same as when he was praying. With
        every word his countenance flushed with joy; with every line he was
        gaining <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page086">[pg 086]</span><a name=
        "Pg086" id="Pg086" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> strength for
        proceeding further. Only by looking at matters from this point of
        view shall we be able to understand the devotion and the love of the
        Gaon for study.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There has been, no
        doubt, among the Russian Jews a strong tendency to exaggerate the
        intellectual qualities of the Gaon. But one can readily excuse such a
        tendency. He was gifted by nature with such a wonderful memory that,
        having read a book once, he was able to recite it by heart for the
        rest of his life. Not less admirable was his sure grasp. The most
        complicated controversies in the Talmud, into which other scholars
        would require whole days and weeks to find their way, the Gaon was
        able to read by a glance at the pages. Already as a boy he is said to
        have gone through in a single night the tractates <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zebachim</span></span>
        and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Menachoth</span></span>,<a id="noteref_57" name=
        "noteref_57" href="#note_57"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">57</span></span></a>
        containing not less than two hundred and thirty pages, the contents
        of which are sometimes so difficult as to make even an aged scholar
        despair of understanding them. Again, he possessed so much
        common-sense that all the intellectual tricks of the casuistic
        schools did not exist for him. And nevertheless his biographers tell
        us that he was so much occupied by his studies, that he could not
        spare more than one hour and a half for sleep out of twenty-four
        hours. This is, no doubt, an exaggeration. But let us say five hours
        a day. He had not time to take his meals regularly. He used also,
        according to tradition, to repeat every chapter in the Bible, every
        passage in the Talmud, hundreds of times, even if they presented no
        difficulty at all. But it was, as already said, a matter of love for
        the Gaon; of love, not of passing affection.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Nothing on earth
        could be more despicable to the Gaon than amateurs who dabble with
        ancient literature. To <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page087">[pg
        087]</span><a name="Pg087" id="Pg087" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        understand a thing clearly made him happy. He is said to have spent
        more than six months on a single Mishnah in the tractate <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Kilayim</span></span>,<a id="noteref_58" name=
        "noteref_58" href="#note_58"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">58</span></span></a> and felt
        himself the happiest man when he succeeded in grasping its real
        meaning. Not to be able to go into the depth of a subject, to miss
        the truth embedded in a single passage, caused him the most bitter
        grief. A story told by his pupil, R. Chayim, may illustrate this
        fact. One Friday, narrates R. Chayim, the servant of the Gaon came to
        him with the message that his master wanted to see him as soon as
        possible. R. Chayim went instantly. When he came into the house, he
        found the Gaon lying in bed with a bandage on his head and looking
        very ill. The wife of the Gaon also reported to him that it was more
        than three days since her husband had taken any food, and that he had
        hardly enjoyed any sleep all this time. All this misery was caused by
        reason of not having been able to understand some difficult passages
        in the Talmud of Jerusalem. The Gaon now asked his disciples to
        resume with him their researches. Heaven, he said, might have mercy
        upon them and open their eyes, for it is written, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Two are better than one”</span>: and lo! Heaven did have
        mercy on them; they succeeded in getting the true meaning of the
        passage. The Gaon recovered instantly, and master and disciple had a
        very joyful Sabbath.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">He is also
        reported to have said on one occasion, he would not like to have an
        angel for his teacher who would reveal to him all the mysteries of
        the Torah. Such a condition is only befitting the world to come, but
        in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">this</span></em> world only things which are
        acquired by hard labour and great struggle are of any value. The
        German representative of truth expressed the same thought in other
        words, which <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page088">[pg
        088]</span><a name="Pg088" id="Pg088" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> are
        well worth repeating here: <span class="tei tei-q">“Did the
        Almighty,”</span> says Lessing, <span class="tei tei-q">“holding in
        His right hand Truth and in His left Search after Truth, deign to
        tender me the one I might prefer, in all humility and without
        hesitation I should select Search after Truth.”</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This absorption of
        all his being in the study of the Torah may also, I think, account
        for the fact that his biographers have so little to say about the
        family of the Gaon. Of his wife, we know only that she died in the
        year 1783. Not much fuller is our knowledge about his children. The
        biographers speak of them as of the family <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“which the Lord has blessed,”</span> referring to his two
        sons, Rabbi Aryeh Leb and Rabbi Abraham, who were known as great
        scholars and very pious men. The latter one is best known by his
        edition of a collection of smaller Midrashim. Mention is also made of
        the Gaon's sons-in-law, especially one Rabbi Moses of Pinsk. But this
        is all, and we are told nothing either about their lives or their
        callings. From his famous letter which he sent to his family when on
        his way to Palestine, we see that he was rather what one may call a
        severe father. He bids his wife punish his children most severely for
        swearing, scolding, and speaking untruth. He also advises her to live
        as retired a life as possible. Retirement he considers as a condition
        <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">sine qua non</span></span> for a religious life.
        He even advises his daughter to read her prayers at home, for in the
        synagogue she may get envious of the finer dresses of her friends,
        which is a most terrible sin. The only tender feature in this letter
        is perhaps where he implores his wife to be kind to his mother on
        account of her being a widow, and it were a great sin to cause her
        the least annoyance. From other passages we may gather that his
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page089">[pg 089]</span><a name="Pg089"
        id="Pg089" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> family had at times to suffer
        hunger and cold by the excessive occupation of their father with the
        study of the Torah and other religious works. In short, the Gaon was
        a one-sided, severe ascetic, and would never have deserved the title
        of a good father, a good husband, an amiable man or any other
        appellation derived from those ordinary <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“household decencies”</span> which, as Macaulay informs
        us, half of the tombstones claim for those who lie behind them. But I
        am very much afraid that many a great man who has made his mark in
        history could never claim these household virtues as his own. I do
        not want to enter here into the question whether Judaism be an
        ascetic religion or not. But even those who think Judaism identical
        with what is called <span class="tei tei-q">“making the best of this
        life,”</span> will not dispute the fact that Jewish literature
        contains within it enough ascetic elements to justify the conduct of
        our greatest men whose lives were one long-continued self-denial and
        privation. <span class="tei tei-q">“The Torah,”</span> says the
        Talmud, <span class="tei tei-q">“cannot be obtained unless a man is
        prepared to give his life for it,”</span> or as the Talmud puts it,
        in another place, <span class="tei tei-q">“if it be thy desire not to
        die, cease to live before thou diest.”</span> This was the principle
        by which the Gaon's life was actuated. And as he did not spare
        himself, he could not spare others. We could not expect him to act
        differently. The Scriptures tell us: <span class="tei tei-q">“Thou
        shalt love thy neighbour as thyself.”</span> But how is it with the
        man who never loved himself, who never gave a thought to himself, who
        never lived for himself, but only for what he considered to be his
        duty and his mission from God on earth? Such a man we cannot expect
        to spend his time on coaxing and caressing us. As to the charge of
        one-sidedness at which I have hinted, if the giving up of everything
        else for the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page090">[pg
        090]</span><a name="Pg090" id="Pg090" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        purpose of devoting oneself to a scholarly and saintly life is
        one-sidedness, the Gaon must certainly bear this charge; but in a
        world where there are so many on the other side, we ought, I think,
        to be only too grateful to Providence for sending us from time to
        time great and strong one-sided men, who, by their counterbalancing
        influence, bring God's spoilt world to a certain equilibrium again.
        To appease my more tender readers, I should like only to say that
        there is no occasion at all for pitying Mrs. Gaon. It would be a
        miserable world indeed if a good digestion and stupidity were, as a
        certain author maintained, the only conditions of happiness. Saints
        are happy in their sufferings, and noble souls find their happiness
        in sacrificing themselves for these sufferers.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another severe
        feature in the life of the Gaon showed itself in his dispute with the
        Chassidim. I regret not to be able to enter here even into a brief
        account of the history of this struggle. I shall only take leave to
        say that I am afraid each party was right, the Gaon as well as the
        Chassidim; the latter, in attacking the Rabbis of their time, who
        mostly belonged to the casuistic schools, and in their intellectual
        pursuits almost entirely neglected the emotional side of religion;
        but none the less was the Gaon right in opposing a system which, as I
        have shown above, involved the danger of leading to a worship of
        men.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Excepting this
        incident, the Gaon never meddled with public affairs. He lived in
        retirement, always occupied with his own education and that of his
        disciples and friends. It is most remarkable that, in spite of his
        hard work and the many privations he had to endure, he enjoyed good
        health almost all his life. He never consulted <span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="page091">[pg 091]</span><a name="Pg091" id="Pg091"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> a doctor. It was not until the year 1791,
        in the seventieth year of his life, that he began to feel the decline
        of his health. But he was not much interrupted by the failure of his
        powers. As a means of recovery, he esteemed very highly the
        conversation of the preacher Jacob of Dubna, better known as the
        Dubna Maggid,<a id="noteref_59" name="noteref_59" href=
        "#note_59"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">59</span></span></a> whose
        parables and sallies of wit the Gaon used to enjoy very much. On the
        eve of the Day of Atonement in the year 1797, he fell very ill and
        gave his blessing to his children. He died on the third day of the
        Feast of Tabernacles, with the branch of the Lulab<a id="noteref_60"
        name="noteref_60" href="#note_60"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">60</span></span></a> in his
        hands. The Feast of Joy, relates a contemporary, was turned into days
        of mourning. In all the streets of Wilna were heard only lamenting
        and crying voices. The funeral orations delivered on this occasion in
        Wilna, as well as in other Jewish communities, would form a small
        library. His disciples wept for their master, the people of Wilna for
        the ornament of their native town, and the feeling of the Jews in
        general was that <span class="tei tei-q">“the Ark of God was taken
        away.”</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">After the
        foregoing sketch, the reader will hardly expect me to give an account
        of the Gaon's literary productions. The results of so long a life and
        such powers of mind devoted to one cause with such zeal and fervour,
        would furnish by themselves the subject of a whole series of essays.
        The tombstone set on his grave by his pious admirers bears the
        inscription, <span class="tei tei-q">“The Gaon gave heed and sought
        and set in order”</span>—that is to say, he wrote commentaries or
        notes on—<span class="tei tei-q">“the Bible, the Mishnah, both
        Talmuds, the Siphré, Siphra, the Zohar, and many other works.”</span>
        Inscriptions on tombstones are proverbial for exaggeration, and we
        all know the saying, <span class="tei tei-q">“as mendacious as an
        epitaph.”</span> But a glance at the catalogue of the <span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="page092">[pg 092]</span><a name="Pg092" id="Pg092"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> British Museum under the heading of
        Elijah Wilna, will show that this inscription makes a praiseworthy
        exception. We will find that this list might be lengthened by many
        other works of great importance for Jewish life and thought. His
        commentary to the Code of R. Joseph Caro, in which one will find that
        in many cases he knew the sources of the religious customs and
        usages, put together in this work, better than its compiler himself,
        would have been sufficient to place him at the head of Halachic
        scholarship, whilst his notes and textual emendations to the Tosephta
        and Seder Olam, to the restoration of which he contributed so much,
        would have sufficed to establish his fame as a critic of the first
        order. And this is the more astonishing when we consider that all
        this was done without manuscripts or any other aid, and by mere
        intuition. We cannot wonder that scholars who had the opportunity of
        visiting great libraries and saw how the emendations of the Gaon
        agreed sometimes with the readings given in the best manuscripts
        exclaimed very often: <span class="tei tei-q">“Only by inspiration
        could he have found out these secrets.”</span> We have no need to go
        so far; we shall simply say with the Talmud, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“The powers of the real sage surpass those of the
        prophet.”</span> Nay, even had we possessed only his <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Gleanings</span></span>, which form a kind of
        <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">obiter dicta</span></span> on various topics of
        Jewish literature, the Gaon would have remained a model of clear
        thinking and real ingenuity for all future generations.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">However, a real
        appreciation of the Gaon's greatness as a scholar would only be
        possible either by a thorough study of his works, to which I have
        alluded, or by giving many specimens of them. The short space I am
        limited to makes such an undertaking impossible. I shall therefore
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page093">[pg 093]</span><a name="Pg093"
        id="Pg093" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> use what remains to me to say
        a few words on the salutary influence the Gaon had on his countrymen,
        the Russian Jews.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Russian Jew is
        still a riddle to us. We know this strange being only from the
        Reports of the Board of Guardians or from bombastic phrases in public
        speeches; for he has always been the victim of platform orators,</p>

        <div class="block tei tei-quote" style=
        "margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 0.90em; margin-bottom: 0.90em">
            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">So over violent or over
              civil,</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">That every man with them is God or
              Devil.</span>
            </div>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From all, however,
        that I can gather from the best Jewish writers in Russia, I can only
        judge that the Russian Jew, when transplanted to a foreign soil,
        where he is cut off from the past and uncertain of his future, is for
        the time at least in a position in which his true character cannot be
        truly estimated. His real life is to be sought in his own country.
        There, amidst his friends and kinsmen who are all animated by the
        same ideals, attached to the same traditions, and proud of the same
        religious and charitable institutions, everything is full of life and
        meaning to him. Thus, a certain Russian writer addresses his younger
        colleagues who find so much fault with the bygone world: <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Go and see how rich we always were in excellent men. In
        every town and every village you would find scholars, saints, and
        philanthropists. Their merits could sustain worlds, and each of them
        was an ornament of Israel.”</span> And he proceeds to give dozens of
        names of such excellent men, who are not all indeed known to us, but
        with whom the Russian Jew connects many noble and pious reminiscences
        of real greatness and heroic self-denial, and of whom he is justly
        proud.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page094">[pg
        094]</span><a name="Pg094" id="Pg094" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The focus,
        however, of all this spiritual life is the Yeshibah (Talmudical
        College)<a id="noteref_61" name="noteref_61" href=
        "#note_61"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">61</span></span></a> in
        Walosin. I hope that a glance at its history and constitution will
        not be found uninteresting. The intellectual originator of this
        institution which bears the name <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Yeshibah Ets
        Chayim</span></span> (Tree of Life College),<a id="noteref_62" name=
        "noteref_62" href="#note_62"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">62</span></span></a> was the
        Gaon himself. Being convinced that the study of the Torah is the very
        life of Judaism, but that this study must be conducted in a
        scientific, not in a scholastic way, he bade his chief disciple, the
        R. Chayim already mentioned, to found a college in which Rabbinical
        literature should be taught according to his own true method. It
        would seem that, as long as the Gaon was alive, R. Chayim preferred
        to be a pupil rather than a teacher. When, however, the Gaon died, R.
        Chayim did not rest till he had carried out the command of his
        master, and in the year 1803 the College was opened in Walosin. The
        cloth manufacturer and disciple now became Rabbi and master. He began
        on a small scale, teaching at first only a few pupils. But even for
        the sustenance of a small number he had not sufficient means, and his
        pious wife sold her jewellery to help him in accomplishing his
        favourite plan. This is the best refutation of the French proverb
        <span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Avare comme une Rabbine</span></span>. The
        number, however, increased daily, and before he died (1828), he was
        fortunate enough to lecture to a hundred students. The number of
        students in the year 1888 amounted to 400, and the Russian Jews are
        thus right in asserting that they have the greatest Talmudical
        College in the world. It is evident that no private charity by a
        single man, however great, could suffice to maintain such large
        numbers. Thus R. Chayim was already compelled to appeal to the
        liberality of his Russian brethren. The name of R. Chayim, and
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page095">[pg 095]</span><a name="Pg095"
        id="Pg095" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the still greater name of his
        master, were recommendation enough, and besides private offerings,
        many communities promised large sums towards supporting the students
        in Walosin. From time to time also messengers are sent out by the
        committee to promote the interests of the Yeshibah. The writers to
        whom I owe these data tell us that these messengers travel to all
        parts of the world to collect offerings for Walosin: so that it is a
        standing joke with the students that the existence of the mythical
        river Sambatyon<a id="noteref_63" name="noteref_63" href=
        "#note_63"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">63</span></span></a> may be
        questioned after all, otherwise it must long have been discovered by
        these messengers who explore the whole world in their journeys. But
        it would seem that this world is only a very small one. For the whole
        income of the Yeshibah has never exceeded the sum of about £1800. Of
        this a certain part is spent in providing the salaries of the
        teaching staff and proctors, and on the repairs of the building;
        whilst the rest is distributed amongst the students. Considering that
        no scholarship exceeds £13—it is only the forty immortals of Walosin
        who receive such high stipends—considering again that the great
        majority of the students belong to the poorer classes and thus
        receive no remittance from their parents, we may be sure that the
        words of the Talmud: <span class="tei tei-q">“This is the way to
        study the Torah; eat bread and salt, drink water by measure, sleep on
        the earth, and live a life of care,”</span> are carried out by them
        literally. But it would seem that the less they eat and the less they
        sleep, the more they work. Indeed the industry and the enthusiasm of
        these Bachurim (<span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
        "la"><span style="font-style: italic">alumni</span></span>)<a id=
        "noteref_64" name="noteref_64" href="#note_64"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">64</span></span></a> in the
        study of the Torah is almost unsurpassable. The official hours alone
        extend from nine in the morning until ten in the evening, while many
        of the students volunteer to continue their <span class="tei tei-pb"
        id="page096">[pg 096]</span><a name="Pg096" id="Pg096" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> studies till the middle of the night, or to
        begin the day at three in the morning.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As to the subject
        of these studies, it is confined, as may be imagined, to the
        exploration of the old Rabbinic literature in all its branches. But
        it would be a mistake to think that the modern spirit has left
        Walosin quite untouched. It would be impossible that among 400
        thinking heads there should not be a few who are interested in
        mathematics, others again in philosophy or history, while yet others
        would conjugate the irregular verbs of some classical language when
        moving to and fro over their Talmud folios and pretending to
        <span class="tei tei-q">“<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">learn</span></em>.”</span> Indeed, almost all
        the writers who demand that these subjects should be introduced as
        obligatory into the programme of Walosin, belonged themselves to this
        Yeshibah. And it is these writers who betray the secret how secular
        knowledge is now invading the precincts of Walosin, as well as of
        other Talmudical Colleges in spite of all obstacles and prohibitions.
        In conquering these difficulties seem to consist the pleasures of
        life of many Bachurim at Walosin. Look only at that undergraduate,
        how, after a heavy day's work he is standing there in the street
        reading Buckle's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">History of Civilisation</span></span> in the
        moonlight! Poor man, he is not so romantic as to prefer the moonlight
        to a cheerful, warm room, with the more prosaic light of a candle,
        but he has got tired of knocking at the door, for his landlady, to
        whom he has neglected to pay rent for the last three terms, made up
        her mind to let him freeze to-night. But still more cruel to him is
        his fellow-sufferer, who is also wandering in the streets with an
        overloaded brain and empty stomach; he roughly shakes him out of his
        dreams by telling him that Buckle is long ago antiquated, and that he
        had better <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page097">[pg
        097]</span><a name="Pg097" id="Pg097" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        study the works of Herbert Spencer, who has spoken the last word on
        every vital subject in the world. Still these two starving and
        freezing representatives of English thought in Walosin form only an
        exception. The general favourites are the representatives of Jewish
        thought. That such books as the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Guide of the Perplexed</span></span>, by
        Maimonides, the Metaphysical Researches of Levi b. Gershom,<a id=
        "noteref_65" name="noteref_65" href="#note_65"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">65</span></span></a> and
        other philosophical works of the Spanish school are read by the
        Walosin students it is needless to say. These books now form a part
        of the Rabbinic literature, and it would be almost unorthodox to
        suspect their readers. But is worth noticing that even the
        productions of the modern historico-critical school, such as the
        works of Zunz, Frankel, Graetz, Weiss, are very popular with the
        Bachurim, being much read and discussed by them.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus Walosin
        deserves rightly to be considered as the centre of Jewish thought in
        Russia, in which the spirit of the Gaon is still working.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I have very often,
        however, heard doubts expressed as to the continuance of this spirit
        when, as it is to be hoped, better times come for the Jews in Russia.
        Is it not to be feared that liberty and emancipation will render
        untenable ideas and notions which arose under entirely different
        circumstances? There is no need of entertaining such fears. Rabbi
        Jedaiah of Bedres<a id="noteref_66" name="noteref_66" href=
        "#note_66"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">66</span></span></a>
        concludes his philosophical work <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Examination of the
        World</span></span>, with the following words: <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“The conclusion of the whole matter is, go either to the
        right, my heart, or go to the left, but believe all that R. Moses ben
        Maimon (Maimonides) has believed, the last of the Gaonim by time, but
        the first in rank.”</span> About five hundred years have passed away
        since these lines were written. Time, as we have seen, has brought
        another <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page098">[pg 098]</span><a name=
        "Pg098" id="Pg098" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Gaon, and probably
        Time will favour us in future with still another. But times have also
        altered. The rebellious hearts of a liberal age are not likely to
        obey always the command, <span class="tei tei-q">“believe all that
        the Gaon said.”</span> But the heart of man will in all ages retain
        idealism enough to love and revere the greatest of men and to follow
        what was best in them.</p>
      </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page099">[pg 099]</span><a name=
      "Pg099" id="Pg099" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
      <hr class="page" />

      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
      "margin-top: 5.00em; margin-bottom: 5.00em">
        <a name="toc11" id="toc11"></a> <a name="pdf12" id="pdf12"></a>

        <h1 class="tei tei-head" style=
        "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em">
        <span style="font-size: 173%">IV. Nachmanides</span><a id=
        "noteref_67" name="noteref_67" href="#note_67"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref" style="text-align: left"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">67</span></span></a></h1>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">R. Chayim Vital,
        in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Book
        of the Transmigrations of Souls</span></span>, gives the following
        bold characteristic of the two great teachers of Judaism, Maimonides
        and Nachmanides. Their souls both sprang forth from the head of
        Adam—it is a favourite idea of the Cabbalists to evolve the whole of
        ideal humanity from the archetype Adam—but the former, Maimonides,
        had his genius placed on the left curl of Adam, which is all judgment
        and severity, whilst that of the latter, Nachmanides, had its place
        on the right curl, which represents rather mercy and tenderness.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I start from these
        words in order to avoid disappointment. For Nachmanides was a great
        Talmudist, a great Bible student, a great philosopher, a great
        controversialist, and, perhaps, also a great physician; in one word,
        great in every respect, possessed of all the culture of his age. But,
        as I have already indicated by the passage quoted by way of
        introduction, it is not of Nachmanides in any of these excellent
        qualities that I wish to write here. For these aspects of his life
        and mind I must refer the reader to the works of Graetz, Weiss,
        Steinschneider, Perles, and others. I shall mostly confine myself to
        those features and peculiarities in his career and works which will
        illustrate Nachmanides the tender and compassionate, the <span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="page100">[pg 100]</span><a name="Pg100" id="Pg100"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Nachmanides who represented Judaism from
        the side of emotion and feeling, as Maimonides did from the side of
        reason and logic.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">R. Moses ben
        Nachman, or Bonastruc de Portas, as he was called by his
        fellow-countrymen, or Nachmanides, as he is commonly called now, was
        born in Gerona about the year 1195. Gerona is a little town in the
        province of Catalonia in Spain. But though in Spain, Gerona was not
        distinguished for its philosophers or poets like Granada, Barcelona,
        or Toledo. Situated as it was in the North of Spain, Gerona was under
        the influence of Franco-Jewish sympathies, and thus its boast lay in
        the great Talmudists that it produced. I shall only mention the name
        of R. Zerahiah Hallevi Gerundi—so-called after his native place—whose
        strictures on the Code of R. Isaac Alfasi, which he began as a youth
        of nineteen years, will always remain a marvel of critical insight
        and independent research. Nachmanides is supposed by some authors to
        have been a descendant of R. Isaac ben Reuben of Barcelona, whose
        hymns are still to be found in certain rituals. The evidence for this
        is insufficient, but we know that he was a cousin of R. Jonah
        Gerundi, not less famous for his Talmudic learning than for his
        saintliness and piety. Nachmanides thus belonged to the best Jewish
        families of Gerona. Various great men are mentioned as his teachers,
        but we have certainty only about two, namely R. Judah ben Yakar, the
        commentator of the prayers, and R. Meir ben Nathan of Trinquintaines.
        The mystic, R. Ezra (or Azriel), is indeed alleged to have been his
        instructor in the Cabbalah, and this is not impossible, as he also
        was an inhabitant of Gerona; but it is more probable that Nachmanides
        was initiated into the Cabbalah by <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page101">[pg 101]</span><a name="Pg101" id="Pg101" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> the R. Judah just mentioned, who also belonged
        to the mystical school.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Whoever his
        masters were, they must have been well satisfied with their promising
        pupil, for he undertook, at the age of fifteen, to write supplements
        to the Code of R. Isaac Alfasi. Nor was it at a much later date that
        he began to compose his work, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">The Wars of the Lord</span></span>, in which he
        defends this great codifier against the strictures of R. Zerahiah, to
        which we have referred above. I shall in the course of this essay
        have further occasion to speak of this latter work; for the present
        we will follow the career of its author.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Concerning the
        private life of Nachmanides very little has come down to us. We only
        know that he had a family of sons and daughters. He was not spared
        the greatest grief that can befall a father, for he lost a son; it
        was on the day of the New Year.<a id="noteref_68" name="noteref_68"
        href="#note_68"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">68</span></span></a> On the
        other hand, it must have been a great source of joy to him when he
        married his son Solomon to the daughter of R. Jonah, whom he revered
        as a saint and a man of God. As a token of the admiration in which he
        held his friend, the following incident may be mentioned. It seems
        that it was the custom in Spain to name the first child in a family
        after his paternal grandfather; but Nachmanides ceded his right in
        behalf of his friend, and thus his daughter-in-law's first son was
        named Jonah. Another son of Nachmanides whom we know of was Nachman,
        to whom his father addressed his letters from Palestine, and who also
        wrote Novellæ to the Talmud, still extant in MS. But the later
        posterity of Nachmanides is better known to fame. R. Levi ben Gershom
        was one of his descendants; so was also R. Simeon Duran;<a id=
        "noteref_69" name="noteref_69" href="#note_69"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">69</span></span></a> whilst
        R. Jacob <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page102">[pg
        102]</span><a name="Pg102" id="Pg102" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        Sasportas, in the eighteenth century,<a id="noteref_70" name=
        "noteref_70" href="#note_70"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">70</span></span></a> derived
        his pedigree from Nachmanides in the eleventh generation.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As to his calling,
        he was occupied as Rabbi and teacher, first in Gerona and afterwards
        in Barcelona. But this meant as much as if we should say of a man
        that he is a philanthropist by profession, with the only difference
        that the treasures of which Nachmanides disposed were more of a
        spiritual kind. For his livelihood he probably depended upon his
        medical practice.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I need hardly say
        that the life of Nachmanides, <span class="tei tei-q">“whose words
        were held in Catalonia in almost as high authority as the
        Scriptures,”</span> was not without its great public events. At least
        we know of two.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The one was about
        the year 1232, on the occasion of the great struggle about
        Maimonides' <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Guide of the Perplexed</span></span>, and the
        first book of his great Compendium of the Law. The Maimonists looked
        upon these works almost as a new revelation, whilst the
        Anti-Maimonists condemned both as heretical, or at least conducive to
        heresy.<a id="noteref_71" name="noteref_71" href=
        "#note_71"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">71</span></span></a> It would
        be profitless to reproduce the details of this sad affair. The
        motives may have been pure and good, but the actions were decidedly
        bad. People denounced each other, excommunicated each other, and did
        not (from either side) spare even the dead from the most bitter
        calumnies. Nachmanides stood between two fires. The French Rabbis,
        from whom most of the Anti-Maimonists were recruited, he held in very
        high esteem and considered himself as their pupil. Some of the
        leaders of this party were also his relatives. He, too, had, as we
        shall see later on, a theory of his own about God and the world
        little in agreement with that of Maimonides. It is worth noting that
        Nachmanides objected <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page103">[pg
        103]</span><a name="Pg103" id="Pg103" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to
        calling Maimonides <span class="tei tei-q">“our teacher Moses”</span>
        (Rabbenu Mosheh),<a id="noteref_72" name="noteref_72" href=
        "#note_72"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">72</span></span></a> thinking
        it improper to confer upon him the title by which the Rabbis honoured
        the Master of the Prophets. The very fact, however, that he had some
        theory of the Universe shows that he had a problem to solve, whilst
        the real French Rabbis were hardly troubled by difficulties of a
        metaphysical character. Indeed, Nachmanides pays them the rather
        doubtful compliment that Maimonides' work was not intended for them,
        who were barricaded by their faith and happy in their belief, wanting
        no protection against the works of Aristotle and Galen, by whose
        philosophy others might be led astray. In other words, their strength
        lay in an ignorance of Greek philosophy, to which the cultivated Jews
        of Spain would not aspire. Nachmanides was also a great admirer of
        Maimonides, whose virtues and great merits in the service of Judaism
        he describes in his letter to the French Rabbis. Thus, the only way
        left open to him was to play the part of the conciliator. The course
        of this struggle is fully described in every Jewish history. It is
        sufficient to say that, in spite of his great authority, Nachmanides
        was not successful in his effort to moderate the violence of either
        party, and that the controversy was at last settled through the harsh
        interference of outsiders who well-nigh crushed Maimonists and
        Anti-Maimonists alike.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The second public
        event in the life of Nachmanides was his Disputation, held in
        Barcelona, at the Court and in the presence of King Jayme I., of
        Aragon, in the year 1263. It was the usual story. A convert to
        Christianity, named Pablo Christiani, who burned with zealous anxiety
        to see his former co-religionists saved, after many vain attempts in
        this direction, applied to the King of Aragon <span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="page104">[pg 104]</span><a name="Pg104" id="Pg104"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to order Nachmanides to take part in a
        public disputation. Pablo maintained that he could prove the justice
        of the Messianic claims of Jesus from the Talmud and other Rabbinic
        writings. If he could only succeed in convincing the great Rabbi of
        Spain of the truth of his argument, the bulk of the Jews was sure to
        follow. By the way, it was the same Talmud which some twenty years
        previously was, at the instance of another Jewish convert, burned in
        Paris, for containing passages against Christianity. Nachmanides had
        to conform with the command of the king, and, on the 21st of July,
        1263, was begun the controversy, which lasted for four or five
        days.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I do not think
        that there is in the whole domain of literature less profitable
        reading than that of the controversies between Jews and Christians.
        These public disputations occasionally forced the Jews themselves to
        review their position towards their own literature, and led them to
        draw clearer distinctions between what they regarded as religion and
        what as folklore. But beyond this, the polemics between Jews and
        Christians were barren of good results. If you have read one you have
        read enough for all time. The same casuistry and the same disregard
        of history turn up again and again. Nervousness and humility are
        always on the side of the Jews, who know that, whatever the result
        may be, the end will be persecution; arrogance is always on the side
        of their antagonists, who are supported by a band of Knights of the
        Holy Cross, prepared to prove the soundness of their cause at the
        point of their daggers.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Besides, was there
        enough common ground between Judaism and thirteenth century
        Christianity to have justified the hope of a mutual understanding?
        The Old <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page105">[pg 105]</span><a name=
        "Pg105" id="Pg105" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Testament was almost
        forgotten in the Church. The First Person in the Trinity was leading
        a sort of shadowy existence in art, which could only be the more
        repulsive to a Jew on that account. The largest part of Church
        worship was monopolised by devotion to the Virgin Mother, prayers to
        the saints, and kneeling before their relics. And a Jew may well be
        pardoned if he did not entertain higher views of this form of worship
        than Luther and Knox did at a later period. It will thus not be worth
        our while to dwell much on the matter of this controversy, in which
        the essence of the real dispute is scarcely touched. There are only
        two points in it which are worth noticing. The first is that
        Nachmanides declared the Agadoth<a id="noteref_73" name="noteref_73"
        href="#note_73"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">73</span></span></a> in the
        Talmud to be only a series of sermons (he uses this very word),
        expressing the individual opinions of the preacher, and thus
        possessing no authoritative weight. The convert Pablo is quite aghast
        at this statement, and accuses Nachmanides of heterodoxy.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Secondly,—and here
        I take leave to complete the rather obscure passage in the
        controversy by a parallel in his book, <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Date of
        Redemption</span></span>,<a id="noteref_74" name="noteref_74" href=
        "#note_74"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">74</span></span></a> quoted
        by Azariah de Rossi—that the question of the Messiah is not of that
        dogmatic importance to the Jews that Christians imagine. For even if
        Jews supposed their sins to be so great that they forfeited all the
        promises made to them in the Scriptures, or that, on some hidden
        ground, it would please the Almighty never to restore their national
        independence, this would in no way alter the obligations of Jews
        towards the Torah. Nor is the coming of the Messiah desired by Jews
        as an end in itself. For it is not the goal of their hopes that they
        shall be able again to eat of the fruit of <span class="tei tei-pb"
        id="page106">[pg 106]</span><a name="Pg106" id="Pg106" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> Palestine, or enjoy other pleasures there; not
        even the chance of the restoration of sacrifices and the worship of
        the Temple is the greatest of Jewish expectations (connected with the
        appearance of the Messiah). What makes them long for his coming is
        the hope that they will then witness, in the company of the prophets
        and priests, a greater spread of purity and holiness than is now
        possible. In other words, the possibility for them to live a holy
        life after the will of God will be greater than now. But, on the
        other hand, considering that such a godly life under a Christian
        government requires greater sacrifices than it would under a Jewish
        king; and, considering again that the merits and rewards of a good
        act increase with the obstacles that are in the way of executing
        it—considering this, a Jew might even prefer to live under the King
        of Aragon than under the Messiah, where he would perforce act in
        accordance with the precepts of the Torah.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now there is in
        this statement much that has only to be looked upon as a compliment
        to the government of Spain. I am inclined to think that if the
        alternative laid before Nachmanides had been a really practical one,
        he would have decided in favour of the clement rule of the Messiah in
        preference to that of the most cruel king on earth. But the fact that
        he repeats this statement in another place, where there was no
        occasion to be over polite to the Government, tends to show, as we
        have said, that the belief in the Messiah was not the basis on which
        Nachmanides' religion was built up.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The result of the
        controversy is contested by the different parties; the Christian
        writers claim the victory for Pablo, whilst the Jewish documents
        maintain that <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page107">[pg
        107]</span><a name="Pg107" id="Pg107" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the
        issue was with Nachmanides. In any case, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“<span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
        "de"><span style="font-style: italic">Der Jude wird
        verbrannt</span></span>.”</span> For in the next year (1264) all the
        books of the Jews in Aragon were confiscated and submitted to the
        censorship of a commission, of which the well-known author of the
        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pugio
        Fidei</span></span>, Raymund Martini, was, perhaps, the most
        important member. The books were not burned this time, but had to
        suffer a severe mutilation; the anti-Christian passages, or such as
        were supposed to be so, were struck out or obliterated. Nachmanides'
        account of the controversy, which he probably published from a sense
        of duty towards those whom he represented, was declared to contain
        blasphemies against the dominant religion. The pamphlet was condemned
        to be burned publicly, whilst the author was, as it seems, punished
        with expulsion from his country. It is not reported where Nachmanides
        found a home during the next three years; probably he had to accept
        the hospitality of his friends, either in Castile or in the south of
        France; but we know that in the year 1267 he left Europe and
        emigrated to Palestine.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Nachmanides was,
        at this juncture of his life, already a man of about seventy. But it
        would seem as if the seven decades which he had spent in the Spanish
        Peninsula were only meant as a preparation for the three years which
        he was destined to live in the Holy Land, for it was during this
        stage of his life that the greatest part of his <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Commentary on the
        Pentateuch</span></span> was written. In this work, as is agreed on
        all sides, his finest thoughts and noblest sentiments were put
        down.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Before proceeding
        to speak of his works, let us first cast a glance at his letters from
        Palestine, forming as they do a certain link between his former life
        and that <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page108">[pg
        108]</span><a name="Pg108" id="Pg108" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        which was to occupy him exclusively for the rest of his days. We have
        three letters, the first of which I shall translate here <span lang=
        "la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">in extenso</span></span>.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The letter was
        written soon after his arrival at Jerusalem in the year 1267. It was
        addressed to his son Nachman, and runs as follows:—</p>

        <div class="block tei tei-quote" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em">
        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class=
        "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style=
        "font-size: 90%">The Lord shall bless thee, my son Nachman, and thou
        shalt see the good of Jerusalem. Yea, thou shalt see thy children's
        children (Ps. cxxviii.), and thy table shall be like that of our
        father Abraham!</span><a id="noteref_75" name="noteref_75" href=
        "#note_75"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">75</span></span></a>
        <span style="font-size: 90%">In Jerusalem, the Holy City, I write
        this letter. For, thanks and praise unto the rock of my salvation, I
        was thought worthy by God to arrive here safely on the 9th of the
        month of Elul, and I remained there till the day after the Day of
        Atonement. Now I intend going to Hebron, to the sepulchre of our
        ancestors, to prostrate myself, and there to dig my grave. But what
        am I to say to you with regard to the country? Great is the solitude
        and great the wastes, and, to characterise it in short, the more
        sacred the places, the greater their desolation! Jerusalem is more
        desolate than the rest of the country: Judæa more than Galilee. But
        even in this destruction it is a blessed land. It has about 2000
        inhabitants, about 300 Christians live there who escaped the sword of
        the Sultan. There are no Jews. For since the arrival of the Tartars,
        some fled, others died by the sword. There are only two brothers,
        dyers by trade, who have to buy their ingredients from the
        government. There the Ten Men</span><a id="noteref_76" name=
        "noteref_76" href="#note_76"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">76</span></span></a>
        <span style="font-size: 90%">meet, and on Sabbaths they hold service
        at their house. But we encouraged them, and we succeeded in finding a
        vacant house, built on pillars of marble with a beautiful arch. That
        we took for a synagogue. For the town is without a master, and
        whoever will take possession of the ruins can do so. We gave our
        offerings towards the repairs of the house. We have sent already to
        Shechem to fetch some scrolls of the Law from there which had been
        brought thither from Jerusalem at the invasion of the Tartars. Thus
        they will organise a synagogue and worship there. For continually
        people crowd to Jerusalem, men and women, from Damascus, Zobah</span>
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page109">[pg 109]</span><a name="Pg109"
          id="Pg109" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style=
          "font-size: 90%">(Aleppo),</span><a id="noteref_77" name=
          "noteref_77" href="#note_77"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">77</span></span></a>
          <span style="font-size: 90%">and from all parts of the country to
          see the Sanctuary and to mourn over it. He who thought us worthy to
          let us see Jerusalem in her desertion, he shall bless us to behold
          her again, built and restored, when the glory of the Lord will
          return unto her. But you, my son, and your brothers and the whole
          of our family, you all shall live to see the salvation of Jerusalem
          and the comfort of Zion. These are the words of your father who is
          yearning and forgetting, who is seeing and enjoying, Moses ben
          Nachman. Give also my peace to my pupil Moses, the son of Solomon,
          the nephew of your mother. I wish to tell him ... that there,
          facing the holy temple, I have read his verses, weeping bitterly
          over them. May he who caused his name to rest in the Holy Temple
          increase your peace together with the peace of the whole
          community.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This letter may be
        illustrated by a few parallels taken from the appendix to
        Nachmanides' <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Commentary to the Pentateuch</span></span>,
        which contains some rather incoherent notes which the author seems to
        have jotted down when he arrived in Jerusalem. After a lengthy
        account of the material as well as the spiritual glories of the holy
        city in the past, he proceeds to say:—</p>

        <div class="block tei tei-quote" style=
        "margin-right: 3.60em; margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em">
        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class=
        "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style=
        "font-size: 90%">A mournful sight I have perceived in thee
        (Jerusalem); only one Jew is here, a dyer, persecuted, oppressed and
        despised. At his house gather great and small when they can get the
        Ten Men. They are wretched folk, without occupation and trade,
        consisting of a few pilgrims and beggars, though the fruit of the
        land is still magnificent and the harvests rich. Indeed, it is still
        a blessed country, flowing with milk and honey.... Oh! I am the man
        who saw affliction. I am banished from my table, far removed from
        friend and kinsman, and too long is the distance to meet again.... I
        left my family, I forsook my house. There with my sons and daughters,
        and with the sweet and dear children whom I have brought up on my
        knees, I left also my soul. My heart and my eyes will dwell with them
        for ever.... But the loss of all this and of every other glory my
        eyes saw is compensated by having</span> <span class="tei tei-pb"
          id="page110">[pg 110]</span><a name="Pg110" id="Pg110" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">now the joy of
          being a day in thy courts (O Jerusalem), visiting the ruins of the
          Temple and crying over the ruined Sanctuary; where I am permitted
          to caress thy stones, to fondle thy dust, and to weep over thy
          ruins. I wept bitterly, but I found joy in my tears. I tore my
          garments, but I felt relieved by it.</span><span style=
          "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of some later date
        is his letter from Acra, which may be considered as a sort of ethical
        will, and which has been justly characterised as a eulogy of
        humility. Here is an extract from it:—</p>

        <div class="block tei tei-quote" style=
        "margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em">
        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class=
        "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style=
        "font-size: 90%">Accustom yourself to speak gently to all men at all
        times, and thus you will avoid anger, which leads to so much sin....
        Humility is the first of virtues; for if you think how lowly is man,
        how great is God, you will fear Him and avoid sinfulness. On the
        humble man rests the divine glory; the man that is haughty to others
        denies God. Look not boldly at one whom you address.... Regard every
        one as greater than thyself.... Remember always that you stand before
        God, both when you pray and when you converse with others.... Think
        before you speak.... Act as I have bidden you, and your words, and
        deeds, and thoughts, will be honest, and your prayers pure and
        acceptable before God.</span><span style=
        "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The third letter
        is addressed to his son (R. Solomon?) who was staying (in the service
        of the king) in Castile. It is in its chief content a eulogy of
        chastity.<a id="noteref_78" name="noteref_78" href=
        "#note_78"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">78</span></span></a> Probably
        Nachmanides had some dread of the dangerous allurements of the court,
        and he begs his son never to do anything of which he knows that his
        father would not approve, and to keep his father's image always
        before his eyes.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As to his works,
        we may divide them into two classes. The one would contain those of a
        strictly legalistic (Halachic), whilst the other those of a more
        homiletic-exegetical and devotional character (Agadic). As already
        indicated in the preliminary lines of this paper, I cannot dwell long
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page111">[pg 111]</span><a name="Pg111"
        id="Pg111" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> on the former class of our
        author's writings. It consists either of Glosses or Novellæ to the
        Talmud, in the style and manner of the French Rabbis, or of Compendia
        of certain parts of the Law after the model set by R. Isaac Alfasi or
        Maimonides, or in defences of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Earlier
        Authorities”</span> against the strictures made on them by a later
        generation. A few words must be said with regard to these defences;
        for they reveal that deep respect for authority which forms a special
        feature of Nachmanides' writings. His <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Wars of the
        Lord</span></span>, in which he defends Alfasi against R. Zerahiah of
        Gerona, was undertaken when he was very young, whilst his defence of
        the author of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Halachoth Gedoloth</span></span><a id=
        "noteref_79" name="noteref_79" href="#note_79"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">79</span></span></a> against
        the attacks of Maimonides, which he began at a much more mature age,
        shows the same deference <span class="tei tei-q">“to the great ones
        of the past.”</span> Indeed, he says in one place, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“We bow before them (the earlier authorities), and though
        their words are not quite evident to us we submit to them”</span>;
        or, as he expresses himself elsewhere, <span class="tei tei-q">“Only
        he who dips (deeply enough) in the wisdom of the <span class=
        "tei tei-q">‘ancient ones’</span> will drink the pure (old)
        wine.”</span> But it would be unjust to the genius of Nachmanides to
        represent him as a blind worshipper of authority. Humble and generous
        in disposition, he certainly would bow before every recognised
        authority, and he would also think it his duty to take up the cudgels
        for him as long as there was even the least chance of making an
        honourable defence. But when this chance had gone, when Nachmanides
        was fully convinced that his hero was in the wrong, he followed no
        guide but truth. <span class="tei tei-q">“Notwithstanding,”</span> he
        says in his introduction to the defences of the <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Halachoth
        Gedoloth</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“my desire and
        delight to be the disciple of the Earlier Authorities, to maintain
        their views and to assert them, I <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page112">[pg 112]</span><a name="Pg112" id="Pg112" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> do not consider myself a <span class=
        "tei tei-q">‘donkey carrying books.’</span> I will explain their way
        and appreciate their value, but when their views are inconceivable to
        my thoughts, I will plead in all modesty, but shall judge according
        to the sight of my eyes. And when the meaning is clear I shall
        flatter none, for the Lord gives wisdom in all times and
        ages.”</span> But, on the other hand, there seems to have been a
        certain sort of literary agnosticism about Nachmanides which made it
        very difficult for him to find the <span class="tei tei-q">“clear
        meaning.”</span> The passage in the <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Wars of the
        Lord</span></span> to the effect <span class="tei tei-q">“that there
        is in the art (of commenting) no such certain demonstration as in
        mathematics or astronomy,”</span> is well known and has often been
        quoted; but still more characteristic of this literary agnosticism is
        the first paragraph of the above-mentioned defences of the
        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Halachoth
        Gedoloth</span></span>. Whilst all his predecessors accepted, on the
        authority of R. Simlai,<a id="noteref_80" name="noteref_80" href=
        "#note_80"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">80</span></span></a> the
        number (613) of the commandments as an uncontested fact, and based
        their compositions on it, Nachmanides questions the whole matter, and
        shows that the passages relating to this enumeration of laws are only
        of a homiletical nature, and thus of little consequence. Nay, he goes
        so far as to say, <span class="tei tei-q">“Indeed the system how to
        number the commandments is a matter in which I suspect all of us (are
        mistaken) and the truth must be left to him who will solve all
        doubts.”</span> We should thus be inclined to think that this
        adherence to the words of the earlier Authorities was at least as
        much due to this critical scepticism as to his conservative
        tendencies.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The space left to
        me I shall devote to the second class of his writings, in which
        Nachmanides worked less after given types. These reveal to us more of
        his inner being, and offer us some insight into his theological
        system. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page113">[pg 113]</span><a name=
        "Pg113" id="Pg113" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> The great problem
        which seems to have presented itself to Nachmanides' mind was less
        how to reconcile religion with reason than how to reconcile man with
        religion. What is man? The usual answer is not flattering. He is an
        animal that owes its existence to the same instinct that produces
        even the lower creatures, and he is condemned, like them, to go to a
        place of worm and maggot. But, may not one ask, why should a creature
        so lowly born, and doomed to so hapless a future, be burdened with
        the awful responsibility of knowing that he is destined <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“to give reckoning and judgment before the King of kings,
        the Holy One, blessed be He”</span>? It is true that man is also
        endowed with a heavenly soul, but this only brings us back again to
        the antithesis of flesh and spirit which was the stumbling-block of
        many a theological system. Nor does it help us much towards the
        solution of the indicated difficulty; for what relation can there be
        between this <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
        "la"><span style="font-style: italic">materia impura</span></span> of
        body and the pure intellect of soul? And again, must not the
        unfavourable condition in which the latter is placed through this
        uncongenial society heavily clog and suppress all aspiration for
        perfection? It is <span class="tei tei-q">“a house divided against
        itself,”</span> doomed to an everlasting contest, without hope for
        co-operation or even of harmony.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The works
        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Sacred
        Letter</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">The Law of Man</span></span> may be considered
        as an attempt by Nachmanides, if not to remove, at least to relieve
        the harshness of this antithesis. The former, in which he blames
        Maimonides for following Aristotle in denouncing certain desires
        implanted in us by nature as ignominious and unworthy of man, may,
        perhaps, be characterised as a vindication of the flesh from a
        religious point of view. The contempt in <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page114">[pg 114]</span><a name="Pg114" id="Pg114" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> which <span class="tei tei-q">“that
        Greek,”</span> as Nachmanides terms Aristotle, held the flesh is
        inconsistent with the theory of the religious man, who believes that
        everything (including the body, with all its functions) is created by
        God, whose work is perfect and good, without impure or inharmonious
        parts. It is only sin and neglect that disfigure God's creations. I
        cannot enter into any further details of this work, but I may be
        permitted to remark that there is a very strong similarity between
        the tendency of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Sacred Letter</span></span> and certain leading
        ideas of Milton. Indeed, if the first two chapters of the former were
        a little condensed and put into English, they could not be better
        summarised than by the famous lines in the <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Paradise
        Lost</span></span>:—</p>

        <div class="block tei tei-quote" style=
        "margin-right: 3.60em; margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em">
        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em">
            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Whatever hypocrites austerely
              talk</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Of purity, and place, and
              innocence,</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Defaming as impure what God
              declares</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Pure, and commands to some, leaves
              free to all,</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Our Maker bids increase; who bids
              abstain</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">But our destroyer, foe to God and
              man?</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Hail, wedded love, mysterious
              law!...</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Far be it that I should write thee
              sin or blame</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Or think thee unbefitting holiest
              place,</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Perpetual fountain of domestic
              sweets.</span>
            </div>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The second of
        these two works, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Law of Man</span></span>, may be regarded as a
        sanctification of grief, and particularly of the grief of griefs,
        death. The bulk of the book is legalistic, treating of mourning
        rites, burial customs, and similar topics; but there is much in the
        preface which bears on our subject. For here again Nachmanides takes
        the opportunity of combating a chilling philosophy, which tries to
        arm us against suffering by stifling our emotions. <span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="page115">[pg 115]</span><a name="Pg115" id="Pg115"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> <span class="tei tei-q">“My son,”</span>
        he says, <span class="tei tei-q">“be not persuaded by certain
        propositions of the great philosophers who endeavour to harden our
        hearts and to deaden our sensations by their idle comfort, which
        consists in denying the past and despairing of the future. One of
        them has even declared that there is nothing in the world over the
        loss of which it is worth crying, and the possession of which would
        justify joy. This is an heretical view. Our perfect Torah bids us to
        be joyful in the day of prosperity and to shed tears in the day of
        misfortune. It in no way forbids crying or demands of us to suppress
        our grief. On the contrary, the Torah suggests to us that to mourn
        over heavy losses is equivalent to a service of God, leading us, as
        it does, to reflect on our end and ponder over our
        destiny.”</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This destiny, as
        well as Reward and Punishment in general, is treated in the
        concluding chapter of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Law of Man</span></span>, which is known under
        the title of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">The Gate of Reward</span></span>.<a id=
        "noteref_81" name="noteref_81" href="#note_81"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">81</span></span></a>
        Nachmanides does not conceal from himself the difficulties besetting
        inquiries of this description. He knows well enough that in the last
        instance we must appeal to that implicit faith in the inscrutable
        justice of God with which the believer begins. Nevertheless he thinks
        that only the <span class="tei tei-q">“despisers of wisdom”</span>
        would fail to bring to this faith as full a conviction as possible,
        which latter is only to be gained by speculation. I shall have by and
        by occasion to refer to the results of this speculation. Here we must
        only notice the fact of Nachmanides insisting on the <em class=
        "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">bodily</span></em>
        resurrection which will take place after the coming of the Messiah,
        and will be followed by the <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign"
        xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">Olam
        Habba</span></span><a id="noteref_82" name="noteref_82" href=
        "#note_82"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">82</span></span></a> (the
        life in the world to come) of which the Rabbis spoke.</p><span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="page116">[pg 116]</span><a name="Pg116" id="Pg116"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Irrational as this
        belief may look, it is only a consequence of his theory, which, as we
        have seen, assigns even to the flesh an almost spiritual importance.
        Indeed, he thinks that the soul may have such an influence on the
        body as to transform the latter into so pure an essence that it will
        become safe for eternity. For, as he hints in another place, by the
        continual practising of a thing the whole man, the body included,
        becomes so identified with the thing that we call him after it, just
        as the Holy Singer said: I am prayer,<a id="noteref_83" name=
        "noteref_83" href="#note_83"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">83</span></span></a> so
        that—</p>

        <div class="block tei tei-quote" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em">
        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em">
            <div class="tei tei-l" style=
            "text-align: left; margin-left: 5.40em">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Oft converse with heavenly
              habitants</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Begins to cast a beam on the
              outward shape,</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">The unpolluted temple of the
              mind,</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">And turns it by degrees to the
              soul's essence,</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Till all be made immortal.</span>
            </div>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But if even the
        body holds such a high position as to make all its instincts and
        functions, if properly regulated, a service of God, and to destine it
        for a glorious future of eternal bliss and rejoicing in God, we can
        easily imagine what a high place the soul must occupy in the system
        of Nachmanides. To be sure it is a much higher one than that to which
        philosophy would fain admit her. A beautiful parable of the Persian
        poet Yellaladeen (quoted by the late Mr. Lowell) narrates that
        <span class="tei tei-q">“One knocked at the beloved's door, and a
        voice asked from within, <span class="tei tei-q">‘Who is
        there?’</span> and he answered, <span class="tei tei-q">‘It is
        I.’</span> Then the voice said, <span class="tei tei-q">‘This house
        will not hold me and thee,’</span> and the door was not opened. Then
        went the lover into the desert and fasted and prayed in solitude, and
        after a year he returned and knocked again at the door, and again the
        voice asked <span class="tei tei-q">‘Who is there?’</span> and he
        said <span class="tei tei-q">‘It is thyself’</span>; and the door
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page117">[pg 117]</span><a name="Pg117"
        id="Pg117" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> was opened to him.”</span>
        This is also the difference between the two schools—the mystical and
        the philosophical—with regard to the soul. With the rationalist the
        soul is indeed a superior abstract intelligence created by God, but,
        like all His creations, has an existence of its own, and is thus
        separated from God. With the mystic, however, the soul is God, or a
        direct emanation from God. <span class="tei tei-q">“For he who
        breathes into another thing (Gen. ii. 7) gives unto it something of
        his own breath (or soul),”</span> and as it is said in Job xxxii. 8,
        <span class="tei tei-q">“And the soul of the Almighty giveth them
        understanding.”</span> This emanation, or rather immanence—for
        Nachmanides insists in another place that the Hebrew term employed
        for it, <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
        "he"><span style="font-style: italic">Aziluth</span></span>,<a id=
        "noteref_84" name="noteref_84" href="#note_84"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">84</span></span></a> means a
        permanent dwelling with the thing emanating—which became manifest
        with the creation of man, must not be confounded with the moving soul
        (or the <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
        "he"><span style="font-style: italic">Nephesh
        Chayah</span></span>),<a id="noteref_85" name="noteref_85" href=
        "#note_85"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">85</span></span></a> which is
        common to man with all creatures.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It may be remarked
        here that Nachmanides endows all animals with a soul which is derived
        from the <span class="tei tei-q">“Superior Powers,”</span> and its
        presence is proved by certain marks of intelligence which they show.
        By this fact he tries to account for the law prohibiting cruelty to
        animals, <span class="tei tei-q">“all souls belonging to God.”</span>
        Their original disposition was, it would seem, according to
        Nachmanides, peaceful and harmless.</p>

        <div class="block tei tei-quote" style=
        "margin-right: 3.60em; margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em">
        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 0.90em; margin-bottom: 0.90em">
            <div class="tei tei-l" style=
            "text-align: left; margin-left: 14.40em">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">About them frisking played</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">All beasts of earth, since wild,
              and of all chase</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">In wood or wilderness, forest or
              den.</span>
            </div>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was only after
        man had sinned that war entered into creation, but with the coming of
        the Messiah, when sin will disappear, all the living beings will
        regain their <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page118">[pg
        118]</span><a name="Pg118" id="Pg118" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        primæval gentleness, and be reinstituted in their first rights.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The special soul
        of man, however, or rather the <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“over-soul,”</span> was pre-existent to the creation of
        the world, treasured up as a wave in the sea or fountain of
        souls—dwelling in the eternal light and holiness of God. There, in
        God, the soul abides in its ideal existence before it enters into its
        material life through the medium of man; though it must be noted
        that, according to Nachmanides' belief in the Transmigration of
        souls, it is not necessary to perceive in the soul of every new-born
        child, <span class="tei tei-q">“a fresh message from heaven”</span>
        coming directly from the fountain-head. Nachmanides finds this belief
        indicated in the commandment of levirate marriage, where the child
        born of the deceased brother's wife inherits not only the name of the
        brother of his actual father, but also his soul, and thus perpetuates
        his existence on earth. The fourth verse of Ecclesiastes ii.
        Nachmanides seems to interpret to mean that the very generation which
        passes away comes up again, by which he tries to explain the
        difficulty of God's visiting the iniquity of the fathers on their
        children; the latter being the very fathers who committed the sins.
        However, whatever trials and changes the soul may have to pass
        through during its bodily existence, its origin is in God and thither
        it will return in the end, <span class="tei tei-q">“just as the
        waters rise always to the same high level from which their source
        sprang forth.”</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is for this
        man, with a body so superior, and a soul so sublime—more sublime than
        the angels—that the world was <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">created</span></em>. I emphasise the last word,
        for the belief in the creation of the world by God from nothing
        forms, according to Nachmanides, the first of the three fundamental
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page119">[pg 119]</span><a name="Pg119"
        id="Pg119" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> dogmas of Judaism. The other
        two also refer to God's relation to the world and man. They are the
        belief in God's Providence and his <span lang="he" class=
        "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Yediah</span></span>.<a id="noteref_86" name=
        "noteref_86" href="#note_86"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">86</span></span></a> Creation
        from nothing is for Nachmanides the keynote to his whole religion,
        since it is only by this fact, as he points out in many places, that
        God gains real dominion over nature. For, as he says, as soon as we
        admit the eternity of matter, we must (logically) deny God even
        <span class="tei tei-q">“the power of enlarging the wing of a fly, or
        shortening the leg of an ant.”</span> But the whole Torah is nothing
        if not a record of God's mastery in and over the world, and of His
        miraculous deeds. One of the first proclamations of Abraham to his
        generation was that God is the Lord (or Master) of the world (Gen.
        xviii. 33). The injunction given to Abraham, and repeated afterwards
        to the whole of Israel (Gen. xvii. 2, and Deut. xviii. 13), to be
        perfect with God, Nachmanides numbers as one of the 613 commandments,
        and explains it to mean that man must have a whole belief in God
        without blemish or reservation, and acknowledge Him possessed of
        power over nature and the world, man and beast, devil and angel,
        power being attributable to Him alone. Indeed, when the angel said to
        Jacob, <span class="tei tei-q">“Why dost thou ask after my
        name”</span> (Gen. xxxii. 29), he meant to indicate by his question
        the impotence of the heavenly host, so that there is no use in
        knowing their name, the power and might belonging only to God.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We may venture
        even a step further, and maintain that in Nachmanides' system there
        is hardly room left for such a thing as nature or <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“the order of the world.”</span> There are only two
        categories of miracles by which the world is governed, or in which
        God's Providence is seen. The one is the category of the manifest
        miracles, as the ten <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page120">[pg
        120]</span><a name="Pg120" id="Pg120" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        plagues in Egypt, or the crossing of the Red Sea; the other is that
        of the hidden miracles, which we do not perceive as such, because of
        their frequency and continuity. <span class="tei tei-q">“No
        man,”</span> he declares, <span class="tei tei-q">“can share in the
        Torah of our Teacher, Moses (that is, can be considered a follower of
        the Jewish religion), unless he believes that all our affairs and
        events, whether they concern the masses or the individual, are all
        miracles (worked by the direct will of God), attributing nothing to
        nature or to the order of the world.”</span> Under this second order
        he classes all the promises the Torah makes to the righteous, and the
        punishments with which evil-doers are threatened. For, as he points
        out in many places, there is nothing in the nature of the
        commandments themselves that would make their fulfilment necessarily
        prolong the life of man, and cause the skies to pour down rain, or,
        on the other hand, would associate disobedience to them with famine
        and death. All these results can, therefore, only be accomplished in
        a supernatural way by the direct workings of God.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus miracles are
        raised to a place in the regular scheme of things, and the difficulty
        regarding the possibility of God's interferences with nature
        disappears by their very multiplication. But a still more important
        point is, that, by this unbroken chain of miracles, which
        unconditionally implies God's presence to perform them, Nachmanides
        arrives at a theory establishing a closer contact between the Deity
        and the world than that set forth by other thinkers. Thus, he insists
        that the term <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
        "he"><span style="font-style: italic">Shechinah</span></span>, or
        <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Cabod</span></span><a id="noteref_87" name=
        "noteref_87" href="#note_87"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">87</span></span></a> (Glory
        of God), must not be understood, with some Jewish philosophers, as
        something separate from God, or as <em class=
        "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">glory
        created</span></em> by God. <span class="tei tei-q">“Were this the
        case,”</span> he proceeds to say, <span class="tei tei-q">“we could
        not possibly <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page121">[pg
        121]</span><a name="Pg121" id="Pg121" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        say, <span class="tei tei-q">‘Blessed be the glory of the Lord from
        his place,’</span> since every mark of worship to anything <em class=
        "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">created</span></em>
        involves the sin of idolatry.”</span> Such terms as <span lang="he"
        class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Shechinah</span></span>, or <span lang="he"
        class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Cabod</span></span>, can therefore only mean the
        immediate divine presence. This proves, as may be noted in passing,
        how unphilosophical the idea of those writers is who maintain that
        the rigid monotheism of the Jews makes God so transcendental that He
        is banished from the world. As we see, it is just this assertion of
        His absolute Unity which not only suffers no substitute for God, but
        also removes every separation between Him and the world. Hence also
        Nachmanides insists that the prophecy even of the successors of Moses
        was a direct communion of God with the prophet, and not, as others
        maintained, furnished through the medium of an angel.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The third
        fundamental dogma, <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
        "he"><span style="font-style: italic">Yediah</span></span>, includes,
        according to Nachmanides, not only the omniscience of God—as the term
        is usually translated—but also His recognition of mankind and His
        special concern in them. Thus, he explains the words in the Bible
        with regard to Abraham, <span class="tei tei-q">“For I know
        him”</span> (Gen. xviii. 19), to indicate the special attachment of
        God's Providence to the patriarch, which, on account of his
        righteousness, was to be uninterrupted for ever; whilst in other
        places we have to understand, under God's knowledge of a thing, his
        determination to deal with it compassionately, as, for instance, when
        Scripture says that God knew (Exod. ii. 25), it means that His
        relation to Israel emanated from His attribute of mercy and love. But
        just as God knows (which means loves) the world, He requires also to
        be recognised and known by it. <span class="tei tei-q">“For this was
        the purpose of the whole creation, that man should recognise and know
        Him and give praise to His name,”</span> as <span class="tei tei-pb"
        id="page122">[pg 122]</span><a name="Pg122" id="Pg122" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> it is said, <span class="tei tei-q">“Everything
        that is called by my name (meaning, chosen to promulgate God's name),
        for my glory have I created it.”</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is this fact
        which gives Israel their high prerogative, for by receiving the Torah
        they were the first to know God's name, to which they remained true
        in spite of all adversities; and thus accomplished God's intention in
        creating the world. It is, again, by this Torah that the whole of
        Israel not only succeeded in being real prophets (at the moment of
        the Revelation), but also became <span lang="he" class=
        "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Segulah</span></span>,<a id="noteref_88" name=
        "noteref_88" href="#note_88"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">88</span></span></a> which
        indicates the inseparable attachment between God and His people,
        whilst the righteous who never disobey His will become the seat of
        His throne.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The position of
        the rest of humanity is also determined by their relation to the
        Torah. <span class="tei tei-q">“It is,”</span> Nachmanides tells us,
        <span class="tei tei-q">“a main principle to know that all that man
        contrives to possess of knowledge and wisdom is only the fruits of
        the Torah or the fruits of its fruits. But for this knowledge there
        would be no difference between man and the lower animated species.
        The existence of the civilised nations of the world does not disprove
        this rule both Christians and Mahometans being also the heirs of the
        Torah. For when the Romans gained strength over Israel they made them
        translate the Torah which they studied, and they even accommodated
        some of their laws and institutions to those of the Bible.”</span>
        Those nations, however, who live far away from the centre of the
        world (the Holy Land) and never come into contact with Israel are
        outside the pale of civilisation, and can hardly be ranked together
        with the human species. <span class="tei tei-q">“They are the isles
        afar off, that have not heard my fame, neither have seen my
        glory.”</span></p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page123">[pg
        123]</span><a name="Pg123" id="Pg123" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What Nachmanides
        meant by maintaining that all knowledge and wisdom were <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“the fruits of the Torah, or the fruits of these
        fruits,”</span> will be best seen from his <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Commentary on the
        Pentateuch</span></span>. I have already made use of this Commentary
        in the preceding quotations, but, being the greatest of the works of
        Nachmanides, it calls for some special attention by itself. Its
        general purpose is edification, or as he says, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“to appease the mind of the students (labouring under
        persecution and troubles) when they read the portion on Sabbaths and
        festivals, and to attract their heart by simple explanations and
        sweet words.”</span> The explanations occupy a considerable space. As
        Dr. Perles has shown in his able essay on this work of Nachmanides,
        our author neglected no resource of philology or archæology
        accessible in his age which could contribute to establish the
        <span class="tei tei-q">“simple explanations”</span> on a sound
        scientific basis. The prominent feature of this Commentary, however,
        is the <span class="tei tei-q">“sweet words.”</span> Indeed, how
        sweet and soothing to his contemporaries must have been such words as
        we read at the end of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Song of
        Moses”</span> (Deut. xxxii.): <span class="tei tei-q">“And behold
        there is nothing conditional in this Song. It is a charter testifying
        that we shall have to suffer heavily for our sins, but that,
        nevertheless, God will not destroy us, being reconciled to us (though
        we shall have no merits), and forgiving our sins for his name's sake
        alone.... And so our Rabbis said, Great is this song, embracing as it
        does both the past (of Israel) and the future, this world and the
        world to come.... And if this song were the composition of a mere
        astrologer we should be constrained to believe in it, considering
        that all its words were fulfilled. How much more have we to hope with
        all our hearts and to trust to the word of God, through the mouth
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page124">[pg 124]</span><a name="Pg124"
        id="Pg124" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of his prophet Moses, the
        faithful in all his house, like unto whom there was none, whether
        before him or after him.”</span> A part of these sweet words may also
        be seen in the numerous passages in which he attempts to account for
        various laws, and to detect their underlying principles.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">For though
        <span class="tei tei-q">“the Torah is the expression of God's simple
        and absolute will, which man has to follow without any consideration
        of reward,”</span> still this will is not arbitrary, and even that
        class of laws which are called <span lang="he" class=
        "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">chukkim</span></span><a id="noteref_89" name=
        "noteref_89" href="#note_89"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">89</span></span></a> (which
        means, according to some Jewish commentators, motiveless decrees)
        have their good reasons, notwithstanding that they are unfathomable
        to us. <span class="tei tei-q">“They are all meant for the good of
        man, either to keep aloof from us something hurtful, or to educate us
        in goodness, or to remove from us an evil belief and to make us know
        his name. This is what they (the Rabbis) meant by saying that
        commandments have a purifying purpose, namely, that man being
        purified and tried by them becomes as one without alloy of bad
        thoughts and unworthy qualities.”</span> Indeed, the soul of man is
        so sensitive to every impurity that it suffers a sort of infection
        even by an unintentional sin. Hence the injunction to bring a
        <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Korban</span></span> (sacrifice) even in this
        case; the effect of the <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign"
        xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">Korban</span></span>,
        as its etymology (<span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
        "he"><span style="font-style: italic">Karab</span></span>)<a id=
        "noteref_90" name="noteref_90" href="#note_90"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">90</span></span></a>
        indicates, is to bring man back to God, or rather to facilitate this
        approach. All this again is, as Nachmanides points out, only an
        affluence from God's mercy and love to mankind. God derives no
        benefit from it. <span class="tei tei-q">“If he be righteous what can
        he give thee?”</span> And even those laws and institutions which are
        intended to commemorate God's wonders and the creation of the world
        (for instance, the Passover festival and the Sabbath) are not meant
        for His glorification, or, as Heine maliciously expressed
        it:—</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page125">[pg 125]</span><a name=
        "Pg125" id="Pg125" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <div class="block tei tei-quote" style=
        "margin-top: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-right: 3.60em; margin-bottom: 1.80em">
        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 0.90em; margin-bottom: 0.90em">
            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Der Weltkapellenmeister hier
              oben</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Er selbst sogar hört gerne
              loben</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Gleichfalls seine Werke....</span>
            </div>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
        "tei tei-q">“For all the honour (we give to Him), and the praising of
        His work are counted by Him less than nothing and as vanity to
        Him.”</span> What He desires is that we may know the truth, and be
        confirmed in it, for this makes us worthy of finding in Him
        <span class="tei tei-q">“our Protector and King.”</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The lessons which
        Nachmanides draws from the various Biblical narratives also belong to
        these <span class="tei tei-q">“sweet words.”</span> They are mostly
        of a typical character. For, true as all the stories in the
        Scriptures are, <span class="tei tei-q">“the whole Torah is,”</span>
        as he tells us (with allusion to Gen. v. 1.), <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“the book of the generations of Adam,”</span> or, as we
        should say, a history of humanity written in advance. Thus the
        account of the six days of the creation is turned into a prophecy of
        the most important events which would occur during the succeeding six
        thousand years, whilst the Sabbath is a forecast of the millennium in
        the seventh thousand, which will be the day of the Lord. Jacob and
        Esau are, as in the old Rabbinic homilies generally, the prototypes
        of Israel and Rome; and so is the battle of Moses and Joshua with
        Amalek indicative of the war which Elijah and the Messiah the son of
        Joseph will wage against Edom (the prototype of Rome), before the
        Redeemer from the house of David will appear.<a id="noteref_91" name=
        "noteref_91" href="#note_91"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">91</span></span></a>
        Sometimes these stories convey both a moral and a pre-justification
        of what was destined to happen to Israel. So Nachmanides' remarks
        with reference to Sarah's treatment of Hagar (Gen. xvi. 6):
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Our mother Sarah sinned greatly by
        inflicting this pain on Hagar, as did also Abraham, who allowed such
        a thing to pass; but God saw her affliction and rewarded her by a
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page126">[pg 126]</span><a name="Pg126"
        id="Pg126" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> son (the ancestor of a wild
        race), who would inflict on the seed of Abraham and Sarah every sort
        of oppression.”</span> In this he alluded to the Islamic empires. Nor
        does he approve of Abraham's conduct on the occasion of his coming to
        Egypt, when he asked Sarah to pass as his sister (Gen. xii.).
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Unintentionally,”</span> Nachmanides says,
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Abraham, under the fear of being murdered,
        committed a great sin when he exposed his virtuous wife to such a
        temptation. For he ought to have trusted that God would save both him
        and his wife.... It is on account of this deed that his children had
        to suffer exile under the rule of Pharaoh. There, where the sin was
        committed, also the judgment took place.”</span> It is also worth
        noticing that, in opposition to Maimonides, he allows no apology for
        the attack of Simeon and Levi on the population of Shechem (Gen.
        xxxiv. 25). It is true that they were idolaters, immoral, and steeped
        in every abomination; but Jacob and his sons were not commissioned
        with executing justice on them. The people of Shechem trusted their
        word, therefore they ought to have spared them. Hence Jacob's
        protest, and his curse against their wrath, which would have been
        quite unjustified had he looked on the action of his sons as a good
        work.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Besides these
        typical meanings, the matters of the Torah have also their symbolical
        importance, which places them almost above the sphere of human
        conception; they are neither exactly what they seem to be nor
        entirely what their name implies, but a reflex from things unseen,
        which makes any human interference both preposterous and dangerous.
        Of <span class="tei tei-q">“the things <em class=
        "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">called</span></em>
        Tree of Life and Tree of Knowledge,”</span> Nachmanides tells us that
        their mystery is very great, reaching into higher worlds. Otherwise,
        why <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page127">[pg 127]</span><a name=
        "Pg127" id="Pg127" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> should God, who is
        good and the dispenser of good, have prevented Adam from eating the
        fruit (of the latter), whilst in another place he says: <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“And if thou wilt be worthy, and understand the mystery
        of the word <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
        "he"><span style="font-style: italic">Bereshith</span></span><a id=
        "noteref_92" name="noteref_92" href="#note_92"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">92</span></span></a> (with
        which the Torah begins), thou wilt see that in truth the Scripture,
        though apparently speaking of matters here below (on earth), is
        always pointing to things above (heaven);”</span> for <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“every glory and every wonder, and every deep mystery,
        and all beautiful wisdom are hidden in the Torah, sealed up in her
        treasures.”</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is very
        characteristic of the bent of Nachmanides' mind, that he is perhaps
        the first Jewish writer who mentions the apocryphal book <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Wisdom of
        Solomon</span></span>, which he knew from a Syriac version, and which
        he believed to be genuine. And when we read there (vii. 7-25),
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Wherefore I prayed and understanding was
        given to me. I called upon God and the spirit of wisdom came upon
        me.... For God has given me unmistakable knowledge to know how the
        world was made, and the operations of the planets. The beginning,
        ending, and midst of the times, the alterations and the turnings of
        the sun, the changes of the seasons, the natures of the living
        creatures and the furies of the wild beasts, the force of the spirits
        and the reasonings of men, the diversities of plants and the virtues
        of the roots. All such things that are either secret or manifest,
        them I knew”</span>—the wise king was, according to Nachmanides (who
        quotes the passages which I have just cited), speaking of the Torah,
        which is identical with this wisdom, a wisdom which existed before
        the creation, and by which God planned the world. Hence it bears the
        impression of all the universe, whilst on the other hand when it is
        said, <span class="tei tei-q">“The king brought me into his
        chambers,”</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page128">[pg
        128]</span><a name="Pg128" id="Pg128" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        those secret recesses of the Torah are meant in which all the great
        mysteries relating to Creation and to the Chariot (Ezekiel i.) are
        hidden.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We must content
        ourselves with these few sparks struck from the glowing fires of
        these inner compartments, which, imperfectly luminous as my treatment
        has left them, may yet shed some light on the personality of
        Nachmanides, which is the main object of this essay. But I do not
        propose to accompany the mystic into the <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“chambers of the king,”</span> lest we may soon get into
        a labyrinth of obscure terms and strange ways of thinking for which
        the Ariadne thread is still wanting. We might also be confronted by
        the Fifty Gates of Understanding, the Thirty-Two Paths of Wisdom, and
        the Two Hundred and Thirty-One Permutations or Ciphers of the
        Alphabet, the key to which I do not hold. It is also questionable
        whether it would always be worth while to seek for it. When one, for
        instance, sees such a heaping on of nouns (with some Cabbalists) as
        the Land of Life, the Land of Promise, the Lord of the World, the
        Foundation Stone, Zion, Mother, Daughter, Sister, the Congregation of
        Israel, the Twin Roes, the Bride, Blue, End, Oral Law, Sea, Wisdom,
        etc., meant to represent the same thing or attribute, and to pass one
        into another, one cannot possibly help feeling some suspicion that
        one stands before a conglomerate of words run riot, over which the
        writer had lost all control.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Indeed Nachmanides
        himself, in the preface to the above-mentioned Commentary, gives us
        the kind advice not to meditate, or rather brood, over the mystical
        hints which are scattered over this work, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“speculation being (in such matters) folly, and reasoning
        over them fraught <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page129">[pg
        129]</span><a name="Pg129" id="Pg129" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        with danger.”</span> Indeed, the danger is obvious. I have, to give
        one or two instances, already alluded to the theory which accepts the
        Torah or the Wisdom as an agent in the creation of the world. But the
        mystic pushes further, and asks for the Primal Being to which this
        Wisdom owes its origin. The answer given is from the great Nothing,
        as it is written, And the Wisdom shall be found from Nothing.<a id=
        "noteref_93" name="noteref_93" href="#note_93"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">93</span></span></a> What is
        intended by this, if it means anything, is probably to divest the
        first cause of every possible quality which by its very qualifying
        nature must be limiting and exclusive. Hence, God becomes the
        Unknowable. But suppose a metaphysical Hamlet, who, handling words
        indelicately, should impetuously exclaim, To be or not to be, that is
        the question?—into what abyss of utter negations would he drag all
        those who despair, by his terrible Nothing.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the other hand,
        into what gross anthropomorphisms may we be drawn by roughly handling
        certain metaphors which some Cabbalists have employed in their
        struggling after an adequate expression of God's manifestations in
        His attribute of love, if we forget for a single moment that they are
        only figures of speech, but liable to get defiled by the slightest
        touch of an unchaste thought.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the greater
        the dangers that beset the path of mysticism, the deeper the interest
        which we feel in the mystic. In connection with the above-mentioned
        warning, Nachmanides cites the words from the Scriptures,
        <span class="tei tei-q">“But let not the priests and the people break
        through to come up unto the Lord, lest he break forth upon
        them”</span> (Exod. xix. 24). Nevertheless, when we read in the
        Talmud the famous story of the four Rabbis<a id="noteref_94" name=
        "noteref_94" href="#note_94"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">94</span></span></a> who went
        up into the <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
        "he"><span style="font-style: italic">Pardes</span></span>, or Garden
        of Mystical Contemplation, we do not <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page130">[pg 130]</span><a name="Pg130" id="Pg130" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> withhold our sympathy, either from Ben Azzai,
        who shot a glance and died, or from Ben Zoma, who shot a glance and
        was struck (in his mind). Nay, we feel the greatest admiration for
        these daring spirits, who, in their passionate attempt to
        <span class="tei tei-q">“break through”</span> the veil before the
        Infinite, hazarded their lives, and even that which is dearer than
        life, their minds, for a single glance. And did R. Meir deny his
        sympathies even to Other One or Elisha ben Abuyah, who <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“cut down the plants”</span>? He is said to have heard a
        voice from heaven, <span class="tei tei-q">“Return, oh backsliding
        children, except Other One,”</span> which prevented his repentance.
        Poor fallen Acher, he mistook hell for heaven. But do not the
        struggle and despair which led to this unfortunate confusion rather
        plead for our commiseration?</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Nachmanides,
        however, in his gentle way, did not mean to storm heaven. Like R.
        Akiba, <span class="tei tei-q">“he entered in peace, and departed in
        peace.”</span> And it was by this peacefulness of his nature that he
        gained an influence over posterity which is equalled only by that of
        Maimonides. <span class="tei tei-q">“If he was not a profound
        thinker,”</span> like the author of the <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Guide of the
        Perplexed</span></span>, he had that which is next best—<span class=
        "tei tei-q">“he felt profoundly.”</span> Some writers of a rather
        reactionary character even went so far as to assign to him a higher
        place than to Maimonides. This is unjust. What a blank would there
        have been in Jewish thought but for Maimonides' great work, on which
        the noblest thinkers of Israel fed for centuries! As long as Job and
        Ecclesiastes hold their proper place in the Bible, and the Talmud
        contains hundreds of passages suggesting difficulties relating to
        such problems as the creation of the world, God's exact relation to
        it, the origin of evil, free will and predestination, <span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="page131">[pg 131]</span><a name="Pg131" id="Pg131"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> none will persuade me that philosophy
        does not form an integral part of Jewish tradition, which, in its
        historical developments, took the shape which Maimonides and his
        successors gave to it. If Maimonides' <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Guide</span></span>,
        which he considered as an interpretation of the Bible and of many
        strange sayings in the old Rabbinic homilies in the Talmud, is
        Aristotelian in its tone, so is tradition too; even the Talmud in
        many places betrays all sorts of foreign influences, and none would
        think of declaring it un-Jewish on this ground. I may also remark in
        passing that the certainty with which some writers deprecate the aids
        which religion may receive from philosophy is a little too hasty. For
        the question will always remain, What religion? The religion of R.
        Moses of Tachau or R. Joseph Jabez<a id="noteref_95" name=
        "noteref_95" href="#note_95"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">95</span></span></a> would
        certainly have been greatly endangered by the slightest touch of
        speculation, while that of Bachya,<a id="noteref_96" name=
        "noteref_96" href="#note_96"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">96</span></span></a>
        Maimonides, Jedaiah of Bedres, and Delmedigo undoubtedly received
        from philosophy its noblest support, and became intensified by the
        union.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But apart from
        that consideration, the sphere of the activity of these two leaders
        seems to have been so widely different that it is hardly just to
        consider them as antagonists, or at least to emphasise the antagonism
        too much. Maimonides wrote his chief work, the <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Guide</span></span>,
        for the few elect, who, like Ibn Tibbon<a id="noteref_97" name=
        "noteref_97" href="#note_97"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">97</span></span></a> for
        instance, would traverse whole continents if a single syllogism went
        wrong. And if he could be of use to one wise man of this stamp,
        Maimonides would do so at the risk of <span class="tei tei-q">“saying
        things unsuitable for ten thousand fools.”</span> But with
        Nachmanides, it would seem, it was these ten thousand who formed the
        main object of his tender care. They are, as we have seen, cultivated
        men, indeed <span class="tei tei-q">“students,”</span> having
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page132">[pg 132]</span><a name="Pg132"
        id="Pg132" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> enjoyed a proper education;
        but the happy times of abstract thinking have gone, and being under a
        perpetual strain of persecutions and cares, they long for the Sabbath
        and Festivals, which would bring them both bodily and spiritual
        recreation. They find no fault with religion, a false syllogism does
        not jar on their ears; what they are afraid of is that, being engaged
        as they are, all the six days of work, in their domestic affairs,
        religion may be too good a thing for them. <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“To appease their minds,”</span> to edify them, to make
        life more sweet and death less terrible to them, and to show them
        that even their weaknesses, as far as they are conditioned by nature,
        are not irreconcilable with a holy life, was what Nachmanides strove
        after. Now and then he permits them a glance into the mystical world
        in which he himself loved to move, but he does not care to stifle
        their senses into an idle contemplation, and passes quickly to some
        more practical application. To be sure, the tabernacle is nothing but
        a complete map of the superlunar world; but nevertheless its rather
        minute description is meant to teach us <span class="tei tei-q">“that
        God desires us to work.”</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This tendency
        toward being useful to the great majority of mankind may account for
        the want of consistency of which Nachmanides was so often accused. It
        is only the logician who can afford to be thoroughgoing in his
        theory, and even he would become most absurd and even dangerous but
        for the redeeming fact <span class="tei tei-q">“that men are better
        than their principles.”</span> But with Nachmanides these
        <span class="tei tei-q">“principles”</span> would have proved even
        more fatal. Could he, for instance, have upset authority in the face
        of the ten thousand? They need to be guided rather than to guide. But
        he does not want them to follow either the Gaon or <span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="page133">[pg 133]</span><a name="Pg133" id="Pg133"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> anybody else slavishly, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“the gates of wisdom never having been shut,”</span>
        whilst on the other hand he hints to them that there is something
        divine in every man, which places him at least on the same high level
        with any authority. Take another instance—his wavering attitude
        between the Maimonists and the Anti-Maimonists, for which he was
        often censured. Apart from other reasons, to which I have pointed
        above, might he not have felt that, in spite of his personal
        admiration for Maimonides' genius, he had no right to put himself
        entirely on the side where there was little room for the ten thousand
        who were entrusted to his guidance, whilst the French Rabbis, with
        all their prejudices and intolerance, would never deny their
        sympathies to simple emotional folk?</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This tender and
        absorbing care for the people in general may also account for the
        fact that we do not know of a single treatise by Nachmanides of a
        purely Cabbalistic character in the style of the <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Book of
        Weight</span></span>, by Moses de Leon, or the <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Orchard</span></span>,
        by R. Moses Cordovora, or the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Tree of Life</span></span> by R. Isaac
        Loria.<a id="noteref_98" name="noteref_98" href=
        "#note_98"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">98</span></span></a> The
        story that attributes to him the discovery of the <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zohar</span></span> in
        a cave in Palestine, from whence he sent it to Catalonia, needs as
        little refutation as the other story connected with his conversion to
        the Cabbalah, which is even more silly and of such a nature as not to
        bear repetition. The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Lilac of Mysteries</span></span><a id=
        "noteref_99" name="noteref_99" href="#note_99"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">99</span></span></a> and
        other mystical works passed also for a long time under his name, but
        their claim to this honour has been entirely disproved by the
        bibliographers, and they rank now among the <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">pseudepigraphica</span></span>. It is true that
        R. Nissim, of Gerona, said of Nachmanides that he was too much
        addicted to the belief in the Cabbalah, and as a fellow-countryman he
        may have had some personal <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page134">[pg
        134]</span><a name="Pg134" id="Pg134" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        knowledge about the matter. But as far as his writings go, this
        belief finds expression only in incidental remarks and occasional
        citations from the Bahir,<a id="noteref_100" name="noteref_100" href=
        "#note_100"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">100</span></span></a> which
        he never thrusts upon the reader. It was chiefly when philosophy
        called in question his deep sympathies with even lower humanity, and
        threatened to withdraw them from those ennobling influences under
        which he wanted to keep them, that he asserted his mystical
        theories.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Nachmanides'
        inconsistency has also proved beneficial in another respect. For
        mysticism has, by its over-emphasising of the divine in man, shown a
        strong tendency to remove God altogether and replace Him by the
        creature of His hands. Witness only the theological bubble of
        Shabbethai Tsebi—happily it burst quickly enough—which resulted in
        mere idolatry (in more polite language, Hero Worship) on the one
        side, and in the grossest antinomianism on the other. Nachmanides,
        however, with a happy inconsistency, combined with the belief of
        man's origin in God, a not less strong conviction of man's liability
        to sin, of the fact that he <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">does</span></em> sin—even the patriarchs were
        not free from it, as we have seen above—and that this sin <em class=
        "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">does</span></em>
        alienate man from God. This healthy control over man's extravagant
        idea of his own species was with Nachmanides also a fruit of the
        Torah, within the limits of which everything must move, the mystic
        and his aspirations included, whilst its fair admixture of 365
        <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Do
        not's</span></em> with 248 <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Do's</span></em> preserved him from that
        <span class="tei tei-q">“holy doing nothing”</span> which so many
        mystics indulged in, and made his a most active life.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Much of this
        activity was displayed in Palestine, <span class="tei tei-q">“the
        land to which the providence of God is especially attached,”</span>
        and which was, as with R. Judah Hallevi, always <span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="page135">[pg 135]</span><a name="Pg135" id="Pg135"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> <span class="tei tei-q">“his ideal
        home.”</span> There he not only completed his <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Commentary on the
        Pentateuch</span></span>, but also erected synagogues, and engaged in
        organising communities, whose tone he tried to elevate both by his
        lectures and by his sermons. His career in Palestine was not a long
        one, for he lived there only about three years, and in 1270 he must
        already have been dead. A pretty legend narrates that when he
        emigrated to Palestine his pupils asked him to give them a sign
        enabling them to ascertain the day of his death. He answered them
        that on that day a rift in the shape of a lamp would be seen in the
        tombstone of his mother. After three years a pupil suddenly noticed
        this rift, when the mourning over the Rabbi began. Thus, stone, or
        anything else earthly, breaks finally, and the life of the master
        passes into light.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What life meant to
        him, how deeply he was convinced that there is no other life but that
        originating in God, how deeply stirred his soul was by the
        consciousness of sin, what agonies the thought of the alienation from
        God caused him, how he felt that there is nothing left to him but to
        throw himself upon the mercy of God, and how he rejoiced in the hope
        of a final reunion with Him—of all these sentiments we find the best
        expression in the following religious poem, with which this paper may
        conclude. Nachmanides composed it in Hebrew, and it is still
        preserved in some rituals as a hymn, recited on the Day of Atonement.
        It is here given in the English translation of Mrs. Henry
        Lucas.<a id="noteref_101" name="noteref_101" href=
        "#note_101"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">101</span></span></a></p>

        <div class="block tei tei-quote" style=
        "margin-right: 3.60em; margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em">
        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 0.90em; margin-bottom: 0.90em">
            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Ere time began, ere age to age had
              thrilled,</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">I waited in his storehouse, as he
              willed;</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">He gave me being, but, my years
              fulfilled,</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style=
            "text-align: left; margin-left: 3.60em">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">I shall be summoned back before
              the King.</span>
            </div>
          </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page136">[pg 136]</span><a name=
          "Pg136" id="Pg136" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

          <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
          "margin-top: 0.90em; margin-bottom: 0.90em">
            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">He called the hidden to the light
              of day,</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">To right and left, each side the
              fountain lay,</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">From out the stream and down the
              steps, the way</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style=
            "text-align: left; margin-left: 3.60em">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">That led me to the garden of the
              King.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
          "margin-top: 0.90em; margin-bottom: 0.90em">
            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Thou gavest me a light my path to
              guide,</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">To prove my heart's recesses still
              untried;</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">And as I went, thy voice in
              warning cried:</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style=
            "text-align: left; margin-left: 3.60em">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">"Child! fear thou him who is thy
              God and King!"</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
          "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em">
            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">True weight and measure learned my
              heart from thee;</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">If blessings follow, then what joy
              for me!</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">If nought but sin, all mine the
              shame must be,</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style=
            "text-align: left; margin-left: 3.60em">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">For that was not determined by the
              King.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
          "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em">
            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">I hasten, trembling, to confess
              the whole</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Of my transgressions, ere I reach
              the goal</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Where mine own words must witness
              'gainst my soul,</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style=
            "margin-left: 3.60em; text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">And who dares doubt the writing of
              the King?</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
          "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em">
            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Erring, I wandered in the
              wilderness,</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">In passion's grave nigh sinking
              powerless;</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Now deeply I repent, in sore
              distress,</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style=
            "text-align: left; margin-left: 3.60em">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">That I kept not the statutes of
              the King!</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
          "margin-top: 0.90em; margin-bottom: 0.90em">
            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">With worldly longings was my bosom
              fraught,</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Earth's idle toys and follies all
              I sought;</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Ah! when he judges joys so dearly
              bought,</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style=
            "margin-left: 3.60em; text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">How greatly shall I fear my Lord
              and King!</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
          "margin-top: 0.90em; margin-bottom: 0.90em">
            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Now conscience-stricken, humbled
              to the dust,</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Doubting himself, in thee alone
              his trust,</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">He shrinks in terror back, for God
              is just—</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style=
            "text-align: left; margin-left: 3.60em">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">How can a sinner hope to reach the
              King?</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
          "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em">
            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Oh, be thy mercy in the balance
              laid,</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">To hold thy servant's sins more
              lightly weighed,</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">When, his confession penitently
              made,</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style=
            "text-align: left; margin-left: 3.60em">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">He answers for his guilt before
              the King.</span>
            </div>
          </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page137">[pg 137]</span><a name=
          "Pg137" id="Pg137" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

          <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
          "margin-top: 0.90em; margin-bottom: 0.90em">
            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Thine is the love, O God, and
              thine the grace,</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">That folds the sinner in its mild
              embrace;</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Thine the forgiveness, bridging
              o'er the space</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style=
            "text-align: left; margin-left: 3.60em">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">'Twixt man's works and the task
              set by the King.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
          "margin-top: 0.90em; margin-bottom: 0.90em">
            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Unheeding all my sins, I cling to
              thee;</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">I know that mercy shall thy
              footstool be:</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Before I call, oh, do thou answer
              me,</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style=
            "margin-left: 3.60em; text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">For nothing dare I claim of thee,
              my King!</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
          "margin-top: 0.90em; margin-bottom: 0.90em">
            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">O thou, who makest guilt to
              disappear,</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">My help, my hope, my rock, I will
              not fear;</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Though thou the body hold in
              dungeon drear,</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style=
            "text-align: left; margin-left: 3.60em">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">The soul has found the palace of
              the King!</span>
            </div>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-variant: small-caps">Postscript</span></span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The third letter
        of Nachmanides to which I have alluded above, is embodied in the
        following will by R. Solomon, son of the martyr Isaac. Neither the
        date nor the country of the testator is known, but style and language
        make it probable that he was a Spanish Jew, and lived in the
        fourteenth century. I give here a translation from the whole document
        as it is to be found in the Manuscripts.</p>

        <div class="block tei tei-quote" style=
        "margin-top: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-right: 3.60em; margin-bottom: 1.80em">
        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style=
        "font-size: 90%">These are the regulations which I, Solomon, the son
        of the martyr, Rabbi Isaac, the son of R. Zadok, of blessed memory,
        draw up for myself. That as long as I am in good health, and free
        from accident, and think of it, I shall not eat before I have studied
        one page of the Talmud or of its commentaries. Should I transgress
        this rule intentionally, I must not drink wine on that day, or I
        shall pay half a</span> <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Zehub</span></span><a id=
        "noteref_102" name="noteref_102" href="#note_102"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">102</span></span></a>
        <span style="font-size: 90%">to charity. Again, that I shall every
        week read the Lesson twice in the Hebrew text, and once in the
        Aramaic version. Should I intentionally omit completing the Lesson as
        above, then I must pay two</span> <span class=
        "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Zehubs</span></span>
          <span style="font-size: 90%">to charity. Again, that I shall every
          Sabbath take three meals, consisting of bread or fruit. Should I
          omit to do so, I must give in charity half a</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Zehub</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">.</span>
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page138">[pg 138]</span><a name=
          "Pg138" id="Pg138" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style=
          "font-size: 90%">Again, in order to subdue my appetites, and not to
          enjoy in this world more than is necessary for the maintenance of
          my body, I must not eat at one meal more than one course of meat,
          and not more than two courses altogether; nor must I drink more
          than two cups of wine at one meal, apart from the blessing-cup
          (over which grace is said), except on Sabbath, Festivals, Chanukah
          (the Maccabean Dedication Feast), New Moon, and at other religious
          meals (for instance, wedding-dinners and similar festive
          occasions). Again, I must not have any regular meal on the day
          preceding Sabbath or Festivals. I must not have during the day more
          than one course, so that I shall enter upon the holy day with a
          good appetite. Should I transgress this resolve intentionally I
          shall have to fast a day, or to pay two</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Zehubs</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">.
          Again, that I shall not eat the fish called</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">burbot</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,</span><a id="noteref_103"
          name="noteref_103" href="#note_103"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">103</span></span></a>
          <span style="font-size: 90%">if I think of it. Again, even on the
          above-mentioned days, I must not eat more than three courses at a
          meal, nor drink more than three cups of wine, exclusive of the
          blessing-cup. Again, ... I must not swear by God, nor mention the
          name of Heaven without a purpose, nor curse any man in the name of
          God. Should I, God forbid, transgress it, I must not drink more
          than one cup of wine on that day exclusive of the blessing-cup.
          Should I, however, transgress this after dinner, I must abstain
          from wine the following day. Should I transgress it, I have to pay
          half a</span> <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Zehub</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">.
          Again, that I shall get up every night to praise God, to supplicate
          for His mercy, and to confess. On those nights when confession is
          not to be said (Sabbaths and Festivals), I shall say hymns and
          psalms. This I shall do when I am in my house, and in good health,
          free from any accident. Should I transgress it, I shall drink not
          more than one cup of wine the following day, except the
          blessing-cup. I again take upon myself to give in charity the
          following proportion of my expenditure—from each dress which I
          shall have made for myself or for one member of my family, costing
          more than ten</span> <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Zehubs</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,
          I must pay one</span> <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Pashut</span></span><a id=
          "noteref_104" name="noteref_104" href="#note_104"><span class=
          "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
          "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">104</span></span></a>
          <span style="font-size: 90%">for each ten</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Zehubs</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">.
          Again, if I should buy an animal, or a slave, or a female slave, or
          ground, that I shall also pay at the same rate. And if I shall buy
          clothes for sale, called</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">fashas</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,
          I shall pay two</span> <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Pashuts</span></span>
          <span style="font-size: 90%">for each garment. As often as I have
          occasion to say the benediction of thanksgivings</span>
          <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page139">[pg 139]</span><a name=
          "Pg139" id="Pg139" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style=
          "font-size: 90%">for having escaped danger I shall pay a</span>
          <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Zehub</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,
          except when I am travelling [also involving danger in those
          times!], in which case I shall have to pay a</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Zehub</span></span>
          <span style="font-size: 90%">on my arrival, and two</span>
          <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Pashuts</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">daily
          during the journey. Again, from every kind of fish bought for me,
          costing more than a</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Zehub</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">,
          I shall pay a</span> <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Pashut</span></span>
          <span style="font-size: 90%">for each</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Zehub</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">.
          And also, if I shall be deemed worthy by God to marry my children,
          and to be present at their wedding, to cause them to give to the
          poor from the dowry brought to them by their wives, whether in
          money or in kind, at the rate of one per cent. If God will find me
          worthy of having sons, I must give in charity according to my means
          at the time.</span></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style=
          "font-size: 90%">I shall also, between New Year and the Day of
          Atonement in each year, calculate my profits during the past year
          and (after deducting expenses) give a tithe thereof to the poor.
          Should I be unable to make an accurate calculation, then I shall
          give approximately. This tithe I shall put aside, together with the
          other money for religious (charitable) purpose, to dispose of it as
          I shall deem best. I also propose to have the liberty of employing
          the money in any profitable speculation with a view to augmenting
          it. But in respect of all I have written above I shall not hold
          myself guilty if I transgress, if such transgression be the result
          of forgetfulness; but in order to guard against it, I shall read
          this through weekly.</span></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style=
          "font-size: 90%">I also command my children to take upon themselves
          as many of the above regulations as may be in their power to
          observe, and also to bind them (</span><span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span>
          <span style="font-size: 90%">the regulations), from generation to
          generation, upon their children. And he who carries them out, and
          even adds to them, at pain of discomfort to himself, shall merit a
          special blessing. And this is the text of the will which I, the
          above-mentioned Solomon, draw up for my children, may God preserve
          them. That they shall pray thrice daily, and endeavour always to
          utter their prayers with devotion. Again, that this prayer shall be
          said in the</span> <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign"
          xml:lang="he"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Beth
          Hammidrash</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%">, or in the
          synagogue together with the congregation. Again, that they shall
          apply all their powers to maintain the synagogues and the houses of
          study, which our ancestors have built, as well as to continue the
          endowments established by my ancestors and myself. They must always
          endeavour</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page140">[pg
          140]</span><a name="Pg140" id="Pg140" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">to imitate them,
          so that goodness shall never cease from among them. Again, that
          they shall always have a chair on which a volume of the Talmud, or
          some other Talmudical work, shall lie; so that they shall always
          open a book when they come home. At least, they shall read in any
          book they like four lines before taking their meal. Again, that
          they shall every week read the Lesson twice in the Hebrew text, and
          once in the Aramaic version. Again, to take three meals on the
          Sabbath....</span></p>

          <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style=
          "font-size: 90%">Again, that they shall be always modest, merciful,
          and charitable, for these are the qualities by which the children
          of Israel are known. Let also all their thoughts and meditations be
          always directed to the service of the Lord, and be as charitable
          and benevolent as possible, for this is all that remains to man of
          his labour. They shall also endeavour to regulate their diet
          according to the rules laid down by Rabbi Moses (b. Maimon, or
          Maimonides), so as to fulfil the words of Scripture:</span>
          <span class="tei tei-q"><span style=
          "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">The righteous
          eateth to the satisfying of his soul.</span><span style=
          "font-size: 90%">”</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">And
          let them always be careful not to take the name of God in vain, to
          be honest in all business transactions, and let their yea be always
          yea. They shall always be under the obligation to train their
          children to the Study of the Torah, but one shall devote his life
          exclusively to the study thereof. And it shall be incumbent upon
          his brothers to support this one, and to invest his moneys, and to
          provide for him that he and his family may live respectably, so
          that he be not distracted by worldly cares from his studies. Let
          also the elder love the younger brothers as their own children, and
          the younger respect the elder as a parent. Thus they may always
          bear in mind that they are of a God-fearing family. Let them love
          and honour scholars, thus to merit the honour of having scholars
          for their sons and sons-in-law. This will they shall themselves
          read weekly, and shall also make it incumbent upon their children,
          from generation to generation, to read weekly, in order to fulfil
          what is written (Gen. xviii. 19),</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style=
          "font-size: 90%">For I know him that he will command his
          children,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span>
          <span style="font-size: 90%">etc., and also the words of Isaiah
          (lix. 21),</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style=
          "font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">And this is
          my covenant,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span>
          <span style="font-size: 90%">etc. But as often as they shall read
          this will, they shall also read the two letters below written,
          which Rabbi Moses ben Nachman sent to his sons, with a view of
          being serviceable to them in many respects.</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-pb" id="page141">[pg 141]</span><a name="Pg141" id="Pg141"
          class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-size: 90%">Should,
          heaven forbid, they be by any sad accident prevented from
          fulfilling the injunctions above laid down, they must fine
          themselves by not drinking wine on that day, or by eating one
          course less at the dinner, or by giving some fine in
          charity....</span></p>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And this is the
        letter which the above-mentioned Rabbi sent from the Holy Land to
        Castile, when his son was staying before the king (in his
        service):—</p>

        <div class="block tei tei-quote" style=
        "margin-top: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-right: 3.60em; margin-bottom: 1.80em">
        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span class=
        "tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style=
        "font-size: 90%">... May God bless you and preserve you from sin and
        punishment. Behold, our master, King David, had a son, wise and of an
        understanding heart, like unto whom there was never one before or
        after. Nevertheless he said to him (1 Kings ii. 2):</span>
        <span class="tei tei-q"><span style=
        "font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style="font-size: 90%">And keep the
        charge of the Lord thy God,</span><span style=
        "font-size: 90%">’</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">etc. He
        also said to him:</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style=
        "font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style="font-size: 90%">And thou, my
        son, know the God of thy father</span><span style=
        "font-size: 90%">’</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">(1
        Chron. xxviii. 9). Now, my son, if thou wilt measure thyself with
        Solomon, thou wilt find thyself a worm—not a man, merely an insect;
        nevertheless, if thou wilt seek God, he will make thee great; and if
        thou wilt forsake him, thou wilt be turned out and forsaken. My son,
        be careful that thou read the</span> <span lang="he" class=
        "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style=
        "font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Shema</span></span><a id=
        "noteref_105" name="noteref_105" href="#note_105"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">105</span></span></a>
        <span style="font-size: 90%">morning and evening, as well as that
        thou say the daily prayers. Have always with thee a Pentateuch
        written correctly, and read therein the Lesson for each
        Sabbath....</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style=
        "font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Cast thy burden
        upon the Lord,</span><span style="font-size: 90%">’</span></span>
        <span style="font-size: 90%">for the thing which thou believest far
        from thee is often very near unto thee. Know, again, that thou art
        not master over thy words, nor hast power over thy hand; but
        everything is in the hand of the Lord, who formeth thy heart.... Be
        especially careful to keep aloof from the women [of the court?]. Know
        that our God hates immorality, and Balaam could in no other way
        injure Israel than by inciting them to unchastity. [Here come many
        quotations from Malachi and Ezra.]... My son, remember me always, and
        let the image of my countenance be never absent from before thine
        eyes. Love not that which I hate.... Let the words of the Psalmist be
        always upon thy lips,</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style=
        "font-size: 90%">‘</span><span style="font-size: 90%">I am a stranger
        in the earth: hide not thy commandments from me</span><span style=
        "font-size: 90%">’</span></span> <span style="font-size: 90%">(Ps.
        cxix. 19); and God, who is good and the dispenser of good, shall
        increase thy peace and prolong thy life in peace and happiness, and
        promote thy honour according to thy wish and the wish of thy father
        who begat thee, Moses ben Nachman.</span><span style=
        "font-size: 90%">”</span></span></p>
        </div>
      </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page142">[pg 142]</span><a name=
      "Pg142" id="Pg142" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
      <hr class="page" />

      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
      "margin-top: 5.00em; margin-bottom: 5.00em">
        <a name="toc13" id="toc13"></a> <a name="pdf14" id="pdf14"></a>

        <h1 class="tei tei-head" style=
        "margin-top: 3.46em; text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em">
        <span style="font-size: 173%">V. A Jewish Boswell</span></h1>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There is a saying
        in the Talmud <span class="tei tei-q">“Nothing exists of which there
        is not some indication in the Torah.”</span> These words are often
        quoted, and some modern authors have pressed them so far as to find
        even the discoveries of Columbus and the inventions of Watt and
        Stephenson indicated in the Law. This is certainly misapplied
        ingenuity. But it is hardly an exaggeration to maintain that there is
        no noble manifestation of real religion, no expression of real piety,
        reverence, and devotion, to which Jewish literature would not offer a
        fair parallel.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus it will
        hardly be astonishing to hear that Jewish literature has its Boswell
        to show, more than three centuries before the Scottish gentleman came
        to London to admire his Johnson, and more than four centuries before
        the Sage of Chelsea delivered his lectures on Hero Worship. And this
        Jewish Boswell was guided only by the motives suggested to him in the
        old Rabbinic literature. In this literature the reverence for the
        great man, and the absorption of one's whole self in him, went so far
        that one Rabbi declared that the whole world was only created to
        serve such a man as company.<a id="noteref_106" name="noteref_106"
        href="#note_106"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">106</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Again, the fact
        that, in the language of the Rabbis, the term for studying the Law
        and discussing it is <span class="tei tei-q">“to <span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="page143">[pg 143]</span><a name="Pg143" id="Pg143"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> attend”</span> or rather <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“to serve the disciples of the Wise”</span> may also have
        led people to the important truth that the great man is not a
        lecturing machine, but a sort of living Law himself. <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“When the man,”</span> said one Rabbi, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“has wholly devoted himself to the Torah, and thoroughly
        identified himself with it, it becomes almost his own Torah.”</span>
        Thus people have not only to listen to his words but to observe his
        whole life, and to profit from all his actions and movements.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This was what the
        Jewish Boswell sought to do. His name was Rabbi Solomon, of St. Goar,
        a small town on the Rhine, while the name of the master whom he
        served was R. Jacob, the Levite, better known by his initials
        Maharil, who filled the office of Chief Rabbi in Mayence and Worms
        successively. The main activity of Maharil falls in the first three
        decades of the fifteenth century. Those were troublous times for a
        Rabbi. For the preceding century with its persecution and
        sufferings—one has only to think of the Black Death and its terrible
        consequences for the Jews—led to the destruction of the great
        Schools, the decay of the study of the Law, and to the dissolution of
        many congregations. Those which remained lost all touch with each
        other, so that almost every larger Jewish community had its own
        <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Minhag</span></span> or ritual custom.<a id=
        "noteref_107" name="noteref_107" href="#note_107"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">107</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was Maharil who
        brought some order into this chaos, and in the course of time his
        influence asserted itself so strongly that the rules observed by him
        in the performing of religious ceremonies were accepted by the great
        majority of the Jewish communities. Thus the personality of Maharil
        himself became a standing Minhag, suppressing all the other Minhagim
        (customs).</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page144">[pg
        144]</span><a name="Pg144" id="Pg144" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But there must
        have been something very strong and very great about the personality
        of the man who could succeed in such an arduous task. For we must not
        forget that the Minhag or custom in its decay degenerates into a kind
        of religious fashion, the worst disease to which religion is liable,
        and the most difficult to cure. It is therefore an irreparable loss
        both for Jewish literature and for Jewish history, that the greatest
        part of Maharil's posthumous writings are no longer extant, so that
        our knowledge about him is very small. But the little we know of him
        we owe chiefly to the communicativeness of his servant, the Solomon
        of St. Goar whom I mentioned above.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Solomon not only
        gave us the <span class="tei tei-q">“Customs”</span> of his master,
        but also observed him closely in all his movements, and
        conscientiously wrote down all that he saw and heard, under the name
        of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Collectanea</span></span>. It seems that the
        bulk of these <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Collectanea</span></span> was also lost. But in
        the fragments that we still possess we are informed, among other
        things, how Maharil addressed his wife, how he treated his pupils,
        how careful he was in the use of his books, and even how clean his
        linen was. Is this not out-Boswelling Boswell?</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The most striking
        point of agreement between the Boswell of the fifteenth and him of
        the eighteenth century, is that they both use the same passage from
        the Talmud to excuse the interest in trifles which their labours of
        love betrayed. Thus Solomon prefaces his <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Collectanea</span></span> with the following
        words: <span class="tei tei-q">“It is written, His leaf shall not
        wither. These words were explained by our Sages to mean that even the
        idle talk of the disciples of the wise deserves a study. Upon this
        interpretation I have relied. In my love to R. Jacob the Levite, I
        collected everything about him. I did not refuse even small things,
        though many <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page145">[pg
        145]</span><a name="Pg145" id="Pg145" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        derided me. Everything I wrote down, for such was the desire of my
        heart.”</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus far Solomon.
        Now, if we turn to the introduction to Boswell's <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life of
        Johnson</span></span>, we read the following sentence: <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“For this almost superstitious reverence, I have found
        very old and venerable authority quoted by our great modern prelate,
        Secker, in whose tenth sermon there is the following passage:
        <span class="tei tei-q">‘Rabbi Kimchi, a noted Jewish commentator who
        lived about five hundred years ago, explains that passage in the
        first Psalm, <span class="tei tei-q">“His leaf also shall not
        wither”</span> from Rabbins yet older than himself, that even the
        idle talk, so he expressed it, of a good man ought to be
        regarded.’</span> ”</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Croker's note to
        this passage sounds rather strange. This editor says: <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Kimchi was a Spanish Rabbi, who died in 1240. One
        wonders that Secker's good sense should have condescended to quote
        this far-fetched and futile interpretation of the simple and
        beautiful metaphor, by which the Psalmist illustrates the prosperity
        of the righteous man.”</span> Now Kimchi died at least five years
        earlier than Croker states, but dates, we know from Macaulay's essay
        on the subject, were not Croker's strong point. But one can hardly
        forgive the editor of Boswell this lack of sympathy. Had he known
        what strong affinity there was between his most Christian author and
        the humble Jew Solomon, he would have less resented this
        condescension of Archbishop Secker.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As for the Jewish
        Boswell himself, we know very little about him. The only place in
        which he speaks about his own person is that in which he derives his
        pedigree from R. Eleazar ben Samuel Hallevi (died 1357), and says
        that he was generally called <span class="tei tei-q">“Der gute (the
        good) R. Salman.”</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page146">[pg
        146]</span><a name="Pg146" id="Pg146" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> He
        well deserved this appellation. In his Will we find the following
        injunction to his children: <span class="tei tei-q">“Be honest, and
        conscientious in your dealing with men, with Jews as well as
        Gentiles, be kind and obliging to them; do not speak what is
        superfluous.”</span> And wisdom is surely rare enough to render
        inappropriate a charge of superfluousness against the work of those
        who in bygone times spent their energies in gathering the crumbs that
        fell from the tables of the wise.</p>
      </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page147">[pg 147]</span><a name=
      "Pg147" id="Pg147" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
      <hr class="page" />

      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
      "margin-top: 5.00em; margin-bottom: 5.00em">
        <a name="toc15" id="toc15"></a> <a name="pdf16" id="pdf16"></a>

        <h1 class="tei tei-head" style=
        "margin-top: 3.46em; text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em">
        <span style="font-size: 173%">VI. The Dogmas Of Judaism</span></h1>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The object of this
        essay is to say about the dogmas of Judaism a word which I think
        ought not to be left unsaid.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In speaking of
        dogmas it must be understood that Judaism does not ascribe to them
        any saving power. The belief in a dogma or a doctrine without abiding
        by its real or supposed consequences (<span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">e.g.</span></span> the
        belief in <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
        "la"><span style="font-style: italic">creatio ex nihilo</span></span>
        without keeping the Sabbath) is of no value. And the question about
        certain doctrines is not whether they possess or do not possess the
        desired charm against certain diseases of the soul, but whether they
        ought to be considered as characteristics of Judaism or not.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It must again be
        premised that the subject, which occupied the thoughts of the
        greatest and noblest Jewish minds for so many centuries, has been
        neglected for a comparatively long time. And this for various
        reasons. First, there is Mendelssohn's assertion, or supposed
        assertion, in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Jerusalem</span></span>, that Judaism has no
        dogmas—an assertion which has been accepted by the majority of modern
        Jewish theologians as the only dogma Judaism possesses. You can hear
        it pronounced in scores of Jewish pulpits; you can read it written in
        scores of Jewish books. To admit the possibility that Mendelssohn was
        in error was hardly permissible, especially for those with
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page148">[pg 148]</span><a name="Pg148"
        id="Pg148" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> whom he enjoys a certain
        infallibility. Nay, even the fact that he himself was not consistent
        in his theory, and on another occasion declared that Judaism
        <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">has</span></em> dogmas, only that they are purer
        and more in harmony with reason than those of other religions; or
        even the more important fact that he published a school-book for
        children, in which the so-called Thirteen Articles were embodied,
        only that instead of the formula <span class="tei tei-q">“I
        believe,”</span> he substituted <span class="tei tei-q">“I am
        convinced,”</span>—even such patent facts did not produce much effect
        upon many of our modern theologians.<a id="noteref_108" name=
        "noteref_108" href="#note_108"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">108</span></span></a> They
        were either overlooked or explained away so as to make them harmonise
        with the great dogma of dogmalessness. For it is one of the
        attributes of infallibility that the words of its happy possessor
        must always be reconcilable even when they appear to the eye of the
        unbeliever as gross contradictions.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another cause of
        the neglect into which the subject has fallen is that our century is
        an <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">historical</span></em> one. It is not only books
        that have their fate, but also whole sciences and literatures. In
        past times it was religious speculation that formed the favourite
        study of scholars, in our time it is history with its critical
        foundation on a sound philology. Now as these two most important
        branches of Jewish science were so long neglected—were perhaps never
        cultivated in the true meaning of the word, and as Jewish literature
        is so vast and Jewish history so far-reaching and eventful, we cannot
        wonder that these studies have absorbed the time and the labour of
        the greatest and best Jewish writers in this century.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There is, besides,
        a certain tendency in historical studies that is hostile to mere
        theological speculation. The historian deals with realities, the
        theologian with abstractions. <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page149">[pg 149]</span><a name="Pg149" id="Pg149" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> The latter likes to shape the universe after
        his system, and tells us how things <em class=
        "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ought to
        be</span></em>, the former teaches us how they <em class=
        "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">are</span></em> or
        <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">have
        been</span></em>, and the explanation he gives for their being so and
        not otherwise includes in most cases also a kind of justification for
        their existence. There is also the <span lang="la" class=
        "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">odium theologicum</span></span>, which has been
        the cause of so much misfortune that it is hated by the historian,
        whilst the superficial, rationalistic way in which the theologian
        manages to explain everything which does not suit his system is most
        repulsive to the critical spirit.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But it cannot be
        denied that this neglect has caused much confusion. Especially is
        this noticeable in England, which is essentially a theological
        country, and where people are but little prone to give up speculation
        about things which concern their most sacred interest and greatest
        happiness. Thus whilst we are exceedingly poor in all other branches
        of Jewish learning, we are comparatively rich in productions of a
        theological character. We have a superfluity of essays on such
        delicate subjects as eternal punishment, immortality of the soul, the
        day of judgment, etc., and many treatises on the definition of
        Judaism. But knowing little or nothing of the progress recently made
        in Jewish theology, of the many protests against all kinds of
        infallibility, whether canonised in this century or in olden times,
        we in England still maintain that Judaism has no dogmas as if nothing
        to the contrary had ever been said. We seek the foundation of Judaism
        in political economy, in hygiene, in everything except religion.
        Following the fashion of the day to esteem religion in proportion to
        its ability to adapt itself to every possible and impossible
        metaphysical and social system, we are <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page150">[pg 150]</span><a name="Pg150" id="Pg150" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> anxious to squeeze out of Judaism the last drop
        of faith and hope, and strive to make it so flexible that we can turn
        it in every direction which it is our pleasure to follow. But alas!
        the flexibility has progressed so far as to classify Judaism among
        the invertebrate species, the lowest order of living things. It
        strongly resembles a certain Christian school which addresses itself
        to the world in general and claims to satisfy everybody alike. It
        claims to be socialism for the adherents of Karl Marx and Lassalle,
        worship of man for the followers of Comte and St. Simon; it carefully
        avoids the word <span class="tei tei-q">“God”</span> for the comfort
        of agnostics and sceptics, whilst on the other hand it pretends to
        hold sway over paradise, hell, and immortality for the edification of
        believers. In such illusions many of our theologians delight. For
        illusions they are; you cannot be everything if you want to be
        anything. Moreover, illusions in themselves are bad enough, but we
        are menaced with what is still worse. Judaism, divested of every
        higher religious motive, is in danger of falling into gross
        materialism. For what else is the meaning of such declarations as
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Believe what you like, but conform to this
        or that mode of life”</span>; what else does it mean but <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“We cannot expect you to believe that the things you are
        bidden to do are commanded by a higher authority; there is not such a
        thing as belief, but you ought to do them for conventionalism or for
        your own convenience.”</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But both these
        motives—the good opinion of our neighbours, as well as our bodily
        health—have nothing to do with our nobler and higher sentiments, and
        degrade Judaism to a matter of expediency or diplomacy. Indeed,
        things have advanced so far that well-meaning but ill-advised writers
        even think to render a service to Judaism <span class="tei tei-pb"
        id="page151">[pg 151]</span><a name="Pg151" id="Pg151" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> by declaring it to be a kind of enlightened
        Hedonism, or rather a moderate Epicureanism.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I have no
        intention of here answering the question, What is Judaism? This
        question is not less perplexing than the problem, What is God's
        world? Judaism is also a great Infinite, composed of as many endless
        Units, the Jews. And these Unit-Jews have been, and are still,
        scattered through all the world, and have passed under an immensity
        of influences, good and bad. If so, how can we give an exact
        definition of the Infinite, called Judaism?</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But if there is
        anything sure, it is that the highest motives which worked through
        the history of Judaism are the strong belief in God and the unshaken
        confidence that at last this God, the God of Israel, will be the God
        of the whole world; or, in other words, Faith and Hope are the two
        most prominent characteristics of Judaism.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the following
        pages I shall try to give a short account of the manner in which
        these two principles of Judaism found expression, from the earliest
        times down to the age of Mendelssohn; that is, to present an outline
        of the history of Jewish Dogmas. First, a few observations on the
        position of the Bible and the Talmud in relation to our theme.
        Insufficient and poor as they may be in proportion to the importance
        of these two fundamental documents of Judaism, these remarks may
        nevertheless suggest a connecting link between the teachings of
        Jewish antiquity and those of Maimonides and his successors.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I begin with the
        Scriptures.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Bible itself
        hardly contains a command bidding us <em class=
        "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">to
        believe</span></em>. We are hardly ordered, <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">e.g.</span></span>, to
        believe in the existence of God. I say hardly, but I do not
        altogether deny the existence of such a command. It is true that we
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page152">[pg 152]</span><a name="Pg152"
        id="Pg152" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> do not find in the Scripture
        such words as: <span class="tei tei-q">“You are commanded to believe
        in the existence of God.”</span> Nor is any punishment assigned as
        awaiting him who denies it. Notwithstanding these facts, many Jewish
        authorities—among them such important men as Maimonides, R. Judah
        Hallevi, Nachmanides—perceive, in the first words of the Ten
        Commandments, <span class="tei tei-q">“I am the Lord thy God,”</span>
        the command to believe in His existence.<a id="noteref_109" name=
        "noteref_109" href="#note_109"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">109</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Be this as it may,
        there cannot be the shadow of a doubt that the Bible, in which every
        command is dictated by God, and in which all its heroes are the
        servants, the friends, or the ambassadors of God, presumes such a
        belief in every one to whom those laws are dictated, and these heroes
        address themselves. Nay, I think that the word <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“belief”</span> is not even adequate. In a world with so
        many visible facts and invisible causes, as life and death, growth
        and decay, light and darkness; in a world where the sun rises and
        sets; where the stars appear regularly; where heavy rains pour down
        from the sky, often accompanied by such grand phenomena as thunder
        and lightning; in a world full of such marvels, but into which no
        notion has entered of all our modern true or false explanations—who
        but God is behind all these things? <span class="tei tei-q">“Have the
        gates,”</span> asks God, <span class="tei tei-q">“have the gates of
        death been open to thee? or hast thou seen the doors of the shadow of
        death?... Where is the way where light dwelleth? and as for darkness,
        where is the place thereof?... Hath the rain a father? or who hath
        begotten the drops of dew?... Canst thou bind the sweet influences of
        Pleiades, or loose the bands of Orion?... Canst thou send lightnings,
        that they may go, and say unto thee, Here we are?”</span> (Job
        xxxviii.). Of all these wonders, God <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page153">[pg 153]</span><a name="Pg153" id="Pg153" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> was not merely the <span lang="la" class=
        "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">prima causa</span></span>; they were the result
        of His direct action, without any intermediary causes. And it is as
        absurd to say that the ancient world believed in God, as for a future
        historian to assert of the nineteenth century that it believed in the
        effects of electricity. We <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">see</span></em> them, and so antiquity
        <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">saw</span></em> God. If there was any danger, it
        lay not in the denial of the existence of a God, but in having a
        wrong belief. Belief in as many gods as there are manifestations in
        nature, the investing of them with false attributes, the
        misunderstanding of God's relation to men, lead to immorality. Thus
        the greater part of the laws and teachings of the Bible are either
        directed against polytheism, with all its low ideas of God, or rather
        of gods; or they are directed towards regulating God's relation to
        men. Man is a servant of God, or His prophet, or even His friend. But
        this relationship man obtains only by his conduct. Nay, all man's
        actions are carefully regulated by God, and connected with His
        holiness. The 19th chapter of Leviticus, which is considered by the
        Rabbis as the portion of the Law in which the most important articles
        of the Torah are embodied, is headed, <span class="tei tei-q">“Ye
        shall be holy, for I the Lord your own God am holy.”</span> And each
        law therein occurring, even those which concern our relations to each
        other, is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">not</span></em> founded on utilitarian reasons,
        but is ordained because the opposite of it is an offence to the
        holiness of God, and profanes His creatures, whom He desired to be as
        holy as He is.<a id="noteref_110" name="noteref_110" href=
        "#note_110"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">110</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus the whole
        structure of the Bible is built upon the visible fact of the
        existence of a God, and upon the belief in the relation of God to
        men, especially to Israel. In spite of all that has been said to the
        contrary, the Bible <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">does</span></em> lay stress upon belief, where
        belief is required. The <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page154">[pg
        154]</span><a name="Pg154" id="Pg154" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        unbelievers are rebuked again and again. <span class="tei tei-q">“For
        all this they sinned still, and believed not for His wondrous
        work,”</span> complains Asaph (Ps. lxxviii. 32). And belief is
        praised in such exalted words as, <span class="tei tei-q">“Thus saith
        the Lord, I remember thee, the kindness of thy youth, the love of
        thine espousals, when thou wentest after me in the wilderness, in a
        land that was not sown”</span> (Jer. ii. 2). The Bible, especially
        the books of the prophets, consists, in great part, of promises for
        the future, which the Rabbis justly termed the <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Consolations.”</span><a id="noteref_111" name=
        "noteref_111" href="#note_111"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">111</span></span></a> For our
        purpose, it is of no great consequence to examine what future the
        prophets had in view, whether an immediate future or one more remote,
        at the end of days. At any rate, they inculcated hope and confidence
        that God would bring to pass a better time. I think that even the
        most advanced Bible critic—provided he is not guided by some modern
        Aryan reasons—must perceive in such passages as, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“The Lord shall reign for ever and ever,”</span>
        <span class="tei tei-q">“The Lord shall rejoice in his works,”</span>
        and many others, a hope for more than the establishment of the
        <span class="tei tei-q">“national Deity among his votaries in
        Palestine.”</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We have now to
        pass over an interval of many centuries, the length of which depends
        upon the views held as to the date of the close of the canon, and
        examine what the Rabbis, the representatives of the prophets, thought
        on this subject. Not that the views of the author of the <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Wisdom of
        Solomon</span></span>, of Philo and Aristobulus, and many others of
        the Judæo-Alexandrian school would be uninteresting for us. But
        somehow their influence on Judaism was only a passing one, and their
        doctrines never became authoritative in the Synagogue. We must here
        confine ourselves to those who, even by the <span class="tei tei-pb"
        id="page155">[pg 155]</span><a name="Pg155" id="Pg155" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> testimony of their bitterest enemies, occupied
        the seat of Moses.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The successors of
        the prophets had to deal with new circumstances, and accordingly
        their teachings were adapted to the wants of their times. As the
        result of manifold foreign influences, the visible fact of the
        existence of God as manifested in the Bible had been somewhat
        obscured. Prophecy ceased, and the Holy Spirit which inspired a few
        chosen ones took its place. Afterwards this influence was reduced to
        the hearing of a Voice from Heaven, which was audible to still fewer.
        On the other hand the Rabbis had this advantage that they were not
        called upon to fight against idolatry as their predecessors the
        prophets had been. The evil inclination to worship idols was, as the
        Talmud expresses it allegorically, killed by the Men of the Great
        Synagogue, or, as we should put it, it was suppressed by the
        sufferings of the captivity in Babylon. This change of circumstances
        is marked by the following fact:—Whilst the prophets mostly
        considered idolatry as the cause of all sin, the Rabbis show a strong
        tendency to ascribe sin to a defect in, or a want of, belief on the
        part of the sinner. They teach that Adam would not have sinned unless
        he had first denied the <span class="tei tei-q">“Root of all”</span>
        (or the main principle), namely, the belief in the Omnipresence of
        God. Of Cain they say that before murdering his brother he declared:
        <span class="tei tei-q">“There is no judgment, there is no judge,
        there is no world to come, and there is no reward for the just, and
        no punishment for the wicked.”</span><a id="noteref_112" name=
        "noteref_112" href="#note_112"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">112</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In another place
        we read that the commission of a sin in secret is an impertinent
        attempt by the doer to oust God from the world. But if unbelief is
        considered as <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page156">[pg
        156]</span><a name="Pg156" id="Pg156" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the
        root of all evil, we may expect that the reverse of it, a perfect
        faith, would be praised in the most exalted terms. So we read: Faith
        is so great that the man who possesses it may hope to become a worthy
        vessel of the Holy Spirit, or, as we should express it, that he may
        hope to obtain by this power the highest degree of communion with his
        Maker. The Patriarch Abraham, notwithstanding all his other virtues,
        only became <span class="tei tei-q">“the possessor of both
        worlds”</span> by the merit of his strong faith. Nay, even the
        fulfilment of a single law when accompanied by true faith is,
        according to the Rabbis, sufficient to bring man nigh to God. And the
        future redemption is also conditional on the degree of faith shown by
        Israel.<a id="noteref_113" name="noteref_113" href=
        "#note_113"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">113</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It has often been
        asked what the Rabbis would have thought of a man who fulfils every
        commandment of the Torah, but does not believe that this Torah was
        given by God, or that there exists a God at all. It is indeed very
        difficult to answer this question with any degree of certainty. In
        the time of the Rabbis people were still too simple for such a
        diplomatic religion, and conformity in the modern sense was quite an
        unknown thing. But from the foregoing remarks it would seem that the
        Rabbis could not conceive such a monstrosity as atheistic orthodoxy.
        For, as we have seen, the Rabbis thought that unbelief must needs end
        in sin, for faith is the origin of all good. Accordingly, in the case
        just supposed they would have either suspected the man's orthodoxy,
        or would have denied that his views were really what he professed
        them to be.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Still more
        important than the above cited Agadic passages is one which we are
        about to quote from the tractate Sanhedrin. This tractate deals with
        the constitution, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page157">[pg
        157]</span><a name="Pg157" id="Pg157" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of
        the supreme law-court, the examination of the witnesses, the
        functions of the judges, and the different punishment to be inflicted
        on the transgressors of the law. After having enumerated various
        kinds of capital punishment, the Mishnah adds the following words:
        <span class="tei tei-q">“These are (the men) who are excluded from
        the life to come: He who says there is no resurrection from death; he
        who says there is no Torah given from heaven, and the
        Epikurus.”</span><a id="noteref_114" name="noteref_114" href=
        "#note_114"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">114</span></span></a> This
        passage was considered by the Rabbis of the Middle Ages, as well as
        by modern scholars, the <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign"
        xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">locus
        classicus</span></span> for the dogma question. There are many
        passages in the Rabbinic literature which exclude man from the world
        to come for this or that sin. But these are more or less of an Agadic
        (legendary) character, and thus lend themselves to exaggeration and
        hyperbolic language. They cannot, therefore, be considered as serious
        legal dicta, or as the general opinion of the Rabbis.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Mishnah in
        Sanhedrin, however, has, if only by its position in a legal tractate,
        a certain <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Halachic</span></span> (obligatory) character.
        And the fact that so early an authority as R. Akiba made additions to
        it guarantees its high antiquity. The first two sentences of this
        Mishnah are clear enough. In modern language, and positively
        speaking, they would represent articles of belief in Resurrection and
        Revelation. Great difficulty is found in defining what was meant by
        the word <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Epikurus</span></span>. The authorities of the
        Middle Ages, to whom I shall again have to refer, explain the
        Epikurus to be a man who denies the belief in reward and punishment;
        others identify him with one who denies the belief in Providence;
        while others again consider the Epikurus to be one who denies
        Tradition. But the parallel <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page158">[pg
        158]</span><a name="Pg158" id="Pg158" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        passages in which it occurs incline one rather to think that this
        word cannot be defined by one kind of heresy. It implies rather a
        frivolous treatment of the words of Scripture or of Tradition. In the
        case of the latter (Tradition) it is certainly not honest difference
        of opinion that is condemned; for the Rabbis themselves differed very
        often from each other, and even Mediæval authorities did not feel any
        compunction about explaining Scripture in variance with the Rabbinic
        interpretation, and sometimes they even went so far as to declare
        that the view of this or that great authority was only to be
        considered as an isolated opinion not deserving particular attention.
        What they did blame was, as already said, scoffing and impiety. We
        may thus safely assert that reverence for the teachers of Israel
        formed the third essential principle of Judaism.<a id="noteref_115"
        name="noteref_115" href="#note_115"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">115</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I have still to
        remark that there occur in the Talmud such passages as <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“the Jew, even if he has sinned, is still a Jew,”</span>
        or <span class="tei tei-q">“He who denies idolatry is called a
        Jew.”</span> These and similar passages have been used to prove that
        Judaism was not a positive religion, but only involved the negation
        of idolatry. But it has been overlooked that the statements quoted
        have more a legal than a theological character. The Jew belonged to
        his nationality even after having committed the greatest sin, just as
        the Englishman does not cease to be an Englishman—in regard to
        treason and the like—by having committed a heinous crime. But he has
        certainly acted in a very un-English way, and having outraged the
        feelings of the whole nation will have to suffer for his misconduct.
        The Rabbis in a similar manner did not maintain that he who gave up
        the belief in Revelation and Resurrection, and treated irreverently
        the teachers <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page159">[pg
        159]</span><a name="Pg159" id="Pg159" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of
        Israel, severed his connection with the Jewish nation, but that, for
        his crime, he was going to suffer the heaviest punishment. He was to
        be excluded from the world to come.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Still, important
        as is the passage quoted from Sanhedrin, it would be erroneous to
        think that it exhausted the creed of the Rabbis. The liturgy and
        innumerable passages in the Midrashim show that they ardently clung
        to the belief in the advent of the Messiah. All their hope was turned
        to the future redemption and the final establishment of the Kingdom
        of Heaven on earth. Judaism, stripped of this belief, would have been
        for them devoid of meaning. The belief in reward and punishment is
        also repeated again and again in the old Rabbinic literature. A more
        emphatic declaration of the belief in Providence than is conveyed by
        the following passages is hardly conceivable. <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Everything is foreseen, and free will is given. And the
        world is judged by grace.”</span> Or, <span class="tei tei-q">“the
        born are to die, and the dead to revive, and the living to be judged.
        For to know and to notify, and that it may be known that He (God) is
        the Framer and He the Creator, and He the Discerner, and He the
        Judge, and He the Witness,”</span> etc.<a id="noteref_116" name=
        "noteref_116" href="#note_116"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">116</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But it must not be
        forgotten that it was not the habit of the Rabbis to lay down, either
        for conduct or for doctrine, rules which were commonly known. When
        they urged the three points stated above there must have been some
        historical reason for it. Probably these principles were controverted
        by some heretics. Indeed, the whole tone of the passage cited from
        Sanhedrin is a protest against certain unbelievers who are threatened
        with punishment. Other beliefs, not less essential, but less
        disputed, remain <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page160">[pg
        160]</span><a name="Pg160" id="Pg160" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        unmentioned, because there was no necessity to assert them.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was not till a
        much later time, when the Jews came into closer contact with new
        philosophical schools, and also new creeds which were more liable
        than heathenism was to be confused with Judaism, that this necessity
        was felt. And thus we are led at once to the period when the Jews
        became acquainted with the teachings of the Mohammedan schools. The
        Caraites came very early into contact with non-Jewish systems. And so
        we find that they were also the first to formulate Jewish dogmas in a
        fixed number, and in a systematic order. It is also possible that
        their separation from the Tradition, and their early division into
        little sects among themselves, compelled them to take this step, in
        order to avoid further sectarianism.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The number of
        their dogmas amounts to ten. According to Judah Hadasi (1150), who
        would appear to have derived them from his predecessors, their dogmas
        include the following articles:—1. <span lang="la" class=
        "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Creatio ex nihilo</span></span>; 2. The
        existence of a Creator, God; 3. This God is an absolute unity as well
        as incorporeal; 4. Moses and the other prophets were sent by God; 5.
        God has given to us the Torah, which is true and complete in every
        respect, not wanting the addition of the so-called Oral Law; 6. The
        Torah must be studied by every Jew in the original (Hebrew) language;
        7. The Holy Temple was a place elected by God for His manifestation;
        8. Resurrection of the dead; 9. Punishment and reward after death;
        10. The Coming of the Messiah, the son of David.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">How far the
        predecessors of Hadasi were influenced by a certain Joseph Albashir
        (about 950), of whom there exists a manuscript work, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Rudiments of Faith,”</span> I am unable to <span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="page161">[pg 161]</span><a name="Pg161" id="Pg161"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> say. The little we know of him reveals
        more of his intimacy with Arabic thoughts than of his importance for
        his sect in particular and for Judaism in general. After Hadasi I
        shall mention here Elijah Bashazi, a Caraite writer of the end of the
        fifteenth century. This author, who was much influenced by
        Maimonides, omits the second and the seventh articles. In order to
        make up the ten he numbers the belief in the eternity of God as an
        article, and divides the fourth article into two. In the fifth
        article Bashazi does not emphasise so strongly the completeness of
        the Torah as Hadasi, and omits the portion which is directed against
        Tradition. It is interesting to see the distinction which Bashazi
        draws between the Pentateuch and the Prophets. While he thinks that
        the five books of Moses can never be altered, he regards the words of
        the Prophets as only relating to their contemporaries, and thus
        subject to changes. As I do not want to anticipate Maimonides'
        system, I must refrain from giving here the articles laid down by
        Solomon Troki in the beginning of the eighteenth century. For the
        articles of Maimonides are copied by this writer with a few slight
        alterations so as to dress them in a Caraite garb.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I must dismiss the
        Caraites with these few remarks, my object being chiefly to discuss
        the dogmas of the Synagogue from which they had separated themselves.
        Besides, as in everything Caraitic, there is no further development
        of the question. As Bashazi laid them down, they are still taught by
        the Caraites of to-day. I return to the Rabbanites.<a id=
        "noteref_117" name="noteref_117" href="#note_117"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">117</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As is well known,
        Maimonides (1130-1205), was the first Rabbanite who formulated the
        dogmas of the Synagogue. But there are indications of earlier
        attempts. R. Saadiah <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page162">[pg
        162]</span><a name="Pg162" id="Pg162" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        Gaon's (892-942) work, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Creeds and Opinions</span></span>, shows such
        traces. He says in his preface, <span class="tei tei-q">“My heart
        sickens to see that the belief of my co-religionists is impure and
        that their theological views are confused.”</span> The subjects he
        treats in this book, such as creation, unity of God, resurrection of
        the dead, the future redemption of Israel, reward and punishment, and
        other kindred theological subjects might thus, perhaps, be considered
        as the essentials of the creed that the Gaon desired to present in a
        pure and rational form. R. Hannaneel, of Kairowan,<a id="noteref_118"
        name="noteref_118" href="#note_118"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">118</span></span></a> in the
        first half of the eleventh century, says in one of his commentaries
        that to deserve eternal life one must believe in <em class=
        "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">four</span></em>
        things: in God, in the prophets, in a future world where the just
        will be rewarded, and in the advent of the Redeemer. From R. Judah
        Hallevi's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Cusari</span></span>, written in the beginning
        of the twelfth century, we might argue that the belief in the
        election of Israel by God was the cardinal dogma of the author.<a id=
        "noteref_119" name="noteref_119" href="#note_119"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">119</span></span></a> Abraham
        Ibn Daud, a contemporary of Maimonides, in his book <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The High
        Belief</span></span>,<a id="noteref_120" name="noteref_120" href=
        "#note_120"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">120</span></span></a> speaks
        of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">rudiments</span></em>, among which, besides such
        metaphysical principles as unity, rational conception of God's
        attributes, etc., the belief in the immutability of the Law, etc., is
        included. Still, all these works are intended to furnish evidence
        from philosophy or history for the truth of religion rather than to
        give a definition of this truth. The latter task was undertaken by
        Maimonides.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I refer to the
        thirteen articles embodied in his first work, <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Commentary to the
        Mishnah</span></span>. They are appended to the Mishnah in Sanhedrin,
        with which I dealt above. But though they do not form an independent
        treatise, Maimonides' remarks must not be considered as merely
        incidental.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page163">[pg
        163]</span><a name="Pg163" id="Pg163" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">That Maimonides
        was quite conscious of the importance of this exposition can be
        gathered from the concluding words addressed to the reader:
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Know these (words) and repeat them many
        times, and think them over in the proper way. God knows that thou
        wouldst be deceiving thyself if thou thinkest thou hast understood
        them by having read them once or even ten times. Be not, therefore,
        hasty in perusing them. I have not composed them without deep study
        and earnest reflection.”</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The result of this
        deep study was that the following Thirteen Articles constitute the
        creed of Judaism. They are:—</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">1. The belief in
        the existence of a Creator; 2. The belief in His Unity; 3. The belief
        in His Incorporeality; 4. The belief in His Eternity; 5. The belief
        that all worship and adoration are due to Him alone; 6. The belief in
        Prophecy; 7. The belief that Moses was the greatest of all Prophets,
        both before and after him; 8. The belief that the Torah was revealed
        to Moses on Mount Sinai; 9. The belief in the Immutability of this
        revealed Torah; 10. The belief that God knows the actions of men; 11.
        The belief in Reward and Punishment; 12. The belief in the coming of
        the Messiah; 13. The belief in the Resurrection of the dead.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The impulse given
        by the great philosopher and still greater Jew was eagerly followed
        by succeeding generations, and Judaism thus came into possession of a
        dogmatic literature such as it never knew before Maimonides.
        Maimonides is the centre of this literature, and I shall accordingly
        speak in the remainder of this essay of Maimonists and
        Anti-Maimonists. These terms really apply to the great controversy
        that raged round Maimonides' <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Guide of</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page164">[pg 164]</span><a name="Pg164" id="Pg164" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-style: italic">the
        Perplexed</span></span>, but I shall, chiefly for brevity's sake,
        employ them in these pages in a restricted sense to refer to the
        dispute concerning the Thirteen Articles.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among the
        Maimonists we may probably include the great majority of Jews, who
        accepted the Thirteen Articles without further question. Maimonides
        must indeed have filled up a great gap in Jewish theology, a gap,
        moreover, the existence of which was very generally perceived. A
        century had hardly elapsed before the Thirteen Articles had become a
        theme for the poets of the Synagogue. And almost every country where
        Jews lived can show a poem or a prayer founded on these Articles. R.
        Jacob Molin (1420) of Germany speaks of metrical and rhymed songs in
        the German language, the burden of which was the Thirteen Articles,
        and which were read by the common people with great devotion. The
        numerous commentaries and homilies written on the same topic would
        form a small library in themselves.<a id="noteref_121" name=
        "noteref_121" href="#note_121"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">121</span></span></a> But on
        the other hand it must not be denied that the Anti-Maimonists, that
        is to say those Jewish writers who did not agree with the creed
        formulated by Maimonides, or agreed only in part with him, form also
        a very strong and respectable minority. They deserve our attention
        the more as it is their works which brought life into the subject and
        deepened it. It is not by a perpetual Amen to every utterance of a
        great authority that truth or literature gains anything.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The
        Anti-Maimonists can be divided into two classes. The one class
        categorically denies that Judaism has dogmas. I shall have occasion
        to touch on this view when I come to speak of Abarbanel. Here I pass
        at once to the second class of Anti-Maimonists. This consists of
        those who agree with Maimonides as to the existence of dogmas
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page165">[pg 165]</span><a name="Pg165"
        id="Pg165" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> in Judaism, but who differ
        from him as to what these dogmas are, or who give a different
        enumeration of them.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As the first of
        these Anti-Maimonists we may regard Nachmanides, who, in his famous
        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sermon in
        the Presence of the King</span></span>, speaks of three fundamental
        principles: Creation (that is, non-eternity of matter), Omniscience
        of God, and Providence. Next comes R. Abba Mari ben Moses, of
        Montpellier. He wrote at the beginning of the fourteenth century, and
        is famous in Jewish history for his zeal against the study of
        philosophy. We possess a small pamphlet by him dealing with our
        subject, and it forms a kind of prologue to his collection of
        controversial letters against the rationalists of his time.<a id=
        "noteref_122" name="noteref_122" href="#note_122"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">122</span></span></a> He lays
        down three articles as the fundamental teachings of Religion: 1.
        Metaphysical: The existence of God, including His Unity and
        Incorporeality; 2. Mosaic: <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign"
        xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">Creatio ex
        nihilo</span></span> by God—a consequence of this principle is the
        belief that God is capable of altering the laws of nature at His
        pleasure; 3. Ethical: Special Providence—<span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span> God
        knows all our actions in all their details. Abba Mari does not
        mention Maimonides' Thirteen Articles. But it would be false to
        conclude that he rejected the belief in the coming of the Messiah, or
        any other article of Maimonides. The whole tone and tendency of this
        pamphlet is polemical, and it is therefore probable that he only
        urged those points which were either doubted or explained in an
        unorthodox way by the sceptics of his time.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another scholar,
        of Provence, who wrote but twenty years later than Abba Mari—R. David
        ben Samuel d'Estella (1320)—speaks of the seven pillars of religion.
        They are: Revelation, Providence, Reward and Punishment, <span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="page166">[pg 166]</span><a name="Pg166" id="Pg166"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the Coming of the Messiah, Resurrection
        of the Dead, <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
        "la"><span style="font-style: italic">Creatio ex
        nihilo</span></span>, and Free Will.<a id="noteref_123" name=
        "noteref_123" href="#note_123"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">123</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of authors living
        in other countries, I have to mention here R. Shemariah, of Crete,
        who flourished at about the same time as R. David d'Estella, and is
        known from his efforts to reconcile the Caraites with the Rabbanites.
        This author wrote a book for the purpose of furnishing Jewish
        students with evidence for what he considered the five fundamental
        teachings of Judaism, viz.: 1. The Existence of God; 2. The
        Incorporeality of God; 3. His Absolute Unity; 4. That God created
        heaven and earth; 5. That God created the world after His will 5106
        years ago—5106 (1346 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-variant: small-caps">a.c.</span></span>), being the year in
        which Shemariah wrote these words.<a id="noteref_124" name=
        "noteref_124" href="#note_124"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">124</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Portugal, at
        about the same time, we find R. David ben Yom-Tob Bilia adding to the
        articles of Maimonides thirteen of his own, which he calls the
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Fundamentals of the Thinking Man.”</span>
        Five of these articles relate to the functions of the human soul,
        that, according to him, emanated from God, and to the way in which
        this divine soul receives its punishment and reward. The other eight
        articles are as follows: 1. The belief in the existence of spiritual
        beings—angels; 2. <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
        "la"><span style="font-style: italic">Creatio ex
        nihilo</span></span>; 3. The belief in the existence of another
        world, and that this other world is only a spiritual one; 4. The
        Torah is above philosophy; 5. The Torah has an outward (literal)
        meaning and an inward (allegorical) meaning; 6. The text of the Torah
        is not subject to any emendation; 7. The reward of a good action is
        the good work itself, and the doer must not expect any other reward;
        8. It is only by the <span class="tei tei-q">“commands relating to
        the heart,”</span> for instance, the belief in one eternal God, the
        loving and fearing Him, and <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page167">[pg
        167]</span><a name="Pg167" id="Pg167" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> not
        through good actions, that man attains the highest degree of
        perfection.<a id="noteref_125" name="noteref_125" href=
        "#note_125"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">125</span></span></a> Perhaps
        it would be suitable to mention here another contemporaneous writer,
        who also enumerates twenty-six articles. The name of this writer is
        unknown, and his articles are only gathered from quotations by later
        authors. It would seem from these quotations that the articles of
        this unknown author consisted mostly of statements emphasising the
        belief in the attributes of God: as, His Eternity, His Wisdom and
        Omnipotence, and the like.<a id="noteref_126" name="noteref_126"
        href="#note_126"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">126</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">More important for
        our subject are the productions of the fifteenth century, especially
        those of Spanish authors. The fifteen articles of R. Lipman
        Muhlhausen, in the preface to his well-known <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Book of
        Victory</span></span><a id="noteref_127" name="noteref_127" href=
        "#note_127"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">127</span></span></a> (1410),
        differ but slightly from those of Maimonides. In accordance with the
        anti-Christian tendency of his polemical book, he lays more stress on
        the two articles of Unity and Incorporeality, and makes of them four.
        We can therefore dismiss him with this short remark, and pass at once
        to the Spanish Rabbis.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The first of these
        is R. Chasdai Ibn Crescas, who composed his famous treatise,
        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Light
        of God</span></span>, about 1405. Chasdai's book is well known for
        its attacks on Aristotle, and also for its influence on Spinoza. But
        Chasdai deals also with Maimonides' Thirteen Articles, to which he
        was very strongly opposed. Already in his preface he attacks
        Maimonides for speaking, in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Book of the Commandments</span></span>, of the
        belief in the existence of God as an <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“affirmative precept.”</span> Chasdai thinks it absurd;
        for every commandment must be dictated by some authority, but on
        whose authority can we dictate the acceptance of this authority? His
        general objection to the Thirteen Articles <span class="tei tei-pb"
        id="page168">[pg 168]</span><a name="Pg168" id="Pg168" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> is that Maimonides confounded dogmas or
        <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">fundamental
        beliefs</span></em> of Judaism, without which Judaism is
        inconceivable, with beliefs or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">doctrines</span></em> which Judaism inculcates,
        but the denial of which, though involving a strong heresy, does not
        make Judaism impossible. He maintains that if Maimonides meant only
        to count fundamental teachings, there are not more than seven; but
        that if he intended also to include doctrines, he ought to have
        enumerated sixteen. As beliefs of the first class—namely, fundamental
        beliefs—he considers the following articles: 1. God's knowledge of
        our actions; 2. Providence; 3. God's omnipotence—even to act against
        the laws of nature; 4. Prophecy; 5. Free will; 6. The aim of the
        Torah is to make man long after the closest communion with God. The
        belief in the existence of God, Chasdai thinks, is an axiom with
        which every religion must begin, and he is therefore uncertain
        whether to include it as a dogma or not. As to the doctrines which
        every Jew is bound to believe, but without which Judaism is not
        impossible, Chasdai divides them into two sections: (<span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>) 1.
        <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Creatio ex nihilo</span></span>; 2. Immortality
        of the soul; 3. Reward and Punishment; 4. Resurrection of the dead;
        5. Immutability of the Torah; 6. Superiority of the prophecy of
        Moses; 7. That the High Priest received from God the instructions
        sought for, when he put his questions through the medium of the Urim
        and Thummim; 8. The coming of the Messiah. (<span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>)
        Doctrines which are expressed by certain religious ceremonies, and on
        belief in which these ceremonies are conditioned: 1. The belief in
        the efficacy of prayer—as well as in the power of the benediction of
        the priests to convey to us the blessing of God; 2. God is merciful
        to the penitent; 3. Certain days in the year—for instance,
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page169">[pg 169]</span><a name="Pg169"
        id="Pg169" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the Day of Atonement—are
        especially qualified to bring us near to God, if we keep them in the
        way we are commanded. That Chasdai is a little arbitrary in the
        choice of his <span class="tei tei-q">“doctrines,”</span> I need
        hardly say. Indeed, Chasdai's importance for the dogma-question
        consists more in his critical suggestions than in his positive
        results. He was, as we have seen, the first to make the distinction
        between fundamental teachings which form the basis of Judaism, and
        those other simple Jewish doctrines without which Judaism is not
        impossible. Very daring is his remark, when proving that Reward and
        Punishment, Immortality of the soul, and Resurrection of the dead
        must not be considered as the basis of Judaism, since the highest
        ideal of religion is to serve God without any hope of reward. Even
        more daring are his words concerning the Immutability of the Law. He
        says: <span class="tei tei-q">“Some have argued that, since God is
        perfection, so must also His law be perfect, and thus unsusceptible
        of improvement.”</span> But he does not think this argument
        conclusive, though the fact in itself (the Immutability of the Law)
        is true. For one might answer that this perfection of the Torah could
        only be in accordance with the intelligence of those for whom it was
        meant; but as soon as the recipients of the Torah have advanced to a
        higher state of perfection, the Torah must also be altered to suit
        their advanced intelligence. A pupil of Chasdai illustrates the words
        of his master by a medical parallel. The physician has to adapt his
        medicaments to the various stages through which his patient has to
        pass. That he changes his prescription does not, however, imply that
        his medical knowledge is imperfect, or that his earlier remedies were
        ignorantly chosen; the varying condition of the invalid was the cause
        of the variation <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page170">[pg
        170]</span><a name="Pg170" id="Pg170" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> in
        the doctor's treatment. Similarly, were not the Immutability of the
        Torah a <span class="tei tei-q">“doctrine,”</span> one might maintain
        that the perfection of the Torah would not be inconsistent with the
        assumption that it was susceptible of modification, in accordance
        with our changing and progressive circumstances. But all these
        arguments are purely of a theoretic character; for, practically,
        every Jew, according to Chasdai, has to accept all these beliefs,
        whether he terms them fundamental teachings or only Jewish
        doctrines.<a id="noteref_128" name="noteref_128" href=
        "#note_128"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">128</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Some years later,
        though he finished his work in the same year as Chasdai, R. Simeon
        Duran (1366-1444,) a younger contemporary of the former, made his
        researches on dogmas. His studies on this subject form a kind of
        introduction to his commentary on Job, which he finished in the year
        1405. Duran is not so strongly opposed to the Thirteen Articles as
        Chasdai, or as another <span class="tei tei-q">“thinker of our
        people,”</span> who thought them an arbitrary imitation of the
        thirteen attributes of God. Duran tries to justify Maimonides; but
        nevertheless he agrees with <span class="tei tei-q">“earlier
        authorities,”</span> who formulated the Jewish creed in Three
        Articles—The Existence of God, Revelation, and Reward and
        Punishment—under which Duran thinks the Thirteen Articles of
        Maimonides may be easily classed. Most interesting are his remarks
        concerning the validity of dogmas. He tells us that only those are to
        be considered as heretics who abide by their own opinions, though
        they know that they are contradictory to the views of the Torah.
        Those who accept the fundamental teachings of Judaism, but are led by
        their deep studies and earnest reflection to differ in details from
        the opinions current among their co-religionists, and explain certain
        passages <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page171">[pg
        171]</span><a name="Pg171" id="Pg171" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> in
        the Scripture in their own way, must by no means be considered as
        heretics. We must, therefore, Duran proceeds to say, not blame such
        men as Maimonides, who gave an allegorical interpretation to certain
        passages in the Bible about miracles, or R. Levi ben Gershom, who
        followed certain un-Jewish views in relation to the belief in
        <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Creatio ex nihilo</span></span>. Only the views
        are condemnable, not those who cherish them. God forbid, says Duran,
        that such a thing should happen in Israel as to condemn honest
        inquirers on account of their differing opinions. It would be
        interesting to know of how many divines as tolerant as this
        persecuted Jew the fifteenth century can boast.<a id="noteref_129"
        name="noteref_129" href="#note_129"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">129</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We can now pass to
        a more popular but less original writer on our theme. I refer to R.
        Joseph Albo, the author of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Roots</span></span>,<a id="noteref_130" name=
        "noteref_130" href="#note_130"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">130</span></span></a> who was
        the pupil of Chasdai, a younger contemporary of Duran, and wrote at a
        much later period than these authors. Graetz has justly denied him
        much originality. The chief merit of Albo consists in popularising
        other people's thoughts, though he does not always take care to
        mention their names. And the student who is a little familiar with
        the contents of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Roots</span></span> will easily find that Albo
        has taken his best ideas either from Chasdai or from Duran. As it is
        of little consequence to us whether an article of faith is called
        <span class="tei tei-q">“stem,”</span> or <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“root,”</span> or <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“branch,”</span> there is scarcely anything fresh left to
        quote in the name of Albo. The late Dr. Löw, of Szegedin, was indeed
        right, when he answered an adversary who challenged him—<span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Who would dare to declare me a heretic as long as I
        confess the Three Articles laid down by Albo?”</span> with the words
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Albo himself.”</span> For, after all the
        subtle distinctions Albo makes between <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page172">[pg 172]</span><a name="Pg172" id="Pg172" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> different classes of dogmas, he declares that
        every one who denies even the immutability of the Law or the coming
        of the Messiah, which are, according to him, articles of minor
        importance, is a heretic who will be excluded from the world to come.
        But there is one point in his book which is worth noticing. It was
        suggested to him by Maimonides, indeed; still Albo has the merit of
        having emphasised it as it deserves. Among the articles which he
        calls <span class="tei tei-q">“branches”</span> Albo counts the
        belief that the perfection of man, which leads to eternal life, can
        be obtained by the fulfilling of <em class=
        "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">one</span></em>
        commandment. But this command must, as Maimonides points out, be done
        without any worldly regard, and only for the love of God. When one
        considers how many platitudes are repeated year by year by certain
        theologians on the subject of Jewish legalism, we cannot lay enough
        stress on this article of Albo, and we ought to make it better known
        than it has hitherto been.<a id="noteref_131" name="noteref_131"
        href="#note_131"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">131</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Though I cannot
        enter here into the enumeration of the Maimonists, I must not leave
        unmentioned the name of R. Nissim ben Moses of Marseilles, the first
        great Maimonist, who flourished about the end of the thirteenth
        century, and was considered as one of the most enlightened thinkers
        of his age.<a id="noteref_132" name="noteref_132" href=
        "#note_132"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">132</span></span></a> Another
        great Maimonist deserving special attention is R. Abraham ben
        Shem-Tob Bibago, who may perhaps be regarded as the most prominent
        among those who undertook to defend Maimonides against the attacks of
        Chasdai and others. Bibago wrote <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Path of
        Belief</span></span><a id="noteref_133" name="noteref_133" href=
        "#note_133"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">133</span></span></a> in the
        second half of the fifteenth century, and was, as Dr. Steinschneider
        aptly describes him, a <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Denkgläubiger</span></span>. But, above all, he
        was a believing Jew. When he was once asked, at the table of King
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page173">[pg 173]</span><a name="Pg173"
        id="Pg173" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> John II., of Aragon, by a
        Christian scholar, <span class="tei tei-q">“Are you the Jewish
        philosopher?”</span> he answered, <span class="tei tei-q">“I am a Jew
        who believes in the Law given to us by our teacher Moses, though I
        have studied philosophy.”</span> Bibago was such a devoted admirer of
        Maimonides that he could not tolerate any opposition to him. He
        speaks in one passage of the prudent people of his time who, in
        desiring to be looked upon as orthodox by the great mob, calumniated
        the Teacher (Maimonides), and depreciated his merits. Bibago's book
        is very interesting, especially in its controversial parts; but in
        respect to dogmas he is, as already said, a Maimonist, and does not
        contribute any new point on our subject.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To return to the
        Anti-Maimonists of the second half of the fifteenth century. As such
        may be considered R. Isaac Aramah, who speaks of three foundations of
        religion: <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
        "la"><span style="font-style: italic">Creatio ex
        nihilo</span></span>, Revelation (?), and the belief in a world to
        come.<a id="noteref_134" name="noteref_134" href=
        "#note_134"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">134</span></span></a> Next to
        be mentioned is R. Joseph Jabez, who also accepts only three
        articles: <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
        "la"><span style="font-style: italic">Creatio ex
        nihilo</span></span>, Individual Providence, and the Unity of
        God.<a id="noteref_135" name="noteref_135" href=
        "#note_135"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">135</span></span></a> Under
        these three heads he tries to classify the Thirteen Articles of
        Maimonides.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The last Spanish
        writer on our subject is R. Isaac Abarbanel. His treatise on the
        subject is known under the title <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Top of
        Amanah</span></span>,<a id="noteref_136" name="noteref_136" href=
        "#note_136"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">136</span></span></a> and was
        finished in the year 1495. The greatest part of this treatise forms a
        defence of Maimonides, many points in which are taken from Bibago.
        But, in spite of this fact, Abarbanel must not be considered a
        Maimonist. It is only a feeling of piety towards Maimonides, or
        perhaps rather a fondness for argument, that made him defend
        Maimonides against Chasdai and others. His own view is that it is a
        mistake <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page174">[pg 174]</span><a name=
        "Pg174" id="Pg174" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to formulate dogmas of
        Judaism, since every word in the Torah has to be considered as a
        dogma for itself. It was only, says Abarbanel, by following the
        example of non-Jewish scholars that Maimonides and others were
        induced to lay down dogmas. The non-Jewish philosophers are in the
        habit of accepting in every science certain indisputable axioms from
        which they deduce the propositions which are less evident. The Jewish
        philosophers in a similar way sought for first principles in religion
        from which the whole of the Torah ought to be considered as a
        deduction. But, thinks Abarbanel, the Torah as a revealed code is
        under no necessity of deducing things from each other, for all the
        commands came from the same divine authority, and, therefore, all are
        alike evident, and have the same certainty. On this and similar
        grounds Abarbanel refused to accept dogmatic articles for Judaism,
        and he thus became the head of the school that forms a class by
        itself among the Anti-Maimonists to which many of the greatest
        Cabbalists also belong. But it is idle talk to cite this school in
        aid of the modern theory that Judaism has no dogmas. As we have seen,
        it was rather an <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">embarras de richesse</span></span> that
        prevented Abarbanel from accepting the Thirteen Articles of
        Maimonides. To him and to the Cabbalists the Torah consists of at
        least 613 Articles.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Abarbanel wrote
        his book with which we have just dealt, at Naples. And it is Italy to
        which, after the expulsion of the Jews from Spain, we have to look
        chiefly for religious speculation. But the philosophers of Italy are
        still less independent of Maimonides than their predecessors in
        Spain. Thus we find that R. David Messer Leon, R. David Vital, and
        others were Maimonists. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page175">[pg
        175]</span><a name="Pg175" id="Pg175" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        Even the otherwise refined and original thinker, R. Elijah Delmedigo
        (who died about the end of the fifteenth century) becomes almost
        impolite when he speaks of the adversaries of Maimonides in respect
        to dogmas. <span class="tei tei-q">“It was only,”</span> he says,
        <span class="tei tei-q">“the would-be philosopher that dared to
        question the articles of Maimonides. Our people have always the bad
        habit of thinking themselves competent to attack the greatest
        authorities as soon as they have got some knowledge of the subject.
        Genuine thinkers, however, attach very little importance to their
        objections.”</span><a id="noteref_137" name="noteref_137" href=
        "#note_137"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">137</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Indeed, it seems
        as if the energetic protests of Delmedigo scared away the
        Anti-Maimonists for more than a century. Even in the following
        seventeenth century we have to notice only two Anti-Maimonists. The
        one is R. Tobijah, the Priest (1652), who was of Polish descent,
        studied in Italy, and lived as a medical man in France. He seems to
        refuse to accept the belief in the Immutability of the Torah, and in
        the coming of the Messiah, as fundamental teachings of Judaism.<a id=
        "noteref_138" name="noteref_138" href="#note_138"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">138</span></span></a> The
        other, at the end of the seventeenth century (1695), is R. Abraham
        Chayim Viterbo, of Italy. He accepts only six articles: 1. Existence
        of God; 2. Unity; 3. Incorporeality; 4. That God was revealed to
        Moses on Mount Sinai, and that the prophecy of Moses is true; 5.
        Revelation (including the historical parts of the Torah); 6. Reward
        and Punishment. As to the other articles of Maimonides, Viterbo, in
        opposition to other half-hearted Anti-Maimonists, declares that the
        man who denies them is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">not</span></em> to be considered as a heretic;
        though he ought to believe them.<a id="noteref_139" name=
        "noteref_139" href="#note_139"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">139</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I have now arrived
        at the limit I set to myself at the beginning of this essay. For,
        between the times of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page176">[pg
        176]</span><a name="Pg176" id="Pg176" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        Viterbo and those of Mendelssohn, there is hardly to be found any
        serious opposition to Maimonides worth noticing here. Still I must
        mention the name of R. Saul Berlin (died 1794); there is much in his
        opinions on dogmas which will help us the better to understand the
        Thirteen Articles of Maimonides. As the reader has seen, I have
        refrained so far from reproducing here the apologies which were made
        by many Maimonists in behalf of the Thirteen Articles. For, after all
        their elaborate pleas, none of them was able to clear Maimonides of
        the charge of having confounded dogmas or fundamental teachings with
        doctrines. It is also true that the Fifth Article—that prayer and
        worship must only be offered to God—cannot be considered even as a
        doctrine, but as a simple precept. And there are other difficulties
        which all the distinctions of the Maimonists will never be able to
        solve. The only possible justification is, I think, that suggested by
        a remark of R. Saul. This author, who was himself—like his friend and
        older contemporary Mendelssohn—a strong Anti-Maimonist, among other
        remarks, maintains that dogmas must never be laid down but with
        regard to the necessities of the time.<a id="noteref_140" name=
        "noteref_140" href="#note_140"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">140</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now R. Saul
        certainly did not doubt that Judaism is based on eternal truths which
        can in no way be shaken by new modes of thinking or changed
        circumstances. What he meant was that there are in every age certain
        beliefs which ought to be asserted more emphatically than others,
        without regard to their theological or rather logical importance. It
        is by this maxim that we shall be able to explain the articles of
        Maimonides. He asserted them, because they were necessary for his
        time.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page177">[pg
        177]</span><a name="Pg177" id="Pg177" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We know, for
        instance, from a letter of his son and from other contemporaries,
        that it was just at his time that the belief in the incorporeality of
        God was, in the opinion of Maimonides, a little relaxed. Maimonides,
        who thought such low notions of the Deity dangerous to Judaism,
        therefore laid down an article against them. He tells us in his
        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Guide</span></span> that it was far from him to
        condemn any one who was not able to demonstrate the Incorporeality of
        God, but he stigmatised as a heretic one who refused to believe it.
        This position might be paralleled by that of a modern astronomer who,
        while considering it unreasonable to expect a mathematical
        demonstration of the movements of the earth from an ordinary
        unscientific man, would yet regard the person who refused to believe
        in such movements as an ignorant faddist.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Again, Maimonides
        undoubtedly knew that there may be found in the Talmud—that
        bottomless sea with its innumerable undercurrents—passages that are
        not quite in harmony with his articles; for instance, the well-known
        dictum of R. Hillel, who said, there is no Messiah for Israel—a
        passage which has already been quoted <span lang="la" class=
        "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">ad
        nauseam</span></span> by every opponent of Maimonides from the
        earliest times down to the year of grace 1896. Maimonides was well
        aware of the existence of this and similar passages. But, being
        deeply convinced of the necessity of the belief in a future
        redemption of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Israel</span></em>—in opposition to other creeds
        which claim this redemption exclusively for their own
        adherents—Maimonides simply ignored the saying of R. Hillel, as an
        isolated opinion which contradicts all the consciousness and
        traditions of the Jew as expressed in thousands of other passages,
        and <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page178">[pg 178]</span><a name=
        "Pg178" id="Pg178" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> especially in the
        liturgy. Most interesting is Maimonides' view about such isolated
        opinions in a letter to the wise men of Marseilles. He deals there
        with the question of free will and other theological subjects. After
        having stated his own view he goes on to say: <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“I know that it is possible to find in the Talmud or in
        the Midrash this or that saying in contradiction to the views you
        have heard from me. But you must not be troubled by them. One must
        not refuse to accept a doctrine, the truth of which has been proved,
        on account of its being in opposition to some isolated opinion held
        by this or that great authority. Is it not possible that he
        overlooked some important considerations when he uttered this strange
        opinion? It is also possible that his words must not be taken
        literally, and have to be explained in an allegorical way. We can
        also think that his words were only to be applied with regard to
        certain circumstances of his time, but never intended as permanent
        truths.... No man must surrender his private judgment. The eyes are
        not directed backwards but forwards.”</span> In another place
        Maimonides calls the suppression of one's own opinions—for the reason
        of their being irreconcilable with the isolated views of some great
        authority—a moral suicide.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">By such motives
        Maimonides was guided when he left certain views hazarded in the
        Rabbinic literature unheeded, and followed what we may perhaps call
        the religious instinct, trusting to his own conscience. We may again
        be certain that Maimonides was clear-headed enough to see that the
        words of the Torah: <span class="tei tei-q">“And there arose no
        prophet since in Israel like unto Moses”</span> (Deut. xxxiv. 10),
        were as little intended to imply a doctrine as the passage relating
        to the king Josiah, <span class="tei tei-q">“And like unto
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page179">[pg 179]</span><a name="Pg179"
        id="Pg179" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> him was there no king before
        him that turned to the Lord with all his heart ... neither after him
        arose there any like him”</span> (2 Kings xxiii. 25). And none would
        think of declaring the man a heretic who should believe another king
        to be as pious as Josiah. But living among followers of the
        <span class="tei tei-q">“imitating creeds”</span> (as he calls
        Christianity and Mohammedism), who claimed that their religion had
        superseded the law of Moses, Maimonides, consciously or
        unconsciously, felt himself compelled to assert the superiority of
        the prophecy of Moses. And so we may guess that every article of
        Maimonides which seems to offer difficulties to us contains an
        assertion of some relaxed belief, or a protest against the
        pretensions of other creeds, though we are not always able to
        discover the exact necessity for them. On the other hand, Maimonides
        did not assert the belief in free will, for which he argued so
        earnestly in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Guide</span></span>. The common <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“man,”</span> with his simple unspeculative mind, for
        whom these Thirteen Articles were intended, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“never dreamed that the will was not free,”</span> and
        there was no necessity of impressing on his mind things which he had
        never doubted.<a id="noteref_141" name="noteref_141" href=
        "#note_141"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">141</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">So much about
        Maimonides. As to the Anti-Maimonists, it could hardly escape the
        reader that in some of the quoted systems the difference from the
        view of Maimonides is only a logical one, not a theological. Of some
        authors again, especially those of the thirteenth and fourteenth
        centuries, it is not at all certain whether they intended to oppose
        Maimonides. Others again, as for instance R. Abba Mari, R. Lipman,
        and R. Joseph Jabez, acted on the same principle as Maimonides,
        urging only those teachings of Judaism which they thought endangered.
        One could now, indeed, animated by the praiseworthy example
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page180">[pg 180]</span><a name="Pg180"
        id="Pg180" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> given to us by Maimonides,
        also propose some articles of faith which are suggested to us by the
        necessities of our own time. One might, for instance, insert the
        article, <span class="tei tei-q">“I believe that Judaism is, in the
        first instance, a divine religion, <em class=
        "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">not</span></em> a
        mere complex of racial peculiarities and tribal customs.”</span> One
        might again propose an article to the effect that Judaism is a
        proselytising religion, having the mission to bring about God's
        kingdom on earth, and to include in that kingdom all mankind. One
        might also submit for consideration whether it would not be advisable
        to urge a little more the principle that religion means chiefly a
        <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="de"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Weltanschauung</span></span> and worship of God
        by means of holiness both in thought and in action. One would even
        not object to accept the article laid down by R. Saul, that we have
        to look upon ourselves as sinners. Morbid as such a belief may be, it
        would, if properly impressed on our mind, have perhaps the wholesome
        effect of cooling down a little our self-importance and our mutual
        admiration that makes all progress among us almost impossible.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But it was not my
        purpose to ventilate here the question whether Maimonides' articles
        are sufficient for us, or whether we ought not to add new ones to
        them. Nor do I attempt to decide what system we ought to prefer for
        recitation in the Synagogue—that of Maimonides or that of Chasdai, or
        of any other writer. I do not think that such a recital is of much
        use. My object in this sketch has been rather to make the reader
        <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">think</span></em> about Judaism, by proving that
        it regulates not only our actions, but also our thoughts. We usually
        urge that in Judaism religion means life; but we forget that a life
        without guiding principles and thoughts is a life not worth living.
        At <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page181">[pg 181]</span><a name=
        "Pg181" id="Pg181" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> least it was so
        considered by the greatest Jewish thinkers, and hence their efforts
        to formulate the creed of Judaism, so that men should not only be
        able to do the right thing, but also to think the right thing.
        Whether they succeeded in their attempts towards formulating the
        creed of Judaism or not will always remain a question. This concerns
        the logician more than the theologian. But surely Maimonides and his
        successors <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">did</span></em> succeed in having a religion
        depending directly on God, with the most ideal and lofty aspirations
        for the future; whilst the Judaism of a great part of our modern
        theologians reminds one very much of the words with which the author
        of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Marius
        the Epicurean</span></span> characterises the Roman religion in the
        days of her decline: a religion which had been always something to be
        done rather than something to be thought, or believed, or loved.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Political economy,
        hygiene, statistics, are very fine things. But no sane man would for
        them make those sacrifices which Judaism requires from us. It is only
        for God's sake, to fulfil His commands and to accomplish His purpose,
        that religion becomes worth living and dying for. And this can only
        be possible with a religion which possesses dogmas.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is true that
        every great religion is <span class="tei tei-q">“a concentration of
        many ideas and ideals,”</span> which make this religion able to adapt
        itself to various modes of thinking and living. But there must always
        be a point round which all these ideas concentrate themselves. This
        centre is Dogma.</p>
      </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page182">[pg 182]</span><a name=
      "Pg182" id="Pg182" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
      <hr class="page" />

      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
      "margin-top: 5.00em; margin-bottom: 5.00em">
        <a name="toc17" id="toc17"></a> <a name="pdf18" id="pdf18"></a>

        <h1 class="tei tei-head" style=
        "margin-bottom: 3.46em; text-align: left; margin-top: 3.46em">
        <span style="font-size: 173%">VII. The History of Jewish
        Tradition</span></h1>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There is an
        anecdote about a famous theologian to the effect that he used to tell
        his pupils, <span class="tei tei-q">“Should I ever grow old and
        weak—which usually drives people to embrace the safer side—and alter
        my opinions, then pray do not believe me.”</span> The concluding
        volume of Weiss's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">History of Jewish Tradition</span></span><a id=
        "noteref_142" name="noteref_142" href="#note_142"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">142</span></span></a> shows
        that there was no need for our author to warn his pupils against the
        dangers accompanying old age. For though Weiss had, when he began to
        write this last volume, already exceeded his three-score and ten,
        and, as we read in the preface, had some misgivings as to whether he
        should continue his work, there is no trace in it of any abatement of
        the great powers of the author. It is marked by the same freshness in
        diction, the same marvellous scholarship, the same display of
        astonishing critical powers, and the same impartial and
        straightforward way of judging persons and things, for which the
        preceding volumes were so much distinguished and admired.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This book, which
        is recognised as a standard work abroad, is, I fear, owing to the
        fact of its being written in the Hebrew language, not sufficiently
        known in this country. Weiss does not want <em class=
        "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">our</span></em>
        recognition; we are rather in need of his instruction. Some general
        view <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page183">[pg 183]</span><a name=
        "Pg183" id="Pg183" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of his estimate of
        Jewish Tradition may, therefore, be of service to the student. It is,
        indeed, the only work of its kind. Zunz has confined himself to the
        history of the Agadah. Graetz gave most of his attention to the
        political side of Jewish history. But comparatively little has been
        done for the Halachah, though Frankel, Geiger, Herzfeld, and others
        have treated some single points in various monographs. Thus it was
        left for Weiss to write the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">History of Tradition</span></span>, which
        includes both the Agadah and the Halachah. The treatment of this
        latter must have proved, in consequence of the intricate and
        intractable nature of its materials, by far the more difficult
        portion of his task.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In speaking of the
        <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">History</span></em> of Tradition, a term which
        suggests the fluctuating character of a thing, its origin,
        development, progress, and retrogression, we have already indicated
        that Weiss does not consider even the Halachah as having come down
        from heaven, ready-made, and definitely fixed for all time. To define
        it more clearly, Tradition is, apart from the few ordinances and
        certain usages for which there is no precedent in the Bible, the
        history of interpretation of the Scriptures, which was constantly
        liable to variation, not on grounds of philology, but through the
        subjective notions of successive generations regarding religion and
        the method and scope of its application.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Weiss's standpoint
        with reference to the Pentateuch is the conservative one, maintaining
        both its unity and its Mosaic authorship. Those passages and accounts
        in the Bible in which the modern critic discerns traces of different
        traditional sources, are for Weiss only indicative of the various
        stages of interpretation through which the <span class="tei tei-pb"
        id="page184">[pg 184]</span><a name="Pg184" id="Pg184" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> Pentateuch had to pass. The earliest stage was
        a very crude one, as may be seen from the case of Jephthah's vow, for
        which only a misinterpretation of certain passages in the Pentateuch
        (Gen. xxii. 2; Num. xxv. 4) could be made responsible. Nor was
        Jephthah, who felt himself bound to carry out his vow, acquainted
        with the provision for dissolving vows<a id="noteref_143" name=
        "noteref_143" href="#note_143"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">143</span></span></a> that
        was sufficiently familiar to later ages. When, on the other hand,
        Jeremiah declared sacrifices to be altogether superfluous, and said
        that God did not command Israel, when he brought them from the land
        of Egypt, concerning burnt offerings or sacrifices (vii. 22), he was
        not in contradiction with Leviticus, but interpreted the laws
        contained in this book as a concession to popular custom, though not
        desirable on their own account. This concession, whenever it was of a
        harmless nature, the prophets carried so far as to permit altars
        outside the Tabernacle or Temple, though this was against the plain
        sense of Deuteronomy. Elijah even bewailed their destruction (1 Kings
        xix. 10). He and other prophets probably interpreted the law in
        question as directed against the construction and maintenance of
        several chief sanctuaries, but not against sacrificing in different
        places on minor occasions. This is evidently a free interpretation,
        or rather application, of the Law. Occasionally the conception as to
        when and how a law should be applied took a completely negative form.
        In this manner is to be explained the action of Solomon in suspending
        the Fast of the Day of Atonement before the festival he was going to
        celebrate in honour of the consecration of the Temple (1 Kings viii.
        65), the king being convinced that on this unique occasion the latter
        was of more religious importance than the former. Weiss <span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="page185">[pg 185]</span><a name="Pg185" id="Pg185"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> thinks that the later custom of holding
        public dances in the vineyards on the 10th of Tishri might have had
        its origin in this solemn, but also joyful, festival. Ezekiel, again,
        though alluding more frequently than any other prophet to the laws in
        the Pentateuch, is exceedingly bold in his interpretation of them,
        as, for instance, when he says that <em class=
        "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">priests</span></em>
        shall not eat anything that is dead or torn (xliv. 31), which shows
        that he took the verses in Exod. xxii. 30, and Deut. xiv. 20, to have
        been meant only as a good advice to the laymen to refrain from eating
        these unclean things, but not as having for them the force of a real
        commandment.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Starting from this
        proposition, that there existed always some sort of interpretation
        running side by side with the recognised Scriptures, which from the
        very looseness of its connection with the letter of the Scripture
        could claim to be considered a thing independent in itself, and might
        therefore be regarded as the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Oral Law</span></span>, in contradistinction to
        the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Written
        Law</span></span>, the author passes to the age of the Second Temple,
        the period to which the rest of the first volume is devoted. In these
        pages Weiss reviews the activity of Ezra and Nehemiah, the ordinances
        of the Men of the Great Synagogue, the institutions of the Scribes,
        the Lives of the so-called Pairs,<a id="noteref_144" name=
        "noteref_144" href="#note_144"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">144</span></span></a> the
        characteristics of the three sects, the Sadducees, Pharisees, and
        Essenes, and the differences between the schools of Shammai and
        Hillel. To each of these subjects Weiss gives his fullest attention,
        and his discussions of them would form perfect monographs in
        themselves. To reproduce all the interesting matter would mean to
        translate the whole of this portion of his work into English. I shall
        only draw attention to one or two points.</p><span class="tei tei-pb"
        id="page186">[pg 186]</span><a name="Pg186" id="Pg186" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">First, this
        liberal interpretation was active during the whole period referred
        to. Otherwise no authority could have abolished the <span lang="la"
        class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">lex talionis</span></span>, or have permitted
        war on Sabbath, or made the condition that no crime should be
        punished without a preceding warning (which was chiefly owing to the
        aversion of the Rabbis to the infliction of capital punishment), or
        have sanctioned the sacrificing of the Passover when the 14th of
        Nisan fell on Sabbath. Indeed Shemaiah and Abtalyon, in whose name
        Hillel communicated this last law, were called the Great
        Interpreters.<a id="noteref_145" name="noteref_145" href=
        "#note_145"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">145</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Secondly, as to
        the so-called <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">laws given to Moses on
        Sinai</span></span>.<a id="noteref_146" name="noteref_146" href=
        "#note_146"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">146</span></span></a> Much
        has been said about these. The distinction claimed for them by some
        scholars, viz. that they were never contested, is not tenable,
        considering that there prevailed much difference of opinion about
        some of them. Nor is the theory that they were ancient religious
        usages, dating from time immemorial, entirely satisfactory. For
        though the fact may be true in itself, this could not have justified
        the Rabbis in calling them all Sinaitic laws, especially when they
        were aware that not a few of them were contested by certain of their
        colleagues, a thing that would have been quite impossible if they had
        a genuine claim to Mosaic authority. But if we understand Weiss
        rightly these laws are only to be considered as a specimen of the
        whole of the Oral Law, which was believed to emanate, both in its
        institutional and in its expository part, from the same authority.
        The conviction was firmly held that everything wise and good, be it
        ethical or ceremonial in its character, whose effect would be to
        strengthen the cause of religion, was at least potentially contained
        in the Torah, and that it only required an earnest religious mind
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page187">[pg 187]</span><a name="Pg187"
        id="Pg187" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to find it there. Hence the
        famous adage that <span class="tei tei-q">“everything which any
        student will teach at any future time was already communicated to
        Moses on Mount Sinai”</span>; or the injunction that any acceptable
        truth, even if discovered by an insignificant man in Israel, should
        be considered as having the authority of a great sage or prophet, or
        even of Moses himself. The principle was that the words of the Torah
        are <span class="tei tei-q">“fruitful and multiply.”</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It will probably
        be said that the laws of clean and unclean, and such like, have
        proved rather too prolific; but if we read Weiss carefully, we shall
        be reminded that it was by the same process of propagation that the
        Rabbis developed from Deut. xxii. 8, a whole code of sanitary and
        police-laws which could even now be studied with profit; from the few
        scanty civil laws in Exod. xxi., a whole <span lang="la" class=
        "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">corpus juris</span></span>, which might well
        excite the interest and the admiration of any lawyer; and from the
        words <span class="tei tei-q">“And thou shalt teach them diligently
        unto thy children,”</span> a complete school-system on the one hand,
        and on the other the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">résumé</span></span> of a liturgy that appears
        to have sufficed for the spiritual needs of more than fifty
        generations of Israelites.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Before we pass to
        the age of the Tannaim,<a id="noteref_147" name="noteref_147" href=
        "#note_147"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">147</span></span></a> the
        subject of Weiss's second volume, we must take account of two
        important events which have greatly influenced the further
        development of Tradition. I refer to the destruction of the Temple
        and the rise of Christianity. With the former event Judaism ceased to
        be a political commonwealth, and if <span class="tei tei-q">“the
        nation was already in the times of Ezra converted into a
        church,”</span>—an assertion, by the way, which has not the least
        basis in fact,—it became the more so after it had lost the last
        remains of its independence. But it was a church without priests, or,
        since such a thing, as far as <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page188">[pg 188]</span><a name="Pg188" id="Pg188" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> history teaches us, has never existed, let us
        rather call it a Synagogue.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From this fact
        diverse results flowed. A Synagogue can exist not only without
        priests, but also without sacrifices, for which prayer and charity
        were a sufficient substitute. With the progress of time also many
        agricultural laws, as well as others relating to sacerdotal purity,
        gradually became obsolete, though they lingered on for some
        generations, and, as a venerable reminiscence of a glorious time,
        entered largely into Jewish literature. This disappearance of so many
        laws and the weakening of the national element, however, required, if
        Judaism was to continue to exist, the strengthening of religion from
        another side. The first thing needed was the creation of a new
        religious centre which would not only replace the Temple to a certain
        degree, but also bring about a greater solidarity of views, such as
        would render impossible the ancient differences that divided the
        schools of Hillel and Shammai. The creator of this centre was R.
        Johanan ben Zaccai, who founded the school of Jamnia, and invested it
        with the same authority and importance as the Sanhedrin had enjoyed
        during Temple times. The consciousness that they were standing before
        a new starting-point in history, with a large religious inheritance
        from the past, actuated them not only to collect the old traditional
        laws and to take stock of their religious institutions, but also to
        give them more definite shape and greater stability. As many of these
        traditions were by no means undisputed, the best thing was to bring
        them under one or other heading of the Scriptures. This desire gave
        the impulse to the famous hermeneutic schools of R. Akiba and R.
        Ishmael.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The next cause
        that contributed to give a more determinate <span class="tei tei-pb"
        id="page189">[pg 189]</span><a name="Pg189" id="Pg189" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> expression to the Law was the rise of
        Christianity. This is not the place to give an account of the views
        which the Rabbis entertained of Christianity. Suffice it to say they
        could not see in the destruction of the Law its fulfilment. They also
        thought that under certain conditions it is not only the letter that
        killeth, but also the spirit, or rather that the spirit may sometimes
        be clothed in a letter, which, in its turn, will slay more victims
        than the letter against which the loudest denunciations have been
        levelled. Spirit without letter, let theologians say what they will,
        is a mere phantasm. However, the new sect made claims to the gift of
        prophecy, which, as they thought, placed them above the Law. It would
        seem that this was a time of special excitement. The student of the
        Talmud finds that such marvels as predicting the future, reviving the
        dead, casting out demons, crossing rivers dry-shod, curing the sick
        by a touch or prayer, were the order of the day, and performed by
        scores of Rabbis. Voices from heaven were often heard, and strange
        visions were frequently beheld. Napoleon I. is said to have forbidden
        the holy coat of Treves to work miracles. The Jewish legislature,
        however, had no means of preventing these supernatural workings; but
        when the Rabbis saw their dangerous consequences, they insisted that
        miracles should have no influence on the interpretation and
        development of the Law. Hence the saying with regard to Lev. xxvii.
        34, that no prophet is authorised to add a new law. And when R.
        Eliezer b. Hyrkanos (about 120 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-variant: small-caps">a.c.</span></span>) thought to prove the
        justice of his case by the intervention of miracles, the majority
        answered that the fact of this or that variation, effected at his
        bidding, in the established order of nature, proved nothing for the
        soundness of his argument. Nay, <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page190">[pg 190]</span><a name="Pg190" id="Pg190" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> they even ignored the <span lang="he" class=
        "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Bath-Kol</span></span><a id="noteref_148" name=
        "noteref_148" href="#note_148"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">148</span></span></a> (the
        celestial voice), which declared itself in favour of R. Eliezer,
        maintaining that the Torah having once been given to mankind, it is
        only the opinion of the majority that should decide on its
        interpretation and application. Very characteristic is the legend
        connected with this fact. When one of the Rabbis afterwards met
        Elijah and asked him what they thought in heaven of the audacity of
        his colleagues, the prophet answered, <span class="tei tei-q">“God
        rejoiced and said, my children have conquered me.”</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Into such
        discredit did miracles fall at that period, whilst the opinion of the
        interpreting body, or the Sanhedrin, became more powerful than ever.
        These were merely dogmatical consequences. But new laws were enacted
        and old ones revived, with the object of resisting Christian
        influences over the Jews. To expand the Oral Law, and give it a firm
        basis in the Scriptures, were considered the best means of preserving
        Judaism intact. <span class="tei tei-q">“Moses desired,”</span> an
        old legend narrates, <span class="tei tei-q">“that the Mishnah also
        (that is Tradition) should be written down;”</span> but foreseeing
        the time when the nations of the world would translate the Torah into
        Greek, and would assert their title to rank as the Children of God,
        the Lord refused to permit tradition to be recorded otherwise than by
        word of mouth. The claim of the Gentiles might then be refuted by
        asking them whether they were also in possession of <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“the Mystery.”</span> The Rabbis therefore concentrated
        their attention upon <span class="tei tei-q">“the Mystery,”</span>
        and this contributed largely towards making the expository methods of
        R. Akiba and R. Ishmael, to which I have above referred, the main
        object of their study in the schools.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It would, however,
        be a mistake to think that the Sanhedrin <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page191">[pg 191]</span><a name="Pg191" id="Pg191" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> now spent their powers in <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“enforcing retrograde measures and creating a strange
        exegesis.”</span> I especially advise the student to read carefully
        that admirable chapter (VII., of Vol. II.) in which Weiss classifies
        all the Ordinances, <span class="tei tei-q">“Fences,”</span> Decrees,
        and Institutions, dating both from this and from earlier ages, under
        ten headings, and also shows their underlying principles. The main
        object was to preserve the Jewish religion by strengthening the
        principle of Jewish nationality, and to preserve the nationality by
        the aid of religion. But sometimes the Rabbis also considered it
        necessary to preserve religion against itself, so to speak, or, as
        they expressed it, <span class="tei tei-q">“When there is time to
        work for the Lord, they make void thy Torah.”</span> This authorised
        the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beth
        Din</span></span><a id="noteref_149" name="noteref_149" href=
        "#note_149"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">149</span></span></a> to act
        in certain cases against the letter of the Torah. <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“The welfare of the World”</span> was another great
        consideration. By <span class="tei tei-q">“World”</span> they
        understood both the religious and the secular world. From a regard to
        the former resulted such <span class="tei tei-q">“Fences”</span> and
        Ordinances as were directed against <span class="tei tei-q">“the
        transgressors,”</span> as well as the general injunction to
        <span class="tei tei-q">“keep aloof from what is morally unseemly,
        and from whatever bears any likeness thereto.”</span> In the
        interests of the latter—the welfare of the secular world—they enacted
        such laws as either tended to elevate the position of women, or to
        promote the peace and welfare of members of their own community, or
        to improve the relations between Jews and their Gentile neighbours.
        They also held the great principle that nothing is so injurious to
        the cause of religion as increasing the number of sinners by needless
        severity. Hence the introduction of many laws <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“for the benefit of penitents,”</span> and the maxim not
        to issue any decree which may prove too heavy a burden to the
        majority of the community. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page192">[pg
        192]</span><a name="Pg192" id="Pg192" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> The
        relaxation of certain traditional laws was also permitted when they
        involved a serious loss of property, or the sacrifice of a man's
        dignity. Some old decrees were even permitted to fall into oblivion
        when public opinion was too strong against them, the Rabbis holding
        that it was often better for Israelites to be unconscious sinners
        than wilful transgressors. The <span lang="he" class=
        "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Minhag</span></span>, or religious custom, also
        played an important part, it being assumed that it must have been
        first introduced by some eminent authority; but, if there was reason
        to believe that the custom owed its origin to some fancy of the
        populace, and that it had a pernicious effect on the multitude, no
        compunction was felt in abolishing it.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Very important it
        is to note that the Oral Law had not at this period assumed a
        character of such rigidity that all its ordinances, etc., had to be
        looked upon as irremovable for all times. With those who think
        otherwise, a favourite quotation is the administratory measure laid
        dawn in Tractate <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Evidences</span></span>,<a id="noteref_150"
        name="noteref_150" href="#note_150"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">150</span></span></a> I. 5,
        where we read that no <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Beth Din</span></span> has the right of
        annulling the dicta of another <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Beth Din</span></span>, unless it is stronger in
        numbers (having a larger majority) and greater in wisdom than its
        fellow tribunal. Confess with becoming modesty that the world is
        always going downhill, decreasing both in numbers and in wisdom, and
        the result follows that any decision by the earlier Rabbis is fixed
        law for all eternity. Weiss refutes such an idea not only as
        inconsistent with the nature of Tradition, but also as contradictory
        to the facts. He proves by numerous instances that the Rabbis did
        abolish ordinances and decrees introduced by preceding authorities,
        and that the whole conception is based on a misunderstanding. For the
        rule in question, as Weiss clearly points out, originally only meant
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page193">[pg 193]</span><a name="Pg193"
        id="Pg193" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> that a <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beth Din</span></span>
        has no right to undo the decrees of another <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">contemporary Beth
        Din</span></span>, unless it was justified in doing so by the weight
        of its greater authority. This was necessary if a central authority
        was to exist at all. Weiss is indeed of opinion that the whole
        passage is a later interpolation from the age of R. Simeon b.
        Gamaliel II., when certain Rabbis tried to emancipate themselves from
        the authority of the Patriarch. But it was not meant that the
        decision of a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Beth Din</span></span> should have perpetual
        binding power for all posterity. This was left to the discretion of
        the legislature of each generation, who had to examine whether the
        original cause for maintaining such decision still existed.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The rest of this
        volume is for the greater part taken up with complete monographs of
        the Patriarchs and the heads of the schools of that age, whilst the
        concluding chapters give us the history of the literature, the
        Midrash, Mechilta, Siphra, Siphré, Mishnah, etc., which contain both
        the Halachic and the Agadic sayings emanating from these
        authorities.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">With regard to
        these Patriarchs, I should like only to remark that Weiss defends
        them against the charge made by Schorr and others, who accuse them of
        having assumed too much authority on account of their noble descent,
        and who describe their opponents as the true friends of the people.
        Weiss is no lover of such specious phrases. The qualifications
        required for the leadership of the people were a right instinct for
        the necessities of their time, a fair amount of secular knowledge,
        and, what is of chief importance, an unbounded love and devotion to
        those over whose interests they were called to watch. These
        distinctions, as Weiss proves, the descendants of Hillel possessed in
        the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page194">[pg 194]</span><a name=
        "Pg194" id="Pg194" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> highest degree. It is
        true that occasionally, as for instance in the famous controversy of
        R. Gamaliel II. with R. Joshua b. Hananiah, or that of R. Simeon b.
        Gamaliel II. with R. Nathan and R. Meir, they made their authority
        too heavily felt;<a id="noteref_151" name="noteref_151" href=
        "#note_151"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">151</span></span></a> but
        this was again another necessity of those troubled times, when only
        real unity could save Israel.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">However, Weiss is
        no partisan, and the love he lavishes on his favourite heroes does
        not exhaust his resources of sympathy and appreciation for members of
        the other schools. Weiss is no apologist either, and does not make
        the slightest attempt towards explaining away even the defects of R.
        Akiba in his somewhat arbitrary method of interpretation, which our
        author thinks much inferior to the expository rules of R. Ishmael;
        but this does not prevent him from admiring his excellences.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Altogether it
        would seem that Weiss thinks R. Akiba more happy in his quality as a
        great saint than in that of a great exegete. What is most admirable
        is the instinct with which Weiss understands how to emphasise the
        right thing in its right place. As an indication of the literary
        honesty and marvellous industry of our author, I would draw attention
        to the fact that the sketch of R. Akiba and his school alone is based
        on more than two thousand quotations scattered over the whole area of
        the Rabbinic literature; but he points in a special note to a
        sentence attributed to R. Akiba, which presents the whole man and his
        generation in a single stroke. I refer to that passage in Tractate
        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Joys</span></span>,<a id="noteref_152" name=
        "noteref_152" href="#note_152"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">152</span></span></a> in
        which R. Akiba speaks of the four types of sufferers. He draws the
        comparison of a king chastising his children; the first son maintains
        stubborn silence, the second simply rebels, the third supplicates
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page195">[pg 195]</span><a name="Pg195"
        id="Pg195" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> for mercy, and the fourth (the
        best of sons) says: <span class="tei tei-q">“Father, proceed with thy
        chastisement, as David said, Wash me thoroughly from mine iniquity
        and cleanse me from my sin”</span> (Ps. li. 4). This absolute
        submission to the will of God, which perceives in suffering only an
        expression of His fatherly love and mercy, was the ideal of R.
        Akiba.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The great literary
        production of this period was the Mishnah, which, through the high
        authority of its compiler, R. Judah the Patriarch, his saintliness
        and popularity, soon superseded all the collections of a similar
        kind, and became the official text-book of the Oral Law. But a text
        requires interpretation, whilst other collections also demanded some
        attention. This brings us to the two <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Talmuds</span></span>,
        namely, the Talmud of Jerusalem and the Talmud of Babylon, the origin
        and history of which form the subject of Weiss's third volume.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Here again the
        first chapters are more of a preliminary character, giving the
        student some insight into the labyrinth of the Talmud. The two
        chapters entitled <span class="tei tei-q">“The instruments employed
        in erecting the great Edifice,”</span> and the <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Workmanship displayed by the Builders,”</span> give
        evidence of almost unrivalled familiarity with the Rabbinical
        literature, and of critical powers of the rarest kind. Now these
        instruments were by no means new, for, as Weiss shows, the Amoraim
        employed in interpreting the Mishnah the same explanatory rules that
        are known to us from the School of R. Ishmael as <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“the Thirteen Rules by which the Torah is
        explained,”</span> though they appear in the Talmud under other
        names, and are in reality only a species of Midrash. Besides this
        there comes another element into play. It was the exaggerated awe of
        all <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page196">[pg 196]</span><a name=
        "Pg196" id="Pg196" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> earlier authorities
        that endeavoured to reconcile the most contradictory statements by
        means of a subtle dialectic for which the schools in Babylon were
        especially famous. There were certainly many opponents of this
        system, and from the monographs which Weiss gives on the various
        heads of the western and eastern schools we see that not all followed
        this method, and some among them even condemned it in the strongest
        words. However, it cannot be denied that there is a strong scholastic
        feature in the Talmud, which is very far from what we should look for
        in a trustworthy exegesis. Thus we must not always expect to find in
        the Talmud the true meaning of the sayings of their predecessors, and
        it is certain that a more scientific method in many cases has led to
        results the very opposite of those at which the later Rabbis have
        arrived. This fact was already recognised in the sixteenth century,
        though only in part, by R. Yom-Tob Heller and others. Only he
        insisted that in this matter a line must be drawn between theory and
        practice. But Weiss gives irrefragable proofs that even this line was
        often overstepped by the greatest authorities, though they remained
        always within the limits of Tradition. Indeed, as Weiss points out,
        not every saying to be found in the Talmud is to be looked upon as
        representing Tradition; for there is much in it which only gives the
        individual opinion or is merely an interpolation of later hands; nor
        does the Talmud contain the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">whole</span></em> of Tradition, this latter
        proceeding and advancing with the time, and corresponding to its
        conditions and notions. As we read Weiss, the conviction is borne in
        upon us that there was a Talmud before, and another after
        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
        Talmud</span></span>.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Much space in this
        volume is given to the Agadah and <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page197">[pg 197]</span><a name="Pg197" id="Pg197" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> the so-called <span class="tei tei-q">“Teachers
        of the Agadah.”</span> Weiss makes no attempt at apology for that
        which seems to us strange, or even repugnant in this part of the
        Rabbinic literature. The greatest fault to be found with those who
        wrote down such passages as appear objectionable to us is, perhaps,
        that they did not observe the wise rule of Johnson, who said to
        Boswell on a certain occasion, <span class="tei tei-q">“Let us get
        serious, for there comes a fool.”</span> And the fools unfortunately
        did come in the shape of certain Jewish commentators and Christian
        controversialists, who took as serious things which were only the
        expression of a momentary impulse, or represented the opinion of some
        isolated individual, or were meant simply as a piece of humorous
        by-play, calculated to enliven the interest of a languid audience.
        But on the other hand, as Weiss proves, the Agadah contains also many
        elements of real edification and eternal truths as well as abundant
        material for building up the edifice of dogmatic Judaism. Talmudical
        quotations of such a nature are scattered by thousands over Weiss's
        work, particularly in those chapters in which he describes the lives
        of the greatest Rabbinical heroes. But the author lays the student
        under special obligations by putting together in the concluding pages
        of this volume some of these sentences, and classifying them under
        various headings. I give here a few extracts. For the references to
        authorities I must direct the reader to the original:—</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
        "tei tei-q">“The unity of God is the keystone of dogmatic Judaism.
        The Rabbis give Israel the credit of having proclaimed to the world
        the unity of God. They also say that Israel took an oath never to
        change Him for another God. This only God is eternal, incorporeal,
        and immutable. And though the prophets saw Him in different aspects,
        He <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page198">[pg 198]</span><a name=
        "Pg198" id="Pg198" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> warned them that they
        must not infer from the visions vouchsafed to them that there are
        different Gods. <span class="tei tei-q">‘I am the first,’</span> He
        tells them, which implies that he had no father, and the words,
        <span class="tei tei-q">‘There is no God besides me,’</span> mean
        that he has no son. Now, this God, the God of Israel, is holy in
        every thinkable way of holiness. He is merciful and gracious, as it
        is said, <span class="tei tei-q">‘And I will be gracious to whom I
        will be gracious,’</span> even though he who is the recipient of
        God's grace has no merit of his own. <span class="tei tei-q">‘And I
        will show mercy to whom I will show mercy,’</span> that is, even to
        those who do not deserve it. His attributes are righteousness,
        loving-kindness, and truth. God speaks words of eternal truth, even
        as He himself is the eternal life. All that the Merciful One does is
        only for good, and even in the time of His anger He remembers His
        graciousness, and often suppresses His attribute of judgment before
        His attribute of mercy. But with the righteous God is more severe
        than with the rest of the world, and when His hand falls in
        chastening on His saints His name becomes awful, revered, and
        exalted. This God of Israel, again, extends His providence over all
        mankind, and especially over Israel. By His eye everything is
        foreseen, yet freedom of choice is given, and the world is judged by
        grace, yet all according to the works wrought. Hence, know what is
        above thee, a seeing eye and a hearing ear, and that all thy deeds
        are written in a book.</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
        "tei tei-q">“They [the Rabbis] believed that God created the world
        out of nothing, without toil and without weariness. This world was
        created by the combination of His two attributes, mercy and justice.
        He rejoices in His creation, and if the Maker praises it, who dares
        to blame it? And if He exults in it, who shall find a blemish in it?
        Nay, it is <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page199">[pg
        199]</span><a name="Pg199" id="Pg199" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> a
        glorious and a beautiful world. It is created for man, and its other
        denizens were all meant but to serve him. Though all mankind are
        formed after the type of Adam, no one is like his fellow-man (each
        one having an individuality of his own). Thus he is able to say,
        <span class="tei tei-q">‘For my sake, also, was the world
        created’</span>; and with this thought his responsibilities increase.
        But the greatest love shown to man is that he was created in the
        image of God. Man is a being possessed of free will, and, though
        everything is given on pledge, whosoever wishes to borrow may come
        and borrow. Everything is in the gift of Heaven except the fear of
        God. In man's heart abide both the evil inclination and the good
        inclination; and the words of Scripture, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">‘Thou shalt not bow down before a strange god,’</span>
        point to the strange god who is within man himself, who entices him
        to sin in this world, and gives evidence against him in the next. But
        the Holy One—blessed be He!—said, <span class="tei tei-q">‘I have
        created the evil inclination, but I have also created its antidote,
        the Torah.’</span> And when man is occupied with the Torah and in
        works of charity, he becomes the master of the evil inclination;
        otherwise, he is its slave. When man reflects the image of God, he is
        the lord of creation, and is feared by all creatures; but this image
        is defaced by sin, and then he has no power over the universe, and is
        in fear of all things.</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Another principle of Judaism is the belief in reward and
        punishment. <span class="tei tei-q">‘I am the Lord, your God,’</span>
        means, <span class="tei tei-q">‘it is I who am prepared to recompense
        you for your good actions, and to bring retribution upon you for your
        evil deeds.’</span> God does not allow to pass unrewarded even the
        merit of a kind and considerate word. By the same measure which man
        metes out, it shall be meted out to <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page200">[pg 200]</span><a name="Pg200" id="Pg200" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> him. Because thou drownedst others, they have
        drowned thee, and at the last they who drowned thee shall themselves
        be drowned. Though it is not in our power to explain either the
        prosperity of the wicked or the affliction of the righteous,
        nevertheless know before whom thou toilest, and who thy employer is,
        who will pay thee the reward of thy labour. Here at thy door is a
        poor man standing, and at his right hand standeth God. If thou
        grantest his request, be certain of thy reward; but if thou refusest,
        think of him who is by the side of the poor, and will avenge it on
        thee. <span class="tei tei-q">‘God seeketh the persecuted’</span> to
        defend him, even though it be the wicked who is persecuted by the
        righteous. The soul of man is immortal, the souls of the righteous
        being treasured up under the throne of God. Know that everything is
        according to the reckoning, and let not thy imagination give thee
        hope that the grave will be a place of refuge for thee, for perforce
        thou wast formed, and perforce thou wast born, and thou livest
        perforce, and perforce thou wilt die, and perforce thou wilt in the
        future have to give account and reckoning before the Supreme King of
        kings, the Holy One, blessed be He.</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
        "tei tei-q">“The advent of the Messiah is another article of the
        belief of the Rabbis. But if a man tell thee that he knows when the
        redemption of Israel will take place, believe him not, for this is
        one of the unrevealed secrets of the Almighty. The mission of Elijah
        is to bring peace into the world, while the Messiah, in whose days
        Israel will regain his national independence, will lead the whole
        world in repentance to God. On this, it is believed, will follow the
        resurrection of the dead.</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Another main principle in the belief of the Rabbis
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page201">[pg 201]</span><a name="Pg201"
        id="Pg201" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> is the election of Israel,
        which imposes on them special duties, and gives them a peculiar
        mission. Beloved are Israel, for they are called the children of God,
        and His firstborn. <span class="tei tei-q">‘They shall endure for
        ever’</span> through the merit of their fathers. There is an especial
        covenant established between God and the tribes of Israel. God is
        their father, and He said to them, My children, even as I have no
        contact with the profanity of the world, so also withdraw yourselves
        from it. And as I am holy, be ye also holy. Nay, sanctify thyself by
        refraining even from that which is not forbidden thee. There is no
        holiness without chastity.</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
        "tei tei-q">“The main duty of Israel is to sanctify the name of God,
        for the Torah was only given that His great name might be glorified.
        Better is it that a single letter of the law be cast out than that
        the name of Heaven be profaned. And this also is the mission of
        Israel in this world: to sanctify the name of God, as it is written,
        <span class="tei tei-q">‘This people have I formed for myself, that
        they may show forth my praise.’</span> Or, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">‘And thou shalt love the Lord thy God,’</span> which
        means, Thou shalt make God beloved by all creatures, even as Abraham
        did. Israel is the light of the world; as it is said, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">‘And nations shall walk by thy light.’</span> But he who
        profanes the name of Heaven in secret will suffer the penalty thereof
        in public; and this whether the Heavenly Name be profaned in
        ignorance or in wilfulness.</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Another duty towards God is to love Him and to fear Him.
        God's only representative on earth is the God-fearing man. Woe unto
        those who are occupied in the study of the Torah, but who have no
        fear of God. But a still higher duty it is to perform the
        commandments of God from love. For greater is he who submits to the
        will of God from love than he who does so from
        fear.</span></p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page202">[pg
        202]</span><a name="Pg202" id="Pg202" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Now, how shall man love God? This is answered in the
        words of Scripture, <span class="tei tei-q">‘And these words shall be
        upon thy heart.’</span> For by them thou wilt recognise Him whose
        word called the world into existence, and follow His divine
        attributes.</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
        "tei tei-q">“God is righteous; be ye also righteous, O Israel. By
        righteousness the Rabbis understand love of truth, hatred of lying
        and backbiting. The seal of the Holy One, blessed be He, is Truth, of
        which the actions of man should also bear the impress. Hence, let thy
        yea be yea, and thy nay, nay. He who is honest in money transactions,
        unto him this is reckoned as if he had fulfilled the whole of the
        Torah. Greater is he who earns his livelihood by the labour of his
        hands than even the God-fearing man; whilst the righteous judge is,
        as it were, the companion of God in the government of the world. For
        upon three things the world stands: upon truth, upon judgment, upon
        peace; as it is said, <span class="tei tei-q">‘Judge ye the truth and
        the judgment of peace in your gates.’</span> But he who breaks his
        word, his sin is as great as if he worshipped idols; and God, who
        punished the people of the time of the Flood, will also punish him
        who does not stand by his word. Such a one belongs to one of the four
        classes who are not admitted into the presence of the Shechinah;
        these are the scoffers, the hypocrites (who bring the wrath of God
        into the world), the liars, and the slanderers. The sin of the
        slanderer is like that of one who would deny the root (the root of
        all religion, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span> the existence of God). The
        greatest of liars, however, is he who perjures himself, which also
        involves the sin of profanation of the name of God. The hypocrite,
        who insinuates himself into people's good opinions, who wears his
        phylacteries and is enwrapped <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page203">[pg 203]</span><a name="Pg203" id="Pg203" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> in his gown with the fringes, and secretly
        commits sins, equally transgresses the command, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">‘Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in
        vain.’</span></span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
        "tei tei-q">“God is gracious and merciful; therefore man also should
        be gracious and merciful. Hence, <span class="tei tei-q">‘Thou shalt
        love thy neighbour as thyself,’</span> which is a main principle in
        the Torah. What is unpleasant to thyself, do not unto thy neighbour.
        This is the whole Torah, to which the rest is only to be considered
        as a commentary. And this love is also extended to the stranger, for
        as it is said with regard to Israel, <span class="tei tei-q">‘And
        thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself,’</span> so is it also said,
        <span class="tei tei-q">‘And thou shalt love him (the stranger) as
        thyself.’</span> And thus said God to Israel, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">‘My beloved children, Am I in want of anything that I
        should request it of you? But what I ask of you is that you should
        love, honour, and respect one another.’</span> Therefore, love
        mankind, and bring them near to the Torah. Let the honour of thy
        friend be as dear to thee as thine own. Condemn not thy fellow-man
        until thou art come into his place, and judge all men in the scale of
        merit. Say not <span class="tei tei-q">‘I will love scholars, but
        hate their disciples;’</span> or even, <span class="tei tei-q">‘I
        will love the disciples, but hate the ignorant,’</span> but love all,
        for he who hates his neighbour is as bad as a murderer. Indeed,
        during the age of the second Temple, men studied the Torah and the
        commandments, and performed works of charity, but they hated each
        other, a sin that outweighs all other sins, and for which the holy
        Temple was destroyed. Be careful not to withdraw thy mercy from any
        man, for he who does so rebels against the kingdom of God on earth.
        Walk in the ways of God, who is merciful even to the wicked, and as
        He is gracious alike to those who know Him, and to those who know
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page204">[pg 204]</span><a name="Pg204"
        id="Pg204" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Him not, so be thou. Indeed,
        charity is one of the three pillars on which the world is based. It
        is more precious than all other virtues. The man who gives charity in
        secret is greater even than Moses our teacher. An act of charity and
        love it is to pray for our fellow-man, and to admonish him.
        <span class="tei tei-q">‘Thou shalt in any wise rebuke thy neighbour,
        and not suffer sin upon him’</span> (Lev. xix. 18), means it is thy
        duty to admonish him a hundred times if need be, even if he be thy
        superior; for Jerusalem was only destroyed for the sin of its people
        in not admonishing one another. The man whose protest would be of any
        weight, and who does not exercise his authority (when any wrong is
        about to be committed), is held responsible for the whole
        world.</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Peacefulness and humility are also the fruit of love. Be
        of the disciples of Aaron, loving peace, and pursuing peace. Let
        every man be cautious in the fear of God; let him ever give the soft
        answer that turneth away wrath; let him promote peace, not only among
        his own relatives and acquaintances, but also among the Gentiles. For
        (the labour of) all the prophets was to plant peace in the world. Be
        exceeding lowly of spirit, since the hope of man is but the worm. Be
        humble as Hillel, for he who is humble causes the Divine presence to
        dwell with man. But the proud man makes God say, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">‘I and he cannot dwell in the same place.’</span> He who
        runs after glory, glory flees from him, and he who flees from glory,
        glory shall pursue him. Be of those who are despised rather than of
        those who despise; of the persecuted rather than of the persecutors;
        be of those who bear their reproach in silence and answer
        not.</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Another distinctive mark of Judaism is faith in God,
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page205">[pg 205]</span><a name="Pg205"
        id="Pg205" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and perfect confidence in Him.
        Which is the right course for a man to choose for himself? Let him
        have a strong faith in God, as it is said, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">‘Mine eye shall be upon the faithful (meaning those
        possessing faith in God) of the land.’</span> And so also Habakkuk
        based the whole Torah on the principle of faith, as it is said,
        <span class="tei tei-q">‘And the just shall live by his faith’</span>
        (ii. 4). He who but fulfils a single commandment in absolute faith in
        God deserves that the Holy Spirit should rest on him. Blessed is the
        man who fears God in private, and trusts in Him with all his heart,
        for such fear and trust arms him against every misfortune. He who
        puts his trust in the Holy One, blessed be He, God becomes his shield
        and protection in this world and in the next. He who has bread in his
        basket for to-day, and says, <span class="tei tei-q">‘What shall I
        have to eat to-morrow?’</span> is a man of little faith. One
        consequence of real faith is always to believe in the justice of
        God's judgments. It is the duty of man to thank God when he is
        visited with misfortune as he does in the time of prosperity.
        Therefore, blessed is the man who, when visited by suffering,
        questions not God's justice. But what shall he do? Let him examine
        his conduct and repent.</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
        "tei tei-q">“For repentance is the greatest prerogative of man.
        Better is one hour of repentance and good deeds in this world than
        the whole life of the world to come. The aim of all wisdom is
        repentance and good deeds. The place where the truly penitent shall
        stand is higher than that of the righteous. Repentance finds its
        special expression in prayer; and when it is said in Scripture,
        <span class="tei tei-q">‘Serve God with all thy heart,’</span> by
        this is meant, serve Him by prayer, which is even greater than
        worship by means of sacrifices. Never is a prayer entirely unanswered
        by God. Therefore, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page206">[pg
        206]</span><a name="Pg206" id="Pg206" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        even though the sword be on a man's neck, let him not cease to
        supplicate God's mercy. But regard not thy prayer as a fixed
        mechanical task, but as an appeal for mercy and grace before the
        All-Present; as it is said, <span class="tei tei-q">‘For He is
        gracious and full of mercy, slow to anger, abounding in
        loving-kindness, and repenteth him of the evil.’</span> ”</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The last two
        volumes of Weiss's work deal with the history of Tradition during the
        Middle Ages, that is, from the conclusion of the Talmud to the
        compilation of the Code of the Law by R. Joseph Caro. I have already
        indicated that with Weiss Tradition did not terminate with the
        conclusion of the Talmud. It only means that a certain undefinable
        kind of literature, mostly held in dialogue form and containing many
        elements of Tradition, was at last brought to an end. The authorities
        who did this editorial work were the so-called <span class=
        "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Rabbanan
        Saburai</span></span><a id="noteref_153" name="noteref_153" href=
        "#note_153"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">153</span></span></a> and the
        <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Gaonim</span></span>, whose lives and literary
        activity are fully described by Weiss. But, while thus engaged in
        preserving their inheritance from the past, they were also enriching
        Tradition by new contributions, both the Saburai and the Gaonim
        having not only added to and diminished from the Talmud, but having
        also introduced avowedly new ordinances and decrees, and created new
        institutions.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now, it cannot be
        denied that a few of these ordinances and decrees had a reforming
        tendency (see the second and twentieth chapters of vol. iv.); in
        general, however, they took a more conservative turn than was the
        case in the previous ages. This must be ascribed to the event of the
        great schism within the Rabbinical camp itself. I refer to the rise
        of Caraism, which took place during the first half of the eighth
        century.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page207">[pg
        207]</span><a name="Pg207" id="Pg207" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There is probably
        no work in which the Halachic or legalistic side of this sect is
        better described than in this volume of Weiss. I regret that I am
        unable to enter into its details. But I cannot refrain from pointing
        to one of the main principles of the Caraites. This was <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Search the Scriptures.”</span> Now this does not look
        very dissimilar from the principle held by the Rabbis. For what else
        is the Talmud, but a thorough searching through the Bible for
        whatever was suggestive by time and circumstances? The light which
        the Caraites applied to the searching of the Scriptures was the same
        which illumined the paths of the Rabbis' investigations. They
        employed most of the expository rules of the Tannaite schools. The
        fact is that they were only determined to find something different
        from what the Rabbis found in the Scriptures. They wanted to have
        gloomy Sabbaths and Festivals, and discovered authority for it in the
        Bible; they wanted to retain most of the dietary laws which had their
        root only in Tradition, but insisted on petty differences which they
        thought might be inferred from the Scriptures, and they created a new
        <span class="tei tei-q">“order of inheritance,”</span> and varied the
        forbidden degrees in marriage, in all which the only merit was that
        they were in contradiction to the interpretation of the Rabbis. They
        also refused to accept the Liturgy of Rabbinical Judaism, but never
        succeeded in producing more than a patch-work from verses of the
        Bible, which, thus recast, they called a prayer-book. There were
        undoubtedly among their leaders many serious and sincere men, but
        they give us the impression of prigs, as for instance, Moses Darai,
        when he reproaches the Rabbinical Jews for having an <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“easy religion,”</span> or Israel Hammaarabi, when he
        recommended his book on the laws regarding the slaughtering
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page208">[pg 208]</span><a name="Pg208"
        id="Pg208" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of animals, as having the
        special advantage that his decisions were always on the more
        stringent side. Those who made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land were by
        the Caraites canonised as <span class="tei tei-q">“mourners.”</span>
        The Rabbanite R. Judah Hallevi also visited the ruins of Jerusalem,
        but he did something more than <span class="tei tei-q">“mourn and
        sigh and cry,”</span> he became a God-intoxicated singer, and wrote
        the <span class="tei tei-q">“Zion-Elegy.”</span> The novel
        terminology which they use in their exegetical and theological works,
        was only invented to spite the Rabbanites, and marks its authors as
        pedants. On the other hand, it is not to be denied that their
        opponents did not employ the best means to conciliate them. The
        Middle Ages knew no other remedy against schism than excommunication,
        and the Gaonim were the children of their time. Nor were the
        arguments which the latter brought forward in defence of Tradition
        always calculated to convince the Caraites of their error. When R.
        Saadiah, in his apology for the institution of the Second Day of the
        Festival,<a id="noteref_154" name="noteref_154" href=
        "#note_154"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">154</span></span></a> went
        the length of assigning to it a Sinaitic origin, he could only
        succeed in making the Caraites more suspicious of the claims of
        Tradition than before. In a later generation one of his own party, R.
        Hai Gaon, had to declare his predecessor's words a <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“controversial exaggeration.”</span> The zeal which some
        of the Gaonim showed in their defence of such works as the
        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Chambers</span></span> and the <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Measure of the
        Stature</span></span><a id="noteref_155" name="noteref_155" href=
        "#note_155"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">155</span></span></a> was a
        not less unfortunate thing, for it involved the Rabbanites in
        unnecessary responsibilities for a new class of literature of
        doubtful origin, which in succeeding centuries was disowned by the
        best minds in Judaism.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Gaonic period,
        to which we also owe the rise of the Massorah and the introduction of
        points in the text of the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page209">[pg
        209]</span><a name="Pg209" id="Pg209" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        Bible—of which Weiss treats fully in the twenty-third and
        twenty-fourth chapters of vol. iv.—comes to an end with the death of
        R. Hai. The famous schools of Sura and Pumbeditha, over which these
        two Gaonim presided, fell into decay, and Babylon ceased to be the
        centre of Judaism. To be more exact, we should say that Judaism had
        no longer any real centre. Instead of dwelling in one place for
        centuries, we now have to be perpetually on our journey, accompanying
        our authors through all the inhabited parts of the world—France,
        Italy, Spain, Germany, with an occasional trip to Africa and Russia.
        There we shall meet with the new schools, each of which, though
        interpreting the same Torah, occupied with the study of the same
        Talmud, and even conforming more or less to the same mode of life,
        has an individuality and character of its own, reflecting the thought
        and habits of the country which it represents. Thus <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“geographical Judaism”</span> becomes a factor in history
        which no scholar can afford to neglect. It is true that Judaism never
        remained entirely unbiassed by foreign ideas, and our author points
        in many a place to Persian, Greek, and Roman influences on Tradition;
        still, these influences seem to have undergone such a thorough
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Judaization”</span> that it is only the
        practised eye of the scholar that is able to see through the
        transformation. But it requires no great skill to discriminate
        between the work produced by a Spanish and that of a French Rabbi.
        Though both would write in Hebrew, they betray themselves very soon
        by the style, diction, and train of thought peculiar to each country.
        The Spaniard is always logical, clear, and systematising, whilst the
        French Rabbi has very little sense of order, is always writing
        occasional notes, has a great tendency to be <span class="tei tei-pb"
        id="page210">[pg 210]</span><a name="Pg210" id="Pg210" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> obscure, but is mostly profound and critical.
        Hence the fact that whilst Spain produced the greatest codifiers of
        the law, we owe to France and Germany the best commentaries on the
        Talmud. What these codes and commentaries meant for Judaism the
        student will find in Weiss's book, and still more fully in his
        admirable essays on Rashi (Solomon b. Isaac), Maimonides, and R.
        Jacob Tam (published in his periodical, <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beth
        Talmud</span></span>, and also separately). It is enough for us here
        only to notice the fact of the breadth of Tradition, which could
        include within its folds men of such different types as the sceptics,
        Maimonides, Solomon b. Gabirol, and Abn Ezra on one side, and the
        simple <span class="tei tei-q">“non-questioning”</span> Rabbenu
        Gershom, Rashi, and Jacob Tam on the other.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The last three
        centuries, which occupy our author's attention in the fifth volume,
        are not remarkable for their progress. The world lives on the past.
        The rationalists write treatises on Maimonides' philosophical works,
        whilst the German Talmudists add commentary to commentary. It is,
        indeed, the reign of authority, <span class="tei tei-q">“modified by
        accidents.”</span> Such an accident was the struggle between the
        Maimonists and Anti-Maimonists, or the rise of the Cabbalah, or the
        frequent controversies with Christians, all of which tended to direct
        the minds of people into new channels of thought. But though this
        period is less original in its work, it is not on that account less
        sympathetic. One cannot read those beautiful descriptions which Weiss
        gives of R. Meir of Rothenburg and his school, or of R. Asher and his
        descendants, without feeling that one is in an atmosphere of saints,
        who are the more attractive the less they were conscious of their own
        saintliness. The only mistake, perhaps, was that the successors of
        these <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page211">[pg 211]</span><a name=
        "Pg211" id="Pg211" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Chassidim or pious men of Germany”</span> looked on many
        of the religious customs that were merely the voluntary expression of
        particularly devout souls as worthy of imitation by the whole
        community, and made them obligatory upon all.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This brings us to
        the question of the Code already mentioned (by R. Joseph Caro), with
        which Weiss's work concludes. I have already transgressed the limits
        of an essay, without flattering myself that I have done anything like
        justice to the greatest work on Jewish Tradition which modern Jewish
        genius has produced. But I should not like the reader to carry away
        with him the false impression that our author shares in the general
        cry, <span class="tei tei-q">“Save us from the Codifiers.”</span>
        Weiss, himself a Rabbi, and the disciple of the greatest Rabbis of
        the first half of this century, is quite aware of the impossibility
        of having a law without a kind of manual to it, which brings the
        fluid matter into some fixed form, classifying it under its proper
        headings, and this is what we call codifying the law. And thus he
        never passes any attempt made in this direction without paying due
        tribute to its author—be it Maimonides or Caro. But however great the
        literary value of a code may be, it does not invest it with the
        attribute of infallibility, nor does it exempt the student or the
        Rabbi who makes use of it from the duty of examining each paragraph
        on its own merits, and subjecting it to the same rules of
        interpretation that were always applied to Tradition. Indeed, Weiss
        shows that Maimonides deviated in some cases from his own code, when
        it was required by circumstances.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Nor do I know any
        modern author who is more in favour of strong authority than Weiss.
        His treatment of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page212">[pg
        212]</span><a name="Pg212" id="Pg212" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the
        struggle between the Patriarch R. Gamaliel and his adversaries, which
        I have touched on above, proves this sufficiently. What Weiss really
        objects to, is a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">weak</span></em> authority—I mean that
        phonograph-like authority which is always busy in reproducing the
        voice of others without an opinion of its own, without originality,
        without initiative and discretion. The real authorities are those
        who, drawing their inspiration from the past, also understand how to
        reconcile us with the present and to prepare us for the future.</p>
      </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page213">[pg 213]</span><a name=
      "Pg213" id="Pg213" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
      <hr class="page" />

      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
      "margin-top: 5.00em; margin-bottom: 5.00em">
        <a name="toc19" id="toc19"></a> <a name="pdf20" id="pdf20"></a>

        <h1 class="tei tei-head" style=
        "margin-top: 3.46em; text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em">
        <span style="font-size: 173%">VIII. The Doctrine of Divine
        Retribution in Rabbinical Literature</span></h1>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Blessed be he who knows.”</span> These are the words
        with which Nachmanides, in his classical treatise, <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gate of
        Reward</span></span>, dismisses a certain theory of the Gaonim with
        regard to this question; after which he proceeds to expound another
        theory, which seems to him more satisfactory. This mode of treatment
        implies that, unsatisfactory as the one or other theory may appear to
        us, it would be presumptuous to reject either entirely, there being
        only One who knows the exact truth about the great mystery. But we
        may indicate our doubt about one doctrine by putting by its side
        another, which we may affirm to be not more absolutely true, but more
        probable. This seems to have been the attitude, too, of the compilers
        of the ancient Rabbinical literature, in which the most conflicting
        views about this grave subject were embodied. Nor did the Synagogue
        in general feel called upon to decide between these views. There is
        indeed no want of theodicies, for almost every important expounder of
        Job, as well as every Jewish philosopher of note, has one with its
        own system of retribution. Thus Judaism has no fixed doctrine on the
        subject. It refused a hearing to no theory, for fear that it should
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page214">[pg 214]</span><a name="Pg214"
        id="Pg214" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> contain some germ of truth,
        but on the same ground it accepted none to the exclusion of the
        others.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These theories
        may, perhaps, be conveniently reduced to the two following main
        doctrines that are in direct opposition to each other, whilst all
        other views about the subject will be treated as the more or less
        logical results of the one or other doctrine.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">1. There is no
        death without (preceding) sin, nor affliction without (preceding)
        transgression.<a id="noteref_156" name="noteref_156" href=
        "#note_156"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">156</span></span></a> This
        view is cited in the name of R. Ammi, who quoted in corroboration the
        verses Ez. xviii. 20, and Ps. lxxxix. 33. Though this Rabbi
        flourished towards the end of the third century, there is hardly any
        doubt that his view was held by the authorities of a much earlier
        date. For it can only be under the sway of such a notion of
        Retribution that the Tannaim were so anxious to assign some great
        crime as the antecedent to every serious calamity by which mankind
        was visited. The following illustrations will suffice:—<span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Pestilence comes into the world for capital crimes
        mentioned in the Torah, which are not brought before the earthly
        tribunal.... Noisome beasts come into the world for vain swearing and
        for profanation of the name (of God). Captivity comes upon the world
        for strange worship and incest, and for shedding of blood and for
        (not) giving release to the land.”</span> As an example of the
        misfortune befalling the individual I will merely allude to a passage
        in another tractate of the Talmud, according to which leprosy is to
        be regarded as the penalty for immorality, slander, perjury, and
        similar sins.<a id="noteref_157" name="noteref_157" href=
        "#note_157"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">157</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If we were now to
        complement R. Ammi's view by adding that there is no happiness
        without some preceding merit—and there is no serious objection to
        making this <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page215">[pg
        215]</span><a name="Pg215" id="Pg215" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        addition—then it would resolve itself into the theory of Measure for
        Measure, which forms a very common standard of reward and punishment
        in Jewish literature. Here are a few instances:—<span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Because the Egyptians wanted to destroy Israel by water
        (Exod. i. 22), they were themselves destroyed by the waters of the
        Red Sea, as it is said, Therefore I will <em class=
        "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">measure</span></em>
        their former work into their bosom (Is. lxv. 7);”</span> whilst, on
        the other hand, we read, <span class="tei tei-q">“Because Abraham
        showed himself hospitable towards strangers, providing them with
        water (Gen. xviii. 4), God gave to his children a country blessed
        with plenty of water (Deut. viii. 1).”</span> Sometimes this form of
        retribution goes so far as to define a special punishment to that
        part of the body which mostly contributed to the committing of the
        sin. Thus we read, <span class="tei tei-q">“Samson rebelled against
        God by his eyes, as it is said, Get her (the Philistine woman) for
        me, for she pleases <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">my eyes</span></em> (Judg. xvi. 21); therefore
        his <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">eyes</span></em> were put out by the Philistines
        (Judg. xviii. 9)”</span>; whilst Absalom, whose sinful pride began by
        his <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">hair</span></em> (2 Sam. xiv. 25), met his fate
        by his <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">hair</span></em> (2 Sam. xviii. 9).<a id=
        "noteref_158" name="noteref_158" href="#note_158"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">158</span></span></a> Nahum
        of Gemzo himself explained his blindness and the maimed condition of
        his arms and legs as a consequence of a specific offence in having
        neglected the duty of succouring a poor man. Addressing the dead body
        of the suppliant who perished while Nahum was delaying his help, he
        said, <span class="tei tei-q">“Let my eyes (which had no pity for
        your pitiful gaze) become blind; may my hands and legs (that did not
        hasten to help thine) become maimed, and finally my whole body be
        covered with boils.”</span><a id="noteref_159" name="noteref_159"
        href="#note_159"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">159</span></span></a>
        <span class="tei tei-q">“This was the hand that wrote it,”</span>
        said Cranmer at the stake; <span class="tei tei-q">“therefore it
        shall first suffer punishment.”</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is worth
        noticing that this retribution does not always <span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="page216">[pg 216]</span><a name="Pg216" id="Pg216"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> consist in a material reward, but, as Ben
        Azzai expressed it: <span class="tei tei-q">“The reward of a command
        is a command, and the reward of a transgression is a
        transgression.”</span><a id="noteref_160" name="noteref_160" href=
        "#note_160"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">160</span></span></a> So
        again: <span class="tei tei-q">“Because Abraham showed himself so
        magnanimous in his treatment of the king of Sodom, and said, I will
        not take from thee a thread; therefore, his children enjoyed the
        privilege of having the command of Zizith, consisting in putting a
        thread or fringe in the border of their garments.”</span> In another
        passage we read, <span class="tei tei-q">“He who is anxious to do
        acts of charity will be rewarded by having the means enabling him to
        do so.”</span><a id="noteref_161" name="noteref_161" href=
        "#note_161"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">161</span></span></a> In more
        general terms the same thought is expressed when the Rabbis explained
        the words, Ye shall sanctify yourselves, and ye shall be holy (Lev.
        xi. 44), to the effect that if man takes the initiative in holiness,
        even though in a small way, Heaven will help him to reach it to a
        much higher degree.<a id="noteref_162" name="noteref_162" href=
        "#note_162"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">162</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Notwithstanding
        these passages, to which many more might be added, it cannot be
        denied that there are in the Rabbinical literature many passages
        holding out promises of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">material</span></em> reward to the righteous as
        well as threatening the wicked with <em class=
        "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">material</span></em>
        punishment. Nor is there any need of denying it. Simple-minded
        men—and such the majority of the Rabbis were—will never be persuaded
        into looking with indifference on pain and pleasure; they will be far
        from thinking that poverty, loss of children, and sickness are no
        evil, and that a rich harvest, hope of posterity, and good health,
        are not desirable things. It <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">does</span></em> lie in our nature to consider
        the former as curses and the latter as blessings; <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“and if this be wrong there is no one to be made
        responsible for it but the Creator of nature.”</span> Accordingly the
        question must arise, How can a just and omnipotent God allow it to
        happen that men <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page217">[pg
        217]</span><a name="Pg217" id="Pg217" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        should suffer innocently? The most natural suggestion towards solving
        the difficulty would be that we are <em class=
        "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">not</span></em>
        innocent. Hence R. Ammi's assertion that affliction and death are
        both the outcome of sin and transgression; or, as R. Chanina ben
        Dossa expressed it, <span class="tei tei-q">“It is not the wild beast
        but sin which kills.”</span><a id="noteref_163" name="noteref_163"
        href="#note_163"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">163</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We may thus
        perceive in this theory an attempt <span class="tei tei-q">“to
        justify the ways of God to man.”</span> Unfortunately it does not
        correspond with the real facts. The cry wrung from the prophets
        against the peace enjoyed by the wicked, and the pains inflicted on
        the righteous, which finds its echo in so many Psalms, and reaches
        its climax in the Book of Job, was by no means silenced in the times
        of the Rabbis. If long experience could be of any use, it only served
        to deepen perplexity. For all this suffering of the people of God,
        and the prosperity of their wicked persecutors, which perplexed the
        prophets and their immediate followers, were repeated during the
        death-struggle for independence against Rome, and were not lessened
        by the establishment of Christianity as the dominant religion. The
        only comfort which time brought them was, perhaps, that the long
        continuance of misfortune made them less sensible to suffering than
        their ancestors were. Indeed, a Rabbi of the first century said that
        his generation had by continuous experience of misery become as
        insensible to pain as the dead body is to a prick of a needle.<a id=
        "noteref_164" name="noteref_164" href="#note_164"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">164</span></span></a> The
        anæsthetic effect of long suffering may, indeed, help one to endure
        pain with more patience, but it cannot serve as an apology for the
        deed of the inflictors of the pain. The question, then, how to
        reconcile hard reality with the justice of God, remained as difficult
        as ever.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page218">[pg
        218]</span><a name="Pg218" id="Pg218" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The most important
        passage in Rabbinical literature relating to the solution of this
        problem is the following:—With reference to Exod. xxxiii. 13, R.
        Johanan said, in the name of R. José, that, among other things, Moses
        also asked God to explain to him the method of his Providence, a
        request that was granted to him. He asked God, Why are there
        righteous people who are prosperous, and righteous who suffer; wicked
        who are prosperous and wicked who suffer? The answer given to him
        was, according to the one view, that the prosperity of the wicked and
        the suffering of the righteous are a result of the conduct of their
        ancestors, the former being the descendants of righteous parents and
        enjoying their merits, whilst the latter, coming from a bad stock,
        suffer for the sins of those to whom they owe their existence. This
        view was suggested by the Scriptural words, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Keeping mercy for thousands (of generations) ...
        visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children”</span> (Exod.
        xxxiv. 7), which were regarded as the answer to Moses' question in
        the preceding chapter of Exodus.<a id="noteref_165" name=
        "noteref_165" href="#note_165"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">165</span></span></a>
        Prevalent, however, as this view may have been in ancient times, the
        Rabbis never allowed it to pass without some qualification. It is
        true that they had no objection to the former part of this doctrine,
        and they speak very frequently of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Merits
        of the Fathers”</span> for which the remotest posterity is rewarded;
        for this could be explained on the ground of the boundless goodness
        of God, which cannot be limited to the short space of a lifetime. But
        there was no possibility of overcoming the moral objection against
        punishment of people for sins they have not committed.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It will suffice to
        mention here that, with reference to Joshua vii. 24, 25, the Rabbis
        asked the question, If he <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page219">[pg
        219]</span><a name="Pg219" id="Pg219" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        (Achan) sinned, what justification could there be for putting his
        sons and daughters to death? And by the force of this argument they
        interpreted the words of the Scriptures to mean that the children of
        the criminal were only compelled to be present at the execution of
        their father.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Such passages,
        therefore, as would imply that children have to suffer for the sins
        of their parents are explained by the Rabbis as referring to cases in
        which the children perpetuate the crimes of their fathers.<a id=
        "noteref_166" name="noteref_166" href="#note_166"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">166</span></span></a> The
        view of R. José, which I have already quoted, had, therefore, to be
        dropped, and another version in the name of the same Rabbi is
        accepted. According to this theory the sufferer is a person either
        <span class="tei tei-q">“entirely wicked”</span> or <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“not perfectly righteous,”</span> whilst the prosperous
        man is a person either <span class="tei tei-q">“perfectly
        righteous,”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“not entirely
        wicked.”</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is hardly
        necessary to say that there is still something wanting to supplement
        this view, for the given classification would place the not entirely
        wicked on the same level with the perfectly righteous, and on a much
        higher level than the imperfectly righteous, who are undoubtedly far
        superior. The following passage may be regarded as supplying this
        missing something:—<span class="tei tei-q">“The wicked who have done
        some good work are as amply rewarded for it in <em class=
        "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">this</span></em>
        world as if they were men who have fulfilled the whole of the Torah,
        so that they may be punished for their sins in the next world
        (without interruption); whilst the righteous who have committed some
        sin have to suffer for it (in this world) as if "they were men who
        burned the Law,”</span> so that they may enjoy their reward in the
        world to come (without interruption).<a id="noteref_167" name=
        "noteref_167" href="#note_167"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">167</span></span></a> Thus
        the real retribution takes place in the next world, the fleeting
        existence on earth not being the fit time either to compensate
        righteousness <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page220">[pg
        220]</span><a name="Pg220" id="Pg220" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> or
        to punish sin. But as, on the one hand, God never allows <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“that the merit of any creature should be cut
        short,”</span> whilst, on the other hand, He deals very severely with
        the righteous, punishing them for the slightest transgression; since,
        too, this reward and punishment are only of short duration, they must
        take place in this short terrestrial existence. There is thus
        established a sort of divine economy, lest the harmony of the next
        world should be disturbed.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Yet another
        objection to the doctrine under discussion remains to be noticed. It
        is that it justifies God by accusing man, declaring every sufferer as
        more or less of a sinner. But such a notion, if carried to its last
        consequences, must result in tempting us to withhold our sympathies
        from him. And, indeed, it would seem that there were some non-Jewish
        philosophers who argued in this way. Thus a certain Roman official is
        reported to have said to R. Akiba, <span class="tei tei-q">“How can
        you be so eager in helping the poor? Suppose only a king, who, in his
        wrath against his slave, were to set him in the gaol, and give orders
        to withhold from him food and drink; if, then, one dared to act to
        the contrary, would not the king be angry with him?”</span><a id=
        "noteref_168" name="noteref_168" href="#note_168"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">168</span></span></a> There
        is some appearance of logic in this notion put into the mouth of a
        heathen. The Rabbis, however, were inconsistent people, and responded
        to the appeal which suffering makes to every human heart without
        asking too many questions. Without entering here into the topic of
        charity in the Rabbinic literature, which would form a very
        interesting chapter, I shall only allude now to the following
        incident, which would show that the Rabbis did not abandon even those
        afflicted with leprosy, which, according to their own <span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="page221">[pg 221]</span><a name="Pg221" id="Pg221"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> notion, given above, followed only as a
        punishment for the worst crimes. One Friday, we are told, when the
        day was about to darken, the Chassid Abba Tachnah was returning home,
        bearing on his shoulders the baggage that contained all his fortune;
        he saw a leprous man lying on the road, who addressed him:
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Rabbi, do me a deed of charity and take me
        into the town.”</span> The Rabbi now thought, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“If I leave my baggage, where shall I find the means of
        obtaining subsistence for myself and my family? But if I forsake this
        leprous man I shall commit a mortal sin.”</span> In the end, he
        allowed the good inclination to prevail over the evil one, and first
        carried the sufferer to the town.<a id="noteref_169" name=
        "noteref_169" href="#note_169"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">169</span></span></a> The
        only practical conclusion that the Rabbis drew from such theories as
        identify suffering with sin were for the sufferer himself, who
        otherwise might be inclined to blame Providence, or even to
        blaspheme, but would now look upon his affliction as a reminder from
        heaven that there is something wrong in his moral state. Thus we read
        in tractate <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Berachoth</span></span>:<a id="noteref_170"
        name="noteref_170" href="#note_170"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">170</span></span></a>
        <span class="tei tei-q">“If a man sees that affliction comes upon
        him, he ought to inquire into his actions, as it is said, Let us
        search and try our ways, and turn again to the Lord (Lam. iii.
        40).”</span> This means to say that the sufferer will find that he
        has been guilty of some offence. As an illustration of this statement
        we may perhaps consider the story about R. Huna, occurring in the
        same tractate.<a id="noteref_171" name="noteref_171" href=
        "#note_171"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">171</span></span></a> Of this
        Rabbi it is said that he once experienced heavy pecuniary losses,
        whereupon his friends came to his house and said to him, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Let the master but examine his conduct a little
        closer.”</span> On this R. Huna answered, <span class="tei tei-q">“Do
        you suspect me of having committed some misdeed?”</span> His friends
        rejoined, <span class="tei tei-q">“And do you think that God would
        pass judgment without <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page222">[pg
        222]</span><a name="Pg222" id="Pg222" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        justice?”</span> R. Huna then followed their hint, and found that he
        did not treat his tenant farmer so generously as he ought. He offered
        redress, and all turned out well in the end. Something similar is to
        be found in the story of the martyrdom of R. Simeon ben Gamaliel and
        R. Ishmael ben Elisha. Of these Rabbis we are told that on their way
        to be executed the one said to the other, <span class="tei tei-q">“My
        heart leaves me, for I am not aware of a sin deserving such a
        death”</span>; on which the other answered, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“It might have happened that in your function as judge
        you sometimes—for your own convenience—were slow in administering
        justice.”</span><a id="noteref_172" name="noteref_172" href=
        "#note_172"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">172</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But even if the
        personal actions of the righteous were blameless, there might still
        be sufficient ground for his being afflicted and miserable. This may
        be found in his relations to his kind and surroundings, or, to use
        the term now more popular, by reason of human solidarity. Now, after
        the above remarks on the objections entertained by the Rabbis against
        a man's being punished for the sins of others, it is hardly necessary
        to say that their idea of solidarity has little in common with the
        crude notions of it current in very ancient times. Still, it can
        hardly be doubted that the relation of the individual to the
        community was more keenly felt by the Rabbis than by the leaders in
        any other society, modern or ancient. According to the view given by
        an ancient Rabbi whose name is unknown, it would, indeed, seem that
        to them the individual was not simply a member of the Jewish
        commonwealth, or a co-religionist, but a limb of the great and single
        body <span class="tei tei-q">“Israel,”</span> and that as such he
        communicated both for good and evil the sensations of the one part to
        the whole. In the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Midrash</span></span>, where a parallel is to be
        found to this idea, the responsibility <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page223">[pg 223]</span><a name="Pg223" id="Pg223" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> of the individual towards the community is
        further illustrated by R. Simeon ben Yochai, in the following way:
        <span class="tei tei-q">“It is,”</span> we read there, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“to be compared to people sitting on board a ship, one of
        the passengers of which took an awl and began to bore holes in the
        bottom of the vessel. Asked to desist from his dangerous occupation,
        he answered, <span class="tei tei-q">‘Why, I am only making holes on
        my own seat,’</span> forgetting that when the water came in it would
        sink the whole ship.”</span> Thus the sin of a single man might
        endanger the whole of humanity. It was in conformity with the view of
        his father that R. Eliezer, the son of R. Simeon (ben Yochai) said,
        <span class="tei tei-q">“The world is judged after the merits or
        demerits of the majority, so that a single individual by his good or
        bad actions can decide the fate of his fellow-creatures, as it may
        happen that he is just the one who constitutes this
        majority.”</span><a id="noteref_173" name="noteref_173" href=
        "#note_173"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">173</span></span></a> Nor
        does this responsibility cease with the man's own actions. According
        to the Rabbis man is responsible even for the conduct of others—and
        as such liable to punishment—if he is indifferent to the wrong that
        is being perpetrated about him, whilst an energetic protest from his
        side could have prevented it. And the greater the man the greater is
        his responsibility. He may suffer for the sins of his family which is
        first reached by his influence; he may suffer for the sins of the
        whole community if he could hope to find a willing ear among them,
        and he may even suffer for the sins of the whole world if his
        influence extend so far, and he forbear from exerting it for
        good.<a id="noteref_174" name="noteref_174" href=
        "#note_174"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">174</span></span></a> Thus
        the possibility is given that the righteous man may suffer with
        justice, though he himself has never committed any transgression.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As a much higher
        aspect of this solidarity—and as may have already suggested itself to
        the reader from the passage <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page224">[pg
        224]</span><a name="Pg224" id="Pg224" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        cited above from the anonymous Rabbi—we may regard the suffering of
        the righteous as an atonement for the sins of their contemporaries.
        <span class="tei tei-q">“When there will be neither Tabernacle nor
        the Holy Temple,”</span> Moses is said to have asked God,
        <span class="tei tei-q">“what will become of Israel?”</span>
        Whereupon God answers, <span class="tei tei-q">“I will take from
        among them the righteous man whom I shall consider as pledged for
        them, and will forgive all their sins;”</span> the death of the
        perfect man, or even his suffering being looked upon as an expiation
        for the shortcoming of his generation.<a id="noteref_175" name=
        "noteref_175" href="#note_175"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">175</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is hardly
        necessary to remind the reader of the affinity of this idea with that
        of sacrifices in general, as in both cases it is the innocent being
        which has to suffer for the sins of another creature. But there is
        one vital point which makes all the difference. It is that in our
        case the suffering is not enforced, but is a voluntary act on the
        part of the sacrifice, and is even desired by him. Without entering
        here on the often-discussed theme of the suffering of the Messiah, I
        need only mention the words of R. Ishmael who, on a very slight
        provocation, exclaimed, <span class="tei tei-q">“I am the atonement
        for the Jews,”</span> which means that he took upon him all their
        sins to suffer for them.<a id="noteref_176" name="noteref_176" href=
        "#note_176"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">176</span></span></a> This
        desire seems to have its origin in nothing else than a deep sympathy
        and compassion with Israel. To suffer <em class=
        "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">for</span></em>, or,
        at least <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">with</span></em> Israel was, according to the
        Rabbis, already the ideal of Moses. He is said, indeed, to have
        broken the Two Tables with the purpose of committing some sin, so
        that he would have either to be condemned together with Israel (for
        the sin of the golden calf), or to be pardoned together with
        them.<a id="noteref_177" name="noteref_177" href=
        "#note_177"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">177</span></span></a> And
        this conduct was expected not only from the leaders of Israel, but
        almost from every Jew. <span class="tei tei-q">“When Israel is in a
        state of affliction (as, for instance, famine) one <span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="page225">[pg 225]</span><a name="Pg225" id="Pg225"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> must not say, I will rather live by
        myself, and eat and drink, and peace be unto thee, my soul. To those
        who do so the words of the Scriptures are to be applied: And in that
        day did the Lord God of Hosts call to weeping and to mourning, ...
        and behold joy and gladness.... Surely this iniquity shall not be
        purged out from you till ye die”</span> (Is. xxii. 12-14). Another
        passage is to the effect that, when a man shows himself indifferent
        to the suffering of the community, there come the two angels (who
        accompany every Jew), put their hands on his head, and say,
        <span class="tei tei-q">“This man who has separated himself shall be
        excluded from their consolations.”</span><a id="noteref_178" name=
        "noteref_178" href="#note_178"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">178</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We might now
        characterise this sort of suffering as the chastisement of love (of
        the righteous) to mankind, or rather to Israel. But we must not
        confuse it with the Chastisement of Love often mentioned in the
        Talmud, though this idea also seems calculated to account for the
        suffering of the righteous. Here the love is not on the side of the
        sufferer, but proceeds from him who inflicts this suffering.
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Him,”</span> says R. Huna, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“in whom God delights he crushes with suffering.”</span>
        As a proof of this theory the words of Is. liii. 10 are given, which
        are interpreted to mean: him whom the Lord delights in He puts to
        grief. Another passage, by the same authority, is to the effect that
        where there is no sufficient cause for punishment (the man being
        entirely free from sin), we have to regard his suffering as a
        chastisement of love, for it is said: <span class="tei tei-q">“Whom
        the Lord loveth He correcteth”</span> (Proverbs iii. 11).<a id=
        "noteref_179" name="noteref_179" href="#note_179"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">179</span></span></a> To what
        purpose He corrects him may, perhaps, be seen from the following
        passage: <span class="tei tei-q">“R. Eleazar ben Jacob says: If a man
        is visited by affliction he has to be thankful to God for it: for
        suffering draws man to, and <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page226">[pg
        226]</span><a name="Pg226" id="Pg226" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        reconciles him with God, as it is said: For whom God loveth he
        correcteth.”</span><a id="noteref_180" name="noteref_180" href=
        "#note_180"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">180</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is in
        conformity with such a high conception that affliction, far from
        being dreaded, becomes almost a desirable end, and we hear many
        Rabbis exclaim, <span class="tei tei-q">“Beloved is
        suffering,”</span> for by it fatherly love is shown to man by God; by
        it man obtains purification and atonement, by it Israel came in
        possession of the best gifts, such as the Torah, the Holy Land, and
        eternal life.<a id="noteref_181" name="noteref_181" href=
        "#note_181"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">181</span></span></a> And so
        also the sufferer, far from being considered as a man with a
        suspected past, becomes an object of veneration, on whom the glory of
        God rests, and he brings salvation to the world if he bears his
        affliction with joyful submission to the will of God.<a id=
        "noteref_182" name="noteref_182" href="#note_182"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">182</span></span></a>
        Continuous prosperity is by no means to be longed after, for, as R.
        Ishmael taught, <span class="tei tei-q">“He who has passed forty days
        without meeting adversity has already received his (share of the)
        world (to come) in this life.”</span><a id="noteref_183" name=
        "noteref_183" href="#note_183"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">183</span></span></a> Nay,
        the standing rule is that the really righteous suffer, whilst the
        wicked are supposed to be in a prosperous state. Thus, R. Jannai
        said, <span class="tei tei-q">“We (average people) enjoy neither the
        prosperity of the wicked nor the afflictions of the
        righteous,”</span><a id="noteref_184" name="noteref_184" href=
        "#note_184"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">184</span></span></a> whilst
        his contemporary, Rab, declared that he who experiences no affliction
        and persecution does not belong to them (the Jews).<a id=
        "noteref_185" name="noteref_185" href="#note_185"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">185</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">2. The second main
        view on Retribution is that recorded by the Rabbis as in direct
        opposition to that of R. Ammi. It is that there is suffering as well
        as death without sin and transgression. We may now just as well infer
        that there is prosperity and happiness without preceding merits. And
        this is, indeed, the view held by R. Meir. For in contradiction to
        the view cited above, R. Meir declares that the request of Moses to
        have <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page227">[pg 227]</span><a name=
        "Pg227" id="Pg227" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> explained to him the
        mysterious ways of Providence was <em class=
        "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">not</span></em>
        granted, and the answer he received was, <span class="tei tei-q">“And
        I will shew mercy on whom I will shew mercy”</span> (Exod. xxxiii.
        19), which means to say, even though he to whom the mercy is shown be
        unworthy of it. The old question arises how such a procedure is to be
        reconciled with the justice and omnipotence of God. The commentaries
        try to evade the difficulty by suggesting some of the views given
        above, as that the real reward and punishment are only in the world
        to come, or that the affliction of the righteous is only chastisement
        of love, and so on. From the passages I am about to quote, however,
        one gains the impression that some Rabbis rather thought that this
        great problem will indeed not bear discussion or solution at all.
        Thus we have the legend: <span class="tei tei-q">“The angels said to
        God, why have you punished Adam with death? He answered, On account
        of his having transgressed my commandment (with regard to the eating
        of the tree of knowledge). But why had Moses and Aaron to die? The
        reply given to them is the words, Eccl. ix. 2: <span class=
        "tei tei-q">‘All things come alike to all; there is one event to the
        righteous and to the wicked, to the good and to the clean and to the
        unclean.’</span> ”</span><a id="noteref_186" name="noteref_186" href=
        "#note_186"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">186</span></span></a> Another
        legend records, <span class="tei tei-q">“When Moses ascended to
        heaven, God showed him also the great men of futurity. R. Akiba was
        sitting and interpreting the law in a most wonderful way. Moses said
        to God: Thou hast shown me his worth, show me also his reward; on
        which he is bidden to look back. There he perceives him dying the
        most cruel of deaths, and his flesh being sold by weight. Moses now
        asks: Is this the reward of such a life? whereupon God answers him:
        Be silent; this I have determined.”</span><a id="noteref_187" name=
        "noteref_187" href="#note_187"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">187</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb"
        id="page228">[pg 228]</span><a name="Pg228" id="Pg228" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is impossible
        not to think of the fine lines of the German poet:—</p>

        <div class="block tei tei-quote" style=
        "margin-right: 3.60em; margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em">
        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em">
            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Warum schleppt sich blutend,
              elend,</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Unter Kreuzlast der
              Gerechte,</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Während glücklich als ein
              Sieger</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Trabt auf hohem Ross der
              Schlechte?</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
          "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em">
            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Also fragen wir beständig,</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Bis man uns mit einer
              Handvoll</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Erde endlich stopft die
              Mäuler—</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Aber ist das eine Antwort?</span>
            </div>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Still, one might
        perhaps suggest that these passages when examined a little closer,
        not only contain a rebuke to man's importunity in wanting to intrude
        into the secrets of God, but also hint at the possibility that even
        God's omnipotence is submitted to a certain law—though designed by
        His own holy will—which He could not alter without detriment to the
        whole creation. Indeed, in one of the mystical accounts of the
        martyrdom of R. Akiba and other great Rabbis, God is represented as
        asking the sufferers to accept His hard decree without protest,
        unless they wish Him to destroy the whole world. In another place
        again, we read of a certain renowned Rabbi, who lived in great
        poverty, that once in a dream he asked the divine Shechinah how long
        he would have still to endure this bitter privation? The answer given
        to him was: <span class="tei tei-q">“My son, will it please you that
        I destroy the world for your sake?”</span><a id="noteref_188" name=
        "noteref_188" href="#note_188"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">188</span></span></a> It is
        only in this light that we shall be able to understand such passages
        in the Rabbinic literature as that God almost suffers Himself when He
        has to inflict punishment either on the individual or on whole
        communities. Thus God is represented as mourning for <span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="page229">[pg 229]</span><a name="Pg229" id="Pg229"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> seven days (as in the case when one loses
        a child) before He brought the deluge on the world; He bemoans the
        fall of Israel and the destruction of the Temple, and the Shechinah
        laments even when the criminal suffers his just punishment. And it is
        not by rebelling against these laws that He tries to redeem His
        suffering. He himself has recourse to prayer, and says: <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“May it be my will that my mercy conquer my wrath, that
        my love over-rule my strict justice, so that I may treat my children
        with love.”</span><a id="noteref_189" name="noteref_189" href=
        "#note_189"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">189</span></span></a> If now
        man is equal to God, he has nevertheless, or rather on that account,
        to submit to the law of God without any outlook for reward or
        punishment; or, as Antigonos expressed it, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Be not as slaves that minister to the Lord with a view
        to receive recompense.”</span><a id="noteref_190" name="noteref_190"
        href="#note_190"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">190</span></span></a>
        Certainly it would be hazardous to maintain that Antigonos's saying
        was a consequence of this doctrine; but, at any rate, we see a clear
        tendency to keep the thought of reward (in spite of the prominent
        part it holds in the Bible) out of view. Still more clearly is it
        seen when, with reference to Ps. cxii., <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Blessed is the man ... that delighteth greatly in his
        commandments,”</span> Rabbi Eleazar remarks that the meaning is that
        the man desires only to do His commandments, but he does not want the
        rewards connected with them.<a id="noteref_191" name="noteref_191"
        href="#note_191"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">191</span></span></a> This is
        the more remarkable, as the whole contents of this psalm are nothing
        else than a long series of promises of various rewards, so that the
        explanation of Rabbi Eleazar is in almost direct contradiction to the
        simple meaning of the words. On the other hand, also, every complaint
        about suffering must cease. Not only is affliction no direct
        chastisement by God in the way of revenge; but even when it would
        seem to us that we suffer innocently, we have no right to murmur, as
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page230">[pg 230]</span><a name="Pg230"
        id="Pg230" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> God himself is also suffering,
        and, as the Talmud expresses it, <span class="tei tei-q">“It is
        enough for the slave to be in the position of his
        master.”</span><a id="noteref_192" name="noteref_192" href=
        "#note_192"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">192</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This thought of
        the compassion—in its strictest sense of fellow-suffering—of God with
        His creatures becomes a new motive for avoiding sin. <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Woe to the wicked,”</span> exclaims a Rabbi,
        <span class="tei tei-q">“who by their bad actions turn the mercy of
        God into strict justice.”</span><a id="noteref_193" name=
        "noteref_193" href="#note_193"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">193</span></span></a> And the
        later mystics explain distinctly that the great crime of sin consists
        in causing pain, so to speak, to the Shechinah. One of them compared
        it with the slave who abuses the goodness of his master so far as to
        buy with his money arms to wound him. But, on the other hand, it
        becomes, rather inconsistently, also a new source of comfort; for, in
        the end, God will have to redeem Himself from this suffering, which
        cannot be accomplished so long as Israel is still under
        punishment.<a id="noteref_194" name="noteref_194" href=
        "#note_194"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">194</span></span></a> Most
        interesting is the noble prayer by a Rabbi of a very late mystical
        school: <span class="tei tei-q">“O God, speedily bring about the
        redemption. I am not in the least thinking of what I may gain by it.
        I am willing to be condemned to all tortures in hell, if only the
        Shechinah will cease to suffer.”</span><a id="noteref_195" name=
        "noteref_195" href="#note_195"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">195</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If we were now to
        ask for the attitude of the Synagogue towards these two main views,
        we should have to answer that—as already hinted at the opening of
        this paper—it never decided for the one or the other. R. David Rocca
        Martino dared even to write a whole book in Defence of Adam proving
        that he committed no sin in eating the fruit of the tree of knowledge
        against the literal sense of the Scriptures, which were also taken by
        the Rabbis literally.<a id="noteref_196" name="noteref_196" href=
        "#note_196"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">196</span></span></a> By this
        he destroyed the prospects of many a theodicy, but it is not known to
        me that he was severely <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page231">[pg
        231]</span><a name="Pg231" id="Pg231" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        rebuked for it. It has been said by a great writer that the best
        theology is that which is not consistent, and this advantage the
        theology of the Synagogue possesses to its utmost extent. It accepted
        with R. Ammi the stern principle of divine retribution, in as far as
        it makes man feel the responsibility of his actions, and makes
        suffering a discipline. But it never allowed this principle to be
        carried so far as to deny the sufferer our sympathy, and by a series
        of conscious and unconscious modifications, he passed from the state
        of a sinner into the zenith of the saint and the perfectly righteous
        man. But, on the other hand, the Synagogue also gave entrance to the
        very opposite view which, abandoning every attempt to account for
        suffering, bids man do his duty without any hope of reward, even as
        God also does His. Hence the remarkable phenomenon in the works of
        later Jewish moralists, that, whilst they never weary of the most
        detailed accounts of the punishments awaiting the sinner and the
        rewards in store for the righteous, they warn us most emphatically
        that our actions must not be guided by these unworthy considerations,
        and that our only motive should be the love of God and submission to
        His holy will.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Nor must it be
        thought that the views of the Rabbis are so widely divergent from
        those enunciated in the Bible. The germ of almost all the later ideas
        is already to be found in the Scriptures. It only needed the process
        of time to bring into prominence those features which proved at a
        later period most acceptable. Indeed, it would seem that there is
        also a sort of domestication of religious ideas. On their first
        association with man there is a certain rude violence about them
        which, when left to the management of untutored minds, would
        certainly <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page232">[pg
        232]</span><a name="Pg232" id="Pg232" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> do
        great harm. But, let only this association last for centuries, during
        which these ideas have to be subdued by practical use, and they will,
        in due time, lose their former roughness, will become theologically
        workable, and turn out the greatest blessing to inconsistent
        humanity.</p>
      </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page233">[pg 233]</span><a name=
      "Pg233" id="Pg233" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
      <hr class="page" />

      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
      "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
        <a name="toc21" id="toc21"></a> <a name="pdf22" id="pdf22"></a>

        <h1 class="tei tei-head" style=
        "margin-top: 3.46em; text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em">
        <span style="font-size: 173%">IX. The Law And Recent
        Criticism</span><a id="noteref_197" name="noteref_197" href=
        "#note_197"><span class="tei tei-noteref" style=
        "text-align: left"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">197</span></span></a></h1>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Professor Toy's
        work, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Judaism and Christianity</span></span>, gives an
        admirable conspectus of the results of the modern critical school in
        their bearing on the genesis of Christianity. The author takes
        various important doctrines of Christianity, traces them back to
        their origin in Israelitism, pursues their course through their
        various phases in Judaism, until they reach their final development
        in the teaching of Jesus and His disciples, which, in the author's
        judgment, is the consummation of that which the prophets and their
        successors had to give to the world. Laying so much stress as
        Professor Toy does on the saying, <span class="tei tei-q">“By their
        fruits shall ye know them,”</span> he ought also, perhaps, to have
        told us what, in the course of time, has become of these several
        doctrines. For when, for instance, with regard to the doctrine of
        original sin, he remarks that <span class="tei tei-q">“in certain
        systems of Christian theology the human race is involved in the
        condemnation of the first man”</span> (p. 185, n. 1); or that, in the
        New Testament, <span class="tei tei-q">“the demand for a mediating
        power between God and humanity is pushed to the farthest point which
        thought can occupy consistently with the maintenance of the
        absoluteness of the one Supreme Deity”</span> (p. 121), he is rather
        evading a difficulty than answering it. Such elaboration would,
        however, have been outside <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page234">[pg
        234]</span><a name="Pg234" id="Pg234" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the
        scope of Professor Toy's book, which claims only to be a sketch of
        the progress of thought from the Old Testament to the New. For his
        own solution of the indicated difficulty, Toy, to judge from his
        liberal standpoint, would probably refer us to Dr. Hatch's Hibbert
        lectures; the issue of such an appeal must, I imagine, remain for
        long doubtful and disputed.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A delightful
        characteristic of Toy's book is its transparent clearness and
        sobriety, which will make it interesting reading, even to those who
        are acquainted with the writer's authorities in their original
        sources. Almost entirely new, as well as most suggestive, is the
        justice which Toy does to the law in recognising it as a factor for
        good in the history of religion. In this point Toy is not only up to
        his date, but beyond it. It is true that even the Pharisees have made
        some advance in the estimation of the liberal school. They are no
        longer condemned <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">en masse</span></span> as so many hypocrites. It
        is even admitted that there were a few honest men among them, such as
        Rabban Gamaliel, the teacher of Paul, or R. Akiba, the patriot of
        Bethar. We are now too polite to be personal. But with regard to the
        law, on the other hand, there is at present a markedly opposite
        tendency. The general idea seems to be that, as the doctrine of the
        resurrection of Christ must be loosely interpreted in a spiritual
        sense, it must logically have been preceded by a universal spiritual
        death, and the germs of the disease which brought this death about
        are to be sought for in the law. Hence the strained efforts to
        discover in the law the source of all religious evil,—cant,
        hypocrisy, formalism, externalism, transcendentalism, and as many
        <span class="tei tei-q">“isms”</span> more, of bad
        reputation.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page235">[pg
        235]</span><a name="Pg235" id="Pg235" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was probably
        with this current representation of the law in view that Toy, when
        speaking of the Levitical legislation, and of its fixing <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“men's minds on ceremonial details which, in some cases,
        it put into the same category and on the same level with moral
        duties,”</span> asks the question: <span class="tei tei-q">“Would
        there not thence result a dimming of the moral sense and a confusion
        of moral distinctions? The ethical attitude of a man who could regard
        a failure in the routine of sacrifice as not less blameworthy than an
        act of theft cannot be called a lofty one”</span> (p. 186). The
        answer which he gives is more favourable than such a leading question
        would induce us to expect. He tells us that, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“in point of fact, the result was different”</span>
        (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">ibid</span></span>). <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“The Levitical law is not to be looked on as a mere
        extension and organisation of the ritual.... Its ritual was, in great
        part, the organised expression of the consciousness of sin”</span>
        (p. 226). Of the law in general Toy says that it had <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“larger consequences than its mere details would
        suggest,”</span> for it <span class="tei tei-q">“cultivated the moral
        sense of the people into results above its mechanical
        prescriptions,”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“it developed the
        sense of sin, as Paul points out”</span> (Gal. iii. 19), <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“and therewith a freer feeling, which brought the soul
        into more immediate contact with God”</span> (p. 227); whilst in
        another place he reminds us <span class="tei tei-q">“that much of the
        law is moral, and that no one could fail to see a spiritual
        significance beneath its letter”</span> (p. 245), and he even admits
        that <span class="tei tei-q">“the great legal schools which grew up
        in the second century, if we may judge by the sayings of the teachers
        which have come down to us, did not fail to discriminate between the
        outward and the inward, the ceremonial and the moral”</span> (p.
        186).</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These and similar
        passages will suffice to show that <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page236">[pg 236]</span><a name="Pg236" id="Pg236" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> Toy's estimate of the law is a very different
        one from that of Smend and his school. However, it must not be
        supposed that he is not on the look-out for the germs of the disease.
        He must find these germs somewhere, or else the progress, which his
        book is intended to illustrate, would be difficult to detect. And
        thus he repeats the old accusations, though not without
        modification.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Professor Toy's
        objections may, perhaps, be summed up in the passage in which he
        represents the Jewish law as <span class="tei tei-q">“an attempt to
        define all the beliefs and acts of life”</span> (p. 239), or as
        <span class="tei tei-q">“the embodiment of devotion to a fixed rule
        of belief and conduct”</span> (p. 237). Toy does not entirely condemn
        this system, and even speaks of it as a <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“lofty attempt”</span> (p. 239); but, on the whole, he
        considers that it must have resulted in bad theology, as well as in
        doubtful conduct. Without following Professor Toy over the whole area
        of his investigations, which would require a volume for itself, I
        will only take the opportunity of making a few general remarks upon
        the nature and character of this legal system, which seems to hold
        the key to the spiritual history of Judaism.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">First, as to its
        theology, Toy's description of the law as an attempt to define all
        the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">beliefs</span></em> of life—an assertion which
        is also made by Schürer—is not wholly accurate. For such an attempt
        was never made by Judaism. The few dogmas which Judaism possesses,
        such as the Existence of God, Providence, Reward, and
        Punishment—without which no revealed religion is conceivable—can
        hardly be called a creed in the modern sense of the term, which
        implies something external and foreign to man's own knowledge, and
        received only in deference to the weight of authority. To the Jew of
        the Christian era, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page237">[pg
        237]</span><a name="Pg237" id="Pg237" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        these simpler dogmas were so self-evident that it would have cost him
        the greatest effort <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">not</span></em> to believe them. Hence the fact
        that, whilst there have come down to us so many controverted points
        between the Sadducees and Pharisees with regard to certain juristic
        and ritual questions, we know of only one of an essentially dogmatic
        character, viz. the dispute concerning the Resurrection.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is thus
        difficult to imagine to what Professor Toy can be alluding when he
        speaks of the <span class="tei tei-q">“interest they (the Jews) threw
        into the discussion and determination of minutiæ of faith”</span> (p.
        241). Discussions upon <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">minutiæ</span></em> of faith are only to be read
        in the works of the later schoolmen (as Saadiah, Maimonides and their
        followers), in which such subtle problems as <span lang="la" class=
        "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Creatio ex nihilo</span></span>, the origin of
        evil, predestination, free will and similar subjects are examined;
        but this period is very distant from that with which Toy is
        concerned. The older schools and the so-called houses of Shammai and
        Hillel, most of whose members were the contemporaries of the
        Apostles, show very little predilection for such <em class=
        "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">minutiæ</span></em>.
        Their discussions and differences of opinion about ritual matters are
        very numerous, scattered as they are over the whole of the ancient
        Rabbinic literature, but I can only remember two of a metaphysical
        character, or touching upon the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">minutiæ</span></em> of faith. The one, dealing
        with the efficacy of certain sacrifices, discusses whether it only
        extends to the remission of the pending punishment for sins, or also
        includes their purification and washing away; the other considers the
        question whether it would not have been better for man not to have
        been created.<a id="noteref_198" name="noteref_198" href=
        "#note_198"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">198</span></span></a> But
        this latter controversy, which is said to have lasted for two years
        and a half, by no means led to any big metaphysical or <span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="page238">[pg 238]</span><a name="Pg238" id="Pg238"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> theological system, but only to the
        practical advice that, as we have been created, we ought to be
        watchful over our conduct. It is, indeed, a noteworthy feature of
        Judaism that theological speculations have never resulted in the
        formulation of any imposing or universal doctrine, but usually in
        divers ceremonial practices. To give one illustration: according to
        Professor Toy (p. 210) the conclusion which the author of 1 Tim. ii.
        11-14 draws from the fact that woman was the immediate agent of the
        introduction of sin was the subordination of her sex. The Rabbis also
        noticed the same fact, and in their less abstract language speak of
        woman as having brought death and grief into the world; but the
        conclusion which they drew was that since woman had extinguished the
        <span class="tei tei-q">“light of the world,”</span> she ought to
        atone for it by lighting the candles for the Sabbath.<a id=
        "noteref_199" name="noteref_199" href="#note_199"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">199</span></span></a> Nor is
        Toy quite correct when he maintains that the conception of the Memra
        as Creator and Lord, etc., and as <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“representative of the immediate divine activity,”</span>
        did not keep its hold on Jewish thought, having been discarded in the
        later literature (p. 104). For the Shechinah of the Talmud, the
        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Metatron</span></span><a id="noteref_200" name=
        "noteref_200" href="#note_200"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">200</span></span></a> of the
        Gaonic-mystical literature, the Active Intelligence of the
        philosophical schools, as well as the Ten Sephiroth<a id=
        "noteref_201" name="noteref_201" href="#note_201"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">201</span></span></a>
        (Emanations) of the Cabbalists, all owe their existence to the same
        theosophic scruples and subtleties in which the Logos of Philo and
        the Memra<a id="noteref_202" name="noteref_202" href=
        "#note_202"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">202</span></span></a> of the
        Targums originated. Thus, they always kept—though under various
        forms—their hold on the Jewish mind. Judaism was always broad enough
        to accommodate itself to these formulæ, which for the one may mean
        the most holy mysteries, and for the other empty and meaningless
        catchwords. The objection—in fact, the active opposition—of the
        Synagogue began when <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page239">[pg
        239]</span><a name="Pg239" id="Pg239" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        these possible or impossible explanations of the universe tended to
        transgress the bounds of abstract speculation, and, passing over into
        real concrete beings, to be worshipped as such. An instance from
        comparatively modern times might be found in one of the vagaries of
        the followers of the Pseudo-Messiah, Shabbethai Tsebi. For many
        generations the controversy had raged among the Cabbalists, whether
        the first of the above-mentioned Ten Emanations (called by some
        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Original
        Adam</span></span>, by others, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Crown</span></span><a id="noteref_203" name=
        "noteref_203" href="#note_203"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">203</span></span></a>) is to
        be considered as a part of the Deity or as something separate, and so
        to speak, having a reality in itself. The danger of establishing a
        Being near the Deity, having an existence of its own and invested
        with divine attributes, could not have escaped the thoughtful, and
        there are indeed some indications to this effect. The Synagogue as
        such, however, remained during the whole controversy strictly
        neutral, and allowed these theosophists to fight in the air as much
        as they liked. But the moment that the sect of Shabbethai Tsebi
        identified the incarnate Original Adam with their leader, and
        worshipped him as a sort of God-Messiah, the Synagogue at once took
        up a hostile attitude against those who separated God from His world,
        and, declaring Shabbethai Tsebi and his followers to be apostates,
        excluded them from Judaism for ever.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Nor can it be
        proved that legalism or nomism has ever tended to suppress the
        spiritual side of religion, either in respect of consciousness of
        sin, or of individual love and devotion. With an equal logic quite
        the opposite might be argued. Professor Toy tells us himself that it
        is no <span class="tei tei-q">“accident that along with this more
        definite expression of ethical-religious law we find the first traces
        of a more <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page240">[pg
        240]</span><a name="Pg240" id="Pg240" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        spiritual conception of righteousness in the <span class=
        "tei tei-q">‘new heart’</span> of Jeremiah and Ezekiel”</span> (p.
        235), whilst in another passage we read that <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“a turning point is marked by the Deuteronomist Jeremiah
        and Ezekiel, who announce the principles of individual responsibility
        and inwardness of obedience”</span> (p. 184). Now, two things are
        certain; first, that Ezekiel urges the necessity of the new heart as
        well as of individual responsibility more keenly than any of his
        predecessors; secondly, that in Ezekiel the legalistic tendency is
        more evident than in Deuteronomy and Jeremiah. The logical conclusion
        would thus be that the higher ideals of religion are not only not
        inconsistent with legalism, but are the very outcome of it, and the
        so-called Priestly Code, by the very fact of its markedly legalistic
        tendency, should be considered as a step in the right direction. The
        latter assertion sounds like a paradox, but it will seem less so when
        the prevailing characteristic of this portion of the Pentateuch, as
        given even by Kuenen, who is by no means a champion of the Law, is
        borne in mind. <span class="tei tei-q">“The centre of
        gravity,”</span> according to the great Dutch critic, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“lies for the priestly author elsewhere than for the
        prophet; it lies in man's attitude, not towards his fellow-men, but
        towards God; not in his social, but in his personal life”</span>
        (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hibbert
        Lectures</span></span>, p. 161). It is here that we seem to strike
        the keynote of the <span lang="de" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
        "de"><span style="font-style: italic">Weltanschauung</span></span> of
        the Priestly Legislation. In it man is more than a social being. He
        has also an individual life of his own, his joys and sorrows, his
        historical claims, his traditions of the past, and his hopes for the
        future—and all these have to be brought under the influence of
        religion, and to become sanctified through their relation to God.
        Hence, the work of the Priestly narrator and legislator opens with a
        cosmogony of his <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page241">[pg
        241]</span><a name="Pg241" id="Pg241" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        own, in which we find the grand theological idea of man being created
        in the Divine image; hence, too, his religious conception of the
        history of the nation and the control claimed by him over all the
        details of human life, which became with him so many opportunities
        for the worship of God. To him, God is not a mere figurehead; He not
        only reigns, but governs. Everywhere,—in the temple, in the judge's
        seat, in the family, in the farm, and in the market-place,—His
        presence is felt in enforcing the laws bearing His <span lang="la"
        class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">imprimatur</span></span>, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“I am the Lord thy God.”</span> By thus diffusing
        religion over the whole domain of human life—not confining it to the
        social institutions which are represented only by a few personages,
        such as the king, the princes, the priests, the judges or elders—they
        made it the common good of the whole people, and the feeling of
        personal responsibility for this good became much deeper than before.
        Thus it came to pass that whilst, during the first temple, the
        apostasy of kings and aristocracy involved the entire people, so that
        the words <span class="tei tei-q">“And he (the king) did evil in the
        sight of the Lord,”</span> embrace the whole nation, during the
        second temple it was no longer of much consequence which side the
        political leaders took. Both during the Hellenistic persecutions, as
        well as afterwards in the struggles of some Maccabean kings with the
        Pharisees, the bulk of the people showed that they considered
        religion as their own personal affair, not to be regulated by the
        conscience of either priest or prince. It is true that this success
        may be largely ascribed to such contemporary religious factors as the
        Synagogue with its minimum of form, the Scribes with their activity
        as teachers, and the Psalmists with their divine enthusiasm; but the
        very circumstance that <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page242">[pg
        242]</span><a name="Pg242" id="Pg242" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        these factors arose and flourished under the influence of the
        Priestly Code would suffice to prove that its tendency was not so
        sacerdotal as some writers would have us believe. Jewish tradition
        indeed attributes the composition of the daily public prayers, as
        well as of others for private worship, to the very men whom modern
        biblical criticism holds responsible for the introduction of the
        Priestly Code. Now this fact may perhaps be disputed, but there is
        little doubt that the age in which these prayers were composed was
        one of flourishing legalism. Nor is there any proof that the
        synagogues and their ritual were in opposition to the temple. From
        the few documents belonging to this period, it is clear that there
        was no opposition to the legalistic spirit by which the Priestly Code
        was actuated. This would prove that legalism meant something more
        than tithes and sacrifices for the benefit of the priests.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Nor is it true
        that the legal tendency aimed at narrowing the mind of the nation,
        turning all its thoughts into the one direction of the law. Apart
        from the fact that the Torah contained other elements besides its
        legalism, the prophets were not forgotten, but were read and
        interpreted from a very early age. It was under the predominance of
        the Law that the Wisdom literature was composed, which is by no means
        narrow or one-sided, but is even supposed by some critics to contain
        many foreign elements. In the book of Job, the great problems of
        man's existence are treated with a depth and grandeur never equalled
        before or since. This book alone ought partly to compensate the
        modern school for the disappearance of prophecy, which is usually
        brought as a charge against the Law. Then, too, the Psalms, placed by
        the same school in the post-exilic <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page243">[pg 243]</span><a name="Pg243" id="Pg243" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> period, are nothing but another aspect of
        prophecy, with this difference, perhaps, that in the Prophets God
        speaks to man, while in the Psalms it is man who establishes the same
        communion by speaking to God. There is no reason why the critical
        school, with its broad conception of inspiration, and with its
        insistence that prophecy does <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">not</span></em> mean prediction, should so
        strongly emphasise this difference. If <span class="tei tei-q">“it is
        no longer as in the days of Amos, when the Lord Yahveh did nothing
        without revealing his counsel to his servants the prophets,”</span>
        there is in the days of the Psalmists nothing in man's heart, no
        element in his longings and meditations and aspirations, which was
        not revealed to God. Nay, it would seem that at times the Psalmist
        hardly ever desires the revelation of God's secrets. Let future
        events be what they may, he is content, for he is with God. After all
        his trials, he exclaims, <span class="tei tei-q">“And yet I am
        continually with thee; thou hast taken hold of my right hand.
        According to thy purpose wilt thou lead me, and afterwards receive me
        with glory. Whom have I (to care for) in heaven? and possessing thee,
        I have pleasure in nothing upon earth. Though my flesh and my heart
        should have wasted away, God would for ever be the rock of my heart
        and my portion”</span> (Ps. lxxiii. 23-26). How an age producing a
        literature containing passages like these—of which Wellhausen in his
        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Abriss</span></span> (p. 95) justly remarks,
        that we are not worthy even to repeat them—can be considered by the
        modern school as wanting in intimate relation to God and inferior to
        that of the prophets is indeed a puzzle.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now a few words as
        to the actual life under the Law. Here, again, there is a fresh
        puzzle. On the one side, we hear the opinions of so many learned
        professors, proclaiming <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page244">[pg
        244]</span><a name="Pg244" id="Pg244" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">ex cathedrâ</span></span>, that the Law was a
        most terrible burden, and the life under it the most unbearable
        slavery, deadening body and soul. On the other side we have the
        testimony of a literature extending over about twenty-five centuries,
        and including all sorts and conditions of men, scholars, poets,
        mystics, lawyers, casuists, schoolmen, tradesmen, workmen, women,
        simpletons, who all, from the author of the 119th Psalm to the last
        pre-Mendelssohnian writer—with a small exception which does not even
        deserve the name of a vanishing minority—give unanimous evidence in
        favour of this Law, and of the bliss and happiness of living and
        dying under it,—and this, the testimony of people who were actually
        living under the Law, not merely theorising upon it, and who
        experienced it in all its difficulties and inconveniences. The
        Sabbath will give a fair example. The law of the Sabbath is one of
        those institutions the strict observance of which was already the
        object of attack in early New Testament times. Nevertheless, the
        doctrine proclaimed in one of the Gospels—that the son of man is Lord
        also of the Sabbath—was also current among the Rabbis. They, too,
        taught that the Sabbath had been delivered into the hand of man (to
        break, if necessary), and not man delivered over to the
        Sabbath.<a id="noteref_204" name="noteref_204" href=
        "#note_204"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">204</span></span></a> And
        they even laid down the axiom that a scholar who lived in a town,
        where among the Jewish population there could be the least
        possibility of doubt as to whether the Sabbath might be broken for
        the benefit of a dangerously sick person, was to be despised as a man
        neglecting his duty; for, as Maimonides points out, the laws of the
        Torah are not meant as an infliction upon mankind, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“but as mercy, loving-kindness, and peace.”</span><a id=
        "noteref_205" name="noteref_205" href="#note_205"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">205</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The attacks upon
        the Jewish Sabbath have not abated <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page245">[pg 245]</span><a name="Pg245" id="Pg245" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> with the lapse of time. The day is still
        described by almost every Christian writer on the subject in the most
        gloomy colours, and long lists are given of minute and easily
        transgressed observances connected with it, which, instead of a day
        of rest, would make it to be a day of sorrow and anxiety, almost
        worse than the Scotch Sunday as depicted by continental writers. But
        it so happens that we have the prayer of R. Zadok, a younger
        contemporary of the Apostles, which runs thus: <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Through the love with which Thou, O Lord our God, lovest
        Thy people Israel, and the mercy which Thou hast shown to the
        children of Thy covenant, Thou hast given unto us in love this great
        and holy Seventh Day.”</span><a id="noteref_206" name="noteref_206"
        href="#note_206"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">206</span></span></a> And
        another Rabbi, who probably flourished in the first half of the
        second century, expresses himself (with allusion to Exod. xxxi. 13:
        Verily my Sabbaths ye shall keep ... that ye may know that I am the
        Lord that doth sanctify you)—<span class="tei tei-q">“The Holy One,
        blessed be He, said unto Moses, I have a good gift in my treasures,
        and Sabbath is its name, which I wish to present to Israel. Go and
        bring to them the good tidings.”</span><a id="noteref_207" name=
        "noteref_207" href="#note_207"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">207</span></span></a> The
        form again of the Blessing over the Sanctification-cup<a id=
        "noteref_208" name="noteref_208" href="#note_208"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">208</span></span></a>—a
        ceremony known long before the destruction of the Second Temple—runs:
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Blessed art Thou, O Lord our God, who hast
        sanctified us by Thy commandments, and hast taken pleasure in us, and
        in love and grace hast given us Thy holy Sabbath as an
        inheritance.”</span> All these Rabbis evidently regarded the Sabbath
        as a gift from heaven, an expression of the infinite mercy and grace
        of God which He manifested to His beloved children.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And the gift was,
        as already said, a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">good</span></em> gift. Thus the Rabbis
        paraphrase the words in the Scripture <span class="tei tei-q">“See,
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page246">[pg 246]</span><a name="Pg246"
        id="Pg246" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> for that the Lord hath given
        you the Sabbath”</span> (Exod. xvi. 29): God said unto Israel behold
        the gem I gave you, My children I gave you the Sabbath for your good.
        Sanctify or honour the Sabbath by choice meals, beautiful garments;
        delight your soul with pleasure and I will reward you (for this very
        pleasure); as it is said: <span class="tei tei-q">“And if thou wilt
        call the Sabbath a delight and the holy of the Lord honourable (that
        is honouring the Sabbath in this way) ... then shalt thou delight
        thyself in the Lord”</span> (Is. lviii. 13, 14).<a id="noteref_209"
        name="noteref_209" href="#note_209"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">209</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The delight of the
        Sabbath was keenly felt. Israel fell in love with the Sabbath, and in
        the hyperbolic language of the Agadah the Sabbath is personified as
        the <span class="tei tei-q">“Bride of Israel,”</span> whilst others
        called it <span class="tei tei-q">“Queen Sabbath,”</span><a id=
        "noteref_210" name="noteref_210" href="#note_210"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">210</span></span></a> and
        they are actually jealous of a certain class of semi-proselytes who,
        as it seems, were willing to observe the Sabbath, but declined to
        submit to the covenant of Abraham. The Gentile Sabbath-keepers—who,
        like all the nations of the world, envy Israel their Sabbath—the
        Rabbis considered as shameless intruders deserving punishment.<a id=
        "noteref_211" name="noteref_211" href="#note_211"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">211</span></span></a> No, it
        was Israel's own Queen or Bride Sabbath whose appearance in all her
        heavenly glory they were impatiently awaiting. Thus we are told of R.
        Judah b. Ilai that when the eve of the Sabbath came <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“he made his ablutions, wrapped himself up in his white
        linen with fringed borders looking like an angel of the Lord of
        Hosts,”</span> thus prepared for the solemn reception of Queen
        Sabbath. Another Rabbi used to put on his best clothes, and arise and
        invite the Sabbath with the words: <span class="tei tei-q">“Come in
        Bride, come in.”</span><a id="noteref_212" name="noteref_212" href=
        "#note_212"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">212</span></span></a> What
        the Bride brought was peace and bliss. Nay, man is provided with a
        super soul for the Sabbath, enabling him to bear both the spiritual
        and the material delights of the day with <span class="tei tei-pb"
        id="page247">[pg 247]</span><a name="Pg247" id="Pg247" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> dignity and solemnity.<a id="noteref_213" name=
        "noteref_213" href="#note_213"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">213</span></span></a> The
        very light (or expression) of man's face is different on Sabbath,
        testifying to his inward peace and rest. And when man has recited his
        prayers (on the eve of the Sabbath) and thus borne testimony to God's
        creation of the world and to the glory of the Sabbath, there appear
        the two angels who accompany him, lay their hands on his head and
        impart to him their blessing with the words: <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“And thine iniquity is taken away and thy sin
        purged”</span> (Is. vi. 7).<a id="noteref_214" name="noteref_214"
        href="#note_214"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">214</span></span></a> For
        nothing is allowed to disturb the peace of the Sabbath; not even
        <span class="tei tei-q">“the sorrows of sin,”</span> though the
        Sabbath had such a solemn effect on people that even the worldly man
        would not utter an untruth on the Day of the Lord. Hence it was not
        only forbidden to pray on Sabbath for one's own (material) needs, but
        everything in the liturgy of a mournful character (as for instance
        the confession of sin, supplication for pardon) was carefully
        avoided. It was with difficulty, as the Rabbis say, that they made an
        exception in the case of condoling with people who had suffered loss
        through the death of near relatives. There is no room for morbid
        sentiment on Sabbath, for the blessing of the Lord maketh rich, and
        He addeth no sorrow with it (Prov. x. 22).<a id="noteref_215" name=
        "noteref_215" href="#note_215"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">215</span></span></a> The
        burden of the Sabbath prayers is for peace, rest, sanctification, and
        joy (through salvation) and praise of God for this ineffable bliss of
        the Sabbath.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Such was the
        Sabbath of the old Rabbis and the same spirit continued through all
        ages. The Sabbath was and is still celebrated by the people who did
        and do observe it, in hundreds of hymns, which would fill volumes, as
        a day of rest and joy, of pleasure and delight, a day in which man
        enjoys some foretaste of the pure <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page248">[pg 248]</span><a name="Pg248" id="Pg248" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> bliss and happiness which are stored up for the
        righteous in the world to come. Somebody, either the learned
        professors, or the millions of the Jewish people, must be under an
        illusion. Which it is I leave to the reader to decide.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is also an
        illusion to speak of the burden which a scrupulous care to observe
        six hundred and thirteen commandments must have laid upon the Jew.
        Even a superficial analysis will discover that in the time of Christ
        many of these commandments were already obsolete (as for instance
        those relating to the tabernacle and to the conquest of Palestine),
        while others concerned only certain classes, as the priests, the
        judges, the soldiers, the Nazirites, or the representatives of the
        community, or even only one or two individuals among the whole
        population, as the King and the High-Priest. Others, again, provided
        for contingencies which could occur only to a few, as for instance
        the laws concerning divorce or levirate marriages, whilst many—such
        as those concerning idolatry, and incest, and the sacrifice of
        children to Moloch—could scarcely have been considered as a practical
        prohibition by the pre-Christian Jew; just as little as we can speak
        of Englishmen as lying under the burden of a law preventing them from
        burning widows or marrying their grandmothers, though such acts would
        certainly be considered as crimes. Thus it will be found by a careful
        enumeration that barely a hundred laws remain which really concerned
        the life of the bulk of the people. If we remember that even these
        include such laws as belief in the unity of God, the necessity of
        loving and fearing Him, and of sanctifying His name, of loving one's
        neighbour and the stranger, of providing <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page249">[pg 249]</span><a name="Pg249" id="Pg249" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> for the poor, exhorting the sinner, honouring
        one's parents and many more of a similar character, it will hardly be
        said that the ceremonial side of the people's religion was not well
        balanced by a fair amount of spiritual and social elements. Besides,
        it would seem that the line between the ceremonial and the spiritual
        is too often only arbitrarily drawn. With many commandments it is
        rather a matter of opinion whether they should be relegated to the
        one category or the other.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus, the wearing
        of Tephillin<a id="noteref_216" name="noteref_216" href=
        "#note_216"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">216</span></span></a> or
        phylacteries has, on the one hand, been continually condemned as a
        meaningless superstition, and a pretext for formalism and hypocrisy.
        But, on the other hand, Maimonides, who can in no way be suspected of
        superstition or mysticism, described their importance in the
        following words: <span class="tei tei-q">“Great is the holiness of
        the Tephillin; for as long as they are on the arm and head of man he
        is humble and God-fearing, and feels no attraction for frivolity or
        idle things, nor has he any evil thoughts, but will turn his heart to
        the words of truth and righteousness.”</span> The view which R.
        Johanan, a Palestinian teacher of the third century, took of the
        fulfilment of the Law, will probably be found more rational than that
        of many a rationalist of to-day. Upon the basis of the last verse in
        Hosea, <span class="tei tei-q">“The ways of the Lord are right, and
        the just shall walk in them, but the transgressors shall fall
        therein,”</span> he explains that while one man, for instance, eats
        his paschal lamb with the purpose of doing the will of God who
        commanded it, and thereby does an act of righteousness, another
        thinks only of satisfying his appetite by the lamb, so that his
        eating it (by the very fact that he professes at the same time to
        perform a religious <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page250">[pg
        250]</span><a name="Pg250" id="Pg250" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        rite) becomes a stumbling-block for him.<a id="noteref_217" name=
        "noteref_217" href="#note_217"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">217</span></span></a> Thus
        all the laws by virtue of their divine authority—and in this there
        was in the first century no difference of opinion between Jews and
        Christians—have their spiritual side, and to neglect them implies, at
        least from the individual's own point of view, a moral offence.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The legalistic
        attitude may be summarily described as an attempt to live in
        accordance with the will of God, caring less for what God is than for
        what He wants us to be. But, nevertheless, on the whole this life
        never degenerated into religious formalism. Apart from the fact that
        during the second temple there grew up laws, and even beliefs, which
        show a decided tendency towards progress and development, there were
        also ceremonies which were popular with the masses, and others which
        were neglected. Men were not, therefore, the mere soulless slaves of
        the Law; personal sympathies and dislikes also played a part in their
        religion. Nor were all the laws actually put upon the same level.
        With a happy inconsistency men always spoke of heavier and slighter
        sins, and by the latter—excepting, perhaps, the profanation of the
        Sabbath—they mostly understood ceremonial transgressions. The
        statement made by Professor Toy (p. 243), on the authority of James
        (ii. 10), that <span class="tei tei-q">“the principle was established
        that he who offended in one point was guilty of all,”</span> is
        hardly correct; for the passage seems rather to be laying down a
        principle, or arguing that logically the law ought to be looked upon
        as a whole, than stating a fact. The fact was that people did not
        consider the whole law as of equal importance, but made a difference
        between laws and laws, and even spoke of certain commandments, such
        as those of charity and kindness, as outweighing all the rest of the
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page251">[pg 251]</span><a name="Pg251"
        id="Pg251" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Torah. It was in conformity
        with this spirit that in times of great persecution the leaders of
        the people had no compunction in reducing the whole Law to the three
        prohibitions of idolatry, of incest, and of bloodshed. Only these
        three were considered of sufficient importance that men should rather
        become martyrs than transgress them.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These, then, are
        some of the illusions and misrepresentations which exist with regard
        to the Law. There are many others, of which the complete exposure
        would require a book by itself. Meanwhile, in the absence of such a
        book to balance and correct the innumerable volumes upon the other
        side, Professor Toy has done the best he could with existing
        materials, and produced a meritorious work deserving of wide
        recognition and approval.</p>
      </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page252">[pg 252]</span><a name=
      "Pg252" id="Pg252" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
      <hr class="page" />

      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
      "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
        <a name="toc23" id="toc23"></a> <a name="pdf24" id="pdf24"></a>

        <h1 class="tei tei-head" style=
        "margin-bottom: 3.46em; text-align: left; margin-top: 3.46em">
        <span style="font-size: 173%">X. The Hebrew Collection of the British
        Museum</span></h1>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Hebrew
        collection in the British Museum forms one of the greatest centres of
        Jewish thought. It is only surpassed by the treasures which are
        contained in the Bodleian Library at Oxford. The fame of these
        magnificent collections has spread far and wide. It has penetrated
        into the remotest countries, and even the Bachurim (<span lang="la"
        class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">alumni</span></span>) of some obscure place in
        Poland, who otherwise neither care nor know anything about British
        civilisation, have a dim notion of the nature of these mines of
        Jewish learning.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">All sorts of
        legends circulate amongst them about the <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“millions”</span> of books which belong to the
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Queen of England.”</span> They speak
        mysteriously of an autograph copy of the Book of Proverbs, presented
        to the Queen of Sheba on the occasion of her visit to Jerusalem, and
        brought by the English troops as a trophy from their visit to
        Abyssinia, which is still ruled by the descendants of that famous
        lady. They also talk of a copy of the Talmud of Jerusalem which once
        belonged to Titus, afterwards to a Pope, was presented by the latter
        to a Russian Czar, and taken away from him by the English in the
        Crimean war; of a manuscript <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page253">[pg 253]</span><a name="Pg253" id="Pg253" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> of the book <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Light is
        Sown</span></span>,<a id="noteref_218" name="noteref_218" href=
        "#note_218"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">218</span></span></a> which
        is so large that no shelf can hold it, and which therefore hangs on
        iron chains. How they long to have a glance at these precious things!
        Would not a man get wiser only by looking at the autograph of the
        wisest of men?</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But even the
        students of Germany and Austria, who are inaccessible to such fables,
        and by the aid of Zedner's, Steinschneider's, and Neubauer's
        catalogues have a fair notion of our libraries, cherish the belief
        that they would gain in scholarship and wisdom by examining these
        grand collections. How often have I been asked by Jewish students
        abroad: <span class="tei tei-q">“Have you really been to the British
        Museum? Have you really seen this or that rare book or manuscript?
        Had you not great difficulties in seeing them? Is not the place where
        these heaps of jewels are treasured up always crowded by students and
        visitors?”</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Yet how little
        does our English public know of these wonderful things! We are fairly
        interested in Græco-Roman art. We betray much curiosity about the
        different Egyptian dynasties. We look with admiration at the
        cuneiform inscriptions in the Nimrod room. We do not even grudge a
        glance at the abominable idols of the savage tribes. But as to the
        productions of Jewish genius,—well, it is best to quote here the
        words of Heine, who ridiculed this indifference to everything that is
        Jewish, in the following lines:—</p>

        <div class="block tei tei-quote" style=
        "margin-top: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-right: 3.60em; margin-bottom: 1.80em">
        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em">
            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Alte Mumien, ausgestopfte,</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Pharaonen von Ægypten,</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Merowinger Schattenkön'ge,</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Ungepuderte Perticken,</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
          "margin-top: 0.90em; margin-bottom: 0.90em">
            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Auch die Zopfmonarchen
              China's</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Porzellanpagodenkaiser—</span>
            </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page254">[pg
            254]</span><a name="Pg254" id="Pg254" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Alle lernen sie answendig,</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Kluge Mädchen, aber,
              Himmel!</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
          "margin-top: 0.90em; margin-bottom: 0.90em">
            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Fragt man sie nach grossen
              Namen,</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Aus dem grossen
              Goldzeitalter</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Der arabisch-althispanisch</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Jüdischen Poetenschule,</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
          "margin-top: 0.90em; margin-bottom: 0.90em">
            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Fragt man nach dem
              Dreigestirn</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Nach Jehuda ben Halevy,</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Nach dem Salomon Gabirol</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Und dem Moses Iben Esra.</span>
            </div>
          </div>

          <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
          "margin-top: 0.90em; margin-bottom: 0.90em">
            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Fragt man nach dergleichen
              Namen,</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Dann mit grossen Augen
              schaun</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Uns die Kleinen an—alsdann</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Stehn am Berge die
              Ochsinnen.</span>
            </div>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now Heine goes on
        to advise his beloved one to study the Hebrew language. It would be
        indeed the best remedy against this indifference. But this is so
        radical a cure that one cannot hope that it will be made use of by
        many. A few remarks in English, trying to give some notion of the
        Hebrew collection in the British Museum, may, therefore, not be
        considered altogether superfluous.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Hebrew
        collection in the Museum may be divided into two sections: Printed
        Books, and Manuscripts. The number of the printed books amounted in
        the year 1867, in which Zedner concluded his catalogue, to 10,100
        volumes. Within the last twenty-eight years about 5000 more have been
        added.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This enormous
        collection has grown out of very small beginnings. The British Museum
        was first opened to the public in the year 1759. Amongst the 500,000
        volumes which it possessed at that time only a single Jewish work,
        the <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
        "la"><span style="font-style: italic">editio princeps</span></span>
        of the Talmud (Bomberg, Venice, 1520-1523) <span class="tei tei-pb"
        id="page255">[pg 255]</span><a name="Pg255" id="Pg255" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> was to be found on its shelves. According to an
        article by Zedner in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Hebräische Bibliographie</span></span> (ii. p.
        88), this copy of the Talmud once belonged to Henry VIII. But very
        soon the Museum was enriched by a small collection of Hebrew books,
        presented to it by Mr. Solomon da Costa, surnamed Athias, who had
        emigrated to England from Holland. The translation of the Hebrew
        letter with which the donor accompanied his present to the Trustees
        of the Museum was first published in the <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gentleman's
        Magazine</span></span>, February 1760, and was afterwards republished
        by the Rev. A. L. Green, in an article in the <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Jewish
        Chronicle</span></span>, 1859. I shall only reproduce here the
        passage relating to the history of this collection. After expressing
        his gratitude to the <span class="tei tei-q">“crowning city, the city
        of London, in which he dwelt for fifty-four years in ease and
        quietness and safety,”</span> and telling us that he bequeaths these
        books to the British nation as a token of his gratitude, Da Costa
        proceeds to say that they are 180 books, which had been gathered and
        bound for Charles II., with valuable bindings and marked with the
        king's own cipher. These books were intended as a present from the
        London Jewish community to Charles for certain privileges which he
        had bestowed on them. The sudden death of the king seems to have
        frustrated the intention of the first donors. The books were
        scattered, and Da Costa had to collect them again.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Small as this
        collection is, it is most valuable on account of its including many
        early editions of Venice, Constantinople, Naples, etc. The original
        letter of Da Costa, with a full list of the 180 books, is preserved
        in a MS. in the British Museum (Additional, 4710-11).</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of still greater
        importance is the Michaelis collection. <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page256">[pg 256]</span><a name="Pg256" id="Pg256" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> It consists of 4420 volumes, and was bought by
        the Trustees of the Museum in 1848. Other successive acquisitions,
        especially the purchase of a large number of printed books from the
        Almanzi collection, brought the Museum into possession of one of the
        most complete and one of the largest Hebrew libraries in the
        world.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">After the
        foregoing remarks on the quantity of this collection, I shall now
        attempt to give some idea of its quality. The following table, taken
        from the Preface of Zedner's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Catalogue</span></span>, shows its manifold
        contents:—</p>

        <div class="block tei tei-quote" style=
        "margin-right: 3.60em; margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em">
        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em">
            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">1. Bibles, 1260</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">2. Commentaries on the Bible,
              510</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">3. Talmud, 730</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">4. Commentaries on the Talmud,
              700</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">5. Codes of Law, 1260</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">6. Decisions, 520</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">7. Midrash, 160</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">8. Cabbalah, 460</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">9. Sermons, 400</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">10. Liturgies, 1200</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">11. Divine Philosophy, 690</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">12. Scientific works, 180</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">13. Grammars, Dictionaries,
              450</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">14. History, Geography, 320</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">15. Poetry, Criticism, 770</span>
            </div>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The reader can see
        that almost every branch of human thought, religious and secular, is
        amply represented in this collection. Looking at this table from a
        geographical point of view, we may perhaps classify the authors in
        the following way:—France and Germany in the Middle Ages, Poland and
        the East in modern times, are represented by the fourth, fifth, and
        sixth classes. The Rabbis of Spain and Italy would probably excel in
        the last five classes. In the productions of classes eight and nine
        all the before-mentioned countries would have an equal share. English
        Judaism, by reason of its large number of occasional prayers and
        wedding hymns (Zedner, pp. 472, 652), may perhaps be represented in
        the last class (criticism <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page257">[pg
        257]</span><a name="Pg257" id="Pg257" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        excluded). We in England are a pious, devotional people, and leave
        the thinking to others.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But what is still
        more welcome to the student is the fact that all these branches of
        Jewish learning are represented in the British Museum by the best
        editions. It would be a rather tedious task to enumerate here all the
        early editions of which this collection can boast. There is hardly
        any Hebrew book of importance from the Bible down to the Code of R.
        Joseph Caro of which the Museum does not possess the first printed
        edition. There are also many books and editions in the Museum of
        which no second copy is known to be in existence. An enumeration of
        these rare books and editions would require long lists, the perusal
        of which would be rather trying. But I shall say a few words to show
        the importance of such early editions for the student. They possess,
        first, the advantage of being free from the misprints which crept in
        with every fresh republication. The art of editing books in a correct
        and scientific way is of a very recent date. And even Hebrew
        literature does not find that support from the public which would
        enable scholars to edit Jewish books in such a way as Roman and Greek
        classics are prepared by Oxford and Cambridge students. A new edition
        of a Hebrew book meant therefore an addition of new mistakes and
        misprints. And it is only by examining the <span class=
        "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">editiones
        principes</span></span> that the scholar finds his way out of these
        perplexities.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another advantage
        is the fact that these early editions escaped the hand of the censor,
        whose office was not introduced till a comparatively late date. The
        same advantage is also possessed by the Hebrew books published at
        Constantinople, Salonica, and other Mohammedan cities. Only
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page258">[pg 258]</span><a name="Pg258"
        id="Pg258" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Christian countries indulged
        in the barbarous pleasure of burning and disfiguring Jewish books. It
        is one of the most touching points in the life of R. David Oppenheim,
        of Prague, who spent all his life and fortune in collecting Hebrew
        works, and whose collection now forms one of the greatest ornaments
        of the Bodleian Library, that he was not allowed by the censor to
        enjoy the use of his treasures. He had to put them under the
        protection of Lipman Cohen, his father-in-law in Hanover, many
        hundreds of miles from his own home. With the exception of the Bible
        hardly any Jewish books escaped mutilation. In certain Christian
        countries some books were not allowed to be published at all; of
        others, again, whole chapters had to be omitted, while of others many
        passages had to be expunged. The words Roman, Greek, Gentile, were
        strictly forbidden, and had to be changed into Turks, Arabs,
        Samaritans, or worshippers of the stars and planets. One can imagine
        what confusion such stupid alterations caused. Fancy what blunders
        would have been committed in history if the old chroniclers had been
        compelled to change the Pope into the Grand Turk or the Shah of
        Persia, the Christian rulers into as many califs and pashas, or Rome
        and Athens into Pekin and Mecca!</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It may perhaps be
        interesting to learn that Jews sometimes imitated their bitter
        enemies in this work of mutilation. Thus in the later editions of the
        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Book of
        Genealogies</span></span> by Abraham Zacuto,<a id="noteref_219" name=
        "noteref_219" href="#note_219"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">219</span></span></a> a
        passage was left out reproducing the evidence given by the widow of
        Moses de Leon to the effect that the cabbalistic work, the Zohar, was
        a forgery manufactured by her poor dear husband. Another omission of
        this kind is to be found in the Code of R. Joseph Caro, mentioned
        above. Here the earliest editions declare, <span class="tei tei-pb"
        id="page259">[pg 259]</span><a name="Pg259" id="Pg259" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> in the heading of section 605, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“a certain religious usage”</span> to be <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“a custom of folly.”</span> In the republications, the
        last three words were left out. From such nonsensical omissions and
        changes only the earliest editions, which are abundant in the Museum,
        were exempt.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A remarkable
        feature about the books of this Hebrew collection also is that many
        of them are provided in the margin with manuscript notes by their
        former possessors. These often happen to bear very great names in
        literature. I shall only mention here R. Jacob Emden, Almanzi,
        Michael, Gerundi, and Heidenheim. Of the works written by R. Jacob
        Emden, the Museum possesses an almost complete author's copy with
        abundant corrections, notes, and emendations by the author himself.
        His works are still very popular among Polish and Russian Jews,
        especially his Prayer-Book, and his Responses. It would be advisable
        for publishers in these countries to avail themselves of this copy on
        the occasion of a new edition. Of Christian scholars I should name
        here Isaac Casaubon. A rather amusing mistake occurs in Ben-Jacob's
        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Treasure of
        Books</span></span> in connection with this name. Among the many
        valuable copies of Kimchi's grammatical work <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Perfection</span></span>,<a id="noteref_220"
        name="noteref_220" href="#note_220"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">220</span></span></a>
        possessed by the Museum, there is included one which belonged to
        Casaubon, and is full of notes by him. The author of the <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Treasure</span></span>
        speaks of a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Perfection</span></span> with notes by Rabbi
        Yitzchak Kasuban. I was at first at a loss to guess who that Rabbi
        Casaubon might be. When examining Zedner I found it was no other than
        the famous Christian scholar, Isaac Casaubon. It is not known that
        Casaubon's ambition lay in this direction. But when Philo was
        regarded as a Father of the Church, Ben Gabirol quoted for many
        centuries as a Mohammedan philosopher, <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page260">[pg 260]</span><a name="Pg260" id="Pg260" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> why should not Casaubon obtain for once the
        dignity of a Rabbi?</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">After having given
        the reader some notion of the collection of printed works, I should
        like now to invite him to accompany me through the Manuscript
        Department of the Museum. But I am afraid that I shall make a bad
        guide here; for the Museum is still without a descriptive catalogue
        of the Hebrew manuscripts, which is the only means of enabling the
        student to obtain a general view of the number and nature of these
        works. The manuscript catalogue of Dukes goes only as far as 1856. It
        was, as we shall soon see, just after this time that the Museum made
        its largest and, to a certain degree also, its most valuable
        acquisitions in Hebrew manuscripts. The following remarks must,
        therefore, not be taken as the result of a systematic study of this
        collection, which would be quite impossible without the aid of a
        catalogue. They rest partly on the descriptions given of a certain
        number of manuscripts in the catalogue by Dukes, but for the greater
        part on occasional glances at this or that MS.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As to the history
        of the collection, it has grown out of small beginnings just as that
        of printed books. The collection of Dr. Sloane, which laid the
        foundation of the Museum Library, contained only nine Hebrew MSS.
        Later acquisitions, as the Harleian collection, the Cottonian
        collection, the Royal collection, and many other smaller collections
        marked as Additional up to 1854, increased the number of the Hebrew
        manuscripts to 232. Of much more importance was the Almanzi
        collection, bought by the trustees of the Museum in 1865, and
        consisting of 335 MSS. Of succeeding acquisitions I shall mention
        here only the Yemen MSS., which were brought <span class="tei tei-pb"
        id="page261">[pg 261]</span><a name="Pg261" id="Pg261" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> to this country by the famous Shapira. The
        number of Hebrew MSS. at the present day is said to exceed one
        thousand. But we must not forget that many MSS. contain more than one
        work; in some cases even three or four, so that the number of Hebrew
        works is far greater still.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I shall now speak
        of the nature and importance of these MSS. As to their contents they
        may be easily grouped under the following headings: Biblical MSS.,
        Commentaries (to the Bible) and Super-Commentaries, parts of the
        Talmud and their Commentaries, Theology, Philosophy and Ethics,
        Massorah, Grammar and Lexicography, Cabbalah, Poetry, Mathematics,
        Astronomy, Astrology and Magic, Historical and Polemical Literature,
        etc. All these branches of theological and secular learning and even
        of human folly are fairly represented in the collection of Hebrew
        MSS. in the Museum, though often only by a part or a fragment of a
        work.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus the
        Babylonian Talmud is to be found only in two MSS. (Harl. 5508 and
        Add. 25,717) both of them including 11 Tractates, hardly a third part
        of the whole work. Indeed poor <span class="tei tei-q">“Rabbinus
        Talmud”</span> had to go to the <span class=
        "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">auto de
        fé</span></span> on so many occasions that one cannot wonder if only
        disjointed limbs are to be found of him in libraries. The only
        complete MS. copy which escaped this vandalism is that in the Royal
        Library in Munich, from which Mr. Rabbinowicz has edited his
        monumental work, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Variae Lectiones of the
        Talmud</span></span>.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">All other
        libraries, Oxford included, have to be satisfied with fragments.
        Still worse, as it is seen, fared the Jerusalem Talmud, and excepting
        the well-known copy in Leyden from which the Venice edition was
        prepared, not <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page262">[pg
        262]</span><a name="Pg262" id="Pg262" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        even fragments of this Talmud are to be found in the majority of
        libraries. To my knowledge it is only the British Museum which can
        boast of the Jerusalem Talmud in MS. extending over <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Order of
        Seeds</span></span> and one tractate of <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Order of
        Festivals</span></span><a id="noteref_221" name="noteref_221" href=
        "#note_221"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">221</span></span></a> (Or.
        2122-24) with commentaries of R. Solomon Syrillo, the first few pages
        of which were edited by Dr. Lehmann of Mayence. The Museum also
        possesses a great part of the Tosephta extending over 14 Tractates
        (Add. 27,296). Of Midrashim we find in the Museum two excellent
        manuscripts of the Genesis <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Rabbah</span></span>, one of the Leviticus
        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Rabbah</span></span>, and one of the
        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Siphra</span></span> and the <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Siphré</span></span>
        (Add. 27,169 and 16,406), besides two copies of the Midrash
        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Haggadol</span></span> and other Aagadic
        collections brought from Yemen. The <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Midrash</span></span>
        by Machir b. Abba Mari to the minor prophets included in the Harleian
        collection (5704) is unique. Of Liturgies, besides a great number of
        MSS. representing the most peculiar rites, I shall mention the
        Machzor<a id="noteref_222" name="noteref_222" href=
        "#note_222"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">222</span></span></a> Vitri
        (Add. 27,200-1) composed by the disciples of R. Solomon b. Isaac, and
        forming in itself almost a small library. For, apart from the prayers
        for festivals and week days which gave it its title, it includes,
        besides the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Sayings of the Fathers</span></span> with a
        large commentary, three of the Minor Tractates of the Talmud, many
        responses by German and French Rabbis, and a whole series of
        religious hymns by German and Spanish authors, and many other
        literary pieces. Cabbalah is represented by various valuable writings
        of the pre-Zoharistic time (see for instance Add. 15,299) and the
        works of R. Moses de Leon and R. Abraham Abulafia. Of Poetry, I shall
        point here to the Tarshish of R. Moses Ibn Ezra, the Makames by Judah
        Al Charisi (Add. 27,122), and the Divan of R. Abraham of Bedres (Add.
        27,188). Of works <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page263">[pg
        263]</span><a name="Pg263" id="Pg263" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        relating to grammar and lexicography, I may refer to a Codex (Add.
        27,214) which contains the lexicon of R. Menahem ben Saruk, which is
        considered as the oldest Hebrew MS. in the Museum, dating from the
        year 1091. Of historical works, I mention the chronicle of R. Joseph
        the Priest (Add. 27,122) and the letter of R. Sherira Gaon (Arundel
        51), the oldest existing copy of this work (1189), which was edited
        by Dr. Neubauer in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Mediæval Jewish Chronicles</span></span>.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These examples
        will suffice to show the significance of the MSS. collection of this
        Library. And the student may rest assured that in whatever branch of
        Jewish thought he is interested, he will always find in the Museum
        some Hebrew manuscript useful for his purpose.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I ought now to say
        a few words as to the value of this collection of manuscripts. Now,
        if the work contained in a MS. has never been edited, as for instance
        the Machzor Vitri<a id="noteref_223" name="noteref_223" href=
        "#note_223"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">223</span></span></a> and so
        many others, its value is established by the mere fact of its
        existence. For those who published MSS. were not always guided by the
        best literary motives. And while they published and republished many
        books of which one edition would have been more than enough, many
        other works of the greatest importance for Jewish literature and
        history remained in manuscript. As an instance, it will suffice to
        mention here the Zohar, which has passed through twenty-four editions
        since the sixteenth century, whilst the earliest Jewish Midrash, the
        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pessikta de
        Rab Kahana</span></span>, had to linger in the libraries till the
        year 1868, when it was edited by Mr. S. Buber. Thus there are still
        many pearls of Jewish literature which exist only in MS. Likewise
        most publishers were careless in their choice of the manuscript from
        which our editions <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page264">[pg
        264]</span><a name="Pg264" id="Pg264" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        have been prepared. Almost the whole of Jewish literature will have
        to be re-edited before a scientific study of it will be possible. But
        such critical editions can only be obtained by the aid of the MSS.
        not yet made use of, in which better readings are to be found. From
        this fact even those MSS. the contents of which have been several
        times reprinted, as for instance the MSS. of the Midrash <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rabbah</span></span>,
        gain the greatest literary importance. And the more MSS. the editor
        of a work has at his disposal, the more certain is he of being able
        to furnish us with a good text.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But even when the
        whole of Jewish literature lies before the student in the best of
        texts, there will still remain a great charm about manuscripts.
        Printed books, like the great mass of the modern society for which
        they are prepared, are devoid of any originality. They interest us
        only as classes, and it is very seldom that they have a story of
        their own to tell. It is quite different with manuscripts, where the
        fact of their having been produced by a living being invests them
        with a certain kind of individuality. This is specially the case with
        Hebrew MSS., which were not copied by men shut up in cloisters, but
        by sociable people living in the world and sharing its joys and
        sorrows. Even women were employed in this art, and I remember to have
        read in some MS. or catalogue a postscript by the lady copyist,
        which, if I remember rightly, ran as follows: <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“I beseech the reader not to judge me very harshly when
        he finds that mistakes have crept into this work; for when I was
        engaged in copying it God blessed me with a son, and thus I could not
        attend to my business properly.”</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To be sure, some
        of these copyists were curious folk. <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page265">[pg 265]</span><a name="Pg265" id="Pg265" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> Their mind as well as that of the world around
        them must have been of a peculiar constitution hardly conceivable to
        us. Take, for example, Benjamin, the copyist of a certain Machzor in
        the Museum (Add. 11,639). This Machzor was written in times of bitter
        persecution. The copyist, who was himself a learned man, alludes in
        one place to the sufferings which the Jews in a certain French town
        had to undergo in the year 1276. On one of them, the martyr R.
        Samson, Benjamin the copyist composed a lamentation written in a most
        mournful strain. But this lamentation is followed by a wine-song, one
        of the jolliest and wildest parodies for the feast of Purim.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Speaking of this
        Machzor I should like to remark that it forms one of the greatest
        ornaments of the Museum. Besides including the whole of the
        Pentateuch, the above-mentioned Tarshish by R. Moses Ibn Ezra, and
        many other smaller literary pieces which would require a small volume
        to describe them properly, this MS. is most richly illuminated, and
        contains very many illustrations. The subjects of these illustrations
        are biblical, sometimes also apocryphal, such as—Adam and Eve in
        Paradise, Noah in the Ark, Abraham meeting the angels, Sarah behind
        the door listening to the conversation of her husband with his
        guests, Moses with the rod in his hands dividing the Red Sea, Samson
        riding on the back of a lion, Solomon on his throne, Daniel in the
        lion's den, the king Ahasuerus holding out the golden sceptre to
        Esther, Judith addressing Holofernes, the Leviathan, the mythical
        bird Bar Yochni, and many other similar subjects. In passing I
        recommend these illustrations and illuminations to the attention of
        the artist as the most worthy examples of Jewish ecclesiastical
        art,—if there is such a thing as a <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page266">[pg 266]</span><a name="Pg266" id="Pg266" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> special Jewish art. The artist will find the
        Museum best suited for this purpose, its collection being considered
        as the richest of the kind. Besides this Machzor I must also allude
        to the illuminated Bible (Or. 2226-28) written in Lisbon for R. Judah
        Alchakin—it is said to be one of the finest specimens of such
        works—and the illuminated Mishneh Torah of Maimonides, executed for
        R. Joseph of the famous Yachya family, also thought to be most
        artistically done. The liturgies for the Passover Eve service will
        also offer to the artist a rich harvest, especially Codex, Add.
        27,210, which the wealthy Lady Rosa Galico presented to her
        son-in-law on his wedding-day, and Codex, Add. 14,762, even the
        binding of which is considered as an artistic curiosity.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Leaving now these
        marvels to the appreciation of the artist, the greatest wonder which
        suggests itself to us is how the Jews could maintain such a cultured
        taste in such unhappy times, and get the means of satisfying it.
        These reflections about the owners present themselves the more
        strongly to our mind when we meet with one of those old Jewish
        prayer-books, which in many cases formed the whole religious and
        literary treasure of the family. In their fly-leaves, in which the
        births and deaths of successive generations are very often
        registered, the <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
        "la"><span style="font-style: italic">spiritus
        familiaris</span></span> seems to be still haunting the pages. When
        you turn them over and see the service for Passover Eve, are you not
        bound to think of the anxiety with which these poor creatures engaged
        in this ceremony lest they might be attacked suddenly by a fanatic
        mob? must you not ask how they could bear life under such
        circumstances? And when you turn a few more pages and arrive at the
        prayers read for the dead, must you not ask how did they die?
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page267">[pg 267]</span><a name="Pg267"
        id="Pg267" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Were they perhaps burnt alive
        <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="la"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">ad majorem Dei gloriam</span></span>, or torn to
        pieces by a <span class="tei tei-q">“saintly mob”</span>? Take again
        the illuminated copies of the Bible and the Mishneh Torah, both of
        which were finished only a few years before the great expulsion of
        the Jews from Spain and Portugal, times when the earth already
        <span class="tei tei-q">“burnt under their feet, and the heaven was
        also very unkind to them.”</span> And nevertheless Jews were still,
        as these MSS. show us, cultivating science and art. Another instance
        of such a devotion to science in spite of the unfavourable times may
        be seen from a colophon to Codex Or. 39. It contains the book
        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Nissim</span></span>, a philosophical treatise
        on the fundamental teachings of Judaism, together with a
        philosophical commentary on the Pentateuch by R. Nissim of
        Marseilles, a contemporary of R. Solomon ben Adereth in the
        thirteenth century. The Museum copy was written by R. Jacob, the son
        of David, who also added some annotations to the book. At the end he
        says: <span class="tei tei-q">“I have copied this book <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nissim</span></span>
        for my own use, that I may study in it, I and my children and my
        grandchildren.... I have finished it to-day, Sunday, the 28th of Ab,
        5333 (1573), at Venice, in the year of the expulsion which befell us
        on account of our sins.”</span> Now, only observe this poor R. Jacob,
        who has to go through all these horrors, yet is still occupied in
        copying MSS. for his own pleasure, and in meditating on the most
        complicated problems of philosophy and religion.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But it is not
        always stories of this heroic nature that the MSS. tell us. They
        betray also very much of the instability of human affairs and their
        weakness. You find in many copies the words that they must not
        <span class="tei tei-q">“be sold or given in mortgage.”</span> But
        scarcely a generation has passed away, and they are already in the
        possession <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page268">[pg
        268]</span><a name="Pg268" id="Pg268" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of
        a new owner, who writes the same injunction to be broken again by his
        children in their turn. In Codex 27,122, we find commendatory letters
        for a worthy poor man, who is so unhappy as to have two grown-up
        daughters, and not to have the means of supplying them with marriage
        portions. Indeed, he must have been very poor, not possessing even a
        book in his house, or else his troubles could not have been so great.
        For in Codex Harl. 5702, we find the owner saying: <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“To eternal memory that I have acquired this <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Third Book of
        Avicena</span></span> from the hands of my father-in-law, R.
        Jekuthiel, as a part of my dowry.”</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As a sign of human
        weakness I give the following two instances. There lies before me a
        cabbalistic Codex (Add. 27,199), which acquired some notoriety from
        the fact of its having been copied by the famous grammarian, R.
        Elijah Levita, for his pupil Cardinal Aegidius. At the end of this
        MS. we read: <span class="tei tei-q">“I (Levita) have finished (the
        copying of) this book on Wednesday, the day of Hoshana Rabba,<a id=
        "noteref_224" name="noteref_224" href="#note_224"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">224</span></span></a> 5277
        (1516), on which day I have seen my head in the shadow of the moon.
        Praised be God (for it), for now I am sure not to die in the
        following year.”</span> These words relate to a well-known
        superstition, according to which, when a man is going to die in the
        course of the next year his shadow disappears from him on the
        preceding Hoshana Rabba. But is it not humiliating to see that the
        great Levita, who was superior to many prejudices of his time, and
        taught Christians Hebrew, and who denied the antiquity of the vowels
        in the Bible, which was considered by the great majority of his
        contemporaries as a mortal heresy—is it not humiliating to see this
        enlightened man trembling for his life on this night, and
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page269">[pg 269]</span><a name="Pg269"
        id="Pg269" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> anxiously observing his
        shadow? Another Codex lies before me (Add. 17,053), containing the
        Novellæ to three tractates of the Talmud. Its owner must accordingly
        have been a learned man. But in the fly-leaf of this MS. we read the
        following words: <span class="tei tei-q">“Memorandum—Thursday, the
        25th of Sivan, 5295 (1535), I have taken an oath in the presence of
        R. David Ibn Shushan and R. Moses de Castro, etc., not to play
        (cards) any more.”</span> I might perhaps suggest on this occasion
        that in our days when all sorts of Judaisms are circulating, a
        cooking Judaism, a racing Judaism, a muscular Judaism, and so many
        Judaisms more—it would be interesting to take up also the subject of
        playing Judaism, and to write its history.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In conclusion I
        shall mention the colophon to Codex Harl. 5713, which may have some
        interest for the English reader. It runs: <span class="tei tei-q">“I
        have written it in honour of the noble and pious, etc., Humphrey
        Wanley, the noble Librarian of my Lord Treasurer. May his glory be
        increased. In the year 5474 (1714) in the holy community of London,
        under the reign of the noble and happy Queen Anne. May the Lord
        increase her splendour and glory.”</span> The signature of the
        copyist is <span class="tei tei-q">“Aaron the son of Moses, born in
        the city of Navaschadok in Poland.”</span> By the way, we learn from
        this signature that the immigration of Polish Jews into this country
        had already begun in the time of Queen Anne, and perhaps still
        earlier.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Thus everything in
        a MS., the arrangement of the matter, the remarks of the owners, the
        signature of the copyist, sets the reader thinking, and contributes
        many a side-light to the history of the Jews.</p>
      </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page270">[pg 270]</span><a name=
      "Pg270" id="Pg270" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
      <hr class="page" />

      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
      "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
        <a name="toc25" id="toc25"></a> <a name="pdf26" id="pdf26"></a>

        <h1 class="tei tei-head" style=
        "margin-top: 3.46em; margin-bottom: 3.46em; text-align: left">
        <span style="font-size: 173%">XI. Titles of Jewish Books</span></h1>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is now more
        than half a century since Isaac Reggio in his edition of Elijah
        Delmedigo's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Examination of Religion</span></span>, made the
        remark that this book adds to its other merits that of bearing a
        title corresponding to its contents,—a merit that is very rare in
        Jewish books. Reggio proceeds to give a few specimens confirming his
        assertion, and concludes his remarks with a eulogy on Delmedigo, who
        in this respect also had the courage to differ from his
        contemporaries. Zunz also once wrote an article on titles of books.
        But this article unfortunately appeared in some German periodical
        which the British Museum does not possess, and I could not even
        succeed in ascertaining whether Zunz treats at all of titles of
        Hebrew books, nor am I aware that the subject has been taken up by
        any other scholar, Isaac D'Israeli's few notes on the subject in his
        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Curiosities
        of Literature</span></span> being scarcely worth mention. It seems to
        me, however, interesting enough to deserve some illustration, though
        I can by no means hope to be complete.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The titles of the
        books contained in the Bible need not be discussed here; information
        concerning them is to be found in every critical introduction to the
        Old Testament. The Rabbinical works dating from antiquity also offer
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page271">[pg 271]</span><a name="Pg271"
        id="Pg271" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> little opportunity for
        reflection on their titles. The Talmud, as a work, has no title at
        all; for Talmud simply means <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“teaching”</span> or <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“study.”</span> Sometimes it is termed ShaSS, an
        abbreviation of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Shisha Sedarim</span></span>,<a id="noteref_225"
        name="noteref_225" href="#note_225"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">225</span></span></a> meaning
        the Six Orders or divisions contained in the Mishnah. This last word
        means, according to some authors, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Repetition.”</span> Other Tannaitic collections of laws
        or expositions of the Scriptures are called <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“the Book”</span> (Siphra), <span class="tei tei-q">“the
        Books”</span> (Siphré), or <span class="tei tei-q">“Additions”</span>
        (Tosephta to the Mishnah). The word <span lang="he" class=
        "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Baraitha</span></span><a id="noteref_226" name=
        "noteref_226" href="#note_226"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">226</span></span></a> means
        the external Mishnah that enjoyed less authority than the Mishnah of
        R. Judah the Patriarch. Some approach to titles we find in the names
        given to the different tractates included in the Mishnah, as
        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Berachoth</span></span>, because it treats of
        Benedictions, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Peah</span></span><a id="noteref_227" name=
        "noteref_227" href="#note_227"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">227</span></span></a>
        (Corner) which contains the particulars concerning the law in Lev.
        xix. and so forth. Of the few works quoted in the Talmud it will
        suffice to mention the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Seder Olam</span></span>, the Order of the
        World, the name of which is very suitable to the chronological
        contents of the book. In general, I may observe that as long as the
        law which prohibited the writing down of the Oral teachings was in
        force, there hardly existed Jewish books. But where there are no
        books there is also no need for titles. The few titles, however,
        which can be proved to be historical are simple and to the point. It
        is not till about the beginning of the Middle Ages, when this
        prohibitive law had, for reasons not to be explained here, been
        abolished, that we can speak of Hebrew books. But here also the
        Title-confusion begins.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In order that we
        may have some general view of the thousands of titles that are
        catalogued by the Jewish bibliographers, it will perhaps be well to
        arrange them under the following six classes:—</p><span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="page272">[pg 272]</span><a name="Pg272" id="Pg272"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I. <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Simple
        titles</span></span>, that have no other object than that of
        indicating the subject matter of the book. These are, as we have just
        seen, the only kind of titles known to antiquity. The few books which
        the Gaonim left us bear such simple titles as could have served as
        models to later generations. Among them may be mentioned the
        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Halachoth</span></span> or collection of Laws,
        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Creeds and
        Opinions</span></span>, by R. Saadiah Gaon, the <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Book on Buying and
        Selling</span></span>, by R. Hai Gaon, containing the laws relating
        to commercial transactions. It may be noticed that this last book is
        one of the best arranged in Jewish literature, and displays more
        systematising powers than even the Code of Maimonides. The greatest
        part of the literary activity of the Gaonim consists in their
        Responsa, in which they gave decisions on ritual questions, or
        explanations of difficult passages in the Talmud. The titles borne by
        the various collections of those Responsa belong to a period later
        than the author's. The great majority of the books produced by the
        Franco-German school may also be included in this class. They are
        termed <span class="tei tei-q">“Commentaries,”</span> <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Additions”</span> or <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Glosses,”</span> <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Novellæ,”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“Confirming
        Proofs,”</span> and similar modest titles which show both their
        relation to, and dependence on, another older authority. The largest
        collection of Midrashim we possess bears the simple title
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Bag.”</span><a id="noteref_228" name=
        "noteref_228" href="#note_228"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">228</span></span></a> Many of
        the Responsa satisfy themselves with the words <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Questions to, and Answers by.”</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">II. <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Titles taken from the
        first word with which the book begins</span></span>, or from the
        first word of the Scriptural verse occurring first in the book. This
        class is strongly represented by the Midrashim. Thus the Midrash to
        the Song of Songs is also quoted as the Midrash <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Chazitha</span></span>,<a id="noteref_229" name=
        "noteref_229" href="#note_229"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">229</span></span></a>
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Midrash, Seest thou”</span> (the first text
        with which this Midrash deals <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page273">[pg 273]</span><a name="Pg273" id="Pg273" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> being Proverbs xxii. 28). The Midrash to the
        Psalms is called Midrash <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Shocher Tob</span></span>,<a id="noteref_230"
        name="noteref_230" href="#note_230"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">230</span></span></a>
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Midrash, He that diligently seeketh the
        good”</span> (Prov. xi. 37). The Midrash containing the legendary
        story of the wars of the sons of Jacob with the Canaanites is quoted
        as Midrash <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">V'yisseu</span></span>,<a id="noteref_231" name=
        "noteref_231" href="#note_231"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">231</span></span></a>
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Midrash, And they journeyed,”</span> as the
        story begins with the verse from Gen. xxxv. 5. And this is the case
        with the titles of many other Midrashim. Whether the work cited under
        the strange name of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Meat on Coals</span></span> did not begin with
        those words, containing some law relating to the salting of meat, I
        do not venture to decide. Under this class we may also arrange those
        books that are called after a phrase which is often used in the book,
        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">e.g.</span></span>, the Midrash <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Yelamdenu</span></span>
        (He may teach us), or the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Vehizhir</span></span>, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“And He commanded us,”</span> almost every paragraph in
        these books beginning with the phrases mentioned.<a id="noteref_232"
        name="noteref_232" href="#note_232"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">232</span></span></a>
        Probably all the books belonging to this class received from the
        hands of their authors or compilers no titles at all. The student who
        had to quote them gave them names after the phrase or word which
        first caught his eye. In later centuries this class disappears almost
        entirely (see, however, Ben-Jacob's <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Treasure</span></span>,
        p. 201, No. 827).</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">III. <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pompous
        titles.</span></span> The largest contributions to this class were
        made by the mystical writers. Books which profess to know what is
        going on in the heavens above and the earth beneath cannot possibly
        be satisfied with modest titles. Thus we have the <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Book of Brightness”</span> (Zohar), <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“the shining book”</span> (Bahir), <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“the Confidential Shepherd”</span> (Moses).<a id=
        "noteref_233" name="noteref_233" href="#note_233"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">233</span></span></a> The
        books which the Zohar quotes bear such titles as the Book of Adam,
        the Book of Enoch. The only excuse for the Zohar is that the
        manufacturing of such books with pseudo-epigraphical titles
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page274">[pg 274]</span><a name="Pg274"
        id="Pg274" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> had already begun in
        antiquity. It is not, however, till the Gaonic period that a whole
        apocryphal literature suddenly emerges which perplexes the Gaonim
        themselves. No one is spared. Angels, patriarchs, and martyrs are
        called upon to lend their names to these books. What one resents most
        is that history came within the range of the forger's activity. There
        is, for instance, the Josippon, which professes to be written by
        Josephus, the well-known Jewish historian of the first century. But
        in spite of all the care taken by the author to disguise himself in
        the garb of antiquity, the Josippon is a forgery of the ninth or
        tenth century. Of a similar kind is the Book of Jasher, containing
        legendary stories relating to Biblical personages. It pretends to be
        identical with the Book of Jasher quoted in Joshua x. 13 and 2 Sam.
        i. 18. Some sixty years ago a certain Mr. Samuel of Liverpool had the
        misfortune to make himself ridiculous by maintaining the pretensions
        of this book; for, indeed, it does not require much knowledge of the
        Agadic literature to see that the Book of Jasher is only a
        compilation of comparatively late Midrashim.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">IV. <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Titles suggested by
        other Titles.</span></span> As an instance of this we may take
        Maimonides' great Code of Law, which bears the title <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mishneh
        Torah</span></span>. The importance of the book made it the object of
        study for hundreds of scholars, who wrote their commentaries and
        glosses on it. Among the titles of the commentaries such
        Title-genealogies may be discovered as Maggid <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mishneh</span></span>,
        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Mishneh</span></span> Lammelech; which last word
        again suggested such titles as Emek ha-<span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Melech</span></span>,
        Shaar ha-<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Melech</span></span>, and so on.<a id=
        "noteref_234" name="noteref_234" href="#note_234"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">234</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The same process
        may be observed in other standard works, the importance of which made
        them a subject of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page275">[pg
        275]</span><a name="Pg275" id="Pg275" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        investigation and interpretation as the <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Prepared Table,”</span> one of the glosses to which is
        called <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Mappah</span></span>, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Tablecloth,”</span> whilst others provided it with the
        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Shewbread</span></span> and with <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">New
        Fruit</span></span>.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">V. <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Euphemistic
        Titles</span></span>, as <span class="tei tei-q">“The Tractate of
        Joys,”</span> treating of funeral ceremonies and kindred subjects. It
        does not seem that this title was known to antiquity, but it is
        certain that already the earlier authorities quoted it by this name.
        <span class="tei tei-q">“The Book of Life”</span> (the German Jewish
        title of which is <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Alle Dinim, von Freuden</span></span>), is the
        name of a very popular book containing the prayers to be read in the
        house of mourning as well as in the cemetery, which is also called
        the House of Life.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">VI. <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Titles taken from the
        Bible</span></span>, or Fancy Titles. This is the largest class of
        all, though it was utterly unknown in antiquity. It will be, perhaps,
        convenient to arrange this class of titles under the following
        sub-divisions. (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">a</span></span>) Titles taken from the Bible,
        but also fulfilling the purpose of indicating the name of the author.
        For instance, <span class="tei tei-q">“Seed of Abraham”</span> (Ps.
        cv. 6), is the title of nine different books, the name of whose
        authors happened to be Abraham; <span class="tei tei-q">“And Isaac
        entreated”</span> (Gen. xxv. 21), is by Isaac Satanow on the Prayers;
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Then Isaac sowed”</span> (<span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ibid.</span></span>
        xxvi. 12), edited by R. Isaac Perles, contains an index to the Zohar.
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Jacob shall take root”</span> (Is. xxvii. 6)
        is the name of a book on Grammar and Massorah by R. Jacob Bassani. R.
        Joseph of Posen left two collections of sermons and commentaries on
        the Pentateuch, of which the one is called <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“And Joseph nourished”</span> (Gen. xlvii. 12), the other
        <span class="tei tei-q">“And Joseph gathered”</span> (<span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ibid.</span></span>
        14). Authors with the name of Judah are represented among others by
        such titles as <span class="tei tei-q">“And this of Judah”</span>
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page276">[pg 276]</span><a name="Pg276"
        id="Pg276" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> (Deut. xxxiii.7), a treatise
        on the laws concerning the killing of animals; or <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Judah shall go up”</span> (Judges i. 2), a pamphlet
        containing a collection of prayers to be said on a journey.
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Moses began”</span> (Deut. i. 5) forms the
        title of three different books on various subjects, the authors of
        which had the name Moses. <span class="tei tei-q">“Moses shall
        rejoice,”</span> a phrase occurring in the morning prayer for
        Sabbaths, is also the title of two books, the authors of which were
        named Moses. The <span class="tei tei-q">“Rod of Aaron”</span>
        enjoyed, as it seems, a goodly popularity; there are four bearing
        this name, not to speak of a fifth, <span class="tei tei-q">“The Rod
        of Aaron brought forth buds”</span> (Exod. xvii. 23), which is the
        name of a collection of Responsa by R. Aaron ben Chayim. But other
        Rods also were fashionable; there are, besides the five Rods of
        Moses, also Rods of Ephraim, Dan, Judah, Joseph, Naphtali, and
        Manasseh. By authors of the name of David we find books with the
        title <span class="tei tei-q">“And David said,”</span> or a
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Prayer of David,”</span> and other phrases
        occurring in the Psalms relating to David; whilst the <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Tower of David”</span> became the stronghold of other
        writers, and the <span class="tei tei-q">“Shield of David”</span>
        protected as many as nine more. The <span class="tei tei-q">“Chariot
        of Solomon”</span> (Cant. iii. 9) adorns the title-pages of five
        books by authors named Solomon. The Caraite Solomon Troki was so fond
        of that title that he called his two polemical treatises <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“He made himself a chariot,”</span> while R. Solomon of
        Mir's collection of sermons has the title, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“This Bed which is Solomon's”</span> (Cant. iii. 7). As
        to family names, there were not many authors in the enjoyment of that
        luxury (especially among the German Jews), but we find them
        indicating the fact of their being Priests or Levites. Among such
        books are the collection of Responsa, by R. Raphael Cohen, which has
        the title <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page277">[pg
        277]</span><a name="Pg277" id="Pg277" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        <span class="tei tei-q">“And the Priest shall come again”</span>
        (Lev. xiv. 39), and the Cabbalistic treatise by R. Abraham Cohen, of
        Lask, with the title <span class="tei tei-q">“And the Priest shall
        reckon unto him”</span> (Lev. xxvii. 18). Probably the author deals
        with numbers. R. Hirsch Horwitz, the Levite, called his Novellæ to
        the Talmud <span class="tei tei-q">“The Camp of Levi.”</span> The
        title <span class="tei tei-q">“The Service of the Levite”</span>
        (with allusion to Exodus xxxviii. 21) is borne by five other books by
        authors who were Levites. And there may be found hundreds of books
        with titles suggesting the Priestly or Levitical descent of their
        authors. Most anxious is Joseph Ibn Kaspi (Joseph the Silvern, so
        called after his native place Argentière, in the south of France) to
        provide most of his numerous books with some Biblical titles combined
        with silver, as a <span class="tei tei-q">“Bowl of Silver”</span>
        (Numb. vii. 13), or <span class="tei tei-q">“Points of Silver”</span>
        (Song of Songs i. 11), or <span class="tei tei-q">“Figures of
        Silver”</span> (Prov. xxv. 10), and other similar phrases. On the
        other hand Azulai manages to indicate at least one of his three
        Hebrew names, Chayim Joseph David, in most of his works, of which the
        number exceeds seventy, as Chayim Shaal,<a id="noteref_235" name=
        "noteref_235" href="#note_235"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">235</span></span></a>
        <span class="tei tei-q">“He asked Life”</span> (Ps. xxi. 4), or
        <span class="tei tei-q">“The knees of Joseph”</span> (alluding to
        Gen. xlviii. 12), and <span class="tei tei-q">“Truth unto
        David”</span> (Ps. cxxxii. 11).</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">(<span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>) The
        Tabernacle with its furniture was also a great favourite with many
        authors. There are not only six tabernacles (two on Cabbalah, two on
        grammar, and two on Talmudical subjects), but also three <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Arks of the Testimony,”</span> two <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Altars of gold,”</span> two <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Tables of Shewbread,”</span> four <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Candlesticks of the Light,”</span> two <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Sockets of Silver,”</span> and two <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Pillars of Silver.”</span> Others again preferred the
        vestments of the priests as the <span class="tei tei-q">“Plate of
        Judgment,”</span> the <span class="tei tei-q">“Robe of the
        Ephod,”</span> the <span class="tei tei-q">“Mitre of Aaron,”</span>
        the <span class="tei tei-q">“Plate <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page278">[pg 278]</span><a name="Pg278" id="Pg278" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> of Gold,”</span> the <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Bell and Pomegranate,”</span> <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Wreathen Chains,”</span> and the <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Arches of Gold.”</span> Many of these books were written
        by authors claiming to be priests. (<span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">c</span></span>) But
        besides the canonical, other costumes were also fashionable. R.
        Mordecai Yafeh composed ten books, every one of them bearing the name
        of some garment or apparel, as <span class="tei tei-q">“Apparel of
        Royalty,”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“Apparel of Blue,”</span>
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Apparel of White,”</span> and so the whole
        suit with which Mordecai went out from the presence of the king
        (Esther viii. 15). These ten works range from codifications of the
        law and occasional sermons to philosophy, astronomy, and Cabbalah. By
        other writers we have three <span class="tei tei-q">“Coats of many
        colours”</span> (Gen. xxxvii. 4), one <span class="tei tei-q">“Bridal
        Attire,”</span> and the <span class="tei tei-q">“Thread of
        Scarlet”</span> is not missing. (<span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">d</span></span>) The
        ingredients for incense as well as other articles used in the
        Tabernacle or in the Temple were also fancied by some authors, and we
        have two books with the title of <span class="tei tei-q">“Principal
        Spices,”</span> two <span class="tei tei-q">“Pure Myrrh,”</span>
        three <span class="tei tei-q">“Arts of the Apothecary,”</span> one
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Oil of Holy Ointment,”</span> five
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Meat Offerings mingled or dry,”</span> three
        or four <span class="tei tei-q">“Flour of the Meat Offering,”</span>
        and also one <span class="tei tei-q">“Two Young Pigeons”</span> (Bene
        Yonah) by R. Jonah Zandsopher. But the appetite of the authors did
        not stop at these holy things. It extended also to such lay articles
        as <span class="tei tei-q">“Spiced Wine,”</span> <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Juice of Pomegranate”</span> (Cant. viii. 2),
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Forests of Honey,”</span> the <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Book of the Apple,”</span> and <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Seven Kinds of Drink.”</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">(<span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">e</span></span>) Field
        and flock also suggested to Hebrew writers as well as to Mr. Ruskin
        such titles as <span class="tei tei-q">“The Fruit of the
        Hand,”</span> the <span class="tei tei-q">“Rose of Sharon,”</span>
        the <span class="tei tei-q">“Lily of the Valleys,”</span> or
        <span class="tei tei-q">“The Shepherds' Tents,”</span> and
        <span class="tei tei-q">“In the Green Pastures”</span> (Ps. xxiii.
        2).</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The specimens
        given for every class may with very little trouble be doubled and
        redoubled. But it is not my intention <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page279">[pg 279]</span><a name="Pg279" id="Pg279" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> to reproduce here whole catalogues. Reggio
        thinks all such titles, which do not correspond with the context of
        the book, absurd and confusing. He suggests that the Jews followed in
        this respect the Arabic writers. There is no doubt that Reggio is not
        altogether wrong in his complaint. Almost all the titles included in
        class vi., as the reader might have observed, never indicate to the
        student the subject of which the books treat. How can one guess that
        the Responsa, the Dance of Mahanaim (two companies), is of a
        polemical nature against the tendencies of reform? This list may be
        lengthened by hundreds of titles. But even these incomprehensible
        titles are better than the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Chad Gadyah Lo Israel</span></span> (One Kid No
        Israel),<a id="noteref_236" name="noteref_236" href=
        "#note_236"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">236</span></span></a> the
        un-Hebrew title of a pamphlet trying to prove the un-Jewish origin of
        the well-known folk-song sung on Passover Eve. But, on the other
        hand, it must not be overlooked that even this class has, though not
        always, something suggestive and even practical about it. The
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Choice of Pearls”</span> is undoubtedly more
        attractive than the prosaic <span class="tei tei-q">“Collection of
        Proverbs and Sayings,”</span> which is what the book contains.
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Understanding of the Seasons”</span> (1 Chr.
        xii. 32), sounds also better than the simple <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Collection of Sermons on different occasions.”</span>
        <span class="tei tei-q">“The Lips of those who Sleep”</span>
        recommends itself as a very suggestive title for a catalogue,
        especially when one thinks of the Agadic explanation given to Cant.
        vii. 10, according to which the study of the book of a departed
        author makes the lips of the dead man to speak. Such titles as
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Bunch of Lilies”</span> for a collection of
        poems are still usual with us. Such a title as the <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Jealousy Offering,”</span> or the <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Law of Jealousies,”</span> in polemical literature is
        very appropriate for its subject. R. Jacob Emden, who named one
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page280">[pg 280]</span><a name="Pg280"
        id="Pg280" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of his pamphlets <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Rod for the fool's back”</span> (Prov. xxvi. 3), will be
        envied for his choice by many a controversialist even to-day. Wittily
        devised is the pun-title, <span class="tei tei-q">“City of
        Sihon”</span> for a mathematical book by R. Joseph Tsarphathi,
        alluding to Numb. xxi. 27, <span class="tei tei-q">“For Hesbon
        (reckoning) is the City of Sihon.”</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Other titles were
        probably intended more as mottoes than titles. <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Go forth and behold, ye daughters of Zion”</span> (Cant.
        iii. 11), is put in the title-page of R. Jacob's German-Jewish
        paraphrase of the Pentateuch, which was written chiefly for the use
        of ladies. <span class="tei tei-q">“Let another man praise thee and
        not thine own mouth, a stranger and not thine own lips”</span> (Prov.
        xxvii. 2), forms the title of a book extending over only one and a
        half page in quarto. It contains letters by seven Rabbis (among them
        R. Liva of Prague) recommending the Ascetic, R. Abraham Wangos, who
        has a daughter to marry, and wants also to make a pilgrimage to the
        Holy Land, as deserving the support of his brethren.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There is also
        another objection to these titles. It is that they seem sometimes not
        quite consonant with our notions of modesty. Thus we have
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Desirable and Sweet”</span> on astronomy,
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Sweeter than Honey”</span> or <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“He shall comfort us,”</span> and many others of this
        kind. But it must not be thought that we have a right to infer from
        the title to the author. There is, indeed, an anecdote that three
        authors were rather too little careful about the choice of their
        titles, namely Maimonides in calling his Code <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mishneh
        Torah</span></span> (which is the traditional title of the Book of
        Deuteronomy), R. Moses Alshech in calling his homiletical
        commentaries <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Torah</span></span> of Moses, and R. Isaiah
        Horwitz in calling his book <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Shene Luchoth ha-Berith</span></span>
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page281">[pg 281]</span><a name="Pg281"
        id="Pg281" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> (The Two Tables of the
        Covenant). These authors, as the story goes, had for their punishment
        that their works are never quoted by the titles they gave to them,
        the former two being usually cited as Rambam or Alshech, whilst the
        last is more known by its abbreviated title of SHeLa<a id=
        "noteref_237" name="noteref_237" href="#note_237"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">237</span></span></a> than by
        its full name.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I do not remember
        where I have read this story, but I am quite sure that its pious
        author would have been more careful about repeating it had he known
        that this accusation against Maimonides was a favourite topic with
        apostates, who thought to hit Judaism in the person of its
        representative Maimonides. But, as R. Solomon Duran in his polemical
        work remarks, Maimonides was too much of a truly great man to find
        any satisfaction in such petty vanity. Nor do I believe that even the
        character of less-known authors can in any way be impugned by the
        seemingly conceited titles of their books; just as on the other hand
        the humility of the author is not proved by calling his book
        <span class="tei tei-q">“The Offering of the Poor,”</span> or other
        modest titles. The fancy title was in common use, and was therefore a
        commonplace with no significance whatever. The real disadvantage of
        such titles lies in the fact that, as already pointed out, they
        conceal from the student the contents of the book which he might
        otherwise consult in the course of his researches.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Did these authors
        perhaps foresee that there would come a time in which index-knowledge
        would pass for deep scholarship? and did they thus by using these
        obscure titles try to put a check on the dabblers who speak the more
        of a book the less they have read of its contents? If this be the
        case we can only admire their foresight.</p>
      </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page282">[pg 282]</span><a name=
      "Pg282" id="Pg282" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
      <hr class="page" />

      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
      "margin-top: 5.00em; margin-bottom: 5.00em">
        <a name="toc27" id="toc27"></a> <a name="pdf28" id="pdf28"></a>

        <h1 class="tei tei-head" style=
        "margin-top: 3.46em; margin-bottom: 3.46em; text-align: left">
        <span style="font-size: 173%">XII. The Child in Jewish
        Literature</span></h1>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
        "tei tei-q">“I saw a Jewish lady only yesterday with a child at her
        knee, and from whose face towards the child there shone a sweetness
        so angelical that it seemed to form a sort of glory round both. I
        protest I could have knelt before her, too, and adored in her the
        divine beneficence in endowing us with the maternal <span class=
        "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">storgé</span></span> which began with our race
        and sanctifies the history of mankind.”</span> These words, which are
        taken from Thackeray's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Pendennis</span></span>, may serve as a
        starting-point for this paper. The fact that the great student of man
        perceived this glory just round the head of a Jewish lady rouses in
        me the hope that the small student of letters may, with a little
        search, be able to discover in the remains of our past many similar
        traces of this divine beneficence and sanctifying sentiment.
        Certainly the glimpses which we shall catch from the faded leaves of
        ancient volumes, dating from bygone times, will not be so bright as
        those which the novelist was so fortunate as to catch from the face
        of a lady whom he saw but the previous day. The mothers and fathers,
        about whom I am going to write in this essay, have gone long ago, and
        the objects of their anxiety and troubles have also long ago
        vanished. But what the subject will lose in brightness, it may
        perhaps gain in reality and intensity. A few moments <span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="page283">[pg 283]</span><a name="Pg283" id="Pg283"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of enraptured devotion do not make up the
        saint. It is a whole series of feelings and sentiments betrayed on
        different occasions, expressed in different ways, a whole life of
        sore troubles, of bitter disappointments, but also moments of most
        elevated joys and real happiness.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And surely these
        manifestations of the divine beneficence, which appear in their
        brightest glory in the literature of every nation when dealing with
        the child, shine strongest in the literature of the Jewish nation. In
        it, to possess a child was always considered as the greatest blessing
        God could bestow on man, and to miss it as the greatest curse. The
        patriarch Abraham, with whom Israel enters into history,
        complains—<span class="tei tei-q">“Oh Lord, what wilt Thou give me,
        seeing I go childless!”</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Rabbis
        regarded the childless man as dead, whilst the Cabbalist in the
        Middle Ages thought of him who died without posterity as of one who
        had failed in his mission in this world, so that he would have to
        appear again on our planet to fulfil this duty. To trace out the
        feelings which accompanied the object of their greatest anxiety, to
        let them pass before the reader in some way approaching to a
        chronological order, to draw attention to some points more worthy of
        being emphasised than others, is the aim of this essay.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I said that I
        propose to treat the subject in chronological order. I meant by this
        that I shall follow the child in the different stages through which
        it has to pass from its birth until it ceases to be a child and
        attains its majority. This latter period is the beginning of the
        thirteenth year in the case of a female, and the beginning of the
        fourteenth year in the case of a male. I shall have occasion later on
        to examine this point more closely.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page284">[pg 284]</span><a name="Pg284" id="Pg284" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But there is the
        embryo-period which forms a kind of preliminary stage in the life of
        the child, and plays a very important part in the region of Jewish
        legends. Human imagination always occupies itself most with the
        things of which we know least. And so it got hold of this
        semi-existence of man, the least accessible to experience and
        observation, and surrounded it by a whole cycle of legends and
        stories. They are too numerous to be related here. But I shall hint
        at a few points which I regard as the most conspicuous features of
        these legends.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These legends are
        chiefly based on the notion of the pre-existence of the soul on the
        one hand, but on the other hand they are a vivid illustration of the
        saying of the Fathers, <span class="tei tei-q">“Thou art born against
        thy will.”</span> Thus the soul, when it is brought before the throne
        of God, and is commanded to enter into the body, pleads before Him:
        <span class="tei tei-q">“O Lord, till now have I been holy and pure;
        bring me not into contact with what is common and unclean.”</span>
        Thereupon the soul is given to understand that it was for this
        destiny alone that it was created. Another remarkable feature is the
        warning given to man before his birth that he will be responsible for
        his actions. He is regularly sworn in. The oath has the double
        purpose of impressing upon him the consciousness of his duty to lead
        a holy life, and of arming him against the danger of allowing a holy
        life to make him vain. As if to render this oath more impressive, the
        unborn hero is provided with two angels who, besides teaching him the
        whole of the Torah, take him every morning through paradise and show
        him the glory of the just ones who dwell there. In the evening he is
        taken to hell to witness <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page285">[pg
        285]</span><a name="Pg285" id="Pg285" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the
        sufferings of the reprobate. But such a lesson would make free will
        impossible. His future conduct would only be dictated by the fear of
        punishment and hope of reward. And the moral value of his actions
        also depends, according to Jewish notions, upon the power to commit
        sin. Thus another legend records: <span class="tei tei-q">“When God
        created the world, He produced on the second day the angels with
        their natural inclinations to do good, and the absolute inability to
        commit sin. On the following days again He created the beasts with
        their exclusively animal desires. But He was pleased with neither of
        these extremes. If the angels follow my will, said God, it is only on
        account of their impotence to act in the opposite direction. I shall
        therefore create man, who will be a combination of both angel and
        beast, so that he will be able to follow either the good or evil
        inclination. His evil deeds will place him beneath the level of
        animals, whilst his noble aspirations will enable him to obtain a
        higher position than angels.”</span> Care is therefore taken to make
        the child forget all it has seen and heard in these upper regions.
        Before it enters the world an angel strikes it on the upper lip, and
        all his knowledge and wisdom disappear at once. The pit in the upper
        lip is a result of this stroke, which is also the cause why children
        cry when they are born.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As to the origin
        of these legends, the main features of which are already to be found
        in the Talmud, I must refer the reader to the researches of Löw and
        others.<a id="noteref_238" name="noteref_238" href=
        "#note_238"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">238</span></span></a> Here we
        have only to watch the effect which these legends had upon the minds
        of Jewish parents. The newly born child was in consequence looked
        upon by them as a higher being, which, but a few seconds before, had
        been conversing <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page286">[pg
        286]</span><a name="Pg286" id="Pg286" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        with angels and saints, and had now condescended into our profane
        world to make two ordinary mortals happy. The treatment which the
        child experienced from its parents, as well as from the whole of the
        community, was therefore a combination of love and veneration. One
        may go even further and say that the belief in these legends
        determines greatly the destination of the child. What other
        destination could a being of such a glorious past have than to be
        what an old German Jewish poem expressed in the following lines:—</p>

        <div class="block tei tei-quote" style=
        "margin-right: 3.60em; margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em">
        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 0.90em; margin-bottom: 0.90em">
            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Geboren soll es wehren</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Zu Gottes Ehren.</span>
            </div>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class=
        "tei tei-q">“The child should be born to the honour of God.”</span>
        The mission of the child is to glorify the name of God on earth. And
        the whole bringing up of the child in the old Jewish communities was
        more or less calculated to this end. The words of the Bible,
        <span class="tei tei-q">“And ye shall be unto me a kingdom of
        priests,”</span> were taken literally. Every man felt it his duty to
        bring up his children, or at least one member of his family, for this
        calling. How they carried out this programme we shall see later
        on.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now, regarding
        almost every infant as a predestined priest, and thinking of it as
        having received a certain preparation for this calling before it came
        into this world, we cannot wonder that the child was supposed to show
        signs of piety from the days of its earliest existence, and even
        earlier. Thus we read that even the unborn children joined in with
        the chorus on the Red Sea and sang the Song (of Moses). David, again,
        composed Psalms before perceiving the face of this world. On the Day
        of Atonement they used to communicate to the unborn child,
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page287">[pg 287]</span><a name="Pg287"
        id="Pg287" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> through the medium of its
        mother, that on this great day it had to be satisfied with the good
        it had received the day before. And when a certain child, afterwards
        named Shabbethai, refused to listen to such a request, R. Johanan
        applied to it the verse from the Psalm, <span class="tei tei-q">“The
        wicked are estranged from the womb.”</span> Indeed, Shabbethai turned
        out a great sinner. It will perhaps be interesting to hear what his
        sin was. It consisted in forestalling the corn in the market and
        afterwards selling it to the poor at a much higher price. Of a
        certain child the legend tells that it was born with the word
        <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">emeth</span></span> (truth) engraved on its
        fore-head. Its parents named it Amiti,<a id="noteref_239" name=
        "noteref_239" href="#note_239"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">239</span></span></a> and the
        child proved to be a great saint.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The priest,
        however, could not enter into his office without some consecration.
        As the first step in this consecration of the child we may consider
        the Covenant of Abraham. But this was prefaced by a few other solemn
        acts which I must mention. One of the oldest ceremonies connected
        with the birth of a child was that of tree-planting. In the case of a
        boy they planted a cedar, in that of a girl a pine; and on their
        marriage they cut branches from these trees to form the
        wedding-canopy. Other rites followed, but they were more of a medical
        character, and would be better appreciated by the physician. In the
        Middle Ages superstition played a great part. To be sure, I have
        spoken of saints; but we ought not to forget that saints, too, have
        their foolish moments, especially when they are fighting against
        hosts of demons, the existence of which is only guaranteed by their
        own over-excited brains. Jewish parents were for many centuries
        troubled by the fear of Lilith,<a id="noteref_240" name="noteref_240"
        href="#note_240"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">240</span></span></a> the
        devil's mother, who was suspected of stealing children and killing
        them. The precautions they <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page288">[pg
        288]</span><a name="Pg288" id="Pg288" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        took to prevent this atrocity were as foolish as the object of their
        fear. I do not intend to enumerate here all these various
        precautions. Every country almost has its own usages and charms, one
        more absurd than the other. It will suffice to refer here to the most
        popular of these charms, in which certain angels are invoked to
        protect the child against its dangerous enemy Lilith. But of whatever
        origin they may be, Judaism could do better without them. The only
        excuse for their existence among us is to my mind that they provoked
        the famous Dr. Erter to the composition of one of the finest satires
        in the Hebrew language.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of a less
        revolting character was the so-called ceremony of the <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Reading of the Shema.”</span><a id="noteref_241" name=
        "noteref_241" href="#note_241"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">241</span></span></a> It
        consisted in taking all the little children of the community into the
        house of the newly-born child, where the teacher made them read the
        Shema, sometimes also the ninety-first Psalm. The fact that little
        children were the chief actors in this ceremony reconciles one a
        little to it despite its rather doubtful origin. In some communities
        these readings took place every evening up to the day when the child
        was brought into the covenant of Abraham. In other places they
        performed the ceremony only on the eve of the day of the <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Berith
        Milah</span></span><a id="noteref_242" name="noteref_242" href=
        "#note_242"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">242</span></span></a>
        (Ceremony of the Circumcision). Indeed, this was the night during
        which Lilith was supposed to play her worst tricks, and the watch
        over the child was redoubled. Hence the name <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Wachnacht,”</span> or the <span class="tei tei-q">“Night
        of Watching.”</span> They remained awake for the whole night, and
        spent it in feasting and in studying certain portions of the Bible
        and the Talmud, mostly relating to the event which was to take place
        on the following day. This ceremony was already known to Jewish
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page289">[pg 289]</span><a name="Pg289"
        id="Pg289" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> writers of the thirteenth
        century. Nevertheless, it is considered by the best authorities on
        the subject to be of foreign origin. Quite Jewish, as well as
        entirely free from superstitious taint, was the visit which was paid
        to the infant-boy on the first Sabbath of his existence. It was
        called <span class="tei tei-q">“Shalom Zachar,”</span><a id=
        "noteref_243" name="noteref_243" href="#note_243"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">243</span></span></a>
        probably meaning <span class="tei tei-q">“Peace-boy,”</span> in
        allusion to a well-known passage in the Talmud to the effect that the
        advent of a boy in the family brings peace to the world.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At last the dawn
        of the great day of the Berith came. I shall, however, only touch
        here on the social aspects of this rite.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Its popularity
        began, as it seems, in very early times. The persecutions which
        Israel suffered for it in the times of Antiochus Epiphanes,
        <span class="tei tei-q">“when the princes and elders mourned, the
        virgins and the young men were made feeble, and the beauty of women
        was changed, and when certain women were put to death for causing
        their children to be circumcised,”</span> are the best proof of the
        attachment of the people to it. The repeated attempts against this
        law, both by heathen and by Christian hands, only served to increase
        its popularity. Indeed R. Simeon ben Eleazar characterised it as the
        law for which Israel brought the sacrifice of martyrdom, and
        therefore held firmly by it. In other words they suffered for it, and
        it became endeared to them. R. Simeon ben Gamaliel declares it to be
        the only law which Israel fulfils with joy and exultation. As a sign
        of this joy we may regard the eagerness and the lively interest which
        raised this ceremony from a strictly family affair to a matter in
        which the whole of the community participated. Thus we find that
        already in the times of the Gaonim the ceremony was <span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="page290">[pg 290]</span><a name="Pg290" id="Pg290"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> transferred from the house of the parents
        to the synagogue. Here it took place after the prayers, in the
        presence of the whole congregation. The synagogue used to be
        specially illuminated in honour of the event. Certain pieces of the
        daily prayer, of a rather doleful nature, such as the confession of
        sins, were omitted, lest the harmony of the festival should be
        disturbed. As a substitute for these prayers, various hymns suitable
        for the occasion were composed and inserted in the liturgy for the
        day. As the most prominent members among those present figured the
        happy father of the child and the medical man who performed the
        ceremony, usually called the Mohel or Gozer,<a id="noteref_244" name=
        "noteref_244" href="#note_244"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">244</span></span></a> both
        wearing their festal garments and having certain privileges, such as
        being called up to the Reading of the Law and chanting certain
        portions of the prayers. It is not before the tenth century that a
        third member suddenly emerges to become almost as important as the
        father of the child. I refer to the <span class=
        "tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Sandek</span></span> or Godfather. In some
        countries he was also called the Baal Berith (Master of the
        Covenant). In Italy they seemed to have had two Sandeks. This word
        was for a long time supposed to be the Greek word σύνδικος. But it is
        now proved beyond doubt that it is a corruption of the word σύντεκνος
        used in the Greek church for godfather. In the church he was the man
        who lifted the neophyte from the baptismal waters. Among the Jews,
        the office of the Sandek was to keep the child on his knees during
        the performance of the rite. The Sandek's place was, or is still,
        near the seat of honour, which is called the Throne of Elijah, who is
        supposed to be the angel of the covenant. Other angels, too, were
        believed to officiate at this rite. Thus the angel Gabriel is also
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page291">[pg 291]</span><a name="Pg291"
        id="Pg291" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> said to have performed the
        office of Sandek to a certain child. According to other sources the
        archangel Metatron himself attended. Probably it was on this account
        that later Rabbis admonished the parents to take only a pious and
        good Jew as Sandek for their children. Christian theologians also
        declared that no good Christian must render such a service to a Jew.
        The famous Buxtorf had to pay a fine of 100 florins for having
        attended the Berith of a child, whose father he had employed as
        reader when editing the well-known Basel Bible. The poor reader
        himself, who was the cause of Buxtorf's offence, was fined 400
        florins. Of an opposite case in which a Jew served as godfather to a
        Christian child, we find a detailed account in Schudt's <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Merkwürdigkeiten der
        Juden</span></span>, a very learned and very foolish book. When the
        father was summoned before the magistrate, and was asked how he dared
        to charge a Jew with such a holy Christian ceremony, he coolly
        answered, because he knew that the Jew would present him with a
        silver cup. As to the present, I have to remark that with the Jews
        also the godfather was expected to bestow a gift on the child. In
        some communities he had to defray the expenses of the
        festival-dinner, of which I shall speak presently. In others, again,
        he had also to give a present to the mother of the child.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Much older than
        the institution of the Sandek is the festival-dinner just alluded to,
        which was held after the ceremony. Jewish legend supplies many
        particulars of the dinner the patriarch Abraham gave at the Berith of
        his son Isaac. This is a little too legendary, but there is ample
        historical evidence that such meals were already customary in the
        times of the Second Temple. The <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page292">[pg 292]</span><a name="Pg292" id="Pg292" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> Talmud of Jerusalem gives us a detailed account
        of the proceedings which took place at the Berith dinner of Elisha
        ben Abuyah, who afterwards obtained a sad celebrity as Acher.
        Considering that Elisha's birth must have fallen within the first
        decades after the destruction of the Temple, and that these sad times
        were most unsuitable for introducing new festivals, we may safely
        date the custom back to the times of the Temple. The way in which the
        guests entertained themselves is also to be gathered from the passage
        referred to. First came the dinner, in which all the guests
        participated; afterwards the great men of Jerusalem occupied one
        room, indulging there in singing, hand clapping, and dancing. The
        scholars again, who apparently did not belong to the great men, were
        confined to another room, where they employed themselves in
        discussing biblical subjects. In later times special hymns, composed
        for this festival, were inserted in the grace after dinner. After the
        dinner, sermons or speeches used also to be given, the contents of
        which were usually made up of reflections on biblical and Talmudical
        passages relating to the event of the day. Sometimes they consisted
        of a kind of learned puns on the name which the child received on
        this occasion.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">With this meal the
        first consecration of the child-priest was concluded. In some places
        they used to come to the father's house on the third day after the
        circumcision with the purpose of making inquiries after the child's
        health. In the case when the child was the first-born the ceremony of
        <span class="tei tei-q">“redeeming the child”</span><a id=
        "noteref_245" name="noteref_245" href="#note_245"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">245</span></span></a> in
        accordance with Exodus xiii. used to take place. The details of this
        ceremony are to be found in almost every prayer-book, and there is
        nothing fresh to add. But perhaps I may be allowed to draw
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page293">[pg 293]</span><a name="Pg293"
        id="Pg293" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> attention to another
        distinction that the first-born received in the Middle Ages. I refer
        to an account given by the author of the book, <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Ordinance of the
        Law</span></span>,<a id="noteref_246" name="noteref_246" href=
        "#note_246"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">246</span></span></a> who
        flourished in the thirteenth century. He says: Our predecessors made
        the rule to destine every first-born to God, and before its birth the
        father had to say, <span class="tei tei-q">“I take the vow that if my
        wife presents me with a son, he shall be holy unto the Lord, and in
        His Torah he shall meditate day and night.”</span> On the eighth day
        after the Berith Milah they put the child on cushions, and a Bible on
        its head, and the elders of the community, or the principal of the
        college, imparted their blessings to it. These first-born sons
        formed, when grown up, the chief contingent of the Yeshiboth
        (Talmudical Colleges), where they devoted the greatest part of their
        lives to the study of the Torah. In later centuries the vow was
        dropped, but from the abundance of the Yeshiboth in Poland and
        elsewhere it seems as if almost every child was considered as having
        no other calling but the study of the Torah. Indeed, the growing
        persecutions required a strengthening of the religious force.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">With these
        ceremonies the first act of consecration ended in the case where the
        new-born child was a boy. I will now refer to the ceremony of the
        name-giving, which was common to males and females. In the case of
        the former this ceremony was connected with the Berith Milah. The
        oldest formula, which is already to be found in the <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ritual Rab Amram
        Gaon</span></span>, is composed in Aramaic. It is, like many prayers
        in that language, a most beautiful composition, and very suitable for
        the occasion. Our present Hebrew prayer is far less beautiful, and
        dates from a much later age. In some countries the ceremony
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page294">[pg 294]</span><a name="Pg294"
        id="Pg294" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of naming was repeated in the
        house of the parents. It took place on the Sabbath, when the mother
        returned home from her first visit to the synagogue after her
        recovery. Here the friends and relatives of the family assembled, and
        after arranging themselves round the cradle of the child they lifted
        it three times, shouting the new name at every lifting. This name was
        the so-called <span class="tei tei-q">“profane”</span> name, whilst
        the name it received in the synagogue was the <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“sacred”</span> or Hebrew name. The ceremony concluded
        with the usual festival-dinner. By the way, there was perhaps a
        little too much feasting in those days. The contemporary Rabbis tried
        indeed to suppress some of the banquets, and put all sorts of
        restrictions on dinner-hunting people. But considering the fact that,
        as Jews, they were excluded from every public amusement, we cannot
        grudge them the pleasure they drew from these semi-religious
        celebrations. For people of an ascetic disposition it was, perhaps,
        the only opportunity of enjoying a proper meal. In the same way, in
        our days, the most severe father would not deny his lively daughter
        the pleasure of dancing or singing charitably for the benefit of
        suffering humanity. The ceremony described was known to the authors
        of the Middle Ages by the name of <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Holle
        Kreish</span></span>. These words are proved by Dr. Perles to be of
        German origin, and based on some Teutonic superstition into the
        explanation of which I cannot enter here.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of much more
        importance was the ceremony of name-giving in the case of a girl, it
        being the only attention the female child received from the
        synagogue. The usages varied. In some countries the name was given on
        the first Sabbath after the birth of the child. The father was
        <span class="tei tei-q">“called up to the Reading of the Law,”</span>
        on which <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page295">[pg
        295]</span><a name="Pg295" id="Pg295" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        followed the formula, <span class="tei tei-q">“He who blessed our
        ancestors Abraham,”</span> etc., <span class="tei tei-q">“may He also
        bless,”</span> etc., including the blessing and announcement of the
        child's name. After the prayer the congregation assembled in the
        house of the parents to congratulate them. In other countries the
        ceremony took place on the Sabbath when the mother attended the
        synagogue after the recovery. The ceremony of Holle Kreish seems to
        have been especially observed in the case of a girl.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Though the
        feasting was now over for the parents, the child still lived in a
        holiday atmosphere for a long time. In the legend of the <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Ages of Man”</span> the child is described in the first
        year of its existence as a little prince, adored and petted by all.
        The mother herself nourished and tended the child. Although the Bible
        already speaks of nurses, many passages in the later Jewish
        literature show a strong aversion to these substitutes for the
        mother. In the event of the father of the child dying, the mother was
        forbidden to marry before her suckling infant reached the age of two
        years, lest a new courtship might lead to the neglect of the
        child.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">More difficult is
        it to say wherein the other signs of loyalty to the little prince
        consisted; as, for instance, whether Jews possessed anything like
        lullabies to soothe the little prince into happy and sweet slumber.
        At least I am not aware of the existence of such songs in the ancient
        Jewish literature, nor are they quoted by mediæval writers. The
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Schlummerlied,”</span> by an unknown Jewish
        bard, about which German scholars wrote so much, contains more
        heathen than Jewish elements. From the protest in <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Book of the
        Pious</span></span>, against using non-Jewish cradle-songs, it seems
        that little Moshechen was <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page296">[pg
        296]</span><a name="Pg296" id="Pg296" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        lulled to sleep by the same tunes and words as little Johnny. The
        only Jewish lullaby of which I know, is to be found in the work of a
        modern writer who lived in Russia. How far its popularity goes in
        that country I have no means of ascertaining. This jingle runs as
        follows:—</p>

        <div class="block tei tei-quote" style=
        "margin-top: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-right: 3.60em; margin-bottom: 1.80em">
        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 0.90em; margin-bottom: 0.90em">
            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">O! hush thee, my darling, sleep
              soundly my son,</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Sleep soundly and sweetly till day
              has begun;</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">For under the bed of good children
              at night</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">There lies, till the morning, a
              kid snowy white.</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">We'll send it to market to buy
              Sechora,</span><a id="noteref_247" name="noteref_247" href=
              "#note_247"><span class="tei tei-noteref" style=
              "text-align: left"><span style=
              "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">247</span></span></a>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">While my little lad goes to study
              Torah.</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Sleep soundly at night and learn
              Torah by day,</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Then thou'lt be a Rabbi when I
              have grown gray.</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">But I'll give thee to-morrow ripe
              nuts and a toy,</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">If thou'lt sleep as I bid thee, my
              own little boy.</span><a id="noteref_248" name="noteref_248"
              href="#note_248"><span class="tei tei-noteref" style=
              "text-align: left"><span style=
              "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">248</span></span></a>
            </div>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But naturally the
        holiday atmosphere I spoke of was very often darkened by clouds
        resulting from the illness of the child. Excepting small-pox, the
        child was subject to most of those diseases which so often prove
        fatal to our children. These diseases were known under the collective
        name of <span class="tei tei-q">“the difficulties (or the pain) of
        bringing up children.”</span> These difficulties seem to have been
        still greater in Palestine, where one of the old Rabbis exclaimed
        that it was easier to see a whole forest of young olive trees grow up
        than to rear one child.<a id="noteref_249" name="noteref_249" href=
        "#note_249"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">249</span></span></a> To
        avoid so mournful a subject, I refrain from repeating the touching
        stories relating to the death of children. The pain was the more
        keenly felt since there was no other way of explaining the misfortune
        which befell the innocent creature than that it had suffered for the
        sins of the parents; and the only comfort the latter had was that
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page297">[pg 297]</span><a name="Pg297"
        id="Pg297" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the child could not have lost
        much by its being removed from this vale of tears at such an early
        period. A remarkable legend describes God Himself as giving lessons
        so many hours a day to these prematurely deceased children.<a id=
        "noteref_250" name="noteref_250" href="#note_250"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">250</span></span></a> Indeed,
        to the mind of the old Rabbis, the only thing worth living for was
        the study of the Law. Consequently the child that suffered innocently
        could not have a better compensation than to learn Torah from the
        mouth of the Master of masters.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But even when the
        child was healthy, and food and climate proved congenial to its
        constitution, there still remained the troubles of its spiritual
        education. And to be sure it was not an easy matter to bring up a
        <span class="tei tei-q">“priest.”</span> The first condition for this
        calling was learning. But learning cannot be acquired without honest
        and hard industry. It is true that R. Akiba numbers wisdom among the
        virtues which are hereditary from father to son. Experience, however,
        has shown that it is seldom the case, and the Rabbis were already
        troubled with the question how it happens that children so little
        resemble their fathers in respect of learning.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Certainly Jewish
        legends can boast of a whole series of prodigies. Thus a certain
        Rabbi is said to have been so sharp as to have had a clear
        recollection of the mid-wife who made him a citizen of this world.
        Ben Sira again, instantly after his birth, entertains his terrified
        mother with many a wise and foolish saying, refuses the milk she
        offers him, and asks for solid food. A certain Nachman was born with
        a prophecy on his lips, predicting the fate of all nations on earth,
        as well as fixing the date for the advent of the Messiah. The
        youngest of seven sons of Hannah, who became martyrs under the reign
        of Antiochus <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page298">[pg
        298]</span><a name="Pg298" id="Pg298" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        Epiphanes, was according to one version aged two years, six months,
        six hours, and thirty minutes. But the way in which he defied the
        threats of the tyrant was really worthy of one of seventy. R. Judah
        de Modena is said to have read the lesson from the prophets in the
        synagogue at the age of two years and a half. A famous Cabbalist,
        Nahum, at the age of three, gave a lecture on the decalogue that
        lasted for three days. The Chassidim pretended of one of their
        Zaddikim that he remembered all that he had been taught by the angels
        before his birth, and thus excused their Zaddik's utter neglect of
        studying anything. Perhaps I may mention in this place a sentence
        from Schudt, which may reconcile one to the harmless exaggerations of
        the Chassidim. It relates to a case where a Jewish girl of six was
        taken away by a Christian with the intention of baptising her, for he
        maintained that this was the wish and pleasure of the child. Probably
        the little girl received her instruction from the Christian servant
        of the house, as has happened many times. Schudt proves that this
        wish ought to be granted in spite of the minority of the child. He
        argues: As there is a maxim, <span class="tei tei-q">“What is wanting
        in years may be supplied by wickedness,”</span> why could not also
        the reverse be true that <span class="tei tei-q">“What is wanting in
        years can be supplied by grace”</span>? Of a certain R. Meshullam,
        again, we know that he preached in the synagogue at Brody, at the age
        of nine, and perplexed the chief Rabbi of the place by his deep
        Talmudical learning. As the Rabbi had a daughter of seven, the
        cleverness exhibited by the boy Rabbi did not end without very
        serious consequences for all his life.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Happily all these
        prodigies or children of grace are only exceptional. I say happily,
        for the Rabbis themselves <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page299">[pg
        299]</span><a name="Pg299" id="Pg299" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        disliked such creatures. They were more satisfied with those signs of
        intelligence that indicate future greatness. The following story may
        serve as an instance:—R. Joshua ben Hananiah once made a journey to
        Rome. Here he was told that amongst the captives from Jerusalem there
        was a child with bright eyes, its hair in ringlets, and its features
        strikingly beautiful. The Rabbi made up his mind to redeem the boy.
        He went to the prison and addressed the child with a verse from
        Isaiah, <span class="tei tei-q">“Who gave Jacob for a spoil and
        Israel to the robbers?”</span> On this the child answered by
        continuing the second half of the same verse, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Did not the Lord, He against whom we have sinned? For
        they would not walk in His ways, neither were they obedient unto His
        law”</span> (Isaiah xlii. 24). The Rabbi was so delighted with this
        answer, that he said: <span class="tei tei-q">“I am sure he will grow
        up to be a teacher in Israel. I take an oath to redeem him, cost what
        it may.”</span> The child was afterwards known under the name of R.
        Ishmael ben Elisha. Such children were ideals of the Rabbis, but they
        hated the baby scholar, who very often grew impertinent and abused
        his elders. The Rabbis much preferred the majority of those tiny
        creatures, who are characterised by the already mentioned legends on
        the <span class="tei tei-q">“Ages of Men”</span> as little animals
        playing, laughing, crying, dancing, and committing all sorts of
        mischief.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But these children
        must be taught. Now, there is the well-known advice of Judah ben
        Tema, who used to say that the child at five years was to be taught
        Scripture, at ten years Mishnah, at thirteen to fulfil the Law, etc.
        This saying, incorporated in most editions in the fifth Chapter of
        the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sayings
        of the Fathers</span></span>, is usually considered <span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="page300">[pg 300]</span><a name="Pg300" id="Pg300"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> as the programme of Jewish education.
        But, like so many programmes, this tells us rather how things ought
        to have been than how they were. In the times of the Temple, the
        participation of the youth in religious actions began at the
        tenderest age. As soon as they were able to walk a certain distance
        with the support of their parents, the children had to accompany them
        on their pilgrimages to Jerusalem. In the Sabbatical year they were
        brought to the Temple, to be present at the reading of Deuteronomy by
        the king.<a id="noteref_251" name="noteref_251" href=
        "#note_251"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">251</span></span></a> The
        period at which the child's allegiance to the Synagogue began is
        still more distinctly described. Of the many Talmudical passages
        relating to this question, I shall select the following quotation
        from a later Midrash, because it is the most concise. In allusion to
        Leviticus xix. 23, 24, concerning the prohibition of eating the
        fruits of a tree in the first three years, this Midrash goes on to
        say: <span class="tei tei-q">“And this is also the case with the
        Jewish child. In the first three years the child is unable to speak,
        and therefore is exempted from every religious duty, but in the
        fourth year all its fruits shall be holy to praise the Lord, and the
        father is obliged to initiate the child in religious works.”</span>
        Accordingly the religious life of the child began as soon as it was
        able to speak distinctly, or with the fourth year of its life. As to
        the character of this initiation we learn from the same Midrash and
        also from other Talmudical passages, that it consisted in teaching
        the child the verses, <span class="tei tei-q">“Hear, O Israel: the
        Lord our God <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">is</span></em> One”</span> (Deut. vi. 4), and
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Moses commanded us a Torah, the inheritance
        of the congregation of Jacob”</span> (Deut. xxxiii. 4). It was also
        in this year that the boys began to accompany their parents to the
        synagogue, carrying <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page301">[pg
        301]</span><a name="Pg301" id="Pg301" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        their prayer-books. At what age the girls first came out—not for
        their first party, but with the purpose of going to the synagogue—is
        difficult to decide with any degree of certainty. But if we were to
        trust a rather doubtful reading in Tractate <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Sopherim</span></span>,<a id="noteref_252" name=
        "noteref_252" href="#note_252"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">252</span></span></a> we
        might maintain that their first appearance in the synagogue was also
        at a very tender age. I hope that they behaved there more
        respectfully than their brothers, who played and cried instead of
        joining in the responses and singing with the congregation. In some
        communities they proved so great a nuisance that a certain Rabbi
        declared it would be better to leave them at home rather than to have
        the devotion of the whole congregation disturbed by these urchins.
        Another Rabbi recommended the praiseworthy custom of the
        Sephardim,<a id="noteref_253" name="noteref_253" href=
        "#note_253"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">253</span></span></a> who
        confined all the boys in the synagogue to one place, and set a
        special overseer by their side, with a whip in his hands, to compel
        them to keep quiet and to worship with due devotion.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A strange custom
        is known among the Arabian and Palestinian Jews under the name of
        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Chalaka</span></span>. It means the first
        hair-cutting of the boy after his fourth birthday. As on this
        occasion loyalty to the Scripture is shown by not touching the
        <span class="tei tei-q">“corners”</span> (Lev. xix. 17), the whole
        action is considered a religious ceremony of great importance. In
        Palestine it usually takes place on the second day of the Feast of
        the Passover when the counting of the seven weeks begins. On this day
        friends and relatives assemble at the house of the parents. Thither
        the boy is brought, dressed in his best garments, and every one of
        the assembly is entrusted with the duty of cutting a few hairs, which
        is considered a great privilege. The ceremony is as usual followed by
        a dinner given to the guests. The Jews <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page302">[pg 302]</span><a name="Pg302" id="Pg302" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> in Safed and Tiberias perform the ceremony with
        great pomp in the courtyard surrounding the (supposed) grave of R.
        Simeon ben Yochai, in one of the neighbouring villages.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another custom
        already mentioned in the Talmud, but which quite disappeared in later
        times, is that of weighing the child. It would be worth reviving if
        performed in the way in which the mother of Doeg ben Joseph did it.
        This tender-hearted mother weighed her only son every day, and
        distributed among the poor, in gold, the amount of the increased
        weight of her child.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I pass now to the
        second great consecration of the boy,—the rites performed on the day
        when the boy went to school for the first time. This day was
        celebrated by the Jews, especially in the Middle Ages, in such a way
        as to justify the high esteem in which they held the school. The
        school was looked upon as a second Mount Sinai, and the day on which
        the child entered it as the Feast of Revelation. Of the many
        different customs, I shall mention here that according to which this
        day was fixed for the Feast of Weeks. Early in the morning, while it
        was still dark, the child was washed and dressed carefully. In some
        places they dressed it in a <span class="tei tei-q">“gown with
        fringes.”</span> As soon as day dawned the boy was taken to the
        synagogue, either by his father or by some worthy member of the
        community. Arrived at their destination, the boy was put on the
        Almemor, or reading-dais, before the Scroll of the Law, from which
        the narrative of the Revelation (Exod. xx. 2-26) was read as the
        portion of the day. From the synagogue the boy was taken to the house
        of the teacher, who took him into his arms. Thereupon a slate was
        brought, containing the alphabet in various combinations,
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page303">[pg 303]</span><a name="Pg303"
        id="Pg303" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the verse, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Moses has commanded,”</span> etc. in Deut. xxxiii. 4,
        the first verse of the Book of Leviticus, and the words, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“The Torah will be my calling.”</span> The teacher then
        read the names of the letters, which the boy repeated. After the
        reading, the slate was besmeared with honey, which the boy licked
        off. This was done in allusion to Ezekiel iii. 3, where it is said:
        <span class="tei tei-q">“And it (the roll) was in my mouth as honey
        for sweetness.”</span> The boy was also made to eat a sweet cake, on
        which were written passages from the Bible relating to the importance
        of the study of the Torah. The ceremony was concluded by invoking the
        names of certain angels, asking them to open the heart of the boy,
        and to strengthen his memory. By the way, I am very much afraid that
        this invocation was answerable for the abolition of this ceremony.
        The year in which this ceremony took place is uncertain, probably not
        before the fifth, nor later than the seventh, according to the good
        or bad health of the child.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The reverence for
        the child already hinted at was still further increased when the boy
        entered the school. <span class="tei tei-q">“The children of the
        house (school) of the master”</span> is a regular phrase in Jewish
        literature. It is on their pure breath that the existence of the
        world depends, and it is their merit that justifies us in appealing
        to the mercy of God. Words of Scripture, uttered by them quite
        innocently, were considered as oracles; and many a Rabbi gave up an
        undertaking on account of a verse pronounced by a schoolboy, who
        hardly understood its import. Take only one instance: R. Johanan was
        longing to see his friend Mar Samuel in Babylon. After many
        disturbances and delays, he at last undertook the journey. On the way
        he passed a school where the boys were reciting the verse
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page304">[pg 304]</span><a name="Pg304"
        id="Pg304" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> from 1 Samuel xxviii. 3,
        <span class="tei tei-q">“And Samuel died.”</span> This was accepted
        by him as a hint given by Providence that all was over with his
        friend.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Especially famous
        for their wisdom and sharpness were the children of Jerusalem. Of the
        many illustrative stories given in the Midrash to Lamentations, let
        the following suffice: R. Joshua was one day riding on his donkey
        along the high road. As he passed a well, he saw a little girl there,
        and asked her to give him some water. She accordingly gave water to
        him and to his animal. The Rabbi thanked her with the words:
        <span class="tei tei-q">“My daughter, you acted like Rebecca.”</span>
        <span class="tei tei-q">“To be sure,”</span> she answered,
        <span class="tei tei-q">“I acted like Rebecca; but you did not behave
        like Eleazar.”</span> I must add that there are passages in Jewish
        literature from which, with a little ingenuity, it might be deduced
        that Jewish babies are the most beautiful of their kind. The
        assertion made by a monk that Jewish children are inferior to
        Christian children is a dreadful libel. The author of the
        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Old
        Victory</span></span>,<a id="noteref_254" name="noteref_254" href=
        "#note_254"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">254</span></span></a> in
        whose presence this assertion was made, was probably childless, or he
        would have simply scratched out the eyes of this malicious monk,
        instead of giving a mystical reason for the superior beauty of any
        other children than his own.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another point to
        be emphasised is that the boys were not confined all day long to the
        close air of the schoolroom. They had also their hours of recreation.
        This recreation consisted chiefly, as one can imagine, in playing.
        Their favourite game was the ball, boys as well as girls being fond
        of this form of amusement. They did not deny themselves this pleasure
        even on festivals. They were also fond of the kite and games with
        nuts, in which their mothers also took part. Letter-games and
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page305">[pg 305]</span><a name="Pg305"
        id="Pg305" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> riddles also occupied their
        minds in the recreation hours. The angel Sandalphon,<a id=
        "noteref_255" name="noteref_255" href="#note_255"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">255</span></span></a> who
        also bears in the Cabbalah the name of <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Boy,”</span> was considered by the children as their
        special patron, and they invoked him in their plays, addressing to
        him the words: <span class="tei tei-q">“Sandalphon, Lord of the
        forest, protect us from pain.”</span> Speaking generally, there are
        very few distinctively Jewish games. From the researches of Zunz,
        Güdemann, and Löw on this subject, it is clear that the Jews always
        adopted the pastimes of the peoples among whom they dwelt.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But it must not be
        thought that there was too much playing. Altogether, Jewish education
        was far from spoiling the children. And though it was recommended—if
        such recommendation were necessary—to love children more than one's
        own soul, the Rabbis strongly condemned that blind partiality towards
        our own offspring, which ends in burdening our world with so many
        good-for-nothings. The sad experience of certain biblical personages
        served as a warning for posterity. Even from the quite natural
        behaviour of Jacob towards his son Joseph, which had the best
        possible results in the end, they drew the lesson that a man must
        never show to one of his children marks of greater favour than to the
        others. In later times they have been even anxious to conceal this
        love altogether, and some Rabbis went so far as to refrain from
        kissing their children. The severity of Akabya ben Mahalaleel is
        worth mentioning, if not imitating. When this Rabbi, only a few
        minutes before his death, was asked by his son to recommend him to
        his friends and colleagues, the answer the poor boy received was:
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Thy conduct will recommend thee to my
        friends, or will estrange thee from them.”</span> Another Rabbi
        declared (with reference to Prov. <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page306">[pg 306]</span><a name="Pg306" id="Pg306" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> xxviii. 27) that it is life-giving to a youth
        to teach him temperance in his diet, and not to accustom him to meat
        and wine. R. Judah, the Pious, in the Middle Ages, gives the advice
        to rich parents to withdraw their resources from their sons if they
        lead a disorderly life. The struggle for their existence, and the
        hardship of life, would bring them back to God. When the old Rabbi
        said that poverty is a most becoming ornament for Israel, his remark
        was probably suggested by a similar thought. And many a passage in
        the Rabbinic literature gives expression to the same idea as that in
        Goethe's divine lines:—</p>

        <div class="block tei tei-quote" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em">
        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em">
            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Wer nie sein Brot mit Thränen
              ass,</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Wer nie die kummervollen
              Nächte</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Auf seinem Bette weinend
              sass,</span>
            </div>

            <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
              <span style="font-size: 90%">Der kennt Euch nicht, Ihr
              himmlischen Mächte.</span>
            </div>
          </div>
        </div>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I have spoken of a
        kingdom of priests, but there is one great disadvantage of such a
        polity. One or two priests in a community may be sustained by the
        liberality of the congregation. But if a community consisted of only
        priests, how could it then be maintained? Besides, the old Jewish
        ideal expected the teacher to be possessed of a divine goodness,
        imparting his benefits only as an act of grace. Salaries, therefore,
        either for teaching or preaching, or for giving ritual decisions,
        were strongly forbidden. The solution of the question put by the
        Bible, <span class="tei tei-q">“And if ye shall say, What shall we
        eat?”</span> is to be found in the law that every father was obliged
        to teach his son a handicraft, enabling him to obtain a living.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I have now to
        speak of the time when childhood is brought to a conclusion. It is,
        as I stated above, in the case of a girl at the beginning of the
        thirteenth year, and <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page307">[pg
        307]</span><a name="Pg307" id="Pg307" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> in
        that of a boy at the beginning of the fourteenth year. As a reason
        for this priority I will reproduce the words of R. Chisda, who said
        that God has endowed woman with a greater portion of intelligence
        than man, and therefore she obtains her maturity at an earlier period
        than man does. A very nice compliment, indeed; but like all
        compliments it is of no practical consequence whatever. It is not
        always the wiser who get the best of it in life. Whilst the day on
        which the girl obtained her majority passed unnoticed either by her
        or by her family, it was marked in the case of the boy as the day on
        which he became a Son of the Law,<a id="noteref_256" name=
        "noteref_256" href="#note_256"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">256</span></span></a> and was
        signalised by various rites and ceremonies, and by the bestowing on
        him of beautiful presents. I miss only the wig, which used to form
        the chief ornament of the boy on this happy day.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Less known,
        however, is the origin of this ceremony, and the reason for fixing
        its date. It cannot claim a very high antiquity. I may remark that in
        many cases centuries elapse before an idea or a notion takes
        practical shape and is crystallised into a custom or usage, and still
        longer before this custom is fossilised into a law or fixed
        institution. As far as the Bible goes, there is not the slightest
        indication of the existence of such a ceremony. From Lev. xxvii. 5,
        and Num. xiv. 29, it would rather seem that it was not before the
        twentieth year that the man was considered to have obtained his
        majority, and to be responsible for his actions. It was only in the
        times of the Rabbis, when Roman influence became prevalent in
        juristic matters at least, that the date of thirteen, or rather the
        <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">pubertas</span></span>, was fixed as giving the
        boy his majority. But it would be a mistake to think that before
        having obtained this majority the boy was considered as under age in
        every <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page308">[pg 308]</span><a name=
        "Pg308" id="Pg308" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> respect. Certainly the
        law made every possible effort to connect him with the synagogue, and
        to initiate him in his religious duties long before the age of
        thirteen.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We have seen that
        the boy's first appearance in the synagogue was at the beginning of
        the fourth year. We have noticed the complaints about his troublesome
        behaviour. But how could we expect the poor child to be attentive to
        things which quite surpassed the intellectual powers of his tender
        age? There was no better reason for this attendance either in the
        Temple or in the synagogue than that the parents might be rewarded by
        God for the trouble of taking their children there. These cares, by
        the way, fell most heavily upon the women. The mother of R. Joshua
        enjoyed this burden so much that she carried her boy, when still in
        the cradle, to the <span class="tei tei-q">“House of Study of the
        Law,”</span> in order that his ears might be accustomed to the sound
        of the Torah. In later times there was another excuse for taking the
        little children to the synagogue. They were there allowed to sip the
        wine of the Sanctification Cup,<a id="noteref_257" name="noteref_257"
        href="#note_257"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">257</span></span></a> which
        was the exclusive privilege of the children; an easy way of
        worshipping, but, as you can observe, it is a method that they enjoy
        and understand most excellently. They did not less enjoy and
        understand the service with which they were charged on the day of
        <span class="tei tei-q">“The Rejoicing of the Law.”</span><a id=
        "noteref_258" name="noteref_258" href="#note_258"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">258</span></span></a> On this
        feast they were provided with flags, which they carried before the
        bearers of the Torah, who feasted them after the service with sweets.
        Another treat was that of being called up on this day to the Torah, a
        custom that is still extant. In the Middle Ages they went in some
        countries so far as to allow these little fellows who did not wear
        caps <span class="tei tei-q">“to be called up”</span> to say the
        blessings over the Law bare-headed. A beautiful custom was that
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page309">[pg 309]</span><a name="Pg309"
        id="Pg309" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> every Sabbath, after finishing
        the weekly lesson and dressing the Scroll of the Law, the children
        used to come up to the Almemor and kiss the Torah. Leaving the
        synagogue they kissed the hands of the scholars. At home the
        initiation began with the blessing the child received on every eve of
        the Sabbath, and with its instruction in <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Hear O Israel”</span> and other verses as already
        mentioned. Short prayers, consisting of a single sentence, were also
        chosen for children of this age. The function of the child on the eve
        of the first day of Passover is well known. Besides the putting of
        the four questions for the meaning of the strange ceremony (Exod.
        xiii. 14), the boy had also to recite, or rather to sing, the
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Praise.”</span><a id="noteref_259" name=
        "noteref_259" href="#note_259"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">259</span></span></a> But I
        am afraid that they enjoyed better the song of <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“One Kid,”</span> which was composed or rather adapted
        for their special entertainment from an old German poem.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Within three or
        four years after entering the synagogue, and with the growth of
        intellect and strength, the religious duties of the boy increased,
        and became of a more serious character. He had not only to attend the
        school, which was troublesome enough, but he was also expected to
        attend the services more regularly, and to gain something by it. Yet
        the Rabbis were not so tyrannical as to put unjust demands on the
        patience of the child. The voice of God on Mount Sinai, the Rabbis
        said, was adapted to the intellect and powers of all who witnessed
        the Revelation—adapted, as the Midrash says, to the powers of old and
        young, children and women. It was in accordance with this sentiment
        that the Rabbis suited their language to the needs of the less
        educated classes. Thus we read in the Tractate <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sopherim</span></span>
        that according to the law the portion of the week, after having
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page310">[pg 310]</span><a name="Pg310"
        id="Pg310" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> been recited in Hebrew, must
        be translated into the language of the vernacular for the benefit of
        the unlearned people, the women, and the children. Another
        consideration children experienced from the Rabbis was that at the
        age of nine or ten the boy was initiated into the observance of the
        Day of Atonement by fasting a few hours. Lest, however, this good
        work might be overdone, and thus endanger the child's health, the
        sage R. Acha used to tell his congregation after the Addition-Prayer
        <span class="tei tei-q">“My brethren, let every one of you who has a
        child go home and make it eat.”</span> In later centuries, when the
        disease of small-pox became so fatal, some Rabbis declared it to be
        the duty of every father to leave the town with his children as soon
        as the plague showed itself. The joy with which the Rabbis hailed Dr.
        Jenner's discovery deserves our recognition. None of them perceived
        in vaccination a defiance of Providence. R. Abraham Nansich, from
        London, wrote a pamphlet to prove its lawfulness. The Cabbalist
        Buzagli disputed Dr. Jenner's priority, but nevertheless approved of
        vaccination. R. Israel Lipschütz declared that the Doctor acquired
        salvation by his new remedy.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">With his advancing
        age, not only the boy's duties but also his rights were increased. An
        enumeration of all these rights would lead me too far, but I shall
        mention the custom which allowed the boy the recital of <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Magnified”</span><a id="noteref_260" name="noteref_260"
        href="#note_260"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">260</span></span></a> and
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Bless ye”</span><a id="noteref_261" name=
        "noteref_261" href="#note_261"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">261</span></span></a> in the
        synagogue. Now this privilege is restricted to the orphan boy. It is
        interesting to hear that girls were also admitted to recite the
        Magnified in the synagogue, in cases where their parents left no male
        issue. I have myself witnessed such a case. In some countries the boy
        had the exclusive privilege of <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page311">[pg 311]</span><a name="Pg311" id="Pg311" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> reading the prayers on the evenings of the
        festivals and Sabbaths. R. Samson ben Eleazar, in the fifteenth
        century, received his family name Baruch Sheamar<a id="noteref_262"
        name="noteref_262" href="#note_262"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">262</span></span></a> from
        the skill with which he recited this prayer when a boy. He chanted it
        so well that he was called by the members of the community Master
        Baruch Sheamar. As to the question whether the boy, while under age,
        might lawfully be considered as one of the Ten when such a quorum was
        required, or one of the three in the case of grace after meals, I can
        only say that the authorities never agreed in this respect. Whilst
        the one insisted upon his having obtained his majority, the other was
        satisfied with his showing such signs of intelligence as would enable
        him to participate in the ceremony in question. Here is an instance
        of such a sign. Abaye and Raba, the two celebrated heroes of the
        Babylonian Talmud, were sitting at the table of Rabbah. Before saying
        grace he asked them, <span class="tei tei-q">“Do you know to whom
        these prayers are addressed?”</span> Thereupon one boy pointed to the
        roof, whilst the other boy went out and pointed to the sky. The
        examiner was satisfied with their answer.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The privilege of
        putting on the phylacteries forms now in most countries the chief
        distinction of <span class="tei tei-q">“The Son of the Law”</span>;
        in olden times, however, every boy had claim to it as soon as he
        showed himself capable of behaving respectfully when wearing the holy
        symbol. It even happened that certain honours of the synagogue were
        bestowed on boys, though under age. We possess a copy of a Jewish
        epitaph dating from about the third century, which was written in
        Rome for a boy of eight years, who is there designated as archon. The
        fact is the more curious, as on the other hand the Palestinian R.
        Abuha, who <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page312">[pg
        312]</span><a name="Pg312" id="Pg312" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        lived in the same century, maintained that no man must be elected as
        Warden before he has achieved his fiftieth year. That boys were
        admitted to preach in the synagogue I have already mentioned.<a id=
        "noteref_263" name="noteref_263" href="#note_263"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">263</span></span></a></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From all these
        remarks it will easily be seen that in olden times the boy enjoyed
        almost all the rights of majority long before the day of his being
        <span class="tei tei-q">“The Son of the Law.”</span> The condition of
        the novice is hardly distinguishable from that of the initiated
        priest. The Talmud, the Gaonim, and even R. Isaac Alfasi and
        Maimonides knew neither the term <span class="tei tei-q">“The Son of
        the Law”</span> (in our sense of the word) nor any ceremony connected
        with it. There is only one slight reference to such an institution,
        recorded in the Tractate <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Sopherim</span></span>, with the quotation of
        which I shall conclude this paper. We read there: <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“In Jerusalem there was the godly custom to initiate the
        children at the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">beginning</span></em> of the thirteenth year by
        fasting the whole Day of Atonement. During this year they took the
        boy to the priests and learned men that they might bless him, and
        pray for him that God might think him worthy of a life devoted to the
        study of the Torah and pious works.”</span> For, this author says,
        <span class="tei tei-q">“they were beautiful, and their lives
        harmonious and their hearts directed to God.”</span></p>
      </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page313">[pg 313]</span><a name=
      "Pg313" id="Pg313" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
      <hr class="page" />

      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
      "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
        <a name="toc29" id="toc29"></a> <a name="pdf30" id="pdf30"></a>

        <h1 class="tei tei-head" style=
        "margin-top: 3.46em; margin-bottom: 3.46em; text-align: left">
        <span style="font-size: 173%">XIII. Woman in Temple and
        Synagogue</span></h1>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The learned Woman
        has always been a favourite subject with Jewish students; and her
        intellectual capabilities have been fully vindicated in many an essay
        and even fair-sized book. Less attention, however, has been paid to
        woman's claims as a devotional being whom the Temple, and afterwards
        the Synagogue, more or less recognised. At least it is not known to
        me that any attempt has been made to give, even in outline, the
        history of woman's relation to public worship. It is needless to say
        that the present sketch, which is meant to supply this want in some
        measure, lays no claim to completeness; but I venture to hope that it
        will help to direct the attention of the friends of research to the
        matter, and that it may induce others to deal more fully with the
        subject and do it the justice it deserves.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The earliest
        allusion to women's participation in <em class=
        "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">public</span></em>
        worship, is that in Exodus xxxviii. 8, to the women who assembled to
        minister at the door of the <span class="tei tei-q">“tent of
        meeting,”</span> of whose mirrors the lavers of brass were made (cf.
        1 Sam. ii. 22). Philo, who is not exactly enamoured of the
        emancipation of women, and seeks to confine them to the <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“small state,”</span> is here full of their praise.
        <span class="tei tei-q">“For,”</span> he says, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“though no one enjoined them to do so, they of
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page314">[pg 314]</span><a name="Pg314"
        id="Pg314" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> their own spontaneous zeal and
        earnestness contributed the mirrors with which they had been
        accustomed to deck and set off their beauty, as the most becoming
        first-fruits of their modesty, and of the purity of their married
        life, and, as one may say, of the beauty of their souls.”</span> In
        another passage Philo describes the Jewish women as <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“competing with the men themselves in piety, having
        determined to enter upon a glorious contest, and to the utmost extent
        of their power to exert themselves so as not to fall short of their
        holiness.”</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is, however,
        very difficult to ascertain in what this ministry of women consisted.
        The Hebrew term <span class="tei tei-q">“Zobeoth”</span><a id=
        "noteref_264" name="noteref_264" href="#note_264"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">264</span></span></a> would
        suggest the thought of a species of religious Amazons, who formed a
        guard of honour round the Sanctuary. Some commentators think that the
        ministry consisted in performing religious dances accompanied by
        various instruments. The Septuagint again speaks <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“of the women who fasted by the doors of the
        Tabernacle.”</span> But most of the old Jewish expositors, as well as
        Onkelos, conceive that the women went to the tent of meeting to pray.
        Ibn Ezra offers the interesting remark, <span class="tei tei-q">“And
        behold, there were women in Israel serving the Lord, who left the
        vanities of this world, and not being desirous of beautifying
        themselves any longer, made of their mirrors a free offering, and
        came to the tabernacle every day to pray and to listen there to the
        words of the commandments.”</span> When we find that in 1 Sam. i. 12,
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Hannah continued to pray before the
        Lord,”</span> she was only doing there what many of her sisters did
        before and after her. We may also judge that it was from the number
        of these noble women, who made religion the aim of their lives, that
        the <span class="tei tei-q">“twenty-two”</span> heroines <span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="page315">[pg 315]</span><a name="Pg315" id="Pg315"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and prophetesses sprang who form part of
        the glory of Jewish history. Sometimes it even happened that their
        husbands derived their religious inspiration from them. Thus the
        husband of the prophetess Deborah is said to have been an unlettered
        man. But his wife made him carry to the Sanctuary the candles which
        she herself had prepared, this being the way in which she encouraged
        him to seek communion with the righteous.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The language in
        which the husband of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Great Woman”</span>
        of Shunem addresses his wife: <span class="tei tei-q">“Wherefore wilt
        thou go to him”</span> (the prophet)? <span class="tei tei-q">“it is
        neither New Moon nor Sabbath”</span> (2 Kings iv. 23), proves that on
        Festivals and Sabbaths the women used to attend some kind of worship,
        performed by the prophet, though we cannot say in what this worship
        consisted. The New Moon was especially a woman's holiday, and was so
        observed even in the Middle Ages, for the women refrained from doing
        work on that day. The explanation given by the Rabbis is that when
        the men broke off their golden earrings to supply material for the
        golden calf, the women refused to contribute their trinkets, for
        which good behaviour a special day of repose was granted to them.
        Some Cabbalists even maintain that the original worshippers of the
        golden calf continue to exist on earth, their souls having
        successively migrated into various bodies, while their punishment
        consists in this, that they are ruled over by their wives. Rather
        interesting as well as complimentary to women is the remark which the
        Rabbis made with regard to the <span class="tei tei-q">“Great
        Woman.”</span> As will be remembered, it is <em class=
        "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">she</span></em> who
        says, <span class="tei tei-q">“I perceive that this (Elisha) is a
        holy man of God”</span> (2 Kings iv. 19). In allusion to this verse
        the Talmud says: <span class="tei tei-q">“From this fact we may infer
        that <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page316">[pg 316]</span><a name=
        "Pg316" id="Pg316" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> woman is quicker in
        recognising the worth of a stranger than man.”</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The great woman,
        or women, continued to pray and to join in the public worship also
        after the destruction of the first Temple. Thus Esther is reported by
        tradition to have addressed God in a long extempore prayer before she
        presented herself before the throne of Ahasuerus to plead her
        people's cause; and women were always enjoined to attend the reading
        of the Book of Esther. When Ezra read the Law for the first time, he
        did so in the presence of the men and the women (Neh. viii. 3). In
        the Book of the Maccabees we read of <span class="tei tei-q">“The
        women girt with sackcloth ... and the maidens that ran to the
        gates.... And all holding their hands towards heaven made
        supplication.”</span> In the Judith legend, mention is also made of
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Every man and woman ... who fell before the
        Temple, and spread out their sackcloth before the face of the Lord
        ... and cried before the God of Israel.”</span> In the second Temple,
        the women, as is well known, possessed a court reserved for their
        exclusive use. There the great illuminations and rejoicings on the
        evening of the Feast of Tabernacles used to be held. On this
        occasion, however, the women were confined to galleries specially
        erected for them. It was also in this Women's Hall that the great
        public reading of certain portions of the Law by the king, once in
        seven years, used to take place, and women had also to attend at the
        function. On the other hand, it is hardly necessary to say that women
        were excluded from performing any important service in the Temple. If
        we were to trust a certain passage in the <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Chapters of R. Eliezer,”</span> we might perhaps
        conclude that during the first Temple, the wives of the Levites
        formed a part of the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page317">[pg
        317]</span><a name="Pg317" id="Pg317" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        choir, but the meaning of the passage is too obscure and doubtful for
        us to be justified in basing on it so important an inference. Nor can
        the three hundred maidens who were employed for the weaving of the
        curtains in the Temple, be looked upon as having stood in closer
        connection with the Temple, or as having formed an order of
        women-priests or girl-devotees (as one might wrongly be induced to
        think by certain passages in Apocryphal writings of the New
        Testament). But on the other hand, it is not improbable that their
        frequent contact with the Sanctuary of the nation produced in them
        that religious enthusiasm and zeal which may account for the heroic
        death which—according to the legend—they sought and found after the
        destruction of the Temple. It is to be remarked that, according to
        the law, women were even exempted from putting their hands on the
        head of the victim, which formed an important item in the sacrificial
        worship. It is, however, stated by an eye-witness, that the
        authorities permitted them to perform this ceremony if they desired
        to do so, and that their reason for this concession was <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“to give calmness of the spirit, or satisfaction, to
        women.”</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Still greater,
        perhaps, was <span class="tei tei-q">“the calmness of spirit”</span>
        given to women in the synagogue. We find in ancient epitaphs that
        such titles of honour were conferred upon them as <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Mistress of the Synagogue,”</span> and <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Mother of the Synagogue,”</span> and, though they held
        no actual office in the Synagogue, it is not improbable that they
        acquired these titles by meritorious work connected with a religious
        institution, viz.: Charity. There was, indeed, a tendency to exclude
        women from the synagogue at certain seasons, but almost all the
        authorities protest against it, many of them declaring such a notion
        to be quite un-Jewish. Some <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page318">[pg
        318]</span><a name="Pg318" id="Pg318" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        Jewish scholars even think that the ancient synagogues knew of no
        partition for women. I am rather inclined to think that the synagogue
        took for its model the arrangements in the Temple, and thus confined
        women to a place of their own. But, whether they sat side by side
        with the men or occupied a special portion of the edifice, there can
        be no doubt that the Jewish women were great synagogue-goers. To give
        only one instance. One Rabbi asks another: Given the case that the
        members of the synagogue are all descendants of Aaron, to whom then
        would they impart their blessing? The answer is, to the women who are
        there.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of the sermon they
        were even more fond than their husbands. Thus one woman was so much
        interested in the lectures of R. Meir, which he was in the habit of
        giving every Friday evening, that she used to remain there so long
        that the candles in her house burnt themselves out. Her lazy husband,
        who stopped at home, so strongly resented having to wait in the dark,
        that he would not permit her to cross the threshold until she gave
        some offence to the preacher, which would make him sure that she
        would not venture to attend his sermons again.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The prayers they
        said were the Eighteen Benedictions which were prescribed by the Law.
        But it would seem that occasionally they offered short prayers
        composed by themselves as suggested by their personal feelings and
        needs. Thus, to give one instance, R. Johanan relates that one day he
        observed a young girl fall on her face and pray: <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Lord of the world, Thou hast created Paradise, Thou hast
        created hell, Thou hast created the wicked, Thou hast created the
        righteous; may it be Thy will that I may not serve as a
        stumbling-block to them.”</span> <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page319">[pg 319]</span><a name="Pg319" id="Pg319" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> The fine Hebrew in which the prayer is
        expressed, and the notion of the responsibility of Providence for our
        actions, manifest a high degree of intelligence and reflection. It
        would also seem that some women went so far in their religious
        sensibility as to lead a regular ascetic life, and, according to the
        suggestion of some scholars, even took the vow of celibacy. Of these
        the Rabbis did not approve, and stigmatised them as the <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“destroyers of the world.”</span> Perhaps it was just at
        this period that Judaism could not afford to give free play to those
        morbid feelings, degenerating into religious hysterics, which led
        some to join rival sects, and others to abandon themselves to the
        gross immorality we read of in the history of the Gnostics.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The same
        circumstances may have been the cause of public opinion being led to
        accept the view of R. Eliezer, who thought it inadvisable—it would
        seem on moral grounds—to permit woman to study the Law. This opinion
        was opposed to that of Ben Azzai, who considered it incumbent upon
        every father to teach his daughter Torah. But justified as the advice
        of R. Eliezer may have been in his own time, it was rather
        unfortunate that later generations continued to take it as the
        guiding principle for the education of their children. Many great
        women in the course of history indeed became law-breakers and studied
        Torah; but the majority were entirely dependent on men, and became in
        religious matters a sort of appendix to their husbands, who by their
        good actions insured salvation also for them, and sometimes the
        reverse. Thus there is a story about a woman which, put into modern
        language, would be to the effect that she married a minister and
        copied his sermons for him; he <span class="tei tei-pb" id=
        "page320">[pg 320]</span><a name="Pg320" id="Pg320" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> died, and she then married a cruel usurer, and
        kept his accounts for him.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The fact that
        women were exempted from certain affirmative laws, which become
        operative only at special seasons—<span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">e.g.</span></span>, the
        taking of the palm branch on the Feast of Tabernacles—must also have
        contributed to weaken their position as a religious factor in
        Judaism. The idea that women should vie with men in the fulfilment of
        every law, became even for the Rabbis a notion connected only with
        the remotest past. This is the impression one gains when reading the
        legend about Michal, the daughter of Saul, putting on phylacteries,
        or the wife of the prophet Jonah making a pilgrimage to Jerusalem at
        the three Festivals. It would indeed seem as if women were led to
        strive for the satisfaction of their religious wants in another
        direction. Yet it was said of Jewish women, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“The daughters of Israel were stringent and laid certain
        restrictions on themselves.”</span> They were also allowed to form a
        quorum by themselves for the purpose of saying the Grace, but they
        could not be counted along with males for this end. It was also
        against the early notion of the dignity of the congregation that
        women should perform any public service for men.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">One privilege was
        left to women—that of weeping. In Judges xi. 40, we read of the
        daughters of Israel that went yearly to lament the daughter of
        Jephthah; while in 2 Chronicles xxxv. 25, we are told how
        <span class="tei tei-q">“all the singing men and the singing women
        spake of Josiah in their lamentations.”</span> Of this privilege they
        were not deprived, and if they were not allowed to sing any longer,
        they at least retained the right to weep as much as they pleased.
        Even in later times they held a public office as mourning
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page321">[pg 321]</span><a name="Pg321"
        id="Pg321" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> women at funerals. In the
        Talmud fragments of compositions by women for such occasions are to
        be found. Indeed, woman became in these times the type of grief and
        sorrow. She cannot reason, but she feels much more deeply than man.
        Here is one instance from an old legend: Jeremiah said, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“When I went up to Jerusalem (after the destruction of
        the Temple) I lifted my eyes and saw there a lonely woman sitting on
        the top of the mountain, her dress black, her hair dishevelled,
        crying, <span class="tei tei-q">‘Who will comfort me?’</span> I
        approached her and spake to her, <span class="tei tei-q">‘If thou art
        a woman, speak to me. If thou art a ghost, begone.’</span> She
        answered, <span class="tei tei-q">‘Dost thou not know me?... I am the
        Mother, Zion.’</span> ”</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In general,
        however, the principle applied to women was: The king's daughter
        <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">within the
        palace</span></em> is all glorious (Psalm xlv. 14), but <em class=
        "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">not</span></em>
        outside of it. In the face of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Femina in
        ecclesia taceat,”</span> which was the ruling maxim with other
        religions, Jewish women could only feel flattered by this polite
        treatment by the Rabbis, though it meant the same thing. We must not
        think, however, that this prevented them from attending the service
        of the synagogue. According to the Tractate <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sopherim</span></span>,
        even <span class="tei tei-q">“the little daughters of Israel were
        accustomed to go to the synagogue.”</span> In the same tractate we
        find it laid down as <span class="tei tei-q">“a duty to translate for
        them the portion (of the Law) of the week, and the lesson from the
        prophets”</span> into the language they understand. The <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“King's daughter”</span> occasionally asserted her rights
        without undue reliance on the opinion of the authorities. And thus
        being ignorant of the Hebrew language women prayed in the vernacular,
        though this was at least against the letter of the law. And many
        famous Rabbis of the twelfth and thirteenth <span class="tei tei-pb"
        id="page322">[pg 322]</span><a name="Pg322" id="Pg322" class=
        "tei tei-anchor"></a> centuries express their wonder that the
        <span class="tei tei-q">“custom of women praying in other
        (non-Hebrew) languages extended over the whole world.”</span> It is
        noteworthy that they did not suppress the practice, but on the
        contrary, they endeavoured to give to the Law such an interpretation
        as would bring it into accord with the general custom. Some even
        recommended it, as, for example, the author of <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Book of the
        Pious</span></span>, who gives advice to women to learn the prayers
        in the language familiar to them.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At about the same
        period a lengthy controversy was being waged by the commentators of
        the Talmud and the codifiers, about woman's partaking in the
        fulfilment of the laws for special seasons, from which, as already
        remarked, they were exempted. To the action itself there could not be
        much objection, but the difficulty arose when women also insisted on
        uttering the blessing. Now the point at issue was whether they could
        be permitted to say, for instance, <span class="tei tei-q">“Blessed
        art Thou, O Lord our God, etc., who hast sanctified us by Thy
        Commandments, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">hast commanded us</span></em>, concerning the
        taking of the Palm branch,”</span> since in reality the women had
        <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">not</span></em> been commanded to do it. To such
        logical and systematic minds as Maimonides and R. Joseph Caro, the
        difficulty was insurmountable, and they forbade women to use the
        formula; but with the less consistent majority women carried their
        point. Rather interesting is the answer received by R. Jacob, of
        Corbeil, with regard to this question. This Rabbi is said to have
        enjoyed the mysterious power which enabled him to appeal in cases of
        doubt to the celestial authorities. Before them he put also this
        women's case for decision. Judgment was communicated to him in the
        verse from the Scriptures, <span class="tei tei-q">“In all that Sarah
        saith unto Thee, hearken <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page323">[pg
        323]</span><a name="Pg323" id="Pg323" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        unto her voice”</span> (Gen. xxi. 12). Nor was it unknown for a pious
        Jew to compose a special hymn for his wife's use in honour of the
        Sabbath.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">How long this
        custom of women praying in the vernacular lasted, we have no means of
        ascertaining. Probably was already extinct about the end of the
        fifteenth century. For R. Solomon Portaleone, who lived in the
        sixteenth century, already regrets the abolition of <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“this beautiful and worthy custom.”</span> <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“When they prayed in the vernacular,”</span> he says,
        <span class="tei tei-q">“they understood what they were saying,
        whilst now they only gabble off their prayers.”</span> As a sort of
        compromise we may regard the various <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Supplications”</span>;<a id="noteref_265" name=
        "noteref_265" href="#note_265"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">265</span></span></a> they
        form a kind of additional prayers supplementary to the ordinary
        liturgy, and are written in German. Chiefly composed by women, they
        specially answer the needs of the sex on various occasions. These
        prayers deserve a full description by themselves, into which I cannot
        enter here; I should like only to mention that in one of these
        collections in the British Museum, a special supplication is added
        for servant-maids, and if I am not quite mistaken, also one for their
        mistresses.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is also worth
        noticing that the manuals on the <span class="tei tei-q">“Three
        Women's Commandments”</span> (mostly composed in German, sometimes
        also in rhymes), contained much more than their titles would suggest.
        They rather served as headings to groups of laws, arranged under each
        commandment. Thus the first (about certain laws in Lev. xii. and xv.)
        becomes the motto for purity in body and soul; the second (the
        consecration of the first cake of the dough) includes all matters
        relating to charity, in which women were even reminded to encourage
        their newly married husbands not to withhold from the poor the
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page324">[pg 324]</span><a name="Pg324"
        id="Pg324" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> tithes of the bridal dowry, as
        well as of their future yearly income; whilst the third (the lighting
        of the Sabbath lamp) becomes the symbol for spiritual light and
        sweetness in every relation of human life.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As another
        compromise may also be considered the institution of <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Vorsugern”</span> (woman-reader) or the <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Woilkennivdicke”</span> (the well-knowing one) who reads
        the prayers and translates them into the vernacular for the benefit
        of her less learned sisters. In Poland and in Russia, even at the
        present time, such a woman-reader is to be found in every synagogue,
        and from what I have heard the institution is by no means unknown in
        London. The various prayer-books containing the Hebrew text as well
        as the Jewish-German translation, which appear in such frequent
        editions in Russia, are mostly intended for the use of these praying
        women. Not uninteresting is the title-page of R. Aaron Ben Samuel's
        Jewish-German translations and collections of prayers which appeared
        in the beginning of the eighteenth century. He addressed the Jewish
        public in the following terms: <span class="tei tei-q">“My dear
        brethren, buy this lovely prayer-book or wholesome tonic for body and
        soul, which has never appeared in such German print since the world
        began; and make your wives and children read it often, thus they will
        refresh their bodies and souls, for this light will shine forth into
        your very hearts. As soon as the children read it they will
        understand their prayers, by which they will enjoy both this world
        and the world to come.”</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">An earlier
        translator of the prayer-book addresses himself directly to the
        <span class="tei tei-q">“pious women”</span> whom he invites to buy
        his book, <span class="tei tei-q">“in which they will see very
        beautiful things.”</span> Recent centuries seem, on the whole, to
        have been distinguished <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page325">[pg
        325]</span><a name="Pg325" id="Pg325" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> for
        the number of praying-women they produced. The virtues which
        constituted the claim of women to religious distinction were modesty,
        charity, and daily attendance at the synagogue morning and evening.
        In the memorial books of the time hundreds of such women are noticed.
        Some used also to spin the <span class="tei tei-q">“Fringes,”</span>
        which they presented to their friends; others fasted frequently,
        whilst <span class="tei tei-q">“Old Mrs. Hechele”</span> not only
        attended the synagogue every day, and did charity to poor and rich,
        but also understood the art of midwifery, which she practised in the
        community without accepting payment for her services. According to R.
        Ch. J. Bachrach women used also to say the <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Magnified”</span> prayer in the synagogue when their
        parents left no male posterity.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In bringing to a
        close this very incomplete sketch, perhaps I ought to notice the
        confirmation of girls introduced during this century in some
        communities in Germany, which the <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Reformed”</span> Rabbis recommended, but of which the
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Orthodox”</span> Rabbis disapproved. It
        would be well if in the heat of such controversies both sides would
        remember the words of R. Zedekiah b. Abraham, of Rome, who with
        regard to a certain difference of opinion on some ritual question,
        says: <span class="tei tei-q">“Every man receives reward from God for
        what he is convinced is the right thing, if this conviction has no
        other motive but the love of God.”</span></p>
      </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page326">[pg 326]</span><a name=
      "Pg326" id="Pg326" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
      <hr class="page" />

      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
      "margin-top: 5.00em; margin-bottom: 5.00em">
        <a name="toc31" id="toc31"></a> <a name="pdf32" id="pdf32"></a>

        <h1 class="tei tei-head" style=
        "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em">
        <span style="font-size: 173%">XIV. The Earliest Jewish Community in
        Europe</span></h1>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Roman Judaism has
        disappeared from our guide-books. Civilisation has levelled down the
        walls of the Ghetto, and its former inhabitants are not any longer
        <span class="tei tei-q">“a people that dwell alone.”</span> But with
        this well-deserved destruction a good deal of the interest was also
        destroyed which the traveller used to attach to <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“the peculiar people”</span> enclosed in that terrible
        slum of Rome.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Still, if there is
        anything eternal in the <span class="tei tei-q">“eternal
        city,”</span> which was neither reconstructed by the Cæsars, nor
        improved upon by the Popes, it is the little Jewish community at
        Rome. It has survived the former; it has suffered for many centuries
        under the latter, and, partaking in the general revival which has
        come upon the Italian nation, it may still be destined for a great
        future. Indeed, the history of the relation of Israel to Rome is so
        old that it is not lacking even in legendary elements. On the day on
        which King Solomon married the daughter of Pharaoh, the Rabbis
        narrate, there came down the angel Gabriel. He put a reed into the
        sea, which, by means of the slime that adhered to it, formed itself,
        in the course of time, into a large island, on which the city of Rome
        was built—an event with which the troubles of Israel began. These
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page327">[pg 327]</span><a name="Pg327"
        id="Pg327" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> were the evil consequences of
        the first <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">mésalliance</span></span>. Even more unfortunate
        for Israel (and it is not impossible that this is the meaning of the
        legend) were the results of that spiritual mixed marriage between
        Judaism and paganism which took place at a much later period, whereat
        a blunt soldier, who sympathised with neither, and <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“who dealt in salvation as he dealt in provinces,”</span>
        acted as best man. As a fact, the parties concerned never understood
        each other properly. The declaration of love, and the final proposal,
        were made in an Alexandrine jargon, strange to both, the obscurities
        of which only grew with the commentaries each successive generation
        added to them. Under such circumstances, a happy union was not to be
        expected, and the family quarrel which fills the annals of civilised
        Europe soon broke out. Judaism, more particularly Roman Judaism,
        witnessed this struggle from the beginning, and its fortunes were
        greatly dependent on the chance which of these two elements, the
        Jewish or the pagan, won the ascendency.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">However, I am
        theologising too much, whilst I am deviating from the subject of
        these lines. Nor could I think of giving here, even in outline, the
        history of the oldest Jewish community in Europe. This has been
        already admirably done by Dr. A. Berliner, who has made the history
        of the Jews of Rome the subject of his studies for nearly a quarter
        of a century. I intend only to reproduce here, in a stray fashion,
        some of those impressions and reflections which, I am certain, must
        occur to every Jewish traveller in Italy.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Now I do not think
        for a moment that we Jews should have a point of view of our own for
        looking at things and men in this paradise of Europe. It would be as
        silly to <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page328">[pg
        328]</span><a name="Pg328" id="Pg328" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        have a Jewish Baedeker as to think of orthodox mathematics or an
        ecclesiastical logic or a racial morality—though unfortunately there
        exist such things. But on the other hand, if we have not, like the
        fox in the fable, left our heart at home, let us not do violence to
        our feelings by passing over everything Jewish, over sights which
        might remind us of our history, with a certain indifference which
        would be affected on our part. We are not all little Goethes, nor
        even little Ruskins, and our artistic enjoyment is hardly so intense
        as to shut our hearts against impressions which force themselves upon
        us either by the way of remembrance of the past, or even as a living
        contrast in the present.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It so happened
        that my first visit to the Vatican was on a Friday. After doing my
        work in the Vatican Library, which is open till noon, I went into the
        adjoining Church of St. Peter.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">One should be,
        like the angel of death in the legend, full of eyes, properly to see
        all the wonders of art and marvels of architecture at which human
        genius and piety laboured busily through centuries, in adorning the
        grandest of sacred buildings in the world. But there is Baedeker or
        Murray serving at least as a pair of good spectacles to the layman,
        and it was by their aid that I made my round in St. Peter. But lo,
        whilst you are observing the celebrated Pietà by Michael Angelo, and,
        according to the instruction of your guides, admiring both the grief
        of the Mother and the death of the Son, you notice in its vicinity a
        little column, surrounded by rails to which the pilgrims approach
        with a certain awe; for <span class="tei tei-q">“Tradition affirms it
        to have been brought from Jerusalem.”</span> Naturally, one is
        instantly reminded of the report, given by the <span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="page329">[pg 329]</span><a name="Pg329" id="Pg329"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> famous traveller of Tudela, of the
        curiosities of Rome, which among other things records, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“That there are also to be seen in St. Giovanni in Porta
        Latina (probably meant for Lateran) the two brazen pillars,
        constructed by King Solomon of blessed memory, whose name, Solomon,
        the son of David, is engraved upon each; of which he was also told
        that every year about the 9th of Ab (the anniversary of the
        destruction of Jerusalem), these pillars sweat so much that water
        runs down from them.”</span> So far Benjamin of Tudela in the twelfth
        century. In our days pillars weep no longer, and even of men it is
        considered a special sign of good breeding to behave pillar-like; but
        a sigh is still permissible at the sight of this temple-column, which
        in its captivity symbolises, not less than the Pietà, the grief of a
        whole people. Of course, not possessing on the spot either the
        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Itinerary</span></span> or even Urlick, one is
        unable to establish the connection between these two traditions and
        their claim to authenticity. Perhaps one may even comfort oneself on
        the same ground on which the famous curé tried to appease his flock
        who were sobbing bitterly at his telling them the Passion story. He
        exclaimed: <span class="tei tei-q">“My children, do not weep so much;
        it happened long ago, and even perhaps is not quite true.”</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">However, the
        Vatican is the last place in the world to exercise your critical
        faculties; you are so deeply absorbed in seeing, that you have no
        time to think. So on I went, from aisle to aisle, from niche to
        niche, from chapel to chapel, looking, staring, and admiring, till of
        a sudden my eyes were struck by a large statue, on which the words,
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Thou shalt have no other God before
        me,”</span> are engraved. There I stood before a question of
        exegesis, where one is <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page330">[pg
        330]</span><a name="Pg330" id="Pg330" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        permitted to use his right senses without any regard to the æsthetic
        side. Yet not all the manifold expositions of the Decalogue, nor all
        the talk about the subjective-objective, the absolute and the real,
        with which metaphysicians have tried to confuse the notion of the
        Unity of God, will reconcile one to the meaning which Mediæval Art
        has impressed upon the Ten Commandments. The truth has to be sought
        elsewhere, and thus my thoughts were turned to the synagogue, and
        thither I went.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The day was
        already drawing to its close, and, by a marvellous coincidence, I
        arrived at the synagogue just as the congregation was intoning the
        words: <span class="tei tei-q">“The Lord is one, and His name is one
        to His renown and glory.”</span> Here was sound, simple exegesis,
        though sadly lacking in the illustrative matter in which the Vatican
        is so rich. But what need was there of any real or artificial
        <span class="tei tei-q">“aid to the believer,”</span> in the presence
        of such a living faith, as enabled this little community to maintain
        its protesting position in the teeth of the mistress of the world!
        And this even at a time, when it only required a hint from the
        successors of the old Roman Emperors to make the whole world renounce
        its right of thinking and judging, and, were we to believe Herr
        Janssen, even to feel perfectly happy in this torpor.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But, by the way,
        are our own times much better? As I write these lines (October 1893)
        I hear that a Bill has been brought into the German Diet, asking that
        the Talmud should be submitted to a Commission (which <span class=
        "tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">en
        passant</span></span>, has been sitting in unbroken session in that
        country since the days of Pfefferkorn in the fifteenth century) with
        the purpose of examining its contents, while in the Vatican the very
        pupils of Loyola are offering every convenience <span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="page331">[pg 331]</span><a name="Pg331" id="Pg331"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and comfort to the student who should
        care to devote his time to Rabbinic literature. Does not the work of
        a great number of our poets, historians, theologians, and so-called
        seers in this blessed century of ours, in many respects prove but a
        strained effort to destroy the few humanitarian principles which were
        established a few generations ago, as well as to deify every brutal
        warrior who was successful in his day? Again, is the national idea so
        much sublimer, so much grander, than that of a universal religion,
        that we would willingly permit the former to employ the means which
        have been denied to the latter as inhuman and barbarous? Every age
        has its own idolatry, and the eternal wandering Jew will always be
        the chosen victim of the Moloch in fashion.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Let us, however,
        return to the synagogue, which withstood many a cruelty, both ancient
        and modern. The place where the synagogue stands is near the Ghetto,
        now called Piazza di Scuola. It is, besides a few other communal
        houses, the only building left there,—all those narrow, dirty, and
        typhoid-breeding streets which formed the old Ghetto having been
        demolished by a sage and humane government, which by this action
        wiped out the last stain from its history. There, on this vast blank
        is the synagogue, a comparatively small, insignificant building,
        laden with heavy age and looking down on her children whom she has
        been nursing, consoling, and protecting for centuries, but who, now
        grown old, have forsaken her and scattered to all the ends of the
        city. Of all her former acquaintances there appears to be left only
        father Tiber, who would seem to be murmuring to her many an old tale
        of the times before she was called into existence. And if he listened
        to the special prayers <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page332">[pg
        332]</span><a name="Pg332" id="Pg332" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        recited within her walls by the deputies of the Jewish communities,
        when preparing themselves to go to the court of the Pope, the Tiber
        heard many a sigh and cry, wrung out from the heart of a Jewish
        captive who, preferring death to slavery even under the masters of
        the world, found his last repose in its waters. But insignificant as
        this synagogue appears, she proved the spiritual bulwark against all
        the attacks of the time, and you admire her brave resistance all the
        more when you look at that multitude of churches and cloisters in the
        closest vicinity of the Ghetto, impressing you as so many
        intrenchments, all directing their missiles and weapons against this
        humble, defenceless building, threatening it with death and
        destruction. One of these churches, probably founded by some Jewish
        convert, who gained in it both salvation and a good living, bears on
        its gates in Hebrew letters the inscription: <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“I have spread out my hands all the day unto a rebellious
        people, which walketh in the way that was not good, after their own
        thoughts. A people that provoketh me to anger continually to my
        face”</span> (Isaiah lxv. 2, 3). Menace is followed by persuasion,
        the cited verses being accompanied by the Latin words: <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Indulgentia plenaria quotodiana perpetua pro vivis et
        defunctis.”</span> Theologians who like to quarrel most about things
        they can know least, have for ages discussed the question, whether
        prayers for the dead are of any use; here the matter is decided by a
        simple advertisement. It is not to be denied that one would enjoy the
        fortunes accumulated by one's late sinner of an uncle all the better
        for being sure that a few pennyworths of prayer enable the legatee to
        make one's benefactor in Hades comfortable and happy.</p><span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="page333">[pg 333]</span><a name="Pg333" id="Pg333"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The thought is
        very consoling indeed, and it is not to be wondered at that the Roman
        synagogue could not entirely withstand its temptations, and
        introduced into the offering-blessing after one is called up to the
        Torah, the words: <span class="tei tei-q">“To the advancing of the
        soul of the departed.”</span> Of course much of this tendency may be
        attributed to the Ford Jabbok,<a id="noteref_266" name="noteref_266"
        href="#note_266"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">266</span></span></a> which
        was and is still very popular in that country; but the fact that the
        author of this Jewish <span class="tei tei-q">“Book of the
        Dead”</span> was an Italian (from Modena), shows clearly that there
        was some Catholic influence at work, from which even the
        fellow-countrymen of Azariah de Rossi and Judah Messer Leon could not
        entirely emancipate themselves.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I ought to have
        spoken of Roman synagogues, since the building in the Ghetto to which
        I have been constantly alluding comprises four prayer-houses devoted
        to Spanish and Italian rites. It says much for Roman Judaism, that
        they did not consider ritual differences of such importance as to
        prevent them from forming one community for all charitable and
        congregational purposes. In Verona and in Modena some congregations
        even retained the German rite, which their ancestors who immigrated
        from the Rhine provinces brought with them, whilst they accepted the
        Spanish pronunciation. I wish that the Anglo-Jewish community could
        see their way to imitate their example. Not that I think for a moment
        that the Spanish pronunciation is more correct than the German. Each
        system has its own mistakes and corruptions; and it is more than
        probable that the prophet Isaiah, or even the author of Ecclesiastes,
        would be as little able to follow the prayers in Bevis Marks as in
        Duke's Place. But since the non-Jewish scientific world has, though
        only by pure <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page334">[pg
        334]</span><a name="Pg334" id="Pg334" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
        accident, accepted the Spanish way of reading the Hebrew, I should
        like to see this trifling difference of <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ba</span></span>ruch
        over <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Bu</span></span>ruch at last disappear, by
        pronouncing the camets-vowel <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">a</span></span> instead of <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">o</span></span>, and
        accepting similar little changes, which are of no real importance to
        us.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The inside of
        these synagogues is even more simple than their outside. I was told
        that the synagogue which was burned down last winter, and which also
        formed a part of this building, could boast of many fine decorations
        and carvings, etc., but I could observe nothing of the kind in the
        synagogues I had occasion to frequent. Nor is there much of natural
        decorum in them, and they reconcile one perfectly to the worst of the
        Small Synagogues elsewhere. I venture to think that in this respect,
        too, we have to recognise Catholic influence. It was, I think, one of
        the leaders in the Oxford Movement who expressed his delight at
        seeing in Italy a woman poorly-dressed coming into the church, who,
        after putting down the basket from her back, kneels before one of the
        many altars and says her prayers. A good deal of this familiarity in
        the place of worship may also be noticed in the Roman synagogues,
        where I have seen a woman come into the partition for men,
        notwithstanding their having a separate gallery, without bonnet or
        hat on her head, and with an infant in her arms, and listen there to
        the prayers, till she walked home with her husband. The other people
        were also very restless, coming and going often, whilst, as soon as
        the reading of the Law was over, the greater part of the worshippers
        left the synagogue. It was not a very delightful sight. A minus of
        decorum does not always mean a plus of devotion; just as little as a
        maximum of respectability and stiffness are to be taken as signs of
        true piety.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page335">[pg
        335]</span><a name="Pg335" id="Pg335" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is not
        uninteresting to notice that the Roman synagogue, in spite of its old
        traditions, did not entirely shut itself against modern reforms.
        Among them there is that of <span class="tei tei-q">“calling up the
        people to the Torah”</span> by the simple formula, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Let the Priest”</span> (or <span class="tei tei-q">“the
        Levite”</span>) <span class="tei tei-q">“step forth,”</span><a id=
        "noteref_267" name="noteref_267" href="#note_267"><span class=
        "tei tei-noteref"><span style=
        "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">267</span></span></a> and so
        on, not mentioning either names or titles, which I should like to
        recommend most strongly to our congregations. I hope that no man will
        suspect me of such heresy as that of questioning the wisdom of the
        Synagogue Regulations. But I am inclined to think that the business
        of conferring the degrees of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">Rabbi</span></span>, <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Associate”</span> or <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Master,”</span> does not exactly fall within the sphere
        of activity of the Wardens. The matter could only be decided by a
        proper Board of examination. As the Council is not provided with such
        a Board, nor is every aspirant to this honour prepared to undergo the
        examination required, the wisest course would be to give up titles
        altogether, calling up all people alike in the way indicated.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The robes the
        ministers wear (somewhat similar to those of the Greek clergy), are
        probably also an innovation of modern date,—the old orthodox Rabbis
        looking at any special vestment for the Preacher or Reader with the
        same feeling of disgust which the old Puritans entertained for
        surplice or mitre. But the principle of <span class="tei tei-q">“The
        Beauty of Holiness”</span> proved too strong for resistance, and it
        was only a pardonable vanity when the reformers applied it to their
        own persons; <span class="tei tei-q">“Vanity of vanities,”</span>
        saith the preacher, so often, that he gets rather to like it. This
        vanity is greatly redeemed by the fact that the preacher does not
        grudge his uniform to his humbler brother, the beadle, who is in most
        cases to be distinguished from the officiating ministry only by the
        brass-plate on his breast, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page336">[pg
        336]</span><a name="Pg336" id="Pg336" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> on
        which the word <span class="tei tei-q">“Servant”</span> is engraved.
        Considering the great confusion arising from the meaningless
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Reverend”</span> and the universal white
        neck-tie, such a label, indicating the proper office of the bearer,
        might, perhaps, prove as useful among the English Jews as it is among
        the Jews of Rome.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was with a
        pupil of the Rabbinical College, in company with his friends, that I
        took my first walk through ancient Rome. I felt attracted to him by
        his striking face of that peculiar fine Jewish type, which is more
        common among the Jews in the East than among us. And when he was
        reading the lesson from the Prophets in the synagogue, where I made
        his acquaintance, he reminded me of that Jewish boy with bright eyes,
        black curls, and features strikingly beautiful walking as a captive
        from Jerusalem through the streets of Rome some seventeen centuries
        ago, whose proficiency in the words of Isaiah caused his redemption.
        It would be an exaggeration to say that my companion's remarks were
        very instructive from an artistic point of view. Being born and bred
        in Rome, he passed with utter indifference many objects which we are
        bidden to admire, whilst at others he actually shouted out
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Image,”</span> or made some other prosaic
        remark. But in a country where one is determined to play the heathen
        for so many weeks, to worship superannuated deities, to get into
        raptures at every reminiscence of superseded and vanishing religions,
        and to be delighted at the sights of <span class="tei tei-q">“greasy
        saints and martyrs hairy,”</span> there can be no great harm in being
        called back to one's true nature.</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The feelings
        crowding upon one, when entering that part of the ancient city which
        probably was in the mind of the Rabbis when they spoke of
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Guilty Rome,”</span> are <span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="page337">[pg 337]</span><a name="Pg337" id="Pg337"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of a conflicting nature. Every stone and
        every brick there saw the humiliation of Israel, in every theatre and
        every circus the Jew served as a comic figure, and was held up to
        ridicule, whilst there was, perhaps, hardly a single lane or gate
        through which those who resented the yoke of the <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“anti-Semites of Antiquity”</span> did not pass, in order
        to <span class="tei tei-q">“be butchered to make a Roman
        holiday.”</span> What concerns a Jew most in this perished world of
        ruins, and at the same time causes him the deepest grief, is the
        triumphal arch of Titus, <span class="tei tei-q">“commemorating the
        defeat of the Jews, and dedicated to him by his successor,
        Domitian.”</span> Enough has been said and written about it both by
        antiquarians and theologians, the former admiring the workmanship of
        the reliefs, the latter perceiving in it a proof of the fulfilment of
        the well-known passages in the New Testament about the destruction of
        the Temple, which came to pass in spite of the efforts made by Titus
        to save it. Those who have read Bernay's essay on the <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“Chronik des Sulpicius Severus”</span> know that the
        behaviour of <span class="tei tei-q">“the delight of the human
        species”</span> on that occasion is rather open to doubt, and it is
        more probable that, instead of trying to rescue it, he commanded that
        it should be set on fire. Josephus, who witnessed the shame of his
        compatriots and co-religionists, has left us a full account of the
        triumphal procession. Only a flunkey like Josephus could maintain
        that calm indifference with which he describes the events of the
        <span class="tei tei-q">“bitter day,”</span> the perusal of which
        makes one's blood boil. His description fairly agrees with the famous
        relief on the arch, showing that part of the procession in which the
        table with the shewbread, the candlestick with the seven lamps, and
        the golden trumpets figure as the chief objects. <span class=
        "tei tei-pb" id="page338">[pg 338]</span><a name="Pg338" id="Pg338"
        class="tei tei-anchor"></a> The only thing which we miss is the
        <span class="tei tei-q">“Law of the Jews,”</span> which, according to
        Josephus, was carried in the triumph as <span class="tei tei-q">“the
        last of all the spoils.”</span> Was it only an oversight of the
        artist, or had he no place for it, or is it Josephus who committed
        the error, mistaking some other object for the Scroll of the Law? I
        dearly hope that this last was the case, and that Heine was under the
        impulse of a true and real and poetic inspiration when he wrote
        (speaking of the Holy Scripture to which he owed his conversion):
        <span class="tei tei-q">“The Jews, who appreciate the value of
        precious things, knew right well what they did when, at the burning
        of the second temple they left to their fate the golden and silver
        implements of sacrifice, the candlesticks and lamps, even the
        breastplate of the High Priest adorned with great jewels, but saved
        the Bible. This was the real treasure of the temple, and, thanks be
        to God! it was not left a prey to the flames, nor to the fury of
        Titus Vespasian, the wretch, who, as the Rabbi tells us, met with so
        dreadful a death.”</span></p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">However, there
        were others who brought the glad tidings of the Old Testament to Rome
        long before there existed a New one. And this is, on the other side,
        what makes Rome a sort of Terra Sancta even to the Jew. It is true
        that we have not to look for the footprints of the prophets, for whom
        even tradition never claimed <span class="tei tei-q">“the gift of
        missionary-travelling.”</span> But might not the ground there have
        received a sort of consecration by the fact that it was traversed by
        the ambassadors of Judas Maccabæus (about 161 <span class=
        "tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span>) <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“to make a league of amity and confederacy”</span> with
        the Roman Senate? Of the embassy of Simon the Maccabee (about 140
        <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span>) there is actual
        historical evidence that they began to propagate in Rome the Jewish
        <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page339">[pg 339]</span><a name="Pg339"
        id="Pg339" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> religion. Some seventy or
        eighty years later the Jews had already their own quarter in Rome,
        with their own synagogues, which they were in the habit of visiting,
        <span class="tei tei-q">“most especially on the sacred Sabbath days,
        when they publicly cultivate their national philosophy.”</span> That
        many of the oldest teachers of Israel, the Tannaim, went to Rome as
        deputies, and that one of them (R. Mathia ben Chares) founded a
        school there early in the second century, is also an authenticated
        fact. One would like to know what they taught, and in what way they
        expounded their <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
        "font-style: italic">national philosophy</span></span>. Most of all
        one would like to know what were the spiritual means they employed in
        their proselytising work, in which they were, according to the
        testimony of history, so successful. Did they preach in the streets?
        Or did they hold public controversies? Or did they even send out
        Epistles which, in form at least, served as a model to apostles of
        another creed? How many a problem would be solved; how many a miracle
        would disappear; how many a book would become superfluous, if we
        could obtain certainty about these points! The Talmud tells us
        little, almost nothing, about these important things, whilst we get
        from the Roman writers only sneers and raillery. To these respectable
        Romans the Jews were only a mob of unlettered atheists. Indeed, to a
        good orthodox heathen, a religion without images and statues, with a
        God without a pedigree and without a theogony, was an impossible
        thing. Those poor metaphysicians!</p>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">However, why dwell
        so long on a past world? A famous Rabbi once exclaimed: <span class=
        "tei tei-q">“If a man would ask thee, <span class="tei tei-q">‘Where
        is thy God?’</span> answer him: <span class="tei tei-q">‘In the great
        city of Rome.’</span> ”</span> The underlying idea was the mystical
        notion <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page340">[pg 340]</span><a name=
        "Pg340" id="Pg340" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> that wherever Israel
        had to migrate, they were accompanied by the Divine presence. And
        Rome was, in the times of the Rabbis, the point to which the streams
        of Jewish migration from the Holy Land chiefly converged. But now,
        instead of to Rome, might we not point to London and New York as
        centres of Jewish migrations?</p>
      </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page361">[pg 361]</span><a name=
      "Pg361" id="Pg361" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>
      <hr class="page" />

      <div class="tei tei-div" style=
      "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
        <a name="toc33" id="toc33"></a> <a name="pdf34" id="pdf34"></a>

        <h1 class="tei tei-head" style=
        "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em">
        <span style="font-size: 173%">Index</span></h1>

        <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This Index
        contains the most important names of persons, titles of books,
        technical terms and Hebrew words occurring in the text. In the notes
        to the text, the Hebrew words are for the most part given also in
        Hebrew characters.</p>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Abarbanel, Isaac, <a href="#Pg173" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">173</a>, <a href="#Pg174" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">174</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Abaye, <a href="#Pg311" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">311</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">Ab Beth
            Din</span></span>, <a href="#Pg084" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">84</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Abba Mari b. Moses, <a href="#Pg165" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">165</a>, <a href="#Pg179" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">179</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Abba Tachnah, the Chassid, <a href="#Pg221" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">221</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Abraham, Baalshem's father-in-law, <a href="#Pg007" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">7</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Abraham, son of Elijah Wilna, <a href="#Pg088" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">88</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Abraham of Bedres, <a href="#Pg262" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">262</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Abraham Abulaphia, <a href="#Pg262" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">262</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Abraham Ibn Daud, <a href="#Pg162" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">162</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Abraham Ibn Ezra, <a href="#Pg050" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">50</a>, <a href="#Pg052" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">52</a>, <a href="#Pg064" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">64</a>, <a href="#Pg071"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">71</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">210</a>,
            <a href="#Pg314" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">314</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Abraham b. Shem—Tob Bibago, <a href="#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">172</a>, <a href="#Pg173" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">173</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Abtalyon, <a href="#Pg186" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">186</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Abuha, <a href="#Pg311" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">311</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Acha, <a href="#Pg310" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">310</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Acher</span></span>, <a href="#Pg292" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">292</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Adam, Primal</span></span>, <a href="#Pg239"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">239</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Agadah</span></span>, pl. <span lang="he"
            class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left" xml:lang=
            "he"><span style="font-style: italic">Agadoth</span></span>,
            <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">64</a>, <a href="#Pg105" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">105</a>, <a href="#Pg183" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">183</a>, <a href="#Pg197"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">197</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Agadic</span></span>, <a href="#Pg110"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">110</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg156" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">156</a>,
            <a href="#Pg157" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">157</a>, <a href="#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">193</a>, <a href="#Pg262" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">262</a>, <a href="#Pg279"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">279</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Ages of Man</span></span>, <a href="#Pg295"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">295</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Akabyah b. Mahalaleel, <a href="#Pg305" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">305</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Akiba, <a href="#Pg070" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">70</a>, <a href="#Pg084" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">84</a>, <a href="#Pg130" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">130</a>, <a href="#Pg188"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">188</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg190" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">190</a>,
            <a href="#Pg194" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">194</a>, <a href="#Pg220" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">220</a>, <a href="#Pg227" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">227</a>, <a href="#Pg228"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">228</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">234</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Almemor</span></span>, <a href="#Pg302"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">302</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ammi, <a href="#Pg214" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">214</a>, <a href="#Pg217" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">217</a>, <a href="#Pg226" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">226</a>, <a href="#Pg231"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">231</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Amora</span></span>, pl. <span lang="he"
            class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left" xml:lang=
            "he"><span style="font-style: italic">Amoraim</span></span>,
            <a href="#Pg017" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">17</a>, <a href="#Pg084" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">84</a>, <a href="#Pg195" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">195</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Amram Gaon, <a href="#Pg293" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">293</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Anna of Kaidon, wife of Elijah Wilna, <a href="#Pg082" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">82</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Anselm, St., of Canterbury, <a href="#Pg079" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">79</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Antigonos of Socho, <a href="#Pg229" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">229</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Anti-Maimonists, <a href="#Pg133" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">133</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Aristotle, <a href="#Pg079" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">79</a>, <a href="#Pg167" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">167</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Aryeh Leb, son of Elijah Wilna, <a href="#Pg088" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">88</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Ascension of Elijah</span></span>, <a href=
            "#Pg075" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">75</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Asher b. Jechiel, <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">210</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Assideans, <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">64</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">Ayil
            Meshulash</span></span>, <a href="#Pg081" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">81</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Azariah de Rossi, <a href="#Pg066" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">66</a>, <a href="#Pg071" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">71</a>, <a href="#Pg105" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">105</a>, <a href="#Pg333"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">333</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Aziluth</span></span>, <a href="#Pg117"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">117</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Azulai, <a href="#Pg277" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">277</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <a name="Index-Baalshem" id="Index-Baalshem" class=
          "tei tei-anchor"></a>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Baalshem</span></span>, Israel, <a href=
            "#Pg003" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">3-12</a>,
            <a href="#Pg014" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">14-35</a>, <a href="#Pg073" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">73</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bachrach, Ch. J., <a href="#Pg325" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">325</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Bachur</span></span>, pl. <span lang="he"
            class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left" xml:lang=
            "he"><span style="font-style: italic">Bachurim</span></span>,
            <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">95</a>, <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">97</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bachya, <a href="#Pg131" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">131</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Baraitha</span></span>, <a href="#Pg271"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">271</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">Baruch
            Sheamar</span></span>, <a href="#Pg311" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">311</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bashazi, <a href="#Pg161" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">161</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Bath-Kol</span></span>, <a href="#Pg190"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">190</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Beer of Mizriez, <a href="#Pg011" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">11</a>, <a href="#Pg037" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">37</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Beer, Peter, <a href="#Pg066" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">66</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ben Azzai, <a href="#Pg130" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">130</a>, <a href="#Pg216" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">216</a>, <a href="#Pg319" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">319</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Benjamin of Tudela, <a href="#Pg329" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">329</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ben-Jacob, <a href="#Pg259" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">259</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ben Sira, <a href="#Pg297" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">297</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ben Zoma, <a href="#Pg130" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">130</a>
          </div>
        </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page362">[pg 362]</span><a name=
        "Pg362" id="Pg362" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Bereshith</span></span>, <a href="#Pg127"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">127</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Berith Milah</span></span>, <a href="#Pg288"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">288</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg292" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">292</a>,
            <a href="#Pg293" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">293</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Berliner, A., <a href="#Pg327" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">327</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bernays, Isaak, <a href="#Pg337" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">337</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">Beth
            Din</span></span>, <a href="#Pg191" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">191-193</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">Beth
            Hammidrash</span></span>, <a href="#Pg007" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">7</a>, <a href="#Pg016" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">16</a>, <a href="#Pg084"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">84</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg139" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">139</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">Beth
            Talmud</span></span>, <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">210</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Biccurim</span></span>, <a href="#Pg058"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">58</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bloch, Samson, <a href="#Pg051" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">51</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Bodek, A., <a href="#Pg051" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">51</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Book of Brightness</span></span>
            (<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#Index-Zohar"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Zohar</a>)
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Book of the Pious</span></span>, <a href=
            "#Pg295" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">295</a>,
            <a href="#Pg322" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">322</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Book of Victory</span></span>, <a href=
            "#Pg167" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">167</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Book of Weight</span></span>, <a href=
            "#Pg133" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">133</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Boswell, <a href="#Pg142" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">142</a>, <a href="#Pg197" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">197</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Buckle, <a href="#Pg096" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">96</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Burbot</span></span>, <a href="#Pg138"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">138</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Buzagli, the Cabbalist, <a href="#Pg310" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">310</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Cabbalah, Cabbalists, <a href="#Pg099" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">99</a>, <a href="#Pg128" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">128</a>, <a href="#Pg129" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">129</a>, <a href="#Pg133"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">133</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">210</a>,
            <a href="#Pg283" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">283</a>, <a href="#Pg315" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">315</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Cabod</span></span>, <a href="#Pg120" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">120</a>, <a href="#Pg121"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">121</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Caraites, <a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">48</a>, <a href="#Pg160" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">160</a>, <a href="#Pg161" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">161</a>, <a href="#Pg207"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">207</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg208" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">208</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Casaubon, Isaac, <a href="#Pg259" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">259</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Chagigah</span></span>, <a href="#Pg077"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">77</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Chakhamim</span></span>, <a href="#Pg057"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">57</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Chambers</span></span>, the, <a href=
            "#Pg208" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">208</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Chanina b. Dossa, <a href="#Pg217" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">217</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Chanukah</span></span>, <a href="#Pg138"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">138</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Chapters of R. Eliezer the
            Great</span></span>, <a href="#Pg068" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">68</a>, <a href="#Pg069" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">69</a>, <a href="#Pg316" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">316</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Chasdai Ibn Crescas, <a href="#Pg167" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">167-173</a>, <a href="#Pg180" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">180</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Chassidim</span></span>, Chassid, Chassidic,
            Chassidism, <a href="#Pg001" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">1-4</a>, <a href="#Pg011" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">11</a>, <a href="#Pg012" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">12</a>, <a href="#Pg014"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">14-16</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg021" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">21</a>,
            <a href="#Pg022" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">22</a>, <a href="#Pg025" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">25-27</a>, <a href="#Pg030" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">30</a>, <a href="#Pg033"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">33</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg035" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">35-41</a>,
            <a href="#Pg043" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">43-45</a>, <a href="#Pg053" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">53</a>, <a href="#Pg073"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">73</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg090" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">90</a>,
            <a href="#Pg298" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">298</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Chayim Vital, <a href="#Pg099" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">99</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Chayim Walosin, <a href="#Pg085" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">85</a>, <a href="#Pg087" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">87</a>, <a href="#Pg094" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">94</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Chisda, <a href="#Pg307" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">307</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Chukkim</span></span>, <a href="#Pg124"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">124</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Code of the Law</span></span>, by Caro,
            <a href="#Pg075" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">75</a>, <a href="#Pg092" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">92</a>, <a href="#Pg206" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">206</a>, <a href="#Pg211"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">211</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg257" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">257</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Collectanea</span></span>, <a href="#Pg144"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">144</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Commentary on the Pentateuch</span></span>,
            by Nachmanides, <a href="#Pg107" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">107</a>, <a href="#Pg108" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">108</a>, <a href="#Pg123" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">123</a>, <a href="#Pg135"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">135</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Creeds and Opinions</span></span>, by
            Saadiah Gaon, <a href="#Pg162" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">162</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Crown</span></span>, <a href="#Pg239" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">239</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Cusari</span></span>, <a href="#Pg162"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">162</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Date of the Redemption</span></span>,
            <a href="#Pg105" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">105</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            David Rocca Martino, <a href="#Pg230" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">230</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            David Messer Leon, <a href="#Pg174" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">174</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            David b. Samuel d'Estella, <a href="#Pg165" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">165</a>, <a href="#Pg166" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">166</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            David b. Yom-Tob Bilia, <a href="#Pg166" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">166</a>.
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Defence of Adam</span></span>, <a href=
            "#Pg230" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">230</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Delmedigo, <a href="#Pg071" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">71</a>, <a href="#Pg131" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">131</a>, <a href="#Pg175" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">175</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Disputation</span></span>, by Nachmanides,
            <a href="#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">103</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Dukes, L., <a href="#Pg260" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">260</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Eighteen Benedictions</span></span>,
            <a href="#Pg083" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">83</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Eleazar, <a href="#Pg229" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">229</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Eleazar b. Jacob, <a href="#Pg225" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">225</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Eliezer, father of Baalshem, <a href="#Pg005" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">5</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Eliezer b. Hyrkanos, <a href="#Pg189" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">189</a>, <a href="#Pg319" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">319</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Eliezer b. Samuel Hallevi, <a href="#Pg145" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">145</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Eliezer b. Simeon, <a href="#Pg223" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">223</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Elijah Levita, <a href="#Pg268" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">268</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Elijah Wilna, <a href="#Pg057" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">57</a>, <a href="#Pg073" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">73-77</a>, <a href="#Pg081" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">81-92</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg096" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">96</a>,
            <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">97</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Elisha b. Abuyah, <a href="#Pg033" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">33</a>, <a href="#Pg130" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">130</a>, <a href="#Pg292" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">292</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Emden, Jacob, <a href="#Pg010" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">10</a>, <a href="#Pg259" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">259</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Epikurus</span></span>, <a href="#Pg157"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">157</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">Erech
            Millin</span></span>, <a href="#Pg066" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">66</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Erter, Isaac, <a href="#Pg051" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">51</a>, <a href="#Pg059" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">59</a>, <a href="#Pg288" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">288</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Essenes, <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">64</a>, <a href="#Pg185" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">185</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Examination of the World</span></span>,
            <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">97</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Eybeschütz, J., <a href="#Pg010" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">10</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ezra, or Azriel, the mystic, <a href="#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">100</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Faithful City</span></span>, the, <a href=
            "#Pg075" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">75</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Fichte, <a href="#Pg051" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">51</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Finn, <a href="#Pg075" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">75</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Ford Jabbok</span></span>, <a href="#Pg333"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">333</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Frankists, <a href="#Pg010" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">10</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Frankl, Z., <a href="#Pg065" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">65</a>, <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">97</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Fürst, J., <a href="#Pg066" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">66</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Gamaliel I., <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">234</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Gamaliel II., <a href="#Pg194" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">194</a>, <a href="#Pg212" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">212</a>
          </div>
        </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page363">[pg 363]</span><a name=
        "Pg363" id="Pg363" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-foreign" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Gaon</span></span>, pl. <span class=
            "tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Gaonim</span></span>, <a href="#Pg073"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">73</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg076" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">76-78</a>,
            <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">97</a>, <a href="#Pg098" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">98</a>, <a href="#Pg206" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">206</a>, <a href="#Pg208"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">208</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">209</a>,
            <a href="#Pg289" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">289</a>, <a href="#Pg312" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">312</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Garden of Mystical
            Contemplation</span></span>, <a href="#Pg129" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">129</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Gate of Reward</span></span>, <a href=
            "#Pg115" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">115</a>,
            <a href="#Pg213" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">213</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Geiger, A., <a href="#Pg066" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">66</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Gemara</span></span>, <a href="#Pg078"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">78</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Gershon, brother-in-law of Baalshem, <a href="#Pg008" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">8</a>, <a href="#Pg009"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">9</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ghetto, <a href="#Pg326" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">326</a>, <a href="#Pg331" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">331-333</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Gnostics, <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">64</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Goethe, <a href="#Pg057" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">57</a>, <a href="#Pg073" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">73</a>, <a href="#Pg306" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">306</a>, <a href="#Pg328"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">328</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Gozer</span></span>, <a href="#Pg290" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">290</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Graetz, <a href="#Pg065" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">65</a>, <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">97</a>, <a href="#Pg099" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">99</a>, <a href="#Pg183"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">183</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Great Interpreters</span></span>, <a href=
            "#Pg186" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">186</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Green, A. L., <a href="#Pg255" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">255</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Guide of the Perplexed</span></span>,
            <a href="#Pg049" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">49</a>, <a href="#Pg068" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">68</a>, <a href="#Pg097" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">97</a>, <a href="#Pg102"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">102</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg130" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">130</a>,
            <a href="#Pg131" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">131</a>, <a href="#Pg179" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">179</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Guide of the Perplexed of the
            Time</span></span>, <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">60</a>, <a href="#Pg067" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">67</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Hadasi, Judah, <a href="#Pg160" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">160</a>, <a href="#Pg161" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">161</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Hai Gaon, <a href="#Pg077" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">77</a>, <a href="#Pg208" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">208</a>, <a href="#Pg209" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">209</a>, <a href="#Pg272"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">272</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Halachah</span></span>, pl. <span lang="he"
            class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left" xml:lang=
            "he"><span style="font-style: italic">Halachoth</span></span>,
            <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">64</a>, <a href="#Pg066" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">66</a>, <a href="#Pg183" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">183</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Halachic</span></span>, <a href="#Pg057"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">57</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg092" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">92</a>,
            <a href="#Pg110" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">110</a>, <a href="#Pg157" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">157</a>, <a href="#Pg193" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">193</a>, <a href="#Pg207"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">207</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">Halachoth
            Gedoloth</span></span>, <a href="#Pg111" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">111</a>, <a href="#Pg112" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">112</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Hannaneel of Kairwan, <a href="#Pg162" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">162</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Hegel, <a href="#Pg051" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">51</a>, <a href="#Pg054" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">54</a>, <a href="#Pg064" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">64</a>, <a href="#Pg065"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">65</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Heine, <a href="#Pg059" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">59</a>, <a href="#Pg124" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">124</a>, <a href="#Pg254" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">254</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">High Belief</span></span>, <a href="#Pg162"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">162</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Hillel the Great, <a href="#Pg185" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">185</a>, <a href="#Pg186" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">186</a>, <a href="#Pg188" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">188</a>, <a href="#Pg193"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">193</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg237" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">237</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Hillel, R., <a href="#Pg177" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">177</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">History of Jewish Tradition</span></span>,
            <a href="#Pg065" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">65</a>, <a href="#Pg182" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">182</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Hithlahabuth</span></span>, <a href="#Pg032"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">32</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Holle Kreisch</span></span>, <a href=
            "#Pg294" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">294</a>,
            <a href="#Pg295" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">295</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Huna, <a href="#Pg221" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">221</a>, <a href="#Pg225" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">225</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Isaac Alfasi, <a href="#Pg013" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">13</a>, <a href="#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">100</a>, <a href="#Pg101" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">101</a>, <a href="#Pg111"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">111</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg312" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">312</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Isaac Aramah, <a href="#Pg173" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">173</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Isaac Loria, <a href="#Pg076" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">76</a>, <a href="#Pg133" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">133</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Isaac b. Ruben, <a href="#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">100</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ishmael, <a href="#Pg188" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">188</a>, <a href="#Pg190" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">190</a>, <a href="#Pg224" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">224</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ishmael b. Elishah, <a href="#Pg222" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">222</a>, <a href="#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">299</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Israel Baalshem (<span class="tei tei-hi" style=
            "text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">see</span></span> <a href="#Index-Baalshem"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Baalshem,
            Israel</a>)
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Jacob of Corbeil, <a href="#Pg322" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">322</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Jacob Dubna, <a href="#Pg091" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">91</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Jacob the Levite, or Maharil, <a href="#Pg143" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">143</a>, <a href="#Pg144"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">144</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Jacob Sasportas, <a href="#Pg101" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">101</a>, <a href="#Pg102" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">102</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Jacob Tam, <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">210</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Jannai, <a href="#Pg226" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">226</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Jedaiah of Bedres, <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">97</a>, <a href="#Pg131" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">131</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Jerusalem</span></span>, by Mendelssohn,
            <a href="#Pg147" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">147</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Johanan, <a href="#Pg249" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">249</a>, <a href="#Pg287" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">287</a>, <a href="#Pg303" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">303</a>, <a href="#Pg318"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">318</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Johanan b. Zaccai, <a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">48</a>, <a href="#Pg188" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">188</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Jonah Gerundi, <a href="#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">100</a>, <a href="#Pg101" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">101</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Jonah, son of Nachmanides, <a href="#Pg101" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">101</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            José, <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">218</a>, <a href="#Pg219" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">219</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Joseph Albashir, <a href="#Pg160" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">160</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Joseph Albo, <a href="#Pg171" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">171</a>, <a href="#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">172</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Joseph Caro, <a href="#Pg075" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">75</a>, <a href="#Pg092" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">92</a>, <a href="#Pg206" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">206</a>, <a href="#Pg211"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">211</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg322" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">322</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Joseph Jabez, <a href="#Pg131" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">131</a>, <a href="#Pg173" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">173</a>, <a href="#Pg179" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">179</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Joshua b. Hananiah, <a href="#Pg194" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">194</a>, <a href="#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">299</a>, <a href="#Pg304" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">304</a>, <a href="#Pg308"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">308</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Jost, M., <a href="#Pg066" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">66</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Judah Alcharisi, <a href="#Pg262" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">262</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Judah Hallevi, <a href="#Pg013" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">13</a>, <a href="#Pg034" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">34</a>, <a href="#Pg152" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">152</a>, <a href="#Pg162"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">162</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg208" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">208</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Judah b. Ilai, <a href="#Pg246" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">246</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Judah Messer Leon, <a href="#Pg333" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">333</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Judah de Modena, <a href="#Pg298" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">298</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Judah the Patriarch, <a href="#Pg063" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">63</a>, <a href="#Pg195" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">195</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Judah the Pious, <a href="#Pg306" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">306</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Judah b. Tema, <a href="#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">299</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Judah b. Yakar, <a href="#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">100</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Karab</span></span>, <a href="#Pg124" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">124</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Kilayim</span></span>, <a href="#Pg087"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">87</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Kimchi, D., <a href="#Pg145" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">145</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Korban</span></span>, <a href="#Pg124"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">124</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Krochmal, Nachman, <a href="#Pg044" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">44</a>, <a href="#Pg046" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">46</a>, <a href="#Pg048" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">48-68</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg071" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">71</a>,
            <a href="#Pg072" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">72</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Kuenen, <a href="#Pg240" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">240</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Law of Man</span></span>, <a href="#Pg113"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">113-115</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Laws unto Moses on Mount
            Sinai</span></span>, <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">64</a>
          </div>
        </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page364">[pg 364]</span><a name=
        "Pg364" id="Pg364" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Lessing, <a href="#Pg073" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">73</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Letteris, M., <a href="#Pg056" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">56</a>, <a href="#Pg057" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">57</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Levi b. Gershom, <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">97</a>, <a href="#Pg101" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">101</a>, <a href="#Pg171" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">171</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Light of God</span></span>, <a href="#Pg167"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">167</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Lilac of Mysteries</span></span>, <a href=
            "#Pg133" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">133</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Lilith</span></span>, <a href="#Pg287"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">287</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg288" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">288</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Lipman of Mühlhausen, <a href="#Pg167" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">167</a>, <a href="#Pg179" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">179</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Liva of Prague, <a href="#Pg078" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">78</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Lowell, R., <a href="#Pg116" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">116</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Löw, L., <a href="#Pg171" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">171</a>, <a href="#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">285</a>, <a href="#Pg305" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">305</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Lucas, Mrs. Henry, <a href="#Pg135" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">135</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Macaulay, <a href="#Pg089" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">89</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Maggid</span></span>, <a href="#Pg019"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">19</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Magnified</span></span>, <a href="#Pg310"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">310</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Maimonides, or Moses b. Maimon, <a href="#Pg013" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">13</a>, <a href="#Pg048"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">48</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg049" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">49</a>,
            <a href="#Pg068" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">68</a>, <a href="#Pg070" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">70</a>, <a href="#Pg078" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">78</a>, <a href="#Pg097"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">97</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">100</a>,
            <a href="#Pg102" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">102</a>, <a href="#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">103</a>, <a href="#Pg111" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">111</a>, <a href="#Pg126"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">126</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg130" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">130</a>,
            <a href="#Pg133" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">133</a>, <a href="#Pg140" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">140</a>, <a href="#Pg161" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">161-168</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg170" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">170-181</a>, <a href="#Pg210" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">210</a>, <a href="#Pg211"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">211</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg249" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">249</a>,
            <a href="#Pg274" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">274</a>, <a href="#Pg280" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">280</a>, <a href="#Pg281" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">281</a>, <a href="#Pg312"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">312</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg322" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">322</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Maimonists, Anti-Maimonists, <a href="#Pg163" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">163-165</a>, <a href="#Pg173" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">173</a>, <a href="#Pg210"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">210</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Mar Samuel, <a href="#Pg084" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">84</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Mathia b. Chares, <a href="#Pg339" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">339</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Measure of the Stature</span></span>,
            <a href="#Pg208" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">208</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Mechilta</span></span>, <a href="#Pg058"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">58</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg081" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">81</a>,
            <a href="#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">193</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Meheram Schiff, <a href="#Pg016" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">16</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Meir, <a href="#Pg130" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">130</a>, <a href="#Pg194" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">194</a>, <a href="#Pg226" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">226</a>, <a href="#Pg318"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">318</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Meir b. Nathan of Trinquintaines, <a href="#Pg100" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">100</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Meir of Rothenburg, <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">210</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Memra</span></span>, <a href="#Pg238" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">238</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Men of the Great Synagogue</span></span>,
            <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">64</a>, <a href="#Pg185" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">185</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Menachoth</span></span>, <a href="#Pg086"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">86</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Mendelssohn, Moses, <a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">48</a>, <a href="#Pg058" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">58</a>, <a href="#Pg073" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">73</a>, <a href="#Pg147"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">147</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg151" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">151</a>,
            <a href="#Pg176" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">176</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Metatron</span></span>, <a href="#Pg238"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">238</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Midrash</span></span>, pl. <span lang="he"
            class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left" xml:lang=
            "he"><span style="font-style: italic">Midrashim</span></span>,
            <a href="#Pg061" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">61</a>, <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">64</a>, <a href="#Pg071" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">71</a>, <a href="#Pg081"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">81</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">193</a>,
            <a href="#Pg195" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">195</a>, <a href="#Pg222" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">222</a>, <a href="#Pg262" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">262</a>, <a href="#Pg272"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">272</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg273" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">273</a>,
            <a href="#Pg304" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">304</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Milton, <a href="#Pg114" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">114</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Minhag</span></span>, pl. <span lang="he"
            class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left" xml:lang=
            "he"><span style="font-style: italic">Minhagim</span></span>,
            <a href="#Pg143" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">143</a>, <a href="#Pg192" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">192</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Minim</span></span>, <a href="#Pg064" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">64</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Minor Tractates, <a href="#Pg081" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">81</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Mishnah</span></span>, <a href="#Pg057"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">57</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">64</a>,
            <a href="#Pg066" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">66</a>, <a href="#Pg076" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">76</a>, <a href="#Pg078" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">78</a>, <a href="#Pg082"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">82</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg085" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">85</a>,
            <a href="#Pg087" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">87</a>, <a href="#Pg091" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">91</a>, <a href="#Pg157" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">157</a>, <a href="#Pg190"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">190</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">193</a>,
            <a href="#Pg195" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">195</a>, <a href="#Pg271" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">271</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Mistress of the Synagogue, <a href="#Pg317" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">317</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Moses Cordevora, <a href="#Pg133" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">133</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Moses Ibn Ezra, <a href="#Pg262" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">262</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Moses de Leon, <a href="#Pg018" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">18</a>, <a href="#Pg133" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">133</a>, <a href="#Pg258" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">258</a>, <a href="#Pg262"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">262</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Moses of Tachau, <a href="#Pg131" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">131</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Mother Zion</span></span>, <a href="#Pg321"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">321</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Nachman, son of Nachmanides, <a href="#Pg101" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">101</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Nachmanides, or Moses b. Nachman, <a href="#Pg099" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">99-141</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg213" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">213</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Nahum of Gemzo, <a href="#Pg215" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">215</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Nasi</span></span>, <a href="#Pg084" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">84</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Nathan, <a href="#Pg194" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">194</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">Nephesh
            Chayah</span></span>, <a href="#Pg117" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">117</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Neubauer, Dr. A., <a href="#Pg263" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">263</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Night of Watching</span></span>, <a href=
            "#Pg288" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">288</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Nissim of Gerona, <a href="#Pg133" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">133</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Nissim of Marseilles, <a href="#Pg267" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">267</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">Olam
            Habba</span></span>, <a href="#Pg115" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">115</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Old Victory</span></span>, <a href="#Pg304"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">304</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Oral Law, <a href="#Pg010" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">10</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Orchard</span></span>, the, <a href="#Pg133"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">133</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Ordinance of the Law</span></span>, <a href=
            "#Pg293" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">293</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Pablo Christiano, <a href="#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">103</a>, <a href="#Pg105" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">105</a>, <a href="#Pg106" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">106</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Pairs</span></span>, the, <a href="#Pg185"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">185</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Paradise Lost</span></span>, <a href=
            "#Pg114" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">114</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Pardes</span></span>, <a href="#Pg129"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">129</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Pashut</span></span>, <a href="#Pg138"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">138</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Path of Belief</span></span>, <a href=
            "#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">172</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Perles, J., <a href="#Pg099" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">99</a>, <a href="#Pg123" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">123</a>, <a href="#Pg294" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">294</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Pharisees, <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">64</a>, <a href="#Pg185" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">185</a>, <a href="#Pg237" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">237</a>, <a href="#Pg241"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">241</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Philo, <a href="#Pg052" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">52</a>, <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">64</a>, <a href="#Pg154" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">154</a>, <a href="#Pg238"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">238</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">Pilpul
            Pilpulist</span></span>, <a href="#Pg013" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">13</a>, <a href="#Pg078" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">78</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Plato, <a href="#Pg078" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">78</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Pugio Fidei</span></span>, <a href="#Pg107"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">107</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Raba, <a href="#Pg311" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">311</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Rabbanan Saburai</span></span>, <a href=
            "#Pg206" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">206</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Rabbah, <a href="#Pg311" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">311</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Rabbenu, <a href="#Pg013" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">13</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Rabbenu Mosheh</span></span>, <a href=
            "#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">103</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Rabbinowicz, R. N. N., <a href="#Pg261" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">261</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Raimund Martini, <a href="#Pg107" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">107</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Rapoport, Solomon Leb, <a href="#Pg050" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">50</a>, <a href="#Pg053" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">53</a>, <a href="#Pg056"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">56</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg066" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">66</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Reggio, Isaac, <a href="#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">270</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Roots</span></span>, the, <a href="#Pg171"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">171</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Ruskin, <a href="#Pg328" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">328</a>
          </div>
        </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page365">[pg 365]</span><a name=
        "Pg365" id="Pg365" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Saadiah Gaon, <a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">48</a>, <a href="#Pg162" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">162</a>, <a href="#Pg108" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">108</a>, <a href="#Pg272"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">272</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Sacred Letter</span></span>, <a href=
            "#Pg113" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">113</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sadducees, <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">64</a>, <a href="#Pg185" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">185</a>, <a href="#Pg237" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">237</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Salman the Good, <a href="#Pg145" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">145</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Sambatyon</span></span>, <a href="#Pg095"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">95</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Sanctification-cup</span></span>, <a href=
            "#Pg245" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">245</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sandalphon, <a href="#Pg305" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">305</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Sandek</span></span>, <a href="#Pg290"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">290</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sanhedrin, the, <a href="#Pg188" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">188</a>, <a href="#Pg190" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">190</a>, <a href="#Pg191" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">191</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Saul Berlin, <a href="#Pg176" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">176</a>, <a href="#Pg180" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">180</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Sayings of the Fathers</span></span>,
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Aboth</span></span>, <a href="#Pg262" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">262</a>, <a href="#Pg299"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">299</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Schelling, <a href="#Pg051" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">51</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Schiller, <a href="#Pg073" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">73</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Schlummerlied</span></span>, <a href=
            "#Pg295" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">295</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Schorr, O., <a href="#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">193</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Schudt, <a href="#Pg291" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">291</a>, <a href="#Pg298" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">298</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Sechorah</span></span>, <a href="#Pg296"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">296</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Seder Nezikin</span></span>, <a href=
            "#Pg058" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">58</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Seder Olam</span></span>, <a href="#Pg081"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">81</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg092" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">92</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Seder Taharoth</span></span>, <a href=
            "#Pg058" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">58</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Segulah</span></span>, <a href="#Pg122"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">122</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Sephardim</span></span>, <a href="#Pg301"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">301</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Sepher</span></span>, <a href="#Pg013"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">13</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Sephiroth</span></span>, Ten, <a href=
            "#Pg238" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">238</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Sermon in the Presence of the
            King</span></span>, by Nachmanides, <a href="#Pg165" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">165</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Shabbethai Tsebi, <a href="#Pg134" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">134</a>, <a href="#Pg239" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">239</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">Shalom
            Zachar</span></span>, <a href="#Pg289" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">289</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Shammai, <a href="#Pg185" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">185</a>, <a href="#Pg188" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">188</a>, <a href="#Pg237" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">237</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Shechinah</span></span>, <a href="#Pg120"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">120</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg121" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">121</a>,
            <a href="#Pg228" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">228-230</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Shema</span></span>, reading of the,
            <a href="#Pg141" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">141</a>, <a href="#Pg288" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">288</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Shemaiah, <a href="#Pg186" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">186</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Shemariah of Crete, <a href="#Pg166" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">166</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Sherira Gaon, <a href="#Pg263" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">263</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Shiphluth, <a href="#Pg030" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">30</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Simchah</span></span>, <a href="#Pg031"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">31</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Simeon Duran, <a href="#Pg101" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">101</a>, <a href="#Pg170" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">170</a>, <a href="#Pg171" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">171</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Simeon b. Eleazar, <a href="#Pg289" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">289</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Simeon b. Gamaliel, <a href="#Pg222" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">222</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Simeon b. Gamaliel II., <a href="#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">193</a>, <a href="#Pg194" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">194</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Simeon b. Yochai, <a href="#Pg018" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">18</a>, <a href="#Pg223" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">223</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Simlai, <a href="#Pg112" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">112</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Siphra</span></span>, <a href="#Pg058"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">58</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg081" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">81</a>,
            <a href="#Pg091" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">91</a>, <a href="#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">193</a>, <a href="#Pg262" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">262</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Siphré</span></span>, <a href="#Pg058"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">58</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg081" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">81</a>,
            <a href="#Pg091" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">91</a>, <a href="#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">193</a>, <a href="#Pg262" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">262</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Solomon b. Adereth, <a href="#Pg070" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">70</a>, <a href="#Pg267" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">267</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Solomon b. Gabirol, <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">210</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Solomon of St. Goar, <a href="#Pg143" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">143-145</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Solomon b. Isaac, Rashi, <a href="#Pg013" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">13</a>, <a href="#Pg210" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">210</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Solomon b. Isaac b. Zadok, <a href="#Pg137" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">137</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Solomon Ladier, <a href="#Pg043" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">43</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Solomon Portaleone, <a href="#Pg323" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">323</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Solomon, son of Nachmanides, <a href="#Pg110" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">110</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Solomon Syrillo, <a href="#Pg262" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">262</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Solomon Wilna, <a href="#Pg075" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">75</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Son of the Law</span></span>, <a href=
            "#Pg307" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">307</a>,
            <a href="#Pg312" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">312</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Sopherim</span></span>, <a href="#Pg064"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">64</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Spencer, Herbert, <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">97</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Steinschneider, M., <a href="#Pg099" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">99</a>, <a href="#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">172</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Taanith</span></span>, <a href="#Pg058"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">58</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Talmid Chaber</span></span>, <a href=
            "#Pg052" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">52</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Talmid Chakam</span></span>, <a href=
            "#Pg007" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">7</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Talmud (of Jerusalem or Babylon), <a href="#Pg016" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">16</a>, <a href="#Pg019"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">19</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg033" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">33</a>,
            <a href="#Pg049" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">49</a>, <a href="#Pg052" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">52</a>, <a href="#Pg057" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">57-59</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">64</a>,
            <a href="#Pg076" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">76</a>, <a href="#Pg078" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">78</a>, <a href="#Pg081" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">81</a>, <a href="#Pg082"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">82</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg086" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">86</a>,
            <a href="#Pg087" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">87</a>, <a href="#Pg089" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">89</a>, <a href="#Pg091" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">91</a>, <a href="#Pg092"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">92</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg096" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">96</a>,
            <a href="#Pg101" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">101</a>, <a href="#Pg104" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">104</a>, <a href="#Pg105" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">105</a>, <a href="#Pg111"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">111</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg129" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">129</a>,
            <a href="#Pg131" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">131</a>, <a href="#Pg140" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">140</a>, <a href="#Pg151" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">151</a>, <a href="#Pg155"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">155</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg158" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">158</a>,
            <a href="#Pg195" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">195</a>, <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">196</a>, <a href="#Pg206" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">206</a>, <a href="#Pg207"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">207</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">209</a>,
            <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">210</a>, <a href="#Pg238" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">238</a>, <a href="#Pg252" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">252</a>, <a href="#Pg254"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">254-256</a>,
            <a href="#Pg261" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">261</a>, <a href="#Pg262" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">262</a>, <a href="#Pg271" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">271</a>, <a href="#Pg272"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">272</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg277" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">277</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Tanna</span></span>, pl. <span lang="he"
            class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left" xml:lang=
            "he"><span style="font-style: italic">Tannaim</span></span>,
            <a href="#Pg017" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">17</a>, <a href="#Pg084" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">84</a>, <a href="#Pg187" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">187</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Tephillin</span></span>, <a href="#Pg249"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">249</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Thackeray, <a href="#Pg282" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">282</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Thirteen Articles of the Creed, <a href="#Pg148" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">148</a>, <a href="#Pg163"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">163</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">164</a>,
            <a href="#Pg170" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">170</a>, <a href="#Pg176" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">176</a>, <a href="#Pg179" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">179</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Thirteen Rules</span></span> (of
            Interpretation), <a href="#Pg195" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">195</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Tobijah, the Priest, <a href="#Pg175" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">175</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Tosephta</span></span>, <a href="#Pg081"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">81</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg082" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">82</a>,
            <a href="#Pg092" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">92</a>, <a href="#Pg262" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">262</a>, <a href="#Pg271" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">271</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Toy, Prof., <a href="#Pg233" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">233-239</a>, <a href="#Pg251" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">251</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Tractate Berachoth</span></span>, <a href=
            "#Pg221" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">221</a>,
            <a href="#Pg271" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">271</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Tractate Evidences</span></span>, <a href=
            "#Pg192" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">192</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Tractate Joys</span></span>, <a href=
            "#Pg194" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">194</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Tractate Sanhedrin</span></span>, <a href=
            "#Pg156" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">156</a>,
            <a href="#Pg157" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">157</a>, <a href="#Pg159" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">159</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Tractate Sopherim</span></span>, <a href=
            "#Pg301" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">301</a>,
            <a href="#Pg312" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">312</a>, <a href="#Pg321" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">321</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Tree of Life</span></span>, the, <a href=
            "#Pg133" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">133</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Troki, Solomon, <a href="#Pg161" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">161</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Variae Lectiones</span></span> (of the
            Talmud), <a href="#Pg261" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">261</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Viterbo, Abraham Chayim, <a href="#Pg175" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">175</a>, <a href="#Pg176" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">176</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Vorsugerin</span></span>, <a href="#Pg324"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">324</a>
          </div>
        </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page366">[pg 366]</span><a name=
        "Pg366" id="Pg366" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Wars of the Lord</span></span>, <a href=
            "#Pg101" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">101</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Watchman</span></span>, the, <a href=
            "#Pg059" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">59</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Weiss, T. H., <a href="#Pg065" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">65</a>, <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">97</a>, <a href="#Pg099" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">99</a>, <a href="#Pg182"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">182</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg183" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">183</a>,
            <a href="#Pg185" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">185-187</a>, <a href="#Pg191" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">191-197</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg206" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">206</a>,
            <a href="#Pg207" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">207</a>, <a href="#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">209-212</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Wellhausen, <a href="#Pg243" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">243</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Wisdom of Solomon</span></span>, <a href=
            "#Pg127" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">127</a>,
            <a href="#Pg154" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">154</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Woilkennivdicke</span></span>, <a href=
            "#Pg324" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">324</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Yediah</span></span>, <a href="#Pg119"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">119</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Yeshibah</span></span>, pl. <span lang="he"
            class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left" xml:lang=
            "he"><span style="font-style: italic">Yeshiboth</span></span>,
            <a href="#Pg094" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">94-96</a>, <a href="#Pg293" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">293</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Yom-Tob Heller, <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">196</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Zaddik</span></span>, pl. <span lang="he"
            class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left" xml:lang=
            "he"><span style="font-style: italic">Zaddikim</span></span>
            (Zaddikism), <a href="#Pg036" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">36-44</a>, <a href="#Pg053" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">53</a>, <a href="#Pg298"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">298</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Zadoc, <a href="#Pg245" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">245</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Zebachim</span></span>, <a href="#Pg086"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">86</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Zedner, <a href="#Pg254" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">254-256</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Zehub</span></span>, <a href="#Pg137" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">137-139</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Zerahiah Hallevi of Gerona (or Gerondi), <a href="#Pg100" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">100</a>, <a href="#Pg101"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">101</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg111" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">111</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Zion-Elegy</span></span>, <a href="#Pg208"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">208</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" style="text-align: left"
            xml:lang="he"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Zobeoth</span></span>, <a href="#Pg314"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">314</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">
          <a name="Index-Zohar" id="Index-Zohar" class="tei tei-anchor"></a>

          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style=
            "font-style: italic">Zohar</span></span>, <a href="#Pg018" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">18</a>, <a href="#Pg019"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">19</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg071" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">71</a>,
            <a href="#Pg091" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">91</a>, <a href="#Pg133" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">133</a>, <a href="#Pg258" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">258</a>
          </div>
        </div>

        <div class="tei tei-lg" style=
        "margin-top: 1.00em; margin-bottom: 1.00em">
          <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">
            Zunz, Leopold, <a href="#Pg044" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">44</a>, <a href="#Pg052" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">52</a>, <a href="#Pg056" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">56</a>, <a href="#Pg060"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">60</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg065" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">65</a>,
            <a href="#Pg073" class="tei tei-ref" style=
            "text-align: left">73</a>, <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref"
            style="text-align: left">97</a>, <a href="#Pg183" class=
            "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">183</a>, <a href="#Pg279"
            class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">279</a>, <a href=
            "#Pg305" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">305</a>
          </div>
        </div>
      </div>
    </div>
    <hr class="doublepage" />

    <div class="tei tei-back" style=
    "margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 6.00em">
      <div id="footnotes" class="tei tei-div" style=
      "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em">
        <a name="toc35" id="toc35"></a> <a name="pdf36" id="pdf36"></a>

        <h1 class="tei tei-head" style=
        "margin-bottom: 3.46em; text-align: left; margin-top: 3.46em">
        <span style="font-size: 173%">Footnotes</span></h1>

        <dl class="tei tei-list-footnotes">
          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1" name="note_1" href=
          "#noteref_1">1.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">Subjoined is a List of selected
          Authorities on the Subject of the
          Chassidim.</span></span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Historical and Bibliographical
          Works</span></span>: Graetz (xi. including the polemical literature
          quoted in the Appendix), Jost, Peter Beer, M. Bodek (סדר הרורות
          הנרש, Lemberg, 1865), A. Walden (שמ תגרוליב הנדש, Warschau, 1864),
          Finn (קרוה נאמנה, Wilna, 1860), D. Kahana (אצן אוסל in the
          periodical השחר, iv.), Zederbaum (כחר כדונה, Odessa, 1868).
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essays
          and Satires</span></span>: T. Erter (הצפה, Wien, 1858), S. Szantó
          (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Jahrbuch
          für Israeliten</span></span>, p. 108-178, 1867), A. Gottlober (in
          his periodical הברקר אור, iii.), L. Löw (Ben Chananjah, ii.),
          Rudermann (השחר, vi.), Rapoport (נחלת יחודה, Lemberg, 1873, p. 10),
          Fröhlich (המדרין, Warschau, 1876, p. 63 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">seq.</span></span>),
          S. Maimon (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Autobiographie</span></span>, Berlin, 1792).
          Compare also the Hebrew novels by P. Smolensky, L. Gordon, M.
          Brandstätter, A. Gottlober and B. Horowitz (German). <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Occasional
          references</span></span> to the liturgy or the system of the
          Chassidim in the <span class="tei tei-q">“Responses”</span> of R.
          Ezechiel Landau, Moses Sopher, E. Flekeles and T. Steinhart, and in
          the works of Israel Samostsch, Salomon Chelma and Chayim Walosin.
          Compare also Zunz (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Gottesdienstliche Vorträge</span></span>, p.
          477) and L. Löw (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Mannheimer Album</span></span>, Wien, 1874),
          Senior Sachs (התחיה, i. 61) and B. L. Zeitlin (הות קשה, Paris,
          1846). The best book on the whole subject is E. Zweifel's work שלום
          צל ישראל (Zitomyr 1868, three parts), which I strongly recommend to
          students. The books written by the Chassidim would amount to more
          than 200. They are catalogued by Bodek and Walden. I shall only
          draw the attention of the student to the works of Beer, Salomon
          Ladier, and Mendel Witipsker on one side, who developed the theory
          of the Immanence, and those of Nachman Braslaw and Melech
          Liezensker, who, on the other hand, carried the theory of Zaddikism
          to its utmost consequences. The student will find a fair collection
          of sayings and sentences arranged according to theological subjects
          in the books ררך המידים and לשן חכמים (Anon., Lemberg, 1876).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_2" name="note_2" href=
          "#noteref_2">2.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">חסידים, <span class="tei tei-q">“pious
          ones”</span> (Ps. xxxvii. 28, lxx. 2, etc.). The reader is probably
          acquainted with the term from the Maccabean history (1 Macc. ii.
          42, vii. 13), in which the strict party, opposed to all Hellenistic
          influence, are called <span class="tei tei-q">“Assideans”</span>
          [R.V. <span class="tei tei-q">“Hasidaeans”</span>], Gr.
          Ἁσιδαῖοι.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_3" name="note_3" href=
          "#noteref_3">3.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">בעל שם, <span class="tei tei-q">“The
          Master of the Name,”</span> a term usually applied to exorcists,
          who cast out devils and performed other miracles through adjuration
          by the name of God (or angels). The unbelieving Rabbis maintained
          indeed that in his exorcisms Baalshem employed <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“impure names”</span> (of devils), whilst the
          Chassidim, on the other hand, declared that their Master never used
          <span class="tei tei-q">“names”</span> at all, his miracles being
          performed by the divine in Baalshem to which all nature owes
          obedience. Occasionally the Chassidim call him בעל שם תוב (The Man
          of Good Name), in allusion to Eccles. vii. 1, shortened by some
          into <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Besht</span></span>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_4" name="note_4" href=
          "#noteref_4">4.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">בית המדרש—<span class=
          "tei tei-q">“House of Research”</span> or of <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“study”</span> (of the Law), but in which also divine
          service is held thrice a day.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_5" name="note_5" href=
          "#noteref_5">5.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">תלמיד הכם—<span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Disciple of the Wise,”</span> the usual title of a
          scholar or student.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_6" name="note_6" href=
          "#noteref_6">6.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A Jewish sect, so called after their
          founder Jacob Leibovicz Frank, who was himself one of the apostles
          of the pseudo-Messiah Shabbethai Tsebi of Smyrna in Turkey. Among
          his other doctrines he taught also a sort of Trinity, consisting of
          the Holy Ancient One, the Holy King or the Messiah, and a feminine
          person in the Godhead, in which he, like his master, represented
          the Second Person. The sect ultimately abolished the Law, and,
          after many controversies with the Rabbinic Jews, went over to
          Catholicism, the dominant religion in Poland, by which they were
          soon absorbed. Eybeschütz, chief Rabbi of Prague and Hamburg, was
          suspected by Emden to be a secret adherent of Shabbethai Tsebi,
          which was tantamount to apostasy from Judaism. Eybeschütz
          protested. The litigants excommunicated each other, and the Rabbis
          divided into two camps, taking sides either with Emden or with his
          antagonist.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_7" name="note_7" href=
          "#noteref_7">7.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The works of Maimonides or Moses b.
          Maimon (1135-1204) are too many to be enumerated here. The most
          important are the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Guide of the Perplexed</span></span> (מורה
          נבוכום) and his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Compendium of the Law</span></span> (משנה
          הורה). Judah Hallevi or Abul Hassan flourished in the first half of
          the twelfth century. He is well known as a poet by his <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Divan</span></span>
          and as a deep religious thinker by his <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cusari</span></span>.
          The former contains also many songs of a secular nature. Isaac
          Alfasi (died 1103) is best known by his Compendium of the Talmud,
          which was so greatly admired by his contemporaries that they
          declared it could never have been composed <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“without the aid of the Holy Spirit.”</span> R. Solomon
          b. Isaac, also called by his initials Rashi (1040-1105), is well
          known by his commentaries on the Bible and the Talmud.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_8" name="note_8" href=
          "#noteref_8">8.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">רבי רבינו.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_9" name="note_9" href=
          "#noteref_9">9.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">ספר, <span lang="he" class=
          "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Sepher</span></span>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_10" name="note_10" href=
          "#noteref_10">10.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The Hebrew word is פלפול, meaning
          subtle discussion and sharp distinction. The word is closely
          related to פלפל or פלפלא, which means <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“pepper”</span> or <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“seasoning.”</span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_11" name="note_11" href=
          "#noteref_11">11.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">מחרם שיף = R. Meir Shiff, whose
          <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">novellæ</span></span> on the Talmud are of a
          very subtle kind, and were very popular with the students of this
          work.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_12" name="note_12" href=
          "#noteref_12">12.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">המוראים—תנאים, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“The Repeaters,”</span> and <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“The Interpreters.”</span> The sayings and statements
          of the former are embodied in the Mishnah, a work compiled by R.
          Judah the Saint about 220 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">a.c.</span></span>, and covering a
          period of about 250 years (30 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span>-220 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">a.c.</span></span>). The latter occupied
          themselves mainly with the interpretation of the Mishnah, and their
          discussions and controversies are incorporated in the Talmud of
          Jerusalem and that of Babylon, and extend over the period from
          220-500 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">a.c.</span></span> The Talmud of
          Jerusalem is mostly the product of the schools of Palestine. The
          Talmud of Babylon is a growth of that country. The authorities of
          this latter Talmud being far away from the place where the first
          great Rabbis lived and laboured, their traditions are naturally not
          so historically reliable as those of the Talmud of Jerusalem. The
          authorities of Palestine were also simpler in their method of
          interpretation. These again are followed by the Babylonian schools
          of new interpreters (of the Talmud).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_13" name="note_13" href=
          "#noteref_13">13.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">שדין יהודאין, an expression that goes
          back as far as to the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Zohar</span></span>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_14" name="note_14" href=
          "#noteref_14">14.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">זוהר, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Brightness.”</span> Cf. Dan. xii. 3,—the authors of
          <span class="tei tei-q">“The Brightness”</span> pretending to be
          the <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
          "he"><span style="font-style: italic">Maskilim</span></span> or
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Wise Ones”</span> mentioned in this
          verse.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_15" name="note_15" href=
          "#noteref_15">15.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">שפלות.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_16" name="note_16" href=
          "#noteref_16">16.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">שמחה.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_17" name="note_17" href=
          "#noteref_17">17.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">התלהבות.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_18" name="note_18" href=
          "#noteref_18">18.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">צדיק, pl. צדיקים.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_19" name="note_19" href=
          "#noteref_19">19.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Johanan b. Zaccai was a
          contemporary of the Apostles, and died about 110 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> He belonged to the
          peace party in opposition to the Zealots, and obtained permission
          from the Roman government to establish the school of Jamnia, which,
          after the destruction of the Temple, became the centre of Jewish
          religious life. See also p. 188.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_20" name="note_20" href=
          "#noteref_20">20.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Saadiah Gaon was born in Egypt in
          892, and died as the head of the school of Sura in Babylon in 942.
          He is known by his translations of and commentaries on the Bible,
          and many other works, especially his philosophical treatise
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Creeds
          and Opinions</span></span>. He was also a great controversialist.
          Most of his polemical writings are directed against the Caraites
          (קראים) or <span class="tei tei-q">“Scripturalists,”</span> a
          Jewish sect founded by Anan in the eighth century. They protested
          against the Oral Law, and denied Tradition. On the title
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Gaon,”</span> see note 1 to Elijah
          Wilna.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_21" name="note_21" href=
          "#noteref_21">21.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">מורה נבוכים, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Moreh
          Nebuchim</span></span>, generally considered to be the greatest
          philosophical work by any Jewish thinker.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_22" name="note_22" href=
          "#noteref_22">22.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Abraham Ibn Ezra, who spent some
          time in London, died about 1161. He is best known by his
          commentaries on the Bible. He was the first writer who doubted the
          unity of the book of Isaiah.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_23" name="note_23" href=
          "#noteref_23">23.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">תלמיד חבר.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_24" name="note_24" href=
          "#noteref_24">24.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">עיר מלאת הכמים וסופרים, meaning
          <span class="tei tei-q">“sages”</span> and <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“scribes,”</span> but used by later writers in the
          sense given in the text.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_25" name="note_25" href=
          "#noteref_25">25.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">בכורים, dealing with the laws relating
          to the firstfruits which were brought to the temple (Ex. xxiii.
          19). The processions formed by the pilgrims are very vividly
          described after the said tractate by Delitzsch in his <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Iris</span></span>,
          p. 190 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">sq.</span></span> (English ed.). See also by
          the same author, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Jüdisches Handwerkerleben zur Zeit
          Jesu</span></span>, p. 66 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">seq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_26" name="note_26" href=
          "#noteref_26">26.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">תענית, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Fast,”</span> or תעניות, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Fasts.”</span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_27" name="note_27" href=
          "#noteref_27">27.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">סדר נזיקין, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Order of Damages,”</span> treating of the civil law of
          the Jews, the procedure of courts of justice, and kindred subjects.
          This Order also includes the tractate אבות, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aboth</span></span>
          or <span class="tei tei-q">“Sayings of the Fathers,”</span> which
          is very important for the study of Rabbinic doctrine and
          ethics.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_28" name="note_28" href=
          "#noteref_28">28.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">סדר תהרות, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Order of Purities,”</span> dealing with the laws
          regarding Levitical purity.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_29" name="note_29" href=
          "#noteref_29">29.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">ספרא (or הורת כהנים), ספרי, מכילתא.
          These three works form the oldest Rabbinic commentary on Exodus,
          Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. The authorities cited in these
          commentaries all belong to the period of the Tannaim. See above,
          note 12 to the Chassidim. Constituting as they do, to a certain
          extent, one of the sources used by the <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gemara</span></span>,
          they are naturally indispensable for a scientific study of the
          Talmud.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_30" name="note_30" href=
          "#noteref_30">30.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">הצפה, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Hatsophe</span></span>,”</span> a spirited
          satire against the orthodox and especially against the then
          prevailing belief in the transmigration of souls taught by the
          mystical schools. The book is written in the purest biblical
          Hebrew.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_31" name="note_31" href=
          "#noteref_31">31.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">מורה נבוכי הזמן.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_32" name="note_32" href=
          "#noteref_32">32.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">מדרש, pl. מדרשים (<span lang="he"
          class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Midrashim</span></span>), <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Research,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Researches,”</span> a name usually applied to the
          homiletical part of the Rabbinic literature. The most important
          collection of this kind is the <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Midrash
          Rabbah</span></span> to the Pentateuch. The usual way of quoting it
          is <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Genesis Rabbah</span></span>, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Exodus
          Rabbah</span></span>, and so on.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_33" name="note_33" href=
          "#noteref_33">33.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <a href="#Pg017" class=
          "tei tei-ref">above</a>, note 12 to the Chassidim. [Transcriber's
          Note: Footnote on the Tannaim and Amoraim.]</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_34" name="note_34" href=
          "#noteref_34">34.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">מינים, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Heretics,”</span> applied to the first Christians, and
          more so to certain Gnostic sects.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_35" name="note_35" href=
          "#noteref_35">35.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">הלכה למשה מפיני, see below, p.
          <a href="#Pg186" class="tei tei-ref">186</a> and <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.
          [Transcriber's Note: The footnote on <span class="tei tei-q">“laws
          given to Moses on Sinai.”</span>]</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_36" name="note_36" href=
          "#noteref_36">36.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">הגדה or אגדה—הלכה, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“rule,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“method,”</span>—<span class=
          "tei tei-q">“narrative.”</span> The former deals with the legal
          side of the Scriptures, and is thus more of a juristic nature; the
          latter represents a collection of homilies having mostly as their
          text the historical and exhortatory parts of the Bible, and is thus
          more of an edifying character. The theological side of Judaism, as
          well as its ideal aspirations and Messianic hopes, find their
          expression in the Agadah. The two words are also used as
          adjectives, as <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
          "he"><span style="font-style: italic">Halachic</span></span>
          (legalistic, juristic, and obligatory) and <span lang="he" class=
          "tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Agadic</span></span> (poetic, edifying, and
          hyperbolic).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_37" name="note_37" href=
          "#noteref_37">37.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">ערך מלין, a sort of encyclopædia to
          the Talmud, of which only the first letter appeared.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_38" name="note_38" href=
          "#noteref_38">38.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Menahem Azariah de Rossi, an Italian
          Jew who flourished in the first half of the sixteenth century. His
          great work, מאור עינים, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Meor Enayim</span></span>, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Light of the Eyes,”</span> is the first attempt made
          by a Jew to submit the statements of the Talmud to a critical
          examination, and to question the value of tradition in its
          historical records.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_39" name="note_39" href=
          "#noteref_39">39.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">פרקי דריי אליעזר.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_40" name="note_40" href=
          "#noteref_40">40.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Italian Jews of the fifteenth and
          seventeenth centuries. The one, Elijah Delmedigo, wrote an
          Examination of Religion, whilst his grandson, Joseph Solomon
          Delmedigo, wrote various pamphlets of a deeply sceptical character.
          See Geiger's Introduction to his <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Melo
          Chofnayim</span></span> (Berlin, 1840).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_41" name="note_41" href=
          "#noteref_41">41.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">גאון, <span class="tei tei-q">“The
          Great One.”</span> The authorities of the Babylonian schools after
          the sixth century were also called the Gaonim (גאונים),
          <span class="tei tei-q">“[their] Eminences.”</span> The title was
          also given afterwards to great Rabbis distinguished for their
          learning.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_42" name="note_42" href=
          "#noteref_42">42.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Joseph Caro (1488-1575) lived in
          Safed. The title of his code is שלחן ערוך, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Prepared
          Table</span></span>. This is a code of the Oral Law compiled from
          the Rabbinic literature.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_43" name="note_43" href=
          "#noteref_43">43.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">קדיה נאמנה, containing an account of
          the Jewish worthies of that city.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_44" name="note_44" href=
          "#noteref_44">44.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">עלית אלירו.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_45" name="note_45" href=
          "#noteref_45">45.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A famous mystic of the sixteenth
          century, from Safed, who was the more admired the less his pupils
          understood him.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_46" name="note_46" href=
          "#noteref_46">46.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hai was the last of the authorities
          called Gaon. With his death (1038) the schools of Babylon fell into
          decay and soon disappeared.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_47" name="note_47" href=
          "#noteref_47">47.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">חגיגה, treating of the voluntary
          offerings brought by the pilgrims to Jerusalem.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_48" name="note_48" href=
          "#noteref_48">48.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">גמרה, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Perfection or Supplementary Explanations.”</span> By
          this is understood the interpretation given to the Mishnah by the
          schools in Palestine and Babylon. See <a href="#Pg017" class=
          "tei tei-ref">above</a>, note 12 to the Chassidim. [Transcriber's
          Note: Footnote on the Tannaim and Amoraim.]</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_49" name="note_49" href=
          "#noteref_49">49.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Dean Church's <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">St.
          Anselm</span></span>, from which this story is taken.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_50" name="note_50" href=
          "#noteref_50">50.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">תוספתה, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Addition”</span> (to the Mishnah), but also containing
          only the sayings and discussions of the period of the Tannaim.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_51" name="note_51" href=
          "#noteref_51">51.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">סדר עולם, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Order of the World,”</span> dealing with the
          Chronology of the Bible, and dating from about the end of the
          second century.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_52" name="note_52" href=
          "#noteref_52">52.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">These <span class="tei tei-q">“Minor
          Tractates”</span> include, among others, treatises on proselytes,
          on the laws concerning funerals, the writing of the Law, and the
          like. Others are more of an edifying nature, treating of good
          manners, conduct, etc.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_53" name="note_53" href=
          "#noteref_53">53.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">פבלת נלות.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_54" name="note_54" href=
          "#noteref_54">54.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">שמונה עשרה, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Eighteen.”</span> They are recited thrice a day, and
          form the original germ of the prayers, from which a very rich
          liturgy developed in the course of time.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_55" name="note_55" href=
          "#noteref_55">55.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The titles of the old authorities from
          70 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> to 500 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">a.c.</span></span> See <a href="#Pg017"
          class="tei tei-ref">above</a>, note 12 to the Chassidim.
          [Transcriber's Note: Footnote on the Tannaim and Amoraim.]</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_56" name="note_56" href=
          "#noteref_56">56.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">אב בית דין, נשיא, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Prince,”</span> or <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Patriarch,”</span> religious head, of the Jews (not
          political), and <span class="tei tei-q">“Father (or president) of
          the Court of Justice.”</span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_57" name="note_57" href=
          "#noteref_57">57.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">מנחות, זבחים, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Sacrifices,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Offerings.”</span> They treat of the laws relating to
          sacrifices and meal-offerings.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_58" name="note_58" href=
          "#noteref_58">58.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">בלאים, the laws relating to diverse
          seeds and garments of diverse sorts. Cf. Deut. xxii. 9-11.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_59" name="note_59" href=
          "#noteref_59">59.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">מגיד, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Teller,”</span> a sort of travelling preacher.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_60" name="note_60" href=
          "#noteref_60">60.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">לולב, <span class="tei tei-q">“palm
          branch.”</span> Cf. Lev. xxiii. 40.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_61" name="note_61" href=
          "#noteref_61">61.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">ישיבה, <span class="tei tei-q">“High
          School,”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“Academy,”</span> in
          which the Rabbinic literature is studied.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_62" name="note_62" href=
          "#noteref_62">62.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">ישיבה עץ חיים.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_63" name="note_63" href=
          "#noteref_63">63.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">סמבטיון, a mythical river which is
          supposed to stop its course on Sabbath.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_64" name="note_64" href=
          "#noteref_64">64.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">בחורים, sing. בחור, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Young man,”</span> by which term the Jews usually
          understand the <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang=
          "la"><span style="font-style: italic">alumni</span></span> of their
          Talmudical schools.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_65" name="note_65" href=
          "#noteref_65">65.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Levi b. Gershom (1286-1344) is
          generally regarded as the greatest successor of Maimonides. Besides
          his rationalistic commentaries on the Bible, he wrote various
          treatises on metaphysics, mathematics, astronomy, medicine,
          etc.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_66" name="note_66" href=
          "#noteref_66">66.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">בחינת עולם.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_67" name="note_67" href=
          "#noteref_67">67.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">In Steinschneider's <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Catalogue of the
          Bodleian Library</span></span>, under the name of Moses
          Nachmanides, pp. 1947-1965, all the works which are ascribed to
          this author are put together, and also discussed as to their
          authenticity. There are only to be added the new edition of the
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Derasha</span></span> by Jellinek (Vienna,
          1872), in which the variants from Schorr's MS. (החלוץ, viii. 162)
          are already incorporated; a new edition of the זיכות, and the
          commentary to Is. lii.-liii. by Steinschneider (Berlin, 1860); a
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Sermon</span></span> for the New Year, ed. by
          H. Berliner (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Libanon</span></span>, v. 564); and another
          Sermon at a wedding (?), ed. by Schorr (<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Hechalus</span></span>, xii. 3). For the
          literature on Nachmanides, besides the references given by
          Steinschneider, in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Catalogue</span></span>, and the Addenda, p.
          cxviii. (cf. also the pedigree in the <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Catalogue</span></span> 2305), see also
          Graetz, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Geschichte</span></span>, vii., pp. 112-143,
          and p. 147 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">seq.</span></span>; Michael, אור החיים, No.
          1125, and Weiss, דור דור ודערקיו, v. 4 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">seq.</span></span>;
          Perles' <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Monatsschrift</span></span>, 1860, p. 175;
          Zomber, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">ibid.</span></span> 421; and Z. Frankel,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">ibid.</span></span> 1868, p. 449, and
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
          Jewish Quarterly Review</span></span>, iv. 245 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">seq.</span></span>
          For Nachmanides' disputation we have to add M. Loeb in the
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Révue des
          Études Juives</span></span>, xv. 1 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">seq.</span></span>,
          and xviii. 52 (about Abner), and Dr. Neubauer's Essay on Jewish
          Controversy in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Expositor</span></span>, vol. vii. (third
          series), p. 98 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">seq.</span></span>, with the references given
          there. See also his article on the Bahir and the Zohar in
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
          Jewish Quarterly Review</span></span>, iv. 357. With regard to
          Nachmanides' mystical system see the references to S. Sachs (whose
          remarks are most suggestive), Krochmal, and Jellinek in
          Steinschneider, col. 1949 and 1964, Perles' <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Monatsschrift</span></span>, 1858, p. 83
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">seq.</span></span>, and Steinschneider in the
          Heb. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Bibliographie</span></span>, i. 34. See also
          Professor Kaufmann's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Die Geschichte der
          Attributenlehre</span></span>, and the references given in the
          index under this name. The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Novellæ</span></span> by his son R. Nachman,
          alluded to in the text, are in the University Library, Cambridge
          (Add. 1187, 2). The פץ הנאולה is extant in the British Museum, MS.
          Add. 26,894, and the passage quoted by De Rossi is to be found on
          p. 163<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">b</span></span>, but a few words are erased by
          the censor. As to the poem given at the end of this paper, see
          Zunz, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Synagogale Poesie</span></span>, p. 478;
          Landshut, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Amude ha-Abodah</span></span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span>,
          the references in Sachs' <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Religiöse Poesie der Juden</span></span>, and
          Luzzatto in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Ozar Nechmad</span></span>, ii. 27. Compare
          also Professor Cheyne's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">The Origin of the Psalter</span></span>, p.
          421.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_68" name="note_68" href=
          "#noteref_68">68.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">New Year's Day, on the first of
          Tishri. It is in autumn.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_69" name="note_69" href=
          "#noteref_69">69.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A famous Rabbi of the fifteenth
          century, known by his various casuistical and philosophical
          works.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_70" name="note_70" href=
          "#noteref_70">70.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Chiefly known through his
          controversial writings against the adherents of the pseudo-Messiah
          Shabbethai Tsebi. He was for some time the Rabbi of the Portuguese
          congregation in London.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_71" name="note_71" href=
          "#noteref_71">71.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The main objections of the opponents
          of Maimonides were directed against his rationalistic notions of
          Revelation, and his allegorising interpretation of the Scriptures,
          which amounted in some places to a denial of miracles. He was also
          suspected of having denied bodily resurrection. A history of Jewish
          rationalism is still a desideratum. I am certain that it would
          prove at least as interesting as Reuter's <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Geschichte der
          religiösen Aufklärung im Mittelalter</span></span> (Berlin,
          1845-60).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_72" name="note_72" href=
          "#noteref_72">72.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">רבינו משה.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_73" name="note_73" href=
          "#noteref_73">73.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">אגדות, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Homilies.”</span> See above, p. <a href="#Pg064"
          class="tei tei-ref">64</a> and <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_74" name="note_74" href=
          "#noteref_74">74.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">קץ הנאולה, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“The end of the Redemption,”</span> that is the time
          when the advent of the Messiah is to be expected.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_75" name="note_75" href=
          "#noteref_75">75.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This patriarch is famous in Jewish
          legend for his hospitality. See Beer's <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Leben
          Abrahams</span></span>, pp. 37 and 56.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_76" name="note_76" href=
          "#noteref_76">76.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This is the quorum necessary to form a
          congregation (עדת) for the purpose of holding divine service.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_77" name="note_77" href=
          "#noteref_77">77.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">By <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Zobah</span></span>,
          or <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aram
          Zobah</span></span>, the Jews of the Middle Ages usually understood
          Aleppo. See Benjamin of Tudela's <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Itinerary</span></span>, i. 88, ii. 124
          (London and Berlin, 1840-41).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_78" name="note_78" href=
          "#noteref_78">78.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See below, p. <a href="#Pg141" class=
          "tei tei-ref">141</a>, where a full translation of the letter is
          given.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_79" name="note_79" href=
          "#noteref_79">79.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">הלכות גדולות, a compendium of the Law,
          dating from the ninth century, by R. Simon Caro.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_80" name="note_80" href=
          "#noteref_80">80.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">R. Simlai flourished in Palestine in
          the third century. He is best known as an Agadic teacher and a
          great controversialist. According to him, 613 commandments were
          given to Moses on Mount Sinai, of which 365 are prohibitive laws,
          whilst the remaining 248 are positive injunctions.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_81" name="note_81" href=
          "#noteref_81">81.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">שער הנמול, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Treatise on Reward (and Punishment).”</span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_82" name="note_82" href=
          "#noteref_82">82.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">עלם הבא.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_83" name="note_83" href=
          "#noteref_83">83.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ps. cix. 4; ואנ תפלה.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_84" name="note_84" href=
          "#noteref_84">84.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">אצילות.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_85" name="note_85" href=
          "#noteref_85">85.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">נפש חיח.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_86" name="note_86" href=
          "#noteref_86">86.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">ידיעה, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Knowledge,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Foreknowledge,”</span> <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Omniscience.”</span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_87" name="note_87" href=
          "#noteref_87">87.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">בכוד, שבינה.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_88" name="note_88" href=
          "#noteref_88">88.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">סגולה. See Exod. xix. 5.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_89" name="note_89" href=
          "#noteref_89">89.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">חקים.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_90" name="note_90" href=
          "#noteref_90">90.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">קרב, קרבן.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_91" name="note_91" href=
          "#noteref_91">91.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">According to a Jewish tradition (the
          date of which is uncertain) the advent of the Messiah, the Son of
          David, will be preceded by that of the Messiah, the Son of Joseph.
          The latter will perish in the battle against Gog and Magog (the
          Antichrist of Jewish literature), but will soon be brought back to
          life on the appearance of the former. Cf. G. H. Dalman's
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Der
          leidende und der sterbende Messias der Synagoge</span></span>
          (Berlin, 1881).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_92" name="note_92" href=
          "#noteref_92">92.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">בראשית, <span class="tei tei-q">“In
          the beginning,”</span> Gen. i. 1.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_93" name="note_93" href=
          "#noteref_93">93.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">מאין; Job xxvii. 12.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_94" name="note_94" href=
          "#noteref_94">94.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Chagigah</span></span> 14<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>. The
          activity of these four Rabbis falls chiefly in the second century.
          R. Akiba died as a martyr in the Hadrianic persecution (about 130).
          Elisha b. Abuyah, the apostate, was usually called אחר,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Acher</span></span>, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“the other one.”</span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_95" name="note_95" href=
          "#noteref_95">95.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The former lived in the twelfth, the
          latter in the sixteenth, century. They are both known for their
          hostility to philosophy.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_96" name="note_96" href=
          "#noteref_96">96.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Bachya wrote in the eleventh century a
          famous book called חובות חלבבות, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Duties of the
          Heart</span></span>. For the others see above, p. <a href="#Pg013"
          class="tei tei-ref">13</a> and <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>,
          p. <a href="#Pg049" class="tei tei-ref">49</a> and <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>,
          p. <a href="#Pg102" class="tei tei-ref">102</a> and <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>,
          p. <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref">97</a> and <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>,
          p. <a href="#Pg071" class="tei tei-ref">71</a> and <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.
          They all belong to the rationalistic school.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_97" name="note_97" href=
          "#noteref_97">97.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A younger contemporary of Maimonides,
          who translated the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Guide</span></span> from Arabic into
          Hebrew.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_98" name="note_98" href=
          "#noteref_98">98.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">ספר המשקל. See above, p. <a href=
          "#Pg018" class="tei tei-ref">18</a>. R. Moses Cordovora, the author
          of the סררם, lived in Safed in the sixteenth century. For R. Isaac
          Loria, the author of the עץ החיים, see <a href="#Pg076" class=
          "tei tei-ref">above</a>, note 5 to Elijah Wilna.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_99" name="note_99" href=
          "#noteref_99">99.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">שושן סודות.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_100" name="note_100"
          href="#noteref_100">100.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">סשר הבהיר, a forgery by a Provençal
          Jew of the thirteenth century, who attributed it to a Rabbi of the
          first century.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_101" name="note_101"
          href="#noteref_101">101.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This hymn is now incorporated in her
          excellent little book, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Songs of Zion</span></span>, pp. 13-15.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_102" name="note_102"
          href="#noteref_102">102.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">זהוב, a gold piece. The country and
          the date of the writer not being certain, it is impossible to
          determine the value of this coin.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_103" name="note_103"
          href="#noteref_103">103.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The lawfulness of eating this fish (=
          sturgeon?) was contested for many centuries, and the controversy
          still continues.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_104" name="note_104"
          href="#noteref_104">104.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">פשוט, a smaller coin than the
          Zehub.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_105" name="note_105"
          href="#noteref_105">105.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">שמע, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Hear,”</span> the verses from Deut. vi. 4-9, xi.
          13-21, and Num. xv. 37-41, recited twice a day by the Jews.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_106" name="note_106"
          href="#noteref_106">106.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Sabbath</span></span>, 30<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_107" name="note_107"
          href="#noteref_107">107.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">מנהג, pl. מנהגים (<span lang="he"
          class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Minhagim</span></span>), applied usually to
          those ritual customs and ceremonies for which there is no distinct
          authority in the Scriptures or even in the Talmud.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_108" name="note_108"
          href="#noteref_108">108.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Jerusalem</span></span>, in Mendelssohn's
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Sämmtliche Werke</span></span> (Vienna, 1838),
          especially from p. 264 onwards, and a letter by him published in
          Frankel-Graetz's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Monatsschrift</span></span>, 1859, p. 173. For
          Mendelssohn's position, see Graetz's <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Geschichte</span></span>, xi. 86 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">seq.</span></span>,
          especially p. 88 and note 1; Kayserling, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Leben und
          Werke</span></span> of M., 2d ed., p. 394; Steinheim, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Moses
          Mendelssohn</span></span> (Hamburg, 1840), p. 30 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">seq.</span></span>;
          Holdheim, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Moses Mendelssohn</span></span> (Berlin,
          1859), p. 18 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">seq.</span></span>; Leopold Löw's pamphlet,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Jüdische
          Dogmen</span></span> (Pesth, 1871).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_109" name="note_109"
          href="#noteref_109">109.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the Commentaries on Maimonides'
          סשר המצות, especially R. Simeon Duran's זוהר הרקיע; cf. also
          ancient and modern commentaries on Exod. xx. 2.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_110" name="note_110"
          href="#noteref_110">110.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Siphra</span></span>
          (ed. Weiss), pp. 86<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">b</span></span>, 93<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_111" name="note_111"
          href="#noteref_111">111.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Baba Bathra</span></span>, 14<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>; cf.
          Fürst's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Kanon</span></span>, p. 15.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_112" name="note_112"
          href="#noteref_112">112.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Sanhedrin</span></span>, 38<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>, and
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Pseudo-Jonathan</span></span> to Gen. iv.
          8.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_113" name="note_113"
          href="#noteref_113">113.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Mechilta</span></span>, 33<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_114" name="note_114"
          href="#noteref_114">114.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">אפיקורוס, Lat. Epicurus.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_115" name="note_115"
          href="#noteref_115">115.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Mishnah</span></span>, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Sanhedrin</span></span>, x. e, § 1, and
          Talmud, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">ibid.</span></span> 90<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span> and
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">b</span></span>, and Rabbinowicz's
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Variae
          Lectiones</span></span>, ix. p. 247 notes. Besides the ordinary
          commentaries on the Talmud, account must also be taken of the
          remarks of Crescas, Duran, Albo, and Abarbanel on the subject. Cf.
          also Kämpf in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Monatsschrift</span></span> (1863), p. 144
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">seq.</span></span>; Oppenheim, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ibid.</span></span>
          (1864), p. 144; Friedmann in the <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beth
          Talmud</span></span>, i. p. 210 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">seq.</span></span>
          See also Talmudical Dictionaries, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span>
          אפיקורום. The explanation I have adopted agrees partly with
          Friedmann's and partly with Oppenheim's views.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_116" name="note_116"
          href="#noteref_116">116.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Sayings of the Fathers</span></span>, iii. §
          9, and iv. § 22.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_117" name="note_117"
          href="#noteref_117">117.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See אדרת אליהו (Jovslow, 1835), p. 48.
          In my exposition of the dogmas of the Caraites I have mainly
          followed the late Dr. Frankl's article <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Karaiten”</span> in Ersch u. Gruber's <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Encyclopädie</span></span> (sec. ii. vol.
          xxxvi. pp. 12-18). See also his <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ein mutazilitischer
          Kalam</span></span> and his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Beiträge zur Literaturgeschichte der
          Karäer</span></span> (Berlin, 1887) on Bashazi. Cf. also Jost's
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Geschichte</span></span>, ii. c. 13.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_118" name="note_118"
          href="#noteref_118">118.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Kairowan was one of the greatest
          centres of Jewish learning in North Africa during that period.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_119" name="note_119"
          href="#noteref_119">119.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See, however, Professor D. Kaufmann's
          note in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Jewish Quarterly Review</span></span>, i. p.
          441. From this it would seem that the creed of R. Judah Hallevi may
          be formulated in the following articles:—The conviction of the
          existence of God, of His eternity, of His guidance of our fathers,
          of the Divine Origin of the Law, and of the proof of all this, the
          pledge or token of its truth, the exodus from Egypt.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_120" name="note_120"
          href="#noteref_120">120.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">אמונה רמה, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Emunah
          Ramah</span></span>, pp. 44 and 69; cf. Gulmann, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Monatsschrift</span></span>, 1878, p.
          304.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_121" name="note_121"
          href="#noteref_121">121.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">For the various translations of the
          Thirteen Articles which were originally composed in Arabic, see
          Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1887. Cf. Rosin, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ethik des
          Maimonides</span></span>, p. 30; Weiss, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beth
          Talmud</span></span>, i. p. 330, and <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ben
          Chananjah</span></span>, 1863, p. 942, and 1864, pp. 648 and 697,
          and Landshut, עמודי העבודה, p. 231.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_122" name="note_122"
          href="#noteref_122">122.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">מנחת קנאות. See pp. 1-16.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_123" name="note_123"
          href="#noteref_123">123.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Hammaskir</span></span>, viii. pp. 63 and
          103.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_124" name="note_124"
          href="#noteref_124">124.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Steinschneider, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cat.
          München</span></span>, No. 210.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_125" name="note_125"
          href="#noteref_125">125.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the Collection דברי הבמימ, by
          Ashkenazi, pp. 56<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">b</span></span> <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">seq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_126" name="note_126"
          href="#noteref_126">126.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Albo, c. iii. Probably identical
          with the author mentioned by Duran, 13<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_127" name="note_127"
          href="#noteref_127">127.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">ספר נצחון, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Sepher Nizzachon.”</span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_128" name="note_128"
          href="#noteref_128">128.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See אור ה (ed. Johannisburg), preface,
          and pp. 20<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">a</span></span>, 44<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>,
          59<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">b</span></span>, and elsewhere. The style of
          this author is very obscure. Cf. Joel's pamphlet on this author
          (Breslau, 1874).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_129" name="note_129"
          href="#noteref_129">129.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the first pages of the מגן
          (Leghorn, 1758), and his משסם, pp. 13 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">seq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_130" name="note_130"
          href="#noteref_130">130.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">עקרים, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Ikkarim</span></span>, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Fundamentals.”</span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_131" name="note_131"
          href="#noteref_131">131.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Ikkarim</span></span>, i. c. 23, and
          Maimonides' <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Commentary on the Mishnah</span></span> (end
          of tractate Maccoth). On Albo compare Schlesinger's Introduction
          and notes to the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Ikkarim</span></span>, Joel's pamphlet, p. 82;
          Paulus, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Monatsschrift</span></span>, 1874, p. 463, and
          Brüll's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Jahrb.</span></span> iv. p. 52.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_132" name="note_132"
          href="#noteref_132">132.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">I know his work from a MS. in the
          British Museum, Orient. 39.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_133" name="note_133"
          href="#noteref_133">133.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">דרך אמונה, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Derech
          Emunah</span></span>. Cf. Steinschneider, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Monatsschrift</span></span>, 1883, p. 79
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">seq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_134" name="note_134"
          href="#noteref_134">134.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See עקידת יצחק, gate 55.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_135" name="note_135"
          href="#noteref_135">135.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See his ימוד האמונה and מאמר
          האחרות.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_136" name="note_136"
          href="#noteref_136">136.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">ראש אמנה.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_137" name="note_137"
          href="#noteref_137">137.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See בהיגת הדת, ed. Reggio, p. 28.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_138" name="note_138"
          href="#noteref_138">138.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See מעשה מבית (Venice, 1707),
          16<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">a</span></span> and 23<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>. His
          language is very vague.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_139" name="note_139"
          href="#noteref_139">139.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the Collection by Ashkenazi (as
          above, note 18), p. 29<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">b</span></span>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_140" name="note_140"
          href="#noteref_140">140.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See his בשמים ראש, p. 331.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_141" name="note_141"
          href="#noteref_141">141.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Weiss's admirable monograph on
          Maimonides, published in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Beth Talmud</span></span>, i.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_142" name="note_142"
          href="#noteref_142">142.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The Hebrew title of the work is דור
          דור ורורשיו.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_143" name="note_143"
          href="#noteref_143">143.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">That is, vows of an ascetic nature
          (not vows or oaths enforced by a court of justice), which the
          tribunal could annul when there was sufficient reason for it.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_144" name="note_144"
          href="#noteref_144">144.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The ten Rabbis who are named as the
          bearers of tradition during the period between 170 and 30
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> The <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“pair”</span> in each case is supposed to have
          consisted of the president and the vice-president of the Sanhedrin
          for the time being. See, however, Kuenen, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gesammelte
          Schriften</span></span>, p. 49 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">seq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_145" name="note_145"
          href="#noteref_145">145.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">דרשנים גדולים.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_146" name="note_146"
          href="#noteref_146">146.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">הלכות למשה מסיני. They amount, in the
          whole of Rabbinic literature, to about forty, of which more than
          ten concern the preparation of the phylacteries, whilst others
          relate to the libations of water at the Feast of Tabernacles and
          similar subjects.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_147" name="note_147"
          href="#noteref_147">147.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This is the time when the school of R.
          Johanan b. Zaccai began its activity. Others place the Tannaitic
          age in Hillel's time (30 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span>).</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_148" name="note_148"
          href="#noteref_148">148.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">בת קרל.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_149" name="note_149"
          href="#noteref_149">149.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">בית דין, lit. <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Court of Justice,”</span> as above, note 16 to Elijah
          Wilna, but it means also a sort of permanent Synod, in which of
          course justice was also administered as a part of religion.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_150" name="note_150"
          href="#noteref_150">150.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">עדיות, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Evidences given by Witnesses.”</span> The tractate
          consists mostly of a number of laws attested by various Rabbis as
          having come down to them as old traditions.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_151" name="note_151"
          href="#noteref_151">151.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The family of Hillel, which was
          supposed to be descended from the house of David, supplied the Jews
          with patriarchs for many generations. Gamaliel II. flourished about
          120 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">a.c.</span></span>, whilst Simon b.
          Gamaliel's activity as Patriarch falls about 160 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">a.c.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_152" name="note_152"
          href="#noteref_152">152.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">שמכות, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Semachoth</span></span>. It is a euphemistic
          title, the tractate dealing with the laws relating to funeral
          ceremonies and mourning.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_153" name="note_153"
          href="#noteref_153">153.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">מבוראי, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Elucidators”</span> or <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Explainers.”</span> The heads of the schools in
          Babylon during the fifth and sixth centuries were so
          designated.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_154" name="note_154"
          href="#noteref_154">154.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The Rabbinic Jews of the dispersion
          add one day to each festival, and thus celebrate the Passover eight
          days, the Feast of Weeks two days, etc. The custom arose out of the
          uncertainty about the first day of the month, the prerogative of
          fixing the New Moon resting with the great <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Beth
          Din</span></span> in Palestine, which had not always the means of
          communicating in time the evidence given before them that the New
          Moon had been seen by qualified witnesses. The prerogative was
          abolished in the fourth century, and the calendar fixed for all
          future time, but the additional day is still kept by the Rabbinic
          Jews as the <span class="tei tei-q">“Custom of their
          Fathers.”</span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_155" name="note_155"
          href="#noteref_155">155.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">שיעור קומה, היכלות, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Chambers (of Heaven)”</span> and the <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Measure of the Stature,”</span> mystical works in
          which occasionally gross anthropomorphisms are to be found. Their
          authorship is unknown.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_156" name="note_156"
          href="#noteref_156">156.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Sabbath</span></span>, 55<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_157" name="note_157"
          href="#noteref_157">157.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Sayings of the Fathers</span></span> (ed. C.
          Taylor), v. 12-15. See also <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Sabbath</span></span>, 32 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">seq.</span></span>,
          and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Mechilta</span></span> (ed. Friedman),
          95<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">b</span></span>. <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Arachin</span></span>, 16<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_158" name="note_158"
          href="#noteref_158">158.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Mechilta</span></span>, 25<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>,
          32<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">b</span></span>. <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gen.
          Rabbah</span></span>, ch. 48, and <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tossephta
          Sotah</span></span>, iv. 7, and parallels.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_159" name="note_159"
          href="#noteref_159">159.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Taanith</span></span>, 21<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_160" name="note_160"
          href="#noteref_160">160.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Sayings of the Fathers</span></span>, iv.
          5.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_161" name="note_161"
          href="#noteref_161">161.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Baba Bathra</span></span>, 9<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_162" name="note_162"
          href="#noteref_162">162.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Yoma</span></span>, 39<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_163" name="note_163"
          href="#noteref_163">163.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Berachoth</span></span>, 33<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_164" name="note_164"
          href="#noteref_164">164.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Sabbath</span></span>, 13<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_165" name="note_165"
          href="#noteref_165">165.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Berachoth</span></span>, 7<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_166" name="note_166"
          href="#noteref_166">166.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Mechilta</span></span>, 68<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>, and
          parallels. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Siphra</span></span>, 112<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>.
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Pessikta</span></span> of R. Kahana,
          167<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">b</span></span>. Cp. <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Sanhedrin</span></span>, 44<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_167" name="note_167"
          href="#noteref_167">167.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Aboth</span></span> de R. Nathan,
          40<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">a</span></span>, 59<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>, and
          62<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">b</span></span>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_168" name="note_168"
          href="#noteref_168">168.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Baba Bathra</span></span>, 10<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_169" name="note_169"
          href="#noteref_169">169.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Eccles. Rabbah</span></span>, ix. 7.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_170" name="note_170"
          href="#noteref_170">170.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">5<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">a</span></span>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_171" name="note_171"
          href="#noteref_171">171.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">7<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">b</span></span>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_172" name="note_172"
          href="#noteref_172">172.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Mechilta</span></span>, 95<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>, and
          parallels.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_173" name="note_173"
          href="#noteref_173">173.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Kiddushin</span></span>, 40<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>.
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Mechilta</span></span>, 63<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>.
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lev.
          Rabbah</span></span>, iv.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_174" name="note_174"
          href="#noteref_174">174.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Sabbath</span></span>, 54<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_175" name="note_175"
          href="#noteref_175">175.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Exodus Rabbah</span></span>, c. 35, and
          parallels.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_176" name="note_176"
          href="#noteref_176">176.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Negaim</span></span>,
          ii. 1.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_177" name="note_177"
          href="#noteref_177">177.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Exod. Rabbah</span></span>, c. 46.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_178" name="note_178"
          href="#noteref_178">178.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Taanith</span></span>, 11<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_179" name="note_179"
          href="#noteref_179">179.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Berachoth</span></span>, 5<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_180" name="note_180"
          href="#noteref_180">180.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Tanchuma</span></span>, כי תצא, § 2. Cp.
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Mechilta</span></span>, 72<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_181" name="note_181"
          href="#noteref_181">181.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Siphré</span></span>, 73<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>, and
          parallels.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_182" name="note_182"
          href="#noteref_182">182.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Taanith</span></span>, 8<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_183" name="note_183"
          href="#noteref_183">183.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Arachin</span></span>, 16<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_184" name="note_184"
          href="#noteref_184">184.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Sayings of the Fathers</span></span>, iv.
          15.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_185" name="note_185"
          href="#noteref_185">185.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Chagigah</span></span>, 5<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_186" name="note_186"
          href="#noteref_186">186.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Sabbath</span></span>, 55<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_187" name="note_187"
          href="#noteref_187">187.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Menachoth</span></span>, 29<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_188" name="note_188"
          href="#noteref_188">188.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Taanith</span></span>, 25<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_189" name="note_189"
          href="#noteref_189">189.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Gen. Rabbah</span></span>, xxvii.;
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Pessikta</span></span>, 136<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>;
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Sanhedrin</span></span>, vi. 5; <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Berachoth</span></span>, 7<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_190" name="note_190"
          href="#noteref_190">190.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Sayings of the Fathers</span></span>, i. 3, p.
          27, ed. Taylor. See also note 8.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_191" name="note_191"
          href="#noteref_191">191.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Abodah Zarah</span></span>, 19<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>;
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Siphré</span></span>, 79<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_192" name="note_192"
          href="#noteref_192">192.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Berachoth</span></span>, 58<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_193" name="note_193"
          href="#noteref_193">193.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Exod.
          R.</span></span>, 30, and parallels.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_194" name="note_194"
          href="#noteref_194">194.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See ראשית חבמה, i. 9.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_195" name="note_195"
          href="#noteref_195">195.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See רמתים נמים, 33<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_196" name="note_196"
          href="#noteref_196">196.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Sabbath</span></span>, 55<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>, and
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Siphra</span></span>, 27<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_197" name="note_197"
          href="#noteref_197">197.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Judaism and Christianity, a Sketch of the
          Progress of Thought from Old Testament to New
          Testament</span></span>, by C. H. Toy, Professor in Harvard
          University. London, 1890.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_198" name="note_198"
          href="#noteref_198">198.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Pessikta</span></span> of R. Kahana,
          61<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">b</span></span>, and parallels, and
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Erubin</span></span>, 13<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_199" name="note_199"
          href="#noteref_199">199.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Tal. Jer., <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Sabbath</span></span>, 5<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_200" name="note_200"
          href="#noteref_200">200.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">מטטרון, the name of an angel, already
          found in the Talmud, but playing a more important part in the
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Book of
          Chambers</span></span>, where he is identified with Enoch. The
          etymology of the word is doubtful, some authors considering it to
          be of Persian origin (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Mithra</span></span>); others again deriving
          it from the Greek μετὰ τύραννον, or μετὰ θρόνον.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_201" name="note_201"
          href="#noteref_201">201.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">ספירות.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_202" name="note_202"
          href="#noteref_202">202.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">מימרא, <span class="tei tei-q">“The
          Word,”</span> sometimes substituted for God. See J. Levy's
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Chaldäisches Wörterbuch</span></span>,
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">s.v.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_203" name="note_203"
          href="#noteref_203">203.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">בחר, אדם קדמון.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_204" name="note_204"
          href="#noteref_204">204.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Mechilta</span></span>, 104<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_205" name="note_205"
          href="#noteref_205">205.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Tal. Jer., <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Yoma</span></span>,
          45<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">b</span></span>. Cf. Maimonides, <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mishneh
          Torah</span></span>, הלבות שבת פב הג.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_206" name="note_206"
          href="#noteref_206">206.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Tosephta Berackoth</span></span>, iii. 7.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_207" name="note_207"
          href="#noteref_207">207.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Sabbath</span></span>, 10<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>. The
          name of the Rabbi is not given, but the fact that R. Simeon b.
          Gamaliel (160 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-variant: small-caps">a.c.</span></span>) already refers to
          this interpretation makes it clear that its anonymous author must
          have lived at least a generation before.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_208" name="note_208"
          href="#noteref_208">208.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">כום של קדוש.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_209" name="note_209"
          href="#noteref_209">209.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Midrash</span></span>
          to the Psalms xcii. and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Deut. Rabbah</span></span> iii. The Rabbis
          perceived in the words וקראת לשבת עננ (Isa. lviii. 13), a command
          to make the Sabbath a day of pleasure, whilst the word הסצף was
          understood by them to mean <span class="tei tei-q">“needs,”</span>
          <span class="tei tei-q">“wants,”</span> or <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“business”</span> (<em class=
          "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">not</span></em>
          <span class="tei tei-q">“pleasure”</span>). Cf. <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Sabbath</span></span>, 113<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span> and
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">b</span></span>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_210" name="note_210"
          href="#noteref_210">210.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gen.
          Rabbah</span></span>, xi. (and parallels), and <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Sabbath</span></span>, 119<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_211" name="note_211"
          href="#noteref_211">211.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Maaseh
          Torah</span></span> (ed. Schönblum) and <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Deut.
          Rabbah</span></span>, i.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_212" name="note_212"
          href="#noteref_212">212.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Sabbath</span></span>, 25<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span> and
          119<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">a</span></span>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_213" name="note_213"
          href="#noteref_213">213.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Betsah</span></span>, 16<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>. Cf.
          Baer's notes in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Prayer-Book</span></span>, p. 203 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">seq.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_214" name="note_214"
          href="#noteref_214">214.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Sabbath</span></span>, 119<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>, and
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gen.
          Rabbah</span></span>, xi.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_215" name="note_215"
          href="#noteref_215">215.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Sabbath</span></span>, 10<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>, and
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gen.
          Rabbah</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">ibid.</span></span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_216" name="note_216"
          href="#noteref_216">216.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">תפלין.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_217" name="note_217"
          href="#noteref_217">217.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Nazir</span></span>, 23<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_218" name="note_218"
          href="#noteref_218">218.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">אור זרוה by R. Isaac b. Moses of
          Vienna (thirteenth century), mostly on legal subjects.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_219" name="note_219"
          href="#noteref_219">219.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">יוחסין, Yuchasin.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_220" name="note_220"
          href="#noteref_220">220.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">מכלל, Miklal.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_221" name="note_221"
          href="#noteref_221">221.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">זרעים, מועד, the former treating of
          the agricultural laws of the Bible, the latter of those relating to
          the Sabbath, Passover, and other festivals.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_222" name="note_222"
          href="#noteref_222">222.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">מחזר, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Cycle,”</span> containing the liturgy for the
          festivals.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_223" name="note_223"
          href="#noteref_223">223.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Since then edited by the Mekize
          Nirdamim.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_224" name="note_224"
          href="#noteref_224">224.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Eve of the last day of the Feast of
          Tabernacles.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_225" name="note_225"
          href="#noteref_225">225.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">ששח סדרים. ש֜֜ם.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_226" name="note_226"
          href="#noteref_226">226.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">ברייתה.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_227" name="note_227"
          href="#noteref_227">227.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">פאה.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_228" name="note_228"
          href="#noteref_228">228.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">ילקות, Yalkut.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_229" name="note_229"
          href="#noteref_229">229.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">חזית.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_230" name="note_230"
          href="#noteref_230">230.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">ישוהר נשב.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_231" name="note_231"
          href="#noteref_231">231.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">ויסען.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_232" name="note_232"
          href="#noteref_232">232.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">ילמרנו והזחיר.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_233" name="note_233"
          href="#noteref_233">233.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">רעיא מחימנא.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_234" name="note_234"
          href="#noteref_234">234.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">עמק המלך, משנה למלך, מגיד משנה, משנה
          תורה, ששר המלך.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_235" name="note_235"
          href="#noteref_235">235.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">ח֜֜ם שאל.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_236" name="note_236"
          href="#noteref_236">236.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">חד גדיא לא ישראל.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_237" name="note_237"
          href="#noteref_237">237.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">שני לוחות הכרית. ש֜֜לה.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_238" name="note_238"
          href="#noteref_238">238.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The main authorities on the subjects
          of this essay are <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Die Lebensalter</span></span>, by Dr. Leopold
          Löw; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The
          Jewish Rite of Circumcision</span></span>, by Dr. Asher; an article
          by Dr. Perles in the Graetz <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Jubelschrift</span></span>, p. 23 <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">seq.</span></span>;
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Merkwürdigkeiten der Juden</span></span>, by
          Schudt; the מקורי המנהגים and other works on ritual customs;
          Güdemann's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Geschichte des Erziehungswesens und der Cultur
          der Juden</span></span>; and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Das Kind in Brauch und Sitte der
          Völker</span></span>, by Dr. Ploss.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_239" name="note_239"
          href="#noteref_239">239.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">אמתי, אמת.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_240" name="note_240"
          href="#noteref_240">240.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">לילית, Is. xxxiv. 14.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_241" name="note_241"
          href="#noteref_241">241.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <a href="#Pg141" class=
          "tei tei-ref">above</a>, note 39 to Nachmanides. [Transcriber's
          Note: The footnote on <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign"
          xml:lang="he"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Shema</span></span>.]</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_242" name="note_242"
          href="#noteref_242">242.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">ברית מילה, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Covenant of Circumcision.”</span> This is the usual
          expression in Hebrew literature for the rite of circumcision.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_243" name="note_243"
          href="#noteref_243">243.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">שלום זכר.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_244" name="note_244"
          href="#noteref_244">244.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">גוזר, מוהל.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_245" name="note_245"
          href="#noteref_245">245.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">פדיון הבן.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_246" name="note_246"
          href="#noteref_246">246.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">הקת תהורה, on educational
          matters.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_247" name="note_247"
          href="#noteref_247">247.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">סחורה, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“business,”</span> or <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“wares.”</span></dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_248" name="note_248"
          href="#noteref_248">248.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">I am indebted for the English
          adaptation to Mrs. Henry Lucas.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_249" name="note_249"
          href="#noteref_249">249.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Bereshith Rabbah</span></span>, chapter xx.
          For another reading see ראשית הכמה (ed. Cracow), p. 374.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_250" name="note_250"
          href="#noteref_250">250.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Abodah Zarah</span></span>, 3<span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_251" name="note_251"
          href="#noteref_251">251.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This is the way in which Deut. xxxi.
          10-12 was explained.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_252" name="note_252"
          href="#noteref_252">252.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">סופרים, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Scribes”</span>; treating of the regulations
          concerning the writing of the Law, but containing also much
          liturgical matter.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_253" name="note_253"
          href="#noteref_253">253.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">סשרדים, by which name the Jews of the
          Spanish rite are designated.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_254" name="note_254"
          href="#noteref_254">254.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">נצראן ישן, a controversial work
          published by Wagenseil. See above, p. <a href="#Pg203" class=
          "tei tei-ref">203</a>, for another victory.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_255" name="note_255"
          href="#noteref_255">255.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">סנדלפון, who is probably known to the
          English reader from Longfellow's poem.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_256" name="note_256"
          href="#noteref_256">256.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">בר מצוה.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_257" name="note_257"
          href="#noteref_257">257.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">קידוש, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Sanctification”</span>—<span class=
          "tei tei-q">“benediction”</span>—on the eve of Sabbath, which is
          pronounced over a cup of wine.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_258" name="note_258"
          href="#noteref_258">258.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">שמכת תורה, or on the 23rd of Tishri,
          when the last portion from the Pentateuch is read.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_259" name="note_259"
          href="#noteref_259">259.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">הלל, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Praise,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span> Ps. cxiii.-cxviii.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_260" name="note_260"
          href="#noteref_260">260.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">קדִש, the name of a prayer commencing
          יתגדל ויתקדש, <span class="tei tei-q">“Magnified and sanctified
          be,”</span> etc.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_261" name="note_261"
          href="#noteref_261">261.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Prayer beginning ברכו, <span class=
          "tei tei-q">“Bless ye,”</span> etc.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_262" name="note_262"
          href="#noteref_262">262.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">ברוך שאמר, beginning of a prayer,
          <span class="tei tei-q">“Blessed be He,”</span> etc.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_263" name="note_263"
          href="#noteref_263">263.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Schürer's <span class=
          "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die
          Gemeindeverfassung der Juden in Rom</span></span>, p. 24. Cf.
          <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style=
          "font-style: italic">Hebräische Bibliographie</span></span>, xix.
          p. 79.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_264" name="note_264"
          href="#noteref_264">264.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">זבאת.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_265" name="note_265"
          href="#noteref_265">265.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">תהנות.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_266" name="note_266"
          href="#noteref_266">266.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">מעבר יכק.</dd>

          <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_267" name="note_267"
          href="#noteref_267">267.</a></dt>

          <dd class="tei tei-notetext">יעמוד. In olden times the weekly
          lesson from the Law used to be read by seven members of the
          congregation who were <span class="tei tei-q">“called up”</span>
          for this purpose; the Priest and the Levite took precedence of
          laymen for this honour. At the present day, the members of the
          congregation are still called up, but the actual reading is
          performed by an official.</dd>
        </dl>
      </div>
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generated by cgit v1.2.3 (git 2.25.1) at 2026-08-14 16:23:15 +0000